c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 155 Dyslexia and English as a Foreign Language in Norwegian Primary Education: A Mixed Methods Intervention Study Christopher Flaten Jarsve 1 and Dina Tsagari* 2 • Τhe current study explored the effect of specific teaching accommoda - tions for English language learners with dyslexia in a Norwegian prima - ry school. Specifically, this single group intervention project investigated the impact of a range of multisensory techniques on spelling skills and motivation. Participants included a special education teacher and five dyslexic pupils from the fifth and sixth grades. Pre- and post-tests were administered to observe development in spelling, while data were also collected via a pupil evaluation questionnaire and a teacher interview after the intervention. The findings revealed that the intervention was quite successful. The group exhibited substantial differences in mean scores between the pre- and post-test. However, there were individual differences in scores and comorbid disorders appeared to impact the ef - fectiveness of the intervention. Nonetheless, all of the pupils reported gains in their motivation and improvement in their attitude towards learning English, which was confirmed by their special education teach - er. The paper concludes by offering specific didactic suggestions regard - ing accommodations for English language learners with dyslexia. Keywords: dyslexia, English as a foreign language, intervention, multisensory learning approach 1 Department of Primary and Secondary Teacher Education, Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway. 2 *Corresponding Author. Department of Primary and Secondary Teacher Education, Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway; dina.tsagari@oslomet.no. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.1459 156 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education Disleksija in angleščina kot tuji jezik v norveškem osnovnošolskem izobraževanju: intervencijska študija kombiniranega raziskovalnega pristopa Christopher Flaten Jarsve in Dina Tsagari • Ta študija je preučevala učinek posebnih učnih prilagoditev za učence angleškega jezika z disleksijo v norveški osnovni šoli. Natančneje, eno - skupinski intervencijski projekt je raziskoval vpliv nabora veččutnih tehnik na črkovanje in motivacijo. Udeležence predstavljajo specialni pedagog in pet učencev petega in šestega razreda z disleksijo. Pred- in potesti so bili izvedeni z vidika opazovanja napredovanja črkovanja pri učencih, pri čemer so bili podatki zbrani tudi prek vprašalnika za oce - njevanje učencev in intervjuja z učiteljem, ki je sledil fazi intervencije. Ugotovitve so pokazale, da je bila intervencija precej uspešna. Pri iz - brani skupini so bile zaznane bistvene razlike v povprečnih rezultatih pred- in potesta, vendar pa je prišlo tudi do posameznih razlik v rezul - tatih, pri čemer se zdi, da pridružene motnje vplivajo na učinkovitost intervencije. Kljub temu so vsi učenci poročali o povečanju motivacije in izboljšanju odnosa do učenja angleščine, kar je potrdil tudi njihov speci - alni pedagog. Na koncu članka so podani konkretni didaktični predlogi glede prilagoditev za učence angleškega jezika z disleksijo. Ključne besede: disleksija, angleščina kot tuji jezik, multisenzoren pristop k učenju c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 157 Introduction Dyslexia refers to “difficulty in learning to read and write by the meth - ods normally used in the classroom” (Montgomery, 2017, pp. 1–2). This state - ment implies that if appropriate teaching methods are offered, the difficulties can be remedied. Moreover, dyslexia is a universal condition independent of the language one speaks, e.g., dyslexia has been observed in writing systems with ideographs, such as Chinese, in addition to alphabetic systems, like Nor - wegian and English (Montgomery, 2017). Dyslexia can be comorbid with other neurodevelopmental disorders (Snowling et al., 2020): developmental language disorder (DLD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Tourette Syndrome, among other disorders, can appear in comorbidity with dyslexia (see Aas, 2021; Cravedi et al., 2017; Hulme & Snowling, 2016; Snowling et al., 2020). Comorbid disorders can affect behavioural patterns of dyslexics and im - pact the effectiveness of interventions (Snowling et al., 2020). Dyslexia and EFL teaching and learning is not as thoroughly researched as dyslexia and first language learning (Nijakowska, 2010). The consensus is nonetheless that learning a second/foreign language, e.g., English (EFL), pre - sents dyslexic learners with an overwhelming task (Helland, 2012; Kormos & Smith, 2012; Nijakowska, 2010). However, research has shown that an alarming number of EFL teachers seem insecure in their abilities to accommodate the language needs of their dyslexic pupils and have expressed a need for training and support (Kormos & Nijakowska, 2017; Nijakowska et al., 2018). Norwegian EFL teachers face similar issues. Teachers are obliged to ad - dress the challenges of accommodating dyslexic learners, e.g., identifying read - ing and writing difficulties and adapting their teaching for dyslexic pupils (Na - tional Council for T eacher Education, 2016), in accordance with the Norwegian educational law § 1-3 (Opplæringslova, 1998). Research on the effect of various educational methods on Norwegian dyslexic EFL learners is limited, and the few studies and interventions that exist focus mainly on reading (Montgomery, 2017). Consequently, spelling is generally overlooked in intervention research in Norway (Helland, 2012). Motivated by the current situation, the present study investigates the effect of an intervention that aimed to develop the spelling skills of a group of Norwegian dyslexic learners. The paper does not provide a full systematic literature review, nor does it offer a comprehensive answer to how dyslexic EFL learners should be supported in their EFL learning, but rather presents and discusses an attempt to accommodate dyslexic pupils’ spelling needs through a specifically designed intervention. We hope more studies will be undertaken in 158 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education the Norwegian education system and elsewhere to help children with specific learning difficulties (SpLDs, Nijakowska, 2010). Dyslexia and English language learning The ability to communicate in a foreign language is essential in a mul - titude of contexts (Kormos, 2018). As such, English plays two important roles: it is the most widely taught foreign language (Crystal, 2012) and it serves as a lingua franca between speakers of different first languages (Seidlhofer, 2008). In Norway, English is taught in schools from the first grade onwards (Hel - land & Morken, 2015). In addition, as part of extramural learning (Sundqvist, 2022), Norwegian learners are exposed to English through films, TV series, games and music (Dahl & V ulchanova, 2014). Despite the strong presence of Eng - lish in Norway, Norwegian learners face several obstacles in learning EFL (Hel - land, 2012), e.g., the irregular nature of English orthography, which leads pupils to apply their L1 phonology when spelling English words (Helland & Kaasa, 2005; Kristoffersen, 2000), the frequent confusion caused by the English and Norwe - gian alphabet, etc. (Kristoffersen, 2000; Nilsen, 2010; Simonsen, 2018). Despite the difficulties associated with learning English, dyslexic pupils who learn English as an additional language have an advantage over L1 learn - ers. Having a different L1 helps dyslexic learners achieve advanced language skills within their L1, too (Siegel, 2016). With English as a compulsory subject in the Norwegian school curriculum, dyslexic learners may need proper interven - tions and accommodated teaching (Kormos & Smith, 2012). Furthermore, it is suggested that about 5–7% of the Norwegian school population is dyslexic, and that there is at least one dyslexic learner per class (Aas, 2021). These pupils have a legal right to accommodations in education, and this has implications for EFL practitioners in terms of teacher accommodations. Nevertheless, a substantial number of educational contexts seem unpre - pared to accommodate the needs of dyslexic learners. Nijakowska et al. (2018) found that teacher education programmes in Cyprus, Greece and Poland, for example, were inadequate in training teachers for integrating dyslexic pupils, and participants in their study programmes expressed a need for more infor - mation regarding effective EFL teaching methods for dyslexic learners. The authors conclude that the EFL teacher development programmes that train teachers in including dyslexic learners in their classrooms need improvement. Kormos and Nijakowska (2017) report similar findings in the context of an in - ternational four-week online course for EFL teachers of dyslexic pupils. The massive number of participants illustrates the high demand for training in EFL teaching for dyslexic learners. c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 159 In general, dyslexic students require specific interventions to develop their literacy (Nijakowska, 2010). While reviewing and analysing an extensive list of previously conducted intervention studies, Galuschka et al. (2020) found that children who took part in spelling interventions improved their spelling skills substantially compared to children who attended regular lessons. The relationship between phoneme and grapheme should be made explicit in any intervention (Montgomery, 2006), while special emphasis should be placed on spelling, which seems to be a persistent difficulty for dyslexic learners, in - cluding those in Norway (Helland & Kaasa, 2005). Ideally, each programme or intervention should be adapted to each pupil’s specific needs (Snowling & Hulme, 2011). The suggested remediations for dyslexia often include phono - logical interventions, as these have proven successful for reading accuracy and spelling development across orthographies (Ferraz, et al, 2018; Helland, 2012; Lim & Oei, 2015; Nijakowska, 2010; Torgesen et al., 2010). In fact, interventions that include phonological training seem to be the most effective treatment op - tion to date (Snowling et al., 2020). Furthermore, multiple intervention studies have presented evidence that interventions consisting of ‘multisensory’ teach - ing activities can be beneficial for dyslexic learners’ reading and writing skills (Nijakowska, 2010). The Multisensory Learning Approach (MSL) The Multisensory Learning Approach (MSL, also referred to as the Orton- Gillinghan approach, see Kormos & Smith, 2012) is a teaching method that is often encouraged when teaching dyslexic learners. MSL techniques are meant to compensate for impairments in auditive or visual sensory channels through the stimulation of other senses (Høien & Lundberg, 2012). Teaching must be direct and should involve several senses at once, such as the tactile (touch), kinaesthetic (movement), auditory and visual senses (Nijakowska, 2010). Words are stored in the lexicon with phonologic, articulatory, ortho - graphic, semantic and motoric identities. For learners with dyslexia, the pho - nologic and orthographic identities of vocabulary items are unspecified. Using MSL to teach EFL establishes kinaesthetic, tactile and articulatory identities for words (Høien & Lundberg, 2012). Phillips and Kelly (2016) state that engaging many senses at once aids the automaticity and speed of retrieval, because each of the senses store the information in specific locations in the brain. The MSL approach also establishes links between these locations and can help transfer information from the short-term memory to the long-term memory (see Da - loiso, 2017 for practical suggestions). Finally, movement is suggested because it can stimulate sight, hearing and touch. The Total Physical Response (TPR) 160 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education method (Daloiso, 2017) in MSL can accentuate intensity and repetition (Rich - ard & Rodgers, 2014) and increase the possibility of learners recalling learning objectives. MSL research has been implemented in many contexts. Nijakowska (2010) conducted a small-scale MSL-based intervention study in Poland to exam - ine whether dyslexic EFL learners could improve reading and spelling skills on the word level. The researchers reported that the experimental group performed substantially better than the control group in the reading and spelling post-tests. In Singapore, Lim and Oei (2015) conducted a year-long MSL interven - tion study on 39 Singaporean dyslexic English language pupils, aged 6–15 years. The analysis of the pre- and post-test data showed that the dyslexic pupils im - proved significantly in spelling and reading after one year of intervention. The authors suggest that early identification of dyslexia and early intervention is crucial to the individual’s literacy. Use of technology Various researchers and practitioners stress the importance of Infor - mation and Communication Technology (ICT) for dyslexic pupils, as it can be beneficial for learning EFL and can improve motivation (Galuschka et al., 2020; Helland, 2012; Kormos & Smith, 2012; Pfenninger, 2016). ICT was found to be useful for pupils while practising spelling (Philips & Kelly, 2016). Certain software or apps, such as spellcheckers, have been used as learning support, while others provide practice for reading speed or orthography practice (Lys - ter, 2012). Moreover, ICT provides an opportunity for more intensive practice and repetition. When the teacher is unable to provide dyslexic pupils with the amount of overlearning that they require, ICT can be beneficial. Dysleksi Norge (2017), for instance, strongly recommends that Norwegian EFL teachers of dys - lexic pupils use iPads and recommends apps such as Book Creator with a font specifically designed for dyslexic learners (OpenDyslexic), as it can serve as a substitute for notebooks with multimodal functions. Finally, in a recent study, augmented reality (AR) proved effective in teaching English vocabulary for pu - pils with intellectual disability (e.g., Rapti et al., 2022). Thus, AR might be effec - tive for self-practice at home. AR in spelling interventions could be a great focal point for future research with dyslexic learners. T o conclude, the aforementioned studies highlight the importance of pho - nological awareness and support utilising MSL as well as ICT when working with dyslexic learners. However, EFL teachers express concerns regarding their pre - paredness to support their dyslexic pupils, resulting in a high demand for training on the subject. Given that, at least to the knowledge of the current researchers, c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 161 there are no Norwegian evidence-based studies that focus on the impact of spe - cific English didactics for dyslexic learners, the present study explores the use of MSL techniques combined with the use of ICT tools in the context of a Norwe - gian primary school. The study addresses the following research questions: 1. Does teaching EFL through MSL combined with ICT improve the spell - ing skills of Norwegian dyslexic pupils in the fifth and sixth grades? 2. What implications does the MSL spelling intervention have for dyslexic pupils’ motivation and learning? Method The study has a single-group before-and-after design (Check & Schutt, 2012), whereby participants are exposed to an experimental treatment and are tested prior to and after an intervention. Participants The participants of the study were five Norwegian primary school pupils officially diagnosed with dyslexia from grades five and six. These years are criti - cal because learners often experience failures with respect to learning outcomes and their struggles become more apparent (Høien & Lundberg, 2012). The sam - ple was chosen purposively because they were relevant to the study. For reasons of confidentiality, only basic information regarding the pu - pils will be shared in this paper. Three of the participants were 10 years old and recruited from the fifth grade (two boys and a girl), and two were 11 years old and recruited from the sixth grade (a boy and a girl). The male participants were diagnosed with comorbid disorders, as well, as seen in Table 1. Table 1 Overview of the dyslexic pupils P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Gender Female Male Female Male Male Grade 6th 6th 5th 5th 5th Comorbidities - Comorbid DLD - Comorbid Tourette Syndrome DLD Comorbid ADHD The Norwegian Centre for Research Data approved the data handling procedures used in the study. The head teacher of the school was informed of the project and gave permission, while the participants’ parents received a 162 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education consent form including information about the project and notifying them of their right to withdraw their consent at any time. A female special education teacher (SpEd) was invited to participate in the study. She had over 10 years of experience as an SpEd teacher and was there - fore an asset to the study. The SpEd teacher was informed about the aims of the study and was invited to implement the intervention and help recruit pupils who were known to have dyslexia at her school. Before the pre-tests were ad - ministered, the SpEd teacher was presented with the intervention curriculum and rationale in detail. She agreed to implement and execute the intervention as designed. This helped maintain the researchers’ roles as observers. Nature of data collection The present study was carried out as a mixed-methods approach (Ellis, 2012). When statistics (quantitative data) are combined with stories and personal experience (qualitative data), the data collection gives a better understanding of the topic (‘convergent’ design, Creswell, 2015). Furthermore, an intervention study with quantitative and qualitative data is powerful in investigating language teaching because it allows the researcher to investigate the process (Ellis, 2012). As such, it is possible to explain the results of the pre- and post-tests. Collecting qualitative data was particularly important because it showed how our partici - pants experienced the activities and helped us to modify the intervention. • The quantitative and qualitative data collected in the study are summa - rised below: • Quantitative: results of pre- and post-tests of spelling, pupil evaluation questionnaire (see Appendix 1 and 2) • Qualitative: semi-structured interview with the SpEd teacher (see Appendix 3). Table 2 Overview of the research design and analysis Pre-intervention Intervention Post-Intervention Type of analysis Pre-tests of spelling (n = 5) A series of lessons based on MSL and ICT (see Table 3) Post-tests of spelling (n = 5) Pupil (n = 3) post-questionnaire interview Teacher (n = 1) interview Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics and Content analysis Content analysis c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 163 The results of the pre- and post-tests of spelling comprised the main data. These tests aimed to measure the intervention’s effect. The spelling test consisted of a selection of high frequency words from the McNally Wordlist (McNally & Murray, 1962), a collection of 250 high frequency words. Some 70% of the texts that children and young adults read in English are composed of these 250 high frequency words (Holmberg, 2019). To ensure that the test was not too long, only 16 items were chosen from the McNally Wordlist. These were considered sufficient to display spelling development. Since the pupils seemed insecure in their alphabetic knowledge, an additional focus point of the in - tervention was the alphabet. Therefore, two test items were letter names (see Appendix 1). Testing and administration procedures The tests were administered by the SpEd teacher in collaboration with the researchers as ‘dictation’ , e.g., each word was read aloud once followed by a supporting phrase with the word. Finally, the word itself was read aloud one last time. The pupils were given clear instructions not to write anything until after they had heard the word a final time. Measures were taken to ensure valid test results. Factors such as the time of the school day, the physical surroundings of the testing environment, includ - ing the temperature of the room, noise and the level of formality, were all con - sidered (Cohen et al., 2011; Helland, 2012). The pre- and post-tests were admin - istered in either the first or second period of the pupils’ daily school programme when their attention and concentration was still strong (Raviv & Low, 1990). Moreover, the participants took both tests individually in a separate room and were given the opportunity to take a break, as well. In the analysis, the results of the pre- and post-tests were calculated for the whole group as well as for individual pupils. A qualitative interview with the SpEd was conducted to obtain detailed descriptions of the intervention’s implementation and to explain the spelling development of each pupil (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). The intervention The spelling intervention was designed and executed in the form of a se - ries of lessons. The intervention was also aligned with the English subject cur - riculum and its competence aims (Ministry of Education, 2020), for example: • use simple strategies for language learning, text creation and communication; • follow rules for spelling, word inflection and syntax. 164 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education The spelling intervention maintained a multisensory approach featuring a focus on letter names through auditory and visual presentation and practice through hands-on and online training. Phonological awareness was practised through explicit instruction, worksheets and sorting activities. In the more ex - plicit spelling-oriented activities, the pupils were expected to colour, build or paint words in their distinct sounds. The pre-test results helped adapt the inter - vention materials to the needs of the participants. The implementation stage, as in many other intervention studies (Domagała-Zyśk & Podlewska, 2018; Liontou, 2018), was met with challenges. The school that had originally offered to participate withdrew just before the intervention was set to launch and a new school was not arranged until after the intervention was scheduled to commence, which delayed the project. The pro - cess of acquiring new consent forms signed by parents caused a further delay. Consequently, the intervention had to be reduced from 16 to 8 lessons. Table 3 presents an overview of the eight intervention lessons used in the study. Table 3 Intervention Overview Lesson number Activities Purpose Lesson 1 Alphabet song with visuals Repetition of the alphabet and letter sounds. Small and capital letter puzzle Monster Mansion Alphabet Match Sound-letter correspondence explanation and worksheet To practise understanding of sound-letter-correspondence. Lesson 2 Monster mansion match Repetition Sound-letter correspondence explanation and worksheet To practise understanding of sound-letter-correspondence and segmenting. Colouring worksheet Painting words Lesson 3 Rhymes instruction To practise identifying and manipulating sounds. Odd one out activity Book Creator rhyming task Ninja Board Game Lesson 4 Guessing activity: writing words on each other’s backs To practise spelling explicitly. Building words with WikkiStix Book Creator: WikkiStix pictures, text and recording of words c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 165 Lesson number Activities Purpose Lesson 5 Explanation of minimal pairs To practise distinguishing between and spelling minimal pairs. Distinguishing worksheet Odd one out worksheet Minimal pairs bingo Lesson 6 Power E: presentation through rule card To practise spelling words with the silent E spelling pattern. Silent E song English Sounds Fun: Power E worksheet Auditory practice Silent E song writing task Lesson 7 Explanation of the two “th” sounds To practise distinguishing between “th” sounds and other sounds and spelling words with “th”. Th sounds instruction and practice Auditory discrimination Smart Notebook sorting activity WikkiStix/Painting activity Lesson 8 Look-Trace-Cover-Write-Check To practise spelling explicitly. Quizlet practice Validity and reliability The current study had a sample of five participants, so it was important to investigate whether the data complied with prior relevant evidence in order to ensure the validity of the study (De Winter, 2013). Convergence of evidence collected through various methods is likely to enhance validity of research data (Biesta, 2012). Triangulation controls for bias because it ensures that the observed results are not the product of one specific method if the different methods yield the same results. This triangulated study sought to explain the complexity of human behaviour by studying the phenom - enon from various angles (Cohen et al., 2011). The differences in scores between the pre- and post-tests were analysed and compared. The findings from the pre- and post-tests were supported and explained through the evaluation interview and the pupil questionnaire results. Another way of enhancing validity is to check the reliability of the test results, e.g., to analyse internal consistency (Cohen et al., 2011). In the current study, we determined that our spelling test yielded reliable results. We calcu - lated Cronbach’s alpha, which was estimated at 0.919, a very high value. Muijs (2010) states that a measure of 0.7 and above implies that the test is internally consistent and thus reliable. The results from the triangulated data collection are presented and dis - cussed in the following subsections. 166 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education Presentation of the results Pre- and Post-test analysis Figure 1 shows the group mean value from the pre- and post-tests of spelling (i.e., before and after the intervention). Figure 1 Group Mean Development The pre-test mean was 4.7, compared to 7.6 in the post-test. This repre - sents a 2.9 point difference in means, or a 38% increase, indicating a positive development in the group overall after the intervention. Further analysis of the test results showed individual differences in de - velopment (see Figure 2). Figure 2 Pre-test vs post-test scores of individual pupils c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 167 The finding presented in Figure 2 corresponds with prior studies that have found individual differences between dyslexics (Helland & Kaasa, 2005; Nijakowska, 2010). Despite individual variation, all of the participants exhib - ited positive development. Qualitative analysis of the differences between the pre- and post-tests for individual dyslexic pupils yielded interesting findings. Overall, the partici - pants seemed to be facing different challenges and produced different spelling representations of the same vocabulary items. Table 4 Representative performances Words P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- letter: H A H A H H H E H L H letter: I I I I I I I A E A I on ond on on ån an on å one on on the the the ve ve the the de de de dhe do do do du do do do do du du du come kom com km kon kam kom kam komm kam kom said sed ced sed sed shed sedd ced sed - sed what whot watt vat vt hvat hvat wat what wat vat there wher ther VL dr ther there der der - dher two to to to to two two to too tu to little litel litol llt tlo lidle litle litor little litol lital are are are rar ar are are ar are ar ar that thet that VT dat thot thet det det det dat with fif fif vit vit hvish hvish vis vecos vits vith and eand and ed æd and and end end and and have hav have hev hvd heav have hev have hav hev one one one VN one von one one one one von he he he hei hi he he hi he hei he Although all of the items in Table 4 (first column, left) should be famil - iar to any pupil in the sixth grade, P1 misspelled many of them in the pre-test. In the post-test, the spelling of some of the words was closer to the English orthography than in the pre-test. Although the pupil improved, her spelling attempts of words like “with” illustrate that she was still not completely aware of how the sound is spelled. This could be explained by the fact that she was absent 168 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education during the latter half of the intervention consisting of a lesson targeting specific sounds. However, her overall development in spelling skills is quite positive considering the fact she only received half of the intervention. Assessing the development of P2 is difficult, because no significant development is evident, especially quantitatively. P2 struggled particularly in comparison to his peers. He seems to lack a basic knowledge of English and Norwegian orthography and phonology. Although he showed some improve - ment in getting letter names correct, he struggled with spelling words and dem - onstrated his difficulties with English orthography by using Norwegian letters (e.g., å and æ) in the post-test. Unlike other pupils, P3 did not use Norwegian letters in the pre-test, but struggled with spelling several words, such as “have” and “one” . After the in - tervention, however, P3 spelled these words correctly. She seemed more aware of the silent ‘e’ , as shown by her correct post-test spellings of the words “there” , “have” and “one”. Evidently, there was a positive development in her spelling skills after the intervention. Pre-test spellings of the words by P4 were adjusted to Norwegian pho - nology, e.g., the Norwegian letter å was used. In the post-test, he did not use any of the Norwegian letters and his spelling was closer to that of the Eng - lish orthography. He was also more aware of sound-letter correspondence, as well as the silent e in words like “are” and “have” . However, he still struggled to spell words with the / θ/ and / ð/ sounds, both of which are absent in Norwegian phonology. P5 showed the least development. He omitted words in the pre-test but attempted to spell all of the words in the post-test, which is positive. However, as is apparent from the examples of his attempts, he still struggled with the English orthography and some of the words that he had written correctly in the pre-test were written incorrectly in the post-test. During the post-test, he even struggled with writing the letter p and asked how it was supposed to be written. The following section summarises the results from the semi-structured interview with the SpEd teacher conducted after the post-test in the teacher’s native language, i.e., Norwegian. Her exact words have been translated into English. Semi-structured interview When asked for her overall opinion of the intervention, the SpEd teacher spoke very highly of it, e.g., “the lessons contained varied and very interesting multisensory tasks” . She added that even though most of the learners within the group struggled with their attention, the tasks motivated them. As for the level c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 169 of difficulty of the tasks, she stressed that these were appropriate. The teacher explained that in terms of task activities, the WikkiStix tasks were the most use - ful, because “the pupils have to use their creativity and use vocabulary that was presented beforehand” . She further explained that the pupils “learned a lot from instruction when they coloured and became familiar with the sounds” . The teacher also described each pupil and elaborated on their develop - ment. She noted: “I think everyone made huge progress, especially P4. This was a surprise. He had the greatest development, which was surprising because of a lack of focus due to his disorder” . Furthermore, the teacher observed an increased awareness in sound- letter correspondence among the sixth graders. Regarding P5, the teacher add - ed “He makes a lot of mistakes because of his dyslexia and his ADHD”. The teacher further described P5 as quite thorough in his work and creative, e.g., “he learned a lot and is very interested in the connection between sounds and letters” . Notably, P5 asked the teacher for more similar lessons. The SpEd teacher also explained that P2 “developed his skills a lot but, in a way, he was the most difficult case. He had a lot of specific language impair - ments in addition to dyslexia” . However, the teacher reported positive develop - ment in terms of phonological awareness: “I noticed that after the first lesson, he thought more about where the sounds came from. He did not do that in the other lessons where I worked with him. ” Overall, the teacher stressed that there was positive feedback regarding the intervention. She felt that there was an enormous development in motiva - tion, especially for P3. She said that the pupil “feared English lessons before, but now she looks forward to them” . In addition, she said “for Pupil 4, they were the best lessons he has been in for a long time” . This surprised her, because P4 is rarely positive towards English classes and tends to describe them as “boring” . The teacher added that P4 does not put much effort into regular classes, so she was surprised by his encouraging efforts during the intervention. Finally, the teacher proposed that the intervention activities could be employed in a whole class setting, as well. As the lessons were clear and struc - tured, she suggested that many pupils could respond well to the activities re - gardless of whether they have SpLDs or not. Questionnaires The group completed the questionnaire after the post-test was administered. 170 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education Figure 3 Motivation towards learning EFL Figure 3 shows positive responses towards the intervention. Evidently, all of the participants reported improvement in their motivation towards Eng - lish after the intervention. Given the positive responses, it is fair to say that the intervention tasks were interesting and motivating. The participants’ evaluation of their level of competence in English be - fore and after the intervention is illustrated in Figure 4. There was an increase from 1.33 to 2.33 in means, which indicates that the group thinks that they ben - efited positively from the intervention. Figure 4 Development in English competence c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 171 Finally, each pupil was asked to rate the intervention. All of the pupils were positive towards the lessons, as they chose the ‘happy face’ option (see Ap - pendix 2), which further supports the success of our intervention. Discussion and concluding remarks The current study, undertaken in the interface between English didac - tics and special education, investigated the benefits of a multisensory spelling intervention for dyslexic learners, as reported in prior studies (Lim & Oei, 2015; Nijakowska, 2010). The overall group score of the statistically reliable spelling pre- and post-tests yielded a 38% increase in mean scores, improving from 4.7 in the pre-test to 7.6 in the post-test. Considering the relatively short duration of the intervention (only eight lessons), it can be concluded that this evidence provides a positive outlook for incorporating MSL methodology while teach - ing dyslexic students. Other studies that have investigated the use and effects of MSL and phonological interventions in spelling skills strongly indicate that dyslexic learners can increase their spelling abilities (Galuschka et al., 2020; Lim & Oei, 2015; Nijakowska, 2010; Snowling et al., 2020). The findings are also in agreement with the consensus that dyslexic learners require specific inter - ventions to compensate for their deficits (Kormos, 2017, p. 118). Although our dyslexic participants improved their performance after the intervention, they exhibited individual differences. Their scores on the pre- and post-tests were quite dispersed, as was the detailed analysis of individual performances (also in Helland & Kaasa, 2005). This might be due to several factors. In the current study, three of our five participants experienced comor - bidity of dyslexia and other learning inhibiting disorders, which is in accord - ance with previous research (Snowling et al., 2020). The pupils with the highest spelling scores exhibited no comorbidities. Comorbid disorders seem to alter the behavioural patterns of dyslexia and render intervention more complicated. As such, it seems reasonable to suggest that dyslexic learners require specific tailored interventions based on their learning difficulties (Snowling & Hulme, 2011). Nevertheless, individuals with comorbidities can benefit from MSL as well, as multisensory techniques had a positive impact on their motivation. The motivation and sense of achievement generated by the current intervention is particularly encouraging. The pupil questionnaires and the interview with the SpEd teacher corroborated the fact that the intervention positively impacted aspects such as motivation and attitude towards learning EFL. This is an ac - complishment, since all of the learners reported reluctance to engage in EFL prior to the intervention. 172 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education Another aspect of the study was the use of technology, which was also encouraged through prior studies (Torgesen et al., 2010; Pfenninger, 2016). ICT can be successful in providing an opportunity for the overlearning required by dyslexic learners when practising spelling (Lyster, 2012; Philips & Kelly, 2016). It can also be a useful alternative or supplement to individual or small-group interventions (Galuschka et al., 2020). Our study employed technology, e.g., Book Creator, Quizlet, an alphabet game, and a smartboard activity, and the pupils seemed positive about this. However, it was not employed as extensively as originally planned, so future research and experimentation may be needed to provide a more detailed account of this aspect. Finally, despite the unexpected challenges faced during the implementa - tion of the study, there is strength in the diversity of the data material. The tri - angulation of the data enhanced the validity of the current study and provided an extensive inquiry into the effect of the intervention. The data also seem to align with findings from previous studies, which further validates the findings of the current study. The very promising evidence in favour of an MSL spelling intervention supports further inquiry into its effectiveness. The pupils involved in this project exhibited a significant increase in correctly spelled words after only eight lessons, which is quite promising and encourages longer and larger future studies. In ad - dition, the results appear to confirm the success of technological intervention, much as in previous studies (see Pfenninger, 2016; Torgesen et al., 2010). Conclusion The main purpose of the study was to explore how EFL teachers can support their dyslexic students. As such, the study has several implications for EFL teachers. Lim & Oei (2015) argue that early identification and intervention is crucial for literacy development of learners with dyslexia. Dyslexia should ac - cordingly be diagnosed during the first years of schooling and an intervention should be implemented as early as possible. Norwegian dyslexic students strug - gle with EFL acquisition (see Helland & Kaasa, 2005). Unless these learners receive proper, explicit instruction, they will undoubtedly suffer extensive aca - demic failures, especially in EFL. It is therefore vital that dyslexic learners are identified properly throughout these formative years. Dyslexic learners should be accommodated and supported properly, as well. The current study showed that interventions based on the MSL approach can yield significant positive results regarding spelling development, while c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 173 motivational and emotional aspects can also be impacted positively. We there - fore recommend that teachers of EFL teach spelling explicitly through MSL by practising phonological awareness and spelling patterns. In their interven - tions, teachers should not encourage their pupils to simply write vocabulary items; pupils should colour, build or paint words in their distinct sounds to make them more aware of the spelling patterns and sound-letter correspond - ence. Additionally, pupils should practise phonological awareness through worksheets and sorting activities, as well as through distinguishing tasks, such as bingo with the /∫ / and /t∫/ sounds. Hands-on activities, such as moveable cards, could also prove helpful, while technology such as Quizlet could provide dyslexic learners with a necessary opportunity for overlearning. Despite the fact that the current study investigated an important area, there are some limitations that need to be addressed, especially in future research. For example, even though the current investigation is an in-depth study based on case studies, the group of five learners is admittedly a small sample. Future researchers need to collaborate with larger numbers of participants. Moreover, in future research and practice, the age of the children and age-appropriate train - ing need to be considered rather than grade level. Furthermore, an ideal future intervention study should carefully consider the dynamics within the group and adopt a mixed method approach orientation, as the triangulation of data collec - tion can confidently validate its results. Finally, intervention studies with SpLD students present the need for an age-matched dyslexic control group to account for external variables in order to be able to compare the effect of multisensory and phonological instruction with common EFL teaching methods. Although the factors impacting on an inclusive learning environment should not be underestimated, dyslexic learners will likely require extra support outside the classroom, as well. The environment in which the extra support is executed should also be considered, as dyslexic learners require a peaceful en - vironment to enhance their learning, so distracting factors should be avoided, if possible. Moreover, learners with severe spelling problems would probably benefit more from assistive technologies such as word processing, spell-check - ers or speech-to-text technology. The role of EFL teachers and teacher trainers in facilitating and support - ing learning development for dyslexic learners is very important. The Norwe - gian educational law clearly establishes that all students have a right to adapted education. There is, therefore, a high demand for training of EFL teachers to accommodate the learning needs of dyslexic learners. Consequently, teacher students enrolled in teacher education programmes should be trained to iden - tify dyslexic students and adapt education to their SpLD learners. 174 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education Finally, we would like to invite future researchers from the field of dys - lexia and foreign language learning to further investigate the effects of MSL and phonological training, as well as the benefits of using technology for the teaching of spelling and other language skills to dyslexic learners in order to accumulate evidence that will help accommodate and support learning for this special group of learners. References Aas, Å. M. (2021). Dysleksi håndboka for lærere [Dyslexia Handbook for Teachers] . 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Annals of Dyslexia , 60(1), 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-009-0032-y c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 177 Biographical note Christopher Flaten Jarsve, MA, is a teacher specialized in tea - ching EFL to learners in the 5th to 7th grade. He graduated from the Depart - ment of Primary and Secondary Teacher Education, Oslo Metropolitan Uni - versity, Norway and wrote his MA thesis on dyslexia and English as a foreign language. His research interests include language acquisition, learning difficul - ties and adapted education. Dina Tsagari, PhD, is full Professor in English Language Pedagogy/ TESOL at the Department of Primary and Secondary Teacher Education, Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway. She has also worked for the University of Cyprus, Greek Open University and Polytechnic University of Hong Kong. Her research interests include language testing and assessment, materials design and evaluation, differentiated instruction, multilingualism, distance education, learning difficulties and inclusive education. 178 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education Appendix 1 Age pre-test: Age post-test: Date of pre-test: Date of post-test: Item # Word/letter Attempt pre-test Attempt post-test Score pre-test Score post-test 1 H 2 I 3 On 4 The 5 Do 6 Come 7 Said 8 What 9 There 10 Two 11 Little 12 Are 13 That 14 With 15 And 16 Have 17 One 18 He /18 /18 Spelling test c e p s Journal | V ol.12 | N o 4 | Y ear 2022 179 Appendix 2 Self-assessment Tick the box for what you consider as correct Attitude and motivation Before the intervention, this was my attitude and motivation towards English: After the intervention, this is my attitude and motivation towards English: The activities I participated in were motivating. Learning development How was your competence level in English before the intervention? How is your competence level after the intervention? What is your opinion of the intervention? 180 dyslexia and english as a foreign language in norwegian primary education Appendix 3 Interview Questions with the Special Education Teacher 1. What is your opinion of the intervention’s success? 2. What do you think of the activities and their difficulty? 3. How would you describe the development of each pupil? 4. What is the feedback from the pupils and their parents?