102
Documenta Praehistorica XLVIII (2021)
Introduction
The first lake dwellings in the Circum-Baltic region
were discovered and investigated in the second half
of the 19th century. Starting with the works made
by Johannes Heydeck in the early 20th century, the
investigations and surveys were carried out by East
Prussian researchers inspired by the discoveries of
the settlements found in Switzerland and what was
then German territory (Heydeck 1909). Land-recla-
mation works held in the 1930s–1960s led to a si-
gnificant increase in the discover of lake dwellings.
New examinations of prior investigations and new
studies started in the 1990s (Gackowski 1998; Łapo,
Ossowski 2000).
In Russia, the first peat-bog sites were found in the
19th century in the Ural Mountains, when gold depo-
Pile dwellings
in the Circum-Baltic area
ABSTRACT – The phenomenon of northern pile dwellings has been found in different geographical
zones and landscapes of the Circum-Baltic region: in sea landscapes and on the shores of inland
lakes and rivers. Inland sites were established in specific lacustrine landscapes, appearing within
former post-glacial basins. The pile dwellings revealed here are characterized by different types of
wooden buildings, including structures with raised floors. They are dated to the 4th millennium BC
to 4th century BC in Central Europe and the Baltics, and to the end of the 4th to end of the 3rd millen-
nium BC – in NW Russia and Belarus. They appeared in major cases independently and followed
different cultural trajectories. The article presents an overview of a number of sites which can be
attributed to pile dwelling settlements distributed in the Circum-Baltic area. It discusses particular
features of their construction, traits of material culture, and site location patterns.
IZVLE∞EK – Fenomen severnih koli∏≠ je bil odkrit v razli≠nih geografskih obmo≠jih in pokrajinah ob
Baltskem morju, tako ob morju kot na obalah jezer in rek v notranjosti. Najdi∏≠a v notranjosti le∫i-
jo na posebnih jezerskih obmo≠jih, ki so se oblikovala znotraj nekdanjih bazenov po ledenih dobah.
Za ta koli∏≠a so zna≠ilni razli≠ni tipi lesenih stavb, med njimi tudi strukture z dvignjenimi tlemi. Te
stavbe so na obmo≠ju Srednje Evrope in Baltika datirane v ≠as med 4. tiso≠letjem pr. n. ∏t. in 4. sto-
letjem pr. n. ∏t.; na obmo≠ju SZ Rusije in Belorusije pa v ≠as med koncem 4. in 3. tiso≠letjem pr. n.
∏t. Stavbe so se v ve≠ini primerov pojavile neodvisno in so sledile razli≠nim kulturnim trajektorijam.
V ≠lanku predstavljamo pregled koli∏≠arskih najdi∏≠ na obmo≠ju Baltskega morja. Razpravljamo tudi
o posebnih zna≠ilnostih pri njihovi gradnji, sledovih materialne kulture in vzorcih poselitve.
KEY WORDS – pile dwellings; Eastern Europe; Circum-Baltic; Neolithic; limnic landscapes
KLJU∞NE BESEDE – koli∏≠a; Vzhodna Evropa; obmo≠je Baltskega morja; neolitik; limni≠ne krajine
Koli[;a ob Baltskem morju
DOI> 10.4312\dp.48.14
Elena Pranckėnaitė 1, Ekaterina Dolbunova2, and Andrey Mazurkevich2
1 The Institute of Baltic Region History and Archaeology, Klaipėda University, LT
elena.pranckenaite@gmail.com
2 The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, RU< katjer@mail.ru< a-mazurkevich@mail.ru
Pile dwellings in the Circum-Baltic area
103
bution in various regions and different prehistoric
periods. Contextualization of each case is thought to
be crucial to obtain the full variety of this phenome-
non.
Regional studies
Lithuania
In Lithuania pile dwellings have been recorded from
the Stone Age and Early Metal periods. However,
among the many wetland settlements that have
been explored, only a few of them have dwellings
with raised floors.
Neolithic and Early Bronze Age
More than 60 sites dating from the late Mesolithic to
the Late Bronze Age were discovered in the πvento-
ji marshlands on the Baltic coast of Lithuania. The
sites contained remains of dwelling zones, refuse
layers and fishing stations (Rimantienė 2005; Pili-
≠iauskas 2016a). πventoji 6 site is suggested to be
a pile-dwelling settlement (Girininkas 2005; Pili≠i-
auskas 2016a). It was located at a transitional zone
between a narrow channel and a wide lake. Various
fishing items made from bone and wood, pottery
(Narva and Globular Amphora culture wares), am-
ber ornaments, and flint tools were found here.
Most of the 14C dates from the site pointed to the
sits were mined. Gold mining conducted on the east-
ern slope of the Middle Ural Mountains led to unco-
vering the Shigirsky peat-bog site (Tolmachev 1914;
Savchenko 1999). Some of the constructions found
on the sites located in Shigirsky and Gorbunovsky
peat-bogs were interpreted as the remains of plat-
forms left on marshy areas (Bryusov 1951). Land-
reclamation works carried out in the 1960s in NW
Russia led to the uncovering of a number of Neolithic
pile-dwelling sites (Mazurkevich, Dolbunova 2011).
More than 100 peat-bog sites dated to the Mesolithic
– Bronze Age were found in Estonia, Latvia, Belarus,
and in the forest zone of Eastern Europe (North-East-
ern Russia – Eastern Onega: sites of the Veretie 1
type and Modlona, Vissky peat-bog; Volga-Oka basin
– Ivanovskaya, Moskovskaya and Ryazanskaya Re-
gions; and in North-Western Russia – Pskovskaya,
Smolenskaya, Leningradskaya Regions). Some of
these sites were attributed to pile-dwelling settle-
ments (Oshibkina 1996) (Fig. 1).
The phenomenon of northern pile dwellings has
been found in different geographical regions and
landscapes of the Circum-Baltic Region: in sea land-
scapes and on the shores of inland lakes and rivers.
Inland sites of this type were established in specific
lacustrine landscapes, appearing within former post-
glacial basins. These sites were
situated on lakeshores locat-
ed in front of the morainic
formations of the Würm Gla-
ciation (Dolukhanov, Mazur-
kevich 2000).
A particular type of prehisto-
ric lake shore dwellings dated
from the end of the 6th to 1st
millennium BC, including
structures with raised floors
(Martinelli 2014), were re-
garded mainly as a Southern
and Western European phe-
nomenon (Schlichtherle et al.
2013). In this article, we want
to emphasize that these spe-
cific building techniques and
types also existed in the Cir-
cum-Baltic area. They appear-
ed in major cases indepen-
dently and followed different
cultural trajectories, which will
be shown through an analysis
of the number of sites, distri-
Fig. 1. Map of the sites mentioned in the text (* including sites Usviaty IV,
Naumovo, Dubokray V, X) (drawing by E. Dolbunova).
Elena Pranckėnaitė, Ekaterina Dolbunova, and Andrey Mazurkevich
104
period 3000–2500 cal BC (Pili≠iauskas et al. 2012).
In the excavated area 66 piles were registered, most
of which constituted pile dwellings. However, some
of the piles are believed to belong to stationary fish-
ing constructions (Pili≠iauskas 2016b).
In the basin of Lake Kretuonas (Eastern Lithuania)
approximately 60 archaeological sites from the Stone
and Bronze Age have been found so far (Girininkas
1990; πatavi≠ius, Marcinkevi≠iūtė 2013). A few
sites, Kretuonas 1C site and the Ωemaiti∏kė 1, 2, 3
sites have been interpreted as pile dwellings.
In Ωemaiti∏kė 2 site, which dates back to the Late
Neolithic, more than 1000 pieces of wooden con-
structions were recorded in the excavated areas.
The site was located on the shore of a former lake,
near the source of a stream flowing from the lake
(Girininkas 2004; 2010). Some of the wooden piles
with a small diameter were identified as fishing
traps. Groups of larger piles were arranged in sepa-
rate parallel lines perpendicular to each other. These
lines of piles coincided with the distribution of finds,
marking the form of the dwelling platform. The
largest concentration of archaeological finds indi-
cates areas behind the platform where they might
have fallen down. According to Algirdas Girininkas,
this pile-dwelling settlement was established above
water. This site was ascribed to the Late Narva cul-
ture (Girininkas 2005). Archaeological finds, in-
cluding bird and fish bones, indicate the importance
of hunting and fishing for the community.
At the Kretuonas 1C site (Girininkas 1984) pile-
dwellings were constructed on a low, seasonally flo-
oded terrace. They are dated to the Early Bronze
Age, manifesting the continuity of pile constructions
(Brazaitis 2003; Girininkas 2005). However, a
clear plan of the distribution of piles cannot be re-
constructed. The remains of fishing baskets and fish-
ing fences were also found next to them.
Ωemaiti∏kė 1, 3 sites were also interpreted as sites
with pile constructions, although the data is not yet
sufficient (Pranckėnaitė 2011). Both sites were
found on the shore of a former lake. Perpendicular
groups of piles, which did not form any clear con-
struction, were recorded. Both sites were ascribed to
the Middle and Late Neolithic Narva culture (Giri-
ninkas 2005).
In the western part of Lithuania, the πarnelė site was
detected in shallow water near the source of the
river at the lake (Butrimas 1996). Over 400 verti-
cal piles have been detected (Girininkas 2005).
Certainly, some piles, especially those which are
small in diameter, should be ascribed not to pile
buildings but to fishing traps (Girininkas 2010).
Ceramics found on the site were attributed to the
Narva and Corded Ware cultures. The importance
of fishing is exemplified by the discovery of such
archaeological finds as harpoons, nets, net-sinkers
and net floats made of birch-bark. There were also
bone points, amulets, and an amber ornament
among the discoveries (Butrimas 1996).
Late Bronze to Early Iron Age
Two pile dwellings are known in the Lithuanian ter-
ritory dating from the Late Bronze Age to the Early
Iron Age. Lake Luokesa dwellings I and II were dis-
covered in 2000–2001. The remains of two lake-set-
tlements were located underwater in morainic shoals,
at a depth of 2m. Two sites were built at the oppo-
site sides of the lake (Pranckėnaitė 2014). The Lake
Luokesa dwelling I consisted of a double or triple
fence, and a central part. Together with these fences,
the settlement occupies an area of 60x40m. Dwelling
I of Lake Luokesa has one layer, 35–110cm thick,
and consists of 5–7 layers of horizontal wooden
structures (Pranckėnaitė 2016). The archaeological
and archaeobotanical material testifies to agricul-
ture and animal husbandry, but on the basis of the
available data it is rather complicated to assess the
contribution of the production economy and gather-
ing-fishing and hunting economy at Luokesa I (Pol-
lmann 2014; Pranckėnaitė 2014) (Figs. 2–3).
Fig. 2. Plan of the site Luokesa 1 (drawing by E.
Pranckėnaitė).
Pile dwellings in the Circum-Baltic area
105
The pile distribution at Luokesa site II shows a con-
struction resembling a fairly large platform, linked
to the shore by a walkway. During archaeological ex-
cavation, no clear cultural layer or archaeological
artefacts were discovered (Baubonis, Pranckėnaitė
2012). The data of the Lake Luokesa dwelling II does
not enable us to interpret it as a dwelling used for
habitation, and its ultimate interpretation and pur-
pose remain unclear (Pranckėnaitė 2014).
Constructions found at Lake Luokesa were pile dwel-
lings raised above the damp ground (about 1m from
the surface). Lake Luokesa dwelling I was situated
on the exposed swampy shoal of the northern shore
(Ismail-Meyer 2014; Pollmann 2014). Luokesa sites
I and II are dendrochronologically dated to the pe-
riod 625–353 BC, and site II was built 25 years ear-
lier than site I. Lake Luokesa site I was established
around 600 BC (Bleicher 2014). It is not possible to
suggest that these two dwellings were part of one
complex that was used at the same time (Baubonis,
Pranckėnaitė 2012).
There is no indication for a specific purpose or un-
usual function of the dwelling. The inhabitants made
full use of the surrounding territories and food
sources. At the same time period during the Late
Bronze Age hillforts appeared in Lithuania. Further
research into the connection between lake dwellings
and hillforts, and the possible seasonality of this,
could reveal more inland-water inhabitation and
complexity.
Latvia
Neolithic
There are large wetland areas which were inhabited
during the Neolithic period in Latvia. The most im-
portant are those near Lake Babīte, Lake Kaņieris,
the Lubāns wetlands and a coastal peatland area in
Sārnate (Loze 2011). The Sārnate settlement is lo-
cated in the north-western part of the Kurzeme Pen-
insula of western Latvia, 2km from the present coast.
Sites were installed on a former lakeshore and pos-
sibly lay near the former outlet of the Sārnate Ri-
ver. The earlier period at the Sārnate sites is dated
to 4365–3780 cal BC, and the next period to 3630–
2850 cal BC. The houses of the Sārnate complex
were quite substantial post-built structures, and can-
not be regarded as pile dwellings (Vankina 1970;
Bērziņ∏ 2008). Comb Ware, Early Sārnate Ware (c.
4365–3780 cal BC) and Late Sārnate Ware (c. 3630–
2850 cal BC) were recorded here (Vankina 1970;
Bērziņ∏ 2008). The dwellings with Early and Late
Sārnate Ware have produced a range of net fishing
gear, as well as components of eel clamps and fish-
screens. The hearths consisted of a bed of sand, with
a substructure of timber and bark. For the Early and
Late Sārnate phases, the subsistence pattern was
based on a diverse range of subsistence resources,
mainly those of the eutrophic lagoonal lakes, and a
semi-sedentary or sedentary way of life, with perma-
nent occupation at Sārnate. A similar mode of sub-
sistence and settlement was probably practiced at
other lagoonal lakes along the East Baltic coast (Bēr-
ziņ∏ 2008).
Sixteen settlements have been explored in the Lake
Lubāns wetlands with a broad periodization from
the Late Mesolithic to Early Bronze Age (6600–5510
cal BC to 2350–1750 cal BC) (Loze 2011). Possible
evidence of pile dwellings from the Late Neolithic
period in the Lake Lubāns wetlands is ascribed at
the Abora I site. Lines of piles were preserved on a
sloping riverbank, and buildings were suggested to
be placed on wooden platforms (Loze 1978; 2011).
No lake dwellings dated to the Early Metal periods
have yet been found on the territory of Latvia
(Apals, Apala 2005). For now the only known lake
dwellings built on the artificial islands were dis-
covered in the Vidzeme region the Central Latvia
and dating back to the 2nd half of the 1st millenni-
um AD (Ārai∏i lake dwellings (Urtans, Rains 2003)).
Possible lake dwellings dated to Iron Age were de-
tected in Lake Sāviena (Urtans 2016).
Fig. 3. Underwater excavation at Luokesa 1 site
(photo by G. Krakauskas).
Elena Pranckėnaitė, Ekaterina Dolbunova, and Andrey Mazurkevich
106
Estonia
The earliest attempts at pile dwelling research could
be traced to the 17th century in the territory of Es-
tonia, but the existence of prehistoric pile-dwellings
at the bottom of the lake was only traced in the
1960s (Roio 2020). The only construction remains
of a pile settlement in Estonia were ascertained in
Koorküla Valgjärv Lake (Kriiska, Roio 2011). Three
inhabitation stages of Koorküla Valgjärv Lake set-
tlement were specified: (1) Neolithic period (Late
Comb Ware, c. 3300–3200 cal BC (Roio 2007)); (2)
Early Metal period (313–246 BC based on dendro-
chronological dates, and a single metal ring was also
found typologically of the same period); (3) absolute
dating of archaeological artefacts also show 7th–9th
century inhabitation of the site (Roio 2020). Until
now, no archaeological excavations have taken place
at this site. Two other prehistoric wetlands sites with
the remains of wooden piles are known: Stone Age
settlement sites in the prehistoric lake of Kunda, and
on the shore of Tamula Lake (Roio 2020).
Poland
Bronze Age to Early Iron Age
Dwellings of grate-and-beam construction were built
on horizontal beams strengthened by vertical piles
and stones, forming the so-called artificial islands –
the main feature of lake dwellings in the Masurian
Lake district, e.g., Orzyszo, Mołtajny, Pieczarki, Boga-
czewo, and Rybno settlements (Gackowski 2000;
Pydyn 2007). Over 40 sites of this type are known
in Masurian Lake district and are attributed to West
Baltic Barrow culture (Pydyn, Gackowski 2011).
Only two sites in central Poland were attributed to
the pile construction type, Polanowo 12 and Po-
widzo 16, belonging to the Lusatian culture (Pydyn
2010). Archaeological finds (i.e. ceramics), dating
and building techniques confirm that these two pile
settlements were inhabited in the 6th century BC (Py-
dyn 2007). Pile dwellings were constructed in the
direct vicinity of the shoreline, on marshy and pre-
sumably periodically flooded areas. More than 500
wooden architectural elements and archaeological
artefacts were detected in an area of 40x60m, at a
depth of 0.6–2m under water in the Polanowo 12
settlement. The Powidzo 16 settlement consists of
around 100 wooden elements. The settlements do
not have a clear scheme while the settlements’ size
was set according to the concentration of the verti-
cal piles. The remains of the bridges or fences were
not found (Pydyn, Gackowski 2011). Animal hus-
bandry and developed agriculture were recorded.
The content of two vessels found in the Polanowo
12 settlement provided remains of 120 species of
plants and presumably can be attributed to votive
offerings (Latałowa, Pinska 2010).
Belarus
Different wetland sites were found in Northern Be-
larus, in Kryvina peatbog, including Neolithic and
Bronze Age settlements (e.g., Asaviec 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7 and Kryvina 1, 2, 3). The remains of rectangular
wooden constructions consisting of poles and sharp-
ened stakes were found at the Asaviec 2 site, dated
to the time period of the Usviaty culture (Middle Neo-
lithic) and North-Belarusian culture (Late Neolithic)
(Charniauski, Kryvaltsevich 2011; Charniauski
2020). Flint artefacts are rather rare due to the ab-
sence of such outcrops in the area. Rich antler and
bone industry included hunting and fishing tools,
household items, ornaments, musical instruments
and items interpreted as ritual ones (Charniauski,
Charniauski 2010). A number of amber ornaments
were also found. Similar materials were found on
other sites which were supposed to be established
on the dried peaty lakeshore during a regression
phase (Asaviec 7 site). The remains of wooden con-
structions with more than 100 piles (with a diame-
ter from 5 to 30cm) and a number of wooden frag-
ments lying horizontally were uncovered. Inclined
poles driven into the ditch were interpreted as the
remains of the wall. The location of wooden con-
struction corresponds to the concentration of finds
and sandy filling. A large number of animal bones
was found on the sites with moose, wild boar, mar-
ten and beaver predominating. A quite high number
of domesticated animals was also noted (16% at
Asaviec 7 site). One particular feature of the latter
site is a large number of burnt bones, some of which
are human. The remains of a skeleton, scattered hu-
man bones and their fragments were also found
here. Traits of different archaeological cultures were
traced in the ceramic complex of the Late Neolithic
phase: Globular Amphora culture, Corded Ware, and
Middle Dnieper culture. One of the earliest bronze
and copper awls was recorded here (Charniauski,
Kryvaltsevich 2011). The remains of fishing net
floats made from birch bark, fragments of fishing
traps and paddles were found on the site. The domi-
nance of a hunting-gathering subsistence strategy
has been suggested for this region.
Several wetland sites of the Neolithic-Bronze Age,
some with the remains of wooden constructions,
were also discovered in Southern Belarus (e.g., Kuz-
michy 1, Aziarnoye 2B, Kamen 8, and Voikavichy 1)
(Charniauski, Kryvaltsevich 2011).
Pile dwellings in the Circum-Baltic area
107
NW Russia
A range of sites with dwellings with raised floors
located on marshy areas of paleolakes were found
in the Upper Western Dvina River at the beginning
of the 1960s by Alexander M. Miklyaev (1969; 1995;
Mazurkevich 2014). Today, 30 pile settlements are
known in this region (e.g., Serteya II, Usviaty IV (Fig.
4), Naumovo, Dubokray V, X, etc.). Pile dwellings
appeared c. 3700–3450 cal BC (Usviaty culture),
and were concentrated in a very restricted area
within NW Russia, surrounded by other types of sites
and archaeological cultures. To the east and north
there were sites with Pit-Comb pottery and Volosovo
culture, to the south there were sites with Rhomb-
Pit pottery. Pile dwellings existed until the end of
the 3rd millennium cal BC (Zhizhitsa and North-Be-
lorussian cultures) (see the detailed chronology in
Mazurkevich et al. 2017).
The form of the pile constructions changed over
time: oval construction was found at an earlier stage,
with rectangular constructions coming later. Pile
dwellings of the Zhizhitsa and Northern Belorussian
cultures consisted of one or several rectangular con-
structions measuring 5.5×4.5m (Fig. 5). Rectangular
platforms formed the base of the pile dwellings,
which were elevated 50–70cm above the surface of
the shore. Logs were attached to piles with the aid
of ropes and supported by ‘horned’ piles. Poles c.
5–8cm in diameter were densely laid transversely
on top of the logs (Fig. 6.f); pine slabs c. 3–6cm
thick (without bark) were placed above them (Fig.
6.c,e). The floor was covered by a layer of coarse
white sand. Piles 14–22cm in diameter were placed
around the periphery (Fig. 6.a). They served as a
framework for walls that may have been made of
branches and thin sticks (Fig. 6.d) covered by clay,
as shown by daub fragments. The row of piles in the
middle of the construction may indicate the existence
of a pitched roof, covered by large bark pieces (Fig.
6.b). The platforms were encircled by garbage dumps
(Mazurkevich, Dolbunova 2011). Dendrochronolo-
gical analysis conducted for part
of the piles of the Serteya II site
allowed establishing a floating
dendroscale and suggested suc-
cessive phases of dwelling con-
struction, coexistence of several
dwellings at a later stage, and pe-
riodic reconstruction of the dwel-
lings (Hookk 2014). Today, 363
piles have been recorded for the
Serteya II site.
The faunal and botanical records
indicate that lacustrine dwellers
relied heavily on wild resources,
with year-round procurement of
meat and fur animals as well as
fishing. Food gathering was of
considerable significance as well.
At least 30 edible wild plants
were identified at the Naumovo
site (Guman 1978). Serteya II
site allowed the reconstruction
of various zones of inhabitation
and household activities show-
ing different areas involved in a
pile-settlement area (Mazurke-
vich et al. 2020a). The palaeoen-
vironmental research conducted
on this site showed a dynamic la-
custrine-riverine system and im-
portant rebuilding of palaeoenvi-
ronmental conditions forced by
Fig. 4. Plan of the Usviaty IV site with piles distribution, remains of
wooden structures and objects found (after Miklyaev 1969, modified
by E. Dolbunova).
Elena Pranckėnaitė, Ekaterina Dolbunova, and Andrey Mazurkevich
108
Fig. 5. Serteya II pile-dwelling site with different areas indicated (drawing by E. Dolbunova).
Pile dwellings in the Circum-Baltic area
109
global climatic changes dur-
ing c. 3900 and 2200 cal BC.
The pile dwellings should be
recognised here as an adap-
tation to the changeable eco-
logical conditions (Kittel et
al. 2020a). Renewal of the la-
custrine system led to the de-
vastation of the pile dwellings,
the settlement moved to high-
er places, and Serteya II, layer
a site appeared (Fig. 5) (Kit-
tel et al. 2020b).
Rich evidence of everyday life
as well as the remains of art
survived. The syncretic cha-
racter of this ancient art re-
flects the intertwining of tech-
nical and ritual activities, ae-
sthetic and psychological ne-
eds, as well as the worldview
of the society. A new way of
life could also influence the
social structure and ritual culture (Mazurkevich
2013).
The pile-dwelling settlements were situated in the
close vicinity of different landscapes that favoured
sustaining a highly efficient hunting, fishing and ga-
thering economy. This delayed the initiation of ag-
riculture and cattle-breeding economy despite direct
and/or indirect contacts with communities who prac-
ticed it, which is visible through new pottery styles
and imported objects (amber pendants, flint daggers,
copper items, etc.) (Mazurkevich, Dolbunova 2011;
Mazurkevich et al. 2020a; Mazurkevich 2013). Pile
settlements remained the major settlement pattern
in NW Russia for over a millennium.
No pile dwellings from the Early Metal period were
found in the Middle and Upper Western Dvina or
Dnepr Rivers. The transgression in the first half of
the 2nd millennium BC led to flooding of large wet-
land areas and the sites were moved to a mineral
shore.
Wetland sites at the eastern periphery: one
more pile-dwelling settlement?
Other Neolithic wetland sites known in NW Russia
have remains of fishing fences and/or traps, e.g.,
Okhta 1 (3600–2700 BC) (Gusencova, Sorokin 2011),
multilayer Veksa sites (Piezonka et al. 2020) and
Karavaikha 4 (Bruysov 1951; Kosorukova et al.
2016). Only one site was interpreted as a pile-dwel-
ling settlement, named Modlona (Bryusov 1952;
Oshibkina 1978). It was excavated at the same time
as key sites in the Baltics, when a wider scientific
network existed which facilitated the exchange of
knowledge about this new type of site, uncovered
for the first time in this region. Aleksandr Yakovle-
vich Bryusov participated in excavations of the Sar-
nate site conducted by Lūcija Vankina (1970.12, Figs.
42, 45), and field seminars were organized on major
peat-bog sites of Eastern Europe (Velichko et al.
1984).
The Modlona site (Fig. 7) is located on Lake Vozhe
on a narrow and long cape. The archaeological layer
of the Modlona site is deposited in a peat layer over
sand, and part of the site is located under water,
another part on the shore (Oshibkina 1978). Dwel-
lings were connected by passages, which led to the
shore (Fig. 7), where rafts were left (Oshibkina
1996.228). Buildings had wooden floors, vertically
placed beams were covered by clay, with, probably,
a double pitch roof, covered by birch bark, pressed
by large stones. Buildings were up to 12m2, proba-
bly, of log-house construction. Fireplaces were locat-
ed inside the houses, and the remains of floors and
piles were burnt in one building. Garbage piles were
recorded mainly to the south, and less frequently to
the east of the buildings. The remains of large fish-
ing constructions, made from thin planks, were
Fig. 6. Serteya II. Submerged remains of pile-dwelling constructions (pho-
tos by A. Mazurkevich, Y. Krotov, and E. Dolbunova).
Elena Pranckėnaitė, Ekaterina Dolbunova, and Andrey Mazurkevich
110
found near some of the dwellings (Fig. 7) (Bruysov
1951).
Inhabitants of the site practiced hunting and fishing.
A great amount of hunting gear, and bones of wild
animals were found. Fishing gear included the re-
mains of fish traps, fish hooks and harpoons. Thick-
wall pottery was tempered by shell, sometimes as-
bestos, and the whole surface was decorated by
short, oval and long comb impressions. A great num-
ber of diverse wooden artefacts were found, in-
cluding the fragment of a paddle, ash water scoop
with a handle with a carved dog head. Amber or-
naments were also recorded (roundish buttons with
V-drilling, pendants, and fragment of a ring). Ana-
logies can be found within the ceramic assemblage
of eastern Latvian sites of the Piestinya type, and
some similarities can be traced with the materials of
the Upper Volga (Volosovo culture). Amber orna-
ments are similar to the materials found at Eastern
Baltics sites (Oshibkina 1978).
Dating (4850±120 BP (3819–3371 cal BC) (Le-994))
was carried out on charcoal from the cultural layer,
other dates originated from layers lying above this
(4360±130 BP (3370–2630 cal BC) (Le-993), 3960±
150 BP (2886–2125 cal BC) (Le-992)). The remains
of the site were covered by a thick sandy layer, left
by a transgression, which could have led to aban-
donment of the settlement (Bruysov 1951).
The Modlona settlement differs greatly from other
Neolithic sites in the Eastern Onega region and neigh-
bouring territories. Newcomers who arrived here
left a small number of very particular sites that exi-
sted for a short period of time (Oshibkina 1996).
Sites of the late stage include Modlona II, Ol’skyi
mys, Lisja Gorka sites, and Kargullino burial ground.
The latter is located on dune elevations of the south-
ern shore of the White Sea, where 160 amber orna-
ments and ochre spots were found (Oshibkina 1996.
230).
Settlements of the Modlona type were erected in
marshy and riverine landscapes surrounded by large
and dry areas with birch-coniferous forests inhabit-
ed by bearers of local Kargopolskaya archaeological
culture (Oshibkina 1978).
Fig. 7. Plan of the pile dwel-
ling Modlona in the Eastern
Onega Lake (after Brusov
1951.Fig. 1a, 5, modified by
E. Dolbunova).
Pile dwellings in the Circum-Baltic area
111
Discussion
Northern wetland settlements include sites with dif-
ferent types of constructions located in various lim-
nic landscapes: seacoast, lacustrine and riverine land-
scapes. There are post-built structures with ground-
level floors, constructions with raised floors and
dwellings of grate-and-beam construction. Pile dwel-
lings with raised floors appeared and existed within
the end of the 4th millennium to the end of the 3rd
millennium BC in the Circum-Baltic area manifesting
a possible common cultural phenomenon. The Early
Metal Period pile dwellings with raised floors in the
Circum-Baltic region were found only in Lithuania
and Poland. These lake dwellings were established
during a transitory period – between the Late Bronze
Age and Early Iron Age. According to 14C dates and
dendrochronological research, they cover a time
span between 700 to 400 cal BC. All of these sites
were located in wetlands where rich organic finds
were preserved, which could be crucial for pile-dwel-
lings phenomenon. The choice of particular architec-
tural techniques was caused by technological, cultu-
ral and environmental factors (Martinelli 2014).
Different types of structures and settlements were
formed as the result of intensive cultural contacts or
the development of a local household strategy, in-
fluenced by both environmental factors and cultural
choices. They appeared in some cases independent-
ly, and in others similarities between different com-
plexes were traced (similarities between wooden ar-
tefacts, pottery and bone assemblage of the Late Nar-
va culture sites in the Eastern Baltics and Usviaty cul-
ture in NW Russia (Miklyaev 1998; Vankina 1970)).
Research into several Neolithic pile-dwelling sites in
NW Russia suggests that the population remained
small, which is evidenced by the small number of
synchronous dwellings found at one site. The lack
of strong demographic pressure on resources, espe-
cially food resources, might not force the active de-
velopment of a productive economy. Aquatic resour-
ces could play an important role both in food re-
sources and the organization of the settlement, that
was intentionally installed in a ‘limnic landscape’.
A wide diversity of natural substances was traced in
the Middle Neolithic pottery of pile dwellings in
Western Europe (e.g., ruminant adipose fats, dairy
products, plants substances and beeswax) along with
a scarcity of aquatic products (Drieu et al. 2020),
in contrast to what has been found in the pile-dwel-
ling pottery in NW Russia (preliminary results see in
Kulkova et al. 2015). The uneven emergence of a
productive economy in the regions under conside-
ration can thus be traced. In recent years, more evi-
dence has appeared that the skills needed for agri-
culture and a cattle-breeding economy penetrated
this area from the 4th millennium BC onwards, but
were not completely established in some regions
(Dolukhanov, Mazurkevich 2000; Tarasov et al.
2019; Alenius et al. 2017).
Among the many wetland settlements that have
been explored, only a few have been found with
dwellings with raised floors. They have a set of par-
ticular features which allow such interpretation: lo-
cation on periodically flooded wetland areas, defi-
nite sets of architectural elements which allowed
raised floors to be sustained (fields of piles 5 to
30cm in diameter combined into rectangular plat-
forms often manifesting several phases of inhabi-
tation and reconstructions, ‘horned’ piles or wooden
items used to support horizontal beams of a raised
floor construction, traces of ropes used to attach
wooden planks to piles), traces of clay or burnt
adobe fragments – markers of clay used to cover the
walls, a sandy layer used as floor covering under the
fireplace, burnt stones, dwelling context testified by
different household items, tools, pottery located
within or along the platform, and the presence of
coprolites beneath and nearby the remains of con-
structions. Several phases of construction and recon-
struction can be traced by dendrochronological and
14C analysis and 3D recording of the upper part of
the piles’ depth and levels of the floors. Pits filled
with bones, shells, water-chestnuts, chestnuts and
acorns can also be traced nearby. Periodic drying
out can be testified by a thin layer of shell and sand
penetrating around piles. Some or all of these fea-
tures can be traced on dwelling sites. Fishing struc-
tures show a particular difference, as manifested by
the absence of a dwelling context, the presence of
discarded thin planks – parts of fish traps or fences
– a thin archaeological layer, often with clear traces
of a shore or deep water area, and different sets of
macroremains. The small diameter of the stakes dri-
ven in the bedrock used for fishing constructions
has often been suggested to be another marker of
a fishing structure. However, the smaller diameter
of the piles used for the dwellings was also noted in
ethnographical cases (Pétrequin, Pétrequin 1984).
Conclusion
Pile dwellings are regarded not only as a new form
of architecture, but as a reflection of a new way of
life, a ‘symbol’ of this society (Begleiband et al.
Elena Pranckėnaitė, Ekaterina Dolbunova, and Andrey Mazurkevich
112
2016). The reasons of the formation of this type of
architecture have been always in dispute. The great
role of the surrounding waterscapes in the life of
pile-dwelling cultures was suggested to be conceptu-
alized as ‘limnic cultural landscapes’ (Mainberger
et al. 2020). Ancient people had to take into account
numerous factors when building settlements inhab-
ited all year round. Leaving places suitable for agri-
culture and cattle-breeding could be one of the rea-
sons for the construction of Central Alpine pile set-
tlements (Monnier et al. 1991). Climatic changes,
followed by regressions and the formation of peat-
bogs, might have led to the construction of dwel-
lings in close vicinity to the water, along a shoreline
to avoid damage due to a freeze-up. Construction of
pile dwellings could also make them independent of
seasonal and gradual increases in the water level.
Many theoretical approaches to explain the reasons
for building in this manner have been raised in the
Circum-Baltic area: defensive purposes (Pydyn 2007),
‘easy’ building (Menotti, Pranckėnaitė 2008), eco-
nomic reasons (Dolukhanov et al. 2004) and as well
as social ones (Pydyn, Gackowski 2011).
Though a variety of wetland sites has been found,
only few pile-dwelling settlements with raised floors
have a clearly determined architectural structure
and features of building techniques. The criteria of
pile-dwelling site determination, description of ar-
chitectural remains, size and development stages are
among the most complicated questions to be further
elaborated. Further interdisciplinary research is ne-
eded for proper identification or reinterpretation of
the remains of habitation sites. The major question
remains as to whether the same factors could have
influenced and triggered the formation of similar
types of dwellings within societies that in many
cases practiced different methods of environment
exploitation, and how different these constructions
were.
The catchment area of pile dwellings was not re-
stricted to wetlands, but encompassed also drylands,
as is shown by a number of cases in different regions
(Giagkoulis 2020; Mazurkevich et al. 2020b; Nau-
mov 2020). Finding the connection between parti-
cular dwellings and dryland settlements will allow
contextualizing of pile settlements and involving
them into the larger landscape and historical context.
The earliest pile dwellings in the Circum-Baltic area
were left by communities of hunter-gatherers who
sustained their economy for a long period of time
and chose to erect a completely new type of dwel-
ling compared to the synchronous forms of archi-
tecture known on other sites nearby. This might
have coincided with the formation of a new social
structure, as testified by the distribution of weapons
and prestigious artefacts. The latter include amber
materials, flint daggers and copper items, which
were found in Northern Belarus (Charniauski 2020)
and NW Russia (Mazurkevich, Dolbunova 2011).
Such coincidence in the distribution of prestigious
items and a new form of architecture – pile dwellings
– should be stressed. The invention and implemen-
tation of this innovation in the Neolithic environ-
ment might have had a distinctly symbolic signifi-
cance, in addition to its practical utility, which is yet
to be fully understood.
The research was supported by a grant of the Russian
Science Foundation (Project No: 19_78_00009).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Alenius T., Mokkonen T., Holmqvist E., and Ojala A. 2017.
Neolithic land use in the northern Boreal zone: high-reso-
lution multiproxy analyses from Lake Huhdasjarvi, south-
eastern Finland. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany
26: 469–486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00334-017-0606-2
Apals J., Apala Z. 2005. Ārai∏i in ancient times. Ārai∏u
ezerpils fonds. Ārai∏i.
Baubonis Z., Pranckėnaitė E. 2012. The Luokesai Lake
Settlements. In G. Zabiela, Z. Baubonis, and E. Marcinke-
vi≠iūtė (eds.), Archaeological Investigations in Indepen-
References
∴
dent Lithuania 1990–2012. Lietuvos Archeologijos Drau-
gija. Vilnius: 392–394.
Bērziņ∏ V. 2008. Sārnate: Living by a Coastal Lake
During the East Baltic Neolithic. Acta Universitatis Oulu-
ensis. B Humaniora 86. Oulun Yliopisto. Oulu.
Bleicher N. 2014. Dendrochronological analyses of wood
samples from a Late Bronze to early Iron Age site at Lake
Luokesa, Lithuania. Vegetation history and archaebotany
23(4): 355–365.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-014-0463-1
Pile dwellings in the Circum-Baltic area
ckenaite, and M. Hinz (eds.), Settling Waterscapes in Eu-
rope. The Archaeology of Neolithic and Bronze Age Pile-
Dwellings. Open Series in Prehistoric Archaeology 1. Pro-
pylaeum. Bern and Heidelberg: 251–274.
https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.714
Gackowski J. 1998. Osiedla nawodne z Mołtajn i Piecza-
rek na tle osadnictwa Pojezierza Mazurskiego we wczes-
nej epoce żelaza. Unpublished PhD thesis. Instytutu Ar-
cheologii. Warsaw University. Warsaw.
2000. On the Dating and Cultural Aspects of the West
Baltic Barrow Culture Lake Dwellings. In A. Kola (ed.),
Studies in the Lake Dwellings of the West Baltic Bar-
row Culture. Wydawnictwo Universytetu Mikołaja Ko-
pernika. Toruń: 9–63.
Giagkoulis T. 2020. On the Edge. In A. Hafner, E. Dolbu-
nova, A. Mazurkevich, E. Pranckenaite, and M. Hinz (eds.),
Settling Waterscapes in Europe. The Archaeology of
Neolithic and Bronze Age Pile-Dwellings. Open Series in
Prehistoric Archaeology 1. Propylaeum. Bern and Heidel-
berg: 135–154. https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.714
Girininkas A. 1984. Kretuono 1-oji gyvenvietė. Archeolo-
giniaityrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1982 ir 1983 metais: 7–9.
1990. Kretuonas vidurinis ir vėlyvasis neolitas. Lie-
tuvos archeologija 7: 6–111.
2004. Ωemait∏kės 2-oji polinė gyvenvietė. Istorija LXII:
26–32.
2005. Ar buvo polinių gyvenvie≠ių akmens am∫iuje Lie-
tuvoje? Lituanistica 2(62): 33–45.
2010. The Ωemait∏kė 2 pile-dwelling settlement. Archa-
eologia Baltica 14: 120–135.
Guman M. A. 1978. Antropogennyye izmeneniya rastitel’-
nosti yuga Pskovskoy oblasti v golotsene (po palinologi-
cheskim dannym). Botanicheskiy zhurnal 63(10): 34–46.
Gusencova T. M., Sorokin P. E. 2011. Ohta 1 – pervyi pa-
myatnik epoh neolita i rannego metalla v central’noi cha-
sti Peterburga. Rossiiskii arheologicheskii ezhegodnik 1:
421–451. (in Russian)
Heydeck J. 1909. Pfahlbauten in Ostpreussen. Sitzungs-
berichte der Altertumsgegellschaft Prussia 22: 194–202.
Hookk D. Y. 2014. Fuzzy logic application to the dendro-
chronological analysis of the constructions on the pile-
dwelling site Serteya II. In A. N. Mazurkevich, M. E. Pol-
kovnikova, and E. V. Dolbunova (eds.), Archaeology of
Lake Settlements IV–II mill BC: Chronology of Cultu-
res, Environment and Paleoclimatic Rhythms. Materials
113
Brazaitis D. 2003. Rytų Lietuva neolito ir bronzos am-
∫iaus sandūroje. Unpulished PhD thesis. Lithuanian Insti-
tute of History. Vilnius.
Bryusov A. Ya. 1951. Svainoe poselenie na r. Modlone i
drugie stoyanki v Charozerskom raione Vologodskoi ob-
lasti. Materialy i issledovaniya po arheologii SSSR 20.
(in Russian)
1951b. Ural’skaya arheologicheskaya ekspediciya. Krat-
kie soobshchenija o dokladakh i polevykh issledova-
nijakh Instituta istorii material’noj kul’tury (KSIIMK)
37: 69–77. (in Russian)
1952. Ocherki po istorii plemen Evropeiskoi chasti
SSSR v neoliticheskuyu epohu. Izdatel’stvo Akademii
Nauk SSSR. Moskva. (in Russian)
2012. Na tropah arheologii. Rossiiskii arheologicheskii
ezhegodnik 2: 647–702. (in Russian)
Butrimas A. 1996. πarnelės neolito gyvenvietė. Lietuvos
archeologija 14: 174–191.
Charniauski Ma., Charniauski Mi. 2010. The excavation
of Kryvina peatbog settlements in Northern Belarus be-
tween 2000 and 2009. In A. Girininkas (ed.), Underwater
archaeology in the Baltic region. Archaeologia Baltica
14. Klaipėda University Press. Klaipėda: 100–119.
Charniauski Ma., Kryvaltsevich Mi. 2011. Belarusian wet-
land settlements in Prehistory. In E. Prackėnaitė (ed.),
Wetland settlements of the Baltic. A prehistoric perspec-
tive. Center of Underwater Archaeology. Vilnius: 113–131.
Charniauski M. 2020. The settlements of the Kryvina peat
bog region in the context of cultural changes of the 5th–
2nd millennium BC. In A. Hafner, E. Dolbunova, A. Mazur-
kevich, E. Pranckenaite, and M. Hinz (eds.), Settling Water-
scapes in Europe. The Archaeology of Neolithic and
Bronze Age Pile-Dwellings. Open Series in Prehistoric
Archaeology 1. Propylaeum. Bern and Heidelberg: 95–
110. https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.714
Dolukhanov P. M., Mazurkevich A. N. 2000. Sites lacustres
néolithiques de Russie. Archéologia 369: 68–70.
Dolukhanov P., Shukurov K., Arslanov A. N., + 4 authors,
and Zaitseva G. I. 2004. The Holocene Environment and
Transition to Agriculture in Boreal Russia (Serteya Valley
Case Study). Internet Archaeology 17.
https://doi.org/10.11141/ia.17.3
Drieu L., Mirabaud S., Roffet-Salque M., + 4 authors, and
Regert M. 2020. Defining pottery use and exploitation of
natural products at Clairvaux XIV during the Middle Neo-
lithic. In A. Hafner, E. Dolbunova, A. Mazurkevich, E. Pran-
Elena Pranckėnaitė, Ekaterina Dolbunova, and Andrey Mazurkevich
of an International Conference Dedicated to the Semi-
Centennial Anniversary of the Researches of Lake Dwel-
lings in North-Western Russia, Saint-Petersburg, 13–15
November 2014. The State Hermitage Museum, St. Peters-
burg. Russian Academy of Science, Institute for the History
of Material Culture, Herzen State University. UMR 8215
CNRS, Trajectoires. Hermitage. Saint-Petersburg: 109–114.
Ismail-Meyer K. 2014. The potential of micromorphology
for interpreting sedimentation processes in wetland sites:
A case study of a Late Bronze–early Iron Age lakeshore
settlement at Lake Luokesa (Lithuania). Vegetation histo-
ry and archaebotany 23(4): 367–382.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-014-0459-x
Kittel P., Mazurkevich A., Alexandrovskiy A., + 6 authors,
and Okupny D. 2020a. Lacustrine, fluvial and slope depo-
sits in the wetland shore area in Serteya, Western Russia.
Acta Geographica Lodziensia 110: 103–124.
Kittel P., Mazurkevich A., Wieckowska-Lüth M., + 11 au-
thors, and Słowiński M. 2020b. On the border between
land and water: the environmental conditions of the
Neolithic occupation from 4.3 until 1.6 ka BC at Serteya,
Western Russia. Geoarchaeology. An International Jour-
nal 36(2): 173–202. https://doi.org/10.1002/gea.21824
Kosorukova N. V., Kul’kova M. A., and Piezonka H. 2016.
Radiouglerodnoe datirovanie neoliticheskih pamyatnikov
v mestnosti Karavaiha v basseine ozera Vozhe. In A. N.
Mazurkevich, M. A. Kul’kova, E. V. Dolbunova (eds.), Ra-
diouglerodnaya hronologiya epohi neolita Vostochnoi
Evropy v VII-III tys. do n. e. Gosudarstvennyy Ermita∫.
Rossiyskaya akademiya nauk, Institut istorii material’noy
kul’tury, Samarskiy gosudarstvennyy sotsial’no-pedagogi-
cheskiy universitet. Svitok. Smolensk: 410–424.
Kriiska A., Roio M. 2011. Prehistoric archaeology of wet-
lands in Estonia. In E. Pranckėnaitė (ed.), Wetland settle-
ments of the Baltic. A prehistoric perpective. Center of
Underwater Archaeology. Vilnius: 55–73.
Kulkova M., Mazurkevich A., Dolbunova E., + 3 authors,
and Sinai M. 2015. Late Neolithic subsistence strategy
and reservoir effects in 14C dating of artifacts at the pile-
dwelling site Serteya II (NW Russia). Radiocarbon 57(4):
611–623. https://doi:10.2458/azu_rc.57.18427
Łapo M. J., Ossowski W. 2000. Weryfikacyjne badania
osiedli nawodnych na wshodnich Mazurach, preprowad-
zone jesienią 1993 roku i wiosną 1994 roku. Światowit
II(XLIII): 128–138.
Latałowa M., Pińska K. 2010. The botanical content of two
vessels from the Lusatian Urnifield Culture site in Polano-
wo, the Gniezno Lake District. In A. Pydyn (ed.), Archeo-
logia jezioro Powidzkiego. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uni-
wersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. Toruń: 197–227.
Loze I. 1978. Neolīta celtņuvietas Austrum baltijā. Arheo-
loģija un etnogrāfija 12: 7–23.
2011. Wetlands and tone Age Wetland settlements in
Latvia. In E. Pranckėnaitė (ed.), Wetland settlements of
the Baltic. A prehistoric perpective. Center of Under-
water Archaeology. Vilnius: 75–91.
Mainberger M., Tilman B., Ebersbach R., + 10 authors, and
Wick L. 2020. New perspectives on archaeological land-
scapes in the south-western German alpine foreland –
first results of the BeLaVi Westallgäu project. In A. Haf-
ner, E. Dolbunova, A. Mazurkevich, E. Pranckenaite, and
M. Hinz (eds.), Settling Waterscapes in Europe. The Ar-
chaeology of Neolithic and Bronze Age Pile-Dwellings.
Open Series in Prehistoric Archaeology 1. Propylaeum.
Bern and Heidelberg: 205–232, 251–274.
https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.714
Mazurkevich A. N. 2014. Pile-dwellings in North-Western
Russia. In A. Mazurkevich, M. Polkovnikova, and E. Dolbu-
nova (eds.), Archaeology of lake settlements IV-II mill.
BC: chronology of cultures, environment and palaeocli-
matic rtyhms. Periferija. Saint-Petersburg: 260–266.
Mazurkevich A., Dolbunova E. 2011. Underwater Investi-
gations in Northwest Russia: lacustrine archaeology of
Neolithic pile dwellings. In J. Benjamin, C. Bonsall, C. Pic-
kard, and A. Fischer (eds.), Submerged Prehistory. Ox-
bow Books. Oxford: 158–172.
Mazurkevich A. 2013. Das Waldgebiet in Osteuropa am
Ende des 4. – Beginn des 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr. In Y. Pio-
trovsky (ed.), Bronzovyy vek. Yevropa bez granits/Bron-
zezeit: Europa ohne Grenzen. Chetvertoye – pervoye
tysyacheletiye do n. e. Katalog vystavki. Gosudarstvennyy
Ermitazh, Gosudarstvennyy Istoricheskiy muzey, Gosudar-
stvennyy muzey izobrazitel’nykh iskusstv im. A. S. Push-
kina. St. Petersburg: 106–119.
Mazurkevich A., Dolbunova E., Zaitseva G., and Kulkova
M. 2017. Chronological timeframes of cultural changes
in the Dnepr-Dvina region (7th to 3rd millennium BC). Do-
cumenta Praehistorica 44: 162–175.
https://doi.org/10.4312/dp.44.10
Mazurkevich A., Kittel P., Maigrot Y., Dolbunova E., Mrocz-
kowska A., Wieckowska-Lüth M., and Piech W. 2020a. Na-
tural and anthropogenic impact on deposits’ formation
in the wetland shore area: case study from the Serteya
site, Western Russia. Acta Geographica Lodziensia 110:
81–102.
Mazurkevich A., Sablin M., Dolbunova E., Kittel P., Maigrot
Y., and Kazakov E. 2020b. Landscape, seasonality and na-
tural resources use in the 3rd millennium BC by pile-dwel-
ling communities (NW Russia). In A. Hafner, E. Dolbuno-
va, A. Mazurkevich, E. Pranckenaite, and M. Hinz (eds.),
114
Pile dwellings in the Circum-Baltic area
Settling Waterscapes in Europe. The Archaeology of Neo-
lithic and Bronze Age Pile-Dwellings. Open Series in Pre-
historic Archaeology 1. Propylaeum. Bern and Heidelberg:
17–36. https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.714
Martinelli N. 2014. Prehistoric pile-dwellings in northern
Italy: an archaeological and dendrochronological over-
view. ARCADE. Approche diachronique et Regards croi-
sés: Archéologie, Dendrochronologie et Environnement.
Séminaire interlaboratoires Maison Méditerranéenne
des Sciences de l’Homme (MMSH), Aix-en-Provence, 10–
11 avril 2014. Direction Régionale des Affaires Cuturelles
de Provence-Alpes Côte d’Azur. Aix-en-Provence: 69–78.
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02143094/document
Menotti F., Pranckėnaitė E. 2008. Lake-dwelling Building
Techniques in Prehistory: driving wooden piles into lacu-
strine sediments. EuroRAE 5: 3–7.
Miklyaev A. M. 1969. Pamjatniki usvjatskogo mikrorajo-
na. Pskovskaja oblast’. Arheologicheskij sbornik Gosu-
darstvennogo Jermitazha 11: 18–40. (in Russian)
1995. Kamennyi-zheleznyi vek v mezhdurech’e Zapad-
noi Dviny i Lovati. Peterburgskii Arheologicheskii
Vestnik 9: 5–39. (in Russian)
Monnier J.-L., Pétrequin P., Richard A., Pétrequin A.-M.,
and Gentizon A.-L. 1991. Construire une maison 3000
ans avant J.-C. Le lac de Chalain au Néolithique. Edi-
tions Errance. Paris.
Naumov G. 2020. Neolithic wetland and lakeside settle-
ments in the Balkans. In A. Hafner, E. Dolbunova, A. Ma-
zurkevich, E. Pranckenaite, and M. Hinz (eds.), Settling
Waterscapes in Europe. The Archaeology of Neolithic
and Bronze Age Pile-Dwellings. Open Series in Prehisto-
ric Archaeology 1. Propylaeum. Bern and Heidelberg:
111–134. https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.714
Oshibkina S. V. (ed.) 1996. Neolit Severnoi Evrazii. Nau-
ka. Moskva. (in Russian)
1978. Neolit Vostochnogo Prionezh’ya. Nauka. Mosk-
va. (in Russian)
Pétrequin A.-M., Pétrequin P. 1984. Habitat lacustre du
Bénin. Une approche ethno-archéologique. Editions Re-
cherche sur les Civilisations. Mémoire n°39. Paris. https://
gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3324183q/f11.item.texte
Image
Piezonka H., Nedomolkina N., Elberfeld V., Heußner K.-
U., Kirleis W., Lorenz S., and Wieckowska-Lüth M. 2020.
Pile dwellers in the Sukhona basin? Wooden structures
of the 4th and 3rd millennium cal BC at Veksa, Northern
Russia. In A. Hafner, E. Dolbunova, A. Mazurkevich, E.
Pranckenaite, and M. Hinz (eds.), Settling Waterscapes in
Europe. The Archaeology of Neolithic and Bronze Age
Pile-Dwellings. Open Series in Prehistoric Archaeology 1.
Propylaeum. Bern and Heidelberg: 59–94.
https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.714
Pili≠iauskas G. 2016a. Lietuvos pajūris subneolite ir neo-
lite. Ωemės ūkio prad∫ia. Lietuvos archeologija 42: 25–
103.
2016b. Coastal Lithuania during the Neolithic. In G.
Zabiela, Z. Baubonis, and E. Marcinkevi≠iūtė (eds.),
Hundred Years of Archaeological Discoveries in Li-
thuania. Vilnius Lietuvos archeologijos draugija. Vil-
nius: 96–109.
Pili≠iauskas G., Ma∫eika J., Gaidamavi≠ius A., + 3 authors,
and Stan≠ikaitė M. 2012. New archaeological, paleoenvi-
ronmental, and 14C data from πventoji Neolithic sites, NW
Lithuania. Radiocarbon 54 (3–4): 1017–1031.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200047640
Pollmann B. 2014. Environment and agriculture of the
transitional period from the Late Bronze to early Iron Age
in the eastern Baltic: An archaeobotanical case study of
the lakeshore settlement Luokesa 1, Lithuania. Vegetation
history and archaebotany 23(4): 403–418.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-014-0464-0
Pranckėnaitė E. 2011. Prehistoric Archaeology of Wet-
lands in Lithuania. In E. Pranckėnaitė (ed.), Wetland set-
tlements of the Baltic. A prehistoric perpective. Center
of Underwater Archaeology. Vilnius: 93–111.
2014. Living in wetlands in the southeastern Baltic
region during the Late Bronze to early Iron Age: the ar-
chaeological context of the Luokesa lake settlements.
Vegetation history and archaebotany 23(4): 341–354.
2016. The Investigations of Prehistoric sites in Wet-
lands. In G. Zabiela, Z. Baubonis, and E. Marcinkevi≠iū-
tė (eds.), A Hundred Years of Archaeological Disco-
veries in Lithuania. Vilnius Lietuvos archeologijos drau-
gija. Vilnius: 148–159.
Pydyn A. 2007. The lake-dwellings and lakeside settle-
ments of Poland. In J. Barber, C. Clark, M. Cressy, + 5 edi-
tors, and A. Sheridan (eds.), Archaeology from Wetlands:
Recent Perspectives. Proceedings of the 11th WARP Con-
ference, Edinburgh 2005. Society of Antiquaries. Edin-
burgh: 323–331.
2010. Archeologizne penetracje podwodne strefy przy-
breznej Jeziora Powidzkiego. In A. Pydyn (ed.), Archeo-
logia jezioro Powidzkiego. Wydawnictwo Naukowe
Universytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. Toruń: 16–39.
115
Elena Pranckėnaitė, Ekaterina Dolbunova, and Andrey Mazurkevich
116
Pydyn A., Gackowski A. 2011. Wetland Archaeology of the
Late Bronze and Early Iron Age settlements from Poland.
In E. Pranckėnaitė (ed.), Wetland settlements of the Bal-
tic. A prehistoric perpective. Center of Underwater Ar-
chaeology. Vilnius: 133–149.
Rimantienė R. 2005. Die Steinzeitfischer an der Ostse-
elagune in Litauen. Lietuvos nacionalinis muziejus. Vil-
nius.
Roio M. 2007. New Interpretations of Settlement Remains
in Lake Valgjärv of Koorküla, Estonia. Journal of Wetland
Archaeology 7: 23–32.
https://doi.org/10.1179/jwa.2007.7.1.23
2020. Archaeological excavations from the past with
new interpretations. In A. Hafner, E. Dolbunova, A. Ma-
zurkevich, E. Pranckenaite, and M. Hinz (eds.), Settling
Waterscapes in Europe. The Archaeology of Neolithic
and Bronze Age Pile-Dwellings. Open Series in Prehi-
storic Archaeology 1. Propylaeum. Bern and Heidelberg:
7–16. https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.714
Savchenko S. N. 1999. Istoriya formirovaniya kollekcii
shigirskih drevnostej v Sverdlovskom oblastnom kraeved-
cheskom muzee. In 120 let arheologii vostochnogo sklo-
na Urala. Pervye chteniya pamyati V. F. Geninga. Ural’-
skij gosudarstvennyj universitet. Ekaterinburg: 46–53.
(in Russian)
Schlichtherle H., Heumüller M., Haack F., and Theune-
Großkopf B. (eds.) 2016. 4000 Jahre Pfahlbauten. Be-
gleiband zur Grossen Landesausstelung Baden-Wurt-
temberg. Jan Thorbecke Verlag. Ostfildern.
Schlichtherle H., Hafner A., and Borrello A. M. 2013. Les
villages préhistoriques des bords des lacs circumalpins
entre le Ve et le IVe millénaire av. J.-C. In Maria A. Bor-
rello (ed.), Les hommes préhistoriques et les Alpes. BAR
International Series 2476. British Archaeological Reports
Oxford Ltd. Oxford: 69–84.
Schlichtherle H., Heumüller M., Haack F., and Theune-
Großkopf B. (eds.) 2016. 4000 Jahre Pfahlbauten. Be-
gleiband zur Großen Landesausstelung Baden-Würt-
temberg. Jan Thorbecke Verlag. Ostfildern.
πatavi≠ius, E., Marcinkevi≠iūtė, E. 2013. Archeologinių
vietų prognozinis modeliavimas taikant GIS. In A. Merke-
vi≠ius (ed.), Metodai Lietuvos archeologijoje. Vilniaus
universiteto leidykla. Vilnius: 551–584.
Tarasov P. E., Savelieva L. A., Long T., and Leipe C. 2019.
Postglacial vegetation and climate history and traces of
early human impact and agriculture in the present-day
cool mixed forest zone of European Russia. Quaternary
International 516: 21–41.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.02.029
Tolmachyov V. Ya. 1914. Drevnosti Vostochnogo Urala.
Zapiski Ural’skogo obshchestva lyubitelej estestvozna-
niya XXXIV 8: 148–160. (in Russian)
Urtāns J. 2016. Newly Discovered Marks of Dwelling in
Lake Sāviena (Latvia). Archeologica Baltica 23: 208–213.
Urtans J., Rains V. 2003. Latvia. In U. Djerw, J. Rönby
(eds.), Treasures of the Baltic Sea. A hidden wealth of
culture. Swedish Maritime Museum. Stockholm: 103–112.
Vankina L. V. 1970. Torfyanikovaya stoyanka Sarnate.
Muzej istorii Latvijskoj SSR. Zinātne. Riga.
Velichko A. A., Koltsov L. V., and Hotinskii N. A. (eds.)
1984. Arheologiya i paleogeografiya mezolita i neolita
Russkoi ravniny. Putevoditel’ sovmestnogo sovetsko-
francuzskogo polevogo seminara po teme “Dinamika
i vzaimodeistvie mezhdu estestvenno sredoi i doisto-
richeskimi obshestvami”. Nauka. Moskva. (in Russian)
.