Urednici/Editors: Jana Kalin, Renata Čepić POKLICNI RAZVOJ UČITELJEV Ugled in transverzalne kompetence TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Status and transversal competencies Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 1 26.4.2019 12:06:06 POKLICNI RAZVOJ UČITELJEV Ugled in transverzalne kompetence TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Status and transversal competencies Naslov izvirnika: Profesionalni razvoj učitelja: status i transverzalne kompetencije. Rijeka : Učiteljski fakultet Sveučilišta u Rijeci, 2017. Urednici/Editors: Jana Kalin, Renata Čepić Recenzentki/Reviewers: Mojca Peček Čuk, Grozdanka Gojkov Prevod v slovenski jezik/Translation into Slovene: Sonja Dolžan Prevod v angleški jezik/Translation into English: Matea Butković Lektor za angleški jezik/Proofreading for English: Paul Steed Lektorica za slovenski jezik/Proofreading for Slovene: Eva Vrbnjak Slika na naslovnici/Cover painting by: Stock photo © KenWiedemann Založili in izdali/Published and issued by: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani (Ljubljana University Press, Faculty of Arts), Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze na Reki (Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka) Za založbo/For the publisher: Roman Kuhar, dekan Filozofske fakultete/Roman Kuhar, the dean of the Faculty of Arts, Lidija Vujičić, dekanja Pedagoške fakultete Univerze na Reki/Lidija Vujičić, the dean of the Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka Oblikovanje in prelom/Design and layout: Eva Vrbnjak Tisk/Printed by: Birografika Bori d.o.o. Ljubljana, 2019 Prva izdaja/First Edition Naklada/Number of copies printed: 300 Cena/Price: 24,90 EUR Knjiga je izšla s podporo Javne agencije za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije in Sklada Univerze na Reki. The book was published with support from the Slovenian Research Agency and University of Rijeka Foundation. To delo je ponujeno pod licenco Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 4.0 Mednarodna licenca. / This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Prva e-izdaja. Publikacija je v digitalni obliki prosto dostopna na https://e-knjige.ff.uni-lj.si/ DOI: 10.4312/9789610601951 Kataložna zapisa o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani Tiskana knjiga COBISS.SI-ID=299773184 ISBN 978-961-06-0196-8 E-knjiga COBISS.SI-ID=299762944 ISBN 978-961-06-0195-1 (pdf) Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 2 26.4.2019 12:06:06 Kazalo vsebine/Table of Contents Poklicni razvoj učiteljev: Ugled in transverzalne kompetence Predgovor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1 Uvod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Renata Čepić in Jana Kalin 2 Poklicni razvoj učiteljev: kontekst, perspektive in izzivi . . . . . . . . 21 Renata Čepić, Jana Kalin in Barbara Šteh 3 Status učiteljev in učiteljskega poklica: pogledi od znotraj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Barbara Šteh, Jana Kalin in Renata Čepić 4 Učiteljeva strokovna usposobljenost kot napovedovalec njegovih . . prepričanj o samoreguliranem učenju . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Darko Lončarić 5 Usposobljenost učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka v inkluzivnih razredih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Sanja Skočić Mihić 6 Sklepni razmislek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Jana Kalin in Renata Čepić Teachers’ professional development: Status and transversal competencies Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Renata Čepić and Jana Kalin 2 Teachers’ professional development: Context, perspectives, and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Renata Čepić, Jana Kalin, and Barbara Šteh 3 Status of the teacher and the teaching profession: views from within . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Barbara Šteh, Jana Kalin, and Renata Čepić 4 Teachers’ professional competencies as predictors of teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Darko Lončarić 3 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 3 26.4.2019 12:06:06 5 Teachers’ professional competencies for individualised instruction in inclusive classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Sanja Skočić Mihić 6 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Jana Kalin and Renata Čepić Povzetek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Imensko kazalo/Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Stvarno kazalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Predstavitev avtorjev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 About the authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 4 26.4.2019 12:06:07 POKLICNI RAZVOJ UČITELJEV Ugled in transverzalne kompetence Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 5 26.4.2019 12:06:07 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 6 26.4.2019 12:06:07 Predgovor Zadnja desetletja so med strokovnjaki za izobraževanje, pa tudi med tistimi, ki o tem odločajo, v središču pozornosti vprašanja o učiteljskem poklicu, profesionalnosti in potrebi po profesionalizaciji v kontekstu učiteljskega poklica ter razvoju kakovosti izobraževanja. Odločilen dejavnik za kakovost izobraževanja je kakovost uči- teljskega poklica, pri čemer sta izobraževanje in stalni poklicni razvoj učiteljev brez dvoma eno osrednjih vprašanj, ki so pomembna za izvajanje, kakovost, širjenje in prenovo vzgojno-izobraževalne dejavnosti. Poklicni razvoj učiteljev razumemo kot vseživljenjski proces učenja in razvoja na osebnem, socialnem in ožjem strokovnem področju, pri čemer je pomembno, kako učitelj vidi svojo usposobljenost in kako ocenjuje možnosti za svoje poklicno delovanje v smeri kritičnega, neodvisnega in odgovornega odločanja in delovanja. V okviru znanstvenoraziskovalnega projekta 13. 10. 2. 2. 02 Poklicni razvoj učiteljev: status, osebnost in transverzalne kompetence, ki ga je odobrila in ga financira Univerza na Reki, so se znanstveniki usmerili na tri glavne koncepte, ki so ključni za učinkovit in sodoben poklicni razvoj učiteljev: učiteljev status, njegovo osebnost in poklicne kompetence za razvoj transverzalnih kompetenc učencev v vzgojno-izobraževalnih praksah. Tem vprašanjem se v praksi posveča premalo pozornosti, pa tudi v znanstveni literaturi o tem ni vseobsežnih študij. Čeprav se je v zadnjih nekaj desetletjih učiteljska stroka močno spremenila, se še naprej sooča z definiranjem same sebe glede na druge poklice. Učitelji so pogosto v precepu med visokimi pričakovanji družbe (verjetno pa tudi njih samih) in nizkim poklicnim spoštovanjem. Različna mednarodna poročila in študije opozarjajo, da vloga učitelja postaja vse bolj zahtevna in zapletena, medtem ko njihov status v družbi v primerjavi z drugimi poklici stagnira ali pa se slabša. Sodobni učitelj dela v inkluzivnem izobraževalnem okolju, ki ga sestavljajo učenci z različnimi vzgojno- -izobraževalnimi potrebami, medtem ko transverzalne kompetence (kot so »učenje učenja«, trajnostni razvoj in inkluzija) pred učitelje postavljajo zahtevo po razvoju višjih ravni znanja in bolj zapletenih kognitivnih veščin. Zahteva se nova raven odgovornosti za učitelje, ki morajo otrokom pomagati izpolniti ustvarjalni poten- cial ne samo za osebni, pač pa tudi za družbeni razvoj. Transverzalne kompetence za vseživljenjsko učenje, na katerih temeljijo ustvarjalnost, inovativnost, kritično mišljenje ali podjetnost, veljajo za ključne pri uresničevanju družbenih ciljev, ki so pomembni za vse posameznike. Če upoštevamo navedeno, je bil cilj raziskati izkušnje in odnos razrednih in predmetnih učiteljev v osnovnih šolah v Republiki Hrvaški in Republiki Slo- veniji do profesionalnega razvoja in statusa ter njihovo osebnost in transver- zalne kompetence na področju samoregulacije, inkluzije in trajnostnega razvoja. 7 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 7 26.4.2019 12:06:07 V raziskovanje je bilo vključenih 1867 učiteljev, ki so pravilno izpolnili celoten anketni vprašalnik: od tega je bilo 1103 (59,1 %) hrvaških in 764 (40,9 %) slovenskih osnovnošolskih učiteljev. V okviru znanstvenoraziskovalnega projekta je kot rezultat skupinskega dela raziskovalcev in sodelavcev Učiteljske fakultete na Reki in Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani nastala istoimenska znanstvena monografija v hrvaškem jeziku, ki jo je leta 2017 objavila univerza na Reki. Zdaj imamo, zahvaljujoč sredstvom Sklada Univerze na Reki in Znanstveni založbi Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani, priložnost objaviti prevod znanstvene monografije tudi v angleškem in slovenskem jeziku, kar je bil eden projektnih ciljev, glede na to, da gre za med- kulturno sodelovanje. Pričujoča izdaja znanstvene monografije je, poleg uvoda in sklepnega razmisleka, razdeljena na štiri poglavja.1 Poleg vpogleda v teorijo vsako poglavje ponuja tudi empirično utemeljena spoznanja o obravnavani problematiki. V poglavjih mono- grafije so opisane merske karakteristike vseh uporabljenih instrumentov, kot tudi rezultati, ki smo jih dobili na vzorcu slovenskih in hrvaških učiteljev. V Uvod monografije je teoretično umeščeno empirično raziskovanje in prikazana so temelj- na didaktična izhodišča znanstvenoraziskovalnega projekta. V drugem poglavju z naslovom Poklicni razvoj učiteljev: kontekst, perspektive in izzivi je predstavljen teoretično-konceptualni okvir, ki temelji na pregledu znanstveno relevantnih spoznanj o poklicnem razvoju učiteljev. Predstavljene so osnovne pojmovne usmeri- tve in ključne značilnosti prevladujočih pristopov k poklicnemu razvoju, tako da je posebna pozornost posvečena sodobnim stališčem, ki poudarjajo perspektive, iz katerih izhajajo nove interpretacije in temeljne značilnosti poklicnega razvoja. Tretje poglavje Status učiteljev in učiteljskega poklica: pogledi od znotraj je posvečeno analizi dejavnikov, ki vplivajo na položaj in status učiteljskega poklica. Obravnavamo različne pristope k opredeljevanju statusa, probleme nepriznavanja učiteljskega poklica in implikacije opravljene analize za izboljšanje položaja učiteljev v stroki in družbi. V četrtem poglavju Učiteljeva strokovna usposobljenost kot napovedovalec njegovih prepričanj o samoreguliranem učenju razmišljamo o samoreguliranem učenju kot pomembni transverzalni kompetenci, ki je v predlogu novega hrvaškega kurikula postala pomembnejša z uvajanjem medpredmetne teme »učenje učenja«. Stališča in prepričanja učiteljev o pomembnosti samoregulacije učenja v veliki meri opredeljujejo njihovo pripravljenost za uvajanje dejavnosti in organizacijo pouka, ki 1 V skladu s sklepom Upravnega odbora Sklada Univerze na Reki (razred - 612-10/17-01/17; Številka pogodbe - N-IZ 8/2017) je uresničena pravica do sofinanciranja prevoda znanstvene monografije v angleški in slovenski jezik, brez dveh poglavij, objavljenih v hrvaški univerzitetni izdaji pod odobrenim naslovom Profesionalni razvoj učiteljev: status in transverzalne kompetence. 8 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 8 26.4.2019 12:06:07 spodbuja razvoj kompetence samoreguliranega učenja. Takšna stališča in prepričanja se oblikujejo med začetnim in stalnim strokovnim izpopolnjevanjem učiteljev, zato je zanimivo vprašanje, v kolikšni meri je njihova samoocena stopnje poklicne usposobljenosti povezana s pozitivnimi prepričanji o pomembnosti spodbujanja samoregulacije učenja pri učencih. Na koncu, v petem poglavju Usposobljenost učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka v inkluzivnih razredih, posebno pozornost namenjamo vprašanjem inkluzivne politike izobraževanja in kompetencam učiteljev za inkluzivno poučevanje. Cilj tega poglavja je bil ugotoviti samooceno ravni usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka, njeno pove- zanost s starostjo, delovno dobo in ravnjo poklicne usposobljenosti; pri tem nas je zanimalo, ali obstajajo razlike med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji. Na podlagi analize literature in empiričnih rezultatov opravljene mednarodne raz- iskave obravnavamo možnosti za izboljšanje poklicnih kompetenc učiteljev na na- vedenih področjih. Rezultat raziskovanja je nabor preverjenih instrumentov, ki jih lahko uporabimo kot dobro empirično izhodišče za nadaljnje raziskovanje tema- tike. Poleg tega pa rezultati tega raziskovanja omogočajo nova spoznanja na nave- denih področjih, hkrati pa opozarjajo na teme, ki zahtevajo nadaljnje poglobljeno raziskovanje, še posebej, ko gre za nezadostno raziskane kompleksne odnose med družbenim statusom in usposobljenostjo učiteljev za poklicno delovanje, katere- ga cilj je razvoj transverzalnih kompetenc učencev. Pridobljene ugotovitve lahko koristijo kot znanstvena podlaga za osmišljanje sprememb in izboljšanje stalnega poklicnega razvoja učiteljev. Hkrati pričakujemo, da bodo pridobljene ugotovitve prispevale k pospeševanju kakovosti poklicnega razvoja učiteljev v skladu s sodob- nimi pristopi in večjemu zavedanju znanstvene in strokovne javnosti o pomemb- nosti nadaljnjega raziskovanja na navedenih področjih. Zahvaljujeva se vsem sodelavcem na projektu in avtorjem poglavij, ki so ob pisanju o posameznih temah integrirali sodobne teoretične pristope in rezultate empirič- nega raziskovanja in tako prispevali k boljšemu razumevanju zapletenih odnosov med obravnavanimi problemi in s tem vgradili nova spoznanja na področje zna- nosti o vzgoji in izobraževanju. Zahvaljujeva se recenzentkama za zelo koristne predloge in lektorici za izboljšanje rokopisa. Zahvaljujemo se Skladu Univerze na Reki in Znanstveni založbi Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani za sofinanci- ranje prevoda znanstvene monografije v angleški in slovenski jezik. Posebna zahva- la gre učiteljem, ki so sodelovali v raziskavi in brez katerih te monografije ne bi bilo. Urednici: Jana Kalin in Renata Čepić Ljubljana/Reka, januar 2019 9 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 9 26.4.2019 12:06:07 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 10 26.4.2019 12:06:07 1 Uvod Renata Čepić in Jana Kalin Poklicni razvoj učiteljev je pomemben tako za izboljšanje kakovosti in učinkovi- tosti vzgoje in izobraževanja kakor tudi za spodbujanje učiteljeve zavezanosti la- stnemu učenju, odgovornosti, identitete in poklicnega zadovoljstva. Poklicni razvoj učiteljev razumemo kot proces, v katerem učitelj doseže in vzdržuje najvišjo raven poklicne usposobljenosti, ki jo je sposoben doseči. Ideja t. i. »novega profesiona- lizma« poudarja nekatere temeljne zahteve za učitelja, kot so: poklicna zavezanost lastnemu učenju, poklicna avtonomija, dinamično razumevanje učenja (učitelj je soodgovoren za rezultate učenja pri učencih ter je tudi sam aktiven in refleksiven »učenec«) ter sodelovanje in povezovanje z družbeno skupnostjo. Dvig kakovosti in učinkovitosti vzgoje in izobraževanja je odvisen od poklicnega razvoja učiteljev – začetnega izobraževanja in stalnega strokovnega izpopolnjevanja – in zahteva ra- zvoj ključnih transverzalnih kompetenc za vseživljenjsko učenje, iz katerih izhajajo ustvarjalnost, inovativnost, kritično mišljenje ali podjetnost. Raziskave kažejo, da so dosežki učencev pomembno odvisni od procesa učenja in poučevanja, in se zato vse pogosteje poudarja, da so izobraževalni sistemi kakovo- stni, kolikor so kakovostni vzgojno-izobraževalni delavci. Kakovost učiteljev pozitivno vpliva na dosežke učencev, prav tako pa tudi na vzgojno-izobraževalne ustanove, ozračje in vodstvo ter finančne okoliščine. Učitelj je rezultat svoje »kumulativne avtobiografije« – deluje na podlagi svojih konstruktov, prepričanj in razumevanja človeka, učenja, poklicne rasti in razvoja. Učiteljski poklic nima visokega družbenega ugleda, niti značilnosti, ki bi prinesle slavo, bogastvo ali moč, torej značilnosti, ki označujejo osnovne elemente poklicnega statusa na splošno. Status v družbi, osebni razvoj in osebnost učitelja predstavljajo ključne dejavnike njegovega poklicnega razvoja. Iz teh spoznanj smo izhajali pri raziskovanju poklicnega razvoja učiteljev, statusa učitelja v družbi in njegove osebnosti ter transverzalnih kompetenc za vseživljenjsko učenje.1 Transverzalne ali medpredmetne kompetence za vseživljenjsko učenje naj bi bile ključne za uresničevanje družbenih ciljev (kot so »učenje učenja«), ki so pomembni za vse posameznike (Rieckmann 2012). Nove naloge, znanja, vloge in kompetence učiteljev nujno predpostavljajo učiteljev poklicni razvoj in spreminjajo sliko »kla-sičnega razreda«. 1 Glede na to, da je v Uvod teoretično umeščena realizirana empirična raziskava in so, med drugim, prikazana temeljna metodološka izhodišča znanstvenoraziskovalnega projekta, je identičen z Uvodom v hrvaški univerzitetni izdaji znanstvene monografije. 11 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 11 26.4.2019 12:06:07 Učiteljeve kompetence so kompleksna kombinacija znanja, spretnosti, razumevanja, vrednot in stališč, ki so usmerjena v kakovostno delovanje skozi ves kurikul. To pomeni krepitev njihovih interdisciplinarnih sodelovalnih spretnosti za modeliranje in razvoj transverzalnih kompetenc pri učencih. Ena pomembnejših transver- zalnih/medpredmetnih kompetenc, ki jih učitelj razvija skozi vse dejavnosti pred vstopom v šolo in v osnovni šoli, je »učenje učenja«. Raziskava se je v tem smislu usmerila v krepitev motivacijskih dejavnikov, dejavnosti in okolja, ki spodbujajo samoregulacijo vedenja, učenje in vztrajnost v situacijah možnega neuspeha. Prav tako je bila pri učiteljih ugotovljena potreba po nadaljnjem razvoju kompetenc za spodbujanje in razvijanje samouravnavanja in vztrajnosti v situacijah možnega neuspeha. Politika inkluzije je na področju izobraževanja pomembno vplivala na vključevanje učencev z raznolikimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami, interesi in zmožnostmi v heterogene oddelke. Zato je posebno pozornost treba nameniti vprašanjem inkluzivnega izobraževanja in učiteljevih kompetenc za uspešno delo v inkluzivnih oddelkih. Vprašanje je, v kolikšni meri navedene transverzalne kompetence za vseživljenj- sko učenje učitelji pridobijo v času začetnega izobraževanja, koliko pa med na- daljnjim poklicnim razvojem, in kako bi krepitev teh kompetenc prispevala k poklicnemu statusu. 1.1 Problem in cilji raziskave Predhodno določena konceptualna izhodišča predstavljajo teoretični okvir, v kate- rega je umeščeno raziskovanje specifičnih transverzalnih kompetenc za vseživljenj- sko učenje učiteljev v kontekstu njihovega stalnega poklicnega razvoja. Glavni namen raziskave je bil raziskati izkušnje in odnos razrednih in predmetnih učiteljev na osnovnih šolah v Republiki Hrvaški in Republiki Sloveniji do profe- sionalnega razvoja in statusa ter njihovo osebnost in transverzalne kompetence na področju samouravnavanja, inkluzije in trajnostnega razvoja. Posebno pozornost smo namenili raziskovanju poklicnega statusa učiteljev v družbi in njihove osebno- sti, ki v pomembni meri določata okvire poklicnega razvoja učiteljev. V tem kon- tekstu je bilo raziskovanje na vzorcu učiteljev osredotočeno na naslednje posebne raziskovalne cilje: 1. raziskati poklicni razvoj učiteljev, osnovno razumevanje poklicnega razvoja, oceno stopnje usposobljenosti učiteljev na določenih področjih poklicnega delovanja, najmočnejše spodbude in največje ovire v njihovem poklicnem razvoju; 12 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 12 26.4.2019 12:06:07 2. analizirati stališča glede statusa učitelja; kako učitelji ocenjujejo stopnjo ugleda posameznih poklicev v družbi in kako izboljšati ugled poklica učitelja v družbi; 3. analizirati lastnosti osebnosti učiteljev in njihov odnos s pomočjo samoocene poklicnih kompetenc ter nekaterih sociodemografskih spremenljivk; 4. raziskati transverzalne kompetence na področju samouravnavanja, dela v in- kluzivnih skupinah ter vzgoje in izobraževanja za trajnostni razvoj, vključno s trajnostnim vedenjem; 5. s primerjalno analizo raziskati poklicni razvoj učiteljev na področju tran- sverzalnih kompetenc, poklicnega statusa in njihove osebnosti na Hrvaškem in v Sloveniji. Pričujoča znanstvena monografija ne vključuje raziskovalnih ugotovitev, ki se na- našajo na učiteljevo osebnost in izobraževanje za trajnostni razvoj. V vseh delih raziskave so bili elaborirani ustrezni teoretski pristopi k izbranim raziskovalnim problemom in razdelani temu primerni specifični cilji raziskovanja. 1.2 Metodologija raziskovanja 1.2.1 Vzorec Raziskava je bila opravljena na stratificiranem slučajnostnem vzorcu. Na podlagi seznama vseh šol v Republiki Hrvaški (bazo s seznamom šol smo dobili od Agen- cije za vzgojo in izobraževanje RH, šolsko leto 2014/2015) in Republiki Sloveniji (Seznam osnovnih šol, 2014), smo iz vsake regije s pomočjo algoritma za naključno vzorčenje, ki je vključen v program SPSS 22., izbrali približno 10 % šol. Na podlagi seznama vseh šol v Republiki Hrvaški v šolskem letu 2014/2015 (n = 864) smo naključno izbrali 48 osnovnih šol, kar predstavlja 5,56 % vseh šol na Hrvaškem. Slovenski vzorec smo dobili z naključno izbiro 48 osnovnih šol, kar predstavlja 10,67 % vseh osnovnih šol v Sloveniji v šolskem letu 2014/2015 (n = 450). Če je ravnatelj privolil v sodelovanje, smo poslali vprašalnike vsem razrednim in pred- metnim učiteljem. Če ravnatelj začetno izbrane šole ni privolil v sodelovanje, smo jo zamenjali z drugo šolo v isti regiji. Nadomestno šolo smo izbrali s pomočjo tabele naključnih števil. Zastopanost šol po regijah je prikazana v tabeli 1.1. 13 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 13 26.4.2019 12:06:07 Tabela 1.1: Zastopanost šol, iz katerih so učitelji sodelovali v raziskavi Zastopanost šol po regijah Hrvaška Slovenija Županija f Regija f Zagrebačka županija 2 Pomurska 4 Krapinsko-zagorska županija 2 Podravska 7 Sisačko-moslavačka županija 3 Koroška 2 Karlovačka županija 3 Savinjska 5 Varaždinska županija 3 Zasavska 1 Koprivničko-križevačka županija 3 Posavska 3 Bjelovarsko-bilogorska županija 2 Jugovzhodna Slovenija 5 Primorsko-goranska županija 4 Osrednjeslovenska 10 Ličko-senjska županija 1 Gorenjska 4 Virovitičko-podravska županija 1 Primorsko-notranjska 2 Požeško-slavonska županija 1 Goriška 3 Brodsko-posavska županija 3 Obalno-kraška 2 Zadarska županija 1 Osječko-baranjska županija 1 Šibensko-kninska županija 1 Vukovarsko-srijemska županija 2 Splitsko-dalmatinska županija 4 Istarska županija 3 Dubrovačko-neretvanska županija 2 Međimurska županija 2 Mesto Zagreb 4 Vprašalnike je izpolnilo skupaj 1989 učiteljev (HR = 1195, SLO = 794), vendar smo del vprašalnikov, ki niso bili pravilno izpolnjeni (6 %), izključili iz obdelave podatkov. Končni vzorec, na podatkih katerega so izvedene statistične analize, sestavlja skupaj 1867 anketirancev (HR = 1103, SLO = 764). Podatki o anketirancih so prikazani v tabeli 1.2. 14 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 14 26.4.2019 12:06:07 Tabela 1.2: Sociodemografski podatki o anketirancih Podatki o anketirancih Hrvaška (n = 1103) Slovenija (n = 764) % % Spol Ženski 83,75 89,20 Moški 16,25 10,80 Delovno mesto razredni učitelj 38,99 47,66 predmetni učitelj 61,01 52,34 Pripravnik Ne 91,57 98,53 Da 5,17 1,47 Delovni status zaposlen za nedoločen čas 87,28 87,50 zaposlen za določen čas 12,72 12,50 Starost M=41,38; SD=10,53; min=25, max=65 M=43,62; SD=9,39; min=25, max=66 Leta poučevanja M=15,93; SD=10,96; min=0, max=44 M=18,94; SD=10,77; min=0, max=40 Raven dokončane izobrazbe Hrvaška % Slovenija % 2-letni strokovni študij 21,72 visokošolski program, zaključen do 27,5 leta 1994, visokošolski strokovni program 4-letni strokovni študij 8,05 spec. po visokošolskem prog., 18,3 visokošolski strokovni program, visokošolski univerzitetni prog. (1. bol. st.) 4-letni univerzitetni študij 50,84 spec. po visokošolskem 46,3 strokovnem progr., univerzitetni program, magisterij stroke (2. bol. st.) 5-letni univerzitetni študij – 18,73 spec. po univerzitetnem programu, 7,9 magister stroke magisterij znanosti znanstveni magisterij 0,47 doktorat 0,19 Naziv Hrvaška % Slovenija % nimam naziva 62,84 nimam naziva 17,28 učitelj mentor 33,58 učitelj mentor 37,34 učitelj svetovalec 3,58 učitelj svetovalec 41,29 učitelj svetnik 4,09 15 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 15 26.4.2019 12:06:07 V izbrane šole smo poslali vprašalnike z ovojnicami za vračilo vprašalnikov, da bi udeležencem zagotovili anonimnost. Odzvalo se je 1867 uči- teljev, ki so pravilno izpolnili celoten vprašalnik: od tega je bilo 1103 (59,1 %) hrvaških in 764 (40,9 %) slovenskih osnovnošolskih učite- ljev. V obeh vzorcih po spolu prevladujejo učiteljice: na Hrvaškem 83,7 % in v Sloveniji 89,2 %. V obeh vzorcih prevladujejo predmetni učite- lji v primerjavi z razrednimi: 61 % : 39 % na Hrvaškem in 52,3 % : 47,7 % v Sloveniji. Na Hrvaškem je 5,17 % od vseh udeleženih učiteljev priprav- nikov, v Sloveniji pa 1,5 %. Večina hrvaških učiteljev, ki so sodelovali, nima naziva (62,8 %), 33,6 % učiteljev ima naziv mentorja, 3,6 % pa naziv sveto- valca. Med udeleženci iz Slovenije le 17,3 % učiteljev nima naziva, 37,3 % jih ima naziv mentorja, 41,3 % svetovalca, 4,1 % učiteljev pa ima na- ziv svetnika, kar je v Sloveniji najvišji naziv. V Sloveniji je torej v razi- skavi sodelovalo precej več učiteljev z višjim nazivom. Večina vseh učite- ljev v vzorcu je tako na Hrvaškem (87,3 %) kakor tudi v Sloveniji (87,5 %) zaposlenih za nedoločen čas. 1.2.2 Instrumenti za zbiranje podatkov Instrument za zbiranje empiričnih podatkov je oblikovan kot strukturirani vpra- šalnik, ki je za določena raziskovalna vprašanja vključil že obstoječe vprašalnike, ki so prevedeni v hrvaščino in slovenščino ter prilagojeni, kot so lestvica stališč učiteljev o samouravnavanju učenja ( Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale, SRLTB) (Lombaerts, DeBacker, Engels, Van Braak in Athanasou, 2009); in lestvica učiteljevih pogledov na potrebne spretnosti za poučevanje raznoli- kih učencev (Teachers’ Perceptions of Skills Needed for Teaching Diverse Students) (Avramidis, Bayliss in Burden, 2000). V vprašalnik so bili vključeni tudi izvirni vprašalniki, kot so lestvica usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje, lestvica ugleda in lestvica kompetenc za vzgojo in izobraževanje za trajnostni razvoj, ki so sestavljene na podlagi pregleda teorije in dosedanjih raziskovanj raziskovanega področja. Vprašalnik je obsegal skupaj 33 vprašanj. Poleg prej navedenih lestvic ocen in lest vic stališč Likertovega tipa ter osnovnih neodvisnih spremenljivk (spol, starost, leta pou- čevanja, naziv itd.) je vprašalnik vseboval tudi eno vprašanje, kjer je bilo treba odgovore rangirati, prav tako pa tudi nekaj vprašanj odprtega tipa. Konstruktna veljavnost vseh uporabljenih lestvic je bila preverjena s faktorsko analizo, pri čemer so lestvice pokazale zadovoljive merske karakteristike. Zanesljivost instrumentov je bila preverjena z uporabo metode ocene notranje konsistentnosti (z izračunom Cronbach alfa 16 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 16 26.4.2019 12:06:07 koeficienta). Vse v vprašalniku uporabljene lestvice imajo zadovoljive ravni zanesljivosti. Merske karakteristike vseh uporabljenih instrumentov in pridobljeni rezultati iz slovenskega in hrvaškega vzorca so opisani v poglavjih monografije. Glede na to, da je bilo treba v vseh poglavjih monografije ugotoviti, v kolikšni meri je učiteljeva samoocena stopnje poklicne usposobljenosti povezana s sociodemografskimi spremenljivkami in z vprašanji učiteljevega ugleda, z ravnjo usposoblje- nosti učiteljev za inkluzivno izobraževanje in s pozitivnimi prepričanji o pomemb- nosti spodbujanja samouravnavanja učenja pri učencih, tako na celotnem vzorcu kot tudi na slovenskem in hrvaškem podvzorcu, v nadaljevanju navajamo merske karakteristike lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje kot tudi rezultate, ki smo jih pridobili iz slovenskega in hrvaškega podvzorca. 1.2.3 Merske karakteristike lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje Pri izdelavi lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje smo uporabili tak teoretični pristop, da so točke osmišljene na podlagi pregleda teorije in dosedanjih raziskovanj osnovnih področij poklicnega delovanja učiteljev (Marentič Po- žarnik, Kalin, Šteh in Valenčič Zuljan, 2005; Peklaj, Kalin, Pečjak, Puklek Levpu- šček, Valenčič Zuljan in Ajdišek, 2009; Muršak, Javrh in Kalin, 2011). Vsebuje 7 točk, ki se nanašajo na usposobljenost učiteljev za vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami, ustanovami in strokovnjaki, za premišljeno vključe- vanje novih spoznanj v svoje vzgojno-izobraževalno delo, za konstruktivno delo- vanje v raziskovalno-razvojnih projektih, za sodelovanje s starši, za analizo dobrih in slabih strani svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela, za mentoriranje učencev na praksi in učiteljev pripravnikov ter za vzpostavljanje konstruktivnega dialoga s svojimi kolegi. Učitelji so za vsako točko morali oceniti lastno usposobljenost na 5-stopenjski lestvici (1 – nisem usposobljen, 2 – slabo sem usposobljen, 3 – delno sem usposobljen, 4 – dobro sem usposobljen, 5 – zelo dobro sem usposobljen). Na to vprašanje je ustrezno odgovorilo skupaj 1755 učiteljev, od tega 1010 (57,5 %) hrvaških in 42,5 % slovenskih. Za preverjanje faktorske strukture in merskih ka- rakteristik lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje je bila izvedena eksploratorna faktorska analiza z metodo glavnih komponent. Po Guttman-Kaiserjevem kriteriju (karakteristični koren večji od 1) in po kriteriju Scree-testa je bil ugotovljen obstoj faktorja, ki pojasnjuje 49,55 % skupne variance. Enofaktorsko strukturo smo dobili tako na hrvaškem kot na slovenskem podvzorcu, pri čemer odstotek pojasnjene variance na hrvaškem vzorcu znaša 51,27 %, na slovenskem pa 46,82 %. Statistične analize so izvedene na linearnem kompozitu. 17 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 17 26.4.2019 12:06:07 1.2.4 Postopek zbiranja podatkov Na reprezentativnem vzorcu razrednih in predmetnih učiteljev na osnovnih šolah v Republiki Hrvaški in Republiki Sloveniji smo anketiranje izvajali od junija 2015 do konca januarja 2016. V izbrane šole smo poslali vprašalnike z ovojnicami za vra- čilo vprašalnika, da bi udeležencem zagotovili anonimnost. Če nam niso odgovorili v dogovorjenem času, smo stopili v stik z njimi po telefonu ali po elektronski pošti in jih spodbudili k izpolnjevanju vprašalnika. 1.3 Obdelava podatkov Podatke smo obdelali s programskim paketom SPSS 22.0. Obdelava podatkov je opravljena na vzorcu 1867 učiteljev, ki so ustrezno izpolnili vprašalnik, obsegala pa je deskriptivne in multivariantne analize in postopke. Poleg tega je bila na vseh kazalnikih opravljena tudi vzporedna analiza podatkov, pridobljenih iz hrvaškega (n = 1103) in slovenskega (n = 764) podvzorca učiteljev. V poglavjih monografije smo prikazali del rezultatov empiričnega raziskovanja, in sicer tiste rezultate, ki se nanašajo na preverjanje merskih karakteristik, značilnosti vseh uporabljenih lestvic in rezultate ter njihovo interpretacijo, deskriptivne in ko-relacijske analize samoocenjene usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje z vprašanji učiteljevega ugleda, značilnosti osebnosti in transverzalnih kompetenc na celotnem vzorcu in posebej na vzorcih hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljev. Literatura Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P. in Burden, R. (2000). A Survey into Mainstream Tea- chers’ Attitudes Towards the Inclusion of Children with Special Educational Needs in the Ordinary School in one Local Education Authority. Educational Psychology, 20(2), 191–211. doi: 10.1080/713663717. Lombaerts, K., De Backer, F., Engels, N., Van Braak, J. in Athanasou, J. (2009). Development of the self-regulated learning teacher belief scale. European Jo- urnal of Psychology of Education, 24(1), 79–96. doi:10.1007/BF03173476. Marentič Požarnik, B., Kalin, J., Šteh, B. in Valenčič Zuljan, M. (2005). Učitelji v prenovi – njihova strokovna avtonomija in odgovornost. Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete. Muršak, J., Javrh, P. in Kalin, J. (2011). Poklicni razvoj učiteljev. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. 18 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 18 26.4.2019 12:06:07 Peklaj, C., Kalin, J., Pečjak, S., Puklek Levpušček, M., Valenčič Zuljan, M. in Ajdi- šek, N . (2009). Učiteljske kompetence in doseganje vzgojno-izobraževalnih ciljev v šoli. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. Rieckmann, M. (2012). Future-oriented higher education: Which key competen- cies should be fostered through university teaching and learning? Futures, 44(2), 127–135. doi: 10.1016/j.futures. 2011.09.005. 19 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 19 26.4.2019 12:06:07 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 20 26.4.2019 12:06:07 2 Poklicni razvoj učiteljev: kontekst, perspektive in izzivi Renata Čepić, Jana Kalin in Barbara Šteh 2.1 Teoretična izhodišča V središču številnih študij, ki se ukvarjajo z vprašanji dostopnosti, prehodnosti in kakovosti izobraževalnega sistema, je ključno vprašanje vseživljenjskega izobraževanja/učenja in stalnega poklicnega razvoja učiteljev. To so temeljni mehanizmi, s katerimi se spodbujata osebna in profesionalna rast ter razvoj in se preprečuje nazadovanje v življenju posameznika in v družbi. V zvezi s tem se postavlja temelj- no vprašanje, kako zagotoviti uresničevanje izobraževalnih potreb, izobraževalnih pogojev in izobraževalnih možnosti kot glavnih podmen uresničevanja vseživljenj- skega izobraževanja in poklicnega razvoja učiteljev, hkrati pa izhodišča za kuriku- larno načrtovanje njihovega izobraževanja. Pojem poklicni razvoj učiteljev kaže na to, da gre za proces, ne pa za enkraten dogodek ali zaporedje posameznih dogodkov. Za poklicni razvoj je pomembna kontinuiteta, ki je več kot tradicionalno prepletanje osnovnega in nadaljnjega izobraževanja učiteljev. Rudduck (1991 v Marcelo, 2009, str. 7) navaja, da poklic- ni razvoj učitelja določa učiteljevo sposobnost uravnoteženja radovednosti, pri čemer učitelj izhaja iz svojega zanimanja za proces učenja in poučevanja. V tem procesu učitelj vzpostavlja dialog z bolj izkušenimi kolegi, ki predstavljajo vir podpore pri analiziranju posameznih situacij. S te perspektive bi lahko poklicni razvoj učiteljev razumeli kot neprestano spraševanje in iskanje ustreznih rešitev v različnih položajih. V nadaljevanju navajamo nekaj pomembnih definicij po- klicnega razvoja učiteljev: • proces poklicnega razvoja vključuje prilagajanje spremembam s spreminja- njem poučevanja in učenja, spreminjanjem učiteljevih pogledov in izboljša- njem rezultatov učenja učencev; poklicni razvoj učiteljev se povezuje z indivi- dualnimi in organizacijskimi potrebami (Heideman, 1990 v Marcelo, 2009); • poklicni razvoj učiteljev predstavlja široko področje, ki vključuje vsako dejav- nost ali proces spreminjanja pogledov, izboljšanja razumevanja ali izvajanja obstoječe ali prihodnje vloge (Fullan, 1990); • definiramo ga kot notranji proces, ki izboljšuje znanje ali učiteljeve poglede (Sparks in Loucks-Horsley, 1990); • gre za delovne priložnosti, ki spodbujajo ustvarjalne in refleksivne spretnosti učiteljev in jim tako omogočajo izboljšanje njihove prakse (Bredeson, 2002 v Marcelo, 2009); 21 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 21 26.4.2019 12:06:07 • predstavlja poklicno rast učitelja, ki ga učitelj doseže kot rezultat svojih iz-kušenj in sistematičnega analiziranja svoje prakse (Villegas-Reimers, 2003 v Marcelo 2009). Poleg navedenih bi radi izpostavili še dve kompleksnejši definiciji, ki ob pomemb- nem poudarjanju procesa učenja, refleksije lastnih izkušenj, spreminjanja učitelje- vih pogledov in delovanja izpostavljajo širši kontekst, v katerem poteka poklicni razvoj učiteljev. Valenčič Zuljan (2001, str. 131) učiteljev poklicni razvoj opisuje kot »proces si- gnifikantnega in vseživljenjskega učenja, pri katerem (študenti) učitelji osmi- šljajo in razvijajo svoja pojmovanja in spreminjajo svojo prakso poučevanja; gre za proces, ki vključuje učiteljevo osebno, poklicno in družbeno dimenzijo ter pomeni učiteljevo napredovanje v smeri kritičnega, neodvisnega in odgovornega odločanja in delovanja«. V definiciji sta poudarjena tako spreminjanje pojmovanja kot konkretno delova- nje – pridobivanje in dopolnjevanje poklicnih spretnosti. Učiteljev poklicni razvoj Valenčič-Zuljan (2001, str. 134) opredeljuje kot »osebni, implicitni konstrukt, ki se oblikuje v osebni zgodovini posameznika kot svojevrstna usedlina vseh njegovih izkušenj, doživljajev in spoznanj s fenomenom pojmovanja ter ima v življenju po- sameznika vlogo kompasa, kar se kaže v kvalitativno različnih načinih razumevanja, interpretiranja in delovanja posameznika«. Veliko avtorjev pri raziskovanju procesa spreminjanja pri posamezniku izpostavlja učiteljeve predsodke in prepričanja. Zato je v izobraževanju učiteljev velik poudarek namenjen analiziranju prepričanj učite- ljev pri vstopu v proces izobraževanja. Prepričanja namreč vplivajo na proces učenja in proces spreminjanja, v katera so vključeni (Richardson, 1996 v Marcelo, 2009). Pregled raziskovanj na področju učenja in poučevanja izpostavlja tri kategorije iz- kušenj, ki vplivajo na prepričanja in učiteljevo znanje: osebne izkušnje (pogled na svet, odnos do sebe in drugih, pogled na odnos med posameznikom in šolo, pogledi na družino in kulturo na splošno); izkušnje, ki temeljijo na formalnem znanju (predmetno znanje, odnos do vsebine učenja in načinov poučevanja); izkušnje šole in razreda (vse izkušnje, ki so oblikovale idejo, kaj je poučevanje in kaj učiteljevo delo vključuje). Eno najpomembnejših spoznanj o učiteljevem poklicnem razvoju je, da učiteljeva prepričanja neposredno vplivajo na interpretacijo in pomembnost, ki jo učitelji pripisujejo svoji izkušnji poučevanja. V tem veliko avtorjev vidi razlog, zakaj številni programi poklicnega razvoja nimajo resničnega vpliva na spreminjanje prakse poučevanja, še manj pa na učenje učencev. Zato je zelo pomembno razumeti, kako učitelji poklicno napredujejo in kateri pogoji prispevajo k tej rasti/ napredku in ga spodbujajo. 22 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 22 26.4.2019 12:06:07 Day (1999, str. 4) navaja holistični pogled na učiteljev stalni poklicni razvoj, ki obsega njegovo kompleksno, dinamično in procesno naravo: »Poklicni razvoj vsebuje vse naravne izkušnje učenja in tiste zavestne in načrtova- ne dejavnosti, s katerimi [učitelji] neposredno ali posredno koristijo posamezniku, skupini ali šoli in na ta način prispevajo h kakovosti izobraževanja v razredu. To je proces, v katerem sami in skupaj z drugimi učitelji preverjajo, obnavljajo ali širijo svojo predanost moralnim namenom poučevanja, in s čimer kritično pridobivajo, pregledujejo in razvijajo znanje, spretnosti in delo z učenci, mladimi ljudmi in kolegi skozi posamezne faze svojega poklicnega dela.« Raziskovalci zadnja leta poklicni razvoj razumejo kot inkluzivni koncept, ki vklju- čuje vse formalne in neformalne dejavnosti, ki imajo za cilj učiteljevo učenje in poklicno rast (Marcelo, 1994; Flores, Rajala, Veiga Simao, Tornberg, Petrović in Jerković, 2007; Corcoran, 2007; Fullan, 1995; Hargreaves in Fullan, 2012). V vseh različnih definicijah je torej v temelju poklicnega razvoja poudarjen proces, ki je individualen ali skupinski (ali pa gre za prepletanje obeh procesov) in ki se kontekstualno nanaša na učiteljevo delovno mesto – šolo – ter prispeva k razvoju poklicne usposobljenosti na podlagi različnih formalnih ali neformalnih izkušenj. Novejše definicije večinoma poudarjajo poklicni razvoj kot dolgoročni proces, ki vključuje različne oblike sistemsko načrtovanih priložnosti in pridobivanje izku- šenj, ki spodbujajo poklicno rast in razvoj učiteljev. Ta pogled poudarja nekatere perspektive, iz katerih izhajajo nove interpretacije in osnovne značilnosti poklicne-ga razvoja (Marcelo, 2009; Ball in Cohen, 1999; Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Putnam in Borko, 2000): • temelji na konstruktivističnem pojmovanju učenja, v okviru katerega vidimo učitelja kot aktivni subjekt, ki se uči tako, da je neposredno vključen v iz- vajanje nalog poučevanja, vendar pa tudi skozi vrednotenje, opazovanje in refleksijo svojega poučevanja; • gre za dolgoročen proces, ki predpostavlja, da se učitelji učijo skozi različna obdobja; poleg tega pa so izkušnje učinkovitejše, če učiteljem omogočajo po- vezovanje novih izkušenj s predhodnim znanjem; zato je treba omogočiti tudi ustrezno spremljanje, občasno pa tudi zahteve po določenih spremembah; • gre za proces, ki poteka v specifičnem kontekstu; najučinkovitejše izkušnje za poklicni razvoj učiteljev so tiste, ki temeljijo na konkretni šolski situaciji in ki so povezane z dnevnimi učiteljevimi dejavnostmi; • poklicni razvoj učiteljev je povezan s spreminjanjem šole, pri čemer gre za preoblikovanje šolske kulture, v kar so učitelji vključeni kot profesionalci; 23 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 23 26.4.2019 12:06:07 • učitelja vidi kot refleksivnega praktika, ki ima določeno predznanje, ko začne z delom, in ki nenehno pridobiva novo znanje skozi refleksijo lastnih izkušenj; poklicni razvoj tako vključuje dejavnosti, ki spodbujajo učitelja k oblikovanju novega teoretičnega znanja in nove pedagoške prakse; • poklicni razvoj je sodelovalni proces, čeprav predpostavlja in omogoča tudi individualno delo in refleksijo; • lahko poteka v različnih oblikah in različnih kontekstih; ne obstaja namreč samo en model poklicnega razvoja, ki bi bil učinkovit in uporaben za vse šole; šole in učitelji morajo analizirati svoje potrebe, prepričanja in prakso, da bi se na podla-gi tega lahko odločili, kateri model poklicnega razvoja bo zanje najprimernejši. Poklicni razvoj je vedno precej več kot samo sprememba vedenja. Učiteljev razvoj je proces, med katerim učitelj utrjuje in vzdržuje najvišjo raven poklicne usposobljenosti, ki jo je sposoben doseči (Terhart, 1997, str. 1). Res je, da učiteljev razvoj lahko spodbujamo in podpiramo »od zunaj« – ne moremo pa ga doseči na tehnološki način. Gre za notranji proces, ki se ga vsi učitelji ne zavedajo. Zavedanje o lastnem poklicnem razvoju (nadaljnjem razvoju, stagnaciji, regresiji) je eden pomembnih pogojev za nadaljnji razvoj poklicnih kompetenc. Zelo pomembno je, da poklicnega razvoja ne omejimo samo na razvoj spretnosti – v smislu dobrega opravljanja nalog; ne gre namreč samo za kopičenje znanja in izku- šenj, temveč za dozorevanje znotraj osebnega razvoja, kar pomeni, da učitelj postaja refleksivni praktik ter da so zanj značilni fleksibilnost, razlikovanje čustev, spoštovanje individualnosti, toleriranje konfliktov in nejasnosti, negovanje medsebojnih vezi in širša družbena perspektiva (Witherell in Erickson, 1978 v Zuzovsky, 1990, str. 4). Pri tem gre za proces osebnega spreminjanja in rasti, ne pa samo za spremenjeno vedenje. Razvoj bi moral peljati k »višjim«, »boljšim«, »popolnejšim« stopnjam pro- fesionalnosti in osebnim kompetencam (Terhart, 1997). Vsak učitelj gre v procesu svojega poklicnega razvoja skozi določena obdobja, od katerih ima vsako svojo specifično vlogo, značilnosti in posledice. Učiteljev razvoj se dogaja v človeku. Glede na to, da gre za proces učenja, in sicer kompleksnega učenja, se mora vsak učitelj do osebnega učenja vesti tako, da ga oblikuje zase kot za posameznika. Seveda vedno obstajajo zadržki do učenja in sprememb, kar še posebej velja za osebne in poklicne spremembe. Poklicni razvoj učiteljev lahko in moramo začeti vzdrževati in spodbujati od zu- naj – vendar se moramo zavedati, da je to v bistvu proces samorazvoja vsakega posameznika na različnih področjih. Kakovostno poučevanje postavlja v središče učiteljeve kompetence, ekspertnost v poučevanju, vendar kompetenc poučevanja ne 24 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 24 26.4.2019 12:06:07 smemo omejiti samo na pouk. V širšem smislu te kompetence vključujejo družbene in socialno-moralne kompetence, sposobnost diagnosticiranja in svetovanja, sposobnost sodelovanja s kolegi, starši in vodstvom šole pri razvijanju poklicne kulture šole. Končno, vključuje tudi sposobnost opazovanja sebe kot učitelja. V literaturi se namreč izpostavlja (na primer Edwards, 2009; Leavy, McSorley in Boté, 2007; Richardson, 1990; Wood in Bennett, 2000), da so učitelji sposobni spremeniti/ preoblikovati svojo prakso samo, če preverijo in spremenijo tudi lastne teorije in razumevanje poučevanja in učenja. V literaturi o poklicnem razvoju učiteljev se izhaja iz različnih metodoloških, strukturnih in filozofskih perspektiv/pristopov k usposabljanju in izpopolnjevanju učiteljev ter vlogi učitelja v procesu razvoja (Čepić, Tatalović Vorkapić, Lončarić, Anđić in Skočić Mihić, 2015; Day, 1999; Day, 2013; Eraut, 1993; Hargreaves, 1994; Krolak-Schwerdt, Glock in Böhmer, 2014; Vizek Vidović in Velkovski, 2013). Na primer, Čepić in sodelavci (2015) so v luči sodobnih izobraževalnih kontekstov ponudili teoretični okvir za kompleksne odnose med ugledom učiteljev, osebnostjo in transverzalnimi kompetencami. Pristopi k proučevanju poklicnega razvoja učiteljev so odvisni od položajev strokovnjakov, ki se ukvarjajo s to temati-ko. Konkretno, Zeichner (1983 v Creemers, Kyriakides in Antoniou, 2013, str. 4) je prvi prepoznal in opisal štiri reprezentativne (tipične, pomembne) paradigme v izobraževanju in poklicnem razvoju učiteljev. Avtor Zeichner definira paradigmo kot »matrico prepričanj in domnev o naravi in namenu šolanja, poučevanja, učitelja in njegove izobrazbe, ki oblikuje specifične oblike prakse v izobraževanju učiteljev« (Creemers, Kyriakides in Antoniou, 2013, str. 4). To so: • tradicionalna paradigma vajeništva (traditional craft paradigm), model vajeni- štva (apprenticeship model) s poudarkom na akumulaciji spoznanj, pridobivanju izkušenj v poučevanju, ki vključuje metode poskusov in napak; • paradigma poglabljanja repertoarja znanja (expanding the repertoire paradigm), ki so jo tako poimenovali Sprinthall, Reiman in Thies-Sprinthall (1996 v Creemers in sodelavci, 2013, str. 4), je manj usmerjena k izrazito eksplicitnim in posameznim učnim strategijam ter spretnostim poučevanja, bolj pa k usvaja- nju celovitih načinov poučevanja, kot so neposredno poučevanje (model pre- nosa znanja (knowledge transmitter model)), posamezno preverjanje (inductive inquiry) in medosebni pristopi k učenju (interpersonal approaches to learning); • paradigma na podlagi kompetenc (competency-based paradigm), znana tudi kot paradigma ekspertnosti/strokovnosti (expert paradigm), ki prevladuje v izobraževanju učiteljev. Temelji na metafori za tehnično produktivnost in pozitivistično epistemologijo, usmerjena je k obvladovanju ključnih znanj 25 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 25 26.4.2019 12:06:07 in spretnosti poučevanja, ki so jih identificirali akademski strokovnjaki in univerzitetni raziskovalci; • paradigma, usmerjena k preverjanju (inquiry-oriented paradigm), znana tudi kot holistična ali refleksivna paradigma, ki se prvenstveno pojavlja kot paradigma osvobajanja, poudarja pa razvoj kapacitet učiteljev za refleksivno delovanje s preverjanjem moralnih in političnih implikacij njihovega poučevanja. Sodobne poglede na poklicni razvoj označuje poklicno učenje, ne kot kratkoročno dejanje, temveč kot dolgoročni proces, ki se razteza od učiteljskega študija in pripravništva dalje (Ball in Cohen, 1999; Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Putnam in Borko, 2000 in drugi). Čeprav novejše reforme podpirajo koncept vseživljenjskega učenja, ne vemo dovolj o možnostih učenja za učitelje ali o tem, kako se oblike dejavnosti spreminjajo med učiteljevo kariero (Corcoran, 2007). Empirične raziskave o sode- lovanju učiteljev v poklicnem razvoju ugotavljajo razlike, povezane s starostjo (npr. Desimone, Smith in Ueno, 2006; Desimone, 2009; Mok in Kwon, 1999), vendar zunaj konteksta razvoja učiteljeve kariere. Na primer, avtorji Richter, Kunter, Klusmann, Lüdtke in Baumert (2014, str. 97–121) so raziskovali sodelovanje učiteljev v formalnih in neformalnih oblikah poklicnega učenja/razvoja in pri tem upošteva- li vsebino učenja ter, med drugim, ugotovili, da se starejši učitelji manj vključujejo v poklicno usposabljanje in izpopolnjevanje. Literatura navaja, da je kariero učitelja mogoče razdeliti v zaporedne faze, zazna- movane z različno intenzivnostjo motivacije za sodelovanje v poklicnem razvoju (Huberman, 1989). Huberman je med prvimi izpostavil, da poklicni razvoj učitelja ne poteka po jasno zarisani shemi, temveč se znotraj vsakega obdobja v karieri pojavljajo oscilacije v napredovanju in različnih razvojnih smereh, odvisno od in- terakcije notranjih in zunanjih dejavnikov vsakega posameznika (Vizek Vidović, 2011, str. 42). Hubermanov model, ki je nastal kot rezultat obsežnega kvalitativ- nega raziskovanja, opredeljuje razvoj kot sklop petih zaporednih faz (to so preživetje ali odkrivanje; stabilizacija; eksperimentiranje/aktivnost in revizija; sproščenost in konservativnost ter umik), ki so tesno povezane z individualnimi izkušnjami po-učevanja. Te faze predstavljajo glavne faze razvoja učitelja, vendar ni nujno, da se nanašajo na vsakega učitelja, niti se ne odvijajo pri vseh na enak način. Novejša raziskovanja poklicnega razvoja učiteljev jasno kažejo na to, da je pripra- vljenost na vseživljenjsko poklicno učenje v veliki meri odvisna od začetne priprave na poklic in podpore v prvih letih poučevanja (Javrh, 2008; Vizek Vidović, 2011, str. 62). Čeprav so empirične ugotovitve nezadostne, dostopni rezultati novejših raziskovanj kažejo, da učitelji začetniki težijo k temu, da opazovanje in neformalne diskusije s kolegi uporabijo za izboljšanje svoje prakse, medtem ko so izkušeni 26 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 26 26.4.2019 12:06:07 učitelji nagnjeni k temu, da formalne sestanke uporabijo za svoje poklicno učenje (npr. Grangeat in Gray, 2007). Z drugimi besedami, kot izpostavljajo Richter, Kunter, Klusmann, Lüdtke in Baumert (2014), se zdi, da učitelji v času svoje ka- riere uporabljajo različne možnosti učenja, vendar pa empirične študije niso siste- matično raziskale, kako učitelji različnih starostnih skupin uporabljajo možnosti poklicnega razvoja. Po Vizek Vidović (2011) je pristope k proučevanju poklicnega razvoja učiteljev mogoče razvrstiti v tri skupine: (1) raziskave, v katerih se poskuša prepoznati prototipske faze ali stopnje razvoja učiteljske kariere in njihove značilnosti; (2) raziskave, ki analizirajo notranje in zunanje dejavnike poklicnega razvoja učiteljev, ki prispevajo k oblikovanju poklicne identitete; (3) raziskave, usmerjene k pristopom k učenju in poučevanju v posameznih fazah poklicnega razvoja učiteljev. Na podlagi te klasifikacije Vizek Vidovićeve (2011, str. 39–95) so omenjeni trije pristopi na kratko opisani v nadaljevanju. Prvi pristop se nanaša na raziskave, v katerih poskušajo prepoznati prototipske faze ali stopnje razvoja kariere učiteljev in njihove značilnosti, na podlagi tega pa oblikujejo modele poklicnega razvoja, kot sta na primer Hubermanov model razvoja kariere in Berlinerjev model razvoja ekspertnosti (Huberman, 1993; Berliner, 2001; Bayer, Brinkkjær, Plauborg in Rolls, 2009; Day, Sammons, Stobart, Kingston in Gu, 2007). Na primer, v nasprotju s Hubermanovim modelom, ki temelji na opazovanju razvoja avtonomije učiteljev in vključevanja v profesionalno skupnost, Berlinerjev model temelji na spremljanju sprememb v kompetencah učiteljev, ki jih opazujejo kontinuirano od začetniške ravni (angleško novice) do ravni ekspertnosti. Day in sodelavci (2007) uporabljajo »sinergijski pristop« pri analizi variacij učiteljskih motivacijsko-čustvenih in kompetenčnih značilnosti skozi šest stopenj poklicnega razvoja. Kvalitativne longitudinalne raziskave učiteljev v času kariere in primerjalne študije vedenja učiteljev začetnikov in učiteljev ekspertov sta na tem področju glavna metodološka pristopa (Vizek Vidović, 2011, str. 39). V okviru drugega pristopa analizirajo notranje in zunanje dejavnike poklicnega razvoja učiteljev. Zadnje čase strokovnjake s področja izobraževanja vse bolj zaposlu- jejo vprašanja zagotavljanja pogojev in dostopnosti, ki bodo učiteljem omogočili nemoteno vključevanje v proces izobraževanja in kontinuirani poklicni razvoj. Poudarjeno je zanimanje znanstvenikov za različne organizacijske spremenljivke šole, ki so zajete v koncept šolske klime in kulture, in sicer v okviru raziskovanja nujnih dejavnikov pri uresničevanju učinkovitosti šole. Ta vprašanja se povezujejo z zagotavljanjem kakovosti tega procesa in ukrepi, s katerimi je to mogoče uresni- čiti. Večina avtorjev s tega področja meni, da bi bilo treba poklicni razvoj učiteljev opazovati v luči socialno-konstruktivistične teorije kot rezultat posameznikove 27 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 27 26.4.2019 12:06:07 samoaktivnosti, na katero delujejo osebni in poklicni okoljski dejavniki. Konstruktivizem in samoregulacija procesa učenja poudarjata odgovornost posameznikov za lastne procese učenja (Boekaerts, 1999; 2002). Uporabljajo se različni izrazi za opisovanje novih idej, kot sta konstruktivizem in samoregulacija učenja, vendar pa jim je skupno to, da se z njimi označujejo iste posebne oznake učenja (De Corte, 1996). Številni pogoji lahko spodbujajo ali preprečujejo poklicni razvoj učiteljev. Med najpomembnejšimi pogoji sta jasna in dostopna vizija za večino zaposlenih v vzgojno-izobraževalnih ustanovah, sodelovalna kultura, struktura, za katero so značilni odprti in inkluzivni procesi odločanja, sistemske strategije za določanje ciljev vzgojno-izobraževalnih ustanov ter politika in zadostna sredstva, ki podpirajo poklicni razvoj (Čepić, 2009; Čepić in Krstović, 2011). Tretji pristop se nanaša na raziskave, ki so usmerjene v učinkovite pristope k učenju in poučevanju v posameznih fazah poklicnega razvoja učiteljev oziroma v identi-ficiranje oblik učenja, ki so značilne za proces pridobivanja učiteljskih kompetenc, in ustreznih oblik podpore, pomembnih za posamezne faze tega procesa (Day in sodelavci, 2007; Hattie, 2012; Creemers in Kyriakides, 2012; Creemers, Kyriakides in Sammons, 2010; Čepić, Tatalović Vorkapić in Svetić, 2014 in drugi). Zadnjih nekaj let so se zahteve po izboljšanju kakovosti poučevanja in učenja ter po večji odgovornosti in višjih akademskih standardih pojavile na samem vrhu tematik, za katere se zanimajo znanstveniki in oblikovalci izobraževalnih politik. Izhodiščna raziskovalna vprašanja v zvezi s tem pristopom so, kakšni pristopi k učenju in po- učevanju v posameznih fazah poklicnega razvoja so najustreznejši za doseganje kompetentnosti učiteljev in katero vrsto programa poklicnega izobraževanja uči- teljev bi bilo treba ponuditi, da bi se izboljšala učinkovitost učiteljev. Ob predhodno predstavljenih pristopih k proučevanju poklicnega razvoja uči teljev poglejmo, kako se te problematike lotevajo Creemers, Kyriakides in Antoniou (2013) ter Grimmett (2014). V celovitem prispevku o poklicnem razvoju učiteljev Creemers in sodelavci (2013) kritično obravnavajo dva prevladujoča pristopa k poklicnemu razvoju učiteljev: pristop, ki temelji na kompetencah, ter holistični pristop, in odkrivajo, da imata oba pristopa ne samo prednosti, temveč tudi slabosti. Preden strnjeno prikažemo, kako se te tematike lotevajo omenjeni avtorji, je treba izpostaviti nekaj ključnih značilnosti omenjenih pristopov. Pristop, ki temelji na kompetencah (Competency based approach), je imel pomemben učinek na izobraževanje in razvoj učiteljev in ga je mogoče danes opaziti v številnih državah (Christie in O’Brien, 2005). Taki standardi se nanašajo na kompetence, ki so pričakovane v različnih fazah učiteljeve kariere in zagotavljajo okvir za razvoj programov poklicnega razvoja. Na primer v 28 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 28 26.4.2019 12:06:07 priročniku Nacionalnega centra za zunanje vrednotenje izobraževanja v Republiki Hrvaški Spremljanje in vrednotenje poklicnega razvoja učiteljev – kompetenčni pristop/ Podlaga za model licenciranja (2014) avtorice Vizek Vidović, Domović in Marušić poudarjajo, da je nacionalni standard kvalifikacij za učitelje osnova za sistemsko zagotavljanje pridobivanja in razvijanja kompetenc skozi sistem licenciranja in re- licenciranja. Po drugi strani pa je danes holistična ali refleksivna praksa prevladujoči pristop v izobraževanju in poklicnem razvoju učiteljev (Golby in Viant, 2007). Schönovi deli Refleksivni praktik ( Reflective Practitioner) (1983) in Izobraževanje refleksivnega praktika ( Educating the Reflective Practitioner) (1987) sta imeli precejšen vpliv na temeljna razmišljanja strokovnjakov za izobraževanje o refleksiji. Ta pristop se nanaša na različne prakse: od refleksije kot sestavnega dela spret- nosti in sredstva za spodbujanje učinkovitega poučevanja pa vse do refleksije kot poglabljanja posameznikove zavesti o družbeni pravičnosti v izobraževalni praksi. Tudi ta holistični pristop je opisan kot reakcija na vladajoče javne politike glede usposabljanja in poklicnega razvoja učiteljev, ki razumejo učitelja kot tehnika, kar je pogled, ki promovira pristop, utemeljen na kompetencah. Avtorji Creemers, Kyriakides in Antoniou (2013) opozarjajo na to, da se razprava ne sme omejevati na to klasično dihotomijo, ki se nanaša na vsebino, ter da je tre- ba razviti integrirani pristop k poklicnemu izobraževanju učiteljev, ki bo usmerjen v izboljšani način razvrščanja dejavnikov, povezanih z vedenjem učiteljev v razredu. Zato ti avtorji menijo, da je v ta namen treba ne samo spodbujati refleksijo in razumevanje prakse, temveč upoštevati tudi raziskovanje o učinkovitosti učiteljev. Če se navežemo na predhodno razpravo o dominantnih pristopih pri raziskovanju poklicnega razvoja, ti avtorji trdijo, da lahko oba pristopa integriramo v en dina- mični pristop, da bi odpravili njune glavne slabosti. Pri izobraževanju in poklicnem izpopolnjevanju učiteljev bi poudarek na katerem koli od teh dveh pristopov, če pri tem ne bi upoštevali tudi drugega, težko prinesel dobre rezultate. V tej dina- mični perspektivi je pomemben element uporaba preverjenih teoretičnih modelov učinkovitosti učiteljev, ker bi s tem učiteljem pomagali, da se postopoma usmerijo od preprostih k specifičnim kompetencam (Creemers in sodelavci, 2013, str. 10). Tudi Meijer, Korthagen in Vasalos (2009) poudarjajo, da je ločevanje med obema pristopoma neplodno in da bi bilo smiselno združiti prednosti obeh pristopov za spodbujanje poklicnega razvoja. Ključno vprašanje je torej, kako bi lahko skladno s tem v izobraževanju učiteljev spodbujali razvoj potrebnih kompetenc ter kdo so učitelji in kaj jih motivira in navdihuje pri delu. Vendar pa je veliko raziskovalcev s področja poklicnega razvoja kritičnih do eklek- tičnega pristopa, ki se na področju poklicnega izobraževanja učiteljev pogosto 29 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 29 26.4.2019 12:06:07 odraža ravno v kombiniranju elementov obeh dominantnih tradicij na različne načine (npr. Donmoyer, 1996). Čeprav raziskovalci namreč na splošno menijo, da sta omenjeni tradiciji koristni pri analizi implikacij za izobraževanje učiteljev in poučevanje, opozarjajo tudi na njuno neenakost, prepletenost in protislovnost. Po Grimmett (2014) so sedanja globalna raziskovanja usmerjena v tisto, česar se strokovnjaki učijo s sodelovanjem pri dejavnostih poklicnega razvoja, pri tem pa zanemarjajo težave, s katerimi se učitelji pogosto soočajo pri prenosu tistega, kar je bilo naučeno s praktično uporabo. Grimmett (2014) je z uporabo kultu- rološko-zgodovinske teorije kot metodološkega in analitičnega okvira za razu- mevanje institucionalne prakse poklicnega razvoja odkrila sistem pomembnih odnosov, ki so potrebni za zagotavljanje pogojev, v katerih učitelji lahko razvijejo edinstvene koncepte, ki jih je mogoče zavestno uporabljati pri načrtovanju, izvedbi in refleksivnem vrednotenju novih načinov delovanja, ne samo zato, da bi se spremenilo njihovo poučevanje, temveč tudi zato, ker bi to prispevalo k razvoju njihovih učencev in družin, šol in kolegov, pa tudi širše vzgojno-izobraževalne stroke. Poklicni razvoj ne poteka v vakuumu in pomembno je, da vključuje osta- le elemente v širšem kontekstu (kot so poklicna identiteta, značilnosti okolja, družbene okoliščine razvoja in motivi za vključevanje v programe poklicnega razvoja), ki lahko ravno tako vplivajo na institucionalno prakso poklicnega razvo- ja. Tradicionalni poklicni razvoj, kot izpostavlja Grimmett (2014, str. 163–164), poteka zunaj razredne prakse učitelja, namesto znotraj prakse poklicnega razvoja z učitelji v njihovi praksi. Kot je razvidno iz predhodno obravnavanih pristopov, avtorji poudarjajo števil- ne značilnosti poklicnega razvoja, odvisno od perspektive, iz katere izhajajo pri svojem proučevanju. Da bi dobili čim ustreznejšo, s tem pa tudi celovitejšo sliko o izobraževalnih potrebah, bi bilo pri raziskovanju poklicnega razvoja učiteljev treba kombinirati različne pristope, pri tem pa upoštevati tudi specifičnosti raz- iskovane tematike. 2.2 Namen empiričnega raziskovanja V okviru proučevanja poklicnega razvoja učiteljev smo želeli ugotoviti, kako uči- telji ocenjujejo stopnjo svoje usposobljenosti za delovanje na nekaterih temeljnih področjih. Zanimalo nas je, kako ocenjujejo svojo usposobljenost za vnašanje novih spoznanj v svoje vzgojno-izobraževalno delo in refleksijo lastne pedagoške prakse, za vzpostavljanje konstruktivnega dialoga s svojimi kolegi, za mentori- ranje učiteljev pripravnikov in študentov na praksi, za konstruktivno delovanje 30 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 30 26.4.2019 12:06:08 na raziskovalno-vzgojnih projektih, za vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami, institucijami in raznimi strokovnjaki ter za sodelovanje s starši. V zvezi s tem nas je zanimalo še, ali se razlikujejo v ocenah usposobljenosti v od- visnosti od let poučevanja in ali se pojavljajo razlike v rezultatih med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji. 2.3 Metoda Uporabili smo deskriptivno in kavzalno-neeksperimentalno metodo. V procesu dvostopenjskega vzorčenja smo najprej z naključno izbiro iz vsake regije na Hrva- škem in v Sloveniji izbrali določeno število osnovnih šol (glede na skupno število vseh šol v regiji), potem pa smo v vzorec poskušali zajeti vse učitelje izbrane šole. Poskušali smo torej ugotoviti, kako učitelji ocenjujejo svojo usposobljenost na različnih področjih svojega poklicnega delovanja, in v zvezi s tem smo obliko- vali sedem trditev, ki sestavljajo lestvico usposobljenosti. Pri sestavljanju lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje smo uporabili teoretična izhodišča tako, da so izjave osmišljene na podlagi pregleda teorije in dosedanjih raziskav o osnovnih področjih poklicnega delovanja učiteljev (Marentič Požarnik, Kalin, Šteh in Valenčič Zuljan, 2005; Peklaj, Kalin, Pečjak, Puklek Levpušček, Valenčič Zuljan, Ajdišek, 2009; Muršak, Javrh in Kalin, 2011). Učitelji so za vsako izjavo morali oceniti lastno usposobljenost na 5-stopenjski lestvici (1 – nisem usposobljen, 2 – slabo sem usposobljen, 3 – delno sem usposobljen, 4 – dobro sem usposobljen, 5 – zelo dobro sem usposobljen). Na to vprašanje je odgovorilo skupaj 1755 uči- teljev, od tega 1010 (57,5 %) hrvaških in 745 (42,5 %) slovenskih. Za preverjanje faktorske strukture in merskih karakteristik lestvice o usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje je bila opravljena eksploratorna faktorska analiza z metodo glavnih komponent. Po Guttman-Kaiserjevem kriteriju (lastna vrednost je večja od 1) in po kriteriju Scree-testa je ugotovljen obstoj enega dejavnika, ki pojasnjuje 49,55 % skupne variance. Enofaktorsko strukturo smo dobili tako na hrvaškem kot na slovenskem vzorcu, pri čemer odstotek pojasnjene variance na hrvaškem vzorcu znaša 51,27 %, na slovenskem pa 46,82 %. V tabeli 2.1. je prikazana faktorska nasičenost in komunalitete, Eigen-vrednosti in odstotek pojasnjene variance za faktorske analize, opravljene na skupnem vzorcu, potem pa še posebej na hrvaškem in slovenskem vzorcu. 31 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 31 26.4.2019 12:06:08 Tabela 2.1: Rezultati faktorske analize lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje Skupaj HR SLO unalitete unalitete unalitete Faktorska nasičenost m Faktorska m Faktorska m Ko nasičenost Ko nasičenost Ko Vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami in institucijami ter z 0,77 0,59 0,79 0,62 0,72 0,52 različnimi strokovnjaki. Premišljeno vključevanje novih spoznanj v svoje vzgojno-izobraževalno delo. 0,76 0,58 0,78 0,60 0,73 0,54 Konstruktivno delovanje v raziskovalno-razvojnih projektih. 0,75 0,57 0,76 0,58 0,74 0,54 Sodelovanje s starši. 0,69 0,47 0,70 0,49 0,67 0,45 Analiza dobrih in šibkih plati svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela. 0,68 0,46 0,70 0,49 0,64 0,41 Mentoriranje študentov na praksi in učiteljev pripravnikov. 0,65 0,42 0,64 0,42 0,67 0,45 Vzpostavljanje konstruktivnega dialoga s svojimi kolegi. 0,62 0,39 0,63 0,40 0,61 0,37 Lastna vrednost 3,47 3,59 3,28 % pojasnjene variance 49,55 51,27 46,82 Iz tabele 2.1 je razvidno, da je dobljeni faktor nasičen z izjavami, ki se nanašajo na usposobljenost učiteljev za vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami, institucijami in strokovnjaki, za premišljeno vključevanje novih spoznanj v svoje vzgojno-izobraževalno delo, za konstruktivno delovanje v raziskovalno- -razvojnih projektih, za sodelovanje s starši, za analizo dobrih in šibkih plati svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela, za mentoriranje študentov na praksi in uči- teljev pripravnikov ter za vzpostavljanje konstruktivnega dialoga s svojimi kolegi. Rezultati omogočajo izračun linearnega kompozita lestvice oziroma skupnega povprečnega rezultata vseh izjav na lestvici usposobljenosti za poklicno delova- nje. Koeficient zanesljivosti tipa notranje konsistence kaže na visoko zanesljivost lestvice, tako na celotnem vzorcu (Cronbach ɑ = 0,82), kakor tudi na podvzorcu hrvaških učiteljev (Cronbach ɑ = 0,83) in podvzorcu slovenskih učiteljev (Cron- bach ɑ = 0,80). 32 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 32 26.4.2019 12:06:08 2.4 Rezultati in diskusija Usposobljenost učiteljev za poklicno delovanje Rezultati kažejo, da učitelji na lestvici usposobljenosti za poklicno delovanje v povprečju ocenjujejo, da so dobro usposobljeni (M = 3,85, SD = 0,56, n = 1.755). Zanimalo nas je, ali obstajajo statistično pomembne razlike v presoji lastne uspo- sobljenosti med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji. Rezultati opravljenega t-testa za neodvisne vzorce kažejo na pomembno razliko na ravni 0,05 pri samooceni stopnje poklicne usposobljenosti med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji, pri čemer se hrva- ški učitelji ocenjujejo za malo bolj usposobljene kot slovenski. Tabela 2.2: Deskriptivni podatki lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje na skupnem, hrvaškem in slovenskem vzorcu ter razlike med Hrvaško in Slovenijo Skupaj HR SLO n 1755 1010 745 Min 1,71 1,71 2,00 t=2,11* Max 5,00 5,00 5,00 df=1700 M 3,85 3,88 3,82 Cohen d=0,10 SD 0,56 0,59 0,51 α 0,82 0,83 0,80 * p<0,05 Zanimalo nas je tudi, kako ocenjujejo lastno usposobljenost po posameznih izja- vah, kar je prikazano v tabeli 2.3 (na naslednji strani). Ugotovili smo, da tako hrvaški kakor tudi slovenski učitelji v povprečju zelo visoko ocenjujejo svojo usposobljenost na vseh navedenih področjih delovanja. Pojavlja se vprašanje, ali so bili učitelji realni pri ocenjevanju svoje usposobljenosti in so v povprečju dobro usposobljeni za delovanje na vseh sedmih področjih ali pa so težili k zaželenim odgovorom in se prikazali v malo lepši luči. Statistično pomembne razlike med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji so se pokazale pri usposobljenosti za vzpostavljanje konstruktivnega dialoga s svojimi kolegi (M = 4,23 : M = 4,12), za analizo šibkih in dobrih plati svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela (M = 4,01 : M = 3,88) in za vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z ostalimi šolami, insti- tucijami in strokovnjaki (M = 3,54 : M = 3,45). Lahko se vprašamo, ali so bili slo- venski učitelji nekoliko bolj kritični pri presoji svoje usposobljenosti. V povprečju so slovenski učitelji najnižje ocenili svojo usposobljenost ravno pri vzpostavljanju partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami in institucijami oziroma na področju povezovanja in sodelovanja s širšo skupnostjo. V Sloveniji je bila jeseni leta 2014 33 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 33 26.4.2019 12:06:08 venijo hen d Slo 0,19 0,18 0,10 0,11 Co in df 1850 1633 1708 1711 1753 1705 1712 rvaško H t med 4,10*** 3,66*** -0,95 0,35 0,13 2,03* 2,20* razlike SD 0,60 0,63 1,03 0,65 0,79 0,86 0,68 in SLO M 3,88 4,12 3,61 4,00 3,48 3,45 4,18 lovanje de n 759 761 756 759 759 759 757 SD 0,67 0,63 1,13 0,71 0,91 0,93 0,75 v za poklicno HR M 4,01 4,23 3,56 4,01 3,49 3,54 4,26 eljeučit n 1093 1093 1072 1083 1085 1080 1064 ljenosti SD 0,64 0,63 1,09 0,68 0,86 0,90 0,72 osob M usp 3,96 4,19 3,58 4,01 3,49 3,50 4,23 Skupaj vice n 1852 1854 1828 1842 1844 1839 1821 v lest izja znih ojimi kolegi v oje ojnih ugimi vnjaki ojno- azv oko posame znanj v sv valno-r vanja z dr ojega vzg podatki aksi in učitelje vih spo azisko azličnimi str vni v na pr ipti kih plati sv uktivnega dialoga s sv vanje no nstr vanje v r tnerskega sodelo evalno delo Deskr ih in šib ključe až v obr 2.3: ljanje ko ljanje par a dobr evalnega dela iranje študento uktivno delo vanje s starši ela až avniko naliz obr ipr ojno-iz nstr ojektih Tab A iz Vzpostav Mentor pr Premišljeno v vzg Ko pr Vzpostav šolami in institucijami ter z r Sodelo * p<0,05 *** p<0,001 34 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 34 26.4.2019 12:06:08 opravljena kvantitativna in kvalitativna empirična študija o sodelovanju osnovnih šol z različnimi partnerji iz skupnosti v več kot polovici vseh slovenskih osnovnih šol (n = 245; 54 % vseh osnovnih šol) (Gregorčič Mrvar, Kalin, Mažgon, Muršak in Šteh, 2016; Šteh, Kalin in Gregorčič Mrvar, 2015). Pri oceni sodelovanja šole s skupnostjo je tako pri manjših kakor tudi pri večjih šolah moč opaziti različno intenzivnost sodelovanja, pri čemer ni nepomembno, da je sodelovanje v večji ali manjši meri prisotno na vseh področjih, ki smo jih raziskovali, in sicer na ravni lokalne skupnosti kot tudi na širši družbeni in mednarodni ravni. Na podlagi opi- sanih primerov dobre prakse, ki so jih navedli ravnatelji, pa smo ugotovili, da jim le redko uspe vzpostaviti partnersko sodelovanje v skladu s temeljnimi značilnostmi, kakor na primer izpostavljajo Sheridan, Napolitano in Swearer (2002) ter Epstein (1995). Treba pa je poudariti, da nekaterim to uspeva, in sicer na zelo različne na- čine. Med ovirami za sodelovanje med šolami in okoljem ravnatelji v največji meri izpostavljajo: pomanjkanje časa, preobremenjenost strokovnih delavcev šole oziro- ma posameznikov iz skupnosti in dejstvo, da ni ustreznih finančnih, prostorskih in materialnih virov. Precej velik delež ovir ravnatelji pripisujejo pomanjkanju osebja v šoli in institucijah iz skupnosti, ki bi se ukvarjalo s sodelovanjem. Pogost problem je tudi preveč organizacijskega dela, potrebnega za medsebojno sodelovanje. Mož- no je, da se učitelji na tem področju svojega poklicnega delovanja ne angažirajo toliko tudi zato, ker se za to čutijo manj usposobljeni v primerjavi z ostalimi področji svojega delovanja. Tako hrvaški kot tudi slovenski učitelji so poleg omenjenega področja najnižje ocenili povprečno stopnjo usposobljenosti na področju konstruktivnega delova- nja v raziskovalno-razvojnih projektih ter pri mentoriranju učiteljev pripravnikov in študentov na praksi. Zagotovo niso vsi učitelji usposobljeni za mentoriranje, niti ne prevzemajo te vloge. Ravno tako je mogoče, da učitelji v nekoliko manjši meri razumejo sodelovanje pri različnih raziskovalno-razvojnih projektih in vzpo- stavljanje sodelovanja s širšo družbeno skupnostjo kot eno svojih ključnih nalog. Zanimalo nas je tudi, ali se učitelji razlikujejo pri oceni svoje usposobljenosti glede na leta poučevanja. Učitelje smo glede na leta poučevanja najprej razdelili v 5 kategorij v skladu z razvojem kariere učiteljev po Hubermanovem modelu in S-modelu, ki upošteva slovenske posebnosti (Javrh, 2006; Javrh, 2008; Javrh in Jamšek, 2008). Oba modela izhajata iz podmene, da ima karierni razvoj učiteljev nekaj glavnih obdobij (zgodnje obdobje kariere, ko učitelj vstopa v stroko, srednje obdobje kariere, ko gre skozi nekaj pomembnih faz in se stabilizira, in na koncu zrelo obdobje kariere, ko se počasi začne razbremenjevati in gre v pokoj), in da obstajajo »harmonične« in »problematične« poti razvoja kariere učiteljev (Javrh, 35 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 35 26.4.2019 12:06:08 2008). Vendar pa so se med švicarsko in slovensko študijo pokazale določene razlike. Oba modela predpostavljata naslednje faze (Javrh, 2006; Javrh, 2008; Javrh in Jamšek, 2008): 1. Vstop v proces poučevanja (do 3 let poučevanja), ki zaznamuje preživetje in odkrivanje: učitelji preizkušajo različne vloge v stroki, borijo se za preživetje, pretirano se ukvarjajo sami s seboj in z občutki neprimernosti ter z veliko razliko med zahtevami in možnostmi, da jih uresničijo v razredu, medtem ko po drugi strani prevladujejo občutki ponosa zaradi pripadnosti strokovni skupini, občutki, da je poučevanje pravi poklic zanje in so polni navdušenja. Pri slovenskih učiteljih prihaja do hitrega zaključka te faze in prehoda v fazo stabilizacije. 2. Stabilizacija v stroki (od 4 do 6 let poučevanja): Huberman (1993 v Javrh, 2008) izpostavlja, da stabilizacija v karieri pomeni, da učitelj postane učitelj v lastnih očeh in v očeh drugih, pomeni pa tudi stabilizacijo v poučevanju – učitelj čuti olajšanje, večje zadovoljstvo in postaja vse bolj kompetenten. Javrh (2008) odkriva, da morajo slovenski učitelji ob samem vstopu v stroko razviti popolno samostojnost (veliko jih ne dobi ustrezne podpore ravnateljev in mentorjev), in prej ko prebrodijo začetniški šok, hitreje razvijejo občutek samozavesti in suverenosti. To ima lahko dobre, pa tudi slabe strani. Nekateri učitelji namreč zavzamejo izrazito individualistično držo in ne vzpostavljajo tesnejših vezi s kolegi. Obstaja pa tudi skupina učiteljev, ki se že v tem obdo- bju odprejo do okolja in poskušajo izmenjati izkušnje s kolegi iz stroke. 3. Poklicna aktivnost in eksperimentiranje ali neželeno drsenje v negotovost (od 7 do 18 let poučevanja): v srednjem obdobju kariere so mogoče različne poti – v smeri poklicne rasti ali naraščajoče negotovosti, nezadovoljstva in strahu pred rutino. Najpomembnejši so trije vidiki poklicne rasti: učitelj v razredu suvereno preizkuša različne pristope, zaveda se institucionalnih preprek, zato poskuša z aktivnostjo vnesti spremembe, išče izzive in želi biti vključen v šir- še projekte. Podporni dejavniki za premagovanje težav so predvsem skupin- sko delo s kolegi in stalno strokovno izpopolnjevanje. Lahko pa se zgodi, da učitelj preživi travmatično izkušnjo, ki ga odvede v izolacijo in negotovost. Posebnost S-modela je, da nekateri učitelji že v tem obdobju izpostavljajo iz- razite opise izgorelosti, in sicer predvsem tisti, ki so se obremenili s številnimi napornimi nalogami. 4. Učitelj doseže sproščenost ali čuti vse večjo nemoč (od 19 do 30 let poučeva- nja). Med 43. in 54. letom starosti se pričenja prvi del pozne kariere in Hu- berman (1993 v Javrh, 2008) razlikuje dve možni poti – sproščenost ali kon- servativnost. Na eni strani opisuje vedrega učitelja, ki sprejema samega sebe in 36 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 36 26.4.2019 12:06:08 nima več potrebe po dokazovanju, manj se angažira, cilje pa preoblikuje in jih zmanjšuje v bolj uresničljive. Na drugi strani pa opisuje učitelje, ko se iz faze negotovosti umaknejo v zagrenjenost ali pa v konservativnost – skeptični so do inovacij in reform, trudijo se ohraniti pridobljeno, temu pa sledi zagrenjen umik. S-model se tukaj v več točkah odmika od izvirnega modela. Učitelje, ki se gibljejo v neželeni smeri razvoja, bolj zaznamujejo značilnosti, kot so resi- gnacija, zlom ali izgorelost, kakor pa konservativnost, ki jo opisuje Huberman, zato Javrh (2008) to fazo imenuje faza nemoči. Med slovenskimi učitelji se oblikuje tudi nova skupina učiteljev, ki svoje poklicno delovanje nadaljujejo drugače – v smeri kritične odgovornosti. 5. Sproščeno ali zagrenjeno postopno izpreganje (od 31 do 40 let poučevanja): tako vedri kakor tudi zagrenjeni učitelji začnejo izstopati iz prvih vrst in ne prevzemajo več večjih obveznosti, obremenitev in odgovornosti, vendar vedri učitelji ostajajo »profesionalni do konca«, vzdržujejo energijo za kakovostno delo, medtem ko so zagrenjeni učitelji kritični, pesimistični, predvsem pa vi- dno utrujeni in izčrpani. V S-modelu je posebnost, da posamezni sproščeni učitelji še vedno ostajajo precej angažirani, ohranjajo »živ« stik z učenci in še vedno eksperimentirajo. Predpostavili smo, da pri razporejanju učiteljev v skupine glede na leta poučevanja izhajamo iz obdobij, predvidenih v opisanih modelih, in predvidevamo, da je po-ložaj hrvaških in slovenskih osnovnošolskih učiteljev, kljub določenim razlikam, v obeh šolskih sistemih precej podoben. Zaradi majhne zastopanosti dveh skrajnih kategorij smo združili učitelje začetnike s tistimi, ki poučujejo že 4 do 6 let, medtem ko smo učitelje, ki poučujejo že več kot 31 let, pridružili tistim, ki poučujejo od 19 do 30 let. V S-modelu (Javrh, 2008) se je izkazalo, da je veliko učiteljev hitro zaključilo prvo fazo vstopanja v poučevanje in prešlo v fazo stabilizacije, kjer so morali takoj razviti svoje samostojno delovanje, kar upravičuje združitev prvih dveh faz. Pri zadnjih dveh fazah gre predvsem za to, da se pozitivna smer razvoja nadaljuje v sproščeno izpreganje, negativna pa v zagrenjeno izpreganje. Na podlagi tega smo anketirance razdelili v tri skupine glede na delovno dobo: a) do 6 let, b) od 7 do 18 let in c) od 19 let naprej. O stopnji svoje usposobljenosti je presojalo 244 (69,9 %) hrvaških in 105 (30,1 %) slovenskih učiteljev, ki poučujejo do 6 let, 391 (58,4 %) hrvaških in 278 (41,6 %) slovenskih učiteljev, ki poučujejo od 7 do 18 let, in 359 (50,8 %) hrvaških in 347 (49,2 %) slovenskih učiteljev, ki poučujejo več kot 19 let. Z analizo variance smo preverili razlike v usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklic- no delovanje glede na delovno dobo, tako na skupnem vzorcu kakor tudi na 37 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 37 26.4.2019 12:06:08 podvzorcih hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljev. Rezultati opravljene analize so navedeni v tabeli 2.4. Glede na to, da na skupnem vzorcu ni bil izpolnjen predpogoj homogenosti variance, preverjen z Levenovim testom, so v tabeli prikazani rezul- tati Welchovega testa in Games–Howellovega posthoc testa. Rezultati kažejo, da obstaja pomembna razlika pri samooceni stopnje poklicne usposobljenosti glede na delovno dobo, tako na skupnem vzorcu, kakor tudi na podvzorcih, pri čemer se kot najbolj usposobljeni ocenjujejo učitelji, ki imajo 19 in več let delovne dobe, manj učitelji, ki imajo od 7 do 18 let delovne dobe, najmanj pa učitelji, ki imajo do 6 let delovne dobe. Tabela 2.4: Razlike v usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje glede na delovno dobo i SKUPAJ HRVAŠKA SLOVENIJA n M (SD) F(2,885)(η2) n M (SD) F(2,991)(η2) n M (SD) F(2,727)(η2) 1) do 6 let 349 3,65 (0,61) 244 3,72 (0,62) 105 3,5 (0,56) 2) 7 do 33,12*** 14,32** 32,30** 18 let 669 3,85 (0,54) (0,04) 391 3,89 (0,58) (0,03) 278 3,8 (0,48) (0,08) Samoocena stopnje klicne usposobljenostpo 3) 19 let in več 706 3,96 (0,51) 359 3,97 (0,54) 347 3,94 (0,48) **p<0,01 ***p<0,001 Razlike so pričakovane, saj učitelji z več leti poučevanja povprečno višje ocenjujejo svojo usposobljenost (gl. tabelo 2.4). To lahko pričakujemo zlasti, če gre večina učiteljev v želeni smeri poklicnega razvoja in jih v zrelem obdobju kariere (z več kot devetnajstimi leti poučevanja) označuje angažirano in kritično delovanje, ki se potem nadaljuje v sproščenem izpreganju. Ti učitelji so dosegli določeno stopnjo avtonomije, delujejo premišljeno in odgovorno v skladu s svojimi pogledi in vre- dnotami (Javrh 2008), torej lahko pričakujemo, da bodo tudi svojo usposobljenost na ključnih področjih delovanja učiteljev ocenili visoko. Ta težnja je jasno izražena tako pri hrvaških kot pri slovenskih učiteljih. 2.5 Sklep Poklicni razvoj učiteljev zahteva ustrezno institucionalno, administrativno in organizacijsko strukturo, ki priznava pomembnost njihovega stalnega učenja in spod- bujanja razvoja na individualni in institucionalni ravni. Za stalno izobraževanje učitelj potrebuje določene spretnosti, odločitev za poklicno rast in ustrezno klimo znotraj institucije, ki podpira razvoj in učenje. Poklicni razvoj učiteljev vidimo kot 38 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 38 26.4.2019 12:06:08 vseživljenjski proces učenja in razvoja na osebnem, družbenem in ožjem strokovnem področju. Pri tem je pomembno, kako učitelj vidi svojo usposobljenost in kako ocenjuje možnosti za svoje poklicno delovanje v smeri kritičnega, neodvisnega in odgovornega odločanja in delovanja. V raziskavi smo ugotovili, da učitelji z več leti poučevanja in izkušenj v povprečju višje ocenjujejo tudi svojo usposobljenost za poklicno delovanje na različnih področjih – to se je pokazalo tako na podvzorcu hrvaških kot tudi pri slovenskih učiteljih. Hrvaški učitelji so celo pri vseh navedenih trditvah nekoliko višje ocenjevali svojo usposobljenost kakor slovenski učitelji (razen pri usposobljenosti za mentoriranje učencev na praksi in učiteljev pripravnikov; vendar pri tej trditvi ni statistično pomembnih razlik med obema podvzor- cema učiteljev). Statistično pomembne razlike pri ocenah usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje so se pokazale med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji pri usposobljenosti za analizo dobrih in slabih strani svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela, za vzpostavljanje konstruktivnega dialoga s svojimi kolegi, vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami in institucijami ter za sodelovanje s starši. Ugotovili smo, da so pri vseh teh trditvah hrvaški učitelji nekoliko višje ocenjevali svojo usposobljenost. Gre za pomembna področja vzpostavljanja komunikacije z zunanjimi deležniki, s katerimi šola sodeluje pri izvajanju svojega poslanstva in ki pomembno prispevajo k vzpostavljanju pogojev za kakovostno šolsko klimo in kulturo ter poklicni razvoj učiteljev. Ena od značilnosti t. i. novega profesionalizma, ki sta jo utemeljila Niemi in Kohonen (1995), je ravno sposobnost za sodelovanje z drugimi, ki presega okvire posamezne šole in učiteljevo poslanstvo vidi v spreminjanju kulture širše družbe, v kateri učitelj deluje in raziskuje. Sposobnost refleksije svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela oziroma analize dobrih in slabih strani svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela je pomemben dejavnik in pogoj za poklicni razvoj. Zanimivo je, da so tako hrvaški kot tudi slovenski učitelji v vseh trditvah razmeroma visoko ocenili svojo usposobljenost za poklicno delovanje (na petstopenjski Likertovi lestvici je bila najnižja povprečna ocena pri hrvaških uči- teljih 3,49, pri slovenskih pa 3,45), tako da bi se lahko vprašali, ali so bili učitelji dovolj kritični pri ocenjevanju svoje usposobljenosti. Učitelji so najnižje ocenili svojo usposobljenost za delovanje v raziskovalno-razvojnih projektih, mentoriranje učencev na praksi in učiteljev-pripravnikov ter za vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami in institucijami. Domnevamo, da so to področja, na katerih bi bilo smiselno v prihodnje učitelje bolj spodbujati in podpirati. Zave- damo se, da so to hkrati tudi področja, ki zahtevajo nekaj več znanja, spretnosti in inovativnosti ter, kar ni manj pomembno, tudi časa, ki ga niso prav vsi učitelji pripravljeni nameniti taki vrsti strokovnega delovanja, saj ga raje namenjajo svojim osnovnim nalogam in poslanstvu. 39 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 39 26.4.2019 12:06:08 Vzdrževanje visoke stopnje učiteljeve usposobljenosti za delovanje na ostalih področjih ravno tako zahteva ustrezno podporo vodstva šole in skupno učenje s kolegi – tako v posameznih šolah kakor tudi v širšem prostoru. Čeprav ostaja dvom, ali so učitelji pri svojih ocenah težili k družbeno zaželenim odgovorom, je treba verjeti njihovi oceni o usposobljenosti za različna področja njihovega delovanja, saj se je pokazalo, da so učitelji svojo usposobljenost za delovanje na nekaterih področjih strokovnega delovanja ocenjevali nekoliko nižje kakor ostale. Na podlagi teoretičnih izhodišč lahko poudarimo, da je pomembno vzpostavlja- ti take pogoje in delovne možnosti, ki spodbujajo refleksijo učiteljev na različ- nih področjih njihovega delovanja in jim omogočajo izboljšanje njihove prakse. Samo sistematična analiza lastne prakse (izkušnje) lahko vodi k ozaveščanju su- bjektivnih pojmovanj učiteljev in k postopni spremembi vzgojno-izobraževal- nega delovanja v razredu kakor tudi na ostalih področjih poklicnega delovanja učiteljev (kot je na primer mentorsko delo, raziskovanje svojega poučevanja, par- tnerstvo z zunanjimi institucijami ipd.). 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Changing theories, changing practice: Exploring early childhood teachers’ professional learning. Teaching and Teacher Educati- on, 16 (5–6), 635–647. Zuzovsky, R. (1990 ). Professional Development of Teachers: An Approach and its Application in Teacher Training. Paper Presented at the 15th Annual Conference of ATEE, Limerick, Ireland. 45 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 45 26.4.2019 12:06:08 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 46 26.4.2019 12:06:08 3 Status učiteljev in učiteljskega poklica: pogledi od znotraj Barbara Šteh, Jana Kalin in Renata Čepić 3.1 Pristopi k določanju statusa V znanstveni literaturi se pojavlja veliko število različnih pojmovnih določil sta- tusa, ki se uporablja kot okvir za analizo različnih poklicev, pri čemer je treba poudariti, da ni ene, splošno sprejete, enoznačne definicije ali teoretičnega kon- strukta. Tako na primer Haralambos (1994) definira ugled kot količino spošto- vanja ali časti, povezano z družbenim položajem, lastnostmi posameznika in na- činom življenja, družbeni status pa kot določen položaj v družbi, ki ga spremljajo določene vloge in vrsta norm, ki določajo vedenje, ki se pričakuje od pripadnikov določenega statusa. Pri pregledu dostopnih besedil o profesionalizmu in statusu učiteljev (Ball in Good son, 1985; Hargreaves in Goodson, 1996; Hargreaves, Cunningham, Ever- ton, Hansen, Hopper, McIntyre, Maddock, Mukherjee, Pell, Rouse, Turner in Wilson, 2006; Hoyle, 1969, 2001; Monteiro, 2015; Sachs, 2003, in drugi) je ravno tako mogoče opaziti veliko število definicij statusa, ki kažejo na njegovo kom- pleksnost ter mnogovrstno in neopredeljeno naravo. Monteiro (2015, str. 53–60) razmišlja o nekaterih konceptualnih vprašanjih profesionalnosti učiteljev, tj. njihovega globalnega profila, in pri tem izpostavlja štiri glavne dejavnike pri določanju ravni profesionalnosti: vrednost storitve (oziroma pomembnost za posameznika in družbo na področju strokovne ekspertnosti), vsebino identitete (oblikovane z znanjem, vrednotami in kakovostjo, ki odlikuje poklic in mora odlikovati profesio- nalce), poklicno avtonomijo (oziroma neodvisnost in odgovornost, zahvaljujoč ka- terima se poklic lahko individualno uresničuje in se ga lahko kolektivno upravlja) ter poklicni in družbeni status (ki izhajata iz omenjenih dejavnikov in se odražata v dohodku, vplivu in ugledu poklica). V zvezi s tem Monteiro (2015, str. 56) izpostavlja naslednje: »Poklicni status in družbeni status sta dve plati istega kovanca: prvi se nanaša na vsebino identitete in avtonomijo poklica, medtem ko drugi označuje položaj poklica znotraj hierarhije poklicnega ugleda v družbi kot rezultat ponujene vrednosti storitve in poklicnega statusa.« Isti avtor izpostavlja tudi, da se najvišja raven profesionalnosti nanaša na poklice, ki imajo največjo družbeno pomembnost, odgovornost in prepoznavnost, ki ustrezajo idealnemu tipu poklicnega modela in imajo naslednje značilnosti (Monteiro, 2015, str. 56): 47 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 47 26.4.2019 12:06:08 • ponujajo osnovne storitve za življenje, varnost in splošno blaginjo posameznikov in družbe, ki zahtevajo od svojih profesionalcev občutek služenja, ki postavlja interes tistih, ki jim služijo, in javni interes nad lastne (legitimne) interese; • vsebujejo določene spretnosti, znanje kako (know-how), z zelo specializirano in sistematsko bazo znanja, pridobljeno v glavnem skozi bolj ali manj dolg proces teoretičnega in praktičnega visokega izobraževanja; uporaba tega zna- nja zahteva veliko neodvisnost pri presojah in odločitvah; • moč, ki jo imajo profesionalci kot rezultat svoje strokovnosti in neodvisnosti s pripadajočo odgovornostjo, kaže na skladnost z visokimi profesionalnimi standardi kompetenc, prakse in upravljanja v vseh poklicnih okoliščinah. Hoyle (2001) je ponudil trikomponentno definicijo poklicnega statusa (Occu- pational Status), po kateri so ugled, status in spoštovanje trije različni vidiki poklicnega statusa, ki se med seboj razlikujejo po stopnji informiranosti o skupini, definirani s statusom. Tako sugerira, da »ugled« (Occupational Prestige) kaže na status, ki je definiran z javnim mnenjem (javna percepcija relativnega položaja poklica v hierarhiji poklicev), »status« (Occupational Status) je opredeljen z obli-kovanimi in primerljivimi poklici (kategorija, v katero izobražene skupine uvr- ščajo določen poklic, nanašajo pa se npr. na državne uslužbence, politike, sociolo- ge, izobraževalne strokovnjake) in »spoštovanje« (Occupational Esteem) s strani tistih, ki lahko opazujejo kvalitete, ki jih posamezniki kažejo pri svojem delu (kako splošna javnost percepira poklic zaradi osebnih kvalitet, ki jih posamezniki kažejo pri opravljanju osnovnih nalog oziroma njihova skrb, kompetentnost in predanost delu). Tako so, na primer, v okviru štiriletne raziskovalne študije o statusu učiteljev in učiteljskega poklica v Angliji (2003–2006) The Teacher Status Project (Hargreaves in sodelavci, 2006) sprejeli te razlike po Hoylejevi definiciji, vendar pa so vključili tudi osebna stališča učiteljev glede njihovih statusov in dejavnikov, ki nanje vplivajo. Ob upoštevanju različnih definicij statusa je v tem projektu poudarek na učitelj- ski percepciji lastnega statusa in ugleda. Omenjeno vključuje učiteljevo percepcijo glede na spoštovanje učencev in staršev, zadovoljstvo z delom, zaslužkom in finančno neodvisnostjo, medijskim prikazom učiteljskega poklica, njihovega ugleda v primerjavi z drugimi poklici, kot tudi druge dejavnike. Čeprav menimo, da javno mnenje, tisk in mediji prispevajo k našemu razumevanju splošnih mnenj o ugledu učiteljskega poklica, jih v tej raziskavi ne obravnavamo. 48 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 48 26.4.2019 12:06:08 3.2 Problemi nepriznavanja učiteljskega poklica Zadnja desetletja so med strokovnjaki za izobraževanje, pa tudi med tistimi, ki o njem odločajo, v središču pozornosti vprašanja o učiteljskem poklicu, profesionalnosti in potrebi po profesionalizaciji v kontekstu učiteljskega poklica ter razvoja kakovosti izobraževanja. Odločilen dejavnik za kakovost izobraževanja je kakovost učiteljskega poklica, kar je ugotovitev številnih mednarodnih in nacionalnih poročil in raziskav o učiteljskem poklicu in izobraževalnih sistemih. Rezultati novejših raziskav brez dvoma kažejo, da je razvoj dosežkov učencev pomembno odvisen od procesa uče- nja in poučevanja ter da je vpliv učiteljev na dosežene rezultate učencev pomemben (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Darling-Hammond in Bransford, 2005; Day, 2013; Day, Sammons, Stobart, Kington in Gu, 2007; Monteiro, 2015; Sanders in Rivers, 1996; Scheerens,Vermeulen in Pelgrum, 1989; Tymms, 1993, Vizek Vidović, 2005; Vizek Vidović in Velkovski, 2013). Avtorji Čepić, Tatalović Vorkapić, Lončarić, Anđić in Skočić Mihić (2015) so, na primer, predstavili teoretični okvir kompleksnih odnosov med ugledom učitelja, osebnostjo in transverzalnimi kompetencami v luči sodobnih izobraževalnih kontekstov. Omenjene ugotovitve so pomemben argument v podpo- ro zahtevi, da na učiteljsko stroko ne gledamo kot na poklic, ampak kot na profesijo. Pri tem ni treba zanemariti nič manj pomembnega dejstva, da je celoten status uči- teljskega poklica v večini držav nizek ali zelo nizek. Kako torej razumeti njihov degradirani status in izboljšati kakovost v učiteljskem poklicu? Kako omogočiti učiteljem, da bi lahko bolj in odločneje vplivali na lastni položaj v stroki in družbi? Kako lahko učitelji prispevajo k temu? Ta in druga vpra- šanja, ki so povezana z njimi, strnjeno obravnavamo v nadaljevanju tega poglavja. Na primer, poročilo ILO/Unesco iz leta 1997 predstavlja sliko stanja učiteljskega poklica, pri čemer so posebej izpostavljeni problemi nizkega statusa in plač učite- ljev v primerjavi z drugimi poklici, neprivlačnost učiteljskega poklica in dejavniki oziroma vzroki upadanja/zmanjšanja in nezadostnega priznavanja učiteljskega poklica. Poročilo ILO/Unesco je bilo objavljeno pred skoraj dvajsetimi leti, vendar je še vedno zelo aktualno. V njem so med drugim izpostavljeni nekateri splošni vzroki padca statusa učiteljev (str. 6–7): • opazen neuspeh učinkovitega komuniciranja vlade z učitelji, da bi se vzposta- vile ustrezne izobraževalne politike in zagotovila sredstva za njihovo uresni- čevanje, pri čemer so še posebej zmanjšana javna sredstva za izobraževanje; • učitelji so v času ekonomskih ukrepov varčevanja zanemarili promovira- nje lastnega statusa in profesionalnosti; skoraj brez upiranja so dovolili, da se je znotraj skupnosti razvila percepcija, da je glavna preokupacija učiteljev 49 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 49 26.4.2019 12:06:08 njihova plača in ugodnosti, ki obsegajo tudi do 90 % proračuna za izobraževanje v mnogih državah; • zaznavanje skupnosti, da učiteljem ne uspe doseči zadovoljivega izobraževal- nega rezultata, s čimer postajajo tarča kritik javnosti in vlade, na škodo poklic- nega statusa učiteljev; • v kontekstu vladnih poskusov zmanjšanja stroškov učiteljske organizacije, ki se upirajo ukrepom, s katerimi bi se povečala velikost razredov, hkrati pa zmanjša- le kvalifikacije, poslabšali pogoji dela in plače učiteljev, pogosto razglašamo za glavne ovire pri razvoju izobraževanja. Taka dinamika odnosov teži k temu, da bi očrnili učitelje, in vodi k zmanjševanju splošne percepcije družbe o kakovo- sti in vrednosti javnega izobraževanja. Šole in strokovnjaki za izobraževanje so precej odgovorni za povečanje težav pri soočanju z ogromnimi ekonomskimi in družbenimi spremembami, ki potekajo, vključno z ekonomsko globalizacijo, počasi rastočo ekonomsko produktivnostjo in povečanjem nezaposlenosti. Čeprav se je učiteljski poklic v zadnjih desetletjih precej spremenil, se še vedno so-oča z opredeljevanjem samega sebe glede na druge poklice. Razvidno je, da se s ča- som vloge in delo učiteljev večajo, medtem ko njihov status v primerjavi z drugimi poklici stagnira ali pa se slabša, kar potrjujejo tudi rezultati številnih različnih mednarodnih in nacionalnih poročil in študij (Unesco, 1998; Ilo, 2012; OECD, 2005; OECD, 2011a; OECD, 2011b; EC, 2012 in druga).Tako je MacBeath (2012) opazil, da so učitelji, v nasprotju z večino poklicev, obremenjeni s pretiranimi druž- benimi pričakovanji, ujeti med visoka pričakovanja in nizko poklicno spoštovanje. V delih nekaterih avtorjev (npr. Hargreaves in Goodson, 1996; Hargreaves in so- delavci, 2006; Hoyle, 2001; Kadum, Vidović in Vranković, 2007; MacBeath, 2012; Monteiro, 2015; Radeka in Sorić, 2006; Vrgoč, 2012; Whitty, 2006 in drugi) je izpostavljeno veliko dejavnikov, ki neugodno vplivajo na družbeni položaj in status učiteljskega poklica, ki je v relativni hierarhiji poklicev še vedno nizek. Med temi dejavniki še posebej izpostavljajo problem nizkih plač učiteljev, zaostajanje za pla- čami v gospodarstvu in negospodarstvu, nizek življenjski standard, premajhno šte- vilo zaposlenih učiteljev, feminizacijo stroke, nezadostno avtonomijo in izključe- nost iz izobraževalnih politik, pomanjkanje nadzora nad vstopom v poklic, zablodo o delovnem času učiteljev oziroma splošno percepcijo, da učitelji delajo manj ur kot drugi strokovnjaki, in številne druge dejavnike, ki se, po mnenju avtorjev, odražajo v položaju in statusu učiteljskega poklica. V nasprotju z državami, kot so Škotska, Ir-ska, Švedska, Finska in Islandija, kjer ima učiteljski poklic ugleden družbeni status, ki se tudi dandanes potrjuje kot tak, se kot ne ravno dober ocenjuje družbeni status učiteljev v Angliji, Franciji, Nemčiji, ZDA, Novi Zelandiji in Avstriji (Verin, 2004 v Jukić in Reić-Ercegovac, 2008). Tudi maloštevilna raziskovanja, opravljena na 50 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 50 26.4.2019 12:06:08 Hrvaškem (npr. Maršić, 2007; Radeka, 2007), kažejo na nezadovoljstvo učiteljev s svojim družbenim ugledom in statusom. Na primer, rezultati raziskovanja, ki sta ga izvedla Radeka in Sorić (2006), so pokazali, da učitelji niso zadovoljni s pogoji dela in da jih še posebej obremenjujeta nizek življenjski standard in slab družbeni ugled učiteljskega poklica. Poleg tega sta ugotovila, da bi kar tretjina učiteljev želela za-pustiti lastni poklic; svoj življenjski standard, ugled učiteljskega poklica in poklicno usposobljenost pa ocenjujejo pomembno slabše in čutijo manj zadovoljstva pri delu v primerjavi z učitelji, ki tega ne bi storili. Radeka in Sorić (2006) sta izpostavila, da je obstoječi status učiteljskega poklica poguben za sodobno šolo in družbo v celoti. Rezultati raziskave, ki jih navajajo Kadum in sodelavci (2007), ravno tako kažejo na to, da velika večina zaposlenih učiteljev meni, da je status učiteljskega poklica nezadovoljiv (86 %), medtem ko jih samo 14 % meni, da je soliden. V sintezi ugotovitev mednarodnih in nacionalnih poročil in študij je Monteiro (2015, str. 63–66) povzel glavne značilnosti celotnega statusa učiteljskega poklica v štiri skupine. To so: 1) Poklicni in družbeni status nista zelo prestižna; gre za skupino značilnosti, ki se nanašajo na nezahtevnost kriterijev za selekcijo, izobraževanje in vrednotenje, nizke plače v primerjavi s plačami drugih poklicev s podobnim akademskim ozadjem, omejenost učiteljske avtonomije, odsotnost nadzora nad glavnimi dejavniki lastnega uspeha, pogoste nepravične in nemotivirajoče ocene, deprofesionalizacija in feminizacija stroke, nezadostne spodbude za poklicno napredovanje in drugo. 2) Nezadostni ali zmanjšani delovni pogoji, ki vključujejo značilnosti, kot so pogosto neugledna in neprijetna delovna mesta, preveliki in zelo heterogeni razredi, stalno povečevanje in razširjanje programa, obremenjujoče naloge in pomanjkanje sredstev. 3) Ostali vidiki zmanjševanja pomena učiteljskega poklica v javnosti, med katerimi se izpostavlja, da je učiteljski poklic verjetno poklic, ki je najbolj izpostavljen javnemu mnenju – vse to ga postavlja v položaj večje izpostavljenosti kritikam in povečuje družbene posledice v primeru neuspeha in povprečnosti slabih učiteljev. 4) Ostali dejavniki, pri čemer gre za dejavnike, ki so povezani z nezadovoljstvom učencev s šolo, reformami šolstva, agresivnostjo učencev, včasih pa tudi staršev, razumevanjem učiteljskega poklica kot poklica druge vrste zaradi pomanjkanja močnega »razrednega zavedanja« (»conscience of class«) in možnosti dela za polovični delovni čas ter izgube tradicionalnega neposrednega monopola kot vira znanja. Poudariti je treba tudi, da je pomanjkanje učiteljev zaskrbljujoč trend v veliko dr- žavah, do katerega prihaja zaradi zmanjšanja šolske populacije, odhajanja iz uči- teljskega poklica, po poročilu OECD (2005, str. 18) pa učiteljev najpogosteje pri- manjkuje v državah, kjer učiteljski poklic ni ugleden, privlačen in kompetitiven. Ob danes precej manjšem zadovoljstvu učiteljev z delom, kot je bilo nekoč, in trajnimi 51 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 51 26.4.2019 12:06:08 problemi z zaposlovanjem in zadrževanjem učiteljev je cilj številnih vladnih politik izboljšanje statusa učiteljev tako znotraj kakor tudi zunaj stroke. Katere so torej implikacije predhodne analize za izboljšanje položaja učiteljev v stroki in družbi? Kako prispevati k izboljšanju položaja in statusa učiteljev? Rezultati raziskave, ki so jo opravili Fuller, Goodwyn in Francis-Brophy (2013), kažejo na to, da ocene poučevanja (ocena »učitelj z naprednimi spretnostmi«/ The Advanced Skills Teacher – AST, ki je bila uvedena kot sredstvo za pre- poznavanje in nagrajevanje strokovnosti učiteljev, s katerimi se prepoznava in nagrajuje izvrstnost v poučevanju, na pomembne načine prispevajo k poklicni identiteti učitelja s pomočjo povečanega občutka priznavanja, nagrade in zado- voljstva pri delu. Rezultati tega raziskovanja sugerirajo tudi, da je prepoznava- nje spretnosti in strokovnosti učiteljev očitno pomembno za to, da ostanejo v poklicu, saj to uspešnim učiteljem omogoča, da ostanejo tam, kjer želijo biti, to pa je v učilnici. Radeka in Sorić (2006) opozarjata na dejstvo, da moramo, če želimo pozitivno delovati na motivacijo učiteljev, s tem pa tudi na razvoj sodobne šole na splošno, povečati njihovo zadovoljstvo pri delu oziroma izboljšati njihov življenjski stan- dard (z bolje razdelanim sistemom financiranja in nagrajevanja), graditi družbeni ugled učiteljskega poklica, izboljšati pogoje dela učiteljev in stalno izpopolnjevati njihove učiteljske kompetence. Avtorji Verhoeven, Aelterman, Rots in Buvens (2006) so z raziskovanjem javnega mnenja o statusu učiteljev ugotovili, da ima učitelj v Flandriji med večino Flandrij-cev pozitivno podobo in da učitelji lahko računajo na visoko stopnjo spoštovanja. Verhoeven in sodelavci (2006) navajajo, da imajo učitelji sami določeno stopnjo odgovornosti, saj je to spoštovanje v glavnem v njihovih rokah, lahko pa ga tudi izboljšajo. Isti avtorji izpostavljajo, da so zadovoljstvo z izobraževanjem, blagostanje učencev, predpostavke o vlogi otrok in vzgojiteljev, sodelovanje in interes staršev tisti vidiki, ki jih učitelj lahko uresniči v odvisnosti od načina, kako se ukvarja z učenci in njihovimi starši. To je tudi način prispevka učiteljev k izpodbijanju mita, da družba do njih ne kaže spoštovanja. Pregled bomo sklenili s trditvijo Monteira (2015, str. 61), ki izpostavlja: »Izboljšanje kakovosti učiteljskega poklica se začenja ... na začetku. Pri določanju kriterijev za vstop v poklicno izobraževanje in vrednotenju poklicnega dela bi bilo treba upo- števati človeške kvalitete kandidatov za opravljanje poklica. Poleg selekcije kan- didatov, izobraževanja in evalvacije, izboljšanja kakovosti učiteljske stroke vklju- čuje tudi druge vidike njihovega poklicnega in družbenega statusa, kot so delovni 52 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 52 26.4.2019 12:06:08 pogoji, plača in možnosti razvoja kariere, pri tem pa ne smemo pozabiti tudi na ustrezno vodenje šole.« Učitelji bi morali postati vzor poklicne odličnosti, ki jo je treba, kot izpostavlja Monteiro, razumeti kot izjemno povezovanje kakovosti, vrednot in znanja. 3.3 Namen empiričnega raziskovanja Številni avtorji trdijo, da učiteljski poklic nima več takega ugleda, kakršnega je imel v preteklosti. V raziskavi smo poskušali ugotoviti, kakšna so stališča samih osnovnošolskih učiteljev o ugledu učiteljskega poklica v družbi in kako rangirajo stopnjo ugleda osnovnošolskega učitelja glede na ugled drugih poklicev, kot so vzgojitelj, srednješolski učitelj, univerzitetni profesor, zdravnik, medicinska sestra, odvetnik, podjetnik, novinar in gledališki igralec. Zanimale so nas tudi razlike v odgovorih med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji. 3.4 Metoda Lestvico ugleda smo sestavili na podlagi pregleda teorije in dosedanjega raziskovanja o ugledu učiteljev. Oblikovali smo osem trditev, ki sestavljajo lestvico ugleda. Vključili smo štiri pozitivne in štiri negativne trditve o ugledu učiteljev, ki so bile v vprašalniku navedene izmenično. Trditve se nanašajo tako na splošno stališče o ugledu učiteljev in pomembnosti, ki jo ima učiteljevo delo za družbo, kakor tudi na spoštovanje in odnos staršev, učencev in medijev do učiteljev ter finančni vidik poklica. Učitelji so ocenjevali svojo stopnjo strinjanja s trditvami na petstopenjski lestvici Likertovega tipa (1 – sploh se ne strinjam, 2 – ne strinjam se, 3 – delno se strinjam, 4 – strinjam se, 5 – popolnoma se strinjam). Glede na to, da niso vsi učitelji izrazili svoje stopnje strinjanja za vsako trditev, se število vseh učiteljev, ki so ocenili svoje strinjanje s po-sameznimi trditvami, giblje od 1837 do 1813. Število hrvaških učiteljev, ki so ocenili posamezne trditve, se giblje od 1076 do 1061 (od 58,6 % do 58,5 %), slovenskih pa od 761 do 752 (od 41,1 % do 41,5 %). Tako hrvaški kot tudi slovenski učitelji so najpogosteje preskočili ocenjevanje strinjanja s trditvijo »Mediji običajno prikazujejo učitelje v negativni luči«, medtem ko so se najmanj izogibali ocenjevanju strinjanja s splošnimi trditvami, kot sta »Učiteljevo delo je med najpomembnejšimi v družbi« in »Učiteljski poklic ima nizek ugled v družbi«. Za preverjanje faktorske strukture in merskih karakteristik lestvice ugleda smo opravili eksploratorno faktorsko analizo z metodo glavnih komponent z oblimin rotacijo. Po Guttman-Kaiserjevem kriteriju (lastna vrednost je večja od 1) in po kriteriju Scree-testa smo ugotovili obstoj dveh faktorjev, od katerih prvi pojasnjuje 53 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 53 26.4.2019 12:06:08 28,33 %, drugi pa 17,15 % skupne variance. Dvofaktorsko strukturo smo dobili tako na hrvaškem kakor na slovenskem podvzorcu. V tabeli 3.1 so prikazane faktorske nasičenosti in komunalitete. Prvi faktor je nasičen s štirimi izjavami, ki opisujejo dejavnike, povezane z negativno percepcijo učiteljskega poklica (manjše plače, nizek ugled v družbi, medijsko predstavljanje učiteljev v negativni luči in manjše zadovoljstvo pri delu), in izjavo »Učiteljevo delo je med najpomembnejšimi v družbi«. Drugi faktor je nasičen s štirimi izjavami, ki vsebinsko najbolj ustrezajo dejavnikom, povezanim s pozitivno percepcijo učiteljskega poklica (spoštovanje učencev in staršev do učiteljev, reden zaslužek in finančna neodvisnost). Izjavo »Učiteljevo delo je med najpomembnejšimi v družbi« smo uvrstili v drugi faktor, pri čemer smo dali prednost teoretičnemu klasificiranju izjave, ne pa empiričnim rezultatom. Ta faktor kaže nizko zanesljivost: koeficient zanesljivosti tipa notranje konsistence (Cronbach ɑ) na celotnem vzorcu znaša 0,42. Glede na nizko zanesljivost drugega faktorja smo v nadaljnji analizi uporabili samo prvi faktor, katerega zanesljivost (Cronbach ɑ) na celotnem vzorcu znaša 0,59, na podvzorcu hrvaških učiteljev 0,57 in 0,61 na podvzorcu slovenskih učiteljev. Za lestvico nizkega ugleda je z linearno kombinacijo navedenih izjav izračunan skupni rezultat. Tabela 3.1: Rezultati faktorske analize lestvice ugleda Skupaj HR SLO unalitete unalitete unalitete Faktorska nasičenost m Faktorska nasičenost m Faktorska nasičenost m Ko Ko Ko F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 V učiteljskem poklicu so plače slab- še kot v drugih enako zahtevnih 0,72 0,07 0,51 0,72 0,12 0,51 0,72 0,19 0,52 poklicih z enako stopnjo izobrazbe. Učiteljski poklic ima nizek ugled v družbi. 0,71 -0,17 0,56 0,72 -0,15 0,57 0,70 -0,11 0,52 Mediji običajno prikazujejo učitelje v negativni luči. 0,52 -0,10 0,30 0,55 -0,11 0,33 0,59 -0,09 0,37 Nizek ugled učiteljskega poklica vpli- va na slabše zadovoljstvo z delom. 0,51 -0,24 0,36 0,48 -0,25 0,33 0,61 -0,17 0,43 Učiteljevo delo je med najpo- membnejšimi v družbi. 0,51 0,37 0,34 0,52 0,33 0,34 0,34 0,49 0,31 Učenci spoštujejo učitelje. -0,02 0,81 0,66 -0,07 0,79 0,64 -0,11 0,78 0,64 Starši spoštujejo učitelje. -0,10 0,79 0,66 -0,10 0,79 0,66 -0,29 0,71 0,63 Učiteljski poklic omogoča redno plačo in finančno neodvisnost. -0,05 0,49 0,25 0,03 0,54 0,29 -0,04 0,44 0,20 Lastna vrednost 2,27 1,37 2,19 1,47 2,30 1,32 % pojasnjene variance 28,33 17,15 27,34 18,42 28,76 16,43 54 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 54 26.4.2019 12:06:09 Poleg tega smo učitelje zaprosili, naj razvrstijo deset poklicev (osnovnošolski učitelj, srednješolski učitelj, vzgojitelj, univerzitetni profesor, zdravnik, medicinska sestra, odvetnik, podjetnik, novinar in gledališki igralec) glede na stopnjo ugleda na lestvici od 1 do 10, pri čemer 1 pomeni najmanj spoštovan poklic in 10 najbolj spoštovan poklic v družbi. Izhajali smo iz Hoylove (2001) trikomponentne definicije statusa poklica, po ka- teri komponenta ugleda (Occupational Prestige) kaže na status, ki je opredeljen z javnim mnenjem – javna percepcija relativnega položaja poklica v hierarhiji po- klicev. Nekateri učitelji niso razvrstili vseh poklicev, tako da se numerus celotnega vzorca giblje od 1844 do 1829. Na podvzorcu hrvaških učiteljev se število učiteljev, ki so rangirali posamezne poklice, giblje od 1087 do 1077 (od 59,0 % do 58,9 %) in v Sloveniji od 757 do 750 (od 41,1 % do 41,0 %). Tako v hrvaškem kakor tudi v slovenskem podvzorcu je največ učiteljev rangiralo svoj poklic – hrvaški učitelji so najpogosteje izpustili rangiranje stopnje ugleda univerzitetnega profesorja, slovenski pa rangiranje stopnje ugleda medicinske sestre. 3.5 Rezultati in diskusija 3.5.1 Mnenja učiteljev o ugledu učiteljskega poklica Ugotavljali smo, kakšna so mnenja osnovnošolskih učiteljev o ugledu učiteljskega poklica. Pokazalo se je, da hrvaški učitelji v primerjavi s slovenskimi učitelji na lestvici nizkega ugleda v povprečju dosegajo višji rezultat (M = 4,01 : M = 3,83), razlike pa so se izkazale za statistično pomembne. Iz tega izhaja, da imajo hrvaški učitelji slabšo percepcijo o svojem ugledu kot slovenski učitelji. Tabela 3.2: Deskriptivni podatki lestvice nizkega ugleda na skupnem, hrvaškem in slovenskem vzorcu in razlike med Hrvaško in Slovenijo Skupaj HR SLO n 1794 1050 744 Min 1,50 1,50 2,00 t=6,31*** Max 5,00 5,00 5,00 df=1563 M 3,94 4,01 3,83 Cohen d=0,32 SD 0,59 0,57 0,59 α 0,59 0,57 0,61 ***p<0,001 Pri drugem faktorju, ki je sestavljen iz izjav, povezanih s pozitivno percepcijo učiteljskega poklica, je bila dosežena prenizka notranja konsistenca, da bi bil upravičen izračun skupnega rezultata. Vendar pa lahko pogledamo, ali se pojavljajo statistično 55 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 55 26.4.2019 12:06:09 hen d venskem 0,54 0,30 0,14 0,08 0,22 0,20 0,13 0,57 Co df 1831 1834 1811 1828 1835 1726 1776 1828 vaškem in slo hr t 1,64 11,59*** 6,34*** -2,96** 4,80*** -4,19*** -2,65** -12,18*** SD 0,84 0,88 0,86 0,92 1,07 0,69 0,67 0,86 venija M 3,97 4,13 3,56 3,69 4,01 3,00 2,71 3,62 Slo vici ugleda na skupnem, n 760 760 752 757 761 758 754 758 SD 0,82 0,83 0,85 0,98 1,06 0,77 0,80 0,94 avkami na lest rvaška M 4,42 4,39 3,44 3,77 4,25 2,85 2,62 3,10 ost H n 1073 1076 1061 1073 1076 1072 1070 1072 znimi p v SD 0,86 0,86 0,86 0,96 1,07 0,74 0,75 0,94 osame elje M Skupaj 4,23 4,28 3,49 3,74 4,15 2,91 2,66 3,32 rinjanja s p venskih učit n 1833 1836 1813 1830 1837 1830 1824 1830 opnji st njo vaških in slo užbi. nejšimi v čo in odatki o st a vpliva na slabše cenami hr če slabše kot v klic memb edno pla vni p klicih z enako stop ek ugled v dr . . a r ipti oč vnih po ikazujejo učitelje v negativni m. klicu so pla mog ahte Deskr azlike med o klic ima niz ajno pr klic o er r . vo z delo vo delo je med najpo ela 3.3: cu t azbe voljst ugih enako z ek ugled učiteljskega po obr iz užbi. Tab vzor V učiteljskem po dr iz Učiteljski po Mediji obič luči. N zado Učitelje dr Učenci spoštujejo učitelje Starši spoštujejo učitelje Učiteljski po finančno neodvisnost. ** p<0,01 ***p<0,001 56 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 56 26.4.2019 12:06:09 pomembne razlike pri ocenah stopnje ugleda za posamezne izjave, tako pozitivne kot negativne, med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji, ki so prikazane v tabeli 3.3 poleg deskriptivnih podatkov o ocenah ugleda na skupnem, hrvaškem in slovenskem vzorcu. Pri trditvah, ki sestavljajo lestvico nizkega ugleda, so se kot statistično pomembne pokazale razlike med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji pri vseh trditvah, razen pri eni: »Nizek ugled učiteljskega poklica vpliva na slabše zadovoljstvo z delom.« V povpre- čju se učitelji nagibajo k temu, da se strinjajo s trditvijo (povprečna ocena za celoten vzorec je 3,74). Učitelji celotnega vzorca se v največji meri strinjajo, da ima učiteljski poklic nizek ugled v družbi (M = 4,28), pri tem hrvaški učitelji dosegajo statistično višje pomembno povprečje kot slovenski (M = 4,39 : M = 4,13). S tem se popolnoma strinja ali strinja 85,6 % hrvaških in 77,2 % slovenskih učiteljev. Iz povprečne ocene je razvidno strinjanje s trditvijo, da so v učiteljskem poklicu nižje plače kot v drugih enako zahtevnih poklicih z enako stopnjo izobrazbe (M = 4,23). Pri tej trditvi hrvaški učitelji dosegajo najvišji povprečni rezultat in se statistično pomembno razlikujejo od slovenskih učiteljev (M = 4,42 : M = 3,97), kar je verjetno posledica slabše ekonomske situacije na Hrvaškem in dejansko nižjih povprečnih plač osnovnošolskih učiteljev. S to trditvijo se popolnoma strinja 58,1 % in strinja 30,2 % hrvaških učiteljev. Tudi slovenski učitelji se v povprečju strinjajo, da so slabše plačani v primerjavi z enako zahtevnimi poklici: 29,6 % se s trditvijo popolnoma strinja, 41,4 % pa se strinja. V zvezi s tem je treba izpostaviti, da z odstotkom BDP, ki ga Republika Hrvaška name- nja za izobraževanje in znanstvenoraziskovalno dejavnost, precej zaostaja za povprečji EU in ne upošteva njenih priporočil in smernic. Tako povprečje EU za izobraževanje znaša približno 4,5 % BDP, medtem ko je hrvaško 3,5 %, povprečje EU za znanstvena raziskovanja je več kot 2,5 %, medtem ko je hrvaško približno 0,7 %. Po podatkih Inštituta za razvoj izobraževanja (2015) Slovenija za izobraževanje namenja 5,7 % svojega BDP, kar jo uvršča med prvih 15 držav Evropske unije po vlaganjih v izobraževanje. V tem smislu je treba poudariti, da o tem govorijo tudi glavne zahteve oziroma priporočila Unesca (2015), po katerih bi države morale zagotoviti najmanj 6 % BDP za izobraževanje, kar bo v veliko državah šele treba uresničiti. Med dejavniki, ki neugodno vplivajo na družbeni položaj in status učiteljskega poklica, se pogosto še posebej izpostavljajo nizke plače učiteljev (npr. Hargreaves in Goodson, 1996; Hoyle, 2001; Hargreaves in sodelavci, 2006; Radeka in Sorić, 2006; Vrgoč, 2012; Monteiro, 2015), v pričujoči raziskavi pa smo ugotovili, da je taka tudi percepcija samih osnovnošolskih učiteljev. Slovenski učitelji v primerjavi s hrvaškimi dosegajo statistično pomembno višjo stopnjo strinjanja s še eno trditvijo na lestvici nizkega ugleda. Slovenski učitelji se namreč v večji meri strinjajo s trditvijo, po kateri mediji učitelje najpogosteje 57 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 57 26.4.2019 12:06:09 prikazujejo v negativni luči (M = 3,56 : M = 3,44). Polovica slovenskih učiteljev (49,8 %) se strinja ali se popolnoma strinja s trditvijo, da mediji učitelje najpogosteje prikazujejo v negativni luči, medtem ko se s to trditvijo strinja 41 % hrvaških učiteljev. Tukaj se postavlja vprašanje, kaj lahko učitelji sami storijo za izboljšanje svojega ugleda v družbi v smislu promoviranja lastnega statusa in profesionalizma. Med pozitivnimi trditvami o ugledu učiteljev se na ravni celotnega vzorca v največji meri strinjajo s tem, da je delo učitelja med najpomembnejšimi v družbi (M = 4,15), kar je v skladu s pričakovanji. S to trditvijo se pomembno bolj strinjajo hrvaški kot pa slovenski učitelji (M = 4,25 : M = 4,01). S tem se namreč popolnoma strinja kar 53,9 % hrvaških učiteljev in samo 38,2 % slovenskih. Nekoliko manjše je strinjanje vseh učiteljev s trditvijo, da učiteljski poklic omogoča reden zaslužek in finančno neodvisnost (M = 3,32), čeprav je večina učiteljev iz vzorca zaposlenih za nedoločen čas. Delež učiteljev, zaposlenih za določen čas, ki so izpolnjevali vprašalnik, je samo med 12 in 13 %. Tudi tu se kažejo statistično pomembne razlike med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji, kar spet verjetno lahko pripišemo slabši ekonomski situaciji na Hrvaškem. Prvi v manjši meri menijo, da učiteljski poklic omogoča reden zaslužek (M = 3,10 : M = 3,62). Največ slovenskih učiteljev (44,9 %) se s to trditvijo strinja, medtem ko se največ hrvaških učiteljev (47,2 %) s to trditvijo delno strinja. V celotnem vzorcu se učitelji najmanj strinjajo s trditvijo, da starši spoštujejo učitelje (M = 2,66), in trditvijo, da učenci spoštujejo učitelje (M = 2,91). Spet se ka- žejo pomembne razlike med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji. V obeh primerih se slovenski učitelji v povprečju bolj strinjajo s tem, da starši (M = 2,71 : M = 2,62) in učenci (M = 3,00 : M = 2,85) spoštujejo učitelje. Kar 35,9 % hrvaških učiteljev se sploh ne strinja ali ne strinja s tem, da starši spoštujejo učitelje, medtem ko je med slovenskimi učitelji takih 30,4 %. 24,4 % hrvaških učiteljev se sploh ne strinja, da učenci spoštujejo učitelje, medtem ko je med slovenskimi učitelji takih 17,7 %. V tem kontekstu naj omenimo Verhoevna in sodelavce (2006), ki izpostavljajo, da je določena stopnja odgovornosti za ugled v družbi v rokah samih učiteljev, in da lah- ko s svojim profesionalnim delovanjem zagotovo prispevajo k večjemu spoštovanju učencev in staršev do njih in njihovega dela ter na ta način pomagajo izpodbiti mit o tem, da družba ne kaže spoštovanja do učiteljev. Hrvaški učitelji se v večji meri kot slovenski strinjajo s tem, da je delo učitelja med najpomembnejšimi v družbi, medtem ko po drugi strani v še večji meri ocenjujejo, da ima delo učitelja nizek ugled v družbi in je slabše plačano od ostalih enako zahtevnih poklicev. Po drugi strani pa se hrvaški učitelji v manjši meri kot slovenski strinjajo s tem, da jim njihov poklic omogoča reden zaslužek in finančno neodvisnost, ter da jih starši in učenci spoštujejo. V zvezi s tem je mogoče sklepati, da ima učiteljski poklic v 58 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 58 26.4.2019 12:06:09 očeh hrvaških osnovnošolskih učiteljev nižji ugled v družbi kakor pa v očeh slovenskih osnovnošolskih učiteljev. To je na neki način v nasprotju s statistično pomembno višjimi ocenami hrvaških učiteljev o lastni usposobljenosti na štirih področjih poklicnega delovanja učiteljev: pri sodelovanju s starši, vzpostavljanju konstruktivnega dialoga s svojimi kolegi, analizi dobrih in šibkih plati svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela ter vzpostavljanju partnerskega sodelovanja z ostalimi šolami in ustanovami ter različnimi strokovnjaki. Hkrati torej ocenjujejo, da so dobro usposobljeni za svoje poklicno delovanje, vendar pa jih drugi ne priznavajo dovolj glede na to, koliko sami mislijo, da bi morali biti priznani. Omenjeno nasprotje je vidno tudi pri slovenskih učiteljih, vendar je izraženo v manjši meri. 3.5.2 Ugled učiteljskega poklica v primerjavi z drugim poklici Zanimalo nas je, kako osnovnošolski učitelji rangirajo ugled svojega poklica v pri- merjavi z ugledom drugih poklicev. V tabeli 3.4 so prikazani deskriptivni podatki rangiranja poklicev v odvisnosti od stopnje ugleda na skupnem, hrvaškem in sloven- skem vzorcu ter rezultati t-testa za neodvisne vzorce, s katerim smo preverjali statistično pomembnost razlik med povprečnimi rangi hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljev. Tabela 3.4: Deskriptivni podatki rangiranja poklicev v odvisnosti od stopnje ugleda na skupnem, hrvaškem in slovenskem vzorcu ter razlike med povprečnimi rangi hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljev Skupaj Hrvaška Slovenija n M SD n M SD n M SD t df Cohen d Osnovnošolski učitelj 1844 3,75 2,51 1087 3,61 2,60 757 3,94 2,36 -2,90** 1717 0,14 Srednješolski učitelj 1837 4,69 1,87 1083 4,55 1,95 754 4,89 1,73 -3,95*** 1731 0,19 Vzgojitelj 1833 3,44 2,74 1080 3,41 2,71 753 3,47 2,79 -0,42 1831 Univerzitetni profesor 1829 6,32 1,96 1077 6,32 1,99 752 6,45 1,92 -2,45* 1827 0,11 Zdravnik 1837 7,97 2,80 1082 7,85 2,73 755 8,14 2,88 -2,22* 1835 0,10 Medicinska sestra 1831 4,45 2,46 1081 4,76 2,28 750 4,00 2,63 6,40*** 1460 0,33 Odvetnik 1839 7,68 2,73 1084 7,70 2,63 755 7,64 2,87 0,45 1532 Podjetnik 1838 6,88 2,60 1084 7,07 2,68 754 6,62 2,47 3,64** 1836 0,17 Novinar 1837 5,11 2,12 1083 5,01 2,26 754 5,26 1,91 -2,56* 1765 0,12 Gledališki igralec 1836 5,17 2,37 1082 5,23 2,35 754 5,08 2,40 1,37 1834 *p<0,05 **p<0,01 ***p<0,001 59 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 59 26.4.2019 12:06:09 Tako hrvaški kot slovenski učitelji glede na ugled v družbi v povprečju najvišje rangirajo poklic zdravnika, s tem da ima ugled zdravnika na slovenskem podvzorcu v primerjavi s podvzorcem hrvaških učiteljev še pomembno višji povprečni rang (M = 8,14 : M = 7,85). Na drugo mesto se po stopnji ugleda uvršča poklic odve- tnika, tako med slovenskimi kakor tudi med hrvaškimi učitelji, pri tem pa med njimi ni večjih razlik. Presenetljivo je, da se na tretje mesto po stopnji ugleda tako med hrvaškimi kot med slovenskimi učitelji uvršča poklic podjetnika, s tem da na hrvaškem podvzorcu zavzema pomembno višji povprečni rang (M = 7,07 : M = 6,62). Dobljeni rezultati morda sploh niso tako presenetljivi v vse bolj potrošniško usmerjeni družbi, v kateri se dober ekonomski status in materialne dobrine uvr- ščajo visoko na lestvici vrednot. Po ocenah osnovnošolskih učiteljev se poklic uni- verzitetnega profesorja uvršča šele na četrto mesto in pri tem zavzema malo boljši položaj med slovenskimi učitelji v primerjavi s hrvaškimi (M = 6,45 : M = 6,23). Na sredino lestvice stopnje ugleda se tako med hrvaškimi kot med slovenskimi učitelji uvrščata poklica gledališkega igralca in novinarja, pri tem pa ima med slovenskimi učitelji malo boljši položaj novinar (M = 5,26 : M = 5,01), kar morda celo preseneča glede na to, da se slovenski učitelji v večji meri strinjajo s trditvijo, da mediji učitelje najpogosteje prikazujejo v negativni luči. V spodnji del lestvice ugleda raznih poklicev so se pričakovano uvrstili poklici: srednješolski učitelj, medicinska sestra, osnovnošolski učitelj in na zadnje mesto vzgojitelj. Zanimivo je, da so hrvaški učitelji višje ocenili stopnjo ugleda poklica medicinske sestre v primerjavi s srednješolskim učiteljem (M = 4,76 : M = 4,55), medtem ko so slovenski učitelji ravno obratno v povprečju višji rang pripisali pokli-cu srednješolskega učitelja, ne pa medicinski sestri (M = 4,89 : M = 4,00). Glede na to so se pokazale statistično pomembne razlike med obema podvzorcema. Hrvaški in slovenski učitelji so v povprečju najnižje rangirali ugled poklica vzgojitelja, medtem ko so na drugo mesto postavili svoj poklic, pri tem pa ima poklic osnovnošol- skega učitelja malo boljši povprečen rang v slovenskem podvzorcu v primerjavi s hrvaškim (M = 3,94 : M = 3,61). Po pričakovanjih so hrvaški učitelji, enako kot slovenski, po stopnji ugleda najvišje rangirali poklic zdravnika, ki mu sledita poklic odvetnika in podjetnika. Poklic univerzitetnega profesorja se po stopnji ugleda uvršča šele na četrto mesto. V spodnji del lestvice ugleda so tako hrvaški kot slovenski učitelji uvrstili poklica vzgojitelja in osnovnošolskega učitelja. Tretje mesto spodnjega dela lestvice ugleda med hrvaški-mi učitelji zavzema srednješolski učitelj, medtem ko pri slovenskih to mesto zavze- ma medicinska sestra. Monteiro (2015) trdi, da je položaj poklica znotraj hierarhije poklicnega ugleda v družbi rezultat ponujene vrednosti storitve in profesionalnega 60 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 60 26.4.2019 12:06:09 statusa. Najvišja raven profesionalnosti se pri tem nanaša na poklice, ki imajo največjo družbeno pomembnost, odgovornost in prepoznavnost. Sami osnovnošolski učitelji v naši raziskavi te značilnosti v večji meri pripisujejo poklicu zdravnika, odvetnika in podjetnika kakor pa poklicu univerzitetnega profesorja, gledališkega igralca, novinarja, srednješolskega učitelja in ostalim vključenim poklicem. 3.6 Sklep Vprašanje ugleda učiteljev je pritegnilo pozornost veliko raziskovalcev po vsem svetu. Pri pregledu raziskovanj v različnih državah je mogoče opaziti, da se to vprašanje raziskuje z več perspektiv: kako sami učitelji vidijo svojo stroko in kako jo vidijo drugi. V naši študiji nas je zanimalo, kako status doživljajo sami učitelji – ocenjevali so svoje strinjanje z nekaterimi stališči, povezanimi z ugledom učiteljskega poklica v družbi, in kako jih, po njihovem mnenju, vidijo učenci in starši, ki se z njihovim delom najpogosteje in najbolj neposredno srečujejo. Pri tem nismo mogli izpustiti ocene vloge medijev, ki na določen način soustvarjajo ugled učiteljskega poklica v družbi. Pri vseh trditvah v zvezi z oceno ugleda so se pokazale statistično pomembne razlike med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji, razen pri trditvi »Nizek ugled učiteljskega poklica vpliva na slabše zadovoljstvo z delom.« Hrvaški učitelji se v največji meri strinjajo s trditvijo, da so plače v učiteljskem poklicu manjše kakor v drugih podobnih poklicih, medtem ko je pri slovenskih učiteljih največja stopnja strinjanja s trditvijo, da ima učiteljski poklic nizek ugled v družbi, čeprav je njihova povprečna ocena strinjanja še vedno statistično pomembno nižja v primerjavi s povprečno oceno hrvaških učiteljev. Predhodno omenjena trditev je med hrvaškimi učitelji uvrščena na drugo mesto od vseh ponujenih trditev. Hrvaški učitelji v manjši meri od slovenskih kažejo svoje strinjanje s tem, da jim učiteljski poklic omogoča reden zaslužek in finančno ne- odvisnost ter da jih starši in učenci spoštujejo. V zvezi s tem se vsiljuje sklep, da ima učiteljski poklic v očeh hrvaških osnovnošolskih učiteljev nižji ugled v družbi kakor pa v očeh slovenskih osnovnošolskih učiteljev. Poudariti je treba tudi, da so hrvaški učitelji svojo usposobljenost na raznih področjih poklicnega delovanja ocenili precej višje kot slovenski, hkrati pa menijo, da njihovega dela drugi ne priznavajo dovolj v primerjavi s tem, koliko bi po njihovem mnenju moralo biti priznano. Podobna težnja se pojavlja tudi pri slovenskih učiteljih, vendar je manj izražena. Poleg navedenega nas je zanimalo tudi, kako učitelji ocenjujejo svoj poklic v pri- merjavi z nekaterimi drugimi poklici – s tistimi, za katere je potrebna podobna stopnja izobrazbe, kakor tudi s takimi, za katere je potrebna nižja stopnja izobrazbe, v primerjavi s poklici, ki so bolj prepoznavni v družbi (npr. gledališki igralec), ali v 61 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 61 26.4.2019 12:06:09 primerjavi s poklici, s katerimi se srečujemo v pomembnih situacijah, ko gre za naše zdravje, tj. kako učitelji vidijo pomembnost poklicev, ki zahtevajo višjo izobrazbo, na primer univerzitetni profesor ali zdravnik. Skladno s pričakovanji so rezultati pokazali, da tako hrvaški kakor tudi slovenski učitelji po stopnji ugleda najvišje rangirajo poklic zdravnika, zatem odvetnika in podjetnika. Poklic univerzitetnega profesorja je po stopnji ugleda uvrščen šele na četrto mesto (najvišje od pedagoških poklicev). V spodnji del lestvice ugleda sta pri hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljih uvr- ščena poklica vzgojitelja in osnovnošolskega učitelja. Tretje mesto spodnjega dela lestvice ugleda med hrvaškimi učitelji zavzema srednješolski učitelj, medtem ko pri slovenskih to mesto zavzema medicinska sestra. Dobljene rezultate naše raziskave potrjujejo tudi rezultati drugih raziskav (npr. Symeonidis, 2015), po katerih status učitelja variira, odvisno od sektorja izobraževanja. Splošna percepcija poklicnega statusa učitelja v vseh izobraževalnih sektor- jih, razen v visokem izobraževanju, je »povprečna«. Nižji status se pogosteje percepira za področje predšolske vzgoje ter strokovnega izobraževanja in izobraževanja pomožnega učnega osebja. Vzgojiteljem, učiteljem v strokovnem izobraževanju in pomožnemu učnemu osebju se pripisuje nižji poklicni status v primerjavi z dru- gimi sektorji, še posebej z visokim izobraževanjem. Znano je, da v predšolskem in osnovnošolskem izobraževanju prevladujejo ženske, raziskave pa so ugotovile povezanost poklicnega statusa in plač kot tudi povezanost med feminizacijo uči- teljskega poklica, nizkim statusom in nižjimi plačami. Zanimivo bi bilo ugotoviti tudi, kako drugi vrednotijo delo učiteljev in njihov ugled. Imamović (2014) je na vzorcu slovenskih učiteljev ugotovila, da so učite- lji sami sebe na lestvici pomembnosti poklicev uvrstili nižje, kakor so jih uvrstili starši učencev, ki jih poučujejo. To je podatek, ki je vreden premisleka o tem, kako učitelji doživljajo svoj položaj v družbi in kolikšno pomembnost mu pripisujejo. Zaskrbljujoče je morda ravno dejstvo, da se tako hrvaški kot slovenski učitelji v naši raziskavi najmanj strinjajo s tem, da jih spoštujejo učenci, ki so prvi »uporabniki« njihovega znanja. Eno osrednjih in odprtih vprašanj, ki se vsiljujejo v vseh predhodno obravnavanih ugotovitvah, je vprašanje, s katerimi ukrepi bi bilo mogoče izboljšati status učiteljev v družbi. Pojavlja se tudi vprašanje, v kolikšni meri učitelji cenijo svoj poklic – in ali bi bili rezultati drugačni, če bi jih vprašali o njihovih osebnih lestvicah rangiranja, in kam bi v tem primeru uvrstili učiteljski poklic. V poročilu Svetovne zveze združenj in sindikatov v izobraževanju (Education International) (Symeonidis, 2015, str. 12–13) se v zvezi z izboljšanjem statusa 62 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 62 26.4.2019 12:06:09 učiteljev in učiteljskega poklica izpostavljajo naslednje prioritete pri oblikovanju izobraževalnih politik: 1) Izboljšati plače in pogoje dela, ki se kažejo kot najbolj kritični dejavniki, ki vplivajo na poklicni status in osebno samospoštovanje učiteljev. 2) Zagotoviti visoko kakovost izobraževanja učiteljev, možnosti poklicnega razvoja in perspektivne kariere. 3) Zagotoviti akademsko svobodo, avtonomijo in sodelovanje pri odločanju. 4) Zagovarjati močan sistem javnega izobraževanja v lokalnih skupnostih. 5) Vzdrževati reden dialog med izobraževalnimi združenji in vlado ter spodbujati sodelovanje učiteljev pri razvoju izobraževalnih politik. Naj na koncu na kratko omenimo, kaj izpostavljajo izobraževalni analitiki pri pojasnjevanju izrednega finskega izobraževalnega uspeha. Večina analitikov (npr. Sahlberg 2010; 2012) opaža, da imajo pri tem ključno vlogo odlični učitelji. Od uspešnih finskih praks je treba omeniti: • Razvoj programov za izobraževanje učiteljev, ki temeljijo na raziskovanju in pripravljajo učitelje na poznavanje učne vsebine, pedagogike, didaktike in psi- hologije, prav tako pa jih usposabljajo za raziskovalno delo pod mentorskim vodstvom strokovnjakov. • Pomembno finančno podporo za izobraževanje učiteljev, njihov poklicni ra- zvoj, ustrezno in pravično plačo ter spodbudne delovne pogoje. • Ustvarjanje cenjenega poklica, v katerem imajo učitelji ustrezno avtoriteto in strokovno avtonomijo, vključno z odgovornostjo za evalvacijo kurikula in uč- nih dosežkov učencev, kar jih vodi k stalni analizi in izpopolnjevanju prakse. 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Dostop 21. januarja 2013. 66 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 66 26.4.2019 12:06:09 4 Učiteljeva strokovna usposobljenost kot napovedovalec njegovih prepričanj o samoreguliranem učenju Darko Lončarić 4.1 Samoregulirano učenje Samoregulirano učenje se najpogosteje opredeljuje (Zimmerman, 2002) kot samo- stojna oblika učenja, ki je določena s specifičnim vzorcem metakognitivnih (načr- tovanje, postavljanje ciljev, organizacija, samonadzor, samovrednotenje), motivacijskih (intrinzična motivacija, samoučinkovitost ter atribucije uspeha in neuspeha) in vedenjskih elementov (izbira, strukturiranje in ustvarjanje okolja, ki je optimal-no spodbudno za učenje). Opisa in definicije samoreguliranega učenja na konceptualni ravni ni lahko ra- zumeti, niti prevesti na strokovno raven, uporabno za učitelje. Pri komunikaciji z učitelji se je pokazalo kot uporabno, če jim čim bolj natančno opišemo primer idealnega samoreguliranega učenca, ki ga lahko prepoznajo pri svojem vsakda- njem delu. Pri predstavljanju modela, ki razlikuje proaktivno in obrambno samo- uravnavanje učenja, Lončarić (2013) opisuje proaktivno samoreguliranega učenca kot učenca, ki: ve, kaj hoče, in aktivno išče načine, kako to doseči; sam izbira in ustvarja priložnosti in situacije za učenje; uporablja strategije za napredovanje in jih prilagaja/spreminja, če niso učinkovite; se uspešno sooča s problemi in se izogiba oviram; je intrinzično motiviran; spremlja svoj napredek in se ne primerja z drugimi; uspeh in neuspeh povezuje z lastnim trudom; neuspeha ne doživlja kot katastrofo in ne išče opravičil v zunanjih dejavnikih; pridobivanje novih znanj in spretnosti je zanj večja nagrada od pohvale; nagrajuje se za uspeh in se spodbuja v situacijah, ki predstavljajo izziv; sam vrednoti lastno izvedbo in dosežke po lastnih standardih. V tem, kakor tudi v večini drugih prispevkov o samoreguliranem učenju, je po- udarek na proaktivnem samouravnavanju učenja. Obstajajo tudi drugi, manj raziskani vzorci učenja. Lončarić (2008, 2011, 2013; Lončarić in Peklaj, 2008) opisuje tudi učenca z obrambnim vzorcem samoregulacije kot učenca, ki: želi samo dobre ocene ali pozitivne ocene in pri tem uporablja nedovoljena sredstva, kot je prepisovanje; želi končati šolo ali študij z minimalnim vloženim trudom in nega- tivno vrednoti akademski dosežek, da mu slab uspeh ne bi pokvaril samospošto- vanja; želi narediti dober vtis na druge in počne vse, da bi se izognil situacijam, v katerih bi se lahko izkazalo, da česa ne zna ali ne more narediti; drugim se želi 67 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 67 26.4.2019 12:06:09 prikazati kot sposoben in se noče osramotiti; v situaciji neuspeha lastno samospoštovanje ohranja z omalovaževanjem akademskih ciljev in neuspeh pripisuje zunanjim dejavnikom. Model predvideva še tretji, za akademske in zdravstvene rezultate najslabši vzorec depresivnega samouravnavanja, naučene nebogljenosti ali popolnega pomanjkanja prizadevanja za doseganje ciljev ali samozaščitnega vedenja in kognicij (Lončarić, 2011). Taki učenci se ne branijo pred neuspehom in negativno (samo) evalvacijo. Sami sebe negativno vrednotijo in imajo nizko samospoštovanje; pa- sivni so, ker so prepričani, da ne morejo storiti ničesar, da bi jim uspelo, kar privede do popolnega izostanka proaktivnega ali obrambnega samouravnavanja. Tudi drugi avtorji so imeli potrebo, da bi v strokovni komunikaciji z učitelji čim bolj jasno opisali lastnosti in vedenja samoreguliranega učenca in jim tako približali ta teoretični konstrukt. Na primer pri merjenju prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju se je Lombaertsu, DeBackerju, Engelsu, van Braaku in Athanasou (2009, str. 90) zdelo nujno, da opišejo konstrukt samoreguliranega učenja s pomočjo zgodbe (Priloga 1): »Učenje samoregulacije lahko primerjamo z vožnjo in upravljanjem kolesa. Predstavljajte si učenca, ki upravlja kolo. Lahko in mora se odločiti o veliko stvareh: kam iti, kako hitro voziti, katero cesto iz- brati. [...] Samoregulirano učenje lahko opišemo s podobnimi izrazi. Popolnoma samoreguliran učenec: določa, kaj se želi učiti (kam želi iti); ugotavlja, kaj vse potrebuje (zbira informacije); razvija načrt, kako bo obvladal učno nalogo (do- loča potek vožnje); določa ritem dela (kako hitro želi voziti); odloča, kako se bo učil (izbira ceste); redno spremlja napredek (nadzor); prilagaja, dokler ne doseže želenih rezultatov.« Paradigma samoreguliranega učenja (Boekaerts, 1997) se za del svoje priljublje- nosti lahko zahvali jasnemu upiranju zgodovinsko dominantnemu pristopu v iz- obraževanju, po katerem je učenec pasiven sprejemnik informacij. Po tem videnju procesa učenja in poučevanja učenec reagira na metode poučevanja in okolje, ki ga informira, mu postavlja cilje, ga usmerja in vodi ter ekstrinzično motivira. V okviru tega pristopa se od učenca v glavnem zahteva, da reproducira naučeno. Številni problemi, ki izhajajo iz tega pretirano reguliranega in reaktivnega pristopa k iz- obraževanju, so usmerili pozornost raziskovalcev v samoregulirane in proaktivne modele učenčevega osebnega procesa učenja. Paradigma samoreguliranega učenja učitelja postavlja v položaj oblikovalca okolja, ki je ukrojeno po potrebah indivi- dualnega učenca in ki je spodbudno za intrinzično motivirano, samoregulirano učenje. Pri tem se precejšen del odgovornosti prepušča učencu, ki upravlja osebni proces odkrivanja in formuliranja lastnih ciljev ter spremlja napredek, dokler ne 68 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 68 26.4.2019 12:06:09 doseže cilja. Podpora učitelja je zvedena v glavnem na individualiziran pristop k vsakemu učencu ter formalno in vsebinsko organiziranje okolja in procesa učenja. Okolje in procese učenja je pri tem treba organizirati tako, da učenec lahko deluje samostojno, pa tudi v sodelovanju z učiteljem in drugimi učenci, s katerimi uresničuje rezultate učenja tako, da se ukvarja z zanj osebno ustreznimi nalogami, ob samoevalvaciji lastnega napredka in dosežkov. 4.2 Vztrajne zablode o samoreguliranem učenju Kot vsaka nova pobuda, ki se upira dominantnim in zakoreninjenim stališčem, mora tudi samoregulirano učenje prenašati kritike, ki se sčasoma izkažejo za neu- temeljene. V pričujočem prispevku se bomo usmerili na dve zablodi, ki prepreču- jeta širše sprejemanje modela samouravnavanja učenja. Zaradi napačne domneve, da otroci v zgodnjem šolskem in predšolskem obdobju ne morejo samoregulirati osebnega procesa učenja, je največje število raziskav opravljenih na adolescentih in odraslih osebah (Perry, Phillips in Dowler, 2004). V nasprotju s tem prepričanjem številne raziskave kažejo, da otroci uspešno razvijajo spretnost samouravnavanja med zgodnjim šolanjem (Bronson, 2000; Zimmerman, Bonner in Kovach, 1996) in da celo predšolski otroci in otroci razrednega pouka lahko uspešno načrtujejo, nadzorujejo in samovrednotijo lastni proces učenja pri obvladovanju zapletenih nalog (Martinez-Pons, 2002; Neuman, 1996; Turner, 1995; Perry, 1998; Perry in Van de Kamp, 2000). Druga zabloda je, da za samoregulirano učenje sploh ni potreben učitelj in da učiteljeva prepričanja, lastnosti in kompetence niso pomembne sestavine samore- guliranega učenja. Ravno nasprotno temu morajo učitelji razviti nove kompetence, da bi postali uspešni oblikovalci okolja za samoregulirano učenje, pri čemer to okolje ne vključuje več samo učilnice, temveč se širi tako v prostorskem kakor tudi v informacijskem smislu na obšolske, družinske dejavnosti in virtualne prostore, ki jih omogoča uporaba informacijsko-komunikacijske tehnologije. Učenčevo okolje vključuje tudi učitelja z vsemi njegovimi lastnostmi in kompetencami ter spret- nostjo, da učencu sporoča, da mu zaupa in ga spodbuja za samostojno, razisko- valno učenje. Kot del učenčevega okolja mora učitelj učencu s svojim delovanjem jasno sporočati absolutno spoštovanje njegovih posebnih potreb. To je še posebej pomembno za pozitiven razvoj učenčevega občutka samoučinkovitosti (Pajares, 1997). Vloga učitelja se najbolj izrazi skozi možnost poučevanja samouravnavanja učenja (Zimmerman, 2002) kot osnovne kompetence, ki jo mora razviti vsak uče- nec, da bi postal vseživljenjski učenec. 69 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 69 26.4.2019 12:06:09 4.3 Prepričanja in usposobljenost učiteljev Prvi korak k spremembi je osebno prepričanje, da je sprememba potrebna. V tem smislu so prepričanja učiteljev ključna za sprejemanje načel samoreguliranega uče- nja in njihovo vključevanje v učni proces. Veliko število raziskav opozarja na po- membnost prepričanj učiteljev in njihovih epistemoloških prepričanj o znanju in spoznanju (Calderhead, 1996; Errington, 2004; Fang, 1996; Hofer in Pintrich, 1997; Kagan, 1992; Nespor, 1987; Richardson, 1996). Kljub temu pa so nekateri avtorji izpostavili problem v konceptualizaciji prepričanj učiteljev (Pajares, 1992). Čeprav so prepričanja tesno povezana z znanjem (Verloop, Van Driel in Meijer, 2001), imajo posebno vlogo filtri, skozi katere interpretiramo nove informacije in doživljaje in zato delujejo kot posrednik, ključen za spremembo vedenja (Ertmer, 2005; Smith in Croom, 2000). Nekateri avtorji so se usmerili v raziskovanje pove- zav med prepričanji učiteljev in njihovim konkretnim vedenjem (Pearson, 1985). Različni avtorji so proučevali tudi področno specifična prepričanja učiteljev na področju informacijsko-komunikacijske in izobraževalne tehnologije (Antonietti in Giorgetti, 2006; Ertmer, 2005), naravoslovja (Bryan in Atwater, 2002) ali matema- tike (Warfield, Wood in Lehman, 2005). Prepričanja učiteljev so izredno pomembna v učnem procesu in za doseganje iz- obraževalnih rezultatov, zato so raziskovalci posebej raziskali vpliv izobraževanja bodočih učiteljev na njihova prepričanja o učenju in poučevanju (Tatto, 1998). V večje število raziskav so bili kot udeleženci vključeni tudi univerzitetni predavatelji ali študenti raznih strok, ki se ob osnovni stroki dodatno izobražujejo za učiteljski poklic (Kane, Sandetto in Heath, 2002; Errington, 2001). Manjše število raziskav je bilo usmerjeno na študente pedagoških programov, ki se pripravljajo za delo na razredni stopnji osnovne šole ali v predšolski vzgoji in izobraževanju (Goodman, 1988; Hart, 2002; Klien, 1996; Minor, Onwuegbuzie, Witcher in James, 2002; McDiarmid, 1990; Hermans, van Braak in Van Keer, 2008). Nekatere raziskave pa so poskušale hkrati zajeti prepričanja učencev in učiteljev o razvojno ustrezni izobraževalni praksi (Smith in Croom, 2000). Glede na to, da se prepričanja učiteljev v glavnem oblikujejo med začetnim izo- braževanjem, je zanimivo vprašanje, v kolikšni meri se učitelji čutijo usposobljene za poklicno delovanje v sodobni družbi, ki zahteva visoko razvito sposobnost vse- življenjskega učenja in prilagodljivost spremenljivim zahtevam dinamične družbe in izobraževanja. V različnih definicijah poklicnega razvoja je poudarjen proces, ki prispeva k razvoju poklicne usposobljenosti, ki temelji na različnih formalnih in neformalnih izkušnjah (Čepić, Kalin in Šteh, 2017). Terhart (1997) izpostavlja učiteljev razvoj kot proces, med katerim učitelj postavi temelje in vzdržuje najvišjo 70 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 70 26.4.2019 12:06:09 raven poklicne usposobljenosti, ki jo je sposoben doseči. Zato je samoocena poklicne usposobljenosti učiteljev svojevrsten kazalnik kakovosti njihovega vseživljenj- skega izobraževanja, ki ima lahko ključno vlogo v oblikovanju njihovih prepričanj o samoreguliranem učenju. Avtorice Čepić, Kalin in Šteh (2017) so izdelale lestvico usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje, katere cilj je bil preverjanje, kako učitelji ocenjujejo svojo usposobljenost na različnih področjih poklicnega delovanja, med katerimi je tudi vključevanje novih spoznanj v svoje vzgojno-izobraževalno delo. Oblikovanje le- stvice je temeljilo na osnovi pregleda teorije in dosedanjih raziskav o osnovnih področjih poklicnega delovanja učiteljev. Učitelji so pri vsaki izjavi morali oceniti lastno usposobljenost na 5-stopenjski lestvici (od 1 – nisem usposobljen do 5 – zelo dobro sem usposobljen). Na to vprašanje je odgovorilo skupaj 1755 učiteljev, od tega 1010 (57,5 %) hrvaških in 745 (42,5 %) slovenskih. Pri obeh podvzorcih smo dobili enofaktorsko strukturo, na podlagi katere je bila izdelana lestvica s 7 izjavami zadovoljive zanesljivosti. 4.4 Merjenje prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju Nesorazmerno s pomembnostjo teme je le majhno število prispevkov imelo za osnovni cilj izdelavo pripomočka za merjenje prepričanj učiteljev. V nekaterih do- stopnih virih, usmerjenih v merjenje prepričanj učiteljev, se kombinira kvalitativna in kvantitativna metodologija (Harwood, Hansen in Lotter, 2006), medtem ko je pri drugih prispevkih poudarek na metodi Q-sort (Rimm-Kaufman, Storm, Saw- yer, Pianta in La Paro, 2006) ali preverjanju faktorske strukture splošnih prepričanj o izobraževanju (Silvernail, 1992). Pri pregledovanju dostopne literature smo našli le eno besedilo, ki je usmerjeno v merjenje prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju. Lestvica prepričanj uči- teljev o samoreguliranem učenju (Lombaerts in sodelavci, 2009) je bila izdela- na s ciljem, da ocenijo prepričanja učiteljev o uvajanju samoreguliranega učenja v vsakdanje praktično delo učiteljev na ravni začetne vzgoje in izobraževanja. Da bi avtorji lestvice omogočili razlikovanje samoreguliranega učenja od drugih, podob- nih teoretičnih konstruktov in se izognili različnim napačnim interpretacijam tega izraza, so učiteljem na začetku vprašalnika ponudili konkreten opis tega konstrukta (Priloga 1). Avtorji so na podlagi podrobnega pregleda literature osmislili 39 pozitivnih in negativnih izjav o možnostih in posledicah uporabe samoregulirane- ga učenja pri pouku. Izjave so oblikovane tako, da so udeleženci lahko odgovorili na lestvici Likertovega tipa, ki je imela razpon od 0 (Sploh se ne strinjam) do 4 71 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 71 26.4.2019 12:06:09 (Popolnoma se strinjam). Vsebinsko veljavnost lestvice je najprej ocenila komisija šestih strokovnjakov – učiteljev osnovne šole, potem pa še komisija osmih strokovnjakov s področja vzgoje in izobraževanja. Vse izjave so bile ohranjene, opravili so le manjše vsebinske popravke na podlagi predlogov komisije strokovnjakov, ki so vrednotili vprašalnik. Merske karakteristike lestvice so bile preverjene na stratificiranem vzorcu (po upravljanju: zasebne in javne šole; po regiji: mestne in pri-mestne šole; in po uporabi politik o prioritetnih izobraževalnih virih: šole, ki jih uporabljajo in šole, ki jih ne uporabljajo) 399 učiteljev (76,1 % žensk) v osnovnem izobraževanju. Sodelovali so učitelji iz 91 šol v Bruslju in širši bruseljski regiji v Belgiji. Večina udeležencev je poučevala učence od 4. do 6. razreda osnovne šole (starost otrok od 9 do 12 let) v razredih povprečne velikosti 20 učencev. Uporabljen je bil tudi sekundarni vzorec 68 šol iz regij Antwerpen, Bruselj in Gent za preverjanje stabilnosti strukture lestvice. Analiza je pokazala, da je treba izpustiti izjave, ki so v dveh zaporednih analizah pokazale nizko diskriminativnost, nizko faktorsko nasičenost ali odstopanje od teoretične strukture lestvice. V končni različici je ostalo 10 izjav, ki imajo enofaktorsko strukturo in zadovoljivo zanesljivost. Avtorji so poudarili, da je bil z zmanjšanjem števila izjav precej zožen prostor za merjenje prepričanj učiteljev, vendar izpostavljajo, da so v lestvici ostale ključne izjave, ki opisujejo prepričanja o tem, da je samoregulirano učenje ustrezna metoda učenja v nižjih razredih osnovne šole. 4.5 Usposobljenost in samoregulirano učenje Glede na to, da v slovenskem in hrvaškem jeziku ni ustreznega pripomočka za merjenje prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju, je bil eden od ciljev tega prispevka prevesti in prilagoditi lestvico Lombaertsa in sodelavcev (2009) ter omo- gočiti dostopnost raziskovalcem in učiteljem, ki so zainteresirani za ugotavljanje potencialov za uporabo načel samoreguliranega učenja v slovenskih in hrvaških šolah. Ravno tako se z lestvico usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje (Če-pić in sodelavci, 2017) odpira priložnost, da prvič v nacionalnih okvirih ugotovimo, v kolikšni meri se samoocene učiteljev o usposobljenosti prekrivajo z njihovimi prepričanji o samoreguliranem učenju. Iz dobljenih rezultatov lahko dobimo pre- liminarni vpogled v prispevek poklicnega usposabljanja učiteljev k njihovi pripra- vljenosti, da pri pouku uporabijo načela samoreguliranega učenja. To bi bila tudi v mednarodnih okvirih prva analiza povezanosti usposobljenosti in prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju, kar kaže ne neupravičeno zanemarjanje razisko- vanja samouravnavanja s perspektive učiteljev v nižjih razredih osnovne šole. S to empirično raziskavo smo želeli tudi ovreči poenostavljene in napačne predstave o tem, da majhni otroci ne morejo sami uravnavati procesa usvajanja novih znanj 72 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 72 26.4.2019 12:06:09 in spretnosti ter napačno domnevo o tem, da učitelji in njihove kompetence niso pomembni za uspešno pridobivanje spretnosti samoregulacije. 4.6 Metoda 4.6.1 Udeleženci Analize so opravljene na podvzorcu anketirancev iz Slovenije in Hrvaške, ki so odgovorili na vprašanja o poklicnem razvoju in prepričanjih o samoreguliranem učenju v okviru širše raziskave, izvedene po projektu Poklicni razvoj učiteljev: status, osebnost in transverzalne kompetence (za celoten vzorec: n = 1867 učiteljev; 59,1 % iz Hrvaške). Odgovore na vse izjave navedenih lestvic v tej raziskavi je dalo n = 1632 anketirancev (87,4 % od skupnega števila anketirancev v raziskavi). Od tega je bilo 931 anketirancev (57 %) iz Hrvaške, 701 pa iz Slovenije (43 %). Glede na spol je v podvzorcu zajetih 1382 anketirank (84,7 %), 230 anketirancev (14,1 %), med- tem ko ostalih 20 anketirancev ni odgovorilo na vprašanje o spolu. V podvzorcu je zajetih 678 razrednih učiteljev (41,5 %), 908 predmetnih učiteljev (55,6 %), 46 anketirancev pa ni odgovorilo na vprašanje o delovnem mestu. Podvzorec je glede na proporcionalno zastopanost anketirancev po spolu in delovnem mestu ekviva- lenten z vzorcem. Kontingenčna analiza ekvivalentnosti vzorca in podvzorca je po- kazala, da je med anketiranci, ki niso izpolnili obeh lestvic statistično pomembno več (χ2(1, n = 1867) = 22, 148; p<0.001; C = 0,108) anketirancev iz Hrvaške (15,6 % od skupnega števila anketirancev iz Hrvaške), kakor pa iz Slovenije (8,2 % od skupnega števila anketirancev iz Slovenije). Zaradi neproporcionalne zastopanosti anketirancev iz Hrvaške in Slovenije v podvzorcu so skupni rezultati malo bolj reprezentativni za Slovenijo, zato so bile vse analize opravljene skupaj in posebej, na podvzorcih anketirancev iz Hrvaške in Slovenije. 4.6.2 Instrumenti V obširno anketo so zajeti številni sociodemografski podatki in meritve, od česar so v tem prispevku uporabljene informacije o spolu in rezultati udeležencev na lestvici usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje in na lestvici prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju. Lestvica usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje (Čepić in sodelavci, 2017) je sestavljena iz 7 izjav, kjer so učitelji morali oceniti lastno usposobljenost na 5 stopenjski lestvici Likertovega tipa (od 1 – nisem usposobljen do 5 – zelo dobro sem usposobljen). S preverjanjem faktorske strukture so avtorice ugotovile, da gre za enofaktorsko strukturo zadovoljive zanesljivosti in da hrvaški učitelji na lestvici 73 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 73 26.4.2019 12:06:09 dosegajo neznatno višje rezultate v primerjavi s slovenskimi učitelji (celoten vzorec: M = 3,85, SD = 0,56, ɑ = 0,82; podvzorec hrvaških učiteljev: M = 3,88, SD = 0,59, ɑ = 0,83; podvzorec slovenskih učiteljev: M = 3,82, SD = 0,51, ɑ = 0,80). Višji rezultat na lestvici kaže na višjo samooceno usposobljenosti učiteljev na področju partnerskega sodelovanja z različnimi sodelavci in starši, za uporabo sodobnih spo- znanj pri delu, za raziskovalno-razvojno delovanje, za analizo vzgojno-izobraževal- nega dela, mentoriranje in uresničevanje konstruktivnega dialoga s kolegi. Lestvica prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju (Lombaerts in sodelavci, 2009) je sestavljena iz 10 izjav, s katerimi se merijo prepričanja o pomembnosti in možnost uporabe načel samoregulacije učenja pri učencih na 5-stopenjski lestvici (od 0 – sploh se na strinjam do 4 – popolnoma se strinjam). V poglavju z rezultati je podrobno prikazan postopek prevajanja in prilagajanja lestvice ter preverjanje merskih karakteristik. Potrjena je izvirna, enofaktorska struktura lestvice z zadovo-ljivim koeficientom zanesljivosti tipa notranje konsistence (ɑ = 0,856; na podvzor- cu hrvaških učiteljev ɑ = 0,864; na podvzorcu slovenskih učiteljev ɑ = 0,848). 4.6.3 Postopek Raziskovalci so šolam po pošti poslali vprašalnike z opisom raziskave in prošnjo za sodelovanje v raziskavi v okviru večje raziskave, ki je zajela različne meritve s področja poklicnega delovanja slovenskih in hrvaških razrednih in predmetnih učite- ljev. Stratificirani vzorec je zajel 10 % šol iz vseh hrvaških županij (mesto Zagreb in 20 županij) in dvanajst slovenskih administrativnih regij. Šole so bile izbrane z algoritmom za naključno izbiro s seznama šol (z uporabo programa SPSS20). Po vzpostavljenem stiku z vsemi šolami z začetnega seznama so bile za šole, ki niso privolile v sodelovanje v raziskavi, z uporabo seznama šol in tabele naključnih števil izbrane nadomestne šole. V šolah, ki so privolile v sodelovanje v raziskavi, so ravnatelj ali delavci strokovnih služb učiteljem razdelili vprašalnike, jih spet zbrali in po pošti vrnili raziskovalcem. 4.7 Rezultati in razprava Da bi odgovorili na vprašanje, ali so samoocene poklicne usposobljenosti povezane s prepričanji o samoreguliranem učenju, smo uporabili lestvico usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje (Čepić in sodelavci, 2017), lestvica prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju (Lombaerts in sodelavci, 2009) pa je bila prilagojena in prevedena v slovenščino in hrvaščino. V tem poglavju bodo prikazane osnovne informacije o prevodu in prilagoditvi lestvice, njenih osnovnih deskriptivnih in 74 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 74 26.4.2019 12:06:10 merskih karakteristikah (povprečne vrednosti, mere razpršenosti, faktorska struktura in koeficient zanesljivosti na celotnem vzorcu in na podvzorcih anketirancev iz Slovenije in Hrvaške). Na koncu bo s pomočjo regresivne analize in bivarian- tnih korelacij analizirana povezanost med poklicno usposobljenostjo in prepričanji učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju. Lestvico prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju (Lombaerts in sodelavci, 2009) je prevedel anglist s pomočjo dveh strokovnjakov iz pedagoške psihologije z metodo povratnega prevoda ( backtranslation). Pri tem so pazili na skladnost prevodov s slovenskim in hrvaškim izobraževalnim kon-tekstom. Termine, ki po povratnem prevodu iz slovenščine/hrvaščine v angleščino niso sovpadali z izvirnikom, so posebej analizirali in po potrebi prilagodili, da bi čim zvesteje odražali izvirnik, vendar pod pogojem, da so v slovenščini in hrvaščini jasni, relevantni in smiselni (tabela 4.1). Deskriptivna analiza rezultatov je pokazala, da ima vsaka izjava na obeh podvzorcih maksimalen razpon odgovorov (od 0 do 4). Iz standardnih deviacij in aritmetičnih sredin, prikazanih v tabeli 4.2 pa je razvidno, da imajo odgovori anketirancev po izjavah zadovoljiv koeficient variabilnosti, kar kaže na ustrezno občutljivost mer- skega instrumenta. Pri pregledu aritmetičnih sredin, ki smo jih dobili na podvzor- cih iz Slovenije in Hrvaške, je opazno, da so si zelo podobne in da imajo hrvaški učitelji višji rezultat pri večjem številu izjav. Opaženih razlik nismo podrobneje analizirali – glede na to, da medkulturne razlike niso predstavljale glavnega cilja tega prispevka. Pri pregledu povprečnih vrednosti je opaziti, da anketiranci izkazujejo sorazmerno večje strinjanje s trditvijo 1: Samouravnavanje učenja omogoča učencem boljše ovrednotenje svojega pristopa k učenju; in trditvijo 4: V okolju, v katerem se spodbuja samouravnavanje učenja, je lažje upoštevati izkušnje in interese učencev. Najnižje strinjanje so anketiranci izkazali s trditvijo 5: Učenci so zmožni sami določiti, česa se želijo na-učiti; in trditvijo 10: Osnovnošolski učenci so dovolj samodisciplinirani, da prevzamejo odgovornost za svoje učenje. Ti rezultati sugerirajo, da pri učiteljih še vedno prevladuje prepričanje o nezadostnih kapacitetah mlajših učencev za samouravnavanje učenja, kar ni v skladu s sodobnimi raziskovanji (Martinez-Pons, 2002; Neuman, 1996; Turner, 1995; Perry, 1998; Perry in Van de Kamp, 2000). Dobljeni rezultati, še posebej prepričanje učiteljev, da učenci niso zmožni sami določiti, česa se želijo učiti, ter da osnovnošolci niso dovolj samodisciplinirani, da prevzamejo odgovornost za svoje učenje, predstavljajo precejšnjo oviro za uvajanje metod, ki spodbujajo razvoj samouravnavanja učenja. Prepričanja učiteljev določa- jo njihove percepcije in procese odločanja, praktične teorije poučevanja in znanja (Errington, 2004; Ertmer, 2005) in s tem precej vplivajo na učiteljevo delo pri 75 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 75 26.4.2019 12:06:10 pouku (Warfield in sodelavci, 2005). Prepričanja jim v trenutkih hitrega ocenje-vanja služijo kot avtomatiziran odgovor na vprašanje, ali je nekaj mogoče ali ni. V tem smislu predstavljajo svojevrstna odprta ali zaprta vrata za spremembo v izobraževalni praksi, kar lahko spodbudi ali prepreči inovativne spremembe pri pouku (Errington, 2004). Začetni pregled dobljenih rezultatov kaže, da bi določe- na prepričanja učiteljev lahko predstavljala precejšnjo oviro za uvajanje metod, ki spodbujajo razvoj samoreguliranega učenja. S poznejšo analizo usposobljenosti za pedagoško delovanje bomo poskušali preveriti, ali v tem smislu obstaja možnost za razvoj v začetnem izobraževanju učiteljev. Prav tako je treba preveriti, ali so dobljeni rezultati pod vplivom dela navodila za uporabo lestvice s pojasnilom, kaj je sa- mouravnavanje učenja, v katerem avtorji lestvice (Lombaerts in sodelavci, 2009, str. 90) navajajo: »Med branjem te zgodbe o kolesarjenju ste se lahko začeli spraševati, ali ni morda nevarno učencev samih poslati na tako dolgo pot in to v nepoznano okolje. Enako je s samoreguliranjem učenja. V obveznem izobraževanju popolnega samostojnega uravnavanja učenja ni mogoče doseči.« Z uporabo lestvice brez na- vedenega pojasnila o samoreguliranem učenju bi lahko ugotovili, v kolikšni meri samo pojasnilo konstrukta samoreguliranega učenja vpliva na zadržana prepričanja učiteljev glede uporabnosti samoreguliranega učenja v izobraževalnem kontekstu. Da bi ugotovili faktorsko strukturo lestvice, smo opravili komponentno analizo z diagramom razprševanja ( Cattell scree test) kot kriterija za ohranjanje pomembnih komponent. Da bi ugotovili stabilnost faktorske strukture, smo analizo ponovili na podvzorcih slovenskih in hrvaških anketirancev (tabela 4.3). Rezultati v glavnem podpirajo enofaktorsko strukturo, ki so jo dobili avtorji izvirne lestvice. Čeprav imata prva dva faktorja lastno vrednost večjo od 1, grafična analiza upadanja lastne vrednosti na sukcesivno ekstrahiranih faktorjih (prve štiri lastne vrednosti: 4,423, 1,087, 0,910, 0,740) kaže, da prvi faktor pojasnjuje precej večjo količino variance rezultatov na lestvici v primerjavi z ostalimi faktorji. Vse izjave imajo visoko faktorsko nasičenost (nad 0,5) na ohranjenem faktorju in zadovoljive komunalitete (nad 0,3 razen izjave SARU10 na podvzorcu slovenskih učiteljev). Navedeni re- zultati kažejo, da vseh deset izjav meri en konstrukt in da je mogoče z linearnim kompozitom izjav sestaviti lestvico prepričanj učiteljev o samouravnavanju učenja, pri čemer višji rezultat na lestvici kaže na bolj pozitivna prepričanja o koristnosti in uporabnosti načel samouravnavanja učenja pri pouku. 76 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 76 26.4.2019 12:06:10 Tabela 4.1: Posamezne izjave lestvice prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju – hrvaška in slovenska različica Skrajšani naziv Hrvaška različica Slovenska različica Samoregulirano učenje omogućuje Samouravnavanje učenja omogoča učencem SARU01 učenicima bolje vrednovanje vlastitog boljše ovrednotenje svojega pristopa pristupa učenju. k učenju. Učenici bi trebali češće imati mogućnost Učenci bi morali pogosteje imeti možnost SARU02 odlučivati o tijeku i trajanju aktivnosti odločanja o zaporedju in trajanju učnih tijekom učenja. aktivnosti. Učenci bi morali pogosteje imeti možnost SARU03 Učenici bi trebali češće imati mogućnost odlučiti kada će raditi na zadatku. odločanja, kdaj bodo opravljali določeno učno nalogo. Lakše je uvažiti učenička iskustva V okolju, v katerem se spodbuja SARU04 i interese u okolini poticajnoj za samouravnavanje učenja, je lažje samoregulirano učenje. upoštevati izkušnje in interese učencev. SARU05 Učenici imaju sposobnost odrediti što Učenci so zmožni sami določiti, česa se želijo žele učiti. naučiti. SARU06 Svakom učeniku trebalo bi pružiti priliku Vsak učenec bi moral imeti priložnost da upravlja vlastitim procesom učenja. uravnavati svoje učenje. SARU07 Samoregulirano učenje može se Samouravnavanje učenja je možno izvajati primijeniti u osnovnoj školi. v osnovni šoli. Samoregulirano učenje pruža učenicima Samouravnavanje učenja zagotavlja učencem SARU08 temeljitiju pripremu za prijelaz u srednju temeljitejšo pripravo na prehod v srednjo školu. šolo. SARU09 Samoregulirano učenje dovodi do Samouravnavanje učenja vodi v učinkovitejše učinkovitije suradnje među učenicima. medsebojno sodelovanje med učenci. U osnovnoj školi učenici imaju potrebnu Osnovnošolski učenci so dovolj SARU10 razinu discipliniranosti za preuzimanje samodisciplinirani, da prevzamejo odgovornosti za vlastito učenje. odgovornost za svoje učenje. Tabela 4.2: Deskriptivni podatki posameznih izjav lestvice prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju Skupaj HR SL n M SD n M SD n M SD SARU01 1837 2,99 0,77 1086 2,95 0,80 751 3,04 0,71 SARU02 1849 2,38 0,92 1091 2,49 0,91 758 2,23 0,92 SARU03 1846 2,04 0,95 1092 2,09 0,97 754 1,95 0,91 SARU04 1837 2,95 0,75 1083 2,95 0,78 754 2,94 0,70 SARU05 1839 1,96 0,93 1085 2,07 0,92 754 1,81 0,92 SARU06 1829 2,46 0,89 1083 2,42 0,91 746 2,51 0,86 SARU07 1830 2,24 0,94 1079 2,25 0,96 751 2,23 0,90 SARU08 1843 2,72 0,88 1089 2,64 0,91 754 2,84 0,82 SARU09 1842 2,79 0,81 1085 2,79 0,84 757 2,78 0,78 SARU10 1844 1,86 0,99 1090 2,00 1,00 754 1,65 0,94 77 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 77 26.4.2019 12:06:10 Preliminarni rezultati eksploatornih faktorskih analiz sugerirajo, da so zadovoljeni pogoji invariantnosti faktorske strukture po številu pomembnih faktorjev (pri obeh analizah smo dobili podoben obrazec upadanja lastnih vrednosti, ki sugerira eno- faktorsko strukturo) in enakosti faktorskih nasičenj (korelacija faktorskih nasičenj prvega faktorja, pridobljenih na obeh podvzorcih, znaša 0,92). Navedeni podatki kažejo na možnost skupne uporabe pridobljenih podatkov in primerjavo rezulta- tov na podvzorcih. Ta sklep je treba še dodatno preveriti s podrobnimi analizami in konfirmatornimi modeli v posebni študiji, ki bi bila usmerjena v medkulturne razlike. Za zdaj lahko sklepamo, da je na vzorcu slovenskih in hrvaških učiteljev potrjena izvirna, enofaktorska struktura, ki so jo na vzorcu belgijskih učiteljev dobili Lombaerts in sodelavci (2009). Tabela 4.3: Rezultati faktorske analize lestvice prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju Skupaj HR SL unaliteta unaliteta unaliteta Faktorska nasičenost m Faktorska m Faktorska m Ko nasičenost Ko nasičenost Ko SARU01 ,564 ,318 ,570 ,325 ,565 ,319 SARU02 ,695 ,483 ,706 ,499 ,682 ,465 SARU03 ,681 ,464 ,683 ,466 ,674 ,455 SARU04 ,624 ,389 ,612 ,375 ,640 ,410 SARU05 ,563 ,317 ,562 ,316 ,565 ,320 SARU06 ,672 ,452 ,666 ,444 ,693 ,480 SARU07 ,750 ,563 ,768 ,591 ,720 ,519 SARU08 ,734 ,539 ,758 ,574 ,727 ,528 SARU09 ,754 ,568 ,772 ,597 ,722 ,521 SARU10 ,575 ,330 ,601 ,362 ,535 ,286 Lastna vrednost 4,423 4,548 4,302 % pojasnjene variance 44,227 45,476 43,021 Deskriptivna analiza lestvice prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju na skupnem, hrvaškem in slovenskem vzorcu (tabela 4.4) kaže, da je na lestvici dosežen teoretični razpon rezultatov (na slovenskem vzorcu nihče ni imel teoretičnega minimuma, medtem ko na hrvaškem vzorcu nihče ni imel teoretičnega maksimuma) in da imajo anketiranci na Hrvaškem in v Sloveniji enak povprečni rezultat (čeprav preliminarne analize kažejo, da je majhna razlika v korist hrvaških učiteljev statistično pomembna, je treba ta rezultat podrobneje analizirati v naknadni medkulturni študiji). 78 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 78 26.4.2019 12:06:10 Tabela 4.4: Deskriptivni podatki lestvice prepričanj učiteljev o samoreguliranem učenju na skupnem, hrvaškem in slovenskem vzorcu Skupaj HR SL n 1735 1017 718 Min 0,00 0,00 0,30 Max 4,00 3,90 4,00 M 2,4427 2,4715 2,4018 SD 0,5826 0,6030 0,5503 α 0,856 0,864 0,848 *p<0,05 Opravili smo analize, povezane z glavnim raziskovalnim vprašanjem: V kolikšni meri je usposabljanje učiteljev za poklicno delovanje povezano s prepričanji o samouravnavanju učenja in ali je ta povezanost na Hrvaškem in v Sloveniji različna? Bivariantno regresivno analizo smo opravili, da bi ugotovili, kolikšen del variance prepričanj o samouravnavanju učenja je mogoče pojasniti s samooceno usposobljenosti za poklicno delovanje. Rezultati analize so pokazali, da je izredno majhen, vendar statistično pomemben del variance prepričanj o samouravnavanju učenja mogoče pojasniti z učiteljevo usposobljenostjo: R2 = 0,015, F(1, 1630) = 24.104, p<0.01. Za povečanje za eno točko na lestvici usposobljenosti model predvideva povečanje za b = 0,126 (t = 4,91; p<0,01) točk na lestvici pozitivnih mnenj glede samouravnavanja učenja. Poudariti je treba, da je povezanost izrazito šibka in da napovedovalec pojasnjuje zelo majhen del variance odvisne spremenljivke. Dobljeni parametri so statistično pomembni izključno zaradi velikosti vzorca in majhne standardne napake parametrov, ne pa zaradi velikega ali praktično relevantnega učinka usposobljenosti na mnenja učiteljev o samouravnavanju učenja. Da bi ugotovili, ali je Pearsonova korelacija med lestvico prepričanj učiteljev o samouravnavanju učenja in lestvico usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje statistično pomembno različna na podvzorcih slovenskih in hrvaških anketirancev, smo opravili testiranje pomembnosti razlik med neodvisnimi korelacijami ob Fisherjevih z-transformacijah korelacij (Cohen in Cohen, 1983; Preacher, 2002). Ugotovili smo, da je povezanost prepričanj o samouravnavanju učenja in usposobljenosti na celotnem vzorcu (n = 1632; r = 0,121; p<0,001) in na podvzorcih nizka, pozitivna, statistično pomembna in se statistično ne razlikuje pomembno na podvzorcu anketirancev iz Hrvaške v primerjavi s korelacijo, dobljeno na podvzorcu anketirancev iz Slovenije: korselacija na vzorcu hrvaških učiteljev je r (n = 931) = 0,111, p = 0,001; korelacija na vzorcu slovenskih učiteljev je r (n = 701) = 0,130, p = 0,001; z = 1,850, p = 0,700. Avtorice lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje (Čepić in sode- lavke, 2017) navajajo, da hrvaški in slovenski učitelji zelo visoko ocenjujejo svojo 79 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 79 26.4.2019 12:06:10 usposobljenost na vseh zajetih področjih delovanja. Pri tem puščajo odprto mo- žnost, da dobljeni rezultat odraža bolj nagnjenost k dajanju družbeno želenega od- govora kakor pa dejansko usposobljenost udeležencev raziskave. Rezultati, prikaza- ni v tem prispevku, kažejo, da ta usposobljenost nima velikega pozitivnega učinka na proaktivna mnenja o možnosti uporabe metod za spodbujanje samouravnavanja učenja v osnovnem izobraževanju in da pri tem ni razlik med slovenskimi in hrva- škimi učitelji. Bolj zaskrbljujoče od tega rezultata je samo spoznanje, da učitelji pri svoji visoki oceni lastne usposobljenosti, po vsem sodeč, teh znanj ne pogrešajo, kar je sklep, ki ga bo treba preveriti s prihodnjimi raziskavami, usmerjenimi specifično v usposobljenost za razvoj samoreguliranega učenja med začetnim izobraževanjem. 4.8 Sklep Samouravnavanje učenja je osebni proces učencev, na katerega, med drugim, vpli- vajo kompetence in lastnosti učiteljev. Težko se je popolnoma samostojno in sa- moregulirano učiti brez učitelja, saj je v neločljivi zvezi učenja in poučevanja vedno prisoten, vsaj v smislu usmerjanja in organizacije informacij, kar je v sodobnem svetu lahko zelo avtomatiziran informacijski proces. Pri vsakdanjem delu, še pose- bej z mlajšimi, je učitelj ključni del samouravnavanja učenja ravno kot oblikovalec okolja in pogojev, ugodnih za samoregulirano učenje. Še pomembnejša je njegova vloga pri poučevanju samouravnavanja učenja skozi medpredmetne teme, kot je tema »učenje učenja«. Učitelj je ključen tudi za razvoj kompetence samouravnava- nja učenja kot temeljnega predpogoja za vseživljenjsko učenje. Žal raziskave kažejo, da učitelji v nezadostni meri spodbujajo samouravnavanje učenja. Del razlogov je moč najti v naravi osnovnih programskih dokumentov, ki pretirano predpisujejo in uravnavajo, del razlogov pa je tudi v negotovosti učite- ljev za uporabo take metode, ki jo imajo za pretirano radikalno in negotovo glede na rezultate učenja. Zaradi pomanjkljivosti v začetnem izobraževanju učitelji niso prepričani, v kolikšni meri morajo usmerjati učence, v kolikšni meri pa jih mora- jo usposobiti, da bi sami upravljali proces učenja (Perry in Van de Kamp, 2000). Učitelji se ravno tako ne čutijo dovolj usposobljene za razvijanje spretnosti samo- uravnavanja pri učencih (Boekaerts, 1997). Če bi sistematično proučili povezanost prepričanj učiteljev o samouravnavanju učenja z njihovim praktičnim delom in rezultati poučevanja, bi lahko prišli do odgovora na vprašanje, zakaj nekateri uči- telji spreminjajo in prilagajajo svoje poučevanje, da bi ga naredili spodbudnega za proaktivno samoregulirano učenje, drugi pa se trdno držijo ustaljenih učnih metod (Warfield in sodelavci, 2005). 80 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 80 26.4.2019 12:06:10 Po prilagoditvi in prevodu lestvice, ki so jo sestavili Lombaerts in sodelavci (2009), smo ugotovili izvirno enofaktorsko strukturo, ki je pokazala zadovoljivo faktorsko stabilnost na podvzorcih slovenskih in hrvaških učiteljev. Tudi zanesljivost lestvice pri obeh podvzorcih je bila zadovoljiva. 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PRILOGA 1 Navodila za uporabo lestvice prepričanj učiteljev o samouravnavanju učenja Postopek in besedila so prevzeti, prevedeni in prilagojeni po gradivu, ki so nam ga z dovoljenjem, da prevedemo in uporabljamo lestvico, dali avtorji lestvice (Lombaerts, De Backer, Engels, van Braak in Athanasou, 2009). Odstopanje od pričujočih navodil in strukture lahko privede do otežene primerjave rezultatov. Lestvica je sestavljena iz 10 izjav, prikazanih v tabeli 1, s priloženim navodilom: 84 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 84 26.4.2019 12:06:10 Hrvaška različica: Nakon pročitanog opisa samoreguliranog učenja molimo Vas da na sljedećoj skali zaokružite broj koji najbolje odražava stupanj Vašega slaganja s pojedinom tvr- dnjom. 0 = Uopće se ne slažem; 1 = Uglavnom se ne slažem; 2 = Niti se slažem, niti se ne slažem; 3 = Uglavnom se slažem; 4 = U potpunosti se slažem. Slovenska različica: Na osnovi prebranega opisa samouravnavanja učenja vas prosimo, da na spodnji lestvici obkrožite številko, ki najbolj izraža stopnjo vašega strinjanja s posamezno trditvijo.; 0 = Sploh se ne strinjam; 1 = V glavnem se ne strinjam; 2 = Niti se strinjam niti se ne strinjam; 3 = V glavnem se strinjam; 4 = Popolnoma se strinjam. Pred navodili in izpolnjevanjem lestvice je anketirancem v obliki kratke zgodbe razložen konstrukt samouravnavanja učenja. Avtorji pri sestavljanju lestvice niso domnevali, da so anketiranci med začetnim izobraževanjem ali poklicnim izpo- polnjevanjem dobili dovolj informacij o tem, kaj je samouravnavanje učenja, zato so menili, da bi bilo primerno ta konstrukt opisati na učiteljem jasen in dostopen način. Sčasoma uporaba te zgodbe za pojasnilo morda ne bo več potrebna, vendar vedno obstaja možnost, da kakemu anketirancu ne bo jasno, kaj ta izraz pomeni, ali bo imel napačno predstavo o pomenu tega izraza. Zato bi bilo zaželeno, da se ta opis zaradi izenačenosti in primerljivosti dobljenih rezultatov uporablja v vseh raziskavah. Tako z uporabo lestvice hkrati učitelje informiramo o (spomnimo na) samouravnavanju učenja. Hrvaška različica zgodbe: Učenje samoregulacije možemo usporediti s vožnjom i upravljanjem biciklom. Zamislite učenika koji upravlja biciklom. On može i mora odlučiti o puno toga: kamo ići, koliko brzo voziti, koju cestu odabrati. Ako je vožnja duga, mora razmisliti i kada će napraviti stanku kako bi npr., provjerio svoj položaj na karti, kontrolirao je li još uvijek na pravom putu ili provjerio što mu slijedi na putu isl. Istodobno, on preuzima odgovornost: vozeći kroz nepoznato područje mora prikupiti informacije o tom području, utvrditi rutu kojom želi voziti i pri čemu ne može druge okriviti ako vozi u pogrešnom smjeru. Na sličan način može se opisati samoregulirano učenje. Potpuno samoreguliran učenik: • određuje što želi učiti ( kamo želi ići); • utvrđuje što mu je sve za to potrebno ( prikuplja informacije); 85 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 85 26.4.2019 12:06:10 • razvija plan kako će savladati zadatak učenja ( utvrđuje rutu vožnje); • utvrđuje ritam rada ( koliko brzo želi voziti); • odlučuje kako će učiti ( odabir ceste); • redovito prati napredak ( kontrola); • radi prilagodbe sve do postizanja željenih rezultata. Čitajući ovu priču o biciklistu, možda ste se zapitali nije li prilično opasno poslati učenike same na dug put u nepoznatom okruženju. Isto vrijedi za samoregulirano učenje. Potpuno samoregulirano učenje nije ostvarivo u obaveznom obrazovanju. Ipak, u obrazovnom okruženju učenik može preuzeti odgovornost za različite za- datke kroz koje ga tradicionalno vodi i o kojima se brine učitelj. Također, samo- regulirano učiti ne znači učiti sam. Surađivati s drugim učenicima i tražiti savjet, ključni su elementi samoreguliranog učenja. Vožnja biciklom moguća je i u društvu. Slovenska različica zgodbe: Učenje samouravnavanja lahko primerjamo z vožnjo in upravljanjem kolesa. Pred- stavljajte si, da učenec vozi kolo. Učenec se lahko in se mora odločiti o mnogih stvareh: kam bo šel, kako hitro bo vozil, katero pot bo izbral. Če gre za daljšo vožnjo, mora razmisliti, kje bo naredil krajši postanek, torej mora preveriti svoj položaj na zemljevidu, če je še na pravi poti, ali predvideti, kaj na poti še lahko sledi, ipd. Istočasno učenec prevzema odgovornost: ker se vozi po nepoznanem področju, mora najprej zbrati informacije o tem področju, narediti načrt poti ... in ne more kriviti drugih, če se pelje v napačno smer. Lahko ste opazili, da so bili določeni izrazi zapisani poševno. Konec koncev bi lahko enake izraze uporabili, ko opisujemo samouravnavanje učenja. Učenec, ki v celoti samouravnava svoje učenje: določa, kaj se želi učiti ( kam bo šel), ugotovi, kaj vse potrebuje za to ( zbira informacije), načrtuje reševanje učne naloge ( načrt poti), odloča o delovnem tempu ( kako hitro), odloča, kako se bo učil ( izbira poti), redno preverja, nadzira napredek ( preverjanje), se prilagaja, dokler ne doseže želenih rezultatov. Med branjem te zgodbe o kolesarjenju ste se lahko začeli spraševati, ali ni morda nevarno učencev samih poslati na tako dolgo pot, in to v nepoznano okolje. Enako je s samouravnavanjem učenja. V obveznem izobraževanju popolnega samostojnega uravnavanja učenja ni mogoče doseči. Kljub temu lahko učenci v formalnih izobra- ževalnih okoljih prevzamejo odgovornost za mnoge naloge, za katere tradicionalno poskrbi učitelj. Prav tako samouravnavanje učenja ni sinonim za to, da se nekdo uči sam. Skupno delo z ostalimi učenci in iskanje nasvetov so ključni elementi samouravnavanja učenja. Na pot s kolesom gremo lahko tudi skupaj z drugimi. 86 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 86 26.4.2019 12:06:10 olnoma rinjam 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Pop se st vnem rinjam 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 V gla se sti iti se rinjam 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 N rinjam nitst se ne st vnem 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 se ne rinjam V gla st h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Splo se ne rinjamst . o. . vici vijo oje učenje rdit ednjo šolo odnji lest a sv zno t istopa k učenju. vati izkušnje in ehod v sr nost z , da na sp osame ajanju učnih aktivnosti. ovor ojega pr ljali določeno učno nalogav o na pr vanje med učenci. osimo av edju in tr . ipr rinjanja s p amejo odg apor je lažje upošte evz vrednotenje sv kdaj bodo opr oje učenje anja o z vni šoli. da pr loč anja, ani, vanja učenja vas pr loč elijo naučiti. avnavati sv avna a stopnjo vašega st avnavanje učenja, vitejše medsebojno sodelo až žnost od žnost od azličice: a učencem boljše o lja učencem temeljitejšo pr olj izr oč česa se ž žnost urilo žno izvajati v osno otav mog ag odi v učinko volj samodisciplinir venske r , ki najb osteje imeti mo o slo anega opisa samour osteje imeti mo al imeti pr vilko ab ebr em se spodbuja samour or ali pog ali pog v. žni sami določiti, vi pr ožite štekr avnavanje učenja o v kater avnavanje učenja je mo avnavanje učenja z avnavanje učenja v ela z up a osno ob ese učence vnošolski učenci so do N kolju, Tab Samour Učenci bi mor Učenci bi mor V o inter Učenci so zmo Vsak učenec bi mor Samour Samour Samour Osno 87 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 87 26.4.2019 12:06:10 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 88 26.4.2019 12:06:10 5 Usposobljenost učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka v inkluzivnih razredih Sanja Skočić Mihić 5.1 Uvod Inkluzivna izobraževalna politika, za katero je bila dana pobuda na svetovnih kon- ferencah Združenih narodov (Unesco, 1990; 1994), spodbuja vključevanje otrok in mladih/odraslih z raznolikimi težavami v redno izobraževanje. V 24. členu Kon- vencije o pravicah invalidov (UN, 2006) so definirane pravice invalidov, in sicer da imajo invalidi enako kot drugi dostop do vključujočega, kakovostnega in brezplač- nega izobraževanja v skupnostih, v katerih živijo, pravico do primernih prilagoditev glede na posameznikove potrebe, pravico do invalidom v splošnem izobraževalnem sistemu potrebne pomoči in učinkovitega izobraževanja ter pravico do učinkovite, posamezniku prilagojene pomoči v okolju, ki invalidom zagotavlja največji možni akademski in socialni razvoj, da se doseže popolna vključenost. Republika Hrvaška, kot tudi večina evropskih držav (Meijer, 2010), z ratifikacijo navedene konvencije oblikuje inkluzivno izobraževalno zakonodajo, ki se navezuje na izobraževalno politiko integracije (Zakon o vzgoji in izobraževanju, 1980). Sredi prvega desetletja 21. stoletja se je začelo usklajevanje nacionalne izobraževalne politike z mednarodno in evropsko inkluzivno zakonodajo (Državni pedagoški standard osnovnošolske vzgoje in izobraževanja, 2008, Zakon o vzgoji in izobraževanju v osnovni in srednji šoli, 2008). Najmočnejši obrat v smeri inkluzivne izobraževalne politike predstavlja Pravilnik o osnovnošolski vzgoji in izobraževanju učencev s težavami v razvoju (2015), ki predvideva prilagoditev osnovnošolskega sistema vzgoje in izobraževanja potrebam vsakega otroka kot tudi sistem profesionalne podpore učencem z raznoliki- mi težavami, njihovim staršem in strokovnim delavcem, ki se z njimi srečujejo. Inkluzivno izobraževanje je »proces upoštevanja vseh učencev in odgovarjanja na njihove različne potrebe z večanjem njihovega sodelovanja pri učenju, komunikaci- ji in v skupnosti ter tudi z zmanjševanjem njihove izključenosti v in iz izobraževanja« (Unesco, 2005, str. 13). To je celovit koncept in kontinuiran proces odpravljanja vseh oblik diskriminacije in zagotavljanja izobraževanja za vse (Unesco, 2009), globalni deskriptor izobraževalnih politik (Vislie, 2003). Razvoj kakovostnega izobraževalnega sistema je ključni izziv pri izgradnji bolj inkluzivnih, pravičnejših skupnosti, ki so pripravljene odgovoriti na ogromno raznolikost vzgojno-izobra- ževalnih potreb ljudi in spoštovanje različnosti in različnih potreb in sposobnosti, značilnosti in izobrazbenih dosežkov učencev (Acedo, Amadio in Opertti, 2008). 89 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 89 26.4.2019 12:06:10 Ustvarjalci evropske izobraževalne politike se strinjajo, da učitelji potrebujejo znanje, spretnosti, stališča in vrednote za poučevanje v skladu z individualnimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami vseh učencev (Kaikkonen, Maunonen- -Eskelinen in Aidukiene, 2007). Evropska agencija za razvoj izobraževanja učen- cev s posebnimi potrebami je izdelala profil »inkluzivnega« učitelja, tako da je identificirala temeljne spretnosti, znanje in razumevanje, stališča in vrednote, ki jih potrebujejo kandidati za učiteljski poklic, ne glede na predmet, ki ga pou- čujejo, stroko, starost, ali vrsto šole, v kateri so zaposleni (European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2012, str. 11). Definirane so bile štiri temeljne vrednote in področja kompetenc vseh učiteljev v inkluzivnem izobraže- vanju: (1) vrednotenje različnosti pri učencih kot vira in vrednote izobraževanja; (2) podpora vsem učencem in visoka pričakovanja za dosežke vseh učencev; (3) sodelovanje in skupinsko delo sta temeljna pristopa za vse učitelje; (4) poklicni razvoj vključuje poučevanje kot dejavnost učenja in učitelje, ki prevzemajo odgo- vornost za svoje vseživljenjsko izobraževanje. V inkluzivnem izobraževanju so stališča učiteljev temelj za razvoj inkluzivne prakse, saj je znano, da se vedenje usklajuje s stališči (Avramidis in Norwich, 2002). Številne raziskave (Avramidis in Kalyva, 2007; Beacham in Rouse, 2012; Campbell, Gilmore in Cuskelly, 2003; Cook, Cameron in Tankersley, 2007; de Boer, Timmerman, Pijl in Minnaert, 2012; Malinen, Savolainen in Xu, 2012; Sharma in Sokal, 2015; Wilde in Avramidis, 2011) so ugotovile pozitivna stališča učiteljev glede inkluzivnega izobraževanja. Skladno z rezultati metaanaliz (Avramidis in Norwich, 2002; Scruggs in Mastropieri, 1996) učitelji podpirajo inkluzivno izobraževanje, čeprav se ne čutijo dovolj usposobljeni za njegovo implementacijo. Še posebej ocenjujejo, da niso dovolj usposobljeni za poučevanje učencev s težavami v razvoju, kot so vedenjske, kogni-tivne in številne druge težave (Avramidis, Bayliss in Burden, 2000a). Zato omenjeni avtorji menijo, da mnenja učiteljev še vedno odražajo paradigmo integracije in medi-cinskega modela namesto paradigme inkluzije in socialnega modela. Prav tako se učitelji, kljub pozitivnim stališčem o inkluzivnem izobraževanju, ne ocenjujejo za dovolj kompetentne za poučevanje učencev z raznolikimi težavami v rednih oddelkih. Na splošno učitelji izkazujejo nižjo raven usposobljenosti za poučevanje v inkluzivnih oddelkih (Avramidis in Norwich, 2002; McHatton in McCray, 2007; Scruggs in Mastropieri, 1996; Skočić Mihić, 2011; Stanisavlje- vić-Petrović in Stančić, 2010; Cains in Brown, 1996; Lombardi in Hunka, 2001; Skočić Mihić, Lončarić, Kolumbo, Perger, Nastić, Trgović, 2014; Skočić Mihić, 2011; Kudek Mirošević, 2016; Kudek Mirošević in Jurčević Lozančić, 2014). Uči- telji, ki so izobraženi za delo s takimi otroki in imajo izkušnje pri delu z njimi, se 90 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 90 26.4.2019 12:06:10 čutijo bolj kompetentni (Avramidis in Norwich, 2002; Forlin, 2001; Skočić Mihić, 2011). Tudi študenti, ki imajo med študijem praktične izkušnje z delom z učenci z raznolikimi težavami, ocenjujejo, da so bolj usposobljeni za inkluzivno pouče- vanje (Skočić Mihić, Lončarić in Rudelić, 2011), kakor tudi vzgojitelji, ki imajo pozitivna stališča o predšolski inkluziji (Skočić Mihić, Sekušak-Galešev, 2017). Večje kompetence učiteljev in vzgojiteljev so povezane z bolj pozitivnimi stališči in sodelovanjem v začetnem ali stalnem strokovnem izpopolnjevanju o inkluzivnem poučevanju (Sharma in Sokal, 2015). Številni avtorji izpostavljajo pomen začetnega izobraževanja za pridobivanje kom- petenc učiteljev za inkluzivno poučevanje (Acedo, 2008; Avramidis, Bayliss in Bur- den, 2000a; Avramidis, Bayliss in Burden, 2000b; Avramidis in Norwich, 2002; Florian, 2012; Peček in Macura-Milovanović, 2012; Conderman in Johnston-Ro- driguez, 2009; Harvey, Yssel, Bauserman in Merbler, 2010; Sze, 2009). Začetno izobraževanje vpliva tudi na pozitivna stališča učiteljev in študentov, bodočih učiteljev, o inkluziji kakor tudi o kompetentnosti za izdelavo, izvajanje in vrednote- nje individualiziranih vzgojno-izobraževalnih programov (IP) (Avramidis, Bayliss in Burden, 2000a; Avramidis, Bayliss in Burden, 2000b; Van Laarhoven, Munk, Lynch, Bosma in Rouse, 2007). Sharma in Sokal (2015) sta opravila evalvacijsko raziskavo med bodočimi učitelji pred in po obiskovanju predavanj o inkluzivnem izobraževanju in ugotovila, da so pod vplivom informacij stališča bodočih učiteljev postala bolj pozitivna, njihova zaskrbljenost se je zmanjšala, povečal pa se je občutek usposobljenosti za poučevanje v inkluzivnih oddelkih. V veliki raziskavi Scruggsa in Mastropierija (1996) le tretjina učiteljev verjame, da ima ustrezne spretnosti, pripravljenost in podporo, potrebne za uspešno poučevanje učencev s posebnimi potrebami. Učitelji bi morali imeti kompetence za or- ganiziranje in prilagajanje neposrednega razrednega okolja, strategije poučevanja, načine nadzora in vrednotenja napredka, ki so zasnovane na močnih področjih teh učencev in možnostih za doseganje uspeha (Martan, Skočić Mihić in Lončarić, 2015). Individualizacija in usmerjenost k otroku, inkluzivnost, celovitost, sodelo- vanje in dostopnost so zagotovljeni preko izdelave individualiziranih vzgojno-iz- obraževalnih programov (Skočić Mihić, Beaudoin in Krsnik, 2016). Za resnično individualizacijo programa učitelji potrebujejo specifične kompetence, metodična znanja pri delu z otroki s posebnimi potrebami, specifične poklicne spretnosti, zato se individualizirani program (IP) izdela skupinsko, v sodelovanju s specialnimi pedagogi, učitelji in drugimi strokovnjaki (Bouillet, 2010). Vzgojitelji, ki imajo izdelan individualizirani program dela za otroke s posebnimi potrebami, v primer- javi z vzgojitelji, ki tega programa nimajo, ugotavljajo pomen znanja in spretnosti 91 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 91 26.4.2019 12:06:10 za prilagajanje programa dela in njegovo implementacijo za uspešno vključevanje (Rudelić, Skočić Mihić in Pinoza Kukurin, 2013). Ravno spretnosti individualiziranega poučevanja so bistvene pri inkluzivnem izo- braževanju in inkluzivni učitelj bi moral prepoznati učenčeve individualne potrebe in učni stil (Kudek Mirošević, 2016). Za učitelje v inkluzivnih razredih je temeljni izziv uporaba učinkovitih strategij poučevanja, ki so prilagojene individualnim potrebam učencev (Yuen, Westwood in Wong, 2004). Sodobni inkluzivni in izobraževalni trendi poudarjajo, da je značilnost kakovostnega poučevanja individualizirani pristop, ki temelji na močnih področjih vsakega učenca. Poučevanje v današnjih izrazito heterogenih razredih v smislu vzgojno-izobraževalnih potreb učencev zahteva visoko raven kompetenc učiteljev za učno diferenciacijo in individualizacijo. V skladu z navedenimi aktualnimi spoznanji je prispevek usmerjen v ugotavljanje: (1) preverjanja merskih karakteristik uporabljene lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka, (2) samoocenjene ravni usposobljenosti hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljev za inkluzivno poučevanje/izvedbo individualiziranega pouka, (3) razlik v usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka glede na spol in delovno mesto, (4) povezanosti usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka in poklicne usposobljenosti glede na starost in delovno dobo. 5.2 Metoda 5.2.1 Vzorec anketirancev V raziskavi je sodelovalo 1989 razrednih in predmetnih učiteljev, od tega 1195 hr- vaških in 794 slovenskih. Povprečna starost učiteljev je 42 let (SD = 10,20; Min = 24; Max = 66), s povprečno delovno dobo 17 let (SD = 11,01; Min = 0; Max = 44). Povprečna starost in delovna doba učiteljev iz podvzorcev sta prikazani v tabeli 5.1. Tabela 5.1: Osnovni statistični kazalniki starosti in delovne dobe učiteljev hrvaškega in slovenskega podvzorca Hrvaški učitelji Slovenski učitelji n Min-Max M(SD) n Min-Max M(SD) Starost 1173 24-65 41,69 (10,64) 771 25-66 43,60 (9,37) Delovna doba 1169 0-44 16,23 (11,08) 775 0-40 18,93 (10,73) Od skupnega števila učiteljev, ki so odgovorili na vprašanje o delovnem mestu, je v skupnem vzorcu 42 % razrednih in 58 % predmetnih učiteljev. V hrvaškem podvzorcu je 39 % razrednih in 61 % predmetnih učiteljev, medtem ko je v sloven- skem vzorcu 48 % razrednih in 52 % predmetnih učiteljev. 92 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 92 26.4.2019 12:06:10 5.2.2 Merske karakteristike merilnega instrumenta Lestvica usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka je skraj- šana različica lestvice Teachers‘ perceptions of skills needed for teaching diverse students (Avramidis, Bayliss in Burden, 2000a). Vsebuje 8 izjav, ki opisujejo samooceno učiteljeve usposobljenosti za pripravo, izvajanje in vrednotenje individuali- ziranega vzgojno-izobraževalnega programa (IP) in uporabo nasvetov strokovnih sodelavcev, sodelovanje z učitelji pri usklajevanju in izvajanju prilagoditev za učen-ce, ki jih potrebujejo, individualizacijo pri poučevanju različnih učencev, spodbujanje razvoja socialnih spretnosti učencev in vzdrževanje oddelčne discipline. Učitelji so odgovarjali na 5-stopenjski lestvici Likertovega tipa, ki je vključevala naslednje vrednosti: 1 – nisem usposobljen, 2 – slabo sem usposobljen, 3 – delno sem usposobljen, 4 – dobro sem usposobljen, 5 – zelo dobro sem usposobljen. S faktorsko analizo lestvice usposobljenosti za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka smo dobi- li en faktor, ki pojasnjuje 61,17 % skupne variance (lastna vrednost je 4,893) na vzorcu hrvaških učiteljev in 56,80 % skupne variance (lastna vrednost je 4,544) na vzorcu slovenskih učiteljev. Cronbach-alfa koeficient zanesljivosti znaša α = 0,908 za hrvaški in α = 0,889 za slovenski vzorec učiteljev. V tabeli 5.2 so prikazane komunalitete in faktorske nasičenosti na izjavah lestvice usposobljenosti za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka. Tabela 5.2: Faktorska struktura lestvice usposobljenosti za individualizirani pristop k učencem z raznolikimi težavami Hrvaška Slovenija Usposobljenost učiteljev za: h2 β h2 β izvajanje IP ,765 ,875 ,747 ,864 vrednotenje IP ,761 ,872 ,760 ,872 upoštevanje nasvetov strokovnih sodelavcev2 ,671 ,819 ,656 ,810 izdelavo IP ,664 ,815 ,575 ,758 sodelovanje z učitelji1 ,663 ,815 ,607 ,779 individualizacijo pri poučevanju različnih učencev3 ,570 ,755 ,554 ,774 spodbujanje razvoja socialnih spretnosti pri učencih ,416 ,645 ,364 ,604 vzdrževanje oddelčne discipline ,383 ,619 ,281 ,530 IP – individualizirani vzgojno-izobraževalni program 1 – pri usklajevanju in izvedbi prilagoditev programa za učence 2 – (npr. pedagogov, psihologov, logopedov) v pripravi, izvajanju in vrednotenju IP 3 – iz različnih večkulturnih okolij, s posebnimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami ... 93 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 93 26.4.2019 12:06:10 5.2.3 Metode obdelave podatkov Prikazani so osnovni statistični kazalniki (aritmetična sredina, standardna deviaci-ja, minimalni in maksimalni rezultat) po posameznih izjavah vprašalnika. S faktorsko analizo, metodo največje podobnosti ( maximum likehood), za ekstrakci-jo faktorjev pa z oblimin rotacijo in uporabo Cattelovega grafičnega prikaza upa- danja lastnih vrednosti ( screeplot) smo ugotovili faktorsko strukturo. Za ugotavljanje povezanosti med faktorji in kontinuiranimi spremenljivkami smo uporabili Pearsonov koeficient korelacije. S t-testom za neodvisne skupine spremenljivk smo testirali razlike med skupinami anketirancev glede na spol in delovno mesto: ra- zredni in predmetni učitelj. Izračunali smo Pearsonov koeficient korelacije med faktorji lestvic, za testiranje dobljenih razlik na podvzorcih slovenskih in hrvaških anketirancev pa smo opravili testiranje pomembnosti razlik med neodvisnimi korelacijami s Fisherjevimi z-transformacijami. 5.3 Rezultati in razprava 5.3.1 Usposobljenost hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka Osnovni statistični kazalniki na lestvici usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvedbo in- dividualiziranega pouka na vzorcu hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljev so prikazani v tabeli 5.3. Tabela 5.3: Osnovni statistični kazalniki na lestvici usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka Hrvaška Slovenija Usposobljenost učiteljev za: n M(SD) n M(SD) vzdrževanje oddelčne discipline 1088 4,11(.410) 755 3,95(.720) spodbujanje razvoja socialnih spretnosti pri učencih 1093 4,03(.740) 754 3,80(.718) sodelovanje z učitelji1 1088 3,61(.846) 752 3,82(.771) upoštevanje nasvetov strokovnih sodelavcev2 1086 3,50(.848) 751 3,78(.783) izvajanje IP 1097 3,30(.897) 756 3,28(.888) individualizacijo pri poučevanju različnih učencev3 1082 3,29(.928) 753 3,27(.853) vrednotenje IP 1092 3,20(.920) 754 3,20(.933) izdelavo IP 1093 3,13(.965) 754 3,79(1.03) Skupaj 1117 3,53(.685) 750 3,52(.629) IP – individualizirani vzgojno-izobraževalni program 1 – pri usklajevanju in izvedbi prilagoditev programa za učence, ki jih potrebujejo 2 – (npr. pedagogov, psihologov, logopedov) v pripravi, izvedbi in vrednotenju IP 3 – iz različnih večkulturnih okolij, s posebnimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami ... 94 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 94 26.4.2019 12:06:11 Pri vseh postavkah lestvice usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka je dosežen maksimalni in minimalni rezultat, z največjo razpršenostjo rezultatov pri izjavah, ki opisujejo izdelavo, izvajanje in vrednotenje IP ter individualizacijo pri poučevanju učencev iz različnih medkulturnih okolij, s posebnimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami in drugih učencev. Hrvaški in slovenski učitelji v največji meri ocenjujejo, da so usposobljeni za vzdr- ževanje oddelčne discipline in spodbujanje razvoja socialnih spretnosti učencev. Temu sledi sodelovanje z drugimi učitelji pri usklajevanju in izvedbi prilagoditev programov za učence, ki jih potrebujejo, in s strokovnimi sodelavci, na primer s pedagogi, psihologi, logopedi in drugimi pri pripravi, izvajanju in vrednotenju in- dividualiziranega vzgojno-izobraževalnega programa (IP) za učence s posebnimi potrebami. Za navedene sposobnosti ocenjujejo, da so dobro usposobljeni, medtem ko za individualizacijo pri poučevanju učencev iz različnih večkulturnih okolij in za izvajanje in vrednotenje IP za učence s posebnimi potrebami tako hrvaški kot slovenski učitelji ocenjujejo, da so delno usposobljeni. Med navedenimi sposobnostmi je edina razlika med slovenskimi in hrvaškimi uči- telji pri oceni usposobljenosti za izdelavo IP za učence s posebnimi potrebami. Slovenski učitelji ocenjujejo, da so dobro usposobljeni, hrvaški pa, da so delno. Kompetence predstavljajo dinamično kombinacijo kognitivnih in metakognitivnih spretnosti, znanj in razumevanja, medčloveških in praktičnih spretnosti ter etičnih vrednot (Lončarić in Pejić Papak, 2009; Novović, 2010). Označujejo uporabo dolo- čenih sposobnosti ali spretnosti za opravljanje nalog, možnost presojanja dosežkov in se lahko razvijajo z vajo in izobraževanjem (Tuning, 2006 v Vizek Vidović, 2009). Po rezultatih te medkulturne študije hrvaški in slovenski učitelji izenačeno ocenjujejo, da so za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka dobro usposobljeni, vendar na spodnji ravni vrednosti. Vrednosti njihove samoocene so le neznatno nad delno usposobljenostjo, kar je skladno s prej navedenimi raziskavami po svetu kakor tudi z domačimi raziskavami (Skočić Mihić in sodelavci, 2014; Skočić Mihić, 2011; Kudek Mirošević, 2016; Kudek Mirošević in Jurčević Lozančić, 2014; Martan, Matošević in Skočić Mihić, 2017), ki dosledno kažejo, da učitelji, vzgojitelji in študenti, ki se izobražujejo za ta dva poklica, ne čutijo, da so dovolj usposobljeni za inkluzivno poučevanje. Rezultati raziskave Kudek Mirošević (2016) na vzorcu hrvaških učiteljev in štu- dentov so pokazali višjo raven samoocenjenih kompetenc študentov tretjega let- nika in zaposlenih učiteljev za načrtovanje pouka in izdelavo prilagojenih učnih gradiv in individualiziranih vzgojno-izobraževalnih programov v primerjavi s štu- denti petega letnika. Ravno v tretjem letniku imajo študenti predmet Inkluzivno 95 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 95 26.4.2019 12:06:11 izobraževanje, zaradi česar mogoče svoje kompetence ocenjujejo podobno kot zaposleni učitelji in višje kakor študenti petega letnika. Učitelji ocenjujejo, da so bolj kompetentni za izdelavo in izvedbo IP v primerjavi z vzgojitelji (Kudek Mirošević in Jurčević Lozančić, 2014). V zgodnjem in predšolskem obdobju ni normirana obveznost izdelave IP. Vzgojitelji so pripravljeni izdelovati in izvajati IP, vendar se ne čutijo dovolj usposobljene, in samo 14 % vzgojiteljev izdeluje IP za otroke s posebnimi potrebami (Skočić Mihić, Beaudoin in Krsnik, 2016). V navedeni raziskavi je višja raven samoocenjene kompetentnosti vzgojiteljev za izvedbo ciljev in nalog individualiziranega vzgojno-izobraževalnega programa povezana z njihovo oceno izobrazbe oziroma pridobljenih znanj o IP. Poudariti je treba, da so izkazane razlike pri samoocenjeni usposobljenosti učite- ljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji neznatne, in sicer glede sposobnosti izdelave IP. S tem nismo potrdili pričakovanih razlik med slovenskimi in hrvaškimi učitelji glede na razlike v zakonskih predpisih, izobraževalnih programih in inkluzivnem izobraževanju. Izhodišče za proučevanje razlik namreč izhaja iz razlik v družbenih kontekstih. Čeprav si hrvaški in slo- venski učitelji delijo isti družbeni kontekst začetka vzgojno-izobraževalne politike integracije iz osemdesetih let, je prišlo v dveh neodvisnih državah do precejšnjih družbenih razlik pri poskusu premagovanja ostalih segregacijskih in diskrimina- cijskih vidikov in pri promoviranju pravice do inkluzivnega izobraževanja za vse. 5.3.2 Razlike v usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka glede na spol in delovno mesto Da bi ugotovili, ali obstajajo razlike v samoocenjeni usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka glede na spol in delovno mesto (razredni in predmetni pouk), smo na podvzorcih opravili Mann-Whitneyjev test (tabela 5.4). Tabela 5.4: Rezultati Mann-Whitneyjevega testa na podvzorcih Hrvaška Slovenija n Mrang (SD) U n Mrang U Ženski 911 555,23 (68) 667 380,51 Spol 80865,00 21001,00** Moški 188 524,63 78 308,74 Delovno RP 427 592,13 343 395,64 mesto 123775,00*** 50203,00*** PP 668 519,79 370 321,18 Legenda: RP – razredni pouk, PP – predmetni pouk, U – Mann-Whitneyeva U vrednost; *p<0,05, **p<0,01, ***p<0,001 96 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 96 26.4.2019 12:06:11 Obstajajo statistično pomembne razlike pri samoocenjeni usposobljenosti slovenskih učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka glede na spol (U = 21001,00; p<0,01) in delovno mesto učiteljev na razrednem in predmetnem pouku (U = 50203,00; p<0,001). Slovenske učiteljice (Mrang = 380,51) se ocenjujejo za bolj usposobljene za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka v primerjavi s slovenskimi uči- telji (Mrang = 308,74) – prav tako tudi učitelji razrednega pouka (Mrang = 395,64) v primerjavi z učitelji predmetnega pouka (Mrang = 321,18). Na podvzorcu hrvaških učiteljev smo dobili statistično pomembne razlike samo- ocenjene usposobljenosti za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka glede na delovno mesto (U = 123775,00; p<0,001), ne pa tudi glede na spol. Tako slovenski kakor hrvaški učitelji razrednega pouka (Mrang = 592,13) se ocenjujejo kot bolj usposo- bljeni za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka v primerjavi z učitelji predmetnega pouka (Mrang = 519,79). Glede na dobljene razlike v odvisnosti od spola je treba ugotoviti, da je delež moških učiteljev v hrvaškem podvzorcu 20,63 %, v slovenskem pa 11,69 %. Na podvzorcu slovenskih učiteljev dobljene razlike govorijo o višji ravni samoocenje- ne usposobljenosti slovenskih učiteljic v primerjavi z učitelji. Nasprotno temu pa Bradshaw in Mundia (2006) v svoji raziskavi med študenti in učitelji nista odkrila razlik v mnenjih in skrbi glede inkluzivnega izobraževanja v odvisnosti od spola. Dobljene razlike glede na delovno mesto učiteljev kažejo statistično pomembno višjo raven ocenjene usposobljenosti hrvaških in slovenskih razrednih učiteljev v primerjavi s predmetnimi. Podobno so Martan, Skočić Mihić in Puljar (2017) ugotovili, da ustrezne didaktične strategije pri delu z učenci s specifičnimi učnimi težavami pogosteje uporabljajo razredni učitelji kot tudi učitelji, ki so v začetnem izobraževanju imeli predmet o poučevanju učencev s posebnimi potrebami in pro-stovoljske izkušnje pri delu z njimi. Kudek Mirošević in Jurčević Lozančić (2014) navajata, da so nezadostne kompetence učiteljev in vzgojiteljev posledica tradici- onalnega izobraževanja, ker se učitelji v največji meri izobražujejo za poučevanje tipičnih učencev. Ravno tako pa študijski programi za predmetne učitelje ne za- gotavljajo pridobivanja kompetenc za poučevanje v inkluzivnih oddelkih, medtem ko so te kompetence za razredne učitelje zagotovljene samo pri enem obveznem predmetu (Kokić, Vukelić in Ljubić, 2009). Podobno je tudi v ostalih deželah (Bo- uillet, 2008; McHatton in McCray, 2007; Skočić Mihić, 2011; Sze, 2009; Peček, Macura-Milovanović in Čuk, 2015). Podobno so ugotovile Skočić Mihić, Beau- doin in Giugno Modrušan (2016), da učitelji kompetence za poučevanje učencev z različnimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami v inkluzivnih oddelkih v največji meri pridobivajo s samostojnim učenjem. 97 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 97 26.4.2019 12:06:11 5.3.3 Povezanost usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka in poklicne usposobljenosti Za ugotavljanje povezanosti med samoocenjeno usposobljenostjo učiteljev za iz- vajanje individualiziranega pouka ter njihovo starostjo in leti delovne dobe smo izračunali Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient (tabela 5.5). Tabela 5.5: Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka ter njihove starosti in let delovne dobe Hrvaška Slovenija Usposobljenost Starost Delovna Poklicna Poklicna učiteljev za izvajanje doba usposobljenost Starost Delovna doba usposobljenost individualiziranega pouka ,089** 0,89** 0,516*** -,103** -,058 ,378*** Poklicna usposobljenost – lestvica usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje (glej 2. poglavje) Ni statistično pomembne povezanosti med usposobljenostjo učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka ter njihovo starostjo in leti delovne dobe. Da bi ugotovili, ali je Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient med samoocenjeno ravnjo usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka in poklicno uspo- sobljenostjo statistično pomembno različen na podvzorcih slovenskih in hrvaških anketirancev, smo opravili testiranje pomembnosti razlik med neodvisnimi korela- cijami s Fisherjevimi z-transformacijami korelacij (Cohen in Cohen, 1983). Zaradi preglednosti so statistično pomembne korelacije, ki smo jih dobili na podvzorcih, označene z zvezdicami (**p<0,01, ***p<0.001). Ugotovili smo, da je povezanost samoocenjene ravni poklicne usposobljenosti z usposobljenostjo učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka tudi statistično pomembno večja na podvzorcu anketirancev iz Hrvaške v primerjavi s korelacijo, ki smo jo dobili na podvzorcu anketirancev iz Slovenije: rh (n = 964) = . 516***, rs (n = 719) = . 378***, z = 3. 209, p = 0. 001. Ocena usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje je prikazana v drugem poglav- ju pričujoče monografije. Zanimivo je, da smo opazili srednje statistično pomembno povezanost teh kompetenc s kompetencami učiteljev za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka med hrvaškimi učitelji, medtem ko je ta povezanost med slovenskimi učitelji nizko statistično pomembna. Ravno povezanost spretnosti za poklicno delovanje, ki vključuje analizo močnih in šibkih plati svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela, konstruktivni dialog, mentoriranje, refleksivne in sodelovalne spretnosti s spretnostmi za individualizacijo pouka, govorijo v prid teoretičnemu konstruktu transverzal- nih spretnosti, ki so predstavljene v prispevku Čepić, Tatalović Vorkapić, Lončarić, 98 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 98 26.4.2019 12:06:11 Anđić in Skočić Mihić (2015). Vsekakor je treba dodati, da ko govorimo o kakovosti vzgoje in izobraževanja, pri tem mislimo na pomembnost spretnosti, ki jih vsebujejo medpredmetne teme, ki imajo različna imena, med drugim tudi transverzalne kompetence ali soft skills. Ravno visoka raven transverzalnih kompetenc učiteljev, med drugim njihova kompetenca, da oblikujejo táko okolje za učenje, ki zagotavlja visoko raven samouravnavanja učenja, lahko precej prispevajo k spoštovanju individualnih vzgojno-izobraževalnih potreb učencev in poudarjanju njihovih močnih plati pri po- učevanju. V nekdanjih homogenih razredih so učitelji poučevali tipične učence, med- tem ko mora biti v današnjih heterogenih razredih poučevanje usmerjeno v vzgojno- -izobraževalne potrebe različnih učencev. Poklicni razvoj učiteljev, ki vključuje začetno izobraževanje in vse oblike vse- življenjskega izobraževanja učiteljev, je ključen za razvoj kompetenc za inkluzivno poučevanje (Kudek Mirošević in Jurčević Lozančić, 2014). Kurniawati, de Boer, Minnaert in Mangunsong (2014) so z analizo 13 raziskav potrdili pozitiven vpliv izobraževanja v obliki strokovnih izpopolnjevanj na pripravljenost učiteljev, da po-učujejo učence v skladu z njihovimi individualnimi potrebami. Ugotovili so tudi, da se večina raziskav usmerja na mnenja, znanje in sposobnosti učiteljev. Poklicni razvoj vzgojno-izobraževalnih delavcev ni normiran niti licenciran in se uresničuje v skladu z dostopnimi izobraževalnimi programi, učiteljevimi interesi in s prostovoljno izbiro. Tudi na mednarodni ravni vloga izobraževanja učiteljev za inkluzivno izobraževanje ni povsem dorečena (Savolainen, Engelbrecht, Nel in Malinen, 2012). Bouillet (2008) navaja, da je razvoj kompetenc učiteljev za inklu- zivno izobraževanje v večini držav aktualno vprašanje brez univerzalnih odgovorov. Odprto je tudi vprašanje, kako usposabljanje učiteljev povezati z učno prakso in resničnimi življenjskimi situacijami (Kaikkonen in sodelavci, 2007). Naj sklenemo, da je pri implementaciji inkluzivne zakonske politike v praksi veliko izzivov, vendar brez enotne perspektive, tako na ravni države kakor tudi na ravni šol (Acedo, 2008; Ainscow in César, 2006; Ainscow, Farrell in Tweddle, 2000; Booth, 1996; Bouillet, 2010; Igrić, 2015). Nedvomno je tudi, da je inkluzivna zakono- daja vplivala na povečanje števila otrok s posebnimi potrebami v rednih razredih, še posebej učencev z večjimi potrebami po individualizaciji in prilagoditvah učne vsebine. Vendar pa nacionalne izobraževalne politike v večini razvitih držav niso zagotovile, da bi učitelji v času začetnega izobraževanja pridobili zadostne kompe- tence. Prav tako tudi ni zagotovljenih možnosti stalnega poklicnega razvoja na tem področju, o čemer govorijo tudi rezultati pričujoče študije. 99 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 99 26.4.2019 12:06:11 5.4 Sklep Inkluzivno izobraževanje je globalni deskriptor izobraževalne politike v razvitih deželah sveta z različnimi nacionalnimi izobraževalnimi politikami. Rezultati pri- čujoče medkulturne študije kažejo na zelo izenačeno oceno usposobljenosti uči- teljev za inkluzivno poučevanje oziroma izdelavo, izvajanje in vrednotenje IP, z uporabo nasvetov strokovnih sodelavcev, uporabo individualiziranih postopkov za raznolike učence, s sodelovanjem in z oblikovanjem oddelčne klime preko krepitve socialnih spretnosti vseh učencev in s pozitivno razredno disciplino. Razlikujejo se le v oceni usposobljenosti za izdelavo IP, pri čemer slovenski učitelji ocenjujejo, da so dobro usposobljeni, hrvaški pa delno. Razlike so se pokazale tudi pri usposobljenosti glede na delovno mesto razrednih ali predmetnih učiteljev. Hrvaški in slovenski razredni učitelji ocenjujejo, da so bolj usposobljeni za izvedbo indivi- dualiziranega pouka kot predmetni učitelji. Hrvaški razredni učitelji v nasprotju s predmetnimi med začetnim izobraževanjem dobijo kompetence za inkluzivno poučevanje. Tudi slovenske učiteljice ocenjujejo, da so bolj usposobljene v primer- javi z učitelji, medtem ko se te razlike na hrvaškem podvzorcu niso pokazale. Glede na nezadostno začetno izobraževanje učiteljev za inkluzivno poučevanje je stalni poklicni razvoj ključnega pomena. Ocenjena usposobljenost hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljev za poklicno delovanje je povezana z višjo ravnjo usposobljenosti za izved-bo individualiziranega pouka, pri čemer je povezanost bolj izražena na podvzorcu hrvaških učiteljev. Čeprav obstajajo razlike v hrvaških in slovenskih nacionalnih inkluzivnih izo- braževalnih politikah kot tudi pri implementaciji inkluzivne izobraževalne po- litike, je zanimivo, da so učitelji enako ocenili svojo usposobljenost za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka. V nadaljnjih raziskavah bi bilo treba analizirati vsebine študijskih programov razrednih in predmetnih učiteljev v obeh državah, da bi ugotovili morebiten vpliv na dobljene rezultate kakor tudi druge kontekstu- alne dejavnike. Glede na to, da smo rezultate dobili na reprezentativnem vzorcu učiteljev z uporabo merskega instrumenta z dobrimi merskimi karakteristikami, bi bilo smiselno usposobljenost učiteljev za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka primerjati tudi z ostalimi konstrukti, uporabljenimi v pričujoči študiji. Tako bi lahko identificirali dejavnike, ki prispevajo h kakovostnemu poučevanju učencev z različnimi sposobnostmi in možnostmi preko usposobljenosti učiteljev za in- dividualizirano poučevanje, usklajeno z vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami teh učencev, na podlagi poznavanja lastnosti posameznih skupin učencev kot tudi učinkovitih strategij poučevanja. 100 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 100 26.4.2019 12:06:11 Literatura Acedo, C. (2008). Inclusive education: pushing the boundaries. PROSPECTS, 38(1), 5–13. doi: 10.1007/s11125-008-9064-z. Acedo, C., Amadio, M. in Opertti, R. (ur.) (2008). Defining an Inclusive Educa- tion Agenda: Reflections around the 48th Session of the International Conference on Education. Ženeva. Dostopno na http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/ files/resources/defining_inclusive_education_agenda_2009.pdf. Dostop 10. aprila 2016. Ainscow, M. in César, M. (2006). Inclusive education ten years after Salamanca: Setting the agenda. 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Meeting the Needs of Students with Specific Learning Difficulties in the Mainstream Education System: Data from Primary School Teachers in Hong Kong. The International Journal of Special Education, 20(1), 67–76. Zakon o odgoju i osnovnom obrazovanju u SR Hrvatskoj. Narodne novine, 4/1980. Zakon o odgoju i obrazovanju u osnovnoj i srednjoj školi. Narodne novine, 87/2008, 86/2009, 92/2010, 105/2010, 90/2011, 16/2012, 86/2012, 94/2013. 106 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 106 26.4.2019 12:06:11 6 Sklepni razmislek Jana Kalin in Renata Čepić V prejšnjih poglavjih smo se usmerili na dva koncepta, ki sta ključna za učinkovit in sodoben poklicni razvoj učiteljev: učiteljev status in poklicne kompetence za razvoj transverzalnih kompetenc učencev v vzgojno-izobraževalnih praksah. Tem vprašanjem se v praksi posveča premalo pozornosti, pa tudi v znanstveni literaturi o tem ni celovitih študij. Po uvodnih teoretičnih in metodoloških izhodiščih je v drugem poglavju postavljen teoretično-konceptualni okvir, ki temelji na pregle- du znanstveno relevantnih spoznanj o poklicnem razvoju učiteljev, izpostavljena so osnovna pojmovna določila in ključne značilnosti prevladujočih pristopov k poklicnemu razvoju, posebno pozornost pa smo namenili sodobnim vidikom, ki poudarjajo nekatere perspektive poklicnega razvoja. Tretje poglavje je posvečeno analizi dejavnikov, ki vplivajo na položaj in status učiteljskega poklica, proučili smo različne pristope k določanju statusa, probleme nepriznavanja učiteljskega poklica in implikacije opravljene analize za izboljšanje položaja učiteljev v stroki in družbi. V četrtem poglavju govorimo o samouravnavanju učenja kot pomembni transver- zalni kompetenci, ki je kot del trenutno aktualnega predloga celovite kurikularne reforme na hrvaškem postala pomembna z uvajanjem medpredmetne teme »učenje učenja«. V petem poglavju posebno pozornost posvečamo vprašanjem inkluzivne izobraževalne politike in kompetencam učiteljev za inkluzivno izobraževanje. V navedenih poglavjih znanstvene monografije pregled teorije nadgrajujemo z re- zultati empiričnega raziskovanja, ki je, med drugim, imelo cilj raziskati izkušnje in odnos razrednih in predmetnih učiteljev na osnovnih šolah na Hrvaškem in v Sloveniji do poklicnega razvoja, statusa učiteljev ter transverzalne kompetence na področju samouravnavanja učenja in inkluzije. V anketi je sodelovalo skupaj 1867 učiteljev, ki so pravilno izpolnili celoten vpra- šalnik: od tega je bilo 1103 (59,1 %) hrvaških in 764 (40,9 %) slovenskih osnov- nošolskih učiteljev. Med drugim je bil rezultat raziskave tudi nabor preverjenih instrumentov, ki jih lahko uporabimo kot dobro empirično izhodišče za nadaljnje spremljanje te tematike. Razen že obstoječih vprašalnikov, ki so bili prevede- ni v hrvaščino in slovenščino ter ustrezno prilagojeni – kot so lestvica mnenj učiteljev o samouravnavanju učenja (Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale, SRLTB) (Lombaerts, DeBacker, Engels, Van Braak in Athanasou, 2009); in lestvica usposobljenosti učiteljev za izvedbo individualiziranega pouka, skraj- šana različica lestvice Učiteljevi pogledi na potrebne spretnosti za poučevanje 107 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 107 26.4.2019 12:06:11 raznolikih učencev (Teachers‘ perceptions of skills needed for teaching diverse students) (Avramidis, Bayliss in Burden, 2000) –, smo uporabili tudi izvir- ne vprašalnike, kot sta lestvica usposobljenosti učiteljev za poklicno delovanje in lestvica ugleda, ki smo ju sestavili na podlagi pregleda teorije in dosedanjih raziskav posameznega področja. Merske karakteristike vseh uporabljenih instru- mentov in rezultati so opisani v poglavjih pričujoče monografije. V sklepnem delu se bomo ozrli na pomembnejše rezultate naše raziskave ter v luči dobljenih rezultatov poskušali oblikovati predloge, ki bodo pomagali doseči želene spremembe. Poklicni razvoj učiteljev vidimo kot vseživljenjski proces učenja in razvoja na osebnem, socialnem in ožjem strokovnem področju. Pri tem je pomembno, kako učitelj vidi svojo usposobljenost in kako ocenjuje možnosti za svoje poklicno delovanje v smeri kritičnega, neodvisnega in odgovornega odločanja in delovanja. Svetovni nazor, odnos do sebe in drugih, pogled na odnos med posameznikom in šolo, dru- žino in kulturo na splošno, izkušnje, ki temeljijo na znanju, odnosu do učne vsebine in načinov poučevanja, kot tudi vse izkušnje, ki so oblikovale idejo o tem, kaj je poučevanje in kaj vključuje delo učitelja, neposredno vplivajo na interpretacijo in pomembnost, ki jo učitelji pripisujejo svoji izkušnji poučevanja. V tem številni avtorji vidijo razlog, zakaj mnogi programi poklicnega razvoja nimajo pravega vpliva na spremembo prakse poučevanja, in zato tudi ne na znanje učencev. Zato je zelo pomembno razumeti, kako učitelji poklicno napredujejo in kateri pogoji prispevajo k tej rasti/napredku ter ga spodbujajo. Rezultati so pokazali, da tako hrvaški kot slovenski učitelji v povprečju ocenjujejo, da so dobro usposobljeni, pri tem pa se odpira vprašanje, ali so bili učitelji realni pri ocenjevanju svoje usposobljenosti ali pa so težili k želenim odgovorom. Pri tem hrvaški učitelji statistično pomembno višje ocenjujejo svojo usposobljenost kakor slovenski učitelji na vseh zajetih področjih delovanja (usposobljenost za analizo dobrih in slabih plati svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela, vzpostavljanje konstruktivnega dialoga s svojimi kolegi, vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami in institucijami ter za sodelovanje s starši), razen glede uspo- sobljenosti za mentoriranje učencev na praksi in učiteljev pripravnikov. Lahko bi se vprašali, ali so hrvaški učitelji res bolj kompetentni ali pa je njihova samoocena manj kritična oziroma ali so bili slovenski učitelji preveč kritični pri oceni svoje usposobljenosti v primerjavi s hrvaškimi učitelji. Kljub relativno visokim ocenam lastne usposobljenosti za poklicno delovanje smo ugotovili, da hrvaški in slovenski učitelji najnižje ocenjujejo svojo usposobljenost 108 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 108 26.4.2019 12:06:11 za delovanje v raziskovalno-razvojnih projektih, mentoriranje učencev na praksi in učiteljev pripravnikov ter za vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami in ustanovami. Navedeno nakazuje, da niso vsi učitelji usposobljeni za men- toriranje, niti ne prevzemajo te vloge. Prav tako je mogoče, da učitelji v nekoliko manjši meri razumejo sodelovanje pri različnih raziskovalno-razvojnih projektih in vzpostavljanje sodelovanja s širšo družbeno skupnostjo kot eno svojih ključnih nalog. Na podlagi tega je mogoče ugotoviti, da so to področja, na katerih bi bilo smiselno učitelje v prihodnje bolj spodbujati in podpirati. Učitelji z več leti delovnih izkušenj v povprečju po pričakovanjih tudi višje ocenjujejo svojo usposobljenost za poklicno delovanje na različnih področjih. Ta tendenca je jasno izražena tako pri hrvaških kakor tudi pri slovenskih učiteljih. Tak rezultat predvsem lahko pričakujemo, če večina učiteljev napreduje v želeni smeri poklicnega razvoja in jih v zrelem obdobju kariere (z več kot 19 leti poučevanja) označuje angažirano in kritično delovanje, ki se potem nadaljuje v sproščenem izpreganju. Tako tudi rezultati dosedanjih raziskav nakazujejo, da so ti učitelji dosegli dolo- čeno stopnjo avtonomije, delujejo premišljeno in odgovorno v skladu s svojimi pogledi in vrednotami, torej lahko pričakujemo, da bodo svojo usposobljenost na ključnih področjih delovanja učiteljev ocenili visoko. Razvidno je, da se vloge in delo učitelja sčasoma povečujejo, medtem ko njihov status v primerjavi z drugimi poklici stagnira ali pa se slabša, kar potrjujejo tudi rezultati številnih različnih mednarodnih in nacionalnih poročil in študij. Lahko bi rekli, da so učitelji pogosto v precepu med visokimi pričakovanji družbe (verjetno tudi njih samih) in nizkim poklicnim spoštovanjem. Med številnimi dejavniki, ki neugodno vplivajo na družbeni položaj in status učiteljskega pokli- ca, ki je v relativni hierarhiji poklicev na globalni ravni še naprej nizek, se posebej izpostavljajo problemi nizkih plač učiteljev, zaostajanje za plačami v gospodarstvu in negospodarstvu, nizek življenjski standard, število zaposlenih učiteljev, feminizacija stroke, nezadostna avtonomija in izključenost iz izobraževalnih po- litik, pomanjkanje nadzora nad vstopom v poklic, napačna predstava o delovnem času učiteljev oziroma splošno prepričanje, da učitelji delajo manj ur kot drugi strokovnjaki, in številni drugi dejavniki, ki se, po mnenju avtorjev, odražajo v položaju in statusu učiteljskega poklica. Hrvaški učitelji se v večji meri kot slovenski strinjajo s tem, da je delo učiteljev med najpomembnejšimi v družbi, po drugi strani pa v še večji meri ocenjujejo, da ima delo učiteljev nizek ugled v družbi in da so učitelji slabše plačani od ostalih enako zahtevnih poklicev. Po drugi strani pa se hrvaški učitelji v manjši meri od slovenskih strinjajo s tem, da jim njihov poklic omogoča reden zaslužek in 109 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 109 26.4.2019 12:06:11 finančno neodvisnost ter da jih starši in učenci spoštujejo. V tem smislu lahko sklepamo, da hrvaški osnovnošolski učitelji svoj ugled v družbi zaznavajo nižje kakor slovenski, čeprav svojo usposobljenost za poklicno delovanje ocenjujejo precej višje od slovenskih učiteljev. Hkrati torej ocenjujejo, da so dobro usposo- bljeni za svoje poklicno delovanje, vendar pa so nezadostno priznani v primerjavi s tem, koliko mislijo, da bi morali biti priznani. Takšno neskladje signalizira ob- stoj številnih dejavnikov, ki se odražajo v tem, kako učitelji sami ocenjujejo po- ložaj in status svojega poklica. Omenjeno neskladje je vidno tudi pri slovenskih učiteljih, vendar je manj izrazito. Rezultati pričujoče raziskave so pokazali, kako osnovnošolski učitelji rangirajo ugled svojega poklica v primerjavi z ugledom drugih poklicev, kot so vzgojitelj, srednješolski učitelj, univerzitetni profesor, zdravnik, medicinska sestra, odvetnik, podjetnik, novinar in gledališki igralec. Ugotovili smo, da tako hrvaški kot slovenski učitelji po stopnji ugleda najvišje uvrščajo poklic zdravnika, potem odvetnika in nato podjetnika. Poklic univerzitetnega profesorja je po stopnji ugleda uvrščen šele na četrto mesto (najvišje med pedagoškimi poklici). Skladno z rezultati drugih raziskav ne preseneča, da so hrvaški in slovenski učitelji najnižje uvrstili poklica vzgojitelja in osnovnošolskega učitelja. Med hrvaškimi učitelji tretje mesto na spo-dnjem delu lestvice ugleda zavzema srednješolski učitelj, med slovenskimi učitelji pa medicinska sestra. Rezultate naše raziskave potrjujejo tudi rezultati drugih raziskav, po katerih status učitelja variira v odvisnosti od sektorja izobraževanja. Splo- šna percepcija poklicnega statusa učitelja je »povprečna« v vseh izobraževalnih sektorjih, razen v visokem izobraževanju. Nižji status se pogosteje percipira za podro- čje zgodnjega otroštva in strokovnega izobraževanja ter izobraževanja pomožnega učnega osebja. Vzgojiteljem, učiteljem v strokovnem izobraževanju in pomožnemu učnemu osebju se pripisuje nižji poklicni status v primerjavi z drugimi sektorji, posebej z visokim izobraževanjem. Znano je, da v predšolskem in osnovnošolskem izobraževanju prevladujejo ženske, raziskave pa so dokazale povezanost poklicnega statusa in plač kot tudi povezanost med feminizacijo učiteljskega poklica, nizkim statusom in nizkimi plačami. Zaskrbljujoče je dejstvo, da se hrvaški in slovenski učitelji v naši raziskavi najmanj strinjajo s tem, da jih spoštujejo učenci, ki so prvi »uporabniki« njihovega znanja. V tem kontekstu naj omenimo tudi, da je določena stopnja odgovornosti za ugled v družbi zagotovo v rokah samih učiteljev, in da oni sami s svojo kakovostjo in odličnostjo v poklicnem delovanju zagotovo lahko prispevajo k večjemu spošto- vanju učencev in staršev do njih in njihovega poklica ter na ta način prispevajo k izboljšanju svojega ugleda, statusa in spoštovanja v družbi. 110 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 110 26.4.2019 12:06:11 Ugled, status in spoštovanje so trije različni vidiki statusa stroke. Ugled definira javno mnenje oziroma javno percepcijo relativnega položaja poklica v hierarhiji poklicev in kaže na status kot kategorijo, v katero oblikovane skupine uvrščajo določen po- klic in spoštovanje tistih, ki lahko opazujejo kakovosti, ki jih posamezniki kažejo pri svojem delu (percepcija poklica v javnosti zaradi osebnih kvalitet, ki jih posamezniki kažejo med opravljanjem osnovnih nalog oziroma njihova skrb, kompetentnost in predanost delu). Brez dvoma imajo določeno stopnjo odgovornosti tudi sami učite- lji, ki lahko to spoštovanje tudi izboljšajo. Zadovoljstvo z izobraževanjem, blaginja učencev, predstava o vlogi otroka in vzgojitelja, sodelovanje in interes staršev – vse to so vidiki, ki jih učitelj lahko uresniči, odvisno od načina, kako se ukvarja z učenci in njihovimi starši, s tem pa učitelji lahko prispevajo tudi k zmanjševanju mita, da družba ne spoštuje učiteljev. Pričakujemo lahko, da bodo dinamične spremembe, ki se dogajajo v našem okolju, spodbudile potrebo po ustvarjanju takih izobraževalnih politik, v katerih bo prioriteta: izboljšati plače in pogoje dela, ki se kažejo kot najbolj kritični dejavniki, ki vplivajo na poklicni status in osebno samospoštovanje učiteljev, zagotoviti visoko kakovost izobraževanja učiteljev, možnosti poklicnega razvoja in razvoja kariere, zagotoviti akademsko svobodo, avtonomijo in sodelovanje pri od- ločanju, zagovarjati močan sistem javnega izobraževanja v lokalnih skupnostih in vzdrževati reden dialog med izobraževalnimi združenji in vlado ter spodbujati sode- lovanje učiteljev pri oblikovanju sistemskih rešitev. Čeprav je veliko dejavnikov, ki pomembno vplivajo na proces učenja in poučeva- nja, vendarle določene vloge učiteljev prevladujoče definirajo kakovost tega procesa in rezultate učenja. Dve enako pomembni dimenziji, ki označujeta vlogo učitelja in sta povezani s konceptom identitete, se nanašata na profesionalne in osebne dimenzije. Profesionalizem učitelja ni samo skupek njegovih kompetenc. Prave- ga učitelja, na katerikoli ravni poučevanja, določajo, kakor izpostavlja Korthagen (2009), predvsem njegove osebne odlike, kot so: učiteljeva prepričanja, emocional- na angažiranost, intrinzična motiviranost za poklicno delovanje, etična zavezanost in prepoznavanje poslanstva svojega poklica. Z drugimi besedami, učitelj je rezultat svoje »kumulativne avtobiografije« oziroma deluje na podlagi osebnih konstruktov, prepričanj in razumevanja človeka, učenja, poklicne rasti in razvoja. V tej izdaji monografije ne predstavljamo rezultatov analize pomembnosti razlik v dimen- zijah osebnosti in samoocenjenimi ravnmi poklicne usposobljenosti ter vprašanj razmerja med sociodemografskimi spremenljivkami in dimenzijami osebnosti. V vzgojno-izobraževalnih situacijah sta izredno pomembni artikulacija in preverjanje učiteljevih lastnih vrednot, prepričanj in stališč, saj prispevata k boljšemu razumevanju in razvoju njihove profesionalnosti in poklicne identitete učitelja, hkrati pa zagotavljata blagostanje otrok. 111 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 111 26.4.2019 12:06:11 V sodobnih izobraževalnih kontekstih je poudarek na razvoju inovativnosti, ustvarjalnosti, reševanju problemov, razvoju kritičnega mišljenja, podjetnosti, informa- cijski pismenosti, socialnih in drugih kompetencah, ki jih ni mogoče uresničiti v tradicionalnem vzgojno-izobraževalnem sistemu s poudarkom na prenosu znanja. Transverzalne kompetence prepoznavamo kot pomembne spretnosti učiteljev tako pri organizaciji procesa učenja in poučevanja ter lastnega poklicnega razvoja kot tudi v procesu razvijanja teh kompetenc pri svojih učencih. Namen transverzalnih kompetenc je omogočiti integrirano učenje preko meja disciplin kakor tudi spod- bujanje povezovanja raznih področij učenja, kar prispeva k razvoju ključnih kom- petenc in spretnosti. V različnih deželah se »izmenično« uporablja veliko pojmov za opisovanje transverzalnih kompetenc/spretnosti, kot na primer medkulturne kompetence/spretnosti, ključne kompetence/spretnosti 21. stoletja ipd. Nove naloge in vloge od učiteljev zahtevajo tudi nove kompetence, kot je kompe- tenca »učenje učenja« (vključno s prilagajanjem spremembam, samouravnavanjem učenja in soočanjem z neuspehom). Ti izzivi učiteljem vsiljujejo potrebo po razvoju višjih ravni znanja in bolj zapletenih kognitivnih spretnosti. Transverzalna kompetenca »učenje učenja« ter državljanske in socialne kompetence imajo ključno vlogo v inkluzivnem izobraževanju, ki je definirano kot »proces usmerjanja in od- govarjanja na različne potrebe vseh učencev, s ciljem večanja njihovega sodelovanja pri učenju, v komunikaciji in skupnosti ter zmanjševanjem izključenosti znotraj in izven izobraževanja« (Unesco, 2005, str. 13). Učitelj v inkluzivnem razredu poučuje različne učence z različnimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami. To zahteva krepitev učiteljevih interdisciplinarnih sodelovalnih spretnosti za modeliranje in razvoj transverzalnih kompetenc med učenci. Transverzalne kompetence učiteljev na področju samouravnavanja učenja in in- kluzije niso dovolj raziskane; še posebno je veliko možnosti na področju inter- disciplinarnih in medkulturnih študij. Učitelji se morajo spopadati s preobsežnimi učnimi načrti ter različnimi zahtevami v inkluzivnih okoljih. Zato je morda težko najti načine za razvijanje zahtevnih transverzalnih kompetenc, ki načeloma zah- tevajo visoko raven angažiranja in interakcije med učiteljem in učencem. Razvoj transverzalnih kompetenc je treba vključiti v začetno in stalno strokovno izobra- ževanje učiteljev. Po zadnjih podatkih iz dokumentov inkluzivne politike je skoraj vsaka vzgojno-izobraževalna skupina v vrtcu in osnovni šoli inkluzivna oziroma jo sestavljajo učenci z različnimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami. Zato je ključno raziskovanje, še posebej, ko gre za razmerje med kompetencami in motivacijskimi dejavniki, dejavnostjo in okoljem, ki podpira samouravnavanje vedenja in kompe- tenc v vzgoji in izobraževanju. Ko gre za že zaposlene učitelje, je treba skozi proces 112 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 112 26.4.2019 12:06:11 poklicnega razvoja nameniti posebno pozornost razvoju navedenih kompetenc. To lahko poveča učiteljeve sposobnosti reagiranja in spopadanja z zahtevnimi situacijami v inkluzivnih izobraževalnih okoljih in ima lahko pozitivne rezultate za ugled učiteljev v družbi. Samouravnavanje učenja je pomembna transverzalna kompetenca, ki je v predlo- gu novega hrvaškega kurikula postala pomembna po uvedbi medpredmetne teme »učenje učenja«. Stališča in prepričanja učiteljev o pomembnosti samouravnava- nja učenja v precejšnji meri določajo njihovo pripravljenost za uvajanje aktivnosti in organizacijo pouka, ki spodbuja razvoj kompetence samouravnavanja učenja. Taka stališča in prepričanja se oblikujejo med začetnim in stalnim strokovnim izobraževanjem učiteljev, zato je zanimivo vprašanje, v kolikšni meri je njihova samoocena stopnje poklicne usposobljenosti povezana s pozitivnimi prepričanji o pomembnosti spodbujanja samouravnavanja učenja pri učencih. Za preverjanje povezanosti med samoocenjeno stopnjo poklicne usposobljenosti in učiteljevimi prepričanji o samouravnavanju učenja je bila v hrvaščino in slovenščino prevedena lestvica prepričanj učiteljev o samouravnavanju učenja (Lombaerts, Backer, En- gels, van Braak in Athanasou, 2009) in prilagojena razmeram/pogojem v teh dveh deželah. Lestvica je pokazala zadovoljive merske karakteristike. Replicirana je bila originalna faktorska struktura, ki je pokazala zadovoljivo faktorsko stabilnost na podvzorcih slovenskih in hrvaških učiteljev. Tudi zanesljivost lestvice je bila na obeh podvzorcih zadovoljiva. Niso se pokazale statistično pomembne razlike v pre- pričanjih slovenskih in hrvaških učiteljev. Poklicna usposobljenost je nizko (čeprav statistično pomembno) pozitivno povezana s prepričanji o samouravnavanju učenja, kar kaže na določen, minimalen prispevek poklicnega usposabljanja k razvoju pozitivnih stališč o samouravnavanju učenja. Enak rezultat smo dobili na podvzor- cih slovenskih in hrvaških učiteljev, kar kaže na potrebno spremembo začetnega in stalnega strokovnega izobraževanja v smislu boljše informiranosti o pomembnosti spodbujanja kompetence samouravnavanja učenja skozi različne medpredmetne učne dejavnosti. Predlog celovite kurikularne reforme, povezan z medpredmetno temo »učenje učenja«, ki je trenutno aktualen na Hrvaškem, ne bo dosegel želenega učinka, če izobraževanje učiteljev ne bo spodbujalo stališč o pomembnosti omogo- čanja prostih in samostojnih izbir ter intrinzično motiviranih dejavnosti učencev pri pouku s ciljem razvoja sposobnosti samouravnavanja učenja kot pomembnega predpogoja za vseživljenjsko učenje. Inkluzivna izobraževalna politika je pomembno vplivala na vključevanje učen- cev različnih sposobnosti in interesov v redne heterogene razrede. Zato je ključ- no, da je poučevanje različnih učencev individualizirano oziroma da imajo učitelji 113 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 113 26.4.2019 12:06:11 kompetence za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka. Paradoks inkluzivne izobra- ževalne politike se odraža v zakonski regulativi, po kateri bi po eni strani morali biti učitelji usposobljeni za kakovostno poučevanje vseh učencev v skladu z njihovimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi potrebami, po drugi strani pa je njihovo zače- tno izobraževanje v neskladju s sodobnimi zahtevami. Začetno izobraževanje bi moralo usposobiti učitelje, da prevzamejo odgovornost za učenje in dosežke vseh učencev, kar vključuje inkluzivna stališča in vrednote kot tudi znanje in spretnosti za poučevanje raznolikih učencev. Ravno začetno izobraževanje učiteljev vpliva na oblikovanje pozitivnih stališč o inkluziji in razvijanje sposobnosti bodočih učite- ljev za izdelavo, izvajanje in vrednotenje individualiziranih vzgojno-izobraževalnih programov za učence s posebnimi potrebami. Še več, rezultati dosedanjih raziskav jasno kažejo, da učitelji podpirajo inkluzivno izobraževanje, vendar imajo zmerno raven usposobljenosti za poučevanje raznolikih učencev. Inkluzivno izobraževanje je globalni deskriptor izobraževalnih politik s številnimi izzivi pri implementaciji zakonskih določil v praksi (Unesco, 2005). Rezultati opravljene raziskave kažejo, da učitelji ocenjujejo, da so delno do dobro usposobljeni za poučevanje v inkluzivnih oddelkih, pri čemer mislijo, da so najbolj usposobljeni za uravnavanje oddelčne discipline in spodbujanje razvoja socialnih spretnosti učencev. Raven njihove samoocenjene usposobljenosti za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka je povezana s poklicno usposobljenostjo, ne pa s starostjo ali z delovno dobo. Učiteljice se ocenjujejo za bolj usposobljene za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka. Pričakovane razlike v usposobljenosti za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji niso bile potrjene, razen v povezanosti ravni njihove poklicne in inkluzivne usposobljenosti, ki je višja pri hrvaških učiteljih. Poučevanje v današnjih izrazito heterogenih razredih zaradi vzgojno-izobraževal- nih potreb raznolikih učencev zahteva visoko raven spretnosti, potrebnih za indi- vidualizirani pouk, kot je izdelava, izvajanje in vrednotenje IP (individualiziranega vzgojno-izobraževalnega programa), ob uporabi nasvetov strokovnih sodelavcev, uporabi individualiziranih postopkov za vse učence, ki imajo posebne vzgojno-izo- braževalne potrebe, sodelovanju s kolegi in oblikovanju oddelčne klime preko krepi- tve socialnih spretnosti vseh učencev in pozitivni oddelčni disciplini. Z usmerjenostjo začetnega izobraževanja učiteljev v poučevanje tipičnih učencev in pridobivanje učiteljskih kompetenc za delo v inkluzivnih oddelkih v največji meri s samostojnim učenjem ni mogoče ustrezno odgovoriti na sodobne zahteve vzgojno-izobraževalne prakse. Sodobni inkluzivni in izobraževalni trendi namreč poudarjajo, da je značil- nost kakovostnega poučevanja individualizirani pristop, ki temelji na močnih po- dročjih vsakega učenca. Inkluzivna politika je vplivala na povečanje števila otrok s 114 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 114 26.4.2019 12:06:11 posebnimi potrebami v rednih razredih, še posebej učencev z večjimi potrebami po učni individualizaciji. Zato je pomembno učiteljem med začetnim izobraževanjem omogočiti pridobivanje specifičnih spretnosti za delo z otroki s posebnimi potre- bami v inkluzivnih okoljih, krepitev samoučinkovitosti, še posebej učinkovitosti v sodelovanju s strokovnimi sodelavci in drugimi učitelji, kar je povezano z mnenjem učiteljev o inkluziji, kakor tudi krepitev spretnosti učiteljev za interdisciplinarno sodelovanje. Zato je poklicni razvoj učiteljev kot vseživljenjski proces, ki vključuje različne oblike sistemsko načrtovanih priložnosti in pridobivanja izkušenj, ključen za razvoj kompetenc, potrebnih inkluzivnemu učitelju, kar potrjujejo rezultati pri- čujoče raziskave. Končno, učitelji so odgovorni za širjenje meja poklicnega znanja skozi refleksivno prakso in sistematično vključevanje v programe stalnega poklicnega razvoja. Če je naš cilj prispevati k ustvarjanju inovativne vzgojno-izobraževalne prakse in spod- bujati razvoj inovativnosti, ustvarjalnosti, reševanja problemov, kritičnega mišljenja, podjetnosti, informacijske pismenosti, socialnih in drugih kompetenc učencev, in sicer z implementacijo ustreznih dejavnosti v razredih, potem je, med drugim, treba preveriti tradicionalne vzgojno-izobraževalne pristope in pri tem postaviti pod vprašaj veliko ustaljenih izobraževalnih teorij in praktičnih rešitev. Kljub priznavanju pomembnosti poklicnega razvoja in pritiskov, ki izhajajo iz so- dobnih izobraževalnih potreb, večina možnosti poklicnega razvoja ostaja fragmen- tirana, nezadostno povezana s kurikuli in neustrezna glede na učiteljeve potrebe, pogoje in možnosti. Da bi učitelji pridobili kompetence za te nove vloge, je treba zagotoviti kakovostno začetno izobraževanje kot tudi ustrezne programe stalne- ga poklicnega razvoja. Poklicni razvoj ne poteka v vakuumu in pomembno je, da vključuje ostale elemente v širšem kontekstu (kot so poklicna identiteta, značilnosti okolja, družbene okoliščine razvoja in razlogi za sodelovanje v poklicnem razvoju), ki ravno tako lahko vplivajo na institucionalno prakso poklicnega razvoja. Velik izziv za sodobne vzgojno-izobraževalne ustanove je iskanje inovativnih na- činov za uporabo situiranega/kontekstualiziranega znanja učiteljev ter izkušenj in strokovnosti pri spodbujanju razvoja transverzalnih kompetenc učencev, kot je uresničevanje poklicnega razvoja znotraj razredne prakse učiteljev oziroma znotraj prakse poklicnega razvoja z učitelji v njihovi praksi. Vzdrževanje visoke stopnje usposobljenosti učiteljev za delovanje na različnih področjih poklicnega delovanja in njihovo napredovanje v kritičnem, neodvisnem in odgovornem odločanju in delo- vanju zahteva ustrezno institucionalno, administrativno in organizacijsko strukturo, ki priznava pomembnost njihovega stalnega učenja in spodbujanja razvoja na individualni in institucionalni ravni. Zagotavljanje okolja, ki podpira učenje, ima kritično 115 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 115 26.4.2019 12:06:11 vlogo za učni uspeh in izobraževalna prizadevanja, še posebej če upoštevamo sodobni kontekst dela in učenja, ki ga označujejo stalne spremembe. Pogoj za take pobude je vzpostavljanje organizacijske kulture in klime, ki temeljita na zaupanju, spoštovanju, kritični refleksiji, sodelovanju, komunikaciji in delitvi odgovornosti. Vse to ima pomemben vpliv na poklicni razvoj učiteljev kot kritičnih intelektual- cev, ki v okviru svoje osebne strukture ohranjajo odprtost za novo znanje. Končno, učitelji so sposobni spreminjati/transformirati svojo prakso samo, če preverjajo in spreminjajo tudi lastne teorije in razumevanje poučevanja in učenja. V tem kontekstu so v središču izobraževalnih prioritet izboljšanje splošno nizkega ekonom- skega in statusnega položaja učiteljskega poklica v družbi, priznavanje učiteljev kot enakopravnih partnerjev pri ustvarjanju izobraževalne politike in izboljšanje kakovosti začetnega in stalnega poklicnega razvoja učiteljev. Literatura Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P. in Burden, R. (2000). A Survey into Mainstream Tea- chers’ Attitudes Towards the Inclusion of Children with Special Educational Needs in the Ordinary School in one Local Education Authority. Educational Psychology, 20(2), 191–211. doi: 10.1080/713663717. Korthagen, F. A. J. (2009). Praksa, teorija in osebnost v vseživljenjskem učenju. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 40(4), 4–14. Lombaerts, K., De Backer, F., Engels, N., Van Braak, J. in Athanasou, J. (2009). Development of the self-regulated learning teacher belief scale. European Jo- urnal of Psychology of Education, 24(1),79–96.doi: 10.1007/BF03173476. Unesco (2005). Guidelines for inclusion. Ensuring Access to Education for All. Paris: Unesco. Dostopno na http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001402/140224e. pdf. Dostop 15. aprila 2016. 116 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 116 26.4.2019 12:06:11 TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Status and transversal competencies Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 117 26.4.2019 12:06:11 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 118 26.4.2019 12:06:11 Foreword In the last few decades, education experts and decision-makers have been focused on issues concerning the teaching profession, professionalism, the need for the professionalisation of the teacher’s calling, and the development of quality education. The quality of teaching is the decisive factor in the quality of education, with education and continuing professional development of teachers undeniably being among the central issues relevant for the realisation, quality, dissemination, and innovation of educational activities. The professional development of teachers is understood as a lifelong learning and development process in the personal, social, and narrow professional fields, whereby it is important how the teacher views his/her competencies and how he/she assesses the opportunities for professional action in the direction of critical, independent, and responsible decision-making and action. Within the framework of the research project 13. 10. 2. 2. 02, Teachers’ professional development: status, personality and transversal competencies (Croatian title: Profesionalni razvoj učitelja: status, ličnost i transverzalne kompetencije), which was approved and funded by the University of Rijeka, the researchers focused on three main concepts that are key to the effective and modern professional development of teachers: teacher status, personality, and professional competencies in developing pupils’ transversal compe- tencies in educational practice. To date, educational practice has paid little attention to these questions, and scientific literature lacks comprehensive studies. Although the teaching profession has changed significantly over the last few deca- des, it still has to define itself in relation to other professions. Teachers often find themselves in the midst of the high expectations of society (and probably their own expectations as well) and low professional reputation. Many international re- ports and studies warn that the role of teachers is becoming increasingly deman- ding and complex, while, on the other hand, their status in society is stagnating or even decreasing compared to other professions. The modern teacher works in an inclusive educational environment comprising children with different educational needs, while transversal competencies (such as “learning to learn”, sustainability, and inclusive teaching) place before teachers the demand for the development of higher levels of knowledge and more complex cognitive skills. Teachers are thus required to possess a new level of responsibility, as they must help children to fulfil their creative potential for the benefit of not only their personal development, but also that of the societies they belong to. Transversal competencies for lifelong learning, which are the very foundation of creativity, innovation, critical thinking, or entrepreneurship, are considered to be crucial for the realisation of social goals that are important to all individuals. 119 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 119 26.4.2019 12:06:11 Bearing in mind all of the above, the purpose of this research was to explore the experiences and attitudes of elementary classroom teachers and subject teachers from the Republic of Croatia and Republic of Slovenia towards professional deve- lopment and status, and their personality and transversal competencies in the areas of self-regulation, inclusion, and sustainable development. The research survey included a total of 1,867 teachers who correctly completed the entire questionnaire: 1,103 (59.1%) Croatian and 764 (40.9%) Slovenian elementary school teachers. As a result of a team effort of researchers and associates from the Faculty of Teacher Education in Rijeka and the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana, a scientific monograph was published in the Croatian language within the framework of the same-named scientific research project in 2017. With the help of the obtained right from the University of Rijeka Foundation and Scientific Foundation of Faculty of Arts from University of Ljubljana to co-finance publishing activities in 2017, we were also able to publish the English and Slovenian translations of the said scientific mono- graph, which was one of the project goals given that this is a cross-cultural study. This edition of the scientific monograph contains four main chapters.1 In addi- tion to the theoretical insights, each chapter provides empirically based findings on the focal topic. The measurement characteristics of all applied instruments and the results obtained in the Slovenian and Croatian subsamples are descri- bed in the chapters of the monograph. The Introduction theoretically positions the conducted empirical research and points to the fundamental methodological starting points of the scientific research project. The second chapter, Teachers’ professional development: Context, perspectives, and challenges, provides a theoretical-conceptual framework based on a review of scientifically relevant knowledge on the professional development of teachers. The basic conceptual definitions and key features of the dominant approaches to professional development are emphasised, and special attention is given to contemporary views that highlight some of the perspectives that give rise to new interpretations and fundamental characteristics of professional development. The third chapter, Reputation of the teacher and the teaching profession: views from within, is devoted to the analysis of factors that reflect the position and status of the teaching profession. Different approaches are considered regarding the definition of status and the pro- blems of non-recognition of the teaching profession, and various implications 1 Pursuant to the decision of the Board of Directors of the University of Rijeka Foundation (class 612-10/17-01/17; contract number - N-IZ 8/2017), the right was obtained to co-finance the translation of the printed version into English and Slovenian that does not include two chapters published in the Croatian university edition under the approved title Profesionalni razvoj učitelja: status, ličnost i transverzalne kompetencije. 120 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 120 26.4.2019 12:06:11 are analysed aimed at improving teachers’ position within the profession and society. In the fourth chapter, Teachers’ professional competencies as predictors of teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning are discussed as important transversal competencies that have gained prominence with the proposal of the new Croatian curriculum, which has introduced the cross-curricular topic “learning to learn”. Teacher attitudes and beliefs about the importance of self-regulated learning largely determine their readiness to introduce activities and organise te- aching incentives for the development of the self-regulated learning competency. Such attitudes and beliefs are formed during pre-service and in-service teacher education; therefore, it would be interesting to find out to what extent are their self-estimates of professional competency associated with positive beliefs about the importance of encouraging self-regulated learning in pupils. Finally, in the fifth chapter, Teachers’ professional competencies for individualised instruction in inclusive classrooms, special attention is devoted to the inclusive education policy and teacher competencies for inclusive teaching. An effort is made to identify the self-assessed level of teacher competencies for individualized instruction, its correlation with age, work experience, and the level of professional competencies, as well as if there are any differences in this regard between Croatian and Slovenian teachers. Based on the analysed literature and the empirical results of the conducted inter- national research, we discuss possibilities for the improvement of teachers’ pro- fessional competencies in these areas. The research has resulted in a set of proven instruments that can serve as a good empirical foundation for further monitoring of this issue. Additionally, these results allow for new insights into the mentioned areas and also highlight those topics that require additional deep and extensive research, particularly when it comes to the understudied complex relationships between social status and teachers’ professional competencies in developing pu- pils’ transversal competencies. The obtained findings can be useful as a scientific foundation for designing changes and improving in-service programs of teachers’ professional development. It is also expected that the findings will contribute to the promotion of the quality of professional development of teachers in accordance with contemporary approaches, and will raise the scientific and professional publi- cs’ awareness of the importance of further research in these areas. We wish to express our gratitude to all those who cooperated on the project and the chapter authors who, while writing on specific topics, integrated contemporary theoretical approaches with the results of empirical research and thus contributed to a better understanding of the complex relationships among the discussed topics by 121 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 121 26.4.2019 12:06:11 embedding new knowledge into the field of educational science. We are grateful to our reviewers for their helpful suggestions and our proofreader on his improvements to the manuscript. We are also thankful to the University of Rijeka Foundation and Scientific Foundation of the Faculty of Arts from the University of Ljubljana for co- -financing the translations of the scientific monograph into English and Slovenian. We are especially grateful to the teachers for their willingness to participate in our research; without them, this manuscript would not have been possible. Editors: Jana Kalin, Renata Čepić Ljubljana/Rijeka, January 2019 122 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 122 26.4.2019 12:06:11 1 Introduction Renata Čepić and Jana Kalin The professional development of teachers is essential both for the improvement of the quality and effectiveness of education, as well as encouragement of teachers to commit themselves to their learning, responsibility, identity, and professional satisfaction. We understand the professional development of teachers as a process du- ring which the teacher establishes and maintains the highest levels of professional competencies which he/she is capable of achieving. The idea of the so-called “new professionalism” highlights some of the basic requirements for teaching, such as professional commitment to one’s own learning, professional autonomy, dynamic understanding of learning (the teacher supports co-responsibility for the pupils’ learning outcomes and is an active and reflective “learner”), as well as cooperation and connectedness with the social community. Raising the quality and effectiveness of education depends on the professional development of teachers – and thus pre-service and in-service teacher education – and it requires the development of key transversal competencies for lifelong learning that are based on creativity, innovation, critical thinking, and entrepreneurship. Research shows that the development of pupils’ achievements depends on the pro- cess of learning and teaching. For this reason, it is strongly emphasised that edu- cation systems are only as good as their education staff. The quality of the teacher positively affects pupils’ achievements and educational institutions, the atmosphere, management, and financial circumstances. The teacher is the result of his/her “cumulative autobiography” – he/she acts on the basis of his/her constructs, beliefs, understanding of human beings, learning, professional growth, and development. The teaching profession does not have high social status; it has no characteristics that would result in fame, wealth, or power, which mark the essential elements of the professional status in general. However, social status, personal development, and teacher personality are key determinants of teachers’ professional development. Starting from these insights, we researched the professional development of teachers, social status, teacher personality, and transversal competencies for lifelong learning. 1 Transversal or cross-curricular competencies for lifelong learning are conside- red crucial for the realisation of social goals (such as “learning to learn”) that are 1 Given that the Introduction theoretically positions the conducted empirical research and highlights, among other things, the fundamental methodological starting points of the scientific research project, it is identical to the Introduction in the Croatian university edition of the scientific monograph. 123 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 123 26.4.2019 12:06:12 important to all individuals (Rieckmann, 2012). New tasks, knowledge, roles, and teacher competencies necessarily require teachers’ professional development and a change of the “typical classroom image”. Teacher competencies are a complex combination of knowledge, skills, understan- ding, values, and attitudes focused on quality work throughout the curriculum. This implies the strengthening of their interdisciplinary cooperative skills in modelling and developing pupils’ transversal competencies. One of the most important transversal/cross-curricular competencies that a teacher develops through all preschool and elementary school activities is “learning to learn”. In this regard, research focuses on identifying motivational factors, activities, and environments that are stimulating for self-regulation of behaviour, learning, and persistence in situations of potential failure. Moreover, in such research teachers reveal the need for further development of competencies that would stimulate and develop self-regulation and persistence in situations of potential failure. The use of an inclusive education policy has significantly affected the inclusion of pupils with different educational needs, interests, and opportunities into regular, heterogeneous classes. Therefore, special attention is devoted to questions of inclusive education policies and teachers’ competencies for inclusive education. As yet it is unclear to what extent teachers acquire the transversal competencies for lifelong learning during their initial education and continuing professional development, and how the strengthening of these competencies contributes to their professional status. 1.1 Problem and research aims The aforementioned conceptual settings are the theoretical framework for the re- search on specific transversal competencies for the lifelong learning of teachers in the context of their continuing professional development. The main purpose of this research was to explore the experiences and attitudes of elementary school classroom teachers and subject teachers in the Republic of Cro- atia and Republic of Slovenia about professional development and status, as well as their personality and transversal competencies in the fields of self-regulation, inclusion, and sustainable development. Particular attention was given to research on the professional status of teachers in society and their personalities, which significantly determine the framework of teachers’ professional development. In this context, the research conducted on a sample of teachers focused on the following specific aims: 124 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 124 26.4.2019 12:06:12 1. Examination of the professional development of teachers, the fundamental understanding of professional development, the assessment of the degree of teacher competencies in certain areas of professional activity, the strongest in- centives, and the most significant barriers to their professional development. 2. Analysis of the attitudes about teacher status; how teachers assess the reputa- tion of certain professions in society and how the reputation of the teaching profession can be improved. 3. Analysis of the teachers’ personality traits, and their relation to self-assessed professional competencies and some socio-demographic variables. 4. Examination of transversal competencies in the areas of self-regulation, work in inclusive groups, and education for sustainable development, including su- stainable behaviour. 5. Exploration of the professional development of teachers in the fields of tran- sversal competencies, professional status, and personality in Croatia and Slo- venia using comparative analysis. This scientific monograph does not include the research findings that refer to tasks related to teacher personality and education for sustainable development, because they are not part of the English and Slovenian translation of the monograph. In all parts of this research, we elaborated on the appropriate theoretical approaches to the selected research problems and defined specific research objectives accordingly. 1.2 Research methodology 1.2.1 Sample The research was conducted on a stratified, representative sample. Based on the official list of all schools in the Republic of Croatia (from a database with a list of schools obtained from the Croatian Educational and Teacher Training Agency, school year 2014/2015) and the Republic of Slovenia (elementary school list, 2014), approximately 10% of schools from each county were selected using the algorithm for random sampling implemented in the SPSS 22 program. Based on the list of all schools in the Republic of Croatia in the school year 2014/2015 (n = 864), 48 ele- mentary schools were randomly selected, which makes up 5.56% of all schools in the country. The Slovenian sample comprised 48 elementary schools selected through random sampling, which makes up 10.67% of all elementary schools in Slovenia for the school year 2014/2015 (n = 450). The questionnaires were distributed to all classroom and subject teachers, provided that the school principal had previously agreed to take part in the research. If the principal of the selected school did not give his/ her approval, the selected school was replaced with another from the same county. 125 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 125 26.4.2019 12:06:12 Replacement schools were selected according to the principle of random number tables. The representation of schools by region is shown in Table 1.1. Table 1.1. Representation of schools whose teachers participated in the research Representation of schools by region Croatia Slovenia County f Region f Zagreb County 2 Mura 4 Krapina-Zagorje County 2 Drava 7 Sisak-Moslovina County 3 Carinthia 2 Karlovac County 3 Savinja 5 Varaždin County 3 Central Sava 1 Koprivnica-Križevci County 3 Lower Sava 3 Bjelovar-Bilogora County 2 Southeast Slovenia 5 Primorje-Gorski Kotar County 4 Central Slovenia 10 Lika-Senj County 1 Upper Carniola 4 Virovitica-Podravina County 1 Littoral-Inner Carniola 2 Požega-Slavonia County 1 Gorizia 3 Brod-Posavina County 3 Coastal-Karst 2 Zadar County 1 Osijek-Baranja County 1 Šibenik-Knin County 1 Vukovar-Srijem County 2 Split-Dalmacija County 4 Istra County 3 Dubrovnik-Neretva County 2 Međimurje County 2 City of Zagreb 4 A total of 1,989 teachers (CRO = 1,195, SLO = 794) completed the questionnai- res, although some were not filled out correctly (6%) and were therefore excluded from data processing. The final sample, which provided the foundation for stati- stical data analysis, included 1,867 participants (CRO = 1,103, SLO = 764). The characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 1.2. 126 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 126 26.4.2019 12:06:12 Table 1.2. Socio-demographic data of the participants Respondent Croatia (n = 1103) Slovenia (n = 764) characteristics % % Gender Female 83.75 89.20 Male 16.25 10.80 Workplace Classroom teacher 38.99 47.66 Subject teacher 61.01 52.34 Trainee No 91.57 98.53 Yes 5.17 1.47 Employment status Full-time employment 87.28 87.50 Part-time employment 12.72 12.50 Age M=41.38, SD=10.53, min=25, max=65 M=43.62, SD=9.39, min=25, max=66 Years of work experience as a teacher M=15.93, SD=10.96, min=0, max=44 M=18.94, SD=10.77, min=0, max=40 Level of education Croatia % Slovenia % Higher education program completed 2-year professional studies 21.72 by 1994; higher education professional 27.5 program Spec. higher education program, higher 4-year professional studies 8.05 vocational program, university program, 18.3 (first Bologna cycle) Spec. higher vocational program, university 4-year university studies 50.84 program, Master's degree (second Bologna 46.3 cycle) 5-year university studies – Spec. university program, Master of Master’s degree 18.73 Science 7.9 Master of science 0.47 Doctorate 0.19 Obtained title Croatia % Slovenia % Without a title 62.84 Without a title 17.28 Teacher/professor mentor 33.58 Teacher mentor 37.34 Teacher/professor advisor 3.58 Teacher advisor 41.29 Teacher councillor 4.09 127 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 127 26.4.2019 12:06:12 We sent the questionnaires to the selected schools along with envelopes with which the questionnaires were to be returned to ensure the participants’ anonymity. A total of 1,867 teachers filled out the questionnaire correctly, of which 1,103 (59.1%) were Croatian and 764 (40.9%) were Slovenian elementary school tea- chers. Regarding gender, female teachers dominate in both samples: 83.7% in the Croatian sample and 89.2% in the Slovenian one. Subject teachers dominate over classroom teachers in both samples, with 61% subject teachers and 39% classroom teachers in the Croatian sample, and 52.3% subject teachers and 47.7% classroom teachers in the Slovenian sample. For the Croatian sample, 5.17% are teacher-trai- nees, while in the Slovenian sample they account 1.5% of the participants. Most of the Croatian teachers who answered this question do not have a positional title (62.8%), while 33.6% of them have the title of a mentor and 3.6% of an advisor. Among the Slovenian teachers, 17.3% do not have a positional title, while 37.3% of them are mentors, 41.3% are advisors, and 4.1% are councillors, which is the highest possible professional title in Slovenia. The Slovenian sample, therefore, indicates that significantly more teachers with higher positional titles participated in the research. The majority of teachers in the sample, both in Croatia (87.3%) and in Slovenia (87.5%), are employed full-time. 1.2.2 Instruments for data collection The instrument for collecting empirical data was developed as a structured que- stionnaire, which for particular research questions included already existing questionnaire items that were translated into Croatian and Slovenian, such as Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale (Lombaerts, De Backer, Engels, Van Braak, and Athanasou, 2009); and Teachers’ Perceptions of Skills Needed for Teaching Diverse Students (Avramidis, Bayliss, and Burden, 2000). The questio- nnaire also included original items such as those in the Scale of Teachers’ Profes- sional Competencies and the Reputation Scale, and the Scale of Competencies in the Education for Sustainable Development, which were constructed after a review of the theory and current research on the topic. The questionnaire contained a total of 33 questions. In addition to the afo- rementioned assessment scales, Likert-type scales, and basic independent va- riables (gender, age, years of teaching experience, professional title, etc.), the questionnaire included one item that required ranking the responses as well as several open-ended questions. The construct validity of all applied scales was ve- rified using factor analysis, whereby the scales showed satisfactory measurement characteristics. Instrument reliability was verified using the method of internal 128 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 128 26.4.2019 12:06:12 consistency (by calculating the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient). All applied scales in the questionnaire had a satisfactory level of reliability. The measurement characteristics of all the applied instruments, as well as the results obtained in the Slovenian and Croatian subsamples, are described in the related chapters of this monograph. In the continuation of this text, we are going to present the measurement charac- teristics of the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies as well as the results obtained in the Slovenian and the Croatian subsamples given that, in all chapters of the monograph, it was necessary to determine the extent to which teachers’ self-assessments of the degree of their professional competencies are related to socio-demographic variables, teacher reputation, the degree of teacher skills for inclusive teaching, and their positive beliefs about the importance of encouraging self-regulation of pupils’ learning both in the total sample as well as in the Slovenian and Croatian subsamples. 1.2.3 Measurement characteristics of the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies The theoretical approach was applied in the construction of the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies, whereby its items were designed based on an examina- tion of the theory and previous research on the basic areas of teachers’ professional activity (Marentič Požarnik, Kalin, Šteh, and Valenčič Zuljan, 2005; Peklaj, Kalin, Pečjak, Puklek Levpušček, Valenčič Zuljan, and Ajdišek, 2009; Muršak, Javrh, and Kalin, 2011). The scale contains seven items referring to teachers’ competencies to establish partnerships with other schools, institutions, and experts for the purpose of incorporating new insights into their educational work, serving a constructive role in research and development projects, cooperating with parents, analysing po- sitive and negative sides of their educational work, mentoring students in practice and for teacher trainees, and establishing constructive dialogue with their peers. Teachers were asked to assess their competencies on a five-point scale ( 1 - not competent, 2 - poorly competent, 3 - partially competent, 4 - well competent, 5 - very well competent). This was completed correctly by a total of 1,755 teachers, of which 1,010 (57.5%) were Croatian, and 42.5% were Slovenian. The exploratory factor analysis was performed using the main component method to verify the factor structure and the measurement characteristics of the Scale of Teachers’ Profes- sional Competencies. The existence of a single factor was determined using the Guttman-Kaiser criteria (characteristic root greater than 1) and the Scree-Test criteria, which explains 49.55% of the total variance. The single-factor structure 129 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 129 26.4.2019 12:06:12 was obtained both in the Croatian and Slovenian subsample, with the percentage of variance explained in the Croatian sample being 51.27% and in the Slovenian one 46.82%. Statistical analysis was performed on the linear composite. 1.2.4 Process of data collection A research survey was conducted between June 2015 and the end of January 2016 on a representative sample of elementary school classroom teachers and subject teachers in the Republic of Croatia and Republic of Slovenia. We sent the que- stionnaires to the selected schools along with envelopes inside which the questio- nnaires were to be returned to ensure the participants’ anonymity. If teachers had not responded within the agreed time, we contacted them by phone or email and encouraged them to fill out the questionnaire. 1.3 Data processing Data were processed using the SPSS 22.0 program. The processing was performed on a sample of 1,867 teachers who had correctly filled out the questionnaire, and it included descriptive and multivariate analyses and procedures. Comparative data analysis was also performed on all indicators obtained in the Croatian (n = 1103) and Slovenian (n = 764) subsamples. In the following chapters of this monograph we will present some of the results of our empirical research, namely the results referring to the verification of the measurement characteristics, the characteristics of all applied scales, the results and their interpretation, descriptive and correlative analyses of teachers’ self-assessed competencies for professional performance, as well as the questions on teacher reputation, personality traits, and transversal competencies in the total sample and separately in the subsamples of Croatian and Slovenian teachers. References Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P. and Burden, R. (2000). A Survey into Mainstream Tea- chers’ Attitudes Towards the Inclusion of Children with Special Educational Needs in the Ordinary School in one Local Education Authority. Educational Psychology, 20(2), 191–211. doi:10. 1080/713663717. Lombaerts, K., De Backer, F., Engels, N., Van Braak, J. and Athanasou, J. (2009). Development of the self-regulated learning teacher belief scale. European Jo- urnal of Psychology of Education, 24(1), 79–96. doi:10.1007/BF03173476. 130 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 130 26.4.2019 12:06:12 Marentič Požarnik, B., Kalin, J., Šteh, B., and Valenčič Zuljan, M. (2005). Učitelji v prenovi – njihova strokovna avtonomija in odgovornost. Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete. Muršak, J., Javrh, P. and Kalin, J. (2011). Poklicni razvoj učiteljev. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. Peklaj, C., Kalin, J., Pečjak, S., Puklek Levpušček, M., Valenčič Zuljan, M., and Ajdišek, N. (2009). Učiteljske kompetence in doseganje vzgojno-izobraževalnih ciljev v šoli. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. Rieckmann, M. (2012). Future-oriented higher education: Which key competen- cies should be fostered through university teaching and learning? Futures, 44(2), 127–135. doi: 10.1016/j.futures.2011.09.005. 131 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 131 26.4.2019 12:06:12 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 132 26.4.2019 12:06:12 2 Teachers’ professional development: Context, perspectives, and challenges Renata Čepić, Jana Kalin, and Barbara Šteh 2.1 Theoretical starting points Lifelong education/learning and teachers’ continuing professional development are key issues that lie at the very heart of many studies dealing with the accessi- bility, mobility, and quality of the education system. These are the main mecha- nisms that encourage personal and professional growth and development, and prevent stagnation in the life of the individual and society. In this regard, the fundamental question is how to ensure the achievement of educational needs, conditions, and opportunities as the main prerequisites for lifelong learning and teachers’ professional development, as well as how to support the curricular mo- delling of their education. The term teachers’ professional development suggests it is a process, not a one-time event or sequence of events. Continuity is an important aspect of professional development that goes beyond the traditional intertwining of elementary and further teacher education. Rudduck (1991, in Marcelo, 2009, p. 7) states that a teacher’s professional development determines his/her ability to maintain curiosity, whereby the teacher starts from his/her interest in the process of learning and teaching. In this process, the teacher seeks a dialogue with experienced colleagues as a source of support in the analysis of individual situations. From this perspective, we might understand the professional development of teachers as a constant questioning and seeking adequate solutions to different situations. Some important definitions of the professional development of teachers are as follows: • The process of professional development implies adaptation to change by changing the teaching and learning, altering teacher attitudes, and impro- ving the pupils’ learning outcomes. The professional development of teachers is concerned with individual and organisational needs (Heideman, 1990, ac- cording to Marcelo, 2009). • Professional development of teachers is a broad area that includes any activity or process that changes attitudes and improves the understanding or the per- forming of current or future roles (Fullan, 1990). • It is defined as an internal process that improves the knowledge or the teacher’s point of view (Sparks and Loucks-Horsley, 1990). 133 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 133 26.4.2019 12:06:12 • It refers to the working opportunities that stimulate teachers’ creative and reflective skills, thus enabling them to improve their practices (Bredeson, 2002, according to Marcelo, 2009). • It represents the teacher’s professional growth, which he/she acquires as a re- sult of his/her experience and systematic analysis of his/her practice (Villegas- -Reimers, 2003, according to Marcelo, 2009). In addition to the abovementioned definitions, we wish to emphasise two additi- onal complex definitions, which highlight the wider context in which the profes- sional development of teachers takes place, in addition to the important emphasis on the learning process, reflection of one’s own experience, and changing teacher attitudes and actions. Valenčić Zuljan (2001, p. 131) describes teachers’ professional development as a “process of meaningful and lifelong learning, in which (students) teachers create and develop their understanding and change their teaching practice. It is a pro- cess that involves the teacher’s personal, professional, and social dimension and signifies his/her progress in the direction of critical, independent, and responsible decision making and action.” The definition also highlights a change in the understanding and concrete action – acquiring and enhancing professional skills. Valenčič-Zuljan (2001, p. 134) defines the teachers’ professional development as a “personal and implicit construct that is shaped in the personal history of the individual as a sort of sediment of all his experiences, impressions, and insights regarding the phenomenon of perception, and it plays the role of a compass in the individual’s life, which is expressed in qualitatively different ways from the individual’s understanding, interpretation, and performance.” In their research on the individual process of change, many authors highlight teachers’ prejudices and beliefs. For this reason, significant emphasis is placed on analysing teacher beliefs when entering the education process throughout teacher education. Beliefs influence the learning process and the process of change in which they participate (Richardson, 1996 in Marcelo, 2009). A review of available research on learning and teaching reveals three categories of experiences that influence teacher beliefs and knowledge: personal experience (worldview, self- -respect, how they treat others, views on the relationship between the individual and the school, views on the family and culture in general), experience based on formal knowledge (subject knowledge, attitude towards the learning content and teaching methods), and school and classroom experience (all experiences that have formed the idea of what it means to teach and what a teacher’s work includes). One of the most important insights into the teachers’ professional development 134 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 134 26.4.2019 12:06:12 is that teacher beliefs directly influence the interpretation and importance which they attribute to their teaching experience. Many authors see this as the reason why numerous professional development programs have no real impact on changes in teaching practices, and even less impact on pupils’ learning. Therefore, it is very important to understand how teachers progress professionally and which conditions contribute to their growth/progress and encourage it. Day (1999, p. 4) provides a holistic view of teachers’ continuing professional de- velopment, which has a complex, dynamic, and professional nature: “Professional development consists of all natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group or school, which contribute, through these, to the quality of education in the classroom. It is the process by which, alone and with others, teachers review, renew and extend their commitment as change agents to the moral purpose of teaching; and by which they acquire and develop critically the knowledge, skills and emotional intelligence essential to good professional thinking, planning and practice with children, young people and colleagues throughout each phase of their teaching lives.” In the last few years, researchers have recognised professional development as an inclusive concept that involves all formal and nonformal activities undertaken for the purpose of the teacher’s learning and professional growth (Marcelo, 1994; Flo- res, Rajala, Veiga Simao, Tornberg, Petrović, and Jerković, 2007; Corcoran, 2007; Fullan, 1995; Hargreaves and Fullan, 2012). The many different definitions thus highlight the process as the foundation of pro- fessional development, which can be either individual or group (or an intertwined version of both processes). It is contextually connected to the teacher’s workplace – school – and it contributes to the development of professional competencies based on a variety of formal or nonformal experiences. Newer definitions emphasise, for the most part, professional development as a long-term process that involves various forms of systematically planned oppor- tunities and gained experiences that stimulate professional growth and teacher development. This view highlights some of the perspectives from which new inter- pretations and fundamental features of professional development emerge (Marce- lo, 2009; Ball and Cohen, 1999; Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Putnam and Borko, 2000): • It is based on the constructivist concept of learning in which the teacher is an active subject who learns through direct involvement in teaching tasks, but also through evaluation, monitoring, and reflection about his/her own teaching. 135 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 135 26.4.2019 12:06:12 • It is a long-term process that implies that teachers learn in different periods. Moreover, the experience is more effective if it allows teachers to connect new experiences with prior knowledge; it is, therefore, necessary to enable proper monitoring as well as occasional demands for change. • It is a process that takes place in a specific context; the most efficient experiences for the teachers’ professional development are those that are based on concrete school situations and relate to day-to-day teaching activities. • Teachers’ professional development is linked to the changing of the school, i.e., transformations of school culture in which the teachers participate as professionals. • The teacher is seen as a reflective practitioner who has certain pre-knowledge when he/she begins working, and constantly acquires new knowledge through self-reflection on his/her own experience; professional development includes activities that encourage teachers to formulate new theoretical knowledge and new pedagogical practices. • Professional development is a collaborative process, though it also presuppo- ses and enables individual work and reflection. • It can take place in various forms and in different contexts; there is not only one model of professional development that would be effective and applicable to all schools; schools and teachers need to analyse their needs, beliefs, and practices so that they can decide which model of professional development is more appropriate for them. Professional development is always significantly more than a behavioural change. Teacher development is a process during which the teacher establishes and ma- intains the highest level of professional competencies he/she is able to achieve (Terhart, 1997, p. 1). It is true that teacher development can be encouraged and supported “from the outside”, but we cannot achieve it in a technological way. It is an internal process not all teachers are aware of. The awareness of one’s own professional development (continuing development, stagnation, regression) is one of the important conditions for the further development of professional competencies. It is very important for professional development not to be limited to the deve- lopment of skills if the aim is to achieve good performance overall. This is not a mere accumulation of knowledge and experience, but also a process of maturation within personal development, which means that the teacher becomes a reflective practiti- oner characterised by flexibility, the ability to distinguish feelings, respect for individuality, tolerance of conflicts and ambiguities, fostering mutual relationships, and a broad social perspective (Witherell and Erickson, 1978 in Zuzovsky, 1990, p. 4). 136 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 136 26.4.2019 12:06:12 This is a process of personal change and growth, not just behavioural changes. Development should lead to “higher,” “better,” “more complete” degrees of profes- sionalism and personal competencies (Terhart, 1997). Every teacher in the process of his professional development goes through certain periods, each of which has its own specific role, characteristics, and consequen- ces. Teacher development takes place within the teacher. Since it is a process of learning, and complex learning at that, the teacher should treat personal learning in a way that he/she shapes it for him/herself as an individual. Of course, there is always some resistance to learning and change, especially to personal and professional change. We can and should start fostering and encouraging teachers’ professional deve- lopment from the outside; however, we must be aware that it is essentially a pro- cess of the self-development of each individual in different areas. Quality teaching places teaching expertise at the very centre of teaching competencies, but these must not be limited to teaching alone. In a broader sense, these competencies include social and socio-moral competencies, the ability to diagnose and counsel, to collaborate with colleagues, parents, and school leadership so as to develop the professional culture of schools. Finally, it includes the ability to observe oneself as a teacher. As such, the literature (e.g. Edwards, 2009; Leavy, McSorley and Boté, 2007; Richardson, 1990; Wood and Bennett, 2000) highlights that teachers are able to change/transform their practice only if they also question and change their own theories and notions about teaching and learning. The literature on teachers’ professional development sets out from various me- thodological, structural, and philosophical perspectives/approaches to teacher training and development, as well as the role of teachers in the process of deve- lopment (Čepić, Tatalović Vorkapić, Lončarić, Anđić, and Skočić Mihić, 2015; Day, 1999; Day, 2013; Eraut, 1993; Hargreaves, 1994; Krolak-Schwerdt, Glock, and Böhmer, 2014; Vizek Vidović and Velkovski, 2013). For example, Čepić et al. (2015) offered a theoretical framework of complex relationships among tea- cher reputation, personality, and transversal competencies within contemporary educational contexts. Approaches to studying the professional development of teachers depend on the position of experts who deal with this topic. Specifically, Zeichner (1983, in Creemers, Kyriakides, and Antoniou, 2013, p. 4) was the first to identify and describe four representative (typical, essential) paradigms in the education and professional development of teachers. Zeichner defines a paradigm as “a matrix of beliefs and assumptions about the nature and purposes of schooling, teaching, teachers, and their education that gives shape to specific 137 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 137 26.4.2019 12:06:12 forms of practice in teacher education” (Creemers, Kyriakides, and Antoniou, 2013, p. 4). The four paradigms he identifies are: • Traditional craft paradigm, an apprenticeship model that focuses on the accumulation of wisdom and gaining experience in teaching, which involves methods of trial and error. • Expanding the repertoire paradigm, as Sprinthall, Reiman and Thies-Sprinthall call it (1996, in Creemers et al. 2013, p. 4), focuses less on highly explicit and discrete instructional strategies and teaching skills, and more on the acquisiti- on of comprehensive instructional models, such as the knowledge transmitter model, inductive inquiry, and interpersonal approaches to learning. • Competency-based paradigm, also known as the expert paradigm, prevails in teacher education. It is based on a technical production metaphor and positi- vist epistemology, and focuses on the mastery of key knowledge and teaching skills, as identified by expert academics and university researchers. • Inquiry-oriented paradigm, also known as the holistic or reflective paradigm, appears primarily as a metaphor of liberation. It emphasises the development of teachers’ capacity for reflective action through an examination of the moral and political implications of their teaching. Contemporary views on professional development are characterised by seeing pro- fessional learning not as a short-term activity but as a long-term process, exten- ding from teacher education studies to in-service training (Ball and Cohen, 1999; Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Putnam and Borko, 2000; etc.). Although recent reforms support the concept of lifelong learning, there is insufficient knowledge about te- acher learning opportunities or how forms of activity change during a teacher’s career (Corcoran, 2007). Empirical research on teacher participation in profes- sional development has identified age-related differences (e.g., Desimone, Smith and Ueno, 2006; Desimone, 2009; Mok and Kwon, 1999), but outside the context of teachers’ career development. For example, Richter, Kunter, Klusmann, Lüdtke, and Baumert (2014, p. 97-121) explored the participation of teachers in formal and nonformal forms of professional learning/development, taking thereby into account the content of the learning, and they concluded, among other things, that older teachers are less involved in professional development and training. The literature suggests that a teacher’s career can be divided into consecutive phases marked by a different intensities of motivation to participate in professional development (Huberman, 1989). Huberman was among the first to point out that the teachers’ professional development does not take place according to a clearly defined scheme, but that there are fluctuations in the progress within each career 138 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 138 26.4.2019 12:06:12 period and different paths of development depending on the interaction of internal and external factors for each individual (Vizek Vidović, 2011, p. 42). The Huberman model, which emerged as the result of extensive qualitative research, describes development as a set of five consecutive phases (i.e., survival or discovery, stabilisation, experimentation/activism and stock-taking/interrogations, serenity and conservatism, and disengagement), which are closely related to the individual teaching experience. These phases represent the main stages of teacher development, but they do not have to refer to each teacher or occur in the same way. Recent research on the professional development of teachers clearly indicates that a readiness to engage in lifelong learning is largely dependent on one’s initial preparation for the occupation and the support received during the first years of tea- ching (Javrh, 2008; Vizek Vidović, 2011, p. 62). While there is a lack of empirical findings, the available results of recent research indicate that novice teachers tend to rely on observation and informal discussion with colleagues to enhance their practice, while experienced teachers turn to formal meetings for their professi- onal learning (e.g., Grangeat and Gray, 2007). In other words, as highlighted by Richter, Kunter, Klusmann, Lüdtke, and Baumert (2014), teachers seem to seize different learning opportunities during their career, but empirical studies have not systematically explored how teachers of different age groups utilise opportunities for professional development. According to Vizek Vidović (2011), approaches to studying the professional de- velopment of teachers can be divided into three groups: (1) research in which prototype phases or degrees of career development in teaching and their characte- ristics are identified; (2) research that analyses the internal and external factors of teachers’ professional development that contribute to the formation of professional identity; and (3) research focused on effective approaches to learning and teaching in individual phases of the teachers’ professional development. Based on the above- -mentioned classification by Vizek Vidović (2011, p. 39-95), the three approaches are described in slightly more detail below. The first approach relates to research that seeks to identify prototype stages or degrees of teacher career development and their characteristics, based on which models of professional development are shaped, such as, e.g., Huberman’s career deve- lopment model and Berliner’s model of expertise development (Huberman, 1993; Berliner, 2001; Bayer, Brinkkjær, Plauborg, and Rolls, 2009; Day, Sammons, Sto- bart, Kingston, and Gu, 2007). For example, unlike the Huberman model, which is based on observing the development of teacher autonomy and involvement in a professional community, Berliner’s model is based on monitoring the changes 139 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 139 26.4.2019 12:06:12 in teacher competencies, which are observed on a continuum starting from the novice level to that of expertise. Day et al. (2007) applied a “synergy approach” to the analysis of the variations of teacher motivational-emotional and competency features through six degrees of professional development. Qualitative longitudinal research on teachers throughout their careers and comparative studies of novice teachers’ and expert teachers’ behaviours are the main methodological approaches in this area (Vizek Vidović, 2011, p. 39). Internal and external factors of professional development of teachers are analysed within the second approach. Experts in the field of education have recently been increasingly occupied with the question of providing the conditions and availability that would allow teachers to freely engage in the education process and continu- ing professional development. There is significant interest by scholars in different organisational variables of the school, which includes the concept of the school atmosphere or the school climate and culture, as part of exploring the factors nee- ded to achieve greater school effectiveness. These issues are linked to ensuring the quality of this process and the measures through which it can be realised. Most authors in this area believe that the professional development of teachers should be considered in the light of social-constructivist theory as a result of the individual’s self-activity, which is influenced by personal and professional environmental factors. Constructivism and self-regulation of the learning process emphasise the responsibility of individuals for their own learning processes (Boekaerts, 1999, 2002). Different terms are used to describe new ideas, such as constructivism and self-regulated learning, but what they have in common are the same specific characteristics of learning (De Corte, 1996). Numerous conditions can stimulate or prevent the professional development of teachers. Among the most important ones are a vision and mission that are clear and accessible to most employees in educational institutions, a cooperative culture, a structure characterised by open and inclusive decision-making processes, a systematic strategy for determining the goals of educational institutions, as well as policies and resources that support professional development (Čepić, 2009; Čepić and Krstović, 2011). The third approach relates to research aimed at effective approaches to learning and teaching in individual phases of teachers’ professional development, i.e., at identifying those forms of learning that are inherent to the process of acquiring tea- cher competencies and appropriate forms of support that are important for each phase in the process (Day et al., 2007; Hattie, 2012; Creemers and Kyriakides, 2012; Creemers, Kyriakides and Sammons, 2010; Čepić, Tatalović Vorkapić and Svetić, 2014; and others). Over the last few years, the demand for an improved 140 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 140 26.4.2019 12:06:12 quality of teaching and learning, increased accountability, and higher academic standards have become one of the burning topics of interest among scholars and policy-makers. The underlying research questions in this approach are what kind of approaches to learning and teaching are most fruitful to the achievement of teacher competencies in particular phases of professional development, and what kind of teacher training programs should be offered to improve teachers’ efficacy. Bearing in mind the previously discussed approaches to studying the professional development of teachers, let us consider how Creemers, Kyriakides, and Antoniou (2013) and Grimmett (2014) have approached this issue. Creemers et al. (2013) provide a comprehensive and critical review of two domi- nant approaches to the professional development of teachers, competency-based and holistic, and they reveal that there are both advantages and disadvantages to these. Before summarising how these authors tackle this issue, we should emphasise a few key features of the two approaches. The competency-based approach has had an important impact on teacher education and development, and it is currently being used in many countries (Christie and O’Brien, 2005). This is based on standards that refer to the competencies expected in different phases of a teacher’s career, and they provide a framework for developing a professional development program. For example, in the manual of the Croatian National Center for External Evaluation of Educati- on titled “Monitoring and Evaluating the Professional Development of Teachers - Competitive Approach/Foundation for a Licensing Model” (2014), authors Vizek Vidović, Domović, and Marušić emphasise that the national qualification standard for teachers is a systematic requirement to ensure the acquisition and development of competencies through a licensing and re-licensing system. On the other hand, the holistic or reflective practice now prevails in the approaches used to the education and professional development of teachers (Golby and Viant, 2007). Schön’s works, Reflective Practitioner (1983) and Educating the Reflective Practitioner (1987), have had a significant impact on the main ideas of educational experts on reflection. This approach relates to different practices: from reflection as an integral part of the skills and means to foster effective teaching, to reflection as an enhancement of the individual’s awareness of social justice in educational practice. This holistic approach is also described as a reaction to the governing public policies on the training and professional development of teachers, which view the teacher as a technician – a view which the competency-based approach promotes. Creemers et al. (2013) warn that the discussion should not be limited to this classical content-related dichotomy, and that an integrated approach to professional teacher 141 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 141 26.4.2019 12:06:12 education should be developed, which would be aimed at an improved way of grouping factors that are connected to teachers’ behaviour inside the classroom. For this purpose, these authors find it necessary not only to stimulate reflection and understanding of the practice, but also to consider teachers’ efficacy. Adding to the previous discussion of the dominant approaches to professional development research, they argue that these two approaches can be integrated into a dynamic approach, which would help overcome their main weaknesses. Without taking both approaches into account, the emphasis on education or professional impro- vement of teachers can hardly yield good results. From this dynamic perspective, the use of verified theoretical models of teacher efficacy is essential if teachers are to be helped in their gradual direction from simple towards more specific competencies (Creemers et al., 2013, p.10). Meijer, Korthagen, and Vasalos (2009) also emphasise that the contrast between the two approaches is unnecessary, and that it would make sense to combine the advantages of both approaches in promoting professional development. The critical issue is, therefore, how we can encourage the development of the necessary competencies within teacher education, based on who teachers are, and what continues to inspire them in their work. However, many researchers in the field of professional development are critical of the eclectic approach that is often reflected in the field of teacher education, precisely by combining elements of the two dominant traditions in different ways (e.g., Donmoyer, 1996). More specifically, although these traditions are generally consi- dered useful in the analysis of the implications for teacher education and teaching, researchers also warn of their unequal, interwoven, and contradictory nature. According to Grimmett (2014), current global research is focused on what experts learn by participating in professional development activities, but they thus neglect the difficulties which teachers face during the transfer of what they have learned into practical application. By applying a cultural-historical theory as a methodological and analytical framework for understanding the institutional practice of pro- fessional development, Grimmett (2014) reveals a system of essential relationships needed to ensure the conditions in which teachers can develop unique concepts that can be consciously used in the planning, implementation, and reflective evalu- ation of new imaginative ways of acting, not only to change their classroom practi- ce, but also to ultimately contribute to the development of their students, families, schools, and colleagues, as well as a broader professional education. Professional development does not take place in a vacuum, and it is essential that it incorpo- rates other elements in a broader context (such as professional identity, enviro- nmental features, social circumstances of development, and motivation to engage 142 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 142 26.4.2019 12:06:12 in professional development), which may also have an impact on the institutional practice of professional development. Traditional professional development, as Grimmett points out (2014, p. 163-164), takes place outside the classroom prac- tice of teachers instead of inside the practice of professional development with teachers in their practice. As can be seen from the previously discussed approaches, the authors emphasi- se numerous features of professional development, depending on the perspective from which they approach its analysis. To obtain a more valid and complete picture of educational needs, it would be useful to combine different approaches to the research on teachers’ professional development, thereby taking into account the specificities of the focal problem. 2.2 Purpose of empirical research As part of the study on the professional development of teachers, we wanted to determine how teachers assess their level of competencies for professional perfor- mance in the core areas of their performance. We were, therefore, interested in how they assess their competencies to introduce new insights into their educational work and to reflect on their own pedagogical practices of establishing constructive dialogue with their colleagues, mentoring trainee-teachers and pre-service students, for constructive participation in research and education projects, establis- hment of partnerships with other schools, institutions, and various experts as well as cooperation with parents. Concerning this, we were also interested to know if they differ in their assessments of competencies with regard to years of teaching experience, and whether there are differences in the results between Croatian and Slovenian teachers. 2.3 Method We applied the descriptive and causal non-experimental method. In the process of double sampling, we randomly selected a number of elementary schools from each region in Croatia and Slovenia (based on the total number of schools in the region), and then we tried to include in the sample all teachers from the selected schools. We attempted to establish how teachers assess their competencies in different areas of professional activity, and for this purpose we formulated seven state- ments that form the Scale of Competencies. The theoretical approach was applied in the construction of the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies, in the way that the items were designed based on the examination of the theory and 143 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 143 26.4.2019 12:06:12 previous research on the basic areas of teachers’ professional activity (Marentič Požarnik, Kalin, Šteh, and Valenčič Zuljan, 2005; Peklaj, Kalin, Pečjak, Puklek Levpušček, Valenčič Zuljan, and Ajdišek, 2009; Muršak, Javrh, and Kalin, 2011). Teachers were asked to evaluate their competencies for each item on a five-point Likert-type scale ( 1 – not competent, 2 - poorly competent, 3 - somewhat competent, 4 - quite competent, 5 - very competent). A total of 1,755 teachers answered these questions, of which 1,010 (57.5%) were Croatian and 745 (42.5%) were Slovenian teachers. We performed an exploratory factor analysis using the main component method to verify the factor structure and measurement characteristics of the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies. Based on the Guttman-Kaiser criterion (characteristic root is greater than 1) and the Scree-Test criterion, we determined the existence of a single factor that explains 49.55% of the total variance. The single-factor structure was obtained on both the Croatian and Slovenian subsam- ples, whereby the percentage of the explained variance in the Croatian sample is 51.27% and 46.82% in the Slovenian sample. Table 2.1 shows the factor saturati- on and communalities, eigenvalues, and percentage of variance explained for the factor analyses performed on the total sample, and then separately in the Croatian and Slovenian subsamples. Table 2.1. Results of the factor analysis of the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies Total CRO SLO ns ns ns atio unalities atio unalities atio unalities Factor Factor Factor satur mm satur mm satur mm Co Co Co Establishing partnerships with other schools, institutions, and different experts. 0.77 0.59 0.79 0.62 0.72 0.52 Thoughtful inclusion of new knowledge into one’s educational work. 0.76 0.58 0.78 0.60 0.73 0.54 Constructive engagement in research and development projects. 0.75 0.57 0.76 0.58 0.74 0.54 Cooperation with parents. 0.69 0.47 0.70 0.49 0.67 0.45 Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of one’s educational work. 0.68 0.46 0.70 0.49 0.64 0.41 Mentoring pre-service students and teacher-trainees. 0.65 0.42 0.64 0.42 0.67 0.45 Establishing a constructive dialogue with colleagues. 0.62 0.39 0.63 0.40 0.61 0.37 Eigenvalues 3.47 3.59 3.28 % variance explained 49.55 51.27 46.82 144 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 144 26.4.2019 12:06:12 It is evident from Table 2.1 that the obtained factors are saturated with items related to teachers’ competencies to establish partnerships with other schools, institutions, and different experts, thoughtful inclusion of new knowledge into their educational work, constructive engagement in research and development projects, cooperation with parents, analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of their educa- tional work, mentoring pre-service students and trainee-teachers, and establishing constructive dialogue with their colleagues. The results allow a calculation of the linear composite of the scale, i.e., the total mean value of all items on the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies. The internal consistency reliability coefficient indicates high reliability of the scale both in the total sample (Cronbach ɑ = 0.82) and in the subsamples of Croatian (Cronbach ɑ = 0.83) and Slovenian teachers (Cronbach ɑ = 0.80). 2.4 Results and discussion 2.4.1 Teachers’ professional competencies The results indicate that teachers assess themselves on average as quite competent (M = 3.85, SD = 0.56, n = 1,755) on the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competen- cies. We were interested to know whether there are statistically significant diffe- rences in assessments of individual competencies between Croatian and Slovenian teachers. The results of the t-test conducted for independent samples point to a significant difference (p<0.05) in the self-evaluated degree of professional competencies between Croatian and Slovenian teachers, whereby Croatian teachers assess themselves as slightly more competent than Slovenian ones. Table 2.2. Descriptive data of the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies for the total, Croatian, and Slovenian samples and the differences between the latter two Total CRO SLO n 1755 1010 745 Min 1.71 1.71 2.00 t=2.11* Max 5.00 5.00 5.00 df=1700 M 3.85 3.88 3.82 Cohen’s d=0.10 SD 0.56 0.59 0.51 α 0.82 0.83 0.80 * p<0.05 Furthermore, we were interested in the teachers’ self-assessments of their compe- tencies for each statement, as shown in Table 2.3. 145 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 145 26.4.2019 12:06:12 venia 1 hen d 0.19 0.18 0.10 0.1 Co 1 df oatia and Slo 1850 1633 1708 171 1753 1705 1712 een Cr t etw 4.10*** 3.66*** - 0.95 0.35 0.13 2.03* 2.20* erences b SD 0.60 0.63 1.03 0.65 0.79 0.86 0.68 SLO M 3.88 4.12 3.61 4.00 3.48 3.45 4.18 n 759 761 756 759 759 759 757 etencies and the diff SD 0.67 0.63 1.13 0.71 0.91 0.93 0.75 RO M 4.01 4.23 3.56 4.01 3.49 3.54 4.26 C rofessional Comp Prs’ n 1093 1093 1072 1083 1085 1080 1064 che Tea SD 0.64 0.63 1.09 0.68 0.86 0.90 0.72 ale of Total M 3.96 4.19 3.58 4.01 3.49 3.50 4.23 the Sc n ems of 1852 1854 1828 1842 1844 1839 1821 vidual it cher- e into hools, ch and or indi eaknesses of wledg ts. a f esear e dialogue with w kno ve dat k. uctiv ent exper ents. n of ne k. er ipti engths and w or or ement in r nstr vice students and tea tnerships with other sc nal w ojects. e-ser lusio nal w Descr atio atio e engag and diff n with par ing pr ns, uctiv ment pr atio le 2.3. ysis of the str ’s educ ’s educ nal leagues. nstr velop Tab A one Establishing a co col Mentor trainees. Thoughtful inc one Co de Establishing par institutio Cooper * p<0.05 *** p<0.001 146 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 146 26.4.2019 12:06:12 We established that both Croatian and Slovenian teachers assess their competencies in all researched fields of activity, on average, as quite high. The question thuds arises as to whether the teachers were realistic while assessing their competencies and are genuinely, on average, quite competent to work in all seven areas, or if perhaps they attempted to provide desirable answers to present a better picture of their abilities. Statistically significant differences between Croatian and Slovenian teachers were determined in the competencies to engage in constructive dialogue with their colleagues (M = 4.23: M = 4.12), analysis of the pros and cons in their educational work (M = 4.01: M = 3.88), and establishment of partnerships with other schools, institutions, and experts (M = 3.54: M = 3.45). We may also wonder whether the Slovenian teachers were a bit more critical in the assessment of their own competencies. On average, the Slovenian teachers assess the lowest their competency to establish partnerships with other schools and institutions, i.e., interconnectedness and cooperation with the broader community. In Slovenia, during the fall of 2014, a quantitative and qualitative empirical study on collaboration between elementary schools and various community partners was carried out in over half of all such schools in the country (n = 245, 54%) (Gregorčič Mrvar, Kalin, Mažgon, Muršak, and Šteh, 2016; Šteh, Kalin, and Gregorčič Mrvar, 2015). Different degrees of cooperation can be noticed in the assessments of the collaboration between the schools, both smaller and larger, and the community, and it is not uncommon for such collaboration to be more or less present in all areas we researched at the local community level, as well as at the broader social and international level. Based on the examples of good practice provided by the school principals, we found that they rarely succeed in establishing partnerships in accordance with the fundamental characteristics, which is in line with what, for example, Sheridan, Napolitano, and Swearer (2002) and Epstein (1995) highlighted. It should be emphasised, however, that some do succeed at this in quite different ways. Amongst the barriers to achieving cooperation between schools and communities, the principals especially point out the lack of time, overburdened school staff and individuals from the community, and the lack of adequate financial, spatial, and material resources. Significant barriers are also attributed to the lack of school staff and community institutions that would take part in such cooperation. This is a common problem, and too much organisational work is needed for mutual collaboration. It is thus possible that teachers do not devote as much effort to this area of their professional work as they would like, and thus feel less competent than in other aspects of their work. 147 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 147 26.4.2019 12:06:12 In addition to the aforementioned area, both Croatian and Slovenian teachers reported the lowest average degree of competencies in the area of constructive work in research and development projects, as well as in the mentoring of pre- -service students and teacher-trainees. Indeed, not all teachers are competent to be mentors or take over that role. It is also possible that some teachers do not appreciate the extent to which cooperation on various research and development projects and establishing collaboration with the broader community are among their key tasks. Furthermore, we were interested in whether teachers differ in how they evaluate their competencies with regard to the years of teaching experience. With this in mind, we first grouped teachers into five categories according to the teacher ca- reer development based on the Huberman model and S-model, which takes into account Slovenian specificities (Javrh, 2006; Javrh, 2008; Javrh and Jamšek, 2008). Both models assume that the career development of teachers comprises several major periods ( early career period, when the teacher enters the profession; middle career period, when he/she goes through several important phases and finds stability; and mature career period, when he/she slowly begins to unburden and retires) and that there are “harmonious” and “problematic” ways of developing a teaching career (Javrh, 2008). However, while there are some differences between the Swiss and Slovenian studies, both models assume the following phases (Javrh, 2006; Javrh, 2008; Javrh and Jamšek, 2008): 1. Entrance into the teaching process (up to three years of teaching experience), which includes survival and discovery: teachers try out different roles within the profession. They struggle for survival, are excessively preoccupied with themselves and the feeling of inadequacy, as well as with a big difference between the job’s requirements and their abilities to achieve them in the clas- sroom. On the other hand, they are overwhelmed by a sense of pride in belon- ging to a professional team, and the feeling that teaching is the right calling for them and they are full of enthusiasm. In the case of Slovenian teachers, this phase ends rather quickly, and the stage of stabilisation begins. 2. Stabilisation in the occupation (between four and six years of teaching expe- rience): Huberman (1993, according to Javrh, 2008) emphasises that career stabilisation means that a teacher has become a teacher in his/her own eyes and those of others, but it also implies stabilisation in teaching – the teacher feels relieved, more satisfied, and is becoming more competent. Javrh (2008) reveals that Slovenian teachers are required to develop full autonomy when entering the occupation (many do not receive the right kind of support from 148 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 148 26.4.2019 12:06:13 the principal and mentor) and the sooner they overcome the initial shock, the sooner they develop a sense of self-confidence and sovereignty. This has both its pros and cons. Some teachers hold a distinctly individualistic position and do not create a close relationship with their colleagues. There is also a group of teachers who already in this period begin to open themselves up to their environment, and are trying to share their experience with their colleagues within the occupation. 3. Professional activity and experimentation or unwanted slipping into uncer- tainty (between seven and 18 years of teaching experience): various paths appear in the middle career period – in the direction of professional growth or growing doubts, dissatisfaction, and the fear of routine. Most important are three aspects of professional growth: a classroom teacher sovereignly tries out different approaches, is aware of institutional barriers and therefore attempts to initiate change, seeks challenges, and wants to be involved in more wide- -ranging projects. Support factors include teamwork among colleagues and continuing professional education with the aim of overcoming difficulties. It may be that the teacher goes through a traumatic experience, which ends up leading him/her to isolation and uncertainty. The specificity of the S-model is that some teachers in this period already verbalise pronounced accounts of burnout, especially those who had overburdened themselves with a number of difficult tasks. 4. The teacher achieves serenity or feels an ever-growing powerless (between 19 and 30 years of teaching experience). The first part of the late career begins between the ages of 43 and 54, and Huberman (1993 in Javrh, 2008) diffe- rentiates between two possible paths – serenity and conservatism. On the one hand, Huberman describes an optimistic teacher who accepts him/herself the way he/she is and no longer feels the need to prove him/herself, is less en- gaged, and reshapes and reduces certain goals into more achievable ones. On the other hand, he describes teachers who move away from insecurity towards bitterness or even conservatism – they are sceptical of innovations and re- forms and try to hold onto what they have already acquired, which is followed by bitter withdrawal. The S-model thereby moves away from the original mo- del in multiple respects. Those teachers who are moving in an unfavourable direction of development are characterised more by resignation, breakdown or burnout than conservatism, which Huberman mentions. For this reason, Javrh (2008) calls this the phase of powerlessness. A new group is also being formed among Slovenian teachers – those who continue to pursue their pro- fessional activities differently – in the direction of critical responsibility. 149 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 149 26.4.2019 12:06:13 5. Disengaged or bitter gradual burnout (between 31 and 40 years of teaching experience): both optimistic and bitter teachers begin to descend into the background and no longer assume more complex tasks, burdens, and respon- sibilities. However, optimistic teachers remain “professional to the end” and maintain their energy for quality work, while bitter teachers become critical, pessimistic, and, above all, tired and exhausted. The specificity of the S-model is that some relaxed teachers remain quite engaged, maintain “live” contact with their pupils, and continue to experiment. While grouping teachers concerning the years of teaching experience we assumed we would start from the phases envisaged in the models described above, where- by we predicted that the position of Croatian and Slovenian elementary school teachers, in spite of certain differences, would be similar in both school systems. Furthermore, due to the small representation of the final two categories, we mer- ged the group of novice teachers with those who have been teaching between four and six years, and we combined the teachers who have been teaching for more than 31 years with those with 19 to 30 years of teaching experience. It was revealed in the S-model (Javrh, 2008) that many teachers complete the first phase of entrance into teaching rather quickly, and transition into the phase of stabilisation in which they have to immediately develop independent performance, which justifies the merger of the first two phases. In the last two phases, the positive direction of development grows into relaxed disengagement, while the negative direction grows into bitter disengagement. Following this, we divided the participants into three groups with regard to the years of work experience: a) up to six years, b) between seven and 18 years, and c) 19 years and above. A total of 244 (69.9%) Croatian and 105 (30.1%) Slovenian teachers with up to six years of work experience, 391 (58.4%) Croatian and 278 (41.6%) Slovenian teachers with between seven and 18 years of work experience, and 359 (50.8%) Croatian and 347 (49.2%) Slovenian teachers with more than 19 years of work experience assessed their competencies. Differences in teachers’ professional competencies in the total sample and subsam- ples of Croatian and Slovenian teachers, and in relation to the years of work expe- rience, were examined using analysis of the variance, and the results are shown in Table 2.4. Since the condition of the variance homogeneity was not satisfied in the total sample, which was verified using Levene’s test, the table shows the results of the Welch test and the Games-Howell Post-Hoc test. The results indicate that there is a significant difference in the self-assessed degree of professional competencies concerning the years of work experience both in the total sample and in the subsamples, 150 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 150 26.4.2019 12:06:13 whereby teachers with 19 and above years of work experience consider themselves to be the most competent. Teachers between seven and 18 years of work experience consider themselves somewhat less competent, while teachers with up to six years of work experience consider themselves to be the least competent. Table 2.4. Differences in teachers’ professional competencies with regard to the years of work experience TOTAL CROATIA SLOVENIA ree n M (SD) F(2,885)(η2) n M (SD) F(2,991)(η2) n M (SD) F(2,727)(η2) 1) up to 6 years 349 3.65 (0.61) 244 3.72 (0.62) 105 3.5 (0.56) ions of the deg 2) 7 to 18 33.12*** 14.32** 32.30** years 669 3.85 (0.54) 391 3.89 (0.58) 278 3.8 (0.48) valuat essional competencies (0.04) (0.03) (0.08) of 3) 19 and Self-e of pr more years 706 3.96 (0.51) 359 3.97 (0.54) 347 3.94 (0.48) **p<0.01 ***p<0.001 Differences were expected given that teachers with more years of work experience on average assess their competencies higher (see Table 2.4). This can be expected especially if the majority of teachers pursue the desired direction of professional development and are characterised by active and critical activity in their mature career period (with more than 19 years of teaching experience), which then de- velops into relaxed disengagement. These teachers have achieved a certain level of autonomy; they act thoughtfully and responsibly in accordance with their views and values (Javrh, 2008). Therefore, we can expect that they will assess their competencies in the key areas of teaching with higher values. This tendency is noticed among both Croatian and Slovenian teachers. 2.5 Conclusion Teachers’ professional development requires the appropriate institutional, admini- strative, and organisational structures, which recognise the importance of teachers’ continuous learning and encourage development at the individual and institutional levels. For continuing education, the teacher requires certain skills, determinati- on for professional growth, and an appropriate climate within an institution that supports development and learning. We view teachers’ professional development as a lifelong learning and development process in the personal, social, and narrow areas of expertise. It is important, therefore, for the teacher to observe his/her 151 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 151 26.4.2019 12:06:13 competencies and to evaluate the opportunities for his/her professional work in the direction of critical, independent, and responsible decision-making and action. In our research, we found that teachers with more years of teaching experience assess their professional competencies in different areas, on average, with higher values; this was found on the subsamples of both Croatian and Slovenian teachers. The Croatian teachers, moreover, assessed their competencies somewhat higher than Slovenian teachers in all the offered statements (except for mentoring pre- -service students and teacher-trainees), but no statistically significant differences were noticed between the two subsamples of teachers. Statistically significant differences in teachers’ assessments of teachers’ professional competencies were determined between Croatian and Slovenian teachers in their ability to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of their educational work, the establishment of a constructive dialogue with their colleagues, partnerships with other schools and institutions, and cooperation with parents. We found that Croatian teachers assess their skills higher in all of these statements. These are important areas of establishing communication with external stakeholders with whom the school cooperates in carrying out its mission, and which contribute significantly to the establishment of conditions for a quality school climate and culture, as well as the professional development of teachers. One of the characteristics of the so-called new professionalism (Niemi and Kohonen, 1995) is precisely the ability to cooperate with others, which transcends the confines of a particular school and views teachers’ mission as bringing change in the broader culture of the society in which the te- acher works and explores. We recognise the ability to reflect on one’s educational work, i.e., the analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of such work, as an impor- tant factor and condition for professional development. It is interesting that both Croatian and Slovenian teachers assessed their competencies with relatively high values in all statements (on a five-point Likert-type scale the lowest average grade among Croatian teachers is 3.49, and among the Slovenian it is 3.45), so we might raise the question as to whether the teachers were sufficiently critical when assessing their own abilities. The teachers gave the lowest values to their competencies to work on research and development projects, to mentor pre-service students and teacher-trainees, and to establish partnerships with other schools and institutions. It can thus be assumed that these are the areas in which it would make sense to provide teachers with additional incentives and support in the future. We are aware that these are also areas that require more knowledge, skills, and innovativeness and, no less important, time. However, not all teachers are willing to commit themselves to this kind of professional activity because they prefer to devote time to their basic tasks and mission. 152 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 152 26.4.2019 12:06:13 Maintaining a high degree of teachers’ professional competencies in other areas also requires adequate leadership support and mutual learning with colleagues – both inside a particular school and in the broader context. While doubts remain whether the teachers attempted to provide socially desirable responses in their evaluations, their self-assessments of their competencies in the different areas of work should be trusted, because it has been found that the teachers assessed their competencies to work in some areas of professional activity somewhat lower than others. Based on the theoretical starting points, we can emphasise the importance of establishing such conditions and working opportunities that would encourage teacher reflection in different areas of their work, and enable them to impro- ve their practice. Only a systematic analysis of one’s practice (experiences) can lead to the awareness of subjective teacher perceptions and a gradual change of educational activities in the classroom, as well as in other fields of teachers’ professional work (e.g., mentoring, researching one’s own teaching, partnerships with external institutions, etc.). 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Wood, E. and Bennett, N. (2000). Changing theories, changing practice: Explo- ring early childhood teachers’ professional learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(5–6), 635–647. Zuzovsky, R. (1990). Professional Development of Teachers: An Approach and its Application in Teacher Training. Paper Presented at the 15th Annual Conference of ATEE, Limerick, Ireland. 158 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 158 26.4.2019 12:06:13 3 Status of the teacher and the teaching profession: views from within Barbara Šteh, Jana Kalin, and Renata Čepić 3.1 Approaches to defining status A large number of different conceptual definitions of status, which are used as a framework for analysing different professions, appear in the scientific literature, whereby it should be emphasised that there is no generally accepted, unambiguous definition or theoretical construct of status. For example, Haralambos (1994) defi- nes reputation as the amount of respect or honour related to a person’s social position, characteristics and way of life, while social status, as a determined position in society accompanied by certain roles, is defined as a series of norms that determine the behaviours expected from the member of a certain status. A large number of definitions of status, which point to its complexity and multi- ple and indefinite nature, can be found when reviewing the available literature on professionalism and the status of teachers (Ball and Goodson, 1985; Hargreaves and Goodson, 1996; Hargreaves, Cunningham, Everton, Hansen, Hopper, McIn- tyre, Maddock, Mukherjee, Pell, Rouse, Turner, and Wilson, 2006; Hoyle, 1969, 2001; Monteiro, 2015; Sachs, 2003; and others). Monteiro (2015, p. 53-60), when considering some conceptual questions of teacher professionalism, i.e., their global profile, highlights four main factors in determining the level of professionalism: value of service (the importance for individuals and society of the scope of professional expertise), identity content (formed by knowledge, values, and qualities that distinguish a profession and should distinguish professionals), professional autonomy (i.e., the independence and responsibility with which the profession may be individually practiced and collectively governed), and professional and social status (which results from the previous factors and is reflected in the income, influence and prestige of the profession). In this regard, Monteiro (2015, p. 56) emphasises the following: “Professional status and social status are two faces of the same coin: the former consists in the identity content and the autonomy of a profession; and the other side means a profession’s position within a hierarchy of occupational prestige in a society, resulting both from the value of the service provided and from its professional status.” Furthermore, he points out that the highest level of professionality applies to those professions that have the highest social relevance, responsibility, and distinctiveness that correspond to the ideal type of professional model and have the following characteristics (Monteiro, 2015, p. 56): 159 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 159 26.4.2019 12:06:13 • They provide services that are fundamental for the life, security, and general well-being of individuals and society, requiring from their professionals a sense of service that puts the interests of those they serve and the public interest in general over their (legitimate) interests. • They contain certain know-how skills with a very specialised and systemati- sed knowledge base, learned through a more or less lengthy theoretical and practical higher education, whose application demands great independence of judgment and decision. • The power with which professionals are endowed, resulting from their exper- tise and independence, with the corresponding responsibility, implies compli- ance with high professional standards of competency, practice, and conduct in every professional circumstance. Hoyle (2001) offers a three-component definition of occupational status, according to which the prestige, status, and esteem of a profession are three different aspects of professional status. Accordingly, he suggests that occupational prestige refers to the status which is defined by public opinion (public perception of the relative position of the profession within the hierarchy of professions); occupational status, which is defined by educational and comparable professions (the category in which educated groups classify a particular profession and to which they refer, e.g., to public servants, politicians, sociologists, educational professionals); and the occupational esteem of those who can observe the qualities which individuals show in their work (the perception of the profession by the general public due to personal qualities which individuals express during the performan- ce of their core tasks, i.e., their concern, competency, and commitment to work). So, for example, as part of a four-year study on the status of teachers and the teaching profession in England (2003-2006), The Teacher Status Project (Hargreaves et al., 2006), the researchers implemented these differences in line with Hoyle’s definition, but they also included teachers’ personal attitudes regarding their status and the factors affecting it. Taking into account different definitions of status, this project focuses on the insider’s perspective, i.e., the teacher’s perception of his/her status and reputation. This includes the teacher’s perception with regard to the respect received from pu- pils and parents, satisfaction with work, salary and financial independence, media representation of the teaching profession, their reputation as compared to other professions, as well as other factors. Although we believe that public opinion, the press, and media contribute to our understanding of the general opinion regarding the reputation of the teaching profession, they are not considered in this research. 160 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 160 26.4.2019 12:06:13 3.2 The problem of not recognising the teaching profession In the last few decades, education experts and decision-makers have been focusing their attention on the teaching profession, professionalism, and the need for pro- fessionalisation in the context of the teacher’s calling and development of quality education. A crucial factor in the quality of education is the quality of the teaching profession, which has been the conclusion of numerous international and national reports and research on the teaching profession and education systems. The results of recent research undoubtedly show that the development of pupils’ achievements greatly depends on the process of learning and teaching, and that the teacher’s impact on the pupils’ achievements is significant (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Darling-Hammond and Bransford, 2005; Day, 2013; Day, Sammons, Stobart, Kington, and Gu, 2007; Monteiro, 2015; Sanders and Rivers, 1996; Scheerens, Ver- meulen, and Pelgrum, 1989; Tymms, 1993; Vizek Vidović, 2005; Vizek Vidović and Velkovski, 2013). For example, Čepić, Tatalović Vorkapić, Lončarić, Anđić, and Sko- čić Mihić (2015) presented the theoretical framework of the complex relationships among the reputation, personalities, and transversal competencies of teachers in light of contemporary education contexts. Their findings are an important argument in support of rejecting the notion of the teaching vocation as only an occupation, one that should be replaced with the understanding of the teaching occupation as a profession. However, we should not neglect the important fact that the overall status of the teaching profession in most countries is low or very low. How, then, should we understand this degraded status and improve the quality of the teaching profession? How do we enable teachers to more frequently and more decisively influence their own position within the profession and society? How can teachers make their contribution to this issue? These and other related issues are discussed in the remainder of this chapter. For example, an ILO/UNESCO report from 1997 provides an overview of the state of the teaching profession, with particular emphasis on the problems of lower status and salaries compared to other occupations, the unattractiveness of the teaching profession, and factors or causes of the decline/reduction and inadequate re- cognition of the teaching profession. The ILO/UNESCO report, published nearly twenty years ago, is still very topical. Among other things, it points out some of the general causes for the decline of teacher status, as follows (pp. 6–7): • The perceived failure of effective government communication with teachers in order to establish appropriate education policies and provide funding for their implementation, with reduced public funding for education a particular issue. 161 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 161 26.4.2019 12:06:13 • Teachers’ neglecting to promote their own status and professionalism in an era of economic austerity. Almost without resistance, teachers have allowed the perception to develop within the community that their main concerns are their salaries and benefits, which account for up to 90% of the education budget in many countries. • The emerging perception within the community that teachers fail to achieve satisfactory educational outcomes, thereby becoming a target of public critici- sm and the government at the expense of their professional status. • In the context of government efforts to cut spending, teacher organisations resisting measures which seek to increase class sizes but reduce teacher qua- lifications, working conditions, and salaries have often been considered major obstacles to the development of education. Such a relationship dynamic tends to insult teachers and leads to a decline in the overall societal perception of the quality and value of public education. Schools and educational professionals have a significant share of the responsibility for the vast economic and social changes that are now taking place, including economic globalisation, social dislocation, slow-growing economic productivity, and rising unemployment. Although the teaching vocation has changed significantly over the last few de- cades, it is still faced with having to define itself in relation to other professions. It is clear that, over time, the roles and tasks of teachers are increasing, yet their status, in comparison with that of other professions, is stagnating or decreasing, as evidenced by the results of various international and national reports and studies (UNESCO, 1998; ILO, 2012; OECD, 2005; OECD, 2011a; OECD, 2011b; EC, 2012; and others). MacBeath (2012) noticed that teachers, unlike most pro- fessionals, are burdened with the excessive expectations that society imposes on them; they are caught between high expectations and low professional respect. In their work, numerous authors (e.g., Hargreaves and Goodson, 1996; Hargreaves et al., 2006; Hoyle, 2001; Kadum, Vidović, and Vranković, 2007; MacBeath, 2012; Monteiro, 2015; Radeka and Sorić, 2006; Vrgoč, 2012; Whitty, 2006; and others) highlight the many factors that adversely affect the social position and status of the teacher’s calling, which remain low in the relative hierarchy of occupations. Among these factors are the problems of low teacher salaries – which lag behind those seen in the private and public sectors – low living standards, understaffing, feminisation of the profession, insufficient autonomy and exclusion from the development of education policies, lack of control over access to the profession, misconceptions about teachers’ working hours, i.e., the general perception that teachers work fewer hours than other professionals, and numerous other issues, which, in the authors’ opinion, reflect the low position and status of the teaching profession. 162 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 162 26.4.2019 12:06:13 Unlike places such as Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland, where the teaching profession even nowadays enjoys a high social status, the social status of teachers in England, France, Germany, New Zealand, and Austria is not as favourable (Verin, 2004, according to Jukić and Reić-Ercegovac, 2008). The few studies conducted in Croatia (e.g. Maršić, 2007; Radeka, 2007) also point to the teachers’ dissatisfaction with their social reputation and status. For example, the results of research conducted by Radek and Sorić (2006) show that teachers are not satisfied with their working conditions, and that they are particularly burde- ned by the low living standards and a weak social reputation of the profession. In addition, it was found that as many as one-third of teachers had at some point considered leaving their calling, and assess their living standards, the reputation of the teaching profession, and professional qualifications as worse than those who have not considered leaving. Such teachers feel less content in their work than those who have not considered leaving their profession. Radeka and Sorić (2006) pointed out that the existing status of the teaching profession is fatal for the modern school and society as a whole. The results of research conducted by Kadum et al. (2007) also point to the fact that the vast majority of employed teachers consider the status of the profession to be insufficient (86%), while only 14% considering it to be at a decent level. By synthesising the findings of international and national reports and studies, Monteiro (2015, p. 63-66) summarised the main features of the overall status of the teaching profession into four groups. These are: 1) Professional and social status are not very prestigious – a group of features related to undemanding selection criteria, education, and evaluation, low salaries compared to those of other professions with a similar academic background, limited teacher autonomy, lack of control over the main factors of their own success, frequent reductionist, unfair, and unmoti- vating assessments, deprofessionalisation and feminisation of the profession, and insufficient incentives for professional advancement, among others factors. 2) Lack of or reduced working conditions, which include features such as: often inadequate and unpleasant jobs, too large and very heterogeneous classes, the continuous increase and expansion of programs, an overwhelming number of tasks, and a lack of resources. 3) Other factors diminishing the importance of the teaching profession in public eye, among which he points out how the teaching profession is, possibly, among the professions that is most exposed to public opinion – and such visibility puts it in a position of greater exposure to criticism and increases social consequences in the event of failure and the average results of weak teachers. 4) Other factors – those factors related to pupils’ dissatisfaction with the school, school reforms, aggressive pupils and at times even parents, understanding the teaching profession as a 163 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 163 26.4.2019 12:06:13 second-class profession because of the lack of a strong “class consciousness” and opportunities to work part-time, and the loss of a traditional direct monopoly as a source of knowledge. It should also be noted that the lack of teachers is a worrying trend in many co- untries, which has emerged due to a decreasing school population and the number of people leaving the profession. According to an OECD report (2005, p. 18), in countries with a lack of teachers this is most often because the profession is not considered respectable, attractive, or competitive. With regard to teachers’ job satisfaction, which is considerably lower today than it once was, and issues in terms of permanent teacher employment and retention, many government policies now aim to improve the status of teachers both inside and outside the profession. What are the implications of the previous analysis for the improvement of tea- ching as a profession and in society? How can we contribute to the betterment of teachers’ position and status in this context? The results of research conducted by Fuller, Goodwyn, and Francis-Brophy (2013) indicate that teaching grades (“The Advanced Skills Teacher” (AST), introduced as a tool for recognising and rewarding teacher expertise, were conceived as a way of raising the status of the teaching profession), which recognise and further develop teaching excellence, contributing in important ways to the professional identity of teachers through an increased sense of recognition, reward, and job satisfaction. The results of this research also suggest that recognising the skills and expertise of teachers is obviously important to their retention within the profession, as it allows successful teachers to stay where they want to be – inside the classroom. Radeka and Sorić (2006) point to the fact that if we want to positively influen- ce teachers’ motivation, and thus the development of modern schools, we need to increase their job satisfaction and improve their living standards (with a more elaborate financing system of funding and rewarding), build the social reputation of the teaching profession, improve the conditions of teaching, and continuously improve the teaching competencies of the related individuals. Verhoeven, Aelterman, Rots, and Buvens (2006), while researching the public per- ception of teacher status, found that in Flanders teachers enjoy a positive image among most people, and that teachers can count on a high degree of respect. Ac- cording to Verhoeven et al. (2006), a certain degree of responsibility for this situation lies in the hands of the teachers themselves, because teachers can contribute to this respect through their actions, and can also improve it. The same authors point out that satisfaction with education, pupils’ well-being, assumptions about 164 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 164 26.4.2019 12:06:13 the role of a child-educator, parental participation and interest, are all things that the teacher can impact depending on the way in which he/she deals with pupils and their parents, and in this way teachers can also contribute to raising the social status of the profession. We will end this review with the following statement from Monteiro (2015, p. 61): “The improvement of [the teaching profession’s] quality should begin at … the be- ginning. The human quality of the candidates to exercising the profession should be taken into account when deciding on the criteria for entering professional education and evaluating professional performance. Besides selection, education, and evaluation, improving the quality of the teaching profession should also include other aspects of its professional and social status, such as working conditions, as well as pay and career perspectives without overlooking the relevance of school management.” Teachers should become examples of professional excellence that, as Monteiro po- ints out, should be perceived as an exceptional incarnation of a blend of qualities, values, and knowledge. 3.3 Purpose of empirical research Many authors claim that the teaching profession no longer enjoys the reputati- on it once did. With this research we tried to discover the views of elementary school teachers about the reputation of the teaching profession in society, and how they rank this in terms of the reputations of other professions, such as that of a preschool teacher, high school teacher, university professor, doctor, nurse, lawyer, entrepreneur, journalist, and stage actor. We were also interested in the differences in the answers between Croatian and Slovenian teachers. 3.4 Method The Scale of Reputation was constructed based on a review of theory and previo- us research on teacher reputation. We created eight items that make up the Scale of Reputation, and included four positive and four negative statements about teacher reputation that were alternately listed in the questionnaire. The state- ments relate both to the general view of teacher reputation and the importance of a teacher’s work for society, as well as the respect from and relationships with the parents, pupils, and media, and the financial dimension of the profession. Teachers assessed their degree of agreement with the statements on a five-point Likert-type scale ( 1 - I strongly disagree, 2 – I disagree, 3 – I partly agree, 4 - I agree, 5 - I strongly agree). Not all teachers expressed their degree of agreement for each 165 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 165 26.4.2019 12:06:13 of the statements, and the number of teachers who rated their agreement with individual statements varied between 1,837 and 1,813. The number of Croatian teachers who assessed individual statements ranged between 1,076 and 1,061 (58.6% to 58.5%), and with Slovenian teachers it ranged between 761 and 752 (41.1% to 41.5%). Both Croatian and Slovenian teachers most often skipped assessing their degree of agreement with the statement The media usually portray teachers in a negative light, while they most often responded to more general statements such as A teacher’s work is among the most important ones in society and The teaching occupation enjoys a low reputation in society. Exploratory factor analysis was performed using the main component method with oblimin rotation for the purpose of verifying the factor structure and measu- rement characteristics of the Scale of Reputation. According to the Guttman-Ka- iser criterion (characteristic root is greater than 1) and the Scree-test criterion, the existence of two factors was determined, the first of which explains 28.33% and the other 17.15% of the total variance. The two-factor structure was obtained on both the Croatian and Slovenian subsamples. Table 3.1 shows the factor saturation from the matrix form and communalities. The first factor is saturated with four items that describe the factors associated with the negative perceptions of the teaching profession (lower wages, low social reputation, media presentation of teachers in a negative light, and lower work satisfaction) and the item A teacher’s work is among the most important ones in society. The second factor is saturated with four items that content-wise most closely match the factors associated with the positive perception of the teaching profession (pupils’ and parents’ respect for teachers, regular income, and financial independence). The item A teacher’s work is among the most important ones in society is included in the second factor, whereby the theoretical classification of the items is given an advantage over the empirical results. This factor shows low reliability: the internal reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s ɑ) is 0.42 on the total sample. Given the low reliability of the second factor, only the first factor was used in the second analysis, whose reliability (Cronbach’s ɑ) is 0.59 on the total sample, 0.57 on the subsample of Croatian teachers and 0.61 on the subsample of Slovenian teachers. For the Scale of Low Reputation, the total result was calculated with the linear combination of these items. 166 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 166 26.4.2019 12:06:13 Table 3.1. Results of factor analysis of the Scale of Reputation Total CRO SLO nst ns ns atio atio atio Factor unalities unalities unalities m Factor m Factor m satur Co satur Co satur Co F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 In the teaching profession, salaries are lower than in other equally demanding jobs with an equal 0.72 0.07 0.51 0.72 0.12 0.51 0.72 0.19 0.52 degree of education. The teaching profession enjoys a low reputation in society. 0.71 -0.17 0.56 0.72 -0.15 0.57 0.70 -0.11 0.52 The media usually portray teachers in a negative light. 0.52 -0.10 0.30 0.55 -0.11 0.33 0.59 -0.09 0.37 The low reputation of the teaching profession impacts my job 0.51 -0.24 0.36 0.48 -0.25 0.33 0.61 -0.17 0.43 satisfaction. A teacher’s work is among the most important ones in society. 0.51 0.37 0.34 0.52 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.49 0.31 Pupils respect teachers. -0.02 0.81 0.66 -0.07 0.79 0.64 -0.11 0.78 0.64 Parents respect teachers. -0.10 0.79 0.66 -0.10 0.79 0.66 -0.29 0.71 0.63 The teaching profession provides regular income and financial -0.05 0.49 0.25 0.03 0.54 0.29 -0.04 0.44 0.20 independence. Eigen values 2.27 1.37 2.19 1.47 2.30 1.32 % of the explained variance 28.33 17.15 27.34 18.42 28.76 16.43 We also asked the teachers to classify ten professions (elementary school teacher, high school teacher, preschool teacher, university professor, physician, nurse, lawyer, entrepreneur, journalist, and stage actor) on a scale from 1 to 10 with regard to their degree of reputation, whereby 1 stands for the least respected profession in society and 10 for the most. Our starting point was Hoyle’s (2001) three-component definition of professional status, according to which occupational prestige refers to the status that is defined by public opinion – the public perception of the relative position of the profession in the hierarchy of professions. Some teachers did not classify all professions, so the number of the total sample ranges from 1,844 to 1,829. The number of teachers in the Croatian subsample who ranked individual professions ranges between 1,087 and 1,077 (59.0% to 58.9%) and the number of Slovenian teachers between 757 and 750 (41.1% to 41.0%). The majority of teachers in both the Croatian and 167 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 167 26.4.2019 12:06:13 Slovenian subsamples ranked their profession – Croatian teachers most often skipped ranking the reputation of university professors, while the Slovenian teachers skipped ranking the reputation of nurses. 3.5 Results and discussion 3.5.1 Attitudes of teachers about the reputation of their profession We wanted to determine what views elementary school teachers share regarding the reputation of the teaching profession. It was revealed that Croatian teachers score higher on average on the Scale of Low Reputation than Slovenian teachers (M = 4.01 : M = 3.83), and that the differences are statistically significant. It follows that Croatian teachers have a lower perception of their reputation than Slo- venian teachers. Table 3.2. Descriptive data of the Scale of Low Reputation in the total sample and the Croatian and Slovenian subsamples, and the differences between Croatia and Slovenia Total CRO SLO n 1794 1050 744 Min 1.50 1.50 2.00 t=6.31*** Max 5.00 5.00 5.00 df=1563 M 3.94 4.01 3.83 Cohen’s d=0.32 SD 0.59 0.57 0.59 α 0.59 0.57 0.61 ***p<0.001 The second factor, which is saturated with items associated with the positive per- ception of the teaching profession, resulted in a too low internal reliability to ju-stify the calculation of a common result. However, we can check whether there are statistically significant differences in the estimates of the reputation for individual items, both positive and negative, between Croatian and Slovenian teachers, as shown in Table 3.3, in addition to descriptive data for assessments of the reputati-on in the total sample and in the Croatian and Slovenian subsamples. With regard to the statements that form the Scale of Low Reputation, the diffe- rences between the Croatian and Slovenian teachers were statistically significant for all but one statement – The low reputation of the teaching profession impacts my job satisfaction. On average, teachers tend to agree with the statement (the average 168 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 168 26.4.2019 12:06:13 een etw hen d 0.54 0.30 0.14 0.08 0.22 0.20 0.13 0.57 Co erences b df 1831 1834 1811 1828 1835 1726 1776 1828 and diff t les, 1.64 11.59*** 6.34*** -2.96** 4.80*** -4.19*** -2.65** -12.18*** SD 0.84 0.88 0.86 0.92 1.07 0.69 0.67 0.86 venian subsamp venia M 3.97 4.13 3.56 3.69 4.01 3.00 2.71 3.62 Slo n 760 760 752 757 761 758 754 758 oatian and Slo SD 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.98 1.06 0.77 0.80 0.94 iaoat M le and Cr Cr 4.42 4.39 3.44 3.77 4.25 2.85 2.62 3.10 n 1073 1076 1061 1073 1076 1072 1070 1072 otal samp SD 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.96 1.07 0.74 0.75 0.94 or the t Total M 4.23 4.28 3.49 3.74 4.15 2.91 2.66 3.32 ation f reput rs n 1833 1836 1813 1830 1837 1830 1824 1830 cheea n e n me wer than essio tant valuations of venian t e lo eputatio of w r or e egular inco ies ar a f ys a lo chers in a negativ ching pr salar . n, n. ovides r ve dat n enjo tray tea ctio ng the most impor n pr ipti oatian and Slo essioof n. chers. Cr essio n of the tea chers. essio of ly por of ly demanding jobs with an equal atio k is amo y. Descr or ching pr eputatio ching pr y. espect tea w r ’s w espect tea ching pr le 3.3. ee of educ cts my job satisfa cher ents r Tab evaluations of In the tea in other equal degr The tea in societ The media usual light. The lo impa Tea ones in societ Pupils r Par The tea and financial independence ** p<0.01 ***p<0.001 169 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 169 26.4.2019 12:06:13 rating for the total sample is 3.74). The teachers in the total sample agree to the greatest extent that the teaching occupation enjoys a low reputation in society (M = 4.28), with the Croatian teachers having an even higher statistically significant average score than the Slovenian teachers (M = 4.39 : M = 4.13). A total of 85.6% of Croatian and 77.2% of Slovenian teachers either agree or strongly agree with this. It is thus clear that the teachers agree with the statement that their profession is characterised by lower salaries than other equally demanding professions with the same degree of education (M = 4.23). Croatian teachers achieved the highest average score on this statement, and showed a statistically significant difference from Slovenian teachers (M = 4.42 : M = 3.97), which is probably the result of the worse economic situation in Croatia and factually lower average salaries of ele- mentary school teachers. A total of 58.1% of Croatian teachers strongly agree and 30.2% agree with this statement. Even Slovenian teachers agree on average that they are paid less in comparison to other equally demanding professions: 29.6% of them fully agree and 41.4% agree with this statement. In this respect, it should be noted that the Republic of Croatia significantly lags behind the EU average and is not following EU recommendations or directives in terms of its GDP al- locations for education and scientific research activities. Thus, the EU average for spending on education is around 4.5% of GDP, while in Croatia it is 3.5%. While the EU average for scientific research exceeds 2.5% of GDP, in Croatia it is only at about 0.7%. According to the data obtained from the Institute of Education Development (2015), Slovenia allocates 5.7% of its GDP for education, which places it among the top 15 EU countries. In this respect, it should be noted that the main requirements or recommendations of UNESCO (2015) address this issue. According to UNESCO, countries should allocate at least 6% of their GDP for education, which is yet to be achieved in many countries. Among the factors that adversely affect the social position and status of teachers are the particularly low salaries (e.g. Hargreaves and Goodson, 1996; Hoyle, 2001; Hargreaves et al., 2006; Radeka and Sorić, 2006; Vrgoč, 2012; Monteiro, 2015), and in this research it was found that elementary school teachers share this view. Compared to the Croatian teachers, the Slovenian teachers achieved a statistically significant higher degree of agreement with another statement in the Scale of Low Reputation, as they mostly agree with the statement that the media usually portray teachers in a negative light (M = 3.56: M = 3.44). Half of the Slovenian teachers (49.8%) agree or strongly agree with this statement, compared to 41% of Croatian teachers. This raises the question of what teachers can do to improve their reputation in society in terms of promoting their own status and professionalism. 170 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 170 26.4.2019 12:06:13 Among the positive statements about teacher reputation, the teachers in the total-sample strongly agree that their work is among the most important in society (M = 4.15), which is in line with our expectations. Significantly more Croatian than Slovenian teachers (M = 4.25 : M = 4.01) agree with this statement. As many as 53.9% of Croatian teachers and only 38.2% of Slovenian teachers strongly agree with it. Slightly fewer teachers agree with the statement that the teaching professi-on provides regular income and financial independence (M = 3.32), although most teachers in the sample have permanent employment. The share of teachers with temporary employment who completed the survey is only between 12 and 13%. There are also statistically significant differences between Croatian and Slovenian teachers, which we can probably attribute to the weaker economic situation in Croatia. According to the results of the survey, the Croatian teachers believe to a lesser extent that the teaching profession provides a regular income (M = 3.10 : M = 3.62). The biggest group of Slovenian teachers (44.9%) agree with this statement, while that of the Croatian teachers (47.2%) partially agree with it. In the total sample, teachers overall least agree with the statement that parents respect teachers (M = 2.66) and that pupils respect teachers (M = 2.91). Once again, significant differences appear between Croatian and Slovenian teachers. In both cases, Slovenian teachers generally agree more with the statement that parents (M = 2.71 : M = 2.62) and pupils (M = 3.00 : M = 2.85) respect teachers. As many as 35.9% of the Croatian teachers strongly disagree or disagree with the statement that parents respect teachers, while 30.4% of the Slovenian teachers share this view. A total of 24.4% of Croatian teachers strongly disagree or disagree with the statement that pupils respect teachers, as opposed to 17.7% of Slovenian teachers. In this context we mention Verhoeven et al. (2006), who point out that the responsibility for the reputation of the profession in society is in the hands of the teachers themselves, and that their professionalism can certainly contribute to the pupils’ and parents’ greater respect for them and their work, and thus contribute to improving the status of teachers. The Croatian teachers agree to a greater extent than the Slovenian teachers that their work is one of the most important in society, while, on the other hand, they also agree even more strongly that a teacher’s work has a low reputation in society and that it is paid less than other equally demanding professions. Moreover, the Croatian teachers agree to a lesser extent than Slovenian teachers that their occu- pation is a source of regular income and financial independence and that parents and pupils respect them. In this sense, it is possible to conclude that Croatian elementary school teachers believe that the teaching profession enjoys a lower re- putation in society than is the case with Slovenian elementary school teachers. This 171 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 171 26.4.2019 12:06:13 goes somewhat against the statistically significant higher estimates provided by Croatian teachers regarding their own competencies in the four areas of teachers’ professional work: cooperation with parents, establishing a constructive dialogue with colleagues, analysing the pros and cons of their educational work, and establishing partnerships with schools, institutions, and experts. At the same time, the Croatian teachers assessed themselves to be well qualified for their professional performance, but also expressed that others insufficiently acknowledge them as opposed to how they think they should be acknowledged. This disparity is evident also among the Slovenian teachers, but is less pronounced. 3.5.2 Reputation of the teaching profession compared to other professions We were interested to know how elementary school teachers rank the reputation of their profession compared to that of other professions. Table 3.4 shows the de- scriptive data on ranking professions depending on the degree of reputation on the total Croatian and Slovenian sample and the results of the t-test for independent samples, which we used to verify the statistical significance of differences between the average scores of Croatian and Slovenian teachers. Table 3.4. Descriptive data on ranking professions depending on the degree of reputation for the total sample and Croatian and Slovenian subsample, and differences between the average ranks of Croatian and Slovenian teachers Total Croatia Slovenia n M SD n M SD n M SD t df Cohen d Elementary school teacher 1844 3.75 2.51 1087 3.61 2.60 757 3.94 2.36 -2.90** 1717 0.14 High school teacher 1837 4.69 1.87 1083 4.55 1.95 754 4.89 1.73 -3.95*** 1731 0.19 Preschool teacher 1833 3.44 2.74 1080 3.41 2.71 753 3.47 2.79 -0.42 1831 University professor 1829 6.32 1.96 1077 6.32 1.99 752 6.45 1.92 -2.45* 1827 0.11 Physician 1837 7.97 2.80 1082 7.85 2.73 755 8.14 2.88 -2.22* 1835 0.10 Nurse 1831 4.45 2.46 1081 4.76 2.28 750 4.00 2.63 6.40*** 1460 0.33 Lawyer 1839 7.68 2.73 1084 7.70 2.63 755 7.64 2.87 0.45 1532 Entrepreneur 1838 6.88 2.60 1084 7.07 2.68 754 6.62 2.47 3.64** 1836 0.17 Journalist 1837 5.11 2.12 1083 5.01 2.26 754 5.26 1.91 -2.56* 1765 0.12 Stage actor 1836 5.17 2.37 1082 5.23 2.35 754 5.08 2,40 1.37 1834 * p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001 172 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 172 26.4.2019 12:06:14 In terms of the reputation enjoyed in society, Croatian and Slovenian teachers rank, on average, the profession of physician as the highest, with this being significantly much higher in the Slovenian subsample compared to the Croatian one (M = 8.14 : M = 7.85). The profession of lawyers takes the second place among both Slovenian and Croatian teachers, and there are no major differences between them. The profession of entrepreneurs is ranked third in both the Croatian and Slovenian subsamples of teachers, although it enjoys a considerably higher average rank in the former (M = 7.07: M = 6.62). These results might not be surprising due to the increasingly consumer-oriented societies in both Slovenia and Croatia, in which good economic status and plenty of material goods rank high on the scale of values. In contrast, the profession of university professor is ranked only fourth, although with a slightly better position among Slovenian than Croatian teachers (M = 6.45 : M = 6.23). Both Croatian and Slovenian teachers rank the profession of stage actor and jour- nalist in the middle of the Scale of Reputation. However, the profession of jour- nalists enjoys a slightly better position among Slovenian teachers (M = 5.26 : M = 5.01), which may be surprising given that this same group to a greater extent agre- es with the statement that the media usually portrays teachers in a negative light. As expected, the following professions found themselves at the low end of the Scale of Reputation: high school teacher, nurse, elementary school teacher, and, at the very bottom, preschool teacher. It is interesting to note that the Croatian teachers assess nurses as having a higher reputation than high school teachers (M = 4.76 : M = 4.55), while the Slovenian group ranks high school teachers higher than nurses (M = 4.89 : M = 4.00). In view of this, statistically significant differences revealed themselves between these two subsamples. On average, the Croatian and Slovenian teachers rank the lowest the reputation of preschool teachers, while they rank as second lowest their own profession, whereby the profession of elementary school teachers has a somewhat higher average rank in the Slovenian subsample compared to the Croatian subsample (M = 3.94 : M = 3.61). In line with our expectations, both Croatian and Slovenian teachers ranked the re- putation of physicians the highest, which is then followed by those of lawyers and entrepreneurs. The profession of university professors is ranked only fourth. Both Croatian and Slovenian teachers place the reputations of preschool teachers and elementary school teachers in the lower part of the Scale of Reputation. Among Croatian teachers, high school teachers occupy the third place in the lower part of the Scale of Reputation, while nurses take up this position in the Slovenian subsample. Monteiro (2015) argues that the position of a profession within the 173 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 173 26.4.2019 12:06:14 hierarchy of professional reputation in society is the result of the value of the service offered and professional status. The highest level of professionalism is related to those professions that have the highest social significance, accountability, and recognisability. In our research, elementary school teachers attribute these features to physicians, lawyers, and entrepreneurs rather than themselves or the other professions included in the scale. 3.6 Conclusion The issue of teacher reputation has attracted the attention of many researchers around the world. Looking at research from different countries, it can be ob- served that this issue has been explored from several perspectives: how teachers view their own profession and how others view it. In the current study we were interested in how teachers experience their own status – they thus assessed their agreement with some views associated with the reputation of the teaching pro- fession in society and how, in their opinion, they view the pupils and parents who most often come into contact with their work. As such, we could not omit eva- luations of the role of the media, which in a certain way co-create the reputation of the teaching profession in society. Statistically significant differences were found between the Croatian and Slove- nian subsamples for all the statements used to assess the reputation of teachers, except for the statement The low reputation of the teaching profession impacts my job satisfaction. The Croatian teachers largely agree with the statement that teacher salaries are lower than in other similar professions, while Slovenian teachers agree the most with the statement that the teaching profession enjoys a low reputation in society; however, their average degree of agreement is still statistically significantly lower than the average assessments of the Croatian teachers. Of all the offered statements, the Croatian teachers ranked The teaching profession enjoys a low reputation in society second. This subsample also expressed their partial agreement with the fact that the teaching profession provides regular income and financial independence to an even lesser extent than the Slovenian teachers, and that parents and pupils respect them. In this regard, it can be concluded that, when compared to Slovenian elementary school teachers, Croatian teachers believe that the teaching profession enjoys a lower reputation in society. It should also be emphasised that Croatian teachers assess their competences in different areas of professional activity significantly higher than Slovenian teachers, and also believe that others insufficiently acknowledge them as compared to how acknowledged 174 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 174 26.4.2019 12:06:14 they believe they should be. A similar tendency also occurs with the Slovenian teachers, but it is less pronounced. In addition to the results outlined above, we were also interested in how teachers assess their occupation compared to other occupations – those which require a similar degree of education and those which require a lower level, in relation to some professions that are more widely recognised in society (e.g., stage actor) or in relation to those professions which we encounter in important situations when it comes to our health. In other words, we were curious to know how tea- chers view the importance of professions that require a higher degree of educa- tion, such as university professor or physician. In line with our expectations, the results show that both Croatian as well as Slovenian teachers rank the reputation of physicians the highest, followed by lawyers and entrepreneurs, while univer- sity professors are only ranked fourth (the highest among the given pedagogical occupations). The Croatian and Slovenian teachers ranked the occupations of preschool and elementary school teachers at the lower end of the Scale of Repu- tation. Among the Croatian subsample, the occupation of high school teachers is third from the bottom, while this place is taken up by that of nurses in the Slovenian subsample. The results obtained in our research have also been confirmed by the results of another study (e.g., Symeonidis, 2015), according to which the status of teachers varies depending on the education sector. The general perception of teachers’ professional status is “average” in all sectors, except in higher education. A lower status is perceived more often in the fields of early childhood education, vocational education and the training of assistant teaching staff. Preschool teachers, teachers in vocational education, and assistant staff thus have lower professio- nal status than other sectors, especially higher education. It is well known that women dominate in preschool and primary education, and research has establi- shed a link between professional status and salary as well as a link between the feminisation of the teaching profession, low status, and lower salaries. It would also be interesting to determine how others assess teachers’ work and reputation. Imamović (2014) found on a sample of Slovenian teachers that they assess themselves lower on the Scale of Professional Importance than the parents of their pupils do. It is worth reflecting how teachers perceive their position in society and how much importance they attach to it. It is perhaps a worrying fact that both the Croatian and Slovenian teachers in our research agree the least with the statement that their pupils, as the first “users” of their knowledge, respect them. 175 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 175 26.4.2019 12:06:14 One of the central and open questions raised in relation to all the previously considered findings is the question of how to improve the status of teachers in society. There is also the question of to what extent teachers respect their profession and whether the results would be different if we asked them about their personal ran- king scales, and where they would place the teaching profession. A recent report by Education International (Symeonidis, 2015, p. 12-13) on the improvement of the status of teachers and the teaching profession empha- sised the following priorities in creating education policies: 1) improving sala- ries and working conditions have proven to be the most critical factors affec- ting the professional status and personal self-esteem of teachers; 2) ensuring high quality teacher education, opportunities for personal development, and promising careers; 3) ensuring academic freedom, autonomy, and participation in decision-making; 4) advocating a strong public education system in local communities; and 5) maintaining regular dialogue between educational as- sociations and governments, and encouraging the participation of teachers in policy development. Finally, let us briefly mention what education analysts emphasise when expla- ining the extraordinary educational achievement seen in Finland, with most (e.g., Sahlberg, 2010, 2012) noting that excellent teachers play a key role in this. The following factors should also be emphasised among the successful Finnish practices: • The development of robust research-based teacher education programs, which prepare teachers for content, pedagogy, and education theory, but also the capacity to carry out personal research work, which includes expert work over- seen by experts. • Significant financial support for teacher education, professional development, reasonable and fair salaries, and stimulating working conditions. • Creating a valued profession in which teachers have considerable authority and autonomy, including the responsibility for curriculum and pupil evalu- ations, which leads them to continuous analysis and practical improvement. 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Paper presented at the first General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland Annual Lecture, Belfast, March 14, 2006. Available at: http://www.gtcni.org.uk/publications/ uploads/ document/annual%20lecture%20paper.pdf. Accessed on 21 January 2013. 180 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 180 26.4.2019 12:06:14 4 Teachers’ professional competencies as predictors of teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning Darko Lončarić 4.1 Self-regulated learning Self-regulated learning is most often defined (Zimmerman, 2002) as a stand- -alone form of learning determined by a specific pattern of metacognitive (plan- ning, goal setting, organisation, self-monitoring, self-evaluation), motivational (intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and attribution of success and failure), and behavioural elements (choosing, structuring, and creating an optimally stimula- ting learning environment). The description and definition of self-regulated learning at the conceptual level is not easy to understand or to translate so that it would be understandable and useful to practitioners. When communicating with teachers, it has been found useful to provide them with an example of an ideal self-regulated pupil as a kind of pattern that can be recognised in their daily work with children. When presen- ting a model that differentiates proactive and defensive self-regulation of learning, Lončarić (2013) describes a proactively self-regulated pupil as one who knows what he/she wants and is actively finding ways to achieve it; chooses and creates learning opportunities and situations; uses strategies for advancement and modifies/changes them if they are not effective; successfully deals with problems and overcomes obstacles; is intrinsically motivated; keeps track of his/her progress and does not compare himself/herself with others; associates success and failure with his/her own efforts; does not perceive failure as a catastrophe and does not seek justification in external factors; perceives acquiring new knowledge and skills as a greater reward than praise; rewards himself/herself for success and provides encouragement in challenging situations; values his or her performance and achievements according to his or her own standards. As it is the case with most research on self-regulated learning, this paper places emphasis on the proactive self-regulation of learning, although there are other less researched patterns. Lončarić (2008, 2011, 2013; Lončarić and Peklaj, 2008) describes a pupil with a defensive pattern of self-regulated learning as one who only wants: good grades or passing grades and uses unauthorised means, such as chea-ting, to achieve this; to finish school or studies with minimal effort, and negatively assesses academic achievement so that a poor result would not weaken his/her self-esteem; to leave a good impression on others and does everything to avoid 181 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 181 26.4.2019 12:06:14 situations in which it may be revealed that he/she does not know or cannot do something; to be perceived as competent and does not want to get embarrassed; maintains his/her own self-esteem in the situation of failure by undermining aca- demic goals and attributing failure to external factors. The model also predicts a third and, concerning academic and health outcomes, the worst pattern of depressive self-regulation – related to learned helplessness or the complete lack of effort to advance towards goals or to use self-protective behaviours or cognitions (Lončarić, 2011). Such pupils do not defend themselves from failure and negative (self-)assessments. They negatively self-assess themselves, have a low self-esteem, and are passive because they are convinced there is nothing they can do to succeed, which leads to a complete absence of proactive or defensive self-regulation. Other authors have found it necessary to describe the theoretical conception of the features and behaviours of a self-regulated pupil as clearly as possible in the communication with teachers that work in educational practice. For instance, when measuring teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning, Lombaerts, De Backer, Engels, van Braak, and Athanasou (2009; p.90) considered it necessa- ry to describe the self-regulated learning construct using the following story (Appendix 1): “We compare ‘learning to self-regulate’ with riding and steering a bike. Imagine a pupil steering a bike. He can and has to decide about a lot of things: where to go to, how fast to drive, which road to choose. (...). Self-regulated learning can be described in similar terms. After all, the same terms could be used when describing self-regulated learning. When fully self-regulated pupils: – determine what they want to learn (where to go); – find out what they need for it (gathering information); – develop a plan to tackle a learning task (map out a route); – determine the working tempo (how fast); – decide how to learn (road to choose); – regularly control progress (control); – make adjustments until the desired results are attained.” The self-regulated learning paradigm (Boekaerts, 1997) can attribute a part of its popularity to its clear contrast with the historically dominant approach to educa- tion that views the pupil as a passive receiver of information. According to such a view of the learning and teaching process, the pupil responds to the teaching methods and the environment that informs him/her, sets the goals, directs and leads him/her, and extrinsically motivates him/her. Such an approach usually requires the pupils to reproduce the learned content. The many problems that arise from this overly regulated and reactive approach to education have directed researchers’ focus towards self-regulated and proactive models of the pupil’s personal learning 182 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 182 26.4.2019 12:06:14 process. The self-regulated learning framework places the teacher in the role of an environment designer who tailors the environment to the needs of individual pupils and makes it stimulating for intrinsically motivated, self-regulated learning. In doing so, a significant part of the responsibility is placed on the pupil who manages the personal process of discovering and formulating his/her own goals and monitors the progress on the path to achieving the goal. Teacher support mainly comes down to the individualised approach to each pupil, as well as the formal and content-oriented organisation of the environment and learning processes. They, in turn, should be organised in such a way that the pupil can act independently, but also in cooperation with the teacher and other pupils with whom he/she achieves the learning outcomes by working on personally relevant tasks, with self-evaluati- on of his/her progress and achievements. 4.2 Common misconceptions about self-regulated learning Like any new initiative that goes against the dominant and common viewpoints, self-regulated learning has been the subject of criticisms that over time have pro- ven to be unfounded. In this paper, we will focus on two misconceptions that pre- vent a broad acceptance of the model of self-regulated learning. Due to the wrong assumption that early school-aged or preschool-aged children cannot self-regulate their personal learning process, most studies have been conducted on adolescents and adults (Perry, Phillips, and Dowler, 2004). Contrary to this belief, many studies show that children successfully develop the skill of self-regulation during early schooling (Bronson, 2000, Zimmerman, Bonner, and Kovach, 1996) and that even preschool-aged children and children in the first four grades of elementary school can successfully plan, monitor, and self-assess their own learning process while mastering complex tasks (Martinez-Pons, 2002; Neuman, 1996; Turner, 1995; Perry, 1998; Perry and VandeKamp, 2000). Another misconception is that self-regulated learning does not require a teacher at all, and that a teacher’s beliefs, qualities, and competencies are not an important element of self-regulated learning. On the contrary, teachers need to develop new competencies if they are to become successful designers of self-directed learning environments, whereby this environment is no longer just a classroom; it extends both in the spatial and informational sense to extracurricular, family activities and virtual spaces provided through ICT infrastructure. The pupil’s environment also includes the teacher with all his/her skills, competencies, and the skill to commu- nicate to the pupil his/her support and encouragement for independent, project- -based learning. As part of the pupil’s environment, the teacher must, through his/ 183 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 183 26.4.2019 12:06:14 her actions, clearly communicate an absolute respect for the pupil’s specific needs, which is especially important for the positive development of the pupil’s sense of self-efficacy (Pajares, 1997). The teacher’s role is most pronounced in the ability to teach self-regulated learning (Zimmerman, 2002) as a core competency that each pupil needs to develop to become a lifelong learner. 4.3 Teacher beliefs and competencies The first step towards a change is the acknowledgment that change is necessary. In this sense, teacher beliefs are crucial for the acceptance of the principle of self- -regulated learning and their inclusion in the teaching process. A large body of research has warned of the importance of teacher beliefs and epistemological beliefs about knowledge and cognition (Calderhead, 1996; Errington, 2004; Fang, 1996; Hofer and Pintrich, 1997; Kagan, 1992; Nespor, 1987; Richardson, 1996). Howe- ver, some authors have emphasised the problem of the conceptualisation of teacher beliefs (Pajares, 1992). Although they are closely related to knowledge (Verloop, Van Driel, and Meijer, 2001), beliefs have the special role of a filter through which new information and experiences are interpreted, and they thus serve as a critical mediator for behavioural change (Ertmer, 2005, Smith and Croom, 2000). Some authors are focused on investigating the correlation between teacher beliefs and specific teacher behaviours (Pearson, 1985). Different authors have explored su- bject-specific teacher beliefs in the fields of information-communication and edu- cation technology (Antonietti and Giorgetti, 2006; Ertmer, 2005), natural sciences (Bryan and Atwater, 2002), or mathematics (Warfield, Wood and Lehman, 2005). Teacher beliefs are of utmost importance in the teaching process and for the achievement of educational outcomes; therefore, researchers have specifical- ly studied the impact of future teachers’ education on their beliefs about lear- ning and teaching (Tatto, 1998). A large number of studies include university lecturers or students of various professions who, in addition to their primary profession, are receiving additional training for the teaching profession (Kane, Sandetto, and Heath, 2002; Errington, 2001). A smaller number of studies focus on teacher education students who are preparing to work in the lower grades of elementary or preschool education (Goodman, 1988; Hart, 2002; Klien, 1996; Minor, Onwuegbuzie, Witcher and James, 2002; McDiarmid, 1990; Hermans, Van Braak, and Van Keer, 2008). Some research has also attempted to simul- taneously include student and teacher beliefs about development-appropriate education practice (Smith and Croom, 2000). 184 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 184 26.4.2019 12:06:14 Given that teacher beliefs are largely formed during initial teacher education, it would be interesting to know to what extent teachers feel competent to engage in professional activity in today’s world that requires a highly developed ability for lifelong learning and adaptability to the changing demands of a dynamic society and education. Different definitions of professional development have emphasi- sed a process that contributes to the development of professional competencies based on a variety of formal and informal experiences (Čepić, Kalin, and Šteh, 2017). Terhart (1997) emphasises teacher development as a process during which the teacher establishes and maintains the highest level of professional competency he/she is capable of achieving. Therefore, self-evaluations of teachers’ professional competencies are a quality indicator of their lifelong learning, which can play a crucial role in forming their beliefs about self-regulated learning. Čepić, Kalin, and Šteh (2017) constructed the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies with the aim of verifying how teachers assess their competencies in different areas of professional activity, including the introduction of new insights into their educational work. The scale was constructed and the items desi- gned based on a review of theory and previous research on the fundamental areas of teachers' professional work. Teachers were asked to assess their competencies using five-point Likert-type scale items ( 1 - not competent to 5 - very competent). A total of 1,755 teachers provided a valid response on this scale, of which 1,010 (57.5%) are Croatian, and 745 (42.5%) Slovenian. A single-factor structure was obtained in both subsamples, based on which a seven-item scale with satisfactory reliability was constructed. 4.4 Measuring teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning Disproportionately to the importance of this topic, only a small number of rese- arch papers have the construction of teacher belief measurements as their primary aim. Some of the available studies focused on measuring teacher beliefs combine qualitative and quantitative methodologies (Harwood, Hansen, and Lotter, 2006), while others emphasise the “Q-sort” method (Rimm-Kaufman, Storm, Sawyer, Plant, and LaParo, 2006) or the verification of the factor structure of general education beliefs (Silvernail, 1992). Analysis of the available literature has revealed that only one paper attempts to measure teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning. The Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale (Lombaerts et al., 2009) was designed to assess teacher beliefs about introducing self-regulated learning into the everyday practical work 185 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 185 26.4.2019 12:06:14 of teachers in primary education. In order to enable differentiation between self- -regulated learning and other similar theoretical constructs, and to avoid different erroneous interpretations of that term at the beginning of the questionnaire, the authors of the scale provided teachers with a concrete description of the construct (Appendix 1). Based on a detailed review of the literature, the authors developed 39 positive and negative statements about the possibilities and consequences of self-regulated learning during class instruction. The items were formulated so that the participants could provide answers on a Likert-type scale that ranged from 0 ( I fully disagree) to 4 ( I fully agree). A panel of six experts – elementary school teachers – assessed the face validity of the items, while a panel of eight experts in the field of education sciences assessed the content validity. All items were retained, and small changes were made based on the suggestions of panel experts who assessed the questionnaire. A verification of the scale’s measurement characteristics was performed on a stratified sample (based on school management: private and public schools; region: urban and suburban schools; and application of educational priorities policy resources: schools that apply them and those that do not) of 399 teachers of primary education (76.1% women). The participants were employees of 91 city schools from the wider Brussels region in Belgium. Most participants taught children enrolled in grades four through six of elementary school (ages nine through 12), with an average class size of 20 pupils. A secondary sample of 68 schools in the Antwerp, Brussels, and Ghent regions was also used to verify the stability of the scale’s structure. The analysis pointed to the need to exclude items which in two successive analyses showed low discriminating potential, low factor saturation, or deviation from the theoretical structure of the scale. The final version contained ten items with a single-factor structure and satisfactory reliability. The authors emphasise that the reduction in the number of items significantly narrowed the field of teacher beliefs which the scale measures, but they note that the scale contains key items that describe the belief that self-regulated learning is an appropriate method of learning in lower grades of elementary school. 4.5 Competencies and self-regulated learning Since there are no standard measures of teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning in Slovenian and Croatian, one of the aims of this research was to translate and adapt the scale created by Lombaerts et al. (2009) and make it accessible to those researchers and teachers who are interested in determining the potential for the applica- tion of the principles of self-regulated learning in Slovenian and Croatian schools. Also, in addition to the existing Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies (Čepić et al., 2017), an opportunity arose for the very first time to determine on the national 186 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 186 26.4.2019 12:06:14 level to which degree teachers’ self-assessments of their competencies overlap with their beliefs about self-regulated learning. From the results thus obtained we gained a preliminary insight into the contribution of the professional training of teachers to their readiness to apply the principle of self-regulated learning in their teaching. Even from an international perspective, this was the first analysis of the correlation between competencies and teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning, which points to an unjustified neglect of research on self-regulation from the perspective of teachers in lower grades of elementary school. The aim of this empirical research was also to refute the simplified misconceptions about the inability of young children to self-regulate their process of acquiring new knowledge and skills, and the false assumption that teachers and teacher competencies are not important for a successful acquisition of skills for self-regulated learning. 4.6 Method 4.6.1 Participants The analyses were conducted on a subsample of participants from Slovenia and Croatia who answered questions about professional development and beliefs about self-regulated learning within the framework of broader research conducted as part of the project Teachers’ Professional Development: Status, Personality and Transversal Competencies (total sample of n = 1,867 teachers, of which 59.1% are from Croatia). n = 1,632 participants (87.4% of the total number of participants in the study) provided responses to all items used in this study. Of these, 931 participants (57%) are from Croatia and 701 from Slovenia. Regarding gender, the subsample includes 1,382 women (84.7%), 230 men (14.1%), and the remaining 20 partici- pants did not provide information on their gender. The subsample includes 678 classroom teachers (41.5%), 908 subject teachers (55.6%), and 46 participants did not provide information on their place of employment. The subsample is equiva- lent to the sample with regard to the proportional representation of participants by gender and workplace. The equivalence analysis of both the sample and subsample shows a statistically significant contingency, indicating that more participants (χ2 (1, n = 1867) = 22,148; p <0.001; C = 0,108) from Croatia (15.6% of the total number of participants from Croatia) than Slovenia (8.2% of the total number of participants from Slovenia) did not fill out both scales. Due to the disproportiona-te representation of the participants from Croatia and Slovenia in the subsample, the aggregate results are somewhat more representative for Slovenia, and therefore all analyses were carried out both on the total sample and separately on the sub- samples of participants from Croatia and Slovenia. 187 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 187 26.4.2019 12:06:14 4.6.2 Instruments The extensive survey covered many socio-demographic variables and measures, but in this paper we use gender information and the results of the Scale of Te- achers’ Professional Competencies and the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale. The Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies (Čepić et al., 2017) contains seven items, on which teachers were asked to assess their competencies on a five-point Likert-type scale ( 1 - not competent to 5 - very competent). The verification of the factor structure confirmed a single-factor measure with acceptable reliability. Croatian teachers achieved a significantly higher score on the scale when compared to Slovenian teachers (M = 3.85, SD = 0.56, ɑ = 0.82; in the subsample of Croatian teachers: M = 3.88, SD = 0.59, ɑ = 0.83; in the subsample of Slovenian teachers: M = 3.82, SD = 0.51, ɑ = 0.80). Higher scores on the scale indicate higher self-assessed teacher competencies in the areas of cooperation with co-workers and parents, use of contemporary knowledge in one’s work, re- search and development activities, analysis of educational work, mentoring, and constructive dialogue with colleagues. The Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale (Lombaerts et al., 2009) contains ten items assessed on a five-point Likert-type scale ( 0 - I fully disagree to 4 - I fully agree) that measure the beliefs about the importance and ability of applying the principles of self-regulated learning when teaching pupils. The results section provides a detailed description of the method of translating and adapting the scale and the verification of measurement characteristics. The original single-factor structure of the scale was confirmed with a satisfactory internal reliability coefficient (ɑ = 0.856; in the subsample of Croatian teachers ɑ = 0.864; in the subsample of Slo- venian teachers ɑ = 0.848). 4.6.3 Procedure The researchers sent the questionnaires to the schools by post, with a description of the research and an invitation for teachers to participate in a study that is part of a more extensive project covering various measures in the field of professional activity of Slovenian and Croatian classroom and subject teachers. The stratified sample included 10% of schools from all Croatian counties (the City of Zagreb and 20 counties) and 12 Slovenian administrative regions. The schools were se- lected using a randomised algorithm from the school list (using the SPSS 20 software). After all the schools on the initial list were contacted, those that did 188 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 188 26.4.2019 12:06:14 not agree to participate in the research were replaced with substitute schools from the school list through a random number table. In schools that agreed to participate in the research, the principal or the administrative services staff gave the questionnaires to the teachers, collected them, and sent them back to the researchers by post. 4.7 Results and discussion In order to provide an answer to the question of whether self-assessments of pro- fessional competencies are related to beliefs about self-regulated learning, we used the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies (Čepić et al., 2017) and adapted and translated the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale (Lombaerts et al., 2009) into Slovenian and Croatian. In this chapter, we present the basic information on the translation and adaptation of the scale, its basic descriptive and measurement characteristics (average scores, measures of dispersion, factor structure, and reliability coefficient on the whole sample and subsample of participants from Slovenia and Croatia). Finally, we analysed the correlation between professional competencies and teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning using the regressi- on analysis and bivariate correlations. An English language expert translated the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale (Lombaerts et al., 2009) with the help of two psychology experts using the back-translation method. It was taken into account that the translations needed to be in line with the Slovenian and Croatian education contexts. Once the back-translation had been carried out from Slove- nian/Croatian into English, those expressions which did not match the original ones were individually analysed and, if necessary, adapted to reflect the original versions, provided they were clear, relevant, and meaningful in both Slovenian and Croatian (Table 4.1). The descriptive analysis of the results showed that each item has a maximum response range (from 0 to 4) in both subsamples. As presented by the standard deviations and arithmetic means shown in Table 4.2, the participants’ respon- ses to the items have a satisfactory coefficient of variation, which indicates an appropriate sensitivity of the measurement instrument. An overview of the arithmetic means obtained from the Slovenian and Croatian subsamples shows that they are very similar, and that teachers from Croatia achieved a higher score on a larger number of items. No detailed analyses of the observed diffe- rences were made, since cross-cultural differences did not represent the main aim of this research. 189 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 189 26.4.2019 12:06:14 An overview of the mean values shows that the participants expressed relatively higher agreement with statement No. 1, Self-regulated learning enables pupils to evaluate their approach to learning better, and statement No. 4, It is easier to acknowledge pupils’ experiences and interests in an environment that is stimulating for self- -regulated learning. The participants expressed the least agreement with statement No. 5, Pupils have the ability to determine what they want to learn, and statement No. 10, In elementary school, pupils have the required level of discipline to assume responsibility for their learning. These results suggest that the belief that younger pupils lack adequate abilities for self-regulated learning still prevails among teachers, which is not in line with contemporary research (Martinez-Pons, 2002, Neuman, 1996; Turner, 1995; Perry, 1998; Perry and VandeKamp, 2000). The obtained results, especially teacher beliefs that pupils cannot determine what they want to learn and do not have the required level of discipline to assume responsibility for their learning, are a significant obstacle for the introduction of methods that would be stimulating for the development of self-regulated learning. Teacher beliefs determine their perceptions and decision-making proces- ses, practical approaches to teaching, and knowledge (Errington, 2004, Ertmer, 2005), which, in turn, significantly affect their teaching (Warfield et al., 2005). When they have to make a quick decision, their beliefs provide them with ha- bituated answers about the possible reactions in a given situation. In this regard, they represent open or closed doors for change in educational practice, which can support or hamper innovative changes in teaching (Errington, 2004). The initial review of the results suggests that certain teaching beliefs could represent a significant obstacle to the introduction of methods for the development of self-regulated learning. Subsequent analysis of the assessments of teachers’ pro- fessional competencies will be used to verify if there is room for progress in the initial education of teachers. Also, it is necessary to verify whether the obtained results were influenced by the instructions on how to complete the instrument, which contain an explanation of self-regulated learning, in which the authors of the scale (Lombaerts et al., 2009, p. 90) state: “During the bicycle story, you may have wondered if it is quite dangerous to send out pupils on their own during a long trip in an unknown environment. The same goes for self-regulated lear- ning. Full self-regulated learning is not attainable in compulsory education.” By applying the scale without the clarification of self-regulated learning, it might be possible to determine to what extent the very explanation of the construct of self-regulated learning influences the somewhat reserved teacher beliefs regar- ding the applicability of such learning in an educational context. 190 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 190 26.4.2019 12:06:14 Table 4.1. Individual items of the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale – Croatian, Slovenian, and English versions Abbreviated form Croatian version Slovenian version English version Samoregulirano učenje Samouravnavanje učenja Self-regulated learning SARU01 omogućuje učenicima omogoča učencem boljše makes pupils evaluate bolje vrednovanje vlasti- ovrednotenje svojega their learning approach tog pristupa učenju. pristopa k učenju. better. Učenici bi trebali Učenci bi morali pogosteje Pupils should be able to SARU02 češće imati mogućnost imeti možnost odločanja o make decisions about the odlučivati o tijeku i zaporedju in trajanju učnih sequence and duration of trajanju aktivnosti aktivnostih. their learning activities tijekom učenja. more often. Učenici bi trebali češće Učenci bi morali pogosteje Pupils should be able to SARU03 imati mogućnost odlučiti imeti možnost odločanja, decide when they work on kada će raditi na zadatku. kdaj bodo opravljali an assignment more often. določeno učno nalogo. Lakše je uvažiti učenička V okolju, v katerem se A self-regulated learning SARU04 iskustva i interese u spodbuja samouravnavanje environment makes it okolini poticajnoj za učenja, je lažje upoštevati easier to take into account samo- regulirano učenje. izkušnje in interese učencev. pupils’ experiences and interests. SARU05 Učenici imaju sposobnost Učenci so zmožni sami Pupils have the capacity to odrediti što žele učiti. določiti, česa se želijo determine what they want naučiti. to learn Svakom učeniku bi Vsak učenec bi moral imeti Each pupil should be SARU06 trebalo pružiti priliku priložnost uravnavati svoje given the opportunity da upravlja vlastitim učenje. to regulate his/her own procesom učenja. learning process. SARU07 Samoregulirano učenje Samouravnavanje učenja je Self-regulated learning može se primijeniti u možno izvajati v osnovni is practicable in primary osnovnoj školi. šoli. education. Samoregulirano učenje Samouravnavanje učenja Self-regulated learning pruža učenicima zagotavlja učencem provides pupils with SARU08 temeljitiju pripremu za temeljitejšo pripravo na a more thorough prijelaz u srednju školu. prehod v srednjo šolo. preparation for their transition to secondary education. Samoregulirano učenje Samouravnavanje učenja Self-regulated learning SARU09 dovodi do učinkovitije vodi v učinkovitejše leads to a more efficient suradnje među učenicima. medsebojno sodelovanje cooperation between pupils. med učenci. U osnovnoj školi učenici Osnovnošolski učenci so Pupils have the required SARU10 imaju potrebnu razinu dovolj samodisciplinirani, da self- discipline to take discipliniranosti za prevzamejo odgovornost za responsibility for their preuzimanje odgovornosti svoje učenje. learning in primary za vlastito učenje. education. 191 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 191 26.4.2019 12:06:14 Table 4.2. Descriptive data for individual items on the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale Total CRO SLO n M SD n M SD n M SD SARU01 1837 2.99 0.77 1086 2.95 0.80 751 3.04 0.71 SARU02 1849 2.38 0.92 1091 2.49 0.91 758 2.23 0.92 SARU03 1846 2.04 0.95 1092 2.09 0.97 754 1.95 0.91 SARU04 1837 2.95 0.75 1083 2.95 0.78 754 2.94 0.70 SARU05 1839 1.96 0.93 1085 2.07 0.92 754 1.81 0.92 SARU06 1829 2.46 0.89 1083 2.42 0.91 746 2.51 0.86 SARU07 1830 2.24 0.94 1079 2.25 0.96 751 2.23 0.90 SARU08 1843 2.72 0.88 1089 2.64 0.91 754 2.84 0.82 SARU09 1842 2.79 0.81 1085 2.79 0.84 757 2.78 0.78 SARU10 1844 1.86 0.99 1090 2.00 1.00 754 1.65 0.94 In order to determine the factor structure of the scale, the principal component analysis was performed with the Cattell scree test as a criterion for retaining si- gnificant components. The analysis was repeated on the subsamples of Slovenian and Croatian participants in order to determine the stability of the factor structure (Table 4.3). The results mostly support the single-factor structure obtained by the authors of the original scale. Although the first two factors have an eigenvalue greater than 1, the graphical analysis of the decrease in the eigenvalue on successively extracted factors (the first four eigenvalues: 4.423, 1.087, 0.910, 0.740) indicates that the first factor explains a significantly greater amount of scale variance compared to the remaining factors. All items show high factor loadings (above 0.5) on the retained factor and satisfactory communalities (above 0.3, with the exception of the SARU10 item in the subsample of Slovenian teachers). These results indi- cate that all ten items measure a single construct and that a linear composite of items results in a single measure on the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale, whereby a higher score on the scale indicates more positive beliefs about the usefulness and applicability of the principle of self-regulated learning in teaching. The preliminary results of the exploratory factor analysis suggest that the condi- tions for the factor structure invariance were met with regard to the number of significant factors (in both analyses there was a similar pattern of the decreasing eigenvalue, which suggests a single-factor structure). Moreover, the equivalence of factor loadings was demonstrated with a high correlation of factor loadings of the first factor obtained in the two subsamples (r=0.92).These data indicate the pos- sibility of the aggregate use of the obtained data and a comparison of the results 192 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 192 26.4.2019 12:06:14 in the subsamples. This conclusion should be additionally verified with more detailed analyses and confirmatory models in separate research that would focus on cross-cultural differences. For now, we can conclude that the original, single-factor structure obtained by Lombaerts et al. (2009) on Belgian teachers was confirmed on Slovenian and Croatian teachers. Table 4.3. Results of the factor analysis of the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale Total CRO SLO dings dings dings unalities unalities unalities mm mm mm Factor loa Co Factor loa Co Factor loa Co SARU01 .564 .318 .570 .325 .565 .319 SARU02 .695 .483 .706 .499 .682 .465 SARU03 .681 .464 .683 .466 .674 .455 SARU04 .624 .389 .612 .375 640 .410 SARU05 .563 .317 .562 .316 .565 .320 SARU06 .672 .452 .666 .444 .693 .480 SARU07 .750 .563 .768 .591 .720 .519 SARU08 .734 .539 .758 .574 .727 .528 SARU09 .754 .568 .772 .597 .722 .521 SARU10 .575 .330 .601 .362 .535 .286 eigenvalues 4.423 4.548 4.302 % of variance explained 44.227 45.476 43.021 The descriptive analysis of the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale on the total, Croatian, and Slovenian samples (Table 4.4) shows that the theoretical range of results (in the Slovenian sample no one had a theoretical minimum, while in the Croatian sample no one had a theoretical maximum) was obtained on the scale, and that Croatian and Slovenian participants share an almost identical mean value (even though preliminary analyses indicate that a small difference in favour of the Croatian teachers is statistically significant, this result should be further analysed in subsequent cross-cultural research). 193 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 193 26.4.2019 12:06:14 Table 4.4. Descriptive data of the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale for the total, Croatian, and Slovenian samples Total CRO SLO n 1735 1017 718 Min 0.00 0.00 0.30 Max 4.00 3.90 4.00 M 2.4427 2.4715 2.4018 SD 0.5826 0.6030 0.5503 α 0.856 0.864 0.848 * p<0.05 Analyses of the main research question were conducted with the aim of exploring the extent to which teachers’ professional competencies correlate with their beliefs about self-regulated learning, and whether this correlation is different in Croatia and Slovenia. A bivariate regression analysis was conducted to determine the degree to which the variance of beliefs about self-regulated learning can be explained with the self-assessment of professional competencies. The results of the analysis showed that an exceptionally small, albeit statistically significant, part of the variance of beliefs about self-regulated learning could be explained with teacher com- petencies: R2 = 0.015, F (1, 1630) = 24.104, p <0.01. For the increase in one point on the Scale of Competencies, the model predicts an increase of b = 0.126 points (t = 4.91; p <0.01) on the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale measuring positive teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning. It should be noted that the connection is extremely weak, and that the predictor explains a very small part of the variance of the criteria. The obtained parameters are statistically significant only due to the size of the sample and the small standard error of the parameters, and not because of the significant or practically relevant effects of teacher competencies on their beliefs about self-regulated learning. A test of the significance of differences between independent correlations was con- ducted using the Fisher z-transformation of the correlations (Cohen and Cohen, 1983; Preacher, 2002) in order to ascertain whether the Pearson correlation bet- ween the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale and the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies is statistically significantly different on the subsamples of Slovenian and Croatian participants. It was established that the correlation between the beliefs about self-regulated learning and competencies in the entire sample (n = 1632; r = 0.121; p <0.001) and in the subsamples is low, positive, statistically significant, and does not statistically 194 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 194 26.4.2019 12:06:14 significantly differ in the subsample of Croatian participants in relation to the correlation obtained in the subsample of Slovenian participants: rcro (n = 931) = 0.111; p = 0.001, rslo (n = 701) = 0.130; p = 0.001; z = 1.850, p = 0.700. The authors of the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies (Čepić et al., 2017) note that Croatian and Slovenian teachers assess their competencies with high values for all scale items. They leave open the possibility that this is more likely to reflect the tendency to give socially desirable responses than the actual competencies of the research participants. The results presented in this paper indicate that these competencies do not have a substantial positive effect on proactive beliefs about the possibility of applying methods that would encoura- ge self-regulated learning in primary education, and that there is no difference between Slovenian and Croatian teachers in this regard. The only more dishear- tening insight than this result is that teachers regard the level of their competencies as sufficient, even in light of rather unfounded beliefs about self-regulated learning, which is a conclusion that should be verified with future research that is specifically oriented towards the development of self-regulated learning during initial teacher education. 4.8 Conclusion Self-regulation of learning is a personal process of a pupil who, among other thin- gs, is affected by teacher competencies and characteristics. It is difficult to learn in a fully independent and self-regulated manner without a teacher, because the teacher is always present in the inseparable connection between learning and teaching, at least in terms of directing and organising information, which in the modern world can be a significantly automated information process. In everyday work, especially with younger children, the instructor plays a vital role in self-regulated learning as a designer of the environment and the conditions suitable for such learning. His/ her role in teaching self-regulated learning through cross-curricular topics, such as the topic “learning to learn”, is even more significant. The teacher is also crucial for developing the competency of self-regulated learning as a fundamental precondition for lifelong learning. Unfortunately, research shows that teachers insufficiently encourage self-regula- ted learning. Part of the reason can be found in the excessively prescriptive and regulative nature of the core curriculum, but also in the insecurity of teachers with regard to applying such a method, which they consider excessively radical and uncertain in terms of learning outcomes. Due to the shortcomings of initial teacher 195 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 195 26.4.2019 12:06:15 education, teachers are not sure to what extent they can guide their pupils or enable them to be in charge of their learning process (Perry and VandeKamp, 2000). Moreover, teachers do not consider themselves sufficiently skilled in developing self-discipline skills in their pupils (Boekaerts, 1997). If we systematically study the relationships among teacher beliefs about self-regulated learning, their practice and learning outcomes, we could come up with an answer to the question of why some teachers change and adapt their teaching to make it more stimulating for proactive self-regulated learning, while others only stick to established teaching methods (Warfield et al., 2005). After the adaptation and translation of the scale constructed by Lombaerts et al. (2009), the original single-factor structure was replicated, and it showed satisfactory factor stability on the subsamples of Slovenian and Croatian teachers. The reliability of the scale on both subsamples was also satisfactory. 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Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. 199 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 199 26.4.2019 12:06:15 Appendix 1 Guidelines for the application of the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale The procedure and the texts were translated, and adapted in accordance with the material provided by authors of the original scale after permission was obtained to translate and use it (Lombaerts, De Backer, Engels, van Braak, and Athanasou, 2009). Deviation from this instruction and structure may hamper the comparison of the results. The scale comprises the ten items shown in Table 1 and the following instruction: After reading the description of self-regulated learning, please circle on the fol- lowing scale the number that best reflects your degree of agreement with each statement; 0 = I fully disagree; 1 = I mostly do not agree; 2 = I neither agree nor disagree; 3 = I mostly agree; 4 = I fully agree. Croatian version Nakon pročitanog opisa samoreguliranog učenja molimo Vas da na sljedećoj skali zaokružite broj koji najbolje odražava stupanj Vašega slaganja s pojedinom tvr- dnjom. 0 = Uopće se ne slažem; 1 = Uglavnom se ne slažem; 2 = Niti se slažem, niti se ne slažem; 3 = Uglavnom se slažem; 4 = U potpunosti se slažem. Slovenian version Na osnovi prebranega opisa samouravnavanja učenja vas prosimo, da na spodnji lestvici obkrožite številko, ki najbolj izraža stopnjo vašega strinja- nja s posamezno trditvijo.; 0 = Sploh se ne strinjam; 1 = V glavnem se ne strinjam; 2 = Niti se strinjam niti se ne strinjam; 3 = V glavnem se strinjam; 4 = Popolnoma se strinjam. Before the instruction was provided and the scale was filled out, the construct of self-regulated learning was explained to the participants in the form of a short story. When the scale was being constructed, the authors assumed that the participants had not received enough information about self-regulated le- arning during their initial education or professional training, so they found it appropriate to describe this construct to teachers in a clear and understandable way. Over time, the use of this story might no longer be necessary, but there is always the possibility that a participant might not know what the term implies, or might have a false idea of its meaning. Therefore, it would be desirable to use this description in every research for the sake of uniformity and comparability 200 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 200 26.4.2019 12:06:15 of the obtained results. By applying the scale, we are also informing (reminding) teachers about self-regulated learning. “We compare ‘learning to self-regulate’ with riding and steering a bike. Imagine a pupil steering a bike. He can and has to decide about a lot of things: where to go to, how fast to drive, which road to choose. If it is a longer ride, he should also consider when to insert a short stop, e.g., to check the road map, to control if he is still on the right track, or to check out something that comes across, etc. At the same time, he also assumes responsibility: when driving in an unknown environment, he must gather information about the area first, map out a route to take... and can’t blame someone else if he drives in the wrong direction. You will have noticed that a lot of words are presented in italics. After all, the same terms could be used when describing self-regulated learning. When fully self-regulating, a pupil: • determines what he wants to learn (where to go) • finds out what he needs for it (gathering information) • developing a plan to tackle a learning task (map out a route) • determining the working tempo (how fast) • deciding how to learn (road to choose) • regularly controlling progress (control) • making adjustments until the desired results are attained During the bicycle story, you may have thought that it is quite dangerous to send out pupils on their own for a long trip in an unknown environment. The same goes for self-regulated learning. Full self-regulated learning is not attainable in compulsory education. Still, in educational settings, a learner can take responsibility for several tasks that are traditionally taken care of by the teacher. Moreover, self-regulated learning is not a synonym of ‘learning on your own’. Working together with fellow pupils, and seeking their advice, are essential within self-regulated learning. Indeed, a bicycle ride can be made together with others. Croatian version of the story Učenje samoregulacije možemo usporediti s vožnjom i upravljanjem biciklom. Za- mislite učenika koji upravlja biciklom. On može i mora odlučiti o puno toga: kamo ići, koliko brzo voziti, koju cestu odabrati. Ako je vožnja duga, mora razmisliti i kada će napraviti stanku kako bi npr., provjerio svoj položaj na karti, kontrolirao je li još uvijek na pravom putu ili provjerio što mu slijedi na putu i sl. Istodobno, on 201 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 201 26.4.2019 12:06:15 preuzima odgovornost: vozeći kroz nepoznato područje mora prikupiti informacije o tom području, utvrditi rutu kojom želi voziti, pri čemu ne može druge okriviti ako vozi u pogrešnom smjeru. Na sličan način može se opisati samoregulirano učenje. Potpuno samoreguliran učenik: • određuje što želi učiti (kamo želi ići) • utvrđuje što mu je sve za to potrebno (prikuplja informacije) • razvija plan kako će savladati zadatak učenja (utvrđuje rutu vožnje) • utvrđuje ritam rada (koliko brzo želi voziti) • odlučuje kako će učiti (odabir ceste) • redovito prati napredak (kontrola) • radi prilagodbe sve do postizanja željenih rezultata. Čitajući ovu priču o biciklistu, možda ste se zapitali nije li prilično opasno po- slati učenike same na dug put u nepoznatom okruženju. Isto vrijedi za samo- regulirano učenje. Potpuno samoregulirano učenje nije ostvarivo u obaveznom obrazovanju. Ipak, u obrazovnom okruženju učenik može preuzeti odgovornost za različite zadatke kroz koje ga tradicionalno vodi i o kojima se brine učitelj. Također, samoregulirano učiti ne znači učiti sam. Surađivati s drugim učenicima i tražiti savjet, ključni su elementi samoreguliranog učenja. Vožnja biciklom mo- guća je i u društvu. Slovenian version of the story Učenje samouravnavanja lahko primerjamo z vožnjo in upravljanjem kolesa. Zamislite si, da učenec vozi kolo. Učenec se lahko in se mora odločiti o mnogih stvareh: kam bo šel, kako hitro bo vozil, katero pot bo izbral. Če gre za daljšo vožnjo, mora razmisliti, kje bo naredil krajši postanek, torej mora preveriti svoj položaj na zemljevidu, če je še na pravi poti, ali predvideti, kaj na poti še lahko sledi, ipd. Istočasno učenec prevzema odgovornost: ker se vozi po nepoznanem področju, mora najprej zbrati informacije o tem področju, narediti načrt poti ... in ne more kriviti drugih, če se pelje v napačno smer. Lahko ste opazili, da so bili določeni izrazi zapisani poševno. Konec koncev bi lahko enake izraze upo- rabili, ko opisujemo samouravnavanje učenja. Učenec, ki v celoti samouravnava svoje učenje: določa, kaj se želi učiti (kam bo šel), ugotovi, kaj vse potrebuje za to (zbira informacije), načrtuje reševanje učne naloge (načrt poti), odloča o delovnem tempu (kako hitro), odloča, kako se bo učil (izbira poti), redno preverja, nadzira napredek (preverjanje), se prilagaja, dokler ne doseže želenih rezultatov. 202 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 202 26.4.2019 12:06:15 Med branjem te zgodbe o kolesarjenju, ste se lahko začeli spraševati, ali ni morda nevarno učencev samih poslati na tako dolgo pot in to v nepoznano okolje. Enako je s samouravnavanjem učenja. V obveznem izobraževanju popolnega samostojnega uravnavanja učenja ni mogoče doseči. Kljub temu lahko učenci v formalnih izobra- ževalnih okoljih prevzamejo odgovornost za mnoge naloge, za katere tradicionalno poskrbi učitelj. Prav tako samouravnavanje učenja ni sinonim za to, da se nekdo uči sam. Skupno delo z ostalimi učenci in iskanje nasvetov so ključni elementi samouravnavanja učenja. 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Učenici bi tr Lakše je uvažiti učenič Učenici imaju sposob Svako Samor Samor Samor U osno za v 205 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 205 26.4.2019 12:06:15 olnoma rinjam 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Pop se st vnem rinjam 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 V gla se sti iti se rinjam 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 N rinjam nitst se ne st vnem 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 se ne rinjam V gla st h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Splo se ne rinjamst . o. . vici vijo oje učenje rdit ednjo šolo odnji lest a sv zno t istopa k učenju. vati izkušnje in ehod v sr nost z , da na sp osame ajanju učnih aktivnosti. ovor ojega pr ljali določeno učno nalogav o na pr vanje med učenci. osimo av edju in tr . ipr rinjanja s p amejo odg apor je lažje upošte evz vrednotenje sv kdaj bodo opr oje učenje anja o z vni šoli. da pr loč anja, ani, vanja učenja vas pr loč elijo naučiti. avnavati sv avna a stopnjo vašega st avnavanje učenja, vitejše medsebojno sodelo až žnost od a učencem boljše o žnost od lja učencem temeljitejšo pr olj izr oč česa se ž žnost ur žno izvajati v osno ersion: ilo otav mog ag odi v učinko volj samodisciplinir vene v , ki najb osteje imeti mo anega opisa samour osteje imeti mo al imeti pr vilko ebr em se spodbuja samour ali pog ali pog v. žni sami določiti, vi pr ožite štekr avnavanje učenja o v kater avnavanje učenja je mo avnavanje učenja z avnavanje učenja v le with the Slo a osno ob ese učence vnošolski učenci so do N kolju, Tab Samour Učenci bi mor Učenci bi mor V o inter Učenci so zmo Vsak učenec bi mor Samour Samour Samour Osno 206 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 206 26.4.2019 12:06:15 5 Teachers’ professional competencies for individualised instruction in inclusive classrooms Sanja Skočić Mihić 5.1 Introduction An inclusive education policy, as initiated at United Nations World Conferences (UNESCO, 1990; 1994), promotes the inclusion of children and youth with disa- bilities in regular education. The right of people with disabilities to “an inclusive, quality and free primary education and secondary education on an equal basis with others in the communities in which they live, reasonable accommodation of the individual’s requirements, the support required, within the general education system, to facilitate their effective education, and effective individualised support measures provided in environments that maximise academic and social development, consistent with the goal of full inclusion”, is defined in Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN, 2006). The Republic of Croatia, as well as most European countries (Meijer, 2010), shapes its inclusive educational legislation, which is complementary to the educational policy of integration, through the ratification of the aforementioned convention (Education Act, 1980). The harmonisation of the national education policy with international and European inclusive legislation began around the mid-2010s (State Pedagogical Standard for Primary Education, 2008, Primary and Seconda- ry Education Act, 2008; Primary and Secondary Education Act, 2008). The most important turning point towards a more inclusive education policy was the Ru- lebook on the Primary Education of Children with Developmental Difficulties (2015), which envisages adjusting the primary education system to the needs of each child with disabilities, as well as developing a system of professional support for children, their parents, and educational staff. Inclusive education is “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures, and communities, and reducing exclusion within and from education” (UNESCO, 2005, p. 13). It is a comprehensive concept and a continuous process of elimi- nating all forms of discrimination and ensuring education for all (UNESCO, 2009), and a global descriptor of education policies (Vislie, 2003). The deve- lopment of a quality education system is a key challenge in building more in- clusive and equitable communities that are ready to respond to the vast range of educational needs as well as respect for diversity, including the consideration of 207 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 207 26.4.2019 12:06:15 different needs and abilities, characteristics and academic achievements (Acedo, Amadio, and Operetti, 2008). The creators of the European education policy agree that teachers require kno- wledge, skills, attitudes, and values to teach in accordance with the individual educational needs of all pupils (Kaikkonen, Maunonen-Eskelinen, and Aiduki- ene, 2007). The European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education has developed an “inclusive” teacher profile, identifying the basic skills, knowled-ge, understanding, attitudes, and values which candidates need for the teaching profession, regardless of the subject they teach, their profession, age, or the type of school in to which they are employed ( European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2012). Four core values and areas of teacher competency for inclusive education are defined as follows: “(1) valuing learner diversity as a resource and an asset of education; (2) supporting all learners and having high expectations for all learners’ achievement; (3) cooperation and teamwork as essential approaches for all teachers; (4) personal, professional development includes teaching as a learning activity and teachers who take responsibility for their lifelong learning” (p.11). Teacher attitudes are considered the foundation for the development of an inclu- sive educational practice, given that behaviours are known to be aligned with atti- tudes (Avramidis and Norwich, 2002). Numerous studies (Avramidis and Kalyva, 2007, Beacham and Rouse, 2012; Campbell, Gilmore, and Cuskelly, 2003; Cook, Cameron, and Tankersley, 2007; de Boer, Timmerman, Pijl, and Minnaert, 2012; Malinen, Savolainen, and Xu, 2012; Sharma and Sokal, 2015; Wilde and Avrami- dis, 2011) have identified positive teacher attitudes towards inclusive education. In accordance with the findings of meta-analyses (Avramidis and Norwich, 2002; Scruggs and Mastropieri, 1996), teachers support inclusive education, but they do not feel sufficiently qualified to implement it. They assess themselves as particularly insufficiently qualified to teach pupils with severe disabilities such as behavioural, intellectual, and multiple disabilities (Avramidis, Bayliss, and Burden, 2000a). Therefore, the aforementioned authors believe that teacher attitudes continue to reflect the integration paradigm and the medical model rather than the inclusion paradigm and the social model. Furthermore, despite the positive attitudes towards inclusive education, tea- chers do not assess themselves as sufficiently competent to teach pupils with disabilities in regular classes. In general, teachers demonstrate lower levels of qualifications for inclusive teaching (Avramidis and Norwich, 2002; McHat- ton and McCray, 2007; Scruggs and Mastropieri, 1996; Skočić Mihić, 2011; 208 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 208 26.4.2019 12:06:15 Stanisavljević-Petrović and Stančić, 2010; Cains and Brown, 1996; Lombardi and Hunka, 2001; Skočić Mihić, Lončarić, Kolumbo, Perger, Nastić, and Trgović, 2014, Skočić Mihić, 2011, Kudek Mirošević, 2016; Kudek Mirošević and Jurčević Lozančić, 2014). Teachers who were trained to work with children with disabilities and have the experience of working with them assess themselves as more competent (Avramidis and Norwich, 2002; Forlin, 2001; Skočić Mihić, 2011). Moreover, students who had volunteering experience with pupils with disabilities during their pre-service education assess themselves as more compe- tent for inclusive teaching (Skočić Mihić, Lončarić, and Rudelić, 2011), as well as preschool teachers who have a positive attitude towards preschool inclusion (Skočić Mihić, Sekušak-Galešev, 2017). Higher levels of primary teacher and preschool teacher competencies are associated with more positive attitudes and participation in pre- and in-service education for inclusive teaching (Sharma and Sokal, 2015). Many authors emphasise the importance of pre-service education in acquiring teacher competencies for inclusive teaching (Acedo, 2008, Avramidis, Bayliss, and Burden, 2000a, Avramidis, Bayliss, and Burden, 2000b, Avramidis and Norwich, 2002, Florian, 2012, Peček and Macura-Milovanović, 2012; Conderman and Johnston-Rodriguez, 2009; Harvey, Yssel, Bauserman and Merbler, 2010; Sze, 2009). Pre-service education also has an impact on teachers’ and future teachers’ positive attitudes towards inclusion, as well as their competency for the deve- lopment, implementation, and evaluation of an Individualised Education Pro- gram (IEP) for students with disabilities (Avramidis, Bayliss, and Burden, 2000a; Avramidis, Bayliss, and Burden, 2000b; Van Laarhoven, Munk, Lynch, Bosma, and Rouse, 2007). Sharma and Sokal (2015) carried out a comparative pre- and post-designed study and measured the impact of course participation, and found that it raised the positive attitudes of teachers, reduced their concerns and improved teaching confidence and efficacy. In a major study conducted by Scruggs and Mastropieria (1996), only one-third of teachers believe that they possess the skills, preparedness, and support needed to teach students with disabilities successfully. Teachers should have the compe- tencies to organise and adapt the classroom environment, teaching strategies, and ways of monitoring and evaluating progress based on their students’ strengths and opportunities for success (Martan, Skočić Mihić, and Lončarić, 2015). Individu- alization and orientation towards the child, inclusivity, integrity, cooperation, and availability are ensured through the development of IEP (Skočić Mihić, Beaudoin, and Krsnik, 2016). A teacher requires specific competencies, teaching methods for 209 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 209 26.4.2019 12:06:15 children with disabilities, and specific professional skills to implement IEP programs, which are created through a team effort in cooperation with professional experts, teachers, and other professionals (Bouillet, 2010). Preschool teachers, who have written an IEP for children with disabilities, recognise the importance of the knowledge and skills needed for its implementation in successful inclusion, as opposed to preschool teachers who do not have IEP (Rudelić, Skočić Mihić, and Pinoza Kukurin, 2013). The skills of individualised instruction are at the very core of inclusive educa- tion, and the inclusive teacher should identify the pupil’s individual needs and learning style (Kudek Mirošević, 2016). The use of effective teaching strategies tailored to the individual needs of students with disabilities is a fundamental challenge for teachers working in inclusive classrooms (Yuen, Westwood, and Wong, 2004). Contemporary inclusive and educational trends emphasise that the quality of teaching lies in the individualised approach that is based on each pupil’s strengths. Teaching in today’s highly heterogeneous classes, in terms of the pupils’ educational needs, requires a high level of teacher competencies for differentiated instruction. In line with the aforementioned current knowledge, this paper focuses on deter- mining the following: (1) verification of the measurement characteristics of the Scale of Teachers’ Competencies for Individualised Instruction, (2) self-assessed levels of competencies of Croatian and Slovenian teachers for inclusive teaching/ individualised instruction, 3) differences in teacher competencies for individuali- sed instruction with regard to gender and the workplace, (4) correlation between teacher competencies for individualised instruction and professional competencies with regard to the age and years of teaching experience. 5.2 Method 5.2.1 Sample of participants The research included 1,989 classroom and subject teachers, of which 1,195 were Croatian and 794 were Slovenian. The average age of the teachers is 42 (SD = 10.20; Min = 24; Max = 66), with an average of 17 years of work experience (SD = 11.01; Min = 0; Max = 44). The average age and years of teaching experience in the subsamples are presented in Table 5.1. 210 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 210 26.4.2019 12:06:15 Table 5.1. Basic statistical indicators of age and years of teaching experience for the subsamples of Croatian and Slovenian teachers Croatian teachers Slovenian teachers n Min-Max M (SD) n Min-Max M (SD) Age 1173 24-65 41.69 (10.64) 771 25-66 43.60 (9.37) Years of teaching experience 1169 0-44 16.23 (11.08) 775 0-40 18.93 (10.73) Of the total number of teachers in the total sample who answered the question on their place of employment, 42% reported being classroom teachers and 58% being subject teachers. In the Croatian subsample, 39% are classroom teachers and 61% are subject teachers, while in the Slovenian subsample, 48% are classroom teachers and 52% are subject teachers. 5.2.2 Measurement characteristics of the measuring instrument The Scale of Teachers’ Competencies for Individualised Instruction is a modified version of measuring teachers’ perceptions of the skills they possess for teaching a diverse group of learners and meeting all their needs (Avramidis, Bayliss, and Burden, 2000a). The short version contains eight items that describe teachers’ self- -assessed competencies for writing, implementing, and evaluating an IEP, and the use of professional experts’ advice, cooperation with colleagues to provide coherent teaching programmes for learners who need them, individualization in teaching different groups of pupils, encouraging the development of pupils’ social skills and managing classroom discipline. Teachers responded on a five-point Likert scale, with the following values: 1 - not competent, 2 - poorly competent, 3 - somewhat competent, 4 - well competent, 5 - highly competent. The factor analysis of the Scale of Teachers’ Competencies for Individualised Instruction revealed one factor that explains 61.17% of the common variance (eigenvalue of 4.893) in the subsample of Croatian teachers, and 56.80% of the common variance (eigenvalue of 4.544) in the subsample of Slovenian teachers. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient is α = 0.908 for the Croatian subsample and α = 0.889 for the Slovenian one. Table 5.2 shows the communality and factor saturation on the items of the Scale of Te- achers’ Competencies for Individualised Instruction. 211 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 211 26.4.2019 12:06:15 Table 5.2. Factor structure of the Scale of Teachers’ Competencies for Individualised Instruction Teacher competencies for: Croatia Slovenia h2 β h2 β implementing IEP .765 .875 .747 .864 evaluating IEP .761 .872 .760 .872 using expert associates’ advice2 .671 .819 .656 .810 writing IEP .664 .815 .575 .758 cooperating with teachers1 .663 .815 .607 .779 individualised instruction of pupils3 .570 .755 .554 .774 encouraging the development of pupils’ social skills .416 .645 .364 .604 classroom behaviour management .383 .619 .281 .530 IEP – individualised education program; 1 – with colleagues to provide coherent teaching programmes for students with “SEN” pupils; 2 – (e.g. educational rehabilitators, psychologists, speech therapists) in the creation, implementation, and evaluation of IEP; 3 - from diverse multicultural environments 5.2.3 Methods of data processing Basic statistical indicators (arithmetic mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum score) are presented for the questionnaire items. The factor structure was determined using the factor analysis, maximum likelihood method, for the factor extraction with oblimin rotation and Cattell’s graphical representation of the decreasing value of the scree plot. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to establish the correlation between the scale factors and continuous variables. The t-test for independent variables was used to test the differences between the groups of teachers with regard to gender and place of employment: classroom and subject teaching. The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated for the scale factors, while the significance of the difference between the non-dependent correlations was verified using Fisher’s z-transformation to test the obtained differences in the subsamples of Slovenian and Croatian participants. 5.3 Results and Discussion 5.3.1 Croatian and Slovenian teachers’ competencies for individualised instruction Basic statistical indicators for the Scale of Teachers’ Competencies for Individua- lised Instruction in the samples of Croatian and Slovenian teachers are presented in Table 5.3. 212 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 212 26.4.2019 12:06:15 Table 5.3. Basic statistical indicators on the Scale of Teachers’ Competencies for Individualised Instruction Teacher competencies for: Croatia Slovenia n M (SD) n M (SD) classroom behaviour management 1088 4.11 (.410) 755 3.95 (.720) encouraging the development of pupils’ social skills 1093 4.03 (.740) 754 3.80 (.718) cooperating with teachers1 1088 3.61 (.846) 752 3.82 (.771) using expert associates’ advice 2 1086 3.50 (.848) 751 3.78 (.783) implementing IEP 1097 3.30 (.897) 756 3.28 (.888) individualised instruction of pupils 3 1082 3.29 (.928) 753 3.27 (.853) evaluating IEP 1092 3.20 (.920) 754 3.20 (.933) writing IEP 1093 3.13 (.965) 754 3.79 (1.03) Total 1117 3.53 (.685) 750 3.52 (.629) IEP – individualised education program; 1 – with colleagues to provide coherent teaching programmes for students with “SEN”; 2 – (e.g. educational rehabilitators, psychologists, speech therapists) in the creation, implementation, and evaluation of IEP; 3 - from diverse multicultural environments Both the maximum and minimum scores were obtained across all items of the Scale of Teachers’ Competencies for Individualised Instruction, with the greatest dispersion of results on the items that describe the development, implementation, and evaluation of an IEP and individualization in teaching pupils from diverse multicultural backgrounds, pupils with special educational needs, and others. Croatian and Slovenian teachers to a large extent assess themselves as competent to manage classroom behaviour and encourage the development of the pupils’ social skills. This is followed by the cooperation with other colleagues to provide coherent teaching programmes for students who need them, and professional experts, such as educational rehabilitators, psychologists, speech therapists, and others in the preparation, implementation, and evaluation of an IEP for pupils with disabilities. They assess themselves as well competent for the aforementi- oned abilities, while both Croatian and Slovenian teachers consider themselves moderately competent for individualised instruction of pupils from diverse mul- ticultural backgrounds and for the implementation and evaluation of IEP for pupils with disabilities. Among the aforementioned skills, the only difference between Slovenian and Croatian teachers lies in the assessment of the compe- tencies for the development of IEP for pupils with disabilities. On this point, the Slovenian teachers see themselves as competent while the Croatian teachers as moderately competent. 213 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 213 26.4.2019 12:06:15 Among the mentioned abilities, the only difference between Croatian and Slovenian teachers is found in the assessments of their competencies for the creation of IEP for pupils with disabilities. Competencies represent a dynamic combination of cognitive and metacognitive skills, knowledge, and understanding, interpersonal and practical skills, and ethical values (Lončarić and Pejić Papak, 2009; Novović, 2010). They indicate the utilisa-tion of specific abilities or skills to perform tasks, the ability to assess achievements, and they can be developed through training and education (Tuning, 2006, according to Vizek Vidović, 2009). According to the findings of this cross-cultural study, Croatian and Slovenian tea- chers uniformly assess themselves as well qualified, albeit with lower values, for the performance of individualised instruction. The values of their self-assessments are only slightly above partial competence, which is in line with the abovementioned international and domestic research results (Skočić Mihić et al., 2014; Skočić Mihić, 2011; Kudek Mirošević, 2016; Kudek Mirošević and Jurčević Lozančić, Martan, Ma-tošević, and Skočić Mihić, 2017). These consistently highlight that teachers, preschool teachers, and student teachers feel insufficiently prepared for inclusive teaching. Research findings by Kudek Mirošević (2016), which are based on a sample of teachers and students, show a higher level of self-assessed competencies of third- -year students and employed teachers for the planning of teaching and creation of customised teaching materials and individualised education programs compared to the fifth-year students. Precisely in the third year of studies such students take part in the course Inclusive Education, which is a possible reason why they assess their competencies similarly to employed teachers and higher than the fifth-year students. Teachers consider themselves more competent to write and implement an IEP than preschool teachers (Kudek Mirošević and Jurčević Lozančić, 2014). In the early and preschool period, the obligation to write an IEP has not been standardised. Preschool teachers express the willingness to write and implement an IEP, but they do not feel sufficiently competent to do so, whereby only 14% of preschool teachers write an IEP for children with disabilities (Skočić Mihić, Beaudoin, and Krsnik, 2016). In the current study, a higher level of self-assessed preschool teacher competencies for the implementation of the goals and tasks of an Individualised Education Program is related to their assessment of their com- petencies for the implementation of an IEP. Overall, it should be emphasised that the obtained differences in teachers’ self- -assessed competencies to perform individualised instruction among Croatian and 214 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 214 26.4.2019 12:06:15 Slovenian classroom teachers are negligible, and this refers to their competencies to write an IEP. This finding did not confirm the expected differences regarding variations in legal regulations, pre-service education, and inclusive practice. In other words, the starting point in thinking about differences derives from diffe- rences in social contexts. Although Croatian and Slovenian teachers shared the same social context at the beginning of the education policy of integration in the 1980s, there have been significant social differences in trying to overcome the existing segregation and discrimination patterns, as well as in promoting the right to inclusive education for all, in these two independent countries. 5.3.2 Differences in teacher competencies for instruction with regard to gender and the workplace The Mann-Whitney test was carried out on the subsamples in order to determine whether there are differences in self-assessed teacher competencies to perform in- dividualised instruction with regard to gender and the workplace: classroom and subject teaching (Table 5.4). Table 5.4. Results of the Mann-Whitney test in the subsamples Croatia Slovenia n M rank (SD) U n M rank U Gender Female 911 555.23 380.51 Male 188 524.63 80865.00 667 78 308.74 21001.00** Workplace CT 427 592.13 395.64 ST 668 519.79 123775.00*** 343 370 321.18 50203.00*** Legend: CT – classroom teaching, ST – subject teaching, U – Mann-Whitney U value; *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 Statistically significant differences were obtained in the self-assessed competencies of Slovenian teachers for individualised instructions with regard to gender (U = 21001.00; p <0.01) and the workplace of classroom teachers and subject teachers (U = 50203.00; p<0.001). Slovenian female teachers (Mrank = 380.51) assess them- selves as more competent to perform individualised instruction compared to their male counterparts (Mrang = 308.74), as well as elementary school classroom tea- chers (Mrang = 395.64) compared to subject teachers (Mrank = 321.18). Statistically significant differences were obtained in the self-assessed competencies to perform individualised instructions on the subsample of Croatian teachers with regards to the workplace (U = 123775.00; p<0.001), but not with regard to gender. As was the case with Slovenian classroom teachers, Croatian classroom teachers 215 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 215 26.4.2019 12:06:15 (Mrank = 592.13) assess themselves more competent to perform individualised instructions as opposed to subject teachers (Mrank = 519.79). Concerning the obtained gender differences, it should be noted that the share of male teachers in the Croatian subsample is 20.63%, while in the Slovenian sample it is just 11.69%. In the subsample of Slovenian teachers, the differences found indicate a higher level of assessed competencies among Slovenian female teachers compared to male teachers. On the other hand, no gender differences were obta- ined in the attitudes towards and concerns about inclusive education among the students and teachers in the research conducted by Bradshaw and Mundia (2006). With regard to the teachers’ workplace, the obtained differences show a statistically significantly higher level of assessed competencies among Croatian and Slovenian classroom teachers compared to subject teachers. Similarly, Martan, Skočić Mihić, and Puljar (2017) found that classroom teachers and those who during their pre- -service education attended a course on special education and had volunteer expe- rience working with pupils with specific learning difficulties reported that they more frequently applied appropriate didactic strategies with such students. Kudek Mirošević and Jurčević Lozančić (2014) note that the inadequate competencies of elementary school teachers and preschool teachers in this context are the result of traditional education, because teachers are mostly educated to teach regular pupils. Moreover, study programs for subject teaching do not ensure the acquisition of competencies for teaching in inclusive classrooms, while for classroom teachers these competencies are provided only in a single mandatory course (Kokić, Vuke- lić, and Ljubić, 2009), as is also the case in some other countries (Bouillet, 2008; McHatton and McCray, 2007; Skočić Mičić, 2011; Sze, 2009; Peček, Macura- -Milovanović, and Čuk, 2015). Skočić Mihić, Beaudoin, and Giugno Modrušan (2016) also found that it is mainly through independent learning that teachers acquire the competencies needed for teaching pupils with different educational needs in inclusive classrooms. 5.3.3 Correlation between teacher competencies for individualised instructions and professional competencies The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated in order to establish the correlation between self-assessed teacher competencies for individualised instruction and their age and years of work experience (Table 5.5). 216 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 216 26.4.2019 12:06:15 Table 5.5. Pearson correlation coefficient of teachers’ competencies for individualised instruction and their age and years of teaching experience Croatia Slovenia Teacher Years of Years Professional competencies for Age teaching Professional of work competencies individualised experience competencies Age experience instruction .089** .089** .516*** -0.103** -.058 .378*** Professional competencies - Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies (see Chapter 2) No statistically significant correlation was determined between teacher competencies for individualised instruction and their age and years of teaching experience. In order to determine if the Pearson correlation between the self-assessed levels of teacher competencies for individualised instruction and professional competencies is statistically significantly different between the Slovenian and Croatian subsam- ples, the significance of differences between independent correlations was tested using Fisher’s z-transformation correlation (Cohen and Cohen, 1983). For the sake of clarity, statistically significant correlations obtained in the subsamples are indicated with asterisks (**p< .05), and the significance of correlation differences is noted as the p-value. It was determined that the correlation between the self-assessed level of professional competencies with teachers’ competencies for individualised instruction is sta- tistically significantly higher for the subsample of Croatian participants compared to the correlation obtained in the subsample of Slovenian participants: rh (n = 964) =. 516 ***, rs (n = 719) = . 378 ***, z = 3. 209, p = 0. 001. The assessment of teachers’ professional competencies is presented in the second chapter of this monograph. It is interesting to note that there is a statistically significant correlation between these competencies and teacher competencies for individualised instructions among Croatian teachers and a low statistically significant correlation among Slovenian teachers. It is precisely the relationship between the skills for professional activity, which includes the analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of their educational work, constructive dialogue, men- torship, reflective and cooperative skills, and the skills required for individualised instruction, that supports the theoretical construct of transversal skills presented in the work of Čepić, Tatalović Vorkapić, Lončarić, Anđić, and Skočić Mihić (2015). It should be added that when considering the quality of education we are referring to the importance of the skills contained in intersubject topics, which 217 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 217 26.4.2019 12:06:15 are referred to by different names, such as transversal competencies or soft skills. The very high level of teachers’ transversal competencies, among other things, and their competency to shape the learning environment by providing a high level of self-regulated learning, can significantly contribute to the respect for the individual educational needs of pupils and the promotion of their strengths in teaching. In formerly homogeneous classrooms, teachers taught regular pupils, while in heterogeneous classrooms their teaching should focus on the educatio- nal needs of diverse pupils. The professional development of teachers, which includes pre- and in-service education, is crucial for the development of competencies for inclusive teaching (Kudek Mirošević and Jurčević Lozančić, 2014). Kurniawati, de Boer, Minnaert, and Mangunsong (2014) confirmed through an analysis of 13 studies the positive impact of in-service training on the teachers’ readiness to teach students in ac- cordance with their individual needs. They also found that most related research focuses on teacher attitudes, knowledge, and abilities. The professional development of the educational staff is neither standardised nor licensed, but is instead realised in accordance with the available education and in line with their interests and voluntariness. Also, the role of teacher education in inclusive teaching has not been adequately discussed at the international level (Savolainen, Engelbrecht, Nel, and Malinen, 2012). Bouillet (2008) suggests that the development of teacher competency for inclusive education in most countries is a topical issue without universal answers. Moreover, there is an open debate as to how teacher competencies are linked to teaching practice and real-life situations (Kaikkonen et al., 2007). In conclusion, there are many challenges to the implementation of the inclusi- ve legislative policy in practice, without a joint perspective at both the state and school levels (Acedo, 2008; Ainscow and César, 2006; Ainscow, Farrell, and Tweddle, 2000; Booth, 1996; Bouillet, 2010; Igrić, 2015). Also, it is indisputable that inclusive legislation has influenced the increase in the number of children with disabilities in regular classrooms, especially in the number of pupils with a gre- ater need for program individualization and accommodation. However, national education policies in most developed countries have not ensured the acquisition of sufficient teacher competencies during pre- and in-service education to achieve this, as proven by the results of this research. 218 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 218 26.4.2019 12:06:15 5.4 Conclusion Inclusive education is a global descriptor of education policy in developed countri-es around the world with different national education policies. The findings of this cross-cultural study point to a very uniform assessment of teachers’ competencies for inclusive teaching, i.e., the writing, implementation, and evaluation of an IEP with the use of professional experts’ advice, implementation of individualised in- structions to diverse learners, cooperation, and the creation of a positive classroom climate through the strengthening of the social skills of all students. They differ only in their competencies to assess the IEP, whereby Slovenian teachers assess themselves somewhat well competent. Furthermore, the differences in the com- petencies were obtained with regards to the workplace, i.e., classroom or subject teaching. Croatian and Slovenian classroom teachers assess themselves as more competent to perform individualised instruction. Croatian classroom teachers acquire competencies for inclusive teaching during their pre-service education, unlike the subject teachers. Moreover, Slovenian female teachers assess themselves as more competent than male teachers, while this was not found with the Croatian subsample. Given the inadequate pre-service education of teachers for inclusive teaching, continuing professional development is crucial. The assessed professional competencies of Croatian and Slovenian teachers are associated with a higher level of competencies for the performance of individualised instruction, whereby the correlation is more significant in the subsample of Croatian teachers. Although there are differences in national inclusive education policies in the two countries examined in this study, as well as in the implementation of an inclusive education policy, it is interesting that the teachers assess themselves as equally well competent for individualised instruction. In further research the content of study programs of classroom and subject teaching in both countries should be analysed in order to determine the possible impact on the results obtained in this work, as well as other contextual factors. Furthermore, given that the findings on the representative sample of teachers were obtained using a measurement instrument with good measurement characteristics, it would be worthwhile to compare the relati- onship between teacher competencies to perform individualised instruction with the other constructs used in this study. This would help to identify the contributing factors, rooted in knowledge of the characteristics of particular groups of pupils as well as effective teaching strategies, to teaching children with different abilities through teacher competencies for individualised instruction that are in line with the educational needs of such pupils. 219 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 219 26.4.2019 12:06:15 References Acedo, C. (2008). Inclusive education: pushing the boundaries. PROSPECTS, 38(1), 5–13. doi: 10. 1007/s11125-008-9064-z. Acedo, C., Amadio, M. and Opertti, R. (eds.). (2008). 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Too little attention is paid to these issues in practice, and virtually no comprehensive studies can be found in the scientific literature. After the introductory theoretical and methodological starting points, the second chapter provides a theoretical and conceptual framework based on an overview of relevant scientific knowledge about the professional development of teachers. Some basic conceptual definitions and key features of the dominant approach to professional development are also presented, with a special emphasis on the cur- rent views which underscore the perspectives of professional development. We de- voted the third chapter to the analysis of factors affecting the position and status of the teaching profession, as well as to various approaches to the definition of status and problems of the non-recognition of the teaching profession. Some im- plications of this analysis are presented here with the aim of improving the status of teaching within the profession and society. The fourth chapter explores self-regulated learning as an important transversal competency, which has, as part of the Comprehensive Curricular Reform, gained in importance with the introduction of the cross-curricular topic “learning to learn”. In the fifth chapter, special attention is paid to questions of inclusive education policies and teachers’ competencies for inclusive education. Theoretical considerations and the results of empirical research permeate the chapters of this monograph, which, among other things, seeks to explore the expe- rience and attitudes of elementary school classroom teachers and subject teachers in Croatia and Slovenia towards professional development and status, as well as transversal competencies in the field of self-regulation and inclusion. The research included a total of 1,867 teachers (1,103 (59.1%) Croatian and 764 (40.9%) Slovenian elementary school teachers), who correctly filled out the que- stionnaire. The research has resulted, among other things, in a set of verified tools that can serve as good empirical support for future follow-ups on this topic. In addition to the already existing questionnaires which have been translated and adapted to Croatian and Slovenian, such as the Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Belief Scale, SRLTB (Lombaerts, De Backer, Engels, Van Braak and Athanasou, 227 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 227 26.4.2019 12:06:16 2009), and the Teachers’ Perceptions of Skills Needed for Teaching Diverse Students, original questionnaires were also used in this work. These included the Scale of Teachers’ Professional Competencies and Scale of Reputation, which were constructed based on an overview of theory and available research in this subject area. The measurement characteristics of all the applied instruments and the results obtained on the Slovenian and Croatian subsamples are described in the chapters of the monograph. In this Conclusion, we will reflect on the most important results of our research, and in the light of the obtained findings try to provide effective answers to achieve the desired changes. The professional development of teachers is observed as a lifelong process of learning and development in the personal, social, and narrow fields of expertise. It is important how teachers perceive their competencies and assess the possibi- lities for their professional performance in the direction of critical, independent, and responsible decision-making and action. The worldview, attitude towards oneself and others, perception of the relationship between the individual and the school, family and culture in general, knowledge, attitude towards the learning content and methods of teaching, as well as all the experiences that shape the idea of what teaching is and what a teacher’s work includes, affect the interpreta- tion and importance which teachers attribute to their teaching experience. Many authors see this as the reason why many professional development programs are not having a genuine impact on changing teaching practices, and even less so on pupils’ learning. It is therefore of utmost importance to understand how teachers progress professionally and which conditions contribute to and encourage their growth and progress. The results obtained in this study show that Croatian and Slovenian teachers on average assess themselves as well qualified, which raises the question of whether they provided realistic assessments of their qualifications or if they maybe attempted to provide favourable responses. Croatian teachers assess their qualifications significantly higher than Slovenian teachers in all areas covered with this research (competency to analyse strengths and weaknesses of their educational work, the establishment of constructive dialogue with their counterparts, and a cooperati- ve partnership with other schools, institutions, and parents), with the exception of the competency of mentoring pre-service students and teacher-trainees. One may wonder whether Croatian teachers are truly more qualified, or whether their self-assessments are less self-critical, i.e., whether the Slovenian teachers are too critical in assessing their competencies when compared to the Croatian ones. 228 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 228 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Despite the relatively high assessments of their readiness for professional activity, it was found that Croatian and Slovenian teachers assess their capacity for action in research and development projects, mentoring pre-service students and stu- dent-trainees, and establishing a collaborative partnership with other schools and institutions with the lowest values. This suggests that not all teachers have been trained to provide mentorship or to assume the role of a mentor. It is also possible that teachers understand to a somewhat lesser degree the notion of cooperation on various research and development projects and the establishment of cooperation with the broader community as one of their essential tasks. Based on this it can be noted that these are areas in which it would make sense to apply more incentives and provide teachers with additional support in the future. As expected, teachers with more years of experience assess their qualifications for professional performance in various fields, on average, with higher values, as seen with both the Croatian and Slovenian subsamples. This would be expected if most teachers pursued the desired direction of professional development and were in the mature period of their career (with more than 19 years of teaching experience), which is characterised by a hands-on, critical action, which then develops into relaxed disengagement. The results of previous research suggest that these teachers have achieved a certain degree of autonomy; they act prudently and responsibly in accordance with their views and values; therefore we can expect them to assess their qualifications in key areas with high values. It is clear that the role and tasks of teachers have increased over time, while their status, compared to other professions, has remained stagnant or has even worse-ned, as confirmed by the results of many national and international reports and studies. It may be stated that teachers are often caught between the high expec- tations of society (and probably their own as well) and low professional respect. Problems of low teacher salaries, which lag behind those in the private and public sectors, low living standards, understaffing, feminisation of the profession, insufficient autonomy and exclusion from the development of education policies, lack of entrance control into the profession, misconceptions about the working time of teachers, the general perception that teachers work fewer hours than other profes- sionals, and many other factors belong to the long list of issues that adversely affect the social position and status of such work, which is positioned rather low when observed on a global scale. Croatian teachers agree, to a greater extent than Slovenian teachers, with the statement that teaching is one of the most important jobs in society, while, on the other hand, they also agree to a greater extent that teachers’ work enjoys a low social 229 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 229 26.4.2019 12:06:16 reputation and is paid less in comparison to other equally demanding professions. On the other hand, Croatian teachers agree to a lesser extent than Slovenian te- achers that their profession provides regular income and financial independence, and that parents and pupils respect them. In this regard, it can be concluded that Croatian elementary school teachers perceive their reputation in society as being lower than is the case with Slovenian teachers, although the Croatian teachers also assess their qualifications for professional activity significantly higher than their Slovenian colleagues. At the same time, they assess themselves as being well qualified for their professional performance, but also as being under-recognised by others compared to how much they think they should be recognised. This discrepancy signals the existence of a number of factors affecting the teachers’ self-positioning and the status of the profession. It also appears among Slovenian teachers, but is less pronounced. The results of this research highlight how teachers rank the reputation of their profession in comparison with the reputation of other professions, such as a preschool teacher, high school teacher, university professor, doctor, nurse, lawyer, entrepreneur, journalist, and stage actor. Regarding the degree of reputation, it was found that Croatian and Slovenian teachers ranked doctors the highest, followed by lawyers and entrepreneurs. The reputation of university professors is ranked only fourth (the highest among teaching professions). In accordance with the results of other research, it is not surprising that Croatian and Slovenian teachers ranked the professions of preschool and elementary school teachers the lowest. Croatian teachers placed high school teachers in the lower part of the Scale of Reputation and ranked the profes- sion third, while nurses occupy this place for the subsample of Slovenian teachers. The results obtained in our research confirm the findings of other studies, according to which the status of teachers varies depending on the education sector. The general perception of the professional status of teachers is “average” in all education sectors, except in higher education. The lower status is more noticeable in the field of early childhood and vocational training and the education of auxiliary teaching staff. Lower professional status is attributed to preschool teachers, teachers in vocational education, and auxiliary teaching staff when compared to other sectors, particularly higher education. It is known that women dominate the preschool and elementary school education fields, but research has found connections between professional status and salary, as well as the existence of a link between the feminisation of the teaching profession, low status, and reduced salary. It is a disturbing fact that both the Croatian and Slovenian teachers in our research agree the least with the statement that they are respected by the pupils who are the 230 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 230 26.4.2019 12:06:16 first “users” of their knowledge. In this context, we should mention that a certain degree of responsibility for the profession’s reputation in society lies in the hands of teachers themselves, and that through providing high quality and excellence in their professional activities they can contribute to achieving greater respect from pupils and parents, both for themselves and their work, and thus to improving their reputation, status, and respect in society. Reputation, status, and respect are three different characteristics of an occupation. Reputation is defined by public opinion and the public perception of the relative position of an occupation in the hierarchy of occupations. It points to status as a category into which educated groups classify a particular occupation and respect for those who can observe the qualities which individuals demonstrate in their work (the perception of an occupation by the general public due to the personal qualities which individuals demonstrate while performing basic tasks, i.e., their care, competence, and commitment to work). Undoubtedly, a certain degree of responsibility is on the teachers themselves because they hold this respect in their hands and can improve it. Satisfaction with education, the well-being of pupils, assumptions about the child-preschool teacher role, parents’ participation and interest – these are all things that a teacher can impact depending on how he/she deals with pupils and their parents, and therefore teachers can also contribute to raising the respect that society has for teachers. It should be expected that the dynamic changes taking place in our region will impose a need for the creation of an education policy that gives priority to the improvement of salaries and working conditions, as these appear to be the most critical factors affecting the professional status and self-esteem of teachers, the provision of high quality teacher education, professional development opportunities and promising careers, ensurance of academic freedom, autonomy, and participation in decision-making, advocating for a strong system of public education in local communities, maintenan- ce of a regular dialogue between educational associations and the government, and encouragement for teachers’ participation in public policy development. Although many factors significantly affect the process of learning and teaching, some aspects of teachers’ roles have a greater impact on the quality of the learning process and outcomes than others. Two equally important dimensions that characterise the role of teachers, associated with the concept of identity, are related to the professional and personal dimensions. The professionalism of teachers is not only the totality of their competencies. A true teacher, at any level of teaching, is determined above all things, as emphasised by Korthagen (2009), by his/her personal qualities such as beliefs, emotional engagement, intrinsic motivation for professional activity, ethical commitment, and identification of the mission in their 231 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 231 26.4.2019 12:06:16 profession. In other words, a teacher is the result of his/her “cumulative autobiography” that operates from personal constructs, beliefs, understanding, learning, professional growth, and development. In this monograph we do not show the results of the analysis of differences in personality dimensions and self-assessed levels of professional competencies, nor the correlation between socio-demographic variables and personality dimensions. In pedagogical situations, the importance of articulating and verifying teachers’ values, beliefs, and attitudes is of utmost importance, as they contribute to a better understanding and development of their pro- fessionalism and professional identity, as well as to ensuring children’s wellbeing. In modern educational contexts emphasis is placed on the development of inno- vation, creativity, problem-solving, critical thinking, entrepreneurship, computer literacy, and social and other competencies that cannot be achieved in a traditional education sector with its emphasis on knowledge transfer. Transversal competences are recognised as important teaching skills in the organisation of the learning and teaching process and the teachers’ professional development, as well as in the process of teaching these competencies to pupils. The purpose of transversal com- petencies is to provide integrated learning across disciplinary boundaries, as well as to encourage the connecting of various areas of learning, which contributes to the development of key competencies and skills. Many terms are “alternately” used to describe transversal competencies/skills in different countries, such as cross-curricular competencies/skills, key competencies, 21st-century skills, and so on. New tasks and roles require of teachers the acquisition of new competences, such as the competence “learning to learn” (including the adaptability to change, self- -regulated learning, and coping with failure). These challenges impose on the tea- cher the need to develop higher levels of knowledge and complex cognitive skills. The transversal competence “learning to learn” and both civic and social skills play a key role in education. Inclusive education is defined as “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion within and from education” (UNESCO, 2005, p.13). In an inclusive classroom the teacher work with pupils with different educational needs. This implies strengthening the teacher’s interdisciplinary collaborative skills for modelling and the development of transversal competencies among pupils. Teachers’ transversal competencies in the field of self-regulation and inclusion have not yet been sufficiently explored, and there is room for improvement in the area of interdisciplinary and cross-cultural research. Teachers already have to deal with an overloaded curriculum and different requirements in inclusive settings. Therefore, 232 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 232 26.4.2019 12:06:16 it might be difficult to find a way to develop demanding transversal competencies, since they generally require a high level of the teacher’s and learner’s engagement and interaction. It is necessary to implement the development of transversal competences into initial and continuing teacher education. According to the latest documents on inclusive policies, almost every preschool and elementary classroom teacher has worked in an inclusive classroom made up of pupils with different educational needs. Therefore, it is crucial to expand the related research, especially when it comes to the relationships among competence and the various motivational factors, activities, and environments that support self-regulation of behaviour and competencies in education. When it comes to teachers who are already in the workforce, it is necessary to further invest in the growth of the aforementioned competencies through professional development. This can increase the teachers’ ability to respond and cope with demanding situations in inclusive educational settings, and can result in benefits for the reputation of teachers in society. Self-regulated learning is a vital transversal competence, which in the draft version of the new Croatian curriculum gained importance with the introduction of the cross-curricular topic “learning to learn”. Teachers’ attitudes and beliefs about the importance of self-regulated learning largely determine their readiness to introduce the activities and organisation of classes which would be stimulating for the development of the competence of such learning. Such attitudes and beliefs are formed during the initial and continuing education of teachers, so it is an intere- sting question to what extent their self-assessment of the degree of professional competence can be associated with positive beliefs about the importance of enco- uraging the self-regulation of learning in pupils. In order to investigate the cor- relation between the self-assessment of professional competencies and proactive teachers’ beliefs about self-regulated learning, the Scale of Teachers’ Beliefs about Self-Regulated Learning (Lombaerts, Backer, Engels, van Braak, & Athanasou, 2009) was translated into Croatian and Slovenian and adapted to the local condi- tions in these two countries. The scale showed satisfactory psychometric properties. The original factor structure was replicated and showed a stable factor structure across the Slovenian and Croatian subsamples. The reliability of the scale on both samples was also satisfactory. No statistically significant differences with regard to the teachers’ beliefs were found between Slovenian and Croatian groups. Professional competence has a low (although statistically significantly) positive association with proactive beliefs about self-regulated learning, pointing to a certain minimum contribution of vocational training to the development of a positive, proactive attitude toward self-regulated learning. An almost equal result was obtained on the subsamples of Slovenian and Croatian teachers indicating a need to change initial 233 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 233 26.4.2019 12:06:16 and continuing education in order to provide better information about the importance of encouraging the competence of self-regulated learning through a variety of cross-curricular teaching activities. In Croatia, the latest proposal of the comprehensive curricular reform related to the cross-curricular topic “learning to learn” will not produce the desired effect if the education of teachers does not encourage proactive attitudes towards the importance of facilitating free and independent choices, and if it does not intrinsically motivate the activities of pupils in the classroom with the goal of developing self-regulated learning skills as an important precondition for lifelong learning. An inclusive education policy has significantly affected the inclusion of pupils with different educational needs, interests, and opportunities in the regular heterogeneous classes. Therefore, it is crucial for the teaching of pupils with different educational needs to be individualised, and that teachers have the competence for individualised instruction. The paradox of the inclusive education policy is reflected in the legislation, according to which teachers should be trained well to teach all pupils according to their educational needs, while at the same time their pre-service education does not conform with modern requirements. Pre-service education should enable teachers to take responsibility for the learning and achievements of all pupils, including inclusive attitudes and values, as well as the knowledge and skills for teaching in inclusive classes. This is because pre-service education can enhance positive attitudes toward inclusion and the skills of prospective teachers, as well as raising their confidence in the development, implementation, and evaluation of individualised edu- cational programs for pupils with different educational needs. Moreover, the results of previous studies clearly show that teachers support inclusive education, although they report a moderate level of qualification for teaching in inclusive classrooms. Inclusive education is a global descriptor of education policies with many chal- lenges in the implementation of inclusive legal policies in practice (UNESCO, 2005). The results of this work indicate a moderate level of the studied teachers’ competencies for inclusive teaching, whereby a higher level is perceived for mana- ging classroom discipline and encouraging the development of social skills. Their level of self-perceived competencies for individualised instruction is associated with professional competencies, but not with the age or years of teaching experi- ence. Female teachers perceived themselves as more competent for individualised instruction. No cross-cultural differences in perceived competencies for individu- alised instruction were observed between the Croatian and Slovenian teachers, except in connection with their level of professional and inclusive competence, which is higher in Croatian teachers. 234 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 234 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Teaching in today’s highly heterogeneous classes regarding the pupils’ educational needs requires a high level of teaching skills for individualised instruction, writing, implementation, and evaluation of IEPs, co-operation with professional experts and creating positive a classroom climate by strengthening the pupils’ so- cial skills. Considering that the contents of the pre-service teachers’ educational programs focused on the competencies needed to teach regular pupils, as well as the dominant acquisition of competencies for inclusive teaching through self- -directed learning, it is difficult to assume that teachers are able to respond to the demands of today’s inclusive practice, which emphasises that quality teaching is characterised by an individualised approach based on the strengths of each pupil. The number of children with disabilities, especially those with significant needs for individualisation, is increasing in regular classes under the influence of the inclusive policy. Therefore, it is important to provide teachers with the set of competencies needed to teach diverse pupils in inclusive settings during pre-service teacher education, to strengthen self-efficacy, as well as efficiency in collaboration with professional experts, as all of these steps can have enhance teachers’ positive attitudes towards inclusion. Therefore, seeing the professional development of teachers as a long-term process that involves various forms of systematically planned opportunities and gaining experience is crucial for the development of the competencies that are essential for an inclusive teacher, as evidenced by the results of this research. Finally, teachers are responsible for the expansion of the boundaries of professi- onal knowledge through reflective practice and systematic engagement in con- tinuing professional development. If our goal is to contribute to the creation of innovative educational practice and to encourage the development of innova- tion, creativity, problem-solving, critical thinking, entrepreneurship, computer literacy, social and other competencies, and the implementation of appropriate activities in the classroom, then, among other things, we ought to reconsider tra- ditional educational approaches while questioning many established educational theories and practical solutions. Despite recognising the importance of professional development and the pressures arising from current educational requirements, most of the opportunities for pro- fessional development remain fragmented, insufficiently linked to the curriculum, and inappropriate in relation to the teachers’ needs, requirements, and opportu- nities. In order for teachers to acquire competencies needed for these new roles, it is necessary to ensure the quality of initial education and a coherent process of continuing professional development. Professional development does not happen 235 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 235 26.4.2019 12:06:16 in a vacuum, and it is essential that it includes other elements in a broader context (such as professional identity, characteristics of the environment, social conditions, and development of motives for participation in professional development), which can also affect the institutional practice of professional development. The great challenge of modern educational institutions is finding innovative ways to apply the situated/contextualised knowledge of teachers, as well as their expe- rience and expertise, in promoting the development of transversal competenci- es, such as professional development within the teachers’ classroom practice or of the teachers’ practice. Maintaining a high level of teachers’ abilities to act in different fields of professional activity and their progress in critical, independent, and responsible decision-making and action require an appropriate institutional, administrative, and organisational structure, which recognises the importance of continuous learning and promoting such developments at the individual and in- stitutional levels. Providing an environment that supports learning plays a critical role in the success of learning and educational efforts, especially if one considers the contemporary context of work and learning, which is characterised by continuous change. A prerequisite for such an initiative is the establishment of an organisational culture and climate that would be based on trust, respect, critical reflection, collaboration, communication, and the distribution of responsibilities. All this has a significant impact on the professional development of teachers as critical intellectuals who, in the context of intellectual and personal structures, integrate openness to new knowledge. Finally, teachers can change/transform their practices only if they also examine and modify their theories and concepts of tea- ching and learning. In this context, improving the generally low economic status and position of the teaching profession in society, recognition of teachers as equal partners in the creation of educational policy, and improvement of the quality of initial and continuing professional development of teachers are at the very centre of educational priorities. References Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P. and Burden, R. (2000). A Survey into Mainstream Tea- chers’ Attitudes Towards the Inclusion of Children with Special Educational Needs in the Ordinary School in one Local Education Authority. Educational Psychology, 20(2), 191211. doi:10. 1080/713663717. Korthagen, F. A. J. (2009). Praksa, teorija in osebnost v vseživljenjskem učenju. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 40(4), 4–14. 236 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 236 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Lombaerts, K., De Backer, F., Engels, N., Van Braak, J. and Athanasou, J. (2009). Development of the self-regulated learning teacher belief scale. European Jo- urnal of Psychology of Education, 24(1),79–96.doi:10.1007/BF03173476. Unesco (2005). Guidelines for inclusion. Ensuring Access to Education for All. Paris: Unesco. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/image-s/0014/001402/140224e. pdf. Accessed on 15 April 2016. 237 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 237 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 238 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Povzetek Monografija se osredotoča na dva koncepta, ki sta ključna za učinkovit in sodoben poklicni razvoj učiteljev: učiteljev status in poklicne kompetence za razvoj tran- sverzalnih kompetenc učencev v vzgojno-izobraževalnih praksah. Tem vprašanjem se v praksi posveča premalo pozornosti, pa tudi v znanstveni literaturi o tem ni celovitih študij. Po uvodnih teoretičnih in metodoloških izhodiščih je v drugem poglavju postavljen teoretično-konceptualni okvir, ki temelji na pregledu znanstve- no relevantnih spoznanj o poklicnem razvoju učiteljev. Izpostavljena so osnovna pojmovna določila in ključne značilnosti prevladujočih pristopov k poklicnemu ra- zvoju, posebno pozornost pa smo namenili sodobnim vidikom, ki poudarjajo neka- tere perspektive poklicnega razvoja. Tretje poglavje je posvečeno analizi dejavnikov, ki vplivajo na položaj in status učiteljskega poklica. Proučili smo različne pristope k določanju statusa, probleme nepriznavanja učiteljskega poklica in predstavili implikacije opravljene analize za izboljšanje položaja učiteljev v stroki in družbi. V četrtem poglavju govorimo o samouravnavanju učenja kot pomembni transverzalni kompetenci, ki je kot del trenutno aktualnega predloga celovite kurikularne refor- me na Hrvaškem postala pomembna z uvajanjem medpredmetne teme »učenje učenja«. V petem poglavju posebno pozornost posvečamo vprašanjem inkluzivne izobraževalne politike in kompetencam učiteljev za inkluzivno izobraževanje. V navedenih poglavjih znanstvene monografije pregled teorije nadgrajujemo z re- zultati empiričnega raziskovanja, ki je, med drugim, imelo cilj raziskati izkušnje in stališča razrednih in predmetnih osnovnošolskih učiteljev na Hrvaškem in v Sloveniji do poklicnega razvoja, statusa učiteljev ter transverzalnih kompetenc na področju samouravnavanja učenja in inkluzije. V empirično raziskavo je bilo vklju- čenih 1867 učiteljev, ki so pravilno izpolnili celotni anketni vprašalnik: od tega je bilo 1103 (59,1 %) hrvaških in 764 (40,9 %) slovenskih osnovnošolskih učiteljev. Rezultat raziskovanja je poleg pomembnih vsebinskih ugotovitev tudi nabor pre- verjenih instrumentov, ki jih lahko uporabimo kot dobro empirično izhodišče za nadaljnje raziskovanje tematike. Poklicni razvoj učiteljev razumemo kot vseživljenjski proces učenja in razvoja na osebnem, družbenem in ožjem strokovnem področju. Pri tem je pomembno, kako učitelj vidi svojo usposobljenost in kako ocenjuje možnosti za svoje poklicno delo- vanje v smeri kritičnega, neodvisnega in odgovornega odločanja in delovanja. Pregled raziskovanj na področju učenja in poučevanja izpostavlja tri kategorije iz- kušenj, ki vplivajo na prepričanja in učiteljevo znanje: osebne izkušnje (pogled na svet, odnos do sebe in drugih, pogled na odnos med posameznikom in šolo, pogledi 239 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 239 26.4.2019 12:06:16 na družino in kulturo na splošno), izkušnje, ki temeljijo na formalnem znanju (predmetno znanje, odnos do vsebine učenja in načinov poučevanja), izkušnje šole in razreda (vse izkušnje, ki so oblikovale idejo, kaj je poučevanje in kaj učiteljevo delo vključuje). Eno najpomembnejših spoznanj o učiteljevem poklicnem razvoju je, da učiteljeva prepričanja neposredno vplivajo na interpretacijo in pomembnost, ki jo učitelji pripisujejo svoji izkušnji poučevanja. V tem veliko avtorjev vidi razlog, zakaj številni programi poklicnega razvoja nimajo resničnega vpliva na spreminjanje prakse poučevanja, še manj pa na učenje učencev. Zato je zelo pomembno razumeti, kako učitelji poklicno napredujejo in kateri pogoji prispevajo k tej rasti/ napredku in ga spodbujajo. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da so tako hrvaški kot slovenski učitelji v vseh trditvah razmeroma visoko ocenili svojo usposobljenost za poklicno delovanje, tako da bi se lahko vprašali, ali so bili učitelji dovolj kritični pri ocenjevanju svoje usposobljenosti oz. ali so bili nagnjeni k dajanju zaželenih odgovorov. Hrvaški učitelji so pri vseh navedenih trditvah (spretnost analize močnih in šibkih plati svojega vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela, vzpostavljanje konstruktivnega dialoga s svojimi kolegi, vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami, institucijami ter starši) nekoliko višje ocenjevali svojo usposobljenost kakor slovenski učitelji, razen pri trditvi o usposobljenosti za mentoriranje učencev na praksi in učiteljev pripravnikov. Lahko bi se vprašali, ali so hrvaški učitelji res bolj kompetentni ali pa je njihova samoocena manj kritična oziroma ali so bili slovenski učitelji preveč kritični pri oceni svoje usposobljenosti v primerjavi s hrvaškimi učitelji. Navkljub visokim ocenam učiteljev glede lastne usposobljenosti za strokovno delovanje na različnih področjih smo ugotovili, da so hrvaški in slovenski učitelji najnižje ocenili svojo usposobljenost za delovanje v raziskovalno-razvojnih projektih, mentoriranje bodočih učiteljev na praksi in učiteljev-pripravnikov ter za vzpostavljanje partnerskega sodelovanja z drugimi šolami in institucijami. Na osnovi tega domnevamo, da so to področja, na katerih bi bilo smiselno v prihodnje učitelje bolj spodbujati in podpirati. Zavedamo se, da so to hkrati tudi področja, ki zahtevajo nekaj več znanja, spretnosti in inovativnosti ter, kar ni manj pomembno, tudi časa, ki ga niso prav vsi učitelji pripravljeni nameniti tovrstnemu strokovnemu delovanju, saj ga raje namenjajo svojim osnovnim nalogam in poslanstvu. Razvidno je, da se vloge in delo učitelja sčasoma povečujejo, medtem ko njihov status v primerjavi z drugimi poklici stagnira ali pa se slabša, kar potrjujejo tudi rezultati številnih mednarodnih in nacionalnih poročil ter študij. Lahko bi rekli, da so učitelji pogosto v precepu med visokimi pričakovanji družbe (verjetno tudi njih samih) in nizkim poklicnim spoštovanjem. 240 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 240 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Hrvaški učitelji se v večji meri kot slovenski strinjajo s tem, da je delo učitelja med najpomembnejšimi v družbi, medtem ko po drugi strani v še večji meri ocenjujejo, da ima delo učitelja nizek ugled v družbi in je slabše plačano od ostalih enako zahtevnih poklicev. Po drugi strani pa se hrvaški učitelji v manjši meri kot slovenski strinjajo s tem, da jim njihov poklic omogoča reden zaslužek in finančno neodvisnost ter da jih starši in učenci spoštujejo. V zvezi s tem je mogoče sklepati, da ima učiteljski poklic v očeh hrvaških osnovnošolskih učiteljev nižji ugled v družbi kot pa v očeh slovenskih osnovnošolskih učiteljev. Hkrati torej ocenjujejo, da so dobro usposobljeni za svoje poklicno delovanje, vendar pa jih drugi ne priznavajo dovolj glede na to, koliko sami mislijo, da bi morali biti priznani. Omenjeno nasprotje nas opozarja na obstoj številnih dejavnikov, ki vplivajo na učiteljev status in ugled poklica. Podobno nasprotje smo ugotovili tudi pri slovenskih učiteljih, vendar je izraženo v manjši meri. Rezultati raziskave kažejo tudi, kako učitelji ocenjujejo položaj svojega poklica v primerjavi z nekaterimi drugimi poklici, kot so vzgojitelj, srednješolski učitelj, univerzitetni profesor, zdravnik, medicinska sestra, odvetnik, podjetnik, novinar in dramski igralec. Skladno s pričakovanji so rezultati pokazali, da tako hrvaški kot slovenski učitelji po stopnji ugleda najvišje rangirajo poklic zdravnika, zatem odvetnika in podjetnika. Prav tako je v skladu z rezultati drugih raziskav, da sta najnižje na lestvici ugleda pri hrvaških in slovenskih učiteljih uvrščena poklica vzgojitelja in osnovnošolskega učitelja. Zaskrbljujoče je dejstvo, da se hrvaški in slovenski učitelji v naši raziskavi najmanj strinjajo s tem, da jih spoštujejo učenci, ki so prvi »uporabniki« njihovega znanja. V tem kontekstu naj omenimo tudi, da je določena stopnja odgovornosti za ugled v družbi zagotovo v rokah samih učiteljev in da oni sami s svojo kakovostjo in odličnostjo v poklicnem delovanju zagotovo lahko prispevajo k večjemu spošto- vanju učencev in staršev do njih in njihovega poklica ter na ta način prispevajo k izboljšanju svojega ugleda, statusa in spoštovanja v družbi. Pričakujemo lahko, da bodo dinamične spremembe, ki se dogajajo v našem okolju, spodbudile potrebo po ustvarjanju izobraževalnih politik z naslednjimi priorite- tami: izboljšati plače in pogoje dela, ki se kažejo kot najbolj kritični dejavniki, ki vplivajo na poklicni status in osebno samospoštovanje učiteljev; zagotoviti visoko kakovost izobraževanja učiteljev, možnosti poklicnega razvoja in razvoja kariere; zagotoviti akademsko svobodo, avtonomijo in sodelovanje pri odločanju; zagovar- jati močan sistem javnega izobraževanja v lokalnih skupnostih; vzdrževati reden dialog med izobraževalnimi združenji in vlado; spodbujati sodelovanje učiteljev pri oblikovanju sistemskih rešitev. 241 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 241 26.4.2019 12:06:16 V sodobnih izobraževalnih kontekstih je poudarek na razvoju inovativnosti, ustvarjalnosti, reševanju problemov, razvoju kritičnega mišljenja, podjetništva, informa- cijski pismenosti, socialnih in drugih kompetencah, ki jih ni mogoče uresničiti v tradicionalnem vzgojno-izobraževalnem sistemu s poudarkom na prenosu znanja. Transverzalne kompetence prepoznavamo kot pomembne spretnosti učiteljev pri organizaciji procesa učenja in poučevanja ter lastnega poklicnega razvoja, kot tudi v procesu razvijanja teh kompetenc pri učencih. Transverzalna kompetenca »učenje učenja« ter državljanske in socialne kompe- tence imajo ključno vlogo v inkluzivnem izobraževanju, ki je definirano kot »pro- ces usmerjanja in odgovarjanja na različne potrebe vseh učencev, s povečevanjem njihove participacije pri učenju, v komunikaciji in skupnosti ter z zmanjševanjem izključenosti znotraj in iz izobraževanja« (Unesco 2005, str. 13). Učitelj v inklu- zivnem razredu poučuje različne učence z različnimi vzgojno-izobraževalnimi po- trebami. To zahteva krepitev učiteljevih interdisciplinarnih sodelovalnih spretno- sti za modeliranje in razvoj transverzalnih kompetenc med učenci. Transverzalne kompetence učiteljev na področju samouravnavanja učenja in inkluzije niso dovolj raziskane; še posebno je veliko možnosti na področju interdisciplinarnih in med- kulturnih študij. Stališča in prepričanja učiteljev o pomembnosti samouravnavanja učenja v precejšnji meri določajo njihovo pripravljenost za uvajanje aktivnosti in organizacijo pouka, ki spodbuja razvoj kompetence samouravnavanja učenja. Taka stališča in prepričanja se oblikujejo med začetnim in stalnim strokovnim izobraževanjem učiteljev, zato je zanimivo vprašanje, v kolikšni meri je njihova samoocena stopnje poklicne usposo- bljenosti povezana s pozitivnimi prepričanji o pomembnosti spodbujanja samou- ravnavanja učenja pri učencih. Za preverjanje povezanosti med samoocenjeno sto- pnjo poklicne usposobljenosti in učiteljevimi prepričanji o samouravnavanju učenja je bila v hrvaščino in slovenščino prevedena lestvica prepričanj učiteljev o samouravnavanju učenja (Lombaerts, Backer, Engels, van Braak in Athanasou 2009) in prila- gojena razmeram v teh dveh državah. Med slovenskimi in hrvaškimi učitelji se niso pokazale statistično pomembne razlike v njihovih prepričanjih o samouravnavanju učenja. Poklicna usposobljenost je nizko (čeprav statistično pomembno) pozitivno povezana s prepričanji o samouravnavanju učenja, kar kaže na določen, minimalen prispevek poklicnega usposabljanja k razvoju pozitivnih stališč o samouravnavanju učenja. Enak rezultat smo dobili na podvzorcih slovenskih in hrvaških učiteljev, kar kaže na potrebno spremembo začetnega in stalnega strokovnega izobraževanja v smislu boljše informiranosti o pomembnosti spodbujanja kompetence samouravna- vanja učenja skozi različne medpredmetne učne dejavnosti. 242 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 242 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Inkluzivna izobraževalna politika je pomembno vplivala na vključevanje učencev različnih sposobnosti, interesov in priložnosti v redne heterogene razrede. Zato je ključno, da je poučevanje različnih učencev individualizirano oziroma da imajo učitelji kompetence za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka. Začetno izobraževanje bi moralo učitelje usposobiti, da prevzamejo odgovornost za poučevanje in dosežke vseh učencev, kar vključuje inkluzivna stališča in vrednote, kot tudi znanje in spretnosti za poučevanje raznolikih učencev. Rezultati opravljene raziskave kažejo, da učitelji ocenjujejo, da so delno do dobro usposobljeni za poučevanje v inkluzivnih oddelkih, pri čemer mislijo, da so najbolj usposobljeni za uravnavanje oddelčne discipline in spodbujanje razvoja socialnih spretnosti učencev. Raven njihove sa- moocenjene usposobljenosti za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka je povezana s poklicno usposobljenostjo, ne pa s starostjo ali z delovno dobo. Učiteljice se oce- njujejo za bolj usposobljene za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka. Pričakovane razlike v usposobljenosti za izvajanje individualiziranega pouka med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi učitelji niso bile potrjene, razen v povezanosti ravni njihove poklicne in inkluzivne usposobljenosti, ki je glede na samoocene višja pri hrvaških učiteljih. Sodobni inkluzivni in izobraževalni trendi poudarjajo, da je značilnost kakovo- stnega poučevanja individualiziran pristop, ki temelji na močnih področjih vsa- kega učenca. Inkluzivna politika je vplivala na povečanje števila otrok s posebni- mi potrebami v rednih razredih, še posebej učencev z večjimi potrebami po učni individualizaciji. Zato je pomembno učiteljem med začetnim izobraževanjem omogočiti pridobivanje specifičnih spretnosti za delo z otroki s posebnimi potre- bami v inkluzivnih okoljih, krepitev samoučinkovitosti, še posebej učinkovitosti v sodelovanju s strokovnimi sodelavci in drugimi učitelji, kar je povezano z nji- hovim mnenjem o inkluziji, kakor tudi krepitev spretnosti učiteljev za interdisci- plinarno sodelovanje. Zato je poklicni razvoj učiteljev kot vseživljenjski proces, ki vključuje različne oblike sistemsko načrtovanih priložnosti in pridobivanja izkušenj, ključen za razvoj kompetenc, potrebnih inkluzivnemu učitelju, kar po- trjujejo rezultati pričujoče raziskave. Končno, učitelji so odgovorni za širjenje meja poklicnega znanja skozi refleksivno prakso in sistematično vključevanje v programe stalnega poklicnega razvoja. Če je naš cilj prispevati k ustvarjanju inovativne vzgojno-izobraževalne prakse in spod- bujati razvoj inovativnosti, ustvarjalnosti, reševanja problemov, kritičnega mišljenja, podjetnosti, informacijske pismenosti, socialnih in drugih kompetenc učencev, in sicer z implementacijo ustreznih dejavnosti v razredih, potem je, med drugim, tre- ba preveriti tradicionalne vzgojno-izobraževalne pristope in pri tem postaviti pod vprašaj veliko ustaljenih izobraževalnih teorij in praktičnih rešitev. Da bi učitelji 243 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 243 26.4.2019 12:06:16 pridobili kompetence za te nove vloge, je treba zagotoviti kakovostno začetno izobraževanje in ustrezne programe stalnega poklicnega razvoja. Poklicni razvoj ne poteka v vakuumu in pomembno je, da vključuje ostale elemente v širšem konte- kstu (kot so poklicna identiteta, značilnosti okolja, družbene okoliščine razvoja in razlogi za sodelovanje v poklicnem razvoju), ki ravno tako lahko vplivajo na institucionalno prakso poklicnega razvoja. Vzdrževanje visoke stopnje usposoblje- nosti učiteljev za delovanje na različnih področjih poklicnega delovanja in njihovo napredovanje v kritičnem, neodvisnem in odgovornem odločanju ter delovanju zahteva ustrezno institucionalno, administrativno in organizacijsko strukturo, ki priznava pomembnost njihovega stalnega učenja in spodbujanja razvoja na indivi- dualni in institucionalni ravni. Zagotavljanje okolja, ki podpira učenje, ima kritično vlogo za učni uspeh in izobraževalna prizadevanja, zlasti če upoštevamo sodobni kontekst dela in učenja, ki ga označujejo nenehne spremembe. Pogoj za take po- bude je vzpostavljanje organizacijske kulture in klime, ki temeljita na zaupanju, spoštovanju, kritični refleksiji, sodelovanju, komunikaciji in delitvi odgovornosti. 244 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 244 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Summary This book is focused on two main concepts that are key to the efficient and mod- ern professional development of teachers: teachers’ status, and professional compe- tence for the development of the students’ transversal competences in educational practices. After the introductory theoretical and methodological starting points, the second chapter sets out the theoretical and conceptual framework based on a review of relevant scientific knowledge about the professional development of teachers. Some basic conceptual definitions and key features of the dominant ap- proach to professional development are also presented, while special attention is given to current views that underscore the perspectives of professional develop- ment. The third chapter is devoted to the analysis of factors affecting the position and status of the teaching profession and various approaches to the definition of status, as well as problems of not recognising the teaching profession, and the im- plications of the conducted analysis are presented with the aim of improving the position of teaching both within the profession and the society. The fourth chap- ter explores self-regulated learning as an important transversal competence, which has, as part of the Comprehensive Curricular Reform, gained importance with the introduction of the cross-curricular topic “learning to learn”. Finally, in the fifth chapter special attention is paid to questions of inclusive education policies and competences of teachers for inclusive education. Theoretical considerations and the results of empirical research permeate all chap- ters of this monograph, whose aim is to explore the experience and attitude of class and subject teachers of elementary schools in Croatia and Slovenia toward professional development and status, as well as transversal competences in the field of self-regulation and inclusion. The research included a total of 1,867 teachers (1103 (59.1%) Croatian and 764 (40.9%) Slovenian elementary school teachers) who correctly completed a questionnaire. The research, among other things, has resulted in a set of proven tools that can serve as good empirical support for future follow-ups of this topic. Professional development of teachers is observed as a lifelong process of learn- ing and development in the personal, social, and narrow field of expertise. It is important how teachers perceive their competences and assess the possibilities for their professional activity in the direction of critical, independent, and responsible decision-making and action. A person’s worldview, attitude toward oneself and others, the perception of the relationship between the individual and school, family and culture in general, 245 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 245 26.4.2019 12:06:16 knowledge, attitude toward the learning content and methods of teaching, as well as all the experiences that have shaped the idea of what teaching is and what a teacher's work includes, affect the interpretation and importance which teachers attribute to their teaching experience. In fact, many authors see this as the reason why many professional development programmes do not have a genuine impact on changing teaching practices and even less on student learning. It is therefore very important to understand how teachers progress professionally and which conditions contribute to and encourage their growth. The obtained results show that Croatian and Slovenian teachers on average assess themselves as well trained, which raises the question as to whether the teachers provided realistic estimates of their qualifications or if they perhaps chose to give responses that showed themselves in a more favourable light than reality. The Croatian teachers assess their qualifications as being significantly higher than the Slovenian ones in all areas covered by this research (competence to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of their educational work, establishment of a constructive dialogue with their counterparts and a cooperative partnership with other schools, institutions, and parents) except in the competence of mentoring pre-service students and teacher-trainees. One may wonder whether Croatian teachers are truly more competent or whether their self-assessment is less self-critical, i.e. whether Slovenian teachers are too critical in assessing their competences in relation to Croatian teachers. Despite the relatively high assessments of their readiness for professional activity, it was found that Croatian and Slovenian teachers assess the lowest their capacity for action in research and development projects, mentoring pre-service students and student-trainees, and establishing a cooperative partnership with other schools and institutions. This suggests that not all teachers have been trained to provide mentorship or to assume the role of a mentor. It is also possible that teachers understand to a somewhat lesser degree that collaboration on various research and development projects and the establishment of cooperation with the wider community as one of their key tasks. Based on this, it can be noted that these are areas in which it would make sense to apply more incentives and support to teachers in the future. It is clear that over time the role and tasks of teachers have increased, while their status, compared to other professions, has remained stagnant or has even wors-ened, as confirmed by the results of many different national and international re- ports and studies. It can be stated that teachers are often caught between the high expectations of society (and probably themselves) and low professional respect. Croatian teachers, to a greater extent than Slovenian ones, agreed with the fact that teachers’ work is among the most important in society, while, on the other 246 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 246 26.4.2019 12:06:16 hand, they feel to an even greater extent that the teachers’ work has a low social reputation and is paid less in comparison to other equally demanding professions. In contrast, Croatian teachers agree to a lesser extent than Slovenian teachers that their profession provides regular income and financial independence, and that parents and students respect them. In this sense, it can be concluded that Croatian elementary school teachers perceive their reputation in society as being lower than Slovenian teachers do, although they assess their qualifications for professional activity to be significantly higher. At the same time, they assess themselves as being well qualified for their professional activity, but also as under-recognised by others in relation to how much they think they should be recognised. Such a discrepancy signals the existence of a number of factors affecting the teachers’ self-positioning and status of the profession. This discrepancy also appears among Slovenian teachers, but is less pronounced. The results of this research also point to how teachers rank the reputation of their profession in relation to the reputation of others, such as preschool teacher, high school teacher, university professor, physician, nurse, lawyer, entrepreneur, journalist, and stage actor. It was found that Croatian and Slovenian teachers ranked highest the profession of physician followed by lawyer and entrepreneur. In ac- cordance with the results of other research, it is not surprising that both Croatian and Slovenian teachers ranked lowest the professions of preschool and primary school teachers. It is a disturbing fact that the Croatian and Slovenian teachers in our research express the least agreement for the statement that they are respected by the students who are the first “users” of their knowledge. In this context we should mention that a certain degree of responsibility for their reputation in society certainly lies in the hands of teachers themselves, and that through demonstrating quality and excellence in their professional activity they can certainly contribute to achieving greater respect among students and parents, both toward themselves and their work, and thus contribute to improving their prestige and status in society. It should be expected that the dynamic changes taking place in our region impose a need for the creation of an educational policy in which the following outcomes will have priority: the improvement of salaries and working conditions, which ap- pear to be the most critical factors affecting the professional status and personal self-esteem of teachers, the provision of high quality teacher education, professional development opportunities and promising careers, the assurance of aca- demic freedom, autonomy, and participation in decision-making, advocating for a strong system of public education in local communities, maintenance of a regular 247 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 247 26.4.2019 12:06:16 dialogue between educational associations and the government, and encouraging teacher participation in public policy development. In modern educational contexts emphasis is placed on the development of in- novation, creativity, problem solving, critical thinking, entrepreneurship, computer literacy, social and other competences that cannot be achieved in a traditional education sector with its emphasis on knowledge transfer. Transversal competences are recognised as important teaching skills in the organisation of the learning and teaching process and the teachers’ professional development, as well as in the process of teaching these competences to students. The transversal competence “learning to learn” and the various civic and social skills play a key role in inclusive education, which is defined as “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion within and from education” (UNESCO, 2005). In an inclusive classroom the teacher teaches different students with dif- ferent educational needs. This implies strengthening the teacher’s interdisciplinary collaborative skills for modelling and development of transversal competences among students. Teachers’ transversal competences in the field of self-regulation and inclusion have not been sufficiently explored, although there is room for im- provement in the area of interdisciplinary and cross-cultural research. Teachers’ attitudes and beliefs about the importance of self-regulated learning largely determine their readiness to introduce activities and carry out the organi- sation of classes in ways which would be stimulating for the development of the competence of self-regulated learning. Such attitudes and beliefs are formed dur- ing the initial and continuing education of teachers, so it is an interesting question to what extent their self-assessment of the degree of professional competence can be associated with positive beliefs about the importance of encouraging self-reg- ulation of learning in students. In order to investigate the correlation between the self-assessment of professional competences and proactive teachers’ beliefs about self-regulated learning, the Scale of Teachers’ Beliefs about Self-regulated Learn- ing (Lombaerts, Backer, Engels, van Braak, & Athanasou, 2009) was translated into the Croatian and Slovenian languages and adapted to the local conditions in these two countries. No statistically significant differences in teachers’ beliefs were found between Slovenian and Croatian teachers. Professional competence has a low (although statistically significantly) positive association with proactive beliefs about self-regulated learning, pointing to a certain, minimum contribution of vocational training to the development of a positive, proactive attitude toward self- regulated learning. An almost identical result was obtained on the sub-samples of 248 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 248 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Slovenian and Croatian teachers, indicating a need to change initial and continuing education in terms of better information about the importance of encourag- ing the competence of self-regulated learning through a variety of cross-curricular teaching activities. An inclusive education policy has had a significant effect on the inclusion of stu- dents with different abilities, interests, and opportunities in the regular heterogeneous classes. Therefore, it is crucial for the teaching of different students to be individualised, and that teachers have the competence for such work. Initial education should enable teachers to take responsibility for the learning and achieve- ments of all students, including inclusive attitudes and values, as well as give them the knowledge and skills needed for teaching in inclusive classes. The results of the research presented in this work indicate that teachers assess themselves as being partially to well-qualified to teach in inclusive classrooms, whereby they consider themselves most qualified to manage classroom discipline and encourage the development of social skills. Their level of self-perceived com- petence with regard to individualised instruction is associated with professional competence, but not with age or length of service. Female teachers perceive them- selves as more competent for individualised teaching. No cross-cultural differences in qualifications for individualised instruction are observed between the Croatian and Slovenian teachers, except in connection with their level of professional and inclusive competence, which is higher in Croatian teachers. Current trends in inclusive education emphasise that one of the characteristics of quality teaching is an individualised approach based on the strengths of each student. An inclusive policy increases the number of children with disabilities in regular classes, especially students with significant needs for individualisation. Therefore, it is important to allow teachers to acquire specific skills in their work with children with special needs in inclusive settings during initial education, to strengthen self-efficacy, particularly efficiency in collaboration with professional colleagues and other teachers, which is associated with the attitude of teachers towards inclusion, and to strengthen teachers’ skills for interdisciplinary cooperation. Therefore, the professional development of teachers as a long-term process that involves various forms of systematically planned opportunities and gaining experience is crucial for the development of the competences that are essential for an inclusive teacher, as evidenced by the results of this research. Finally, teachers are responsible for the expansion of the boundaries of professional knowledge through reflective practice and systematic engagement in continuous 249 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 249 26.4.2019 12:06:16 professional development. If our goal is to contribute to the creation of innovative educational practice and encourage the development of innovation, creativity, problem solving, critical thinking, entrepreneurship, computer literacy, social and other competences, and the implementation of appropriate activities in the classroom then, among other things, we ought to reconsider traditional educational approaches while putting into question many established educational theories and practical solutions. In order for teachers to acquire the competences needed for these new roles, it is necessary to ensure the quality of initial education and a coherent process of con- tinuous professional development. Professional development does not happen in a vacuum, and it is important that it includes other elements in a broader context (such as professional identity, characteristics of the environment, social conditions, and the development of motives for participation in professional development), which can also affect the institutional practice of professional development. Main- taining a high level of teachers’ abilities to act in different fields of professional activity and their progress in critical, independent, and responsible decision-making and action requires an appropriate institutional, administrative, and organisational structure, which recognises the importance of continuous learning and promoting development at the individual and institutional levels. Providing an environment that supports learning plays a critical role in the success of learning and educa- tional efforts, especially if one considers the contemporary context of work and learning, which is characterised by continuous change. A prerequisite for such an initiative is the establishment of an organisational culture and climate that would be based on trust, respect, critical reflection, collaboration, communication, and the distribution of responsibilities. 250 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 250 26.4.2019 12:06:16 Imensko kazalo / Author Index Številke strani v kurzivi se nanašajo na besedilo v angleškem jeziku. Page numbers in italics refer to the text in English. A Bransford, J. 49, 161 Acedo, C. 89, 91, 99, 208‒209, 218 Bredeson, P. V. 21, 134 Aelterman, A. 52, 164 Brinkkjær, U. 27, 139 Aidukiene, T. 90, 208 Bronson, M. B. 69, 183 Ainscow, M. 99, 218 Brown, C. R. 90, 209 Ajdišek, N. 17, 31, 129, 144 Bryan, L. 70, 184 Anđić, D. 25, 49, 99, 137, 161, 217 Burden, R. 16, 90‒91, 93, 108, 128, Antonietti, A. 70, 184 208‒209, 211 Antoniou, P. 25, 28‒29, 137‒138, 141 Buvens, I. 52, 164 Atwater, M. 70, 184 Avramidis, E. 16, 90‒91, 93, 108, 128, C 208‒209, 211 Cains, R. A. 90, 209 Calderhead, J. 70, 184 B Cameron, D. L. 90, 208 Ball, D. L. 23, 26, 135, 138 Campbell, J. 90, 208 Ball, S. 47, 159 César, M. 99, 218 Baumert, J. 26‒27, 138‒139 Christie, F. 28, 141 Bauserman, A. D. 91, 209 Cohen, D. K. 23, 26, 135, 138 Bayer, M. 27, 139 Cohen, J. 79, 98, 194, 217 Bayliss, P. 16, 90‒91, 93, 108, 128, Cohen, P. 79, 98, 194, 217 208‒209, 211 Conderman, G. 91, 209 Beacham, N. 90, 208 Cook, B. G. 90, 208 Bennett, N. 25, 137 Corcoran, T. B. 23, 26, 135, 138 Berliner, D. C. 27, 139 Creemers, B. P. M. 25, 28‒29, Boekaerts, M. 28, 68, 80, 140, 182, 137‒138, 140‒142 196 Cunningham, M. 47, 159 Böhmer, M. 25, 137 Cuskelly, M. 90, 208 Booth, T. 99, 218 Borko, H. 23, 26, 135, 138 Č Bosma, J. 91, 209 Čepić, R. 9, 11, 21, 25, 28, 47, 49, Boté, L. A. 25, 137 70‒74, 79, 98, 107, 122, 123, 133, Bouillet, D. 91, 97, 99, 210, 216, 218 137, 140, 159, 161, 185‒186, Bradshaw, L. 97, 216 188‒189, 195, 217, 227, 259, 262 251 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 251 26.4.2019 12:06:16 D Gray, P. 27, 139 Darling-Hammond, L. 49, 161 Gregorčič Mrvar, P. 35, 147 Day, C. 23, 25, 27‒28, 49, 135, 137, Grimmett, H. 28, 30, 141‒143 139‒140, 161 Gu, Q. 27, 49, 139, 161 de Boer, A. 90, 99, 208, 218 De Corte, E. 28, 140 H Desimone, L. M. 26, 138 Hansen, A. 47, 159 Donmoyer, R. 30, 142 Haralambos, M. 47, 159 Hargreaves, A. 23, 25, 47, 50, 57, 135, E 137, 159, 162, 170 Edwards, S. 25, 137 Hargreaves, L. 47‒48, 50, 57, Engelbrecht, P. 99, 218 159‒160, 162, 170 Epstein, J. L. 35, 147 Hart, L. 70, 184 Eraut, M. 25, 137 Harvey, M. W. 91, 209 Erickson, V. L. 24, 136 Harwood, W. S. 71, 185 Errington, E. P. 70, 75‒76, 184, 190 Hattie, J. 28, 140 Ertmer, P. A. 70, 75, 184, 190 Heideman, C. 21, 133 Everton, T. 47, 159 Hermans, R. 70, 184 Hofer, B. K. 70, 184 F Hopper, B. 47, 159 Fang, Z. 70, 184 Hoyle, E. 47‒48, 50, 55, 57, 159‒160, Farrell, P. 99, 218 162, 167, 170 Feiman-Nemser, S. 23, 26, 135, 138 Huberman, M. 26‒27, 35‒37, Flores, M. A. 23, 135 138‒139, 148‒149 Florian, L. 91, 209 Forlin, C. 91, 209 I Francis-Brophy, E. 52, 164 Igrić, L. 99, 218 Fullan, M. 21, 23, 133, 135 Imamović, S. 62, 175 Fuller, C. 52, 164 J G Jamšek, D. 35‒36, 148 Gilmore, L. 90, 208 Javrh, P. 17, 26, 31, 35‒38, 129, 139, Giorgetti, M. 70, 184 144, 148‒151 Golby, M. 29, 141 Johnston-Rodriguez, S. 91, 209 Goodman, J. 70, 184 Jukić, T. 50, 163 Goodson, I. 47, 50, 57, 159, 162, 170 Jurčević Lozančić, A. 90, 95‒97, 99, Goodwyn, A. 52, 164 209, 214, 216, 218 Grangeat, M. 27, 139 252 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 252 26.4.2019 12:06:17 K M Kadum, V. 50‒51, 162‒163 MacBeath, J. 50, 162 Kagan, D. M. 70, 184 Macura-Milovanović, S. 91, 97, 209, Kaikkonen, L. 90, 99, 208, 218 216 Kalin, J. 9, 11, 17, 21, 31, 35, 47, Maddock, M. 47, 159 70‒71, 107, 122, 123, 129, 133, Malinen, O.-P. 90, 99, 208, 218 144, 147, 159, 185, 227, 259, 262 Marcelo, C. 21‒23, 133‒135 Kalyva, E. 90, 208 Marentič Požarnik, B. 17, 31, 129, 144 Kane, R. 70, 184 Maršić, I. 51, 163 Kingston, A. 27, 139 Martan, V. 91, 95, 97, 209, 214, 216 Klien, P. 70, 184 Martinez-Pons, M. 69, 75, 183, 190 Klusmann, U. 26‒27, 138‒139 Marušić, I. 29, 141 Kohonen, V. 39, 152 Mastropieri, M. A. 90‒91, 208‒209 Kokić, I. B. 97, 216 Maunonen-Eskelinen, I. 90, 208 Korthagen, F. A. J. 29, 111, 142, 231 Mažgon, J. 35, 147 Krolak-Schwerdt, S. 25, 137 McCray, E. D. 90, 97, 208, 216 Krstović, J. 28, 140 McDiarmid, G. W. 70, 184 Kudek Mirošević, J. 90, 92, 95‒97, 99, McHatton, P. A. 90, 97, 208, 216 209‒210, 214, 216, 218 McIntyre, D. 47, 159 Kunter, M. 26‒27, 138‒139 McSorley, F. A. 25, 137 Kurniawati, F. 99, 218 Meijer, C. J. W. 89, 207 Kwon, T. M. 26, 138 Meijer, P. C. 29, 70, 142, 184 Kyriakides, L. 25, 28‒29, 137‒138, Merbler, J. B. 91, 209 140‒141 Minor, L. C. 70, 184 Mok, Y. F. 26, 138 L Monteiro, A. R. 47, 49‒53, 57, 60, Leavy, A. M. 25, 137 159, 161‒163, 165, 170, 173 Ljubić, M. 97, 216 Mukherjee, J. 47, 159 Lombaerts, K. 16, 68, 71‒72, 74‒76, 78, Mundia, L. 97, 216 81, 84, 107, 113, 128, 182, 185‒186, Munk, D. D. 91, 209 188‒190, 193, 196, 200, 227, 233 Muršak, J. 17, 31, 35, 129, 144, 147 Lombardi, T. P. 90, 209 Lončarić, D. 25, 49, 67‒68, 90‒91, 95, N 98, 137, 161, 181‒182, 209, 214, Napolitano, S. A. 35, 147 217, 260, 263 Nel, M. 99, 218 Loucks-Horsley, S. 21, 133 Nespor, J. 70, 184 Lüdtke, O. 26‒27, 138‒139 Neuman, S. B. 69, 75, 183, 190 Lynch, K. 91, 209 Niemi, H. 39, 152 253 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 253 26.4.2019 12:06:17 Norwich, B. 90‒91, 208‒209 S Novović, T. 95, 214 Sachs, J. 47, 159 Sahlberg, P. 63, 176 O Sammons, P. 27‒28, 49, 139‒140, 161 O’Brien, J. 28, 141 Sanders, W. L. 49, 161 Savolainen, H. 90, 99, 208, 218 P Scheerens, J. 49, 161 Pajares, F. 69‒70, 184 Schön, D. A. 29, 141 Pearson, J. 70, 79, 184 Scruggs, T. E. 90‒91, 208‒209 Peček, M. 91, 97, 209, 216 Sharma, U. 90‒91, 208‒209 Pečjak, S. 17, 31, 129, 144 Sheridan, S. M. 35, 147 Pejić Papak, P. 95, 214 Silvernail, D. L. 71, 185 Peklaj, C. 17, 31, 67, 129, 144, 181 Skočić Mihić, S. 25, 49, 89‒92, Pelgrum, W. J. 49, 161 95‒97, 99, 137, 161, 207‒210, 214, Pell, T. 47, 159 216‒217, 260, 263 Perry, N. E. 69, 75, 80, 183, 190, 196 Smith, K. E. 70, 184 Pintrich, P. R. 70, 184 Smith, T. 26, 138 Plauborg, H. 27, 139 Sorić, I. 50‒52, 57, 162‒164, 170 Preacher, K. J. 79, 194 Sparks, D. 21, 133 Puklek Levpušček, M. 17, 31, 129, Sprinthall, N. 25, 138 144 Stančić, M. 90, 209 Putnam, R. T. 23, 26, 135, 138 Stanisavljević-Petrović, Z. 90, 209 Stobart, G. 27, 49, 139, 161 R Svetić, A. 28, 140 Radeka, I. 50‒52, 57, 162‒164, 170 Swearer, S. M. 35, 147 Reić-Ercegovac, I. 50, 163 Symeonidis, V. 62, 175‒176 Reiman, A. 25, 138 Sze, S. 91, 97, 209, 216 Richardson, V. 22, 25, 70, 134, 137, 184 Š Richter, D. 26‒27, 138‒139 Šteh, B. 17, 21, 31, 35, 47, 70‒71, 129, Rieckmann, M. 11, 124 133, 144, 147, 159, 185, 260, 264 Rimm-Kaufman, S. E. 71, 185 Rivers J. C. 49, 161 T Rolls, S. 27, 139 Tatalović Vorkapić, S. 25, 28, 49, 98, Rots, I. 52, 164 137, 140, 161, 217 Rouse, J. 91, 209 Tatto, M. T. 70, 184 Rouse, M. 47, 90, 159, 208 Terhart, E. 24, 70, 136‒137, 185 Rudduck, J. 21, 133 Thies-Sprinthall, L. 25, 138 254 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 254 26.4.2019 12:06:17 Turner, J. C. 69, 75, 183, 190 Z Turner, P. 47, 159 Zeichner, K. 25, 137 Tweddle, D. 99, 218 Zimmerman, B. J. 67, 69, 181, Tymms, P. 49, 161 183‒184 Zuzovsky, R. 24, 136 U Ueno, K. 26, 138 VValenčič Zuljan, M. 17, 22, 31, 129, 134, 144 Van Laarhoven, T. R. 91, 209 Vasalos, A. 29, 142 Velkovski, Z. 25, 49, 137, 161 Verhoeven, J. C. 52, 58, 164, 171 Verin, E. 50, 163 Verloop, N. 70, 184 Vermeulen, C. J. A. J. 49, 161 Viant, R. 29, 141 Vidović, S. 50, 162 Villegas-Reimers, E. 22, 134 Vislie, L. 89, 207 Vizek Vidović V. 25‒27, 29, 49, 95, 137, 139‒141, 161, 214 Vranković, K. 50, 162 Vrgoč, H. 50, 57, 162, 170 Vukelić, A. 97, 216 W Warfield, J. 70, 76, 80, 184, 190, 196 Whitty, G. 50, 162 Wilde, A. 90, 208 Wilson, L. 47, 159 Witherell, C. S. 24, 136 Wood, E. 25, 70, 137, 184 YYssel, N. 91, 209 Yuen, M. 92, 210 255 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 255 26.4.2019 12:06:17 Stvarno kazalo D konstruktivizem 23, 27‒28 delovna doba 37‒38, 92, 98, 114 kultura šole 23, 25, 27, 39 delovni pogoji 40, 50‒53, 63, 111 deprofesionalizacija 51 L družbeni položaj 47, 49‒50, 52, 57, 60, lestvica 18, 53‒57, 60, 62, 76‒78, 81, 62, 107, 109, 116 84‒85, 87, 92‒95, 107‒108, 110, 113, 200, 206 H lestvica usposobljenosti učiteljev za holistični pristop 23, 26, 28‒29 poklicno delovanje 16‒17, 31‒34, 39, 71‒74, 79, 98, 108 Iindividualizirani pouk 89, 92‒98, 100, M 108, 113‒114, 243 medkulturna raziskava 78, 95, 100, individualizirani vzgojno-izobraževalni 112 program 91, 93‒96, 114 merjenje 16‒18, 31, 53, 68, 71‒75, inkluzivno izobraževanje 12, 17, 92‒93, 100, 108, 113 89‒92, 95‒97, 99‒100, 107, 112‒115 P integrirani pristop 29, 112 praksa poučevanja 21‒22, 24‒26, izobraževanje učiteljev 22, 25, 27‒30, 29‒30, 40, 99, 107‒108, 114‒116 52, 63, 76, 80, 111‒112 prepričanja učiteljev 11, 22, 24, 67‒81, stalno poklicno izobraževanje 21, 84, 111, 113 38, 71, 81, 85, 99, 113 pristopi k učenju in poučevanju 25, začetno izobraževanje učiteljev 12, 27‒28, 36, 68‒69, 75, 77, 87, 90, 21, 70, 85, 97, 99‒100, 113‒115 92‒93, 114‒115, 191, 206 poklic učitelja 11, 47‒59, 61‒63, 70, K 90, 107, 109‒110, 116 kakovost izobraževanja 11, 21, 23, poklicna avtonomija 11, 27, 38, 47, 49‒50, 63, 71, 89, 99, 111, 115 50‒51, 63, 109, 111 kompetence 16, 27‒29, 36, 48, 52, 69, poklicno delovanje 12, 16‒18, 22, 73, 80‒81, 90‒92, 95‒98, 100, 111, 30‒35, 37‒40, 58‒59, 61, 70‒74, 114 76, 79‒80, 98, 100, 108‒111, 115 poklicne kompetence 13, 24, 107, poklicno izobraževanje 28‒29, 52 239 poklicno napredovanje 22, 26, 51, 115 transverzalne kompetence 11‒13, poklicni razvoj 22, 38, 63, 70, 73, 90, 18, 25, 49, 99, 107, 112‒113, 115 99, 107‒109, 111‒113 256 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 256 26.4.2019 12:06:17 dejavniki poklicnega razvoja 11, stališča 12‒13, 16, 48, 53, 61, 69, 81, 26‒28, 39 90‒91, 111, 113‒114 modeli poklicnega razvoja 24‒27, status 58 35‒37 družbeni status 11, 47, 50‒52, 57, poklicni standardi 28‒29, 48, 89 110, 116 proučevanje poklicnega razvoja poklicni status 11‒13, 47‒52, 55, 11‒13, 25‒30 57, 60‒63, 107, 109‒111, 116 stalni poklicni razvoj 12, 21, 23, stroka 30, 35‒36, 49‒52, 61, 70, 90, 99‒100, 115‒116 107, 109, 111 stopnje poklicnega razvoja 27‒28 poklicna usposobljenost 18, 23, 31‒32, U 39, 51, 59, 61, 67, 70, 72‒76, 79‒81, učenci s posebnimi potrebami 90‒91, 89, 91‒96, 100, 108‒110 93‒97, 99, 114‒115 stopnje poklicne usposobljenosti učenci z raznolikimi težavami 12, 11‒12, 17, 24, 30, 33, 35, 37‒38, 89‒91, 93 40, 71, 90, 92, 97‒98, 100, 111, ugled 47 113‒115 poklicni ugled 11, 13, 16‒18, 25, poklicno usposabljanje in 47‒62, 108‒111, 113 izpopolnjevanje 11, 25‒26, 29, 36, usposobljenost učiteljev 12, 17‒18, 72, 79, 81, 85, 91, 99, 113 30‒33, 35, 37‒40, 59, 61, 70‒74, profesionalizacija 749 76, 79‒80, 89‒98, 100, 108‒110, profesionalnost 24, 47, 49, 58, 61, 111 114‒115 novi profesionalizem 11, 39 V R vseživljenjsko učenje 11‒12, 21‒22, refleksija 21‒24, 26, 29‒30, 39‒40, 98, 26, 39, 69‒71, 80, 90, 99, 108, 113 116 vzgojno-izobraževalne potrebe 12, refleksivni praktik 24, 40 89‒90, 92‒95, 97, 99‒100, 112, 114 Ssamoocena 13, 17, 33, 38, 71‒72, 74, 79, 93, 95, 108, 113 samoregulirano učenje (samouravnavanje učenja) 16‒17, 67‒81, 84‒87, 99, 107, 112‒113, 191, 200, 202‒203, 205‒206 spoštovanje 24, 47‒48, 50, 52‒55, 58, 69, 89, 99, 109‒111, 116 257 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 257 26.4.2019 12:06:17 Subject Index A I approaches to learning and teaching inclusive education 124, 129, 207‒210, 138‒141, 149, 190, 235 214‒216, 218‒219, 227, 232‒235 attitudes 124‒125, 133‒134, 160, 168, individualised educational program 196, 208‒209, 216, 218, 227‒228, (IEP) 209‒215, 219, 234‒235 232‒235 individualised instruction 183, 207, 210‒217, 219, 234‒235 C integrated approach 141‒142, 232 children with different educational needs 124, 213, 216, 219 L children with disabilities 207‒210, lifelong learning 123‒124, 133‒134, 213‒214, 218, 235 138‒139, 151, 184‒185, 195, 208, competencies 128, 142‒143, 147‒148, 228, 234 164, 172, 183, 187, 214, 231 professional competencies 123, M 125, 129, 135‒136, 145, 150‒153, measurement 120, 128‒130, 144, 166, 181, 185, 189‒190, 194, 207, 210, 185‒186, 188‒189, 210‒211, 219, 216‒217, 219, 227, 232‒234 228 teacher competencies 124‒125, 140‒141, 187‒188, 194‒196, P 209‒210, 212‒219 professional activity/performance 125, transversal competencies 123‒125, 129‒130, 143‒144, 149, 152‒153, 130, 137, 161, 218, 227, 232‒233, 236 165, 172, 174, 185, 188, 217, constructivism 140 228‒231, 236 cross-cultural research 120, 193, 214, professional advancement 163, 181 219, 232 professional autonomy 123, 139, 148, 151, 159, 162‒163, 176, 229, 231 D professional development 123, 134, deprofessionalisation 163 138, 142, 152, 176, 185, 187, 208, 218, 227‒229, 231‒232 E continuing professional educational needs 133, 143, 207‒208, development 124, 133, 135‒136, 210, 218‒219 140, 219, 235‒236 degree of professional H competencies 125, 129, 145, 148, holistic approach 135, 138, 141 150‒151, 153, 233 258 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 258 26.4.2019 12:06:17 professional development factors school culture 136‒137, 140, 152 139‒140, 149 self-assessment 129, 145, 153, 187, professional development models 189, 194, 214, 228, 233 136, 139, 148, 150 self-regulated learning 140, 181‒192, professional standards 141, 160 194‒196, 200‒201, 204, 218, 227, study of professional development 232‒234 137, 139, 141, 143 status 161, 164, 170‒171, 173, 227, professional education 142, 149, 165 229, 236 professional training 137‒138, 141, 175, professional status 123‒125, 184, 187, 196, 200, 218, 230, 233 159‒160, 162, 167, 174‒176, professionalisation 161 230‒231 professionalism 123, 137, 152, 159, social status 123, 159, 163, 165 161‒162, 170‒171, 174, 231‒232 T Q teacher education 133‒134, 138, quality of education 123, 133, 135, 141‒142, 176, 184‒185, 195‒196, 161, 162, 176, 207, 217, 231, 235 218, 231, 233 in-service teacher education 121, R 123, 209, 218 reflection 134‒136, 138, 141‒143, pre-service teacher education 121, 152‒153, 236 123, 209, 215‒216, 219, 234‒235 reflective practitioner 136, 153 teachers’ beliefs 123, 129, 134‒136, reputation 159 181‒190, 192, 194‒196, 231‒233 professional reputation 125, teaching practice 134‒135, 218, 228 129‒130, 137, 160‒161, 163‒175, teaching profession 123, 125, 230‒231, 233 159‒169, 171‒172, 174‒176, 184, respect 136, 159‒160, 162, 164‒167, 208, 227, 230, 236 169, 171, 174‒176, 184, 207, 218, 229‒231, 236 Vvocation 161‒162 Sscale 128‒130, 165‒168, 170, W 173‒176, 186, 188‒194, 196, working conditions 162‒163, 165, 200‒201, 204, 227‒228, 230 176, 231 Scale of Teachers’ Competencies for Y Individualised Instruction 210‒213 years of work experience 127, Scale of Teachers’ Professional 150‒151, 210, 216‒217 Competencies 128‒129, 143‒146, 185‒186, 188‒189, 194‒195, 217, 228 259 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 259 26.4.2019 12:06:17 Predstavitev avtorjev Renata Čepić je izredna profesorica s področja pedagogike na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze na Reki. Predava več predmetov s področja pedagogike na diplomski in magistrski ravni študija na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze na Reki in kot zunanja so- delavka na doktorskem študiju na Oddelku za pedagogiko na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze na Reki. Njen znanstveni interes je usmerjen v proučevanje problematike pedagogike s posebno usmerjenostjo na splošno pedagoško področje, še posebej izobraževanje odraslih, vseživljenjsko izobraževanje, učeče se organizacije, stalno poklicno izobraževanje učiteljev/vzgojiteljev/andragogov. Veliko njenih prispevkov je napisanih s perspektive primerjalnih raziskav. Sodelovala je pri več nacionalnih znanstvenoraziskovalnih projektih Od leta 2013 je vodja mednarodnega znanstve-nega projekta 13.10.2.2.02 Poklicni razvoj učiteljev: status, osebnost in transver- zalne kompetence, ki ga je odobrila in ga financira Univerza na Reki. Dejavno je sodelovala na številnih domačih in mednarodnih srečanjih. Strokovno se je izpo- polnjevala na dveh mednarodnih ustanovah, vodilnih na področju pedagoške zna- nosti. Bila je vodja Oddelka za predšolsko vzgojo na Pedagoški fakulteti na Reki in predstojnica Katedre za izobraževalne vede Pedagoške fakultete na Reki. Je članica Hrvaškega pedagoško-književnega zbora (HPKZ), Hrvaškega andragoškega dru- štva (HAD), Združenja za razvoj visokega šolstva Universitas, European Society for Research on the Education of Adults (ESREA) in Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE). Jana Kalin je redna profesorica za didaktiko in predava na Filozofski fakulteti na Oddelku za pedagogiko in andragogiko ter na Fakulteti za matematiko in fiziko Univerze v Ljubljani. Izvaja številne seminarje za učitelje s področja pouka, učin- kovitega učenja ter vloge in dela razrednika. Poučevala je v osnovni šoli, delala kot raziskovalka na Institutu »Jožef Stefan«, od leta 1998 pa je redno zaposlena na Filozofski fakulteti. Njeno raziskovalno delo obsega učiteljev profesionalni razvoj, avtonomijo učiteljev, učiteljeve kompetence, vlogo razrednika in oddelčne skupnosti, sodelovanje šole in staršev, učno diferenciacijo. Posebno pozornost posveča visokošolski didaktiki, raziskovanju kakovosti pouka, vloge učitelja in učencev in uvajanja sodobnih didaktičnih pristopov. Raziskovalno in pedagoško je delovala na Univerzi na Reki in predavala v okviru študijskih izmenjav na Češkem, Polj- skem, Finskem in v Bolgariji. Bila je mentorica pri številnih diplomskih in drugih nalogah. Sodelovala je v Nacionalni strokovni skupini za pripravo Bele knjige na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja in bila predsednica Področne strokovne skupine za osnovno šolo. Bila je članica Programskega sveta za nadaljnje izobraževanje in usposabljanje strokovnih delavcev v vzgoji in izobraževanju. Dva mandata je bila 260 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 260 26.4.2019 12:06:17 predstojnica Oddelka za pedagogiko in andragogiko in članica Strokovnega sveta RS za splošno izobraževanje. Aktivno je vključena v mednarodno združenje učiteljev ISATT; je članica več uredniških odborov slovenskih in mednarodnih revij in se aktivno udeležuje mednarodnih znanstvenih posvetov. Darko Lončarić se je rodil na Reki leta 1974. Diplomiral je iz psihologije na Reki, magistriral v Zagrebu, doktorat Kognitivni in motivacijski dejavniki procesov samoregulacije pri učenju in soočanju s šolskim neuspehom pa je zagovarjal leta 2008 na Univerzi v Ljubljani. Je izredni profesor in trenutno na dodiplomskem in po- diplomskem študiju na Univerzi na Reki predava predmete s področja pedagoške psihologije, razvojne psihologije in uporabne statistike. Raziskovalno se ukvarja s področjem pedagoške psihologije s poudarkom na samouravnavanju učenja, motivaciji, otrocih s posebnimi izobraževalnimi potrebami in kompetencah učiteljev. Je avtor ali soavtor dveh knjig, sedmih poglavij v knjigah in 25 znanstvenih pri- spevkov. Sodeloval je pri 6 nacionalnih in univerzitetnih znanstvenih in strokovnih projektih. Svoje prispevke je predstavil na 18 mednarodnih in 29 domačih srečanjih, na nekaterih od njih pa je bil tudi član programskega sveta. Je član uredništva mednarodno priznane revije Psihologijske teme. Je član Hrvaškega psihološkega društva, Hrvaške psihološke zbornice, Združenja za promocijo demokratičnega izobraževanja in evropske talent-točke: Centra za nadarjene otroke na Reki. Sanja Skočić Mihić je izredna profesorica na Pedagoški fakulteti na Reki in nosilka predmetov Inkluzivno izobraževanje in Svetovanje. Na doktorskem študiju je nosilka predmeta Raziskave v inkluzivnem izobraževanju. Je vodja programa vseživljenjskega učenja Priča koja pomaže (Zgodba, ki pomaga) po metodi Lessac za inkluzivne skupnosti in nosilka predmeta Inkluzivne skupnosti. Desetletne de- lovne izkušnje v praksi je pridobila na delovnih mestih učiteljice in izobraževalne rehabilitatorice. Sodelovala je pri okoli desetih projektih nevladnih organizacij kot vodja komunikacijskih delavnic za otroke in mlade. Od leta 2007 je zaposlena na Pedagoški fakulteti na Reki, kjer je organizirala razvoj prostovoljskih dejavnosti in jih koordinirala do leta 2012. Pri znanstvenem in pedagoškem delu se ukvar- ja z inkluzivno vzgojo in izobraževanjem, kompetencami vzgojiteljev in učiteljev za poučevanje otrok/učencev z raznolikimi težavami in nadarjenih otrok/učencev, svetovanjem staršem, z uporabo biblioterapije v inkluzivnih skupnostih. Redno ob- javlja znanstvene in strokovne prispevke, predstavlja rezultate znanstvenih raziskovanj na konferencah, sodeluje pri znanstvenih in strokovnih projektih, mentorira diplomske, magistrske in doktorske naloge. Barbara Šteh, doktorica psiholoških znanosti, je izredna profesorica za pedago- ško psihologijo na Oddelku za pedagogiko in andragogiko Filozofske fakultete 261 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 261 26.4.2019 12:06:17 Univerze v Ljubljani. V prenovljenih bolonjskih študijskih programih Oddelka za pedagogiko in andragogiko je nosilka dveh predmetov na prvi stopnji in štirih na drugi stopnji. Pri svojem pedagoškem delu uveljavlja aktivne in izkustveno za- snovane metode pedagoškega dela in je mentorica številnim študentom. V doma- čem prostoru redno aktivno sodeluje na Pedagoško andragoških dnevih in raznih posvetih pedagoških in svetovalnih delavcev. Od januarja 1994 je v okviru svoje strokovne dejavnosti sodelovala pri izvedbi ali samostojno vodila več kot petdeset delavnic za učitelje na vseh stopnjah izobraževanja, mentorje, svetovalce in druge strokovne delavce. Raziskovalno se ukvarja z ugotavljanjem prevladujočih pojmo- vanj učenja, znanja in poučevanja tako pri učencih kot učiteljih, s kakovostjo učenja oziroma poučevanja, z zagotavljanjem kakovostnega sodelovanja med učitelji in starši, s kakovostjo univerzitetnega študija, avtonomijo učiteljev in profesionalnim razvojem učiteljev. S svojimi prispevki redno sodeluje na mednarodnih znanstvenih konferencah na področju izobraževanja. 262 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 262 26.4.2019 12:06:17 About the authors Renata Čepić is an Associate Professor in the field of pedagogy at the Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka, where she teaches several courses in the field of pedagogy at the undergraduate and graduate levels. She is also an Adjunct Professor at the Department of Pedagogy at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Rijeka, where she teaches at the doctoral study. Her research interest is focused on pedagogy with a special interest in general education, in particular in adult education, lifelong learning, learning organisations, and the continuing professional education of teachers/preschool teachers/andragogists. Many of her scientific papers have been written from the perspective of comparative research. She has participated in the work of several national research projects, and in the period between 2013 and 2018 was the head of the international scientific project 13.10.2.2.02 Teachers’ Professional Development: Status, Personality, and Transversal Competencies, which was approved and funded by the University of Rijeka. She has actively participated in numerous national and international conferences, as well as professional training at two international institutions, leaders in the field of pedagogical science. She has been the Head of the Department for Early and Preschool Education at the Faculty of Teacher Education in Rijeka and the Head of the Section for Educational Sciences at the Faculty of Teacher Education in Rijeka. She is a member of the Croatian Pedagogical-Literary Choir ( Hrvatski pedagoško-književni zbor, HPKZ), Croatian Andragogy Association ( Hrvatsko andragoško društvo, HAD), Association for Higher Education Development Universitas, European Society for Research on the Education of Adults (ESREA), and Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE). Jana Kalin is a Full Professor of didactics at the Faculty of Arts (Department of Educational Sciences) and the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana. She holds seminars for teachers in the fields of teaching, effective learning, and the role and work of classroom teachers. She has worked in an elementa- ry school and then at the Jožef Stefan Institute, and since 1998 has been employed at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. In her research, she focuses on the professional development of teachers, teacher autonomy, teacher competencies, the role of classroom teachers and classroom teaching, school-parent cooperation, and individualisation in teaching. She devotes special attention to didactics in higher education, research on quality teaching, the teacher-pupil role, and the application of modern didactic approaches. As a researcher she has worked at the University of Rijeka and held guest lectures in the Czech Republic, Poland, Finland, and Bulgaria, and has been a mentor to many graduates. She was also a member of the 263 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 263 26.4.2019 12:06:17 expert group responsible for drafting a White Paper in the field of education, and has been the President of the Regional Expert Group for Elementary Schools. She was a member of the Program Committee for Further Education and Training of Specialists in Education. She has served two terms as the Head of the Department of Educational Sciences and was a member of the General Council for General Education. She is actively involved in the international association of teachers, ISATT, is a member of the editorial team of several Slovenian and international journals, and actively participates in international scientific conferences. Darko Lončarić was born in Rijeka in 1974. He received his degree in psycho- logy in Rijeka and his Master of Science degree in Zagreb. He defended his doc- toral dissertation titled “Cognitive and motivational factors in the processes of self-regulation in learning and coping with school failure”, and was awarded his doctorate degree from the University of Ljubljana in 2008. He is an Associate Professor and currently teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in the fields of Educational Psychology, Developmental Psychology, and Applied Statistics at the University of Rijeka. He carries out research in the field of psychology of education, with an emphasis on self-regulated learning, motivation, children with special educational needs, and teacher competencies. He has authored and co-authored two books, seven book chapters, and 35 scientific papers. He has participated in six national and university scientific and professional projects, has presented his work at 18 international and 29 national conferences, and has also been a member of the several programme committees. He is a member of the editorial board of an internationally renowned journal Psychological Topics, and a member of the Croatian Psychological Society ( Hrvatsko psihološko društvo), the Croatian Psychological Chamber ( Hrvatska psihološka komora), the Association for the Promotion of Democratic Education ( Udruga za promicanje demokratskog obrazovanja), and the European Talent Point: Center for Gifted Children – Rijeka ( Centar za nadarenu djecu – Rijeka). Sanja Skočić Mihić is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka, currently teaching graduate and undergraduate courses: Inclusive Education and Counselling and the postdoctoral course Research in Inclusive Education. She is the head of the lifelong learning program Healing Story and the Lessac method for inclusive communities, and teaches the course Inclusive Communities. She has ten years of practical experience as a teacher and educational rehabilitator, and has participated in about a dozen non-governmental organisation projects as the head of communication workshops for children and youth. Since 2007 she has been employed at the Faculty of Teacher Education in Rijeka, where she organised volunteer activities and 264 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 264 26.4.2019 12:06:17 coordinated them until 2012. Her scientific and teaching work focus on inclusive education, preschool and elementary school teachers’ competencies for teaching children with disabilities, parental counselling, and applying bibliotherapy in inclusive communities. She regularly publishes scientific and professional papers, presents the results of her scientific research at conferences, participates in scientific and professional projects, and mentors final/graduate theses and doctoral dissertations. Barbara Šteh is a doctor of psychological sciences and an Associate Professor of educational psychology at the Department of Educational Sciences at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. She teaches two courses at the undergraduate level and four courses at the graduate level within the framework of the new Bologna study programs of the Department of Educational Sciences. In her pedagogical work, she introduces methods based on active and experiential teaching and is a mentor to many students. She regularly and actively participates in the Pedagogi- cal and Andragogical Days ( Pedagoško-andragoški dnevi) and various professional conferences for pedagogues and educational advisors. Since January 1994, as part of her professional activities, she has taken part in the organisation or has inde- pendently led more than fifty workshops for teachers at all levels of education, for mentors, advisors, and other professionals. In her scientific work, she researches the concepts of learning, knowledge, and teaching, both from the aspect of the teacher and the student, the quality of learning and teaching, enhancing the cooperation between teachers and parents, improving the quality of university education, and analysing teacher autonomy and professional development of teachers. She regu- larly participates in international scientific conferences in the field of education. 265 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 265 26.4.2019 12:06:17 Pursuant to the decision of the Board of Directors of the University of Rijeka Foundation (class 612-10/17-01/17; contract number - N-IZ 8/2017), following the competition for co-financing publishing activities in 2017, the right was obtained to co-finance the translation of the printed version of the scientific monograph Profesionalni razvoj učitelja: status, ličnost i transverzalne kompetencije (2017) written as part of the same-named research project 13. 10. 2. 2. 02, University of Rijeka, into English and Slovenian under the approved title Teachers’ professional development: status and transversal competencies (eds. Assoc. Prof. Renata Čepić, Ph.D., and Prof. Jana Kalin, Ph.D.). The Scientific Foundation of the Faculty of Arts from the University of Ljubljana also co-financed the publication of this Scientific Monograph. V skladu s sklepom Upravnega odbora Sklada Univerze na Reki (razred – 612-10/17-01/17; številka pogodbe N-IZ 8/2017) je na podlagi razpisa za sofinaciranje založniške dejavnosti za leto 2017 uresničena pravica do sofinanciranja prevoda tiskane znanstvene monografije Poklicni razvoj učiteljev: status, osebnost in transverzalne kompetence (2017), ki je nastala v okviru istoimenskega znanstveno-raziskovalnega projekta 13. 10. 2. 2. 02, Univerza na Reki, v angleški in slovenski jezik z odobrenim naslovom Poklicni razvoj učiteljev: status in transverzalne kompetence (ur. izr. prof. dr. Renata Čepić in prof. dr. Jana Kalin). Delo je sofinancirala tudi Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. 266 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 266 26.4.2019 12:06:17 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 267 26.4.2019 12:06:17 Profesionalni_razvoj_uciteljev_FINAL.indd 268 26.4.2019 12:06:17