E-Monographiae Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 13 Zbirka / Series E-Monographiae Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 13 Uredniki zbirke / Editors of the series Jana Horvat, Benjamin Štular, Anton Velušček Katia F. Achino in Anton Velušček The lake-dwelling phenomenon Reviewed by Primož Pavlin, Matija Turk Editor Borut Toškan Technical editor and DTP Mateja Belak Front cover design Tamara Korošec Translation Andreja Maver Publisher Založba ZRC Represented by Aleš Pogačnik Issued by ZRC SAZU, Inštitut za arheologijo Represented by Anton Velušček Published with the support of ZRC SAZU Front cover Stare gmajne 2021 (photo: Elena Leghissa); house plans E1 and E2 at Parte-Iščica (drawing: Tamara Korošec); palisade at Maharski prekop (Bregant 1974a, Pl. 1: 4) Ljubljana 2022; First e-edition The book (pdf) is freely available in e-form (pdf) under the Creative Commons 4.0 CC-BY-NC-SA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/9789610506560 Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID 112507139 ISBN 978-961-05-0656-0 (PDF) © 2022, ZRC SAZU, Inštitut za arheologijo, Založba ZRC The lake-dwelling phenomenon Katia F. Achino, Anton Velušček LJUBLJANA 2022 CONTENTS 1. Formation and deformation processes (Katia F. ACHINO)....................................................................................... 5 1.1 Introduction: diversity and variety of wetland archaeology ....................................................................................... 5 1.1 Lake-dwellings: “triumph and tragedy” of the Pompeii Hypothesis .................................................................. 6 1.2 The pre-depositional status: general definition ............................................................................................................ 7 1.2.1 The first natural formation process ..................................................................................................................... 8 1.2.2 The wetland ecosystems: features and formation .............................................................................................. 9 1.2.3 The pre-depositional status of wetland lacustrine archaeological contexts ................................................. 12 1.3 The intra-depositional phase ........................................................................................................................................ 17 3.1 The first anthropogenic intra-depositional process: the biography of houses in wetland context .............. 18 3.2 The living floors of lake-side settlements ............................................................................................................. 30 3.3 Fire events as expression of natural process as well as anthropogenic activity .............................................. 35 3.4 Natural intra-depositional processes ................................................................................................................... 36 3.4.1 Lake-level fluctuations ................................................................................................................................... 36 1.4 The lakeside settlement abandonment: introduction ................................................................................................ 40 1.4.1 Different abandonment modes in the lakeside settlements context ............................................................. 40 1.4.2 The causes of abandonment in the lakeside settlements context .................................................................. 43 1.5 Post-depositional processes in the lakeside settlements context ............................................................................. 48 1.5.1 Natural post-depositional processes ................................................................................................................. 48 1.5.1.1 Natural post-depositional processes on an artefact scale ....................................................................... 48 1.5.1.2 Natural post-depositional processes in a semi micro scale: the lakeside settlements perspective ........ 50 1.5.1.3 Pedoturbation processes in a regional analysis scale .............................................................................. 54 1.5.2 Cultural post-depositional processes ................................................................................................................ 54 1.5.2.1 Cultural post-depositional processes: reclamation and scavenging in the lakeside settlements context ............................................................................................................................................................................... 54 1.5.2.2 Cultural post-depositional processes in lakeside settlements: the disturbance .................................. 55 1.5.3 Natural and cultural post-depositional processes: “diversity in unity” ........................................................ 57 References .............................................................................................................................................................................. 57 2. The Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia (Anton VELUŠČEK) ............................................................................................. 75 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 75 2.2 Chronology of the pile-dwelling sites in the Ljubljansko barje ................................................................................ 81 2.3 A case study: pile-dwelling settlements in the Ljubljansko barje ............................................................................ 88 2.3.1 Stilt houses? .......................................................................................................................................................... 91 2.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................... 101 References ............................................................................................................................................................................ 102 FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES Katia F. ACHINO 1. INTRODUCTION: 29), such as the “bog bodies” (Menotti 2004: 11), a wide-DIVERSITY AND VARIETY spread variety of objects, as war booties at Skedemosse, OF WETLAND ARCHAEOLOGY Sweden (Larsson 1998; Menotti 2012: 16) and the open- set proposed by Jennings (2014: 117−129). Humans have always been fascinated by water Furthermore, this environment could own mani- regardless of its forms, either as sea, rivers, lakes or fold benefits, as the presence of harvesting resource simple marshy ponds (Pétrequin 1984: 30-31). We and the opportunity of install settlements and even have been linked to these features, in a way or another, defensive sites (Coles & Coles 1989; 1996; Nicholas since the dawn of humanity. Indeed, a large number of 1988; Nicholas 2003: 262). The variety of activities car-wel -known early hominid sites occurred in wetland ried out within and between the wetland and resulting environments: in Europe sites of the Early Palaeolithic material consequences of such activities, reflect the such as Torralba in Spain, Boxgrove in England and variability of wetland ecosystem itself. In fact, edges Bilzingsleben in Germany are associated with wetlands of lakes, rivers, marshes, fens, coastal and estuarine (Coles 2004b: 183−184). saltmarshes, peatbogs and mires come to be chosen as Swamps, playas, marshes and bottomlands have settling areas and they are even penetrated and explored been among most attractive areas on the landscape dur-more systematical y. ing the prehistory, because of their resource diversity, The wide spatial dimension of these archaeologi-productivity and reliability (Forman & Godron 1986; cal discoveries, from quite all over the world, and their Niering 1985: 29; Nicholas 1988: 268−269; Nicholas spread across a very large time-span (since the beginning 2003: 262). Different needs (as subsistence, in terms of the Holocene to nowadays), confirm the importance of food procurement through water and primary re- of wetland exploitation. sources) and sheer necessity (such as defence), or more These environments vary widely in their location, elaborated socio-economic aspects (such as logistic topography, climate, water regimes and geomorpho- reasons, linked to settlements) or beliefs (Menotti 2012: logical features, vegetation and wildlife from place to 27; Menotti & O’Sullivan 2013: 31) might have probably place, from tundra regions to the tropics and over every driven the interaction between people and wetland. continent of the Earth. However, notable wetlands are It is difficult to estimate exactly when this relation- especial y attested in Europe, Americas, Africa, Middle ship started to become more systematic: however, people East, Asia and Oceania (Petréquin 1984: 45−49). probably began to settle into humid environments and to After a summarised overview of the common fea- ful y connect their everyday-lives to that particular eco-tures and stages of formation (and deformation) that system in relatively recent times. Although we are aware characterise the most widespread wetland ecosystems, of sporadic episodes of wetland occupation and exploita- this chapter will focus on the lakeside settlement: its for-tion in the Holocene, particularly in the Mesolithic, such mation and deformation processes are deepen explored as at Starr Carr, in England (Clark 1954; Coles 2004a; to better contextualise and improve the understanding Milner et al. 2018a; Milner et al. 2018b), a few sites on of the Slovenian case studies, analysed within the next Feder Lake, in southern Germany (Schlichtherle 2004) chapter. and some cases in Lithuania (Menotti et al. 2005), the large-scale settling of lacustrine environments did not The more sites were discovered, the more it became occur until the Neolithic (Menotti 2004: 2). evident that the location of these settlements is mainly As time elapses, people-wetland interaction be-related to environmental morphology, without necessar- comes more and more complex: it encompasses elements ily following a specific construction style (cf. Menotti & both sacred and profane (Menotti & O’Sullivan 2013: O’Sullivan 2013: 12, fig. 3.7.1). The supposed uniqueness 5 Katia F. ACHINO of lacustrine vil ages as a construction built only on stilts Thus, the potential offered by archaeological re-in a permanently wet environment, particularly referred search in wetland ecosystem includes: to the Alpine-Circum region (Keller’s theory), had 1) the reconstruction of landscape models, through the given way to other possible choices: houses built on the analysis of environmental available data; ground, houses with slightly raised floors or houses on 2) economic evidence of both plants and fauna that may piles (true lake-dwellings), according to the subsequent provide precise details of land use, food procure-scholarly theories (theories of Reinerth, Paret and Vogt). ment, preparation and consumption; A new type of lake-dwellings in peat deposits and 3) stratified living and working surfaces on settlement marshes was identified and the further discovery of key sites and other structures; archaeological sites such as Egolzwil 3 (Vogt 1951), Zug-4) wooden structural elements recognisable as parts of Sumpf (Speck 1955) and Fiavé (Perini 1975) definitely individual y identifiable buildings; closed the Pfahlbauproblem discussion (Menotti 2001b: 5) they enable dating precision to the year and to the 20). This last site shows all types of lake-dwellings, from season, creating the possibility of observing the the classic Keller’s pile-settlements to the land-built realities of relationship both internal and external; vil ages described by Paret. The lay-out of Fiavé lacus- 6) complete artefacts, with handles, bindings and orna- trine dwellings consists of three zones and it follows mentation rather than only inorganic parts; a chronological occupation pattern which goes from 7) wholly organic objects as wood, fabric and skin the Neolithic to the beginning of the Late Bronze Age. probably otherwise unknown in the archaeological This example pinpointed that the building structure record; and final y depended upon the morphology of environment and 8) patterns of cultural and socio-economic aspects of how the lake-dwelling was built over a long time-span. those prehistoric wetland communities. According to these “triumphant” conditions (Coles’ perspective, Coles & Coles 1989, 1996), are the wetland 1. 1 LAKE-DWELLINGS: archaeological contexts reflecting a “Pompeii premise” “TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY” (see introduction), i.e. are they a fixed picture of the past OF THE POMPEII HYPOTHESIS as it was at the moment of its last deposition? This condition is not be considered as an absolute The variability which characterises different wetland assumption because of the potential interference of environments is even reflected by the wide richness and several biases factors. Shell middens, coastal and river variety of archaeological observables recovered there; estuarine wetland environments provided an useful this environment ensures a very good preservation of example of this circumstance. They are concentrated inorganic as much as organic (special y flora and fauna) deposits of shel s accumulated as food remains and sub-remains, as its main strengths (Petréquin 1984: 24−26). ject to complex formation/deformation processes. In this These findings enable archaeologists to reconstruct pal-context, what could seem to be an original accumulation aeonvironmental as well as socio-economic aspects of of shel s and other marine resources may be produced by ancient communities, but they even trigger an invaluable natural agents (Bailey 1975: 52; Bailey et al 1994; Stiner multidisciplinary col aboration between a myriad of dif-1994: 177, 182; Bailey & Flamming 2008: 7). As in this ferent disciplines. From the three most inseparable ones case, the luckily occurrence of a “Pompeii premise” in (archaeobotany, archeozoology and geoarchaeology) a our archaeological record has to be case-by-case tested, number of scientific analyses, from sedimentology to avoiding counterproductive conclusions. The possibility palynology and in some cases even microbiology, come to that archaeological evidence will eventual y come to light aid of the lake-dwelling research. Furthermore, the large as it was original y formed depends essential y on de-amount of well-preserved timber found in waterlogged formation − post-depositional processes. Together with contexts has also contributed to the development of preservation processes, they start soon after the object one of the most precise dating techniques in archaeol-or the site is abandoned (Schiffer 1987). It is known that ogy, i.e. dendrochronology (among others Bil amboz & organic materials are usual y better preserved in water-Menotti 2004; Čufar 2007; Haneca et al. 2009; Bil amboz logged environments because they are effectively sealed 2013; Čufar et al. 2013; Bil amboz & Martinelli 2015). in anaerobic conditions, which prevent artefacts from This dating method can be used symbiotical y with the decaying. However, it is important to point out that vari-radiocarbon dates, showing its suitability in calibrating ous wetland environments, from peat bogs to marshes, this last dates (Reimer et al. 2004; Menotti 2012: 19). The would be “deformed” by post-depositional processes in results obtained from the individual discipline, in the a broad variety of ways that is not limited to the erosive framework of multidisciplinary research, can serve as processes but embraces a wide range of disturbances, i.e. proof or disproof of the other disciplines’ outcomes. This the “tragedies”. This chapter is focused on an overview of synergetic effort ensures higher precision and accuracy the formation and deformation processes that produced of achieved results (Menotti 2004: 19). and changed the archaeological record in wetland -and 6 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES in particular lacustrine- contexts. Several archaeological, on the nature of the environment at the time of sediment ethnographical and experimental case studies, from all deposition and soil formation. Early studies of archaeo- over the world and across the prehistory, are described logical sediments, relying upon these characteristics, to provide a practical perspective. were directed toward paleoenvironmental reconstruc- tion (Stein 1985). The specific constituents of a sediment, such as mineral types, also provide information about 2. THE PRE-DEPOSITIONAL STATUS: its origin(s) (Schiffer 1987: 224). GENERAL DEFINITION On the contrary, soils are deposits of organic/inor- ganic material (animal, mineral and organic constitu- Sediments are defined as “those materials de- ents) differentiated into horizons of variable depth which posited at the earth’s surface under low temperatures differ from the material below in morphology, physical and pressures” (Pettijohn 1975; Goldberg & MacPhail make-up, chemical properties and composition, and bio-2006:11): they create three dimensional sedimentary logical characteristics altered in situ through time (Joffe bodies (deposits) which are subsequently modified in 1949; Schiffer 1987:201; Holliday 2004; French 2003: 35; characteristic ways. Shackley 1981: 257; Bul ard 1970; Banning 2000: 243). Since sediments are so ubiquitous in archaeological Some scholars (Jenny 1941; Bunting 1967; Fitzpatrick sites, it is necessary to have at least a working knowledge 1986; French 2003: 36−37; Goldberg & Macphail 2006: of some of these characteristics in order to share this 43; Holliday 2004: 261 and following) enumerated five descriptive information; the parameters that we observe factors that affect the formation of soils: in sediments commonly reflect – either individual y or 1) climate; collectively – the history of the deposit, including its 2) organism; origin, transport and the nature of the locale where it 3) relief or topography; was deposited, that is, its environment of deposition 4) parent material; (Goldberg & MacPhail 2006:11). The sediments can be 5) time. classified into three basic types (clastic, chemical and The climate (1) locally and seasonally affects organic) of which the first is the most abundant. They temperature and rainfal , which in turn influences soil are composed of rock fragments or soil material that development and type (Bunting 1967). Temperature reflect a history of erosion, transport and deposition determines humidity, evaporation, microclimates, by agents such as wind (e.g. sand dunes), running wa- length and intensity of the growing season and the type ter (e.g. streams, beaches) and gravity (e.g. landslides, of vegetation able to grow. Rainfall affects most other slumps, col uvium). factors, such as the amount and type of vegetation and Typical examples of clastic sediments are sand, silt, the amount of leaching and removal of nutrients or bases clay and their lithified results (sandstones, siltstones and from the soil (French 2003: 37). shale respectively); furthermore, volcaniclastic debris Instead, the living organisms (2) affect the physical (such as volcanic ash, blocks, bombs and pyroclastic flow structure of the soil (Bunting 1967). They are responsible debris) are also considered as clastic sediments (Fisher for mixing, commination, aeration and the formation of & Schmincke 1984). The chemical sediments are “those humus-clay complexes which tend to give soil stability. produced by direct precipitation from solution” (Goldberg Different types of organism are found in different soil & MacPhail 2006:13); typical examples are the precipi-conditions, for example earthworms in basic conditions tated minerals, as halite (table salt), gypsum (calcium and fungi in acidic conditions (French 2003: 36). sulphate), calcite or aragonite (both forms of calcium Furthermore, the physical and chemical weather- carbonate) derived from strong evaporation of lakes in ing processes which create the soil, also affect the relief semi-arid areas or from sheets of calcium carbonate (e.g. pattern (3) and drainage characteristics of the land- travertine or flowstone) in cave environments. scape. Mechanical effects and transformations such as Instead, the biological sediments (third group) transport, redeposition of soil by erosion agencies (frost are composed mostly of organic materials, especial y shattering, wind and water abrasion) and the disruptive plant matter; peats or organic rich clays in swampy effects of plants and animals (rooting and burrowing) areas and depressions are characteristic examples. For are caused by physical processes (Bunting 1967; Limbrey archaeologists, sediments are the enclosing medium and 1975; French 2003: 39). The relief also affect many soil the environment for the physical and chemical remains properties such as the depth or loss of soils on slopes that comprise archaeological sites (Wittlesey et al 1982: and in valleys (droughty ridges and uplands, eroding 28; French 2003: 36; Dowman 1970:5; Rathje & Schiffer slopes, col uvial footslopes, and boggy valleys) as well 1982: 130; Bul ard 1970; Krumbein & Sloss 1963; Blat et as the moisture gradient, amount and variety of vegeta-al 1972; Shackley 1975: 6; Stein 1985; Stein 1987: 339; tion, altitude and aspect, soil water run-off and filtration Goldberg & Macphail 2006). Final y, the attributes of (Bunting 1967). The spatial variability within a given soil sediments such as texture and colour, provide evidence type is caused by the parent material (4) (type of rock or 7 Katia F. ACHINO substrate) which provides its basic constituent. Final y changes (Goudie 1993; French 2003: 35). In terms of pro-the time (5) represents the tool through which all these cess, artefacts can be considered as sedimentary particles changes took place; indeed, the soils can be considered accumulated both mechanical y or chemical y: from a as a complete ecosystem: it is a dynamic and open system geo-archaeological perspective they are a special kind of comprising the living and non-living parts of the soil geologic and bio-stratigraphic deposit which contribute environment acting as a unit (Odum 1963; Sheals 1969; to the final character of the archaeological record. They Birkeland 1974; Mandel & Bettis 2001; French 2003: 38). consist of sediments that contain the remains or traces Although the archaeologists use the terms soils and of past life, “either due to the presence of objects modified sediment synonymously, it is important to distinguish by people or the remnants of materials – rocks, plants or between them (Butzer 1971; Goldberg & Macphail 2006; animals- used by humans in the past” (Rapp & Hill 2006: Balme & Paterson 2006: 50). The concepts are quite 25). Because the same principles apply to sedimentary different, and misunderstandings arise in archaeology settings containing artefacts or other archaeological fea-overuse and misuse of the terms and, especial y, the tures, archaeologists need to understand sedimentologic underpinning concepts. Soils are made up of particles concept. These latter form the basis for better evaluations of broken rocks and organic materials. Their formation of the environmental contexts of sites and the conditions (pedogenesis) results from biological, physical and that affect the final archaeological record. Sediments chemical processes on the parent rock: the elements and soils provide even a systematic framework useful may become hydrated or leached, and biological activ- to describe the deposits associated with artefacts where ity, whether involving bacteria or larger plants and soil the results of human behaviours held in the c-transforms animals, mixes organic matter with mineral material. (Rapp & Hill 2006: 25). The sum total is the initiation of soil horizon formation, called horizonation (soil materials were differentiated into profiles which have horizons). Indeed, the soils in 2.1 THE FIRST NATURAL FORMATION archaeological contexts are evidence of past variability PROCESS situations which form and mature gradual y; they took place in a single essential y stable, extant and exposed Exploring formation processes that generated substrate. Therefore soil forming episode is often termed the archaeological record, the content (archaeological a period “stability” (“stasis”). The soil’s cyclic history observables) as well as the container (environmental of development can also be interrupted many times setting) have to be analysed. Traces of past activities are (Shackley 1981: 18−19; Goldberg & MacPhail 2006: 27; hence accumulated in specific landscape and material Balme & Paterson 2006: 50). consequences embraced into the archaeological layer On the contrary, sediments are made up of particles sediment; it can be defined as the result of natural pre-that are the result of the breaking down of natural occur-depositional formation process, that took place before ring minerals by weathering. Indeed, a sediment has a the people chose to interact with the surrounding en- dynamic history which encompasses erosion, transport vironment and exploit it. and deposition over a landscape or area (e.g. among The identification and interpretation of distinctive others glacial til , Aeolian loess, beach sand). Therefore, bodies showed by sediment revealed different processes an archaeological deposit is clearly a sediment and not a which during the past may operate, not necessarily at the soil, with a source (e.g. a combustion feature) and a mode same rate or over the same time intervals and spatial loca-of deposition (e.g. dumping, accumulation of stabling tions. The bulk of inclusions may derive from animals and waste). Like any sediment, an archaeological deposit itself plants living in or on sediments subsequent to deposition may have accumulated through sedimentary processes (remnant); others may be elements of communities that (geogenic and/or pedogenic in character) and may have were carried along with the sediments, final y coming been affected by post-depositional processes which de- to rest far from their native habitats (re-deposited). The stroyed original layering and transformed or completely remnant (autochthonous) fossils belong normal y to removed some easily weatherable materials, such as wood times following the subaerial depositional event itself. ash (Weiner et al. 1995; Goldberg & Mac Phail 2006: 27). Their environmental signals must be evaluated for their In sum, sediments and soils constitute the natural chronological relationships to the depositional event and context which held and retained archaeological ob-to the archaeological event under investigation. servables; the reasonable identification and analysis of Natural y re-deposited (al ochthonous) materials the processes which govern their formation can inform belong to earlier times and distant space in relation to about the history of both materials and site itself, the any deposit that contains them. As elements of sedimen-agents and environment in which human behaviours tary history, they represent environmental conditions as that defined the site were carried out (Shackley 1981: source; they may consequently either complement or 262). Furthermore, this evidence is essential in help- contradict the autochthonous evidence. How much time ing to reconstruct both past environmental events and and space separates them from the deposit itself is to be 8 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES determined in each case (Dincauze 2001: 272). Wetland aquatic systems (such as lakes, rivers, and estuaries) ecosystems, such as mires, bog, fens, marshes and swamps (Butzer 1971; Shackley 1981; Mitsch & Gosselink 1993; represent our depositional environments and are interme-2000; 2007; Dincauze 2000; French 2003; Goldberg diate between subaerial and subaqueous environments. & MacPhail 2006) ( Fig. 1.1). Some are isolated from Although listing al possible wetland ecosystems is deep-water habitats and are maintained entirely by not among the aims of this book, main features of most groundwater and precipitation. Even though they show common wet environments where archaeological record structural and functional overlap and physical interface is usual y formed are highlighted with a brief overview. with terrestrial and aquatic systems, wetlands are differThe lacustrine wetland contexts will be analysed more ent from these other ecosystems in so many respects that in detail. they must be considered as a distinctive class ( Fig. 1.2). Wetland sites are characterised by several common features: all have shallow water or saturated soil where 2.2. THE WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS: accumulated organic plant material are decomposed FEATURES AND FORMATION slowly. Hence, this ecosystem supports biota such as a variety of plants and animals adapted to the satu- Wetlands, as the link between land and water, are rated wet conditions (hydrophytes), while an absence of some of the most productive ecosystems in the world. flooding-intolerant biota is attested. Wetlands are char-They are often found at the interface of terrestrial eco-acterised by the presence of water, either at the surface systems (such as upland forests and grasslands) and or within the root zone and often have unique soil con- Fig. 1.1: Wetland can be part of a continuum between terrestrial and deepwater aquatic systems (from Mitsch, Gosselink, 1993, Fig. 2.1A). 9 Katia F. ACHINO processes which took place in the formation of wetland contexts settled during prehistory are highlighted. The term “peat” is generical y used for any wetland that has at some point accumulated partial y decayed plant matter because of incomplete decomposition. The result can be an in-filled lake (terrestrialisation) or a process of waterlogging less wet mineral soils (paludification) (Dierßen 2003; Menotti 2012: 11) ( Fig. 1.4). Peat formation is even favoured by factors that reduce metabolic activity of micro-organisms, such as water saturation in the uppermost peat layers (the unsa- tured zone defined as acrotelm) especial y in eutrophic areas. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peats occur in all continents, from the tropical to the boreal and Arc-tic zones, from the sea level to high alpine conditions Fig. 1.2: Isolated from connections with water bodies (from Mitsch, Gosselink 1993, Fig. 2.1B). (Joosten & Clarke 2002). Many terms have been used to describe peat-forming wetlands, particularly in Europe (Verhoeven 1992; Glooschenko et al. 1993). For in- stance, the term “mire” refers to any peat-accumulating ditions that, as mentioned above, differ from adjacent wetland, either bogs and fens. The slow decomposition uplands. Although climate and geomorphology define of mosses, especial y species of Sphagnum growing in the degree to which wetlands can exist, the starting acidic groundwater pools or shallow ponds, creates the point is the hydrology. This feature, in turn, affects and classic bogs (Maltby & Barker 2009: 45). Fens are boggy defines physical and chemical wetland properties (such landscapes formed in alkaline or neutral groundwater; as nutrient availability, pH and environment, including they receive some drainage from surrounding areas and soils), which determines what and how much biota, usual y support marsh-like vegetation (herbaceous and including vegetation, is found in the wetland ( Fig. 1.3) woody plant species). Carrs are variants supporting (Mitsch & Gosselink 1993; 2000; 2007; Retal ack 1990). woody swamp vegetation in addition to peat. A type The general definition of wetland includes multiple eco- of bog that differs from the raised is the blanket bog. systems; although some types of formation processes are In them, the drainage of water (especial y on hil s and the same in all cases, more specific peculiarities can still mountains) is impeded by leaching and iron pan forma-be individual y detected. In the pursuit of our goal, the tion, which results in the formation and coverage of peat Fig. 1.3: The three-component basis of a wetland definition: hydrology, physiochemical environment and biota. Note that these three components are not independent and that there is a significant feedback from the biota. 10 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES Fig. 1.4: Stages in paludification of a northern landscape (from Minnesota DNR 1987, Fig. 3). (usual y moss and heather) over an original y “dry” sur- impeded run-off results in more frequent and increased face (Hammond 1981; Maltby 2009; Menotti 2012: 11). longevity of overbank floodings and rising groundwater Other wetland contexts are bottomlands that consist tables. This, in turn, favours the growth of species that of lowlands along rivers; in most cases they are located on tolerate a high groundwater table, especial y Alnus (alder) al uvial and periodical y flooded floodplains. The process in areas which previously were typical y meadows (within of wetland development in river floodplains can be sum-the river floodplains) or deciduous forests (on higher marised as follows: marine transgression (during periods ground). The high groundwater table and frequent floods of sea-level rise) results in an impeded run-off of the inhibit the humidification of plant material, resulting in river’s tributaries as the hydraulic gradient is reduced. This the development of floodplain peats or mires. Where the 11 Katia F. ACHINO floodplains are unconstrained, a landward expansion of chalk), marls, silts and clays, sands and organic mat- the (floodplain) mires is observed, during marine trans- ters (Butzer 1971: 185−7). Evaporites consist mainly gression. On the side of the river or estuary, reed swamps, of gypsum (calcium sulphate) and other salts such as saltmarsh and mudbanks may develop, resulting in peat sodium, magnesium and potassium chlorides or sul- and clastic sediments, overlying the basal peats. In periods phates. Such beds frequently indicate desiccation or lake of marine regression, a seaward expansion of the flood-shrinkage during the dry season or long-term reduction plain mire can be observed, resulting in an intercalated of a larger lake to a lagoon or salt pan, while lacustrine or upper peat. Furthermore, fresh or saltwater wetlands chalks usual y indicate fluctuation of oxygen content. characterised by emergent herbaceous vegetation adapted Freshwater marl sedimentation is commonly confined to waterlogged soils are marshes. They occur in areas that to comparatively small water bodies and the lime content are frequently or continuously inundated with water and included in the lake deposits may be derived by plant or they are most often associated with mineral soils that do inorganic agencies. This brief explanation of the most not accumulate peat (Maltby & Barker 2009: 44−45). exploited wetland ecosystems is suitable to clarify the When marshes are dominated by wood vegetation (in main features of depositional contexts and landscape particular trees and shrubs in North America and Phrag- settings in which traces of past activities have been at-mites in Europe), they are defined as swamps. These tested, from the dawn of civilisation. A selection of some are terrestrial habitats formed where woody vegetation case studies, e.g. archaeological settlements retrieved in alternates with stretches of open water (Sharitz & Mitsch lakeshore, will be introduced, to reconstruct all the tiles 1993; Dincauze 2001: 314; Maltby & Barker 2009: 44−45). of our archaeological record − “puzzle”, starting from the Furthermore, along low-lying coastlines, deposit of salt first pre-depositional status. marsh and other swamplands are attested; they are very similar to those of mudflat and lagoonal deposits. The latter includes coarse (fine sand) as well as fine (silt and 2.3. THE PRE-DEPOSITIONAL STATUS clay) laminae, with some laminae rich in detrital organic OF WETLAND LACUSTRINE matter (Goldberg & MacPhail 2006: 161). ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS During their formation, the deposits of salt marsh and other swamplands have been affected by sub aerial Among the multiplicity of wetland ecosystems, weathering, biological activity, surface and channel our research is focused on pile-dwellings – lakeside water flow. There are also the lacustrine environments, settlement contexts. In the Fig. 1. 5, a model of the most often located in interfacing areas between wet and dry widespread geological layers of some morenic south- conditions. Lakes are closed bodies of standing water alpine italian lakeside environments is summarised that vary considerably in size. The basins where they are (Leonardi & Balista 1996: 201). formed have numerous origins, including volcanic and The majority of these archaeological contexts meteorite craters, glacial depressions left by decaying ice seemed to be settled during the past, imposing on a (kettles) or retreating ice (moraines), al uvial floodplains similar natural pre-depositional layer defined as lake (oxbows and avulsed channels) or karstic depressions marl stratum or silty-clay gyttja. (sinkholes) (Goldberg & Macphail 2006: 112). General y, This layer, composed by carbonates (silty carbon-lakes are categorised as either open or closed; the former, ate mud, micrite), is formed by limnic precipitation in exorheic, have an outlet and consequently remain fresh, many lakes of the temperate zone, where the water depth without concentrations of salts. They tend to be stable ranges between 0.5 and 12 m (Muckle 1942; Schindler and have shorelines with short-range fluctuations in lake 1976; Brochier 1983; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 321). level. The latter (endorheic) on the other hand have not In particular, in some archaeological sites in the outflow and dissolved solutes are concentrated; they are Circum-Alpine region, the laminated micrite is depos-unstable and subjected to large inter-and intra-annual ited on the lake bottom as carbonate mud, formed by fluctuations in volume and position of the shoreline. The seasonal natural processes (Platt & Wright 1991; Freyter formation of lacustrine sediments is characterised by & Verrecchia 2002). several phases. Clay and silty sediments are transported Depending on the geomorphological situation of into the lake from streams: much of the coarser load is the riparian zone and the hinterland, changing amounts dropped there along the margins, while the finer mate- of fluvial sands can be added to the lake marl (Ismail- rial is carried in suspension by the combined action of Meyer et al 2013: 321). The sediment often shows currents-winds and they eventual y settle to the bottom. alternating sequences of denser micrite and looser At the same time, wind-induced waves and currents sandy laminations, containing more algal remains and may also redistribute coarser materials around the mol uscs; amounts of fluvial sands can be added to the coastal margins (Nichols 1999; Goldberg & MacPhail lake marl depending on the geomorphological situation 2006: 112). The lacustrine deposits include evaporites of the hinterland ( Fig. 1.6). (usual y gypsum or salts), calcareous beds (including 12 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES Fig. 1.5: Lakeside settlements, stratigraphic model with related sedimentary facies (from Balista, Leonardi 1996, 201, Fig. 3). Fig. 1.6: Micromorphological analyses on the lake marl: A) Stratified, carbonate rich lake marl with cross-section through stems of chara-algae (1) and oogonia (2) (Zug-Riedmatt M96); B) same as A), the chara stems (1) and carbonate rim of the oogonia (2) are easily recognizable; C) cross-section through a caddis fly larva (arrow), with adherent sand grains (Arbon-Bleiche 3 M1036); D) weathered mol usc shel s in a sandy lake marl (Risch-Aabach M4); E) same as (D) (from Ismail-Meyer, Rentzel, Wiemann 2013, 327, Fig. 7). 13 Katia F. ACHINO bentic), whereas reworking by waves in shallow waters produced homogeneous layers of lake marl, with frag- mented mol usc shel s and algal filaments (sub-littoral 1) ( Fig. 1.7) (Brochier 1983, 1989; Pétrequin & Magny 1986; Ostendorp 1990a; Ismail-Meyer & Rentzel 2004; Digerfeldt et al. 2007; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 321). After the removal of finer particles, sand became enriched and a lag deposit was formed. At Constance lake (e.g. Arbon-Bleiche 3, Hornstaad and Allensbach), a leaching of the fine matrix during the Neolithic pe- riod took place and consequently sandy beach deposits Fig. 1.7: Division of depositional environments and their were formed (Ostendorp 1990a, 1990b; Ismail-Meyer & recog nition from the characteristics of lake marl (from Ismail-Rentzel 2004; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 321). Meyer, Rentzel, Wiemann 2013, 326, App. III). In addition, wave erosion prevents a further accu- mulation in the littoral zone, leading to the progradation of the shoreline and the formation of a flat surface that Thanks to detailed results of micromorphological can expand toward the lake centre with time (Magny analyses applied to some Neolithic lakeshore settlements 1978; Pétrequin & Magny 1986; Platt & Wright 1991; (such as Arbon-Bleiche 3; Cham-Eslen; Zug-Riedmatt; Magny 1992a). Risch-Aabach; Stansstad-Kehrsiten; Lobsigesee; from The same pre-depositional natural sediment is at- Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013), specific depositional environtested at some European lake-side settlements: among ment can be recognised in the littoral zone. those, some are included into the Circum-Alpine region The currents and wave action cause reworking, re- (such as the Alpenquai lake-dwelling on Zurich Lake processing and sorting of lake marl: in particular, forma- (Wiemann et al. 2012: 66), in central Italy (such as at the tion below the wave base in calm sub-littoral conditions Mezzano Lake, Lazio, Central Italy (homogeneous and produced finely laminated lake marl (sub-littoral 2 to laminated gyttia with interbedded layers of turbidites) Fig. 1.8: Lake marl platform (light grey) with the site L1, the piles (dots), the measurement grid for the excavation and the micromorphological y analysed profile columns (crosses) with photographs of the opened col- umns included (Pranckėnaitė, Pollmann; from Ismail-Meyer 2014, 370, Fig. 3). 14 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES recovered at the Ljubjansko barje (Ger. Das Laibacher Moor, situated in central Slovenia, near the capital Ljubljana) show a sedimentary sequence that starts with a layer of lake marl (Melik 1946; Tancik 1965; Verbič & Horvat 2009). In particular, at the site Resnikov prekop, this lake marl or gyttja is predominated by a carbonate-rich sediments, composed especial y by homogeneous grey clay, snail and bivalve shel s (Turk & Velušček 2013: 186). The same depositional layer characterises the Blatna Brezovica and Stare gmajne, that show a lower concentration of carbonate sediment (Turk & Velušček 2013: 187). In Italy, across the shore of the Lucone Lake − a former lake in the western amphitheatre system of the Garda Lake − pile-dwelling settlements from the Early-Middle Bronze Age are attested. According to the data derived from one core (LUC-1 of 7 m length, recovered at a distance of only 100 m from one settlement), the basal sediment consisted of silty clay characterised by high percentages Fig. 1.9: Thin section images from Luokesas Lake L2, S3. Typical fabric of the lake marl (grey micritic fabric and plant of non-carbonate minerals and increasing organic matter. remains) (from Lewis 2007, 41, Fig. 5). This layer is followed by a dark silty gyttja alter- nated with a clay gyttja (Valsecchi et al. 2006: 99−113). Moreover, a similar natural basal layer characterised the (Sadori et al. 2004: 5) and some North-European ar-site of Ledro I, located in the Ledro Lake, on the southern chaeological contexts (such as the sites 1 and 2 recovered slope of the Alps, at c. 6 km north of Garda Lake. In at the Luokesas Lake (Moletai District of Eastern Lithu- particular, Ledro I is located on the southeastern shore, ania) ( Figs. 1.8 and 1.9) (Menotti et al. 2005: 385,397; just west of an area occupied by Middle Bronze Age lake-Lewis 2007: 33,3 6, 47−8; Prenckénaité 2014). dwel ings in the outlet area (Magny et al. 2009: 577). The Among the French archaeological settlements, at the basal deposit is formed by a pebble beach layer, typical sites of Chindrieux and Tresserve, located on the eastern of the lake-shore sedimentation; a carbonate lake-marl shore of Bourget Lake (Savoie, France), the basal layer is layer final y overlaid the morainic deposits (Magny et al. represented by a lake marl unit (Gauthier & Richard 2009: 2009: 580) ( Fig. 1.10). At the pile-dwelling site of Bande 112, 114). In Slovenia, three archaeological pile-dwellings di Cavriana the sedimentary record has been recon-Fig. 1.10: Core transect established on Ledro I. On the right the lithostratigraphic profile of core 2 pollen analysed by Beug (1964) is shown (from Magny et al. 2009, 576, Fig. 1). 15 Katia F. ACHINO Fig. 1.11: Site’s trench, stratigraphic section with highlighted the different layers (from Albore Livadie et al. 2008, 16, Fig. 5). structed thanks to a series of coring collected along a N-S Pietro Canàr (Balista & Bellintani 1998), Lagona at transect (Zanon et al. 2019: 2−4); the basal stratigraphic Poggiomarino (Albore Livadie 2005; Albore Livadie et units, which preceded the establishment of the pile al. 2008; Cicirelli et al. 2008) or lagoons (e.g. Stagno at dwelling, are characterised by compact and carbonate Livorno (Zanini & Martinelli 2005; Giachi et al. 2010). mud with rare fauna remains ( Unio sp. shel s) (SU 1 and Focusing on river settlements, at the site of Lagona 2), with the presence of dark-brown detritus gyttja, and (Poggiomarino), the recent stratigraphic analysis are carbonate lake marl (SU 3), comparable in composition located on the right bank of a wide deviation drawn to SU 2. At the site of La Draga, on the edge of Banyoles by the current Sarno River. Here, a salty clay base layer Lake (Girona, Spain), the base level of the stratigraphic (SU 7347) has been identified. This sediment, typical sequence consists of carbonate sands of bioclastic ori- of a fluvial-lacustrine environment, is characterised gin (Level IX) (Palomo et al. 2014: 62). Other lakeside by an extremely low-energy hydrological regime and settlements are characterised by different natural basal rich on aquatic flora and shel s. It has been extended deposits produced by the combined action of different horizontal y and has been recovered from some of the lake formation processes and environmental settings. site’s trenches ( Fig. 1.11). At the site of Dispilio, located on the southern shore of At the site of San Pietro Canàr, anthropogenic Orestias Lake (Kastoria, northern Greece) (Hourmouzi- deposits overlapped a base sequence of peat deposits ades 1996; Menotti 2004), the lacustrine sediments of the which were covered in al uvial sediments (Balista & pre-occupation show relatively deep-lake sedimentary Bellintani 1998). environments (bluish muds and sands). Regarding the lagoons, the site of Stagno constitutes Furthermore, discrete horizons of olive gray sedi- a useful case: this pile-dwelling is located near the city of ment associated with root casts, organic staining and Livorno, about 7 km from the present coastline, at the decayed organic matter are attested, indicating fal s in southernmost limit of an ancient swamp. The archaeo-lake level (Karkanas et al. 2011: 84, 107). At the site of logical deposit consisted of clayey layers alternated with Bal yarnet, on the edge of Bal yarnet Lake (4 km to the organic clay banks; at the bottom, in the sector C (Ia), a north-west of Derry city, Ireland) some archaeological homogeneous level with shel s indicates the former pres- remains of a lake-settlement were retrieved. In this ence of a brackish lagoon (SU 118 and 114). A lagoonal case, a peat deposit rich in glacial clay characterised level sealed the deposit, suggesting that the natural the basal natural sediment (Ó Néill et al. 2007: 42−44). environment preceding the pile-dwel ing settlement In the pile-dwelling of San Savino (San Savino site 2), was re-established after its abandonment (Giachi et al. located on the shore of Trasimeno Lake (Magione, 2010: 1261). Similarly, many lake-dwelling-like settle- Perugia, Central Italy) (Angelini et al. 2012), the peat ments have been discovered in marsh and fen-lands, deposit, recovered below the anthropic layer, is a grey- the Moorsidlungen (e.g. Gachnang-Niederwil Egelsee greenish silty sediment with shel s (Angelini et al. 2012: (Hasenfratz & Casparie 2006), and Wasserburg-Buchau 6). Moreover, a number of prehistoric settlements, for (Reinerth 1928; Kimmig 1992). instance in Italy, were built along the rivers (e.g. Isolone The outstanding case of Terramare settlements of Po del Mincio (Piccoli & Peroni 1992; Aspes 1997), San Val ey deserves final y a particular mention; the “palafitte 16 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES Fig. 1.12: Fondo Paviani. Profile 1, above − indication of main litho-stratigraphic units and below − pedogenic horizons. a) Present-day plough horizon. b) Silty clays. c) Clays. d) Organic clays. e) Bronze Age anthropogenic deposits. f) Olive-brown concretions. g) Peat. h) Thin sections (from Nicosia et al. 2011, 283, Fig. 4). a secco” are settlements surrounded by a moat and an founded (Magny 1978; Wal ace 1999; Ismail-Meyer 2010; earthen rampart (among others Bernabò Brea & Mutti Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 325). 1994; Bernabò Brea et al. 1997; Pearce 1998; Cremaschi et al. 2006; Nicosia et al. 2011: 280−92; Menotti 2012: 155). These sites have been identified both south of Po river 3. THE INTRA-DEPOSITIONAL PHASE (Emilia-Romagna) (Cremaschi 1997; Cremaschi et al. 2006) and north of that river, in lower Venetian plain and A lake- or pile-dwelling is essential y a form of set-southern Lombardy (Balista et al. 1998; Cremaschi et al. tlement construction adapted to specific humid and damp 2006; Nicosia et al. 2011: 280). At Fondo Paviani, the base water environments. Although the conscious choice of of the archaeological sequence is characterised by peat inhabit wetland locations was made for various possible deposits, covered by al uvial sediment. They culminated reasons, it had advantages as well as disadvantages. Sev-with a clay-textured horizon (5Bw), the substratum which eral factors, including the potential ease of construction embraced archaeological deposit ( Fig. 1.12) (Nicosia et and life, have been suggested to justify the occupation of al. 2011: 283). During this stage − as in the later phases the lakeshore (Barfield 1994: 132; Pétrequin 1984: 321; of formation processes − lake levels start to change due to Pétrequin & Bail y 2004; Menotti & Pranckėnaitė 2008; climatic fluctuations which occurred during the Holocene Pydyn and Gackowski 2011: 134; Menotti 2012, 2013). (Magny 1978; Magny et al. 2007, 2009; Menotti 2001b, However, according to Jennings’ perspective, con- 2004, 2012). Such fluctuations have been documented in cept of “ease” are entirely subjective and the extent to some cases using accurate micromorphological analyses. which these factors influenced the choice to occupy wet- These showed that the lake level decreased, enabling land environments is uncertain (Jenning 2014: 81). Hence, the emersion of lake marl that formed a hard compact humid settlements are characterised by specific problems, surface (Schurrenberger et al. 2003): above this layer, such as the poor preservation of agricultural products flat surfaces were formed. At some Neolithic lakeside and health difficulties, that are not encountered in the settlements a rather good preservation of pollen and inland (Horden & Purcell 2000: ch. VI. 5); furthermore, mol usc shel s could hint to a short hiatus (presumably a unpredictable lake—level fluctuations may affect the few weeks) that occurred just before the settlement was lifespan of settlements and houses (Ebersbach 2013: 285). 17 Katia F. ACHINO Defensive aspects could partially motivate the Although the majority of lake-dwel ing settlements occupation, although this may have been true only in coincide with periods of favourable climate, lakeshores some situations. For instance, while certain sites show were even settled despite evidence of climate deteriora- indications of a defensive function, such as Wasserburg- tion (Menotti 2009: 63). During a colder and damper Buchau (Reinerth 1928; Kimmig 1992; Bil amboz et climatic period, for instance, the lake-settlements in the al. 2009), Siedlung-Forschner (Menotti 2001b: 130; south-eastern Baltic region (transition period between Siedlungsarchäologie im Alpenvorland XI 2009), and the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age) were occupied Greifensee-Böschen (Eberschweiler et al. 2007), others (such as the Luokesa sites (Pranckėnaitė 2014); however, do not appear particularly defensive in nature (such they were inhabited in nearly all cases for only short as Hauterive-Champréveyres (Benkert & Egger 1986; periods of probably a few decades (Gackowski 2000; Rychner-Faraggi 1993), Ürschhausen-Horn (Gollnisch- Pranckėnaitė 2014: 342). Moos 1999), Zurich-Alpenquai (Viollier et al. 1924; While these factors, as climate and environmental Mäder 2001a-b) and Cortaillod-Est (Arnold 1990) morphology enabled lake-dwellers to occupy the prox- (Jennings 2014: 81). imity of the lakes, negative influence on the economy It is also possible that lake-settlements were oc- has been detected, looking at crop failures; this emerged cupied to access and control trade routes, particularly for instance in the already mentioned communities of where water features constituted natural crossroads; in Lithuania of the 1st millennium BC, where livestock these contexts, models, peoples and objects seem to have farming remained an especial y important part of the moved during the past. economy compared to agriculture (Pranckėnaitė 2014: Interaction between human communities and en- 342). This condition has been caused in particular by vironment as well as the preference for specific features the alternation of cold and wet summers (Pfister 2001; of the landscape have certainly influenced the choice of Menotti 2009: 63). where to locate settlements; people could take advantage Other reasons behind human occupation of wet-of availability of agricultural y productive land, the pres-land environments and lake-dwellings largely remain ence of rich wetland resources, such as fish, waterfowl unknown (Jennings 2014: 80). The choice to settle a and climatical y favourable conditions (Menotti 2012: landscape activates several cultural formation processes 104−106). During the Neolithic Age, when the lake that start from the organisation of space: a package of levels were low and flat moraine shoals near the shore “structural or architectural elements” (Ellison 1975: could easily be utilised as “empty platforms”, some lake-292−307, 1981: 417−21; Barrett et al. 1991; Brück 1999: dwellings in the Circum-Alpine region started to be 145) were built as immovable form of material culture settled (Magny 1978; Magny 1993a−b; Monnier et al. (Brück 1999; Gerritsen 2003, 2008; Jennings 2012; Ar- 1991; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 324). noldussen 2013; Jennings 2014: 88). A similar phenomenon occurred in Northern Eu- Through the analysis of different houses’ life-cycles, rope (such as in the case of the settlements at Valgjärv such as the planning, the construction process, the occu-Lake (Koorküla, Estonia), where the settlers found a pation period (which includes all renovation, expansion favourable place on a peninsula in the lake, which was and/or internal modification) and the final abandon- later covered by water (Selirand 1986; Roio 2007: 27). ment, their biography can be reconstructed ( Fig. 1.13), These areas were probably ideal locations to erect settle-in a micro-scale (single house) and in a macro perspec- ments so close to (or even in) the water (Hasenfratz & tive (whole the settlement). In the following sections, Gross-Klee 2005; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 318). explanatory examples, that are not to be considered as Furthermore, previous occupation of similar sites ful y exhaustive, given the breadth of the topic and the could influence the subsequent choice of inhabit dwel - large amount of existing data, will be provided. ings, according to the “cultural memory” perspective (Jennings 2014: 80)1; for instance, this is the case of the lakeside settlements reoccupied during the Bronze Age 3.1 THE FIRST ANTHROPOGENIC and Early Iron Age at the Circum-Alpine region, after INTRA-DEPOSITIONAL PROCESS: a first Neolithic occupation. As firstly quoted by Sch- THE BIOGRAPHY OF HOUSES langer (Schlanger 1992: 92) and improved by Cameron IN WETLAND CONTEXT (1993), lakeside dwellings are, in some extent, “persistent places”: the long-term occupation of this region had a Once the choice to settle in a wetland landscape was complex alternated trajectory of occupancy and aban- made, the community needed to adapt the natural set- donment, a sequence of social decisions and dispositions ting for them to successful y live in. They could modify that is attested in such life histories of places (Crumley flora mainly in three ways: 1995: 1177). 1) introducing or favouring edible plants, 1 For the relation place/landscape memory see Van Dyke 2) opening up woods for animal husbandry and, at the & Alcock 2003: 5, as suggested by Jennings 2014: 80. same time, 18 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES Fig. 1.13: The potential biography of a single-phase farmstead in northern Europe (from Jennings 2014, Fig. 5.5). 3) using natural resources such as wood for heating, Lucone D (Badino et al. 2011: 179) proved that this area building or producing metals. was covered, before the settlement, by dense thermophil- Each of these scenarios would produce a char- ous broad-leafed forests ( Quercus, Carpinus betulus, acteristic vegetation pattern, whose traces should be Fagus, Ulmus) replaced, through a sudden reduction in found in the pollen and micro-charcoal record (Sadori forest cover, by a strong increase of microscopic charcoal et al. 2004: 11). Some changes in natural settings could and the synchronous spread of several anthropogenic involve the decision of building a settlement: the mani- indicators ( Cerealia, Plantago lanceolata, Rumex acetosa, fold use of wood implies a decrease of their presence in Trifolium). the environment due to the clearance of forests. This The cultural process of deforestation is also attested, phenomenon is frequently followed by high values during the Early Bronze Age, at ZH-Mozartstrasse of anthropogenic indicators such as cultivated crops, (Menotti 2001b: 101), as well as at Bodman-Schachen 1 new plant species, anthropogenic taxa and final y the (Rösch 1992, 1993, 1996); during the Late Bronze Age enormous increase in microscopic and macroscopic the clearance was attested also at the site of Zurich-Al-charcoal concentration. This panorama is widespread penquai, as indicated by the presence of extended cleared in these case studies: a strong reduction of forest cover areas and of grassland in pollen and macro-remains was observed in coincidence with the establishment of retrieved in the cultural layers of phase B (Jacomet & Late Neolithic pile-dwellings (such as Palù di Livenza, Brombacher 2009; Wiemann et al. 2012:80). Northern Italy (Pini 2004) and Bronze Age settlements Nevertheless, aridity crises could even cause a (Northern Italy: among others, Terramare of Tabina natural deforestation, such as in the case of some Cen- di Magreta (Bertolani Marchetti et al. 1988), Montale tral Italy Bronze Age contexts: the 3800 varve years BP (Mercuri et al. 2006), Santa Rosa di Poviglio (Cremaschi were characterised by this phenomenon well-known in et al. 2006) and the pile-dwel ings of Lucone (Valsecchi et many pollen diagrams from central Italy. This climate al. 2006; Badino et al. 2011), Ledro (zone LB3 during the change could cause the human’s local presence in the Bronze Age) (Magny et al. 2009), Lavagnone (De Marinis Mezzano Lake (Sadori et al. 2004: 16) between 3700 et al. 2005), Tombola di Cerea (Martinelli & Leonardi and 3500 years BP. 2015: 248), Bande di Cavriana (Zanon et al. 2019 and In Central Italy pile-dwelling of Vil aggio delle Mac- references therein); Central Italy: for instance the pileine (Chiarucci 1985, 1986–88; 1995–6; Angle et al. 2002; dwelling of San Savino (Trasimeno Lake) (Angelini et al. Zarattini 2003; Angle 2007; Angle et al. 2014; Achino et al. 2013), Mezzano (Sadori et al. 2004) and Vil aggio delle 2016; Achino 2016; Achino & Barceló 2018), paloebotani-Macine (Chiarucci 1985, 1986−88, 1995−6; Angle et cal and ethnobotanical analyses (Carra et al. 2007) clarify al. 2002; Zarattini 2003; Angle 2007; Angle et al. 2014; some aspects of the natural setting that surrounded the Achino 2016). settlement; the volcanic slopes of the Albano Lake, where As a matter of example, the palynostratigraphic the site is located,were covered by widespread broadleaf investigation of a pond record offshore to the vil age of woodland (71%), predominantly oak, suitable to drained 19 Katia F. ACHINO The spatial arrangement of buildings might be decided during this stage: as majority of settlements have been only partial y excavated, analyses related to the use of space are quite limited (Schlichtherle 2004; Ebersbach 2013: 291; Menotti 2012: 149). However, some general observations can be elaborated on the base of available data and thanks to the advance of ar- chaeological investigations. The orientation of houses seems to follow patterns that have been varying across time and regions. For instance, Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements in northern Europe and Scandinavia differ considerably from those in the Circum-Alpine region (Menotti 2012: 149). The latter settlements tend to be more clustered and follow a regularised plan o semi- regular arrangement, such as settlements around Feder Lake, at Hauterive-Champréveyres and Cortaillod-Est, as well as the sites of Mozartstrasse and Kleiner-Hafner (Menotti 2004). Lake-dwellings on Constance Lake were erected along a road leading to the waterfront. While these Bronze Age settlements were constructed in rows, those of Federsee Lake (such as Siedlung Forschner and Wasserburg-Buchau) displayed conglomerates of buildings with small clusters separated from each other Fig. 1.14: Graphics shown the occurrence of deforestation in and all constrained by a surrounding palisade (Jennings the studied area from the Albano and Nemi lacustrine records; 2014: 90). This latter structure may probably have been this deforestation event is proved even by the shift from a built so that the settlement did not appear particularly Daphnia-dominated to a Bosmina-dominated community defensive in nature, or in order to impose a limit on among the Cladocerans ( Anthropoda) (from Angle, Sacchi, Zarattini 2011, 234–5, Fig. 9). the potential settlement size through the erection of perimeter palisades and fences. Massive and/or protective palisades were also attested at the French lakeside settlements (such as subsoils and a temperate climate (Angle 2008: 399). The Clairvaux and Chalain (in particular Chalain 19) (Pé- brushwood vegetation is less attested and suggested that trequin 1997, 1999), in Slovenia (such as at Maharski wet brush was rare. Neighbouring dry grasslands and prekop where the settlement was protected by a double the lacustrine environment − with a similar percentage enclosure (Bregant 1974a, 1974b, 1975, 1996; Turk & of presence, ranging between 13−16% − complete the Velušček 2013), at north-European wetland vil ages (as natural reconstruction. Taking into consideration such for instance Biskupin (Bil amboz 2004), in some Italian an environmental context, it is not surprising that a lakeside dwellings (Lavagnone 2 (de Marinis 2000: 103), massive reduction of forest coverage, most likely caused Fiavé 6 (Marzatico 2004: 87) and Terramare (such as, by humans, was identified in correspondence with the for instance, at Vil aggio Grande of Terramara di Santa earliest occupation phases of the settlement. At Albano Rosa Poviglio, (Cremaschi 2010: 36) at Fondo Paviani, Lake, the occurrence of this phenomenon is suggested by where a quadrangular earthen rampart surrounded the negative oscil ations suffered by organic factors embedded settlement (Nicosia et al. 2011: 281). At Greifensee-in the sediment, which highlighted an oxidising environ- Böchen a surrounding palisade and “hedgehog-like” ment with low aquatic productivity. Furthermore, an structure would have acted as both defensive measures increase and predominance in non-tree pollen revealed and windbreaks. At the underwater pile-dwelling site the beginning of cultivation of edible fruit plants (Lowe of Sabbione, located on the western edge of the Monate et al. 1996; Rolph et al. 1996), as those attested at the site Lake (Lombardy) (Binaghi Leva 2003; Poggiani Keller ( Rubus Fruticosus, Sambucus Ebulus, Nigra and Prunus et al. 2011: 243) around 4000 piles have been identi-Spinosa (Carra et al. 2007). The increasing rate of sedi-fied, some of them related to concentric fences that mentation and the subsequent slope erosion testify to this mark the settlement towards the shore ( Fig. 1.15), as deforestation event, supported further by a shift from a observed also at Concise-sous-Colachoz (Neuchâtel) Daphnia-dominated to a Bosmina-dominated commu- (Wolf et al. 1999). Dendrochronological analysis allowed nity among the Cladocerans ( Arthropoda) (Guilizzoni & to identify the gradual expansion of the housing area, Oldfield 1996: 63−64; Ryves et al. 1996: 140; Guilizzoni characterised by the placement of fences progressively et al. 2002) ( Fig. 1.14). moved towards the dry land (Binaghi Leva & Martinelli 20 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES Fig. 1.15: Monate Lake, Sabbione (VA). Location of the fences (‘palificata A-B-C-D’) (from Poggiani Kel er et al. 2011, 235, Fig. 1A). 2003; Martinelli 2003; Poggiani Keller et al. 2011: 243). response to a usual pattern one or two houses started Village expansion also involved the construction of in a given place, followed by few additional built in the some structures outside the surrounding palisade but next year. After two or three years a sudden increase of within the hedgehog structure (Jennings 2014: 85). The another ten or more new buildings can be seen, with settlements of Siedlung-Forschner stood out, as the 15 some more houses being built in the adjacent areas. houses were protected by a massive wooden wall nearby This pattern is attested, among others sites, at Arbon- them and a long and robust palisade a few metres out- Bleiche, Greifensee and Sutz-Lattrigen (Ebersbach side the wall (Torke 1990 and references therein). The 2013: 291). wooden fences, surrounding the site L1 of Luokesas, The architecture of houses also varies across time were not very solid and strong, although their height and space, due to environmental and technological and type of construction remains unclear; this means factors as well as cultural and regional reasons. As that the purpose of defence was not of high priority, as mentioned above, the natural pre-depositional layer the structure would most likely be aimed at preventing consisted mainly of lake marl sediments; available on livestock from escaping (Pranckėnaitė 2014: 346, 351). various glacial and morainic lakes, they are often in Some fences were final y constructed along with settle- a liquid state, retaining thixosotropic characteristics ments and they seemed to be easily and readily moved, similar to that of quicksand (Menotti 2012: 297). disassembled and erected again, as at Suzt-Lattrigen Wooden piles of buildings got easily cutted into this (Ebersbach 2013: 290, 292, fig. 17.5). Their defensive type of sediments, since they are relatively solid until the features differ widely, from semi-circular structures built vibrations of penetrating object liquefy them. This con-with thin sticks to real palisades. dition facilitated the penetration of object itself and sedi-Archaeological evidence indicates that Bronze ments stabilised again once the vibration stopped. When Age settlements might have been more often fortified the dry surface is removed or wetted with additional than Neolithic ones (Ebersbach 2013: 290−1). The sites water, the entire process of driving a wooden pile 2−3 where these defensive structures were not attested are metres into the lake marl takes no more than ten minutes in some cases referred to as “open” settlements, such (Monnier et al. 1991:34, Menotti & Pranckėnaitė 2008: as Ürschhausen-Horn (Jennings 2014: 91). Throughout 3; Menotti 2012: 298). high-precision dating of posts reconstruction of the This process can be even faster if sediments are whole settlement’s development can be obtained: in particularly soft and inundated, such as in the eastern 21 Katia F. ACHINO Baltic Sea region; there piles were driven up to 4.5 metres a b into the lacustrine sediment, such as at pile settlements on Luokesas Lake (Menotti et al. 2005: 385; Menotti & Pranckėnaitė 2008) and in other European lakeside dwellings (such as at Fiavé (Perini 1987: 80). Although there are various methods of driving wooden piles into the ground, the most common one is the rotate-lift-and-drop technique, as confirmed by experimental analyses based on material evidence recov- ered at the lake-dwelling settlement on Luokesas Lake (Lithuania) ( Fig. 1.16). This was the technique mainly used in the lake-dwel ing tradition of the Circum-Alpine region, during the Neolithic and Bronze Age. On the contrary, in the case of peat sediments, driving wooden piles is a much harder task. Piles cannot usual y be driven into the peat more than 1 metre-deep, even with the help of an initial y excavated posthole (Menotti 2012: 297). It is therefore not surprising that the majority of houses found in peatbog environments (or shrinking lakes) were built directly on the ground (Schlichtherle 2004; Schlichtherle & Strobel 1999; Menotti 2012). The process of adaptation to the environment involves also the choice of house architecture and its construction. For instance, while in a semi-wet marsh- land environment the community could choose between a pile-dwelling and a ground floor house, lakeshores could be only settled with pile-dwellings. These ancient architectural traditions of house construction are still adopted among present-day cultural groups: one of the Fig. 1.16: a) The pile in vertical position with three people best example is the pile-dwelling of Ganvié, on Nokouè standing on the movable wooden structure, ready to begin Lake (Benin, Africa) (Pétrequin 1997). Here, people stil driving it into the lake marl (from Menotti & Prankėnaitė live in traditional wooden houses, especial y constructed 2008, Fig. 15a); b) Schematic il ustration of the beginning of the experiment and the process of driving the pile into the lake on stilts. The resemblance of these modern settlements marl (conical rotation, uplifting and dropping of the pile (from on stilts to the prehistoric European pile-dwellings of the Menotti & Prankėnaitė 2008, Figs. 15b and 16). Circum-Alpine regions is striking ( Fig. 1.17). Fig. 1.17: Contemporary pile-dwellings at Ganvié on Nokoue lake, Benin (from Pétrequin 1997, Fig. 128). 22 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES Fig. 1.18: Examples of some depositional and sedimentary models, related to different features of structures (from Balista, Leonardi 1996, 204, Fig. 4). Lake-dwelling architectural types (pile-dwelling and Furthermore, guiding piles were driven into the ground ground floor houses) involve several construction tech- through pre-cut timber boards that served as weight niques, which may vary according to their geographical spreaders for the above building structure (Jennings 2014: location, chronology and the surrounding environmental 85−6). For instance, the foundation of Fiavé 6, along the conditions (Menotti 2012: 136). Different approaches bank and on the bed of the Carera Lake, consisted of verti-were used to the foundation of buildings in order to comcal y pierced boards, i.e boards with holes for the alloca-pensate for marshy ground and topographic undulation: tion of the tie slats. They served to hold a grid foundation compact homogeneous loam floors could be laid directly on the lake bottom and lay at right angles to each other, on the ground with surrounding timber lintels. At the in order to distribute the weight of the huts that stood site of Lobsigesee and Cham-Eslen, they seem to have above in a regular manner (Marzatico 2004: 87−89). In been connected to the perimeter of the houses. At Arbon other cases (such as in Austria, at the three settlements Bleiche 3 they are combined with anthropogenic compo-of Schärfling, Misling 2 and Weyregg-Landunfssteg) nents (such as micro charcoal, ashes, fine organic material, the compensation for the instability of the lake floor is charred macro remains and/or artefacts) (Ismail-Meyer realised through log frameworks, used as foundations & Rentzel 2004; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 327). In other of huts (Ruttkay et al. 2004: 51). Here, this framework is cases, grid-work timbers could be placed within the sur-fastened to the lake floor with pegs. Other settlements rounding lintel structure to provide extra support for displayed houses built on foundation frames and with the floor (Jennings 2014: 83−4). At Greifensee-Böschen floorings of perpendicularly set crossbeams, as in the various degrees of stabilising methods were utilised: tim-French Jura (Chalain Lake) (Pétrequin 1991; Pétrequin bers or beams were secured together at their overlapping & Bail y 2004: 36−45). ends with treenails or binding. They limited the amount In Northern Italy a further quite widespread build- of movement that could occur within the structure itself. ing technique is known, the bonifica ( Fig. 1.18): this 23 Katia F. ACHINO structure, built on the ground, could be stratified in one Bande di Cavriana (Balista & Leonardi 1996: 215, 219). or more layers composed by vegetal elements and small Moreover, for the northern Alpine region some scholars wooden beams, according to environmental conditions. proposed a division between construction methods It is attested in some sectors of lakeside settlements as the employed in western and the eastern part of the region exclusive building technique (such as at Isolino Virginia and between the Upper Swabia and Constance Lake (Baioni et al. 2007; Ledro (scavi 1980−83), Lavagnone, ( Fig. 1.19). Houses found at Neuchâtel Lake (Geneva, Arquà (Balista & Leonardi 1996: 215−222), whereas in Biel, Murten and Bourget) were constructed using piles others it is also combined with pile-dwelling structures, driven into the ground and sediment which supported as at Barche di Solferino, in the south-western sector of superstructures above the ground (Arnold 1990: 66−79). site (excavations of Zorzi and Nicolussi (Zorzi 1940) and In some lake-settlements of western Switzerland, such a b Fig. 1.19: a − Distribution of different lake-dwelling construction methods in Switzerland during the Neolithic and Bronze Age (from Jennings 2014, 81, Fig. 5.1); b − Cultural groups in the wetland communities of Upper Swabia (left) and Constance Lake (right). Dating, settlement plans and typical houses (from Menotti 2004, 28, Fig. 2.3). Fig. 1.20: Reconstruction of house from Cortaillod-Est (from Arnold 1990, 79, Fig. 69). 24 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES as at Cortaillod-Est, the three-aisle construction type were constructed using the block technique (Seifert was adopted, with four rows of posts (two wall posts 1996: 128−38). This block construction method, Block-and two internal posts) supporting the roof of the build-bau, was common to the lake-settlements east and west ing, which measured up to 15.5 x 6 metres in width of Constance Lake during the Late Bronze Age; this ( Fig. 1.20). This three aisle plan cannot be observed in has been recognised at the settlement of Greifensee-the eastern Switzerland (Seifert 1996: 168); houses were Böschen (Greifen Lake, Switzerland) (Eberschweiler et usual y two-aisled with three rows of posts, the middle al. 2007) and at Ürsch-hausen-Horn, Nussbaum Lake, one being the ridge post row. Switzerland (Gollnisch-Moos 1999). This technique In the eastern part of the northern Alpine region, consisted of layering round timbers on top of each other a variety of construction techniques has been identified, that intersected and overlapped at building corners with including piles driven into the ground through a stabi-notches or recesses, allowing timbers to sit flush against lising plate ( Pfahlschue); this perforated plate technique each other (Menotti 2012: 134; Jennings 2014: 81). was used throughout the lake-dwelling tradition from The block-building technique was also attested in the Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age (Ebersbach 2013: the terrace houses of the fortified lacustrine settlement 28; Menotti 2012: 136, fig. 4.5b). Posts used as the main of Biskupin, in Poland, dated to the Iron Age (Menotti frame of houses at the Arbon Bleiche 2 seem to have been 2012: 144, Menotti & O’Sullivan 2013). A combina-either directly rammed into the ground or inserted into tion of various construction techniques is attested here, a Pfahlschue or perforated base plate (Menotti 2001a: where block-construction, mortise and tenon joints were 104); for instance, in the sector A of Lavagnone, the Early identified ( Fig. 1.22). The most elaborate foundation Bronze Age (IB) dwellings rested on typical perforated system involved the raising of buildings on platforms wooden base plates ( Fig. 1.21). constructed in a simple blockbau technique, with the A construction method called Schwellenbau (sleep-insertion of floor timbers at an intermediary level of the er beam construction) is attested between Constance structure (Gollnisch-Moos 1999: 21−71). Across the shore Lake and Sempach Lake: piles were driven into the of Zurich Lake, at the Early Bronze Age ZH-Mozart- ground through boards or planks (Gross et al. 1987: 67; strasse lake-dwel ing, wooden structures consisted of Seifert 1996: 168−71; Benkert et al. 1998: 199; Jennings two superimposed groups of dwellings built on ground-2014: 81); they provided stabilisation and support for joists. Both groups were directly built on the lake marl buildings’ posts and formed the bases and foundations although, in the case of the second group, houses were of wal s. also constructed on the old floor of the first. A plausible hypothesis about the function of such a massive and At the site of Zug-Sumpf buildings related to an elevated floor is that it was built to protect dwellings earlier occupation phase (Seifert 1996: 46−53; Jennings from a possible lake level increase (Menotti 2001b: 100). 2014: 83) were constructed using the Schwellenbau and Thanks to the well-preserved wooden structures it has Pfahlschue techniques. Instead, more recent buildings been possible to attempt a fairly accurate reconstruction Fig. 1.21: Piles resting on perforated wooden base plates from sector A, Lavagnone (from de Marinis et al. 2005, 225, Fig. 5). 25 Katia F. ACHINO Fig. 1.22: Schematic reconstruction of the Late Bronze Age house of Greinfesee-Böschen, Greifen Lake, Switzerland (from Menotti 2012, 137, Fig. 4.6). of houses (Gross & Diggelmann 1987a, 1987b; Menotti tion, the Crannogs (O’Sullivan 1997, 1998; Cavers 2006; 2001b: 99). Furthermore, the Neolithic Egolzwil settle- Henderson 2007; Henderson & Sands 2013). ment provided an example of the packwerk technique Fens should also be included in this overview: they where foundations have been created by packing assorted consist of drowned landscapes, overcome by wetland timber in a regularised cross-hatch pattern (Wyss 1983; conditions only from the Neolithic onwards and occasion- Jennings 2014: 83). At the site of Hunte 1 (Dümmer al y an earthwork. It had once stood on the former land Lake, Central Germany), three types of architecture can surface that became engulfed by peat, to be revealed many be distinguished in chronological order. The first and the centuries later, when drainage and ploughing caused the oldest consisted of a peculiar polygonal hut, whereas the peat to shrink and waste away (Coles 2004a: 101). Two second and third are rectangular buildings varying in size. basic methods of constructions have general y been sug- While the first two types seem to have been built directly gested for fens. The first, the Packwerk model, consists of on the ground, the third type could have been slightly an artificial mound being built up, characterised by layers elevated on stilts floors (Menotti 2012: 139). Although of material with one or more structures built upon; the wetland house remains in Poland are not numerous, three second model shows a free-standing platform; there is regions showed distinction in terms of house architecture; evidence for both approaches in all countries (Henderson in the Wielkopolska region a prevalence of vertical pile and Sands 2013: 274). These models are most readily iden-constructions is noted, while in the others (Masurian tified in later Bronze Age Irish sites, which seem to present and Pomerania) houses seem to have been built on large a greater range of constructional forms (O’Sullivan 1998: platforms – not on stilts – constructed on top of artificial y 69−96). For instance, at the Late Bronze Age phases of built islands in the water near the lake-shore (Menotti Ballinderry Crannog N 2, Ireland, both free-standing and 2012: 140). Similarly, the Poggiomarino settlement was Packwerk approaches are clearly found (Newman 1997: built in a marshy riverine environment (on the bank of 97; Cavers 2006: 391). The primary construction of the the River Sarno, central Italy): a series of artificial islets Early Iron Age site of Oakbank crannog in Scotland seems with houses on top were constructed (Pruneti 2002; to have been firstly free-standing and only subsequently Cicirel i et al. 2008). A comparable structural model becoming more of a Packwerk mound (Dixon 2004). has been recognised in England, Scotland and Ireland This overview cannot be exhaustive without the where lake islands were made up and used for habita- analysis of Terramare: as already mentioned, they can be defined as mainly quadrangular settlements sur- 26 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES Fig. 1.23: Reconstruction of the houses from Sabbione, Lake Monate (from Poggiani Keller et al. 2011, 235, Fig. 1B). rounded by an embankment and ditch into which waters BC ( Fig. 1.23) (Binaghi & Martinelli 2003) and shown of a nearby river or natural canal were re-routed. Thus, strict comparison with houses from the vil ages 1 and apart from performing a defensive function, earthworks 3 of the Bodman-Schachen pile-dwelling (Constance also functioned as containing wal s and as means to Lake) (Köninger 1998). However, at Federsee a long- redistribute the water resources, as it has been attested, house (e.g. Seekirch-Stockwiesen) built directly on the for instance, at Castello del Tartaro and in various other ground would easily reach 5 x 15 metres (Schlichtherle Terramare, including Santa Rosa and Redù (Modena) 2004; Menotti 2012: 130); evidence of elongated pile- (Cardarelli 2010: 450). General y, houses of the Circum- dwellings have been found at Humudu and Majiabang Alpine region and the Mediterranean (such as Dispilo in China and in Japan where the Jomon rectangular (Hormouziades 1996) were similar in shape to Ter- houses of Ondashi reached 5 x 10 meters (Menotti ramare, as they were rectangular. However, their size 2012: 139). Across the Zurich Lake (in particular at ZH- may still vary according to place and time. A standard Mozartstrasse), the size of the houses range between 5 pile-dwelling would normal y not exceed 4 x 10 metres and 6 metres in length and 3 metres in width, with the (such as Hornstaad- Hörnle 1A, Arbon-Bleiche 3 (4 x only exception of houses 5, 6 and 9 in group b which are 8 metres), Poggiomarino settlement (3−3.5 x 10−12 one third larger than the others (Menotti 2001b: 100). metres) and they could be smaller (such as some on- Similarly, the dwel ings with recognisable dimensions of platforms houses found at Moltajny (Poland) (3.2 x the Arbon-Bleiche 2 had, according to Hochuli (1994), 3.5 metres) (Pydyn 2007: 325−7) and in Austria (at an approximate length of 4.5-6 metres and a width of Schärfling, Misling 2 and Weyregg-Landunfssteg with 3.5−4.5 metres. In England and Scotland the shape of houses of averaged 3−4 metres in length (Offenberger houses was circular (such as at Glastonbury or at cran- 1981; Ruttkay et al. 2004: 51). Two rectangular houses nogs). The majority of Neolithic lacustrine settlements have been reconstructed at the pile-dwelling of Sab- out from the Circum-Alpine region such as La Mar- bione, Monate Lake, within an area of 120 m2 includ- motta (Bracciano Lake, Lazio, central Italy) (Fugazzola ing sectors III/01 and IV/01, thanks to archaeological Delpino 1998, 2002) and La Draga (Girona, Catalonia, underwater research and dendrochronological analysis Spain) (Bosch et al. 2006; Palomo et al. 2014; Palomo (Poggiani Keller et al. 2011: 234); these two houses, 2017) seem to have been built directly on the ground. with dimensions of respectively 3 x 5 metres and 4 x The floor of the latter type was usual y made of various 8 metres, have been built between 1591 and 1583 cal strata of round-wood, bark, twigs, plaster and it was 27 Katia F. ACHINO Fig. 1.24: Different kinds of lake-dwelling house floors, (left) multi-layered roundwood floor build directly on the ground; (right) wooden floor paved with clay (from Menotti 2012, 134, Fig. 4.3). (Palomo 2014: 62): this structure was documented in Sectors B and C still on top of the col apsed wooden level. Furthermore, the elevated floor of pile-dwellings consisted of half-split small logs or planks but they too were sometimes paved with a stratum of clay (the latter model was found at Fiavé 6 (Perini 1987). At Lucone di Polpenazze (Lucone D), the vertical posts were blocked with a pressed plaster composed by gravel and firm clay used as blinding agent, that surrounded the posts from 20−30 cm, within the bottom silt; this system could also be substituted by big stones used as basal plinth (Baioni et al. 2007: 89). At ZH-Mozartstrasse lake-dwellings, floors were mainly built of beech (Menotti, 2001: 100) ( Fig. 1.25). The Bronze Age lakeside dwellings displayed a coexistence of different building typologies, with a remarkable capacity of adaptation to varying geomor- phologic conditions, as attested for instance at Fiavé. There, in the Fiavé 6 settlement, dwelling structures in water on “individual piles” as well as ground-foundation structures were found. Fig. 1.25: Elevated floor of a pile-dwelling (from Menotti 2012, A similar technique was employed at the site of 134, Fig. 4.3). Stagno (Livorno, Italy), in the area C. The remains of this structure consist of seven vertical elements (120 cm long and 30 cm in diameter), with a long point (50 cm ca) sometimes covered in clay ( Fig. 1.24). At the sector D of carved to facilitate insertion into the ground. Some of La Draga and in particular in the Level VII (the earliest these vertical elements are still preserved in situ, planks phase of occupation corresponds to the level of col apsed passing through rectangular openings in the upper part. wood), posts ending in a fork into which a plank was Perpendicularly to these planks, spars of 350 cm maxi- fitted in a clearly original position were documented. mum length and 10 cm ca diameter, were placed horizon- This association seemed to define a wooden structure tal y. Some small vertical poles were even found and are that would separate the wet ground level from the level supposed to have functioned as further side-supports for activity. This element is a direct archaeological evidence horizontal elements. On the whole, the structure appears of use of wooden structures erected above ground to have been a well-anchored rectangular building with a level (Palomo et al. 2014: 65). Moreover, for the second peculiar level of small branches laid down in a compact phase of the site’s occupation, the presence of traver- manner, likely intended as a floor (Zanini 1997; Giachi et tine blocks attested the construction of a paved surface al. 2010: 1262). The same house construction technique (Structure 252) which extends over the entire sector D was found at Lavagnone (Lavagnone 3), where upper parts 28 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES a b c d e f Fig. 1.26: Different kinds of lake-dwelling wal s. a) Block-construction; b) Wattle; c) Wattle and daub; d) Split roundwood; e) Plank-pil ar; f) Plank-pil ar with mortise and tenon joints (from Menotti 2012, 135, Fig. 4.4). 29 Katia F. ACHINO a b Fig. 1.27: The twin-pile building technique: long (a) and short (b) piles supporting the roof (from Menotti 2012, 137, Fig. 4.7). of piles support the superstructure on brackets, differently At MZ-Mozartstrasse the wal s were mainly built of from Fiavé (Perini 1987: 82). Recently, a relation between oak (Menotti 2001b: 100), such as at some contexts from the construction methods of Fiavé 6 and those of the Early the Slovenian region (Čufar et al. 2010), whereas at San Bronze Age site at Bodman-Schachen in the western Savino site they are of beech. At this site and at the Terra-area of Constance Lake has been proposed by Köninger mare of Montale (Mercuri et al. 2006: 53) the oak was used and Schlichtherle (Köninger & Schlichtherle 2001: 45; for pile supporting framework and roofs; traditional y, Menotti 2004: 89). In two Polish regions (Masurian and roofs are difficult to reconstruct as are usual y not pre-Pomerania) two different ways of preparing the ground served. Wooden shingles were probably used more often, for the on-platforms houses have been identified: a) the as straw and reed seemed to be not available in sufficient Fascinenbau (the area was prepared with irregular timber quantities in Neolithic periods (Jacomet 1997: 285). Also and brushwood) and b) the Packwerkbau (different strata bark or combinations of different materials might have of roundwood were used in order to construct a large been used; houses with a ridge post row have surely had platform which was the base layer of houses) (Menotti a gabled roof with its angle, depending on the covering: 2012: 140−141). At the site L1 of Luokesa architec-straw and red need steep gradients to let the rain drip off tural remains correspond to those of the artificial y built easily, while shingles can also be secured to low gradient wooden platforms in Poland (Gackowski 1995; Heydeck roofs ( Fig. 1.27). A steep, high raising roof could easily 1909; Pranckėnaitė 2014), but L1 has been identified as a have been used as a second attic. Notched log ladders pile-dwelling such as few Polish examples (Polanowo 12 indicate the use of construction elements high above the and Powidz 16) (Pydyn & Rembisz 2010; Pranckėnaitė ground (Ebersbach 2013: 287). At the Arbon Bleiche 3 and 2014: 348). The site is composed of buildings with raised Fiavé 6 the roof was made of reeds or wooden shingles floors, with cultural deposits accumulated below (Ismailand in some cases also bark from different species of trees Meyer 2014; Heitz-Weniger 2014; Pollmann 2014). The were attested; at ZH-Mozarstrasse they were mainly built construction technique of walls varies considerably, of ash (Menotti 2001b: 100). As main cultural processes, from simple half-split, vertical y set small logs to blocke.g. the decision, planning and the settlement construc- construction or wattle-and-daub panels (Pétrequin 1984; tion process have been summarised, this analysis wil Menotti 2012: 134) ( Fig. 1.26). At the lakeside settlement now address the occupation of houses and the material of La Draga, preliminary data related to the construction evidence of living floors. techniques are available, although analyses of some ele- ments retrieved in the sector D are still in progress. For instance, small calibre branches interwoven between them 3.2 THE LIVING FLOORS to form a lattice may have constituted parts of the wal s; OF LAKE-SIDE SETTLEMENTS this type of construction technique is well-known ethno- graphical y, where interlaced branches are then covered Activities undertaken in the stage of habitation with clay. However, clay remnants were not associated of a settlement are primarily related to the mainte- with these elements at La Draga (Palomo et al. 2014: 64). nance of “commensal” unit, including food processing, preparation and consumption, sleeping, manufacture 30 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES and maintenance of tools/artefacts and the consequent such as central vil age place, a workshop, a herding or maintenance of specific activity areas (Rathje & Schiffer cult space (Gross et al. 1987: 70−74; Jenning 2014: 81). 1982: 46; LaMotta & Schiffer 1999: 21). At the lakeside Since lakeside settlement buildings with a certain special settlements, such everyday activities took place indiffer-function are very rare, most of these structures seem ently in most of structures ( Allzweckhäuser) (Ebersbach to have been devoted to domestic practices. Material 2013: 289). Sometimes, smaller buildings existed in, residues of these activities can make their way into the between or behind normal houses that were interpreted archaeological record through three major depositional mainly as granaries or storage buildings; a late Bronze processes. The “primary deposition” (a) is the accre- Age storehouse has been found at Wasserburg Buchau tion process by which objects enter the archaeological (Menotti 2004: 29). However, in most cases, size and record at their location of use, either through discard position of houses are insufficient criteria to identify as “primary” refuse (Schiffer 1972, 1977, 1996) or different functions: for instance at Greifensee no dif- through accidental deposition as “loss” refuse (Fehon & ferences between big, central and smaller buildings Schlotz 1978; Schiffer 1996: 76−9). Determining which alongside fences have been identified. Very few special objects could directly enter the archaeological record, houses, identifiable as workshops, have been found in an understanding of how the living floor of an ancient most recent years, in particular in Bronze and Iron Age house was formed and consequently its penetrability is buildings, mainly related to metalworking (Hochuli et required (LaMotta & Schiffer 1999: 21). For instance, in al. 1998: 206−7; Müller et al. 1999: 146−9). According the case of an elevated floor (a floor on stilts that can be to Ebersbach (Seifert 1996; Ebersbach 2002, 2013) the made of round wood or planks and sometimes coated existence of stables, barns or workshops as separate with clay), some of refuse consisting of numerous pot- buildings has not as yet been proved in any Neolithic sherds, animal bones, seeds and wood fragments could wetland settlement of the Alpine ridge, although this accidental y fall during the occupation of the structure, is often stated in older publications. Nowadays almost forming a dump; the underlying organic marl could have no structures in wetland sites around the Alps could be surrounded them. At Fiavé (horizon 6) complete pots of interpreted as elite houses (e.g. houses of special wealth, various dimensions, after settling upright or horizontal y size, building material or furnishing) or religious and/or on the organic marl between the piles, had subsequently political communal buildings or market places (Seifert been fragmented by the weight of overlying deposits. 1996: 123−5; Ebersbach 2013: 290; Menotti & O’Sul ivan At Lucone di Polpenazze, in the excavated area 2013). Very few special structures recently have rec- A from the Early Bronze Age layers, some quite entire ognised and labelled as “cult houses” (Schlichtherle vessels recovered in the organic marl (layers G-H-I) 2006; Honegger 2007)2: although their architecture probably fell down from aerial substructures of pile- does not differ much from other buildings of a settle- dwellings (Baioni et al. 2007: 86). Elevated floors and ment, they displayed certain artefact categories, special the close proximity of houses in some prehistoric decoration of wal s or particular orientation. At the lacustrine vil ages of the Circum-Alpine region have site of Marin-Les Piécettes (Neuchâtel Lake), a central always intrigued scholars as to where the daily waste was building was erected on an artificial little hil , with an discarded. In order to shed more light on this issue, few unusual high number of posts and absence of artefact experiments on refuse discarding have been performed categories like stone, bone and antler tools (Honeg- (Menotti 2012: 315). Thanks to these reconstructions, ger 2001; Loser & Maytain 2007). In the settlement of the presence of a rubbish flap on the house floor has Reute, one house of bigger size and different orientation been hypothesised, since discarded waste was discovered also showed a special distribution of artefacts (Main- underneath the elevated floor (Leuzinger 2000; Jacomet berger 1998). At Luwigshafen house wal s with painted et al. 2004), such as at Arbon-Bleiche 3 (experimental decoration and model ed breasts occurred, alongside reconstruction) ( Fig. 1.28). high-quality textiles, fishnets and anthropomorphic pottery (Schlichtherle 2006). Two earliest buildings of The concentration of poppy seeds found inside Greifensee, constructed in a central position and with one of the Chalain station 3 houses might confirm a technology differing from the other, could show a this scenario (Baudais et al. 1997: 703; Jacomet and special meaning; here, artefact categories such as food Brombacher 2005), since the disposal could have been processing and textile production tools as well as low realised through a sort of trap-door in the floor. First densities of remains were absent (Eberschweiler et al. excavations carried out at Bande di Cavriana highlighted 2007; Ebersbach 2013: 289). At ZH-Mozartstrasse an the presence of dump layers, held in place by wooden Early Bronze Age packwerkbau platform of 200 m2 was support elements, sometimes in the shape of boxlike found; some hypothetical functions have been suggested, structures, maybe comparable to those experimental y reconstructed (Piccoli, 1986; Zanon et al. 2019: 2). 2 As highlighted by some authors, their possible mean- ing or function remains open to discussion (Ebersbach 2013; Furthermore, according to the reproduction of Jennings 2014) Unteruhldingen’s houses (Constance Lake, Germany), 31 Katia F. ACHINO Fig. 1.28: A rubbish flap (rectangle) repro- duced in the Arbon-Bleiche 3 experimental house (n. 23) constructed at the Pfahlbau- museum, Unteruhldingen, Germany (from Menotti 2012, 316, Fg. 7.24). lake-dwellers would discard their rubbish either at the objects that had a low potential for hindering on-going back or the front of the house, depending on the loca- activities, especially objects small enough to escape tion of the main street in relation to the house entrance cleaning technology (McKel ar 1983; Tani 1995; Schiffer (Ebersbach 2013: 314). According to Arbogast (Arbogast 1996: 66−7). The process of refuse cleaning up from et al. 1997) in the rear of houses an empty space was pre-the house floor or activity areas and its deposition in a sumably more “private”. Usual y, there were one or more spatial y removed location (such in some middens, tofts, fireplaces and sometimes also ovens built into houses. landfil s and abandoned structures) (Schiffer 1972, 1977, Around the fireplace, all kinds of daily domestic 1996; see also Rathje & Murphy 1992) could display the activity have been identified, but only few remains depletion process or “secondary deposition” (b). Hence, survived, trampled into the floor; bigger remains have at lakeside settlements refuse were predominantly ac- either been burnt or cleaned out. Thanks to experimental cumulated outside houses forming dumps, probably in reconstruction of Chalain houses, more light was shed order to even keep a healthy environment. on the living conditions inside the house. For instance, a For instance, in the sector D of Lucone a dump area, study of fireplace smoke in the house without a chimney constituted of organic finds, fragments of pots and charwas carried out: although it seems incredible, it was un-coals was found in the Early Bronze Age layers (Baioni derstood that the first 1,5 metres above the floor inside et al. 2007: 90). In the synchronic layers of sector B of the house would not be engulfed by smoke, which would Lavagnone, waste dumps were found, serving as evi- concentrate only in the upper roof. dence of settlement activity (de Marinis et al. 2005: 223). Moreover, some advantages have been recognised, At Isolino Virginia, in the layers of the third occupation as the preservation of the thatch and the maintenance phase a shallow ditch was found and interpreted as of the interior free of flies and mosquitoes in the summer dump (Baioni et al. 2005: 211). At Hornstaad Hörne IA, and maybe even mice in winter (Monnier et al. 1991:20; on Constance Lake, the rubbish was especial y thrown Menotti 2012: 315). Detailed analysis of refuse patterns out houses. Remains of flax seemed to be concentrated inside, below and around houses of Chalain showed also only in a few places in the AH3 sector, in the organic a more public space near the door, oriented towards layer 206, where rubbish zones of two houses overlap the next open space, where rubbish heaps were often (Maier 2001, 70 Abb. 54). Flax remains were therefore accumulated (Monnier et al. 1991; Menotti 2012: 315). not deposited everywhere in the settlement, but rather As highlighted by ethnographic research (Murray 1980; they were concentrated in certain places where other Hayden & Cannon 1983), at most activity areas as well rubbish was also deposited; same observations were as at domestic spaces practices of refuse’s cleaning up made on layer J at the site of Zürich AKAD/Pressehaus are periodical y documented, with their spatial reloca- by Jacomet (1981, 137). On the contrary, at the much tion elsewhere. more recent site of Arbon TG Bleiche 3, flax remains As mentioned above, also in the pile-dwelling con- were much more common and were found everywhere text, any remaining primary refuse most likely includes (Maier 2001: 79; Jacomet & Brombacher 2005). A rub- 32 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES stabling and other daily life activities (Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 335). Recent analysis performed at the site Zurich-Parkhaus Opéra proved that household waste was mostly dumped in a spot under the houses where the disposal of old hearth plates took place. The find concentrations, with mineral deposits, such as ashes, are associated with the loams and are located close to the centres of the buildings, together forming middens; their disposal most probably happened through an opening in the floor and has been identified still in place during excavation. Only rarely rubbish heaps were observed between the buildings (Bleicher et al. 2018: 39−40). “Special” accumulation referred to particular activity areas or practices are even documented; for instance, at Lobisgesee, very thin lenses of decalcified clay was interpreted as raw material deposits, due to their Fig. 1.29: Charcoal rich occupation deposit containing unburnt strong similarities with the matrix of ceramic sheds: they pottery manufacturing within a roofed area. Lobsigesee M6, proved the production of ceramics in the living areas PPL (from Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013, 328, Figs. 8 D, F, G). (Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 327) ( Fig. 1.29). The distribution of pottery along the outside of buildings following breakage demonstrated by some ethnographic studies (e.g. Hayden & Cannon 198; Deal 1985) is confirmed in bish heap in the back part of one house (C) was found at some lakeside settlement contexts: for example, at the Chalain station 3 (Baudais et al. 1997: 725 ff), contain-settlement of Ürschhausen-Horn, ceramics were placed ing halzenut shel s, carbonised cereal chaff, bones and in such spatial location and fragments of individual ves-artefacts. Charcoal and ashes were most likely formed sels were dispersed among several structures (Gollnisch- close to hearths due to cooking; they were periodical y Moos 1999; Nagy 1999; Jennings 2014: 85). removed and dumped in other locations, as confirmed by the density of plant remains. They were much lower The activity of fireplace cleaning probably pro- near hearth structures, where dwellers cleaned regularly duced thick ash layers accumulated as a midden and rubbish was deposited in areas between houses and found next to a house, at Stansstad-Kehrsisten (Jacomet & Brombacher 2005: 80). (Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 330). For instance at the In the mire site Alleshausen/Hartöschle, Maier found pile-dwel ing site of Vil aggio del e Macine (Achino large amounts of carbonised cereals in the zone of the 2016 and references therein) sub-quadrangular or oven, suggesting that this was used for the handling and sub-circular concotto (fired clay) slabs were recovered cooking of cereals. Concentrations of silver fir twigs during all the later excavations, in some cases placed on were found at Horgen ZH Scheller in cultural layers wooden or vegetal elements and densely surrounded by inside houses; they were used as filling or insulation fragmentary faunal remains and seeds, confirming the material (Favre 2002: 160; Eberli et al. 2002: 208). Dur-hypothesis that they were discarded in the area of their ing settlement phases, horizontal y complex deposits of processing and potential consumption. The cleaning of variable compositions have accumulated, containing large these cooking areas fol owing their use involved the for-amounts of preserved organic material (such as sand, mation of a charcoal- and ash-rich layer in surrounding carbonate mud, and some clay aggregates) as well as squares. These cooking features shown different internal various types of biogenic remains (architectural elements composition and shape: the sub-quadrangular one was as, among other, timbers, roof shingles, col apsed wal s) predominantly composed of concotto and clay, while the and a multitude of artefacts and ecofacts (Röder et al. sub-circular ones consisted of two compacted mud slabs 2013: 16). Well-preserved organic remains are imbedded surrounded by stones. This variability might mirror dif- in this organic matrix, which also contains pottery and ferent cooking practices, following some ethnographic stone tools, charcoal, ashes, bones (including fish bones), examples. Furthermore, combustion areas consisting loam aggregates, clods of lake marl and different dung of sub-circular hardened/compacted mud plates, sub- remains, such as at Arbon-Bleiche 3 (Ismail-Meyer et al. horizontal y oriented, with a clayey-sandy composition, 2013: 329). Organic remains accumulated on floors may and rich in charcoal inclusions were also identified. Dur-be interpreted as waste from food processing and cooking ing the 2009 surveys, a concotto slab with the imprinted (fruits, seeds, bones of wild and domestic animals, fish negative of a spike was recovered. This discovery would scales and bones, charcoals, and ashes), fuel (wood, bark, confirm that corn roasting was carried out in these com-and twigs), and insulation (twigs, mosses, and bark resi-bustion areas (as proposed in Angle 2007: 403). These dues) against humidity, wood working activities, animal probably interrelated cooking-burning areas seem to be 33 Katia F. ACHINO Fig. 1.30: A) Dung rich stabling deposit, with droppings of sheep/goat (arrows); B) the black rectangle marks the position of the detail B (Arbon-Bleiche 3 M1030); C) concentration of burnt coprolites withmelted phytoliths. The brown phosphat-icmatrix of a carnivore coprolite turns into carbonate to the right side (circle). A further possible burned coprolite shows a bubbly structure (arrow) (Cham-Eslen M665) (from Ismail-Meyer, Rentzel, Wiemann 2013, 330, Figs. 9A–C). spatial y overlapping in different layers (as A11 and 18 been attested in some contexts such as Horgen (Zurich respectively in Stratigraphic Units 6 and 11), suggest- Lake) and Sipplingen (Constance Lake) (Menotti 2012). ing a potential continuity of use for the same purposes Furthermore, small wattle constructions were throughout the site’s occupation (Tagliacozzo et al. 2012: identified in some lakeside settlements; they could be 146). It is also interesting to note that on the margin of used as enclosures for small ruminants. Leafy branches the combustion areas above mentioned, medium and and mistletoe can be regarded as fodder for livestock large storage and cooking pots were recovered, some of that very likely resided within settlements, at least tem-the latter bearing traces of fire exposure (Angle 2008: porarily (Ismail-Meyer & Rentzel 2004; Ismail-Meyer 403). The same storage purpose could be supported 2010). Areas with dung layers interpreted as cattle stands by a set of three dolia oriented according to the piles’ have been found in settlements, located predominantly North-South and West-East orientation and located in outside houses. However, rare finds of animal faeces in, the northern sector of the area excavated during 2012. under or between some houses document the presence In addition, the remarkable presence of fruits, beans and of animals inside settlements and even within a house cereals seemingly confirms this storage role of the area (e.g. Pestenacker, House 1: Schönfeld 1991). At Arbon- (Angle et al. 2014). Bleiche 3, coprolites can be attributed to ovicaprids Furthermore, the high presence of specific refuse (sheep/goat), cattle and less frequently carnivores/ categories in some houses might suggest specialised omnivores (dogs or foxes and pigs), small rodents, pos- practices: for instance, at Arbon-Bleiche 3 high pro- sibly field mouse and humans (Le Bail y et al. 2003; Le portions of wild animal bones in two houses were at- Bail y & Bouchet 2004) ( Fig. 1.30). tributed to specialised hunting (labelled hunter houses) At the site L1 of Luokesas, beside dung remains, (Deschler-Erb/Marti-Grädel 2004: 232, 251) implying very few animal bones, mostly of sheep, goat and pigs professional hunting (Röder et al. 2013: 25). At the site of were found, showing that livestock was kept at the site Zurich-Alpenquai the high quantity of hazel twigs into (Pranckėnaitė 2014: 348). In the mire site of Seekirch- the reduction horizon 1.1 (Q651) could be interpreted Stockwiesen in the Federsee region, rubbish heaps as a storage brought into the settlement during spring as including dung and human coprolite-zones were found food for humans and livestock; anyway, the layer could beside houses (Maier 2004, 91−95). be also a dung layer (Wiemann et al. 2012: 73). At the One of coprolites investigated at Arbon Bleiche 3 Neolithic pile-dwelling settlement of La Draga, within appeared to be of human origin because its composi- sector A a concentration of malacological remains in tion differed markedly from the ruminant coprolites varying transformation stages was documented (such as and showed similarities with plant remains found in some polished Spondylus sp. remains) and interpreted pot-crusts (Kühn & Hadorn 2004; Martínez Straumann as a small workshop specialised in the manufacture 2004). It was composed of many bone fragments and of ornaments (Verdún-Castel ó et al. 2019: 75; Oliva remains of cultivated plants. There was a lot of cereal 2015). Other special activities such as butchering have 34 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES pollen and bran, remains of linseed and some apple- construction of raised houses, as in Arbon-Bleiche 3 pericarps (Jacomet & Brombacher 2005: 80). and Standssad-Kehrsiten (Cammas 2003). Differently, At Arbon-Bleiche 3 the combined results of micro- accumulations of branches, wood, bark, moss, mistletoe, morphology, the analysis of botanical macro remains leaves and pine needles might derive from the prepara- and pollen studies showed that the ruins of a house were tion of timber for construction/re-construction activities probably reused as a stand for cattle and sheep/goats in and they could also be insolation material for the floor particular during the winter, as only dung dated to this (Pétrequin 1997). Furthermore, the presence of clustered season was found (Ismail-Meyer & Rentzel 2004; Ak-burnt loam fragments most likely indicate demolition eret & Rentzel 2001; Kühn & Hadorn 2004; Haas 2004). and/or renovations of hearths (Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: The same data, obtained from combined archaeo-327), as observed also at Zurich-Parkhaus Opéra where botanical investigations of sheep/goat pellets, seeds, the amount of clay per loam structures, associated with fruits, vegetative plant material and twigs could be baked fragments of former surfaces and loam patches identified at the site of Fiavé Carera, in the Early/Mid-indicate that these latter were remains of hearths episodi-dle Bronze Age layers (sounding 3, zone 4, stratigraphic cal y repaired, according also to the presence of mineral units 3/12 and 3/20). It can clearly be shown that animals deposits, such as ashes. The organic bands between were kept inside the settlement area during winter/early loam layers obviously represent deposition between two spring (Karg 1998: 93). events of hearth restoration (Bleicher et al. 2018: 39−40). The renovation or reconstruction practices are often The third major depositional process occurring caused by environmental as well cultural processes: both during the habitation phase is provisional discard fire events and water level variations have influenced (c); in this stage, broken or worn-out objects are not occupational strategies carried out during the past by discarded per se, but are stored or cached with the ex-wetland dwellers; in some cases they have caused even pectation that they will serve an useful purpose later the lakeside settlements’ abandonment. (Hayden & Cannon 1983; Deal 1985; Schiffer 1996: 99; LaMotta & Schiffer 1999: 21−22). An additional contributor to provisional refuse is functional y obso- 3.3 FIRE EVENTS AS EXPRESSION lete items-broken or still usable − that are nonetheless OF NATURAL PROCESS AS WELL AS retained instead of discarded. Can we attribute this ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITY “nostalgia effect” (Gould 1987: 149), e.g. the decision to keep items that took part in earlier activities in their During the sites occupation phase, intentional own lives, to the potential re-use of timber (over re- (Chabanuk 2008) as well as accidental wooden house pairs, expansion and/or internal modification of houses conflagrations happened quite often. These events have during the occupation or from other settlements)? frequently occurred, in particular during dry phases, such Sometimes old items acquire a renovated function as a as in the summer, with major sources of combustion being part of displays (Schiffer 1996: ch. 3). The construction human activities and lightning (Van der Valk 2006; Lind-of pile-dwellings would have required high amounts of say 2010). Large amounts of ash were produced by surface timber that would have been used for construction of vegetation of a peat which have easily been washed away the superstructure. They may have constituted a sig- by rain (Charman 2009; Lindsay 2010). Micromorpho- nificant and readily available timber resource which, in logical analyses of building structures in some lakeside light of the current dendrochronological evidence, does settlements have shown traces of combustion, confirming not appear to have been extensively utilised (Jennings that fire management was fairly problematic, especial y 2014: 104). Timbers of the initial pioneer construction during dry phases. At the site of Cham-Eslen (Zug Lake) have been reused at the settlement Conjux-Le Port 3 traces of conflagrations have been found in organic lay- (Bil aud 2011) and at Hauterive-Champréveyres, where ers, as burnt plant material, ashes and melted phytoliths evidence indicates that piles were occasional y removed ( Fig. 31); layers of charcoals were rather rare, as they are and possibly reworked (Pillonel 2007:70). This re-use of easily dislocated (Macphail et al. 2010). timbers, coupled with the splitting of them to produce At Arbon-Bleiche 3 and Stansstad-Kehrsiten the multiple piles from single logs, may indicate an over formation of fire debris from raised wooden dwellings exploitation of the surrounding forest resources, lead- were always associated with the col apse, tilt and dis- ing to a reduced availability of suitable size trees; this placement of affected structures (Hochuli et al. 1998). condition was attested also at Cortaillod-Est (Arnold This has led to the formation of heterogeneous accumu- et al. 1986). lations of burned daub aggregates, containing charcoal The material evidence of these structural changes and ashes (Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 333). and expansions can be found in anthropogenic lay- Since the distinction between a structure purposely ers: small aggregates of unburnt clay characterised set on fire and one burnt accidental y is extremely dif- by organic temper might be the only evidence of wall ficult, some house-burning experiments have been 35 Katia F. ACHINO col apses and their deep analysis can facilitate the full reconstruction of building techniques and material used; nevertheless, in most cases, also the experimental reconstruction shed less light on the different manner in which conflagrations took place during the past. At the site of Zurich-Alpenquai a fire event was recognised in the cultural layer of phase B (layer 2.1): it contained little organic material, chunks of loam, wood, a relatively large amount of charcoal but also burned pottery and a clay-ash mixture on top of the layer. These latter suggested the presence of a burning event (Künzler Wagner 2005: 14). At the site of Dispilo (Karkanas et al. 2011: 109) differences could be observed in the level of the destruction layer: these have probably to be attributed to the taphonomic history of burnt houses. Indeed, not all of them col apsed at the same time after the burning epi- sode. Some of them may have fallen en masse, giving the impression of in situ wooden structures on the ground. However, sedimentary features clearly show that these structures had fal en into the water, as suggested by timber pieces which were half-burnt, burned only on the outer surface or on one side. At Lucone D an extended wel documented fire event left evident traces on the top of the archaeologi- cal record: the house has been completely burnt and its structural elements have collapsed, as the partially- charred timber beam found in situ; the settlement has been suddenly restored, with the instal ation of new posts and this event has been dendro-chronological y Fig. 1.31: E) scanned thin sections and description of midated to around 1970 BC (Martinelli 1996; Baioni et al. cromorphological phases and their possible reconstruction; small rectangle marks the position of F) detail of a burned clay 2007:89−90; Badino et al. 2011: 179). aggregate with melted quartz grains (arrows) and gray ashes Among other possible causes of the building or at the bottom (Cham-Eslen) (from Ismail-Meyer, Rentzel, the whole settlement renovation some environmental Wiemann 2013, 322, Figs. 3E–F). changes can be listed: water level variations are likely to have triggered the decision of building certain house models rather than others. In addition, sometimes the lake level may have forced dwellers to abandon their carried out, in order to help the reconstruction task of houses, or it may have only indirectly influenced their archaeologists. In Denmark during the 1960s a replica of lifestyle, through negative impact on the subsistence and a full-scale Iron Age house was set on fire and the entire economy (e.g. crop failure). destruction process was thoroughly recorded (Hansen 1966; Nielsen 1966); the data obtained were corrobo- rated by an unplanned conflagration that accidental y 3.4 NATURAL INTRA-DEPOSITIONAL destroyed two large, full-scale LBK houses replicas at the PROCESSES Archeo-Centre in Netherlands (Flamman 2004; Menotti 2012: 315−6). Following a careful consideration of re- mains from both experiments (the planned and the ac- 3.4.1 LAKE-LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS cidental fires), archaeologists came to some conclusions: first of al , they recognised how easily and quickly even Climate is not stable in time. It is understood that a quite large house can be destroyed by fire and, second, long term as well as short term variations in climatic that even with a careful pre-and post-conflagration re- conditions might have influenced human occupational cording of data, the remaining archaeological evidence patterns in prehistoric and also more recent times is very limited. Then, these experiments showed how (Menotti 2001b: 117). The reconstruction of past lake- construction elements and techniques of a house have level fluctuations is carried out through the study of sedi-direct implications on the way the house burns and ments accumulated in lacustrine basins; the recognition 36 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES of the water depth of past deposition environment and a thus the definition of bathymetric markers are needed. In order to reconstruct past changes in lake levels of the sub-Alpine area, two methods have been used (Magny 2004a: 135). The first, established by Digerfeldt (1988) and used by botanists, is based on changes in the distribution of lake vegetation. Macrophytic vegetation is largely determined by water depth, resulting in a characteristic zonation of emergent, floating-leaved b and submerged vegetation from the shore to the deep water. Changes in vegetal macrofossil assemblages in a sediment core can be assumed to reflect variations in the water depth at the core site. The second method, developed by sedimentologists (Brochier & Joos 1982; Moulin 1991; Magny 1992a, 2004), is based on a combination of multiple parameters, including changes in sediment tex- ture (coarser deposits correspond to near-shore areas), lithology (organic deposits often characterise shallow water) and assemblages of various carbonate concretion morphotypes. Since modern studies have revealed that differences between these latter characterised specific zonation from the shore to the deep water, changes in their relative frequency can provide indications of past lake-level fluctuations. Other markers can also be used to reconstruct past variations in water-levels, for Fig. 1.32: a) Geographical location of the records presented in instance diatom, chironomid or oxygen-isotope analysis the lower panel; b) comparison between the Holocene record (Berglund 1986; Magny 2004a: 135). Lakes’ hydrological of the atmospheric 14C variations (Stuiver et al. 1998) and the balance is delicate, since climate alterations involving an Mid-European lake-level fluctuations (from Magny 2004a, increase in humidity and higher percentage of precipi- 136, Fig. 9.2). tation could have influenced this equilibrium, causing water levels to fluctuate (Menotti 2001b: 119). However, not all lakes react in the same way to climatic oscil ations. Swiss Plateau, indicate that the whole Holocene period An important role is played, according to Magny (1992, was punctuated by alternate higher and lower lake level 2004 among others), by the sensitivity of lakes, mainly phases ( Fig. 1.32). linked to the ratio of the catchment area to the lake area. Testing its climatic significance and implications, The geological as well as morphological structure of the this mid-European lake level record is compared with basin area, in addition to natural origins of lakes, the size three other palaeoenvironmental records and also at-and the length of their inlets and outlets, influence the mospheric residual 14C variations’ diagram. In effect, intensity of a transgression. As a result, it is possible that since an attempt of correlating some of the French during same climatic variations one lake records lesser Jura lake levels fluctuations with the variation of the or weaker transgressions than another lake situated atmospheric 14C content of the past 10,000 years has nearby. For instance, despite Constance Lake and Zurich successful y been made by Magny (1995), the important Lake form part of the same microenvironment and have role played by the solar activity has been recognised. similar geological origins, their response to hydrologic In Fig. 1.30 close correlations appear between the mid-changes due to climate is not total y equivalent. This is European lake level record and the other proxy data mainly because of their difference in size and the extent (Magny 1999, 2004: 138). They display synchronicities of their catchment areas (Menotti 2001b: 122). with paleoenvironmental and archaeological data from Furthermore, Magny (Magny 2001: 135) suggests these and also other European countries (van Geel & that only synchronous changes in several lakes within Renssen 1998). Magny (1995, 2004; Menotti 2009: 62) a region can testify to their climatic origin. In order to shows that there is a plausible correlation between cli-reconstruct Holocene water-level fluctuations in a large mate and lake-dwel ing occupational patterns ( Fig. 1.33). number of lakes, possible correlations between varia- Pétrequin and Bail y (2004), on the other hand, argue tions in climate and the history of Neolithic and Bronze that the relationship between climate and lakeshore oc-Age lake-shore vil ages have been tested. The data, from cupation does not always work. There are in fact periods 29 lakes in a mid-European region composed of the when climatic conditions in the lacustrine environment Jura Mountains, the northern French Pre-Alps and the were favourable, but lakeshores were not settled. For 37 Katia F. ACHINO Fig. 1.33: Correlation between atmospheric residual 14C vari- ations (+unfavourable climatic conditions; -favourable -cli- matic conditions) and lake- shore settlement occupations in the western part of the Cir- cum-Alpine region (Menotti 2009, 62, Fig. 1). instance, short-term deteriorations in the climate dur- This natural phenomenon has also been witnessed ing the first half of the 37th and 36th centuries BC had on less sensitive lakes and even on shrinking morainic little impact on lakeshore occupation. On the contrary, lakes such as Feder Lake (Siedlung-Forschner) in Ger- in the 34th century BC some lakes, in particular in the many (Schlichtherle & Wahlster 1986) and the former western part of Switzerland, continued to be occupied, Carera Lake (Fiavé) in Italy (Perini 1987). Although not despite climate deteriorations (Menotti 2009: 62). Dur-all sites were affected in the same way by water transgres-ing the Neolithic, in addition to one occupational gap sion, the extent of its influence on lacustrine settlements that occurred over 3400−3250 BC, other interruptions could depend also on the typology and the location of due to transgression of lake levels have occurred in the dwellings (Menotti 2001a, b; 2009). Indeed, it has influ-entire northern Alpine region, displaying a more regional enced the way houses were constructed − reconstructed nature. Despite these local discrepancies, all occupations (Pétrequin 1984; Menotti 2001a: 319). A variety of house followed a general pattern, which matches with environ-types, developed throughout the lake-dwelling tradition mental factors and in particular with climatic conditions in the Circum-Alpine region, was ranging from houses (Magny 1992b). The situation was slightly different dur- on stilts on shores of highly dynamic lakes (with marked ing the Bronze Age and a sharp distinction has also to seasonal lake-level fluctuations, e.g. Constance Lake), to be made between the northern and the southern parts dwellings constructed directly on the ground (but nev- of the Alps. In the former, two main occupational gaps ertheless careful y insulated, e.g. Feder Lake) in wetland have occurred during the 24th−18th centuries BC and environments less prone to periodical floods (Menotti between the 15th−12th centuries BC. Since during the 2001a, 2004b; Schlichtherle 2004; Menotti 2012: 119). Early Bronze Age the northern as well as the southern part Furthermore, since the cyclic nature of fluctuations of the Alps were characterised by stable and favourable have threatened lake dwellers, they have taken some climatic conditions without indications of deterioration, measures to protect the house and settlements. For this first gap in the northern region was indeed mainly instance, during the Early Bronze Age phases of occupa- due to cultural factors that have not affected, for instance, tion at the lacustrine settlement of ZH-Mozartstrasse, northern Italy and Slovenia, were lakeshores were kept houses were constructed directly on the soft ground on being occupied (Menotti 2001b: 119). On the con- with a single-layered wooden floor; in particular, a thick trary, towards the Middle Bronze Age climate started to multiple-layered structure, which elevated the living floor deteriorate in both regions although this condition has by several centimetres, was found in a house built during reached the southern Alpine area at least one century the last phase of settlement occupation, probably in order later and its impact on lacustrine settlements occupation to protect houses against rising lake levels (Gross 1987; patterns was not so drastic. Some lakes are known as the Gollnisch & Seifert 1998; Menotti 2001b: 100). most sensitive in northern Circum-Alpine region such Nonetheless, these water-level transgressions have as Constance and Zurich Lakes. At the former, normal influenced and damaged occupational layers of dwel - seasonal level-fluctuations vary as much as three metres ings. General y water fluctuations could quickly inun-between winter (the lowest) and early summer and/or date and covered by fine-grained deeper water deposits early autumn (the highest). (lake marl), or, if the water had risen slowly, its effects 38 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES the case of Cham-Eslen (Zug Lake): there sedimento- logical and micromorphological studies indicated that the single house found was built as a ground-level con- struction on the top of a small island. Lake flooding led to erosion and reworking of anthropogenic sediments, but in the central part of the building archaeological sediments could be considered as in situ (Huber 2009; Huber & Ismail-Meyer 2012; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 332). At the pile-dwelling of Mezzano, lake changes in level and extension occurred in several periods; the positive hydrological balance of the lake was able to flood the nearby flat area, as occurred before and after the Bronze Age. The running water during one or more phases of low lake level produced an erosional surface which was recognised (Sadori et al. 2004: 8−9). Micromorphologi- cal analysis performed at Zurich-Alpenquai (Künzler Wagner 2005) showed that inhabitants of this settlement were increasingly and repeatedly forced to face high lake levels between settlement phases: these oscil ations must be long enough for considerable amount of lake marl to be deposited between main organic layers. For instance, during phase D characterised by an highly organic layer without any detactable limnic influence, lake levels must have decreased significantly and the uppermost layer reflects a settlement hiatus. Consequently, the settle- Fig. 1.34: A) Sorted sand deposit on a top of an erosion surface ment experimented at least once a complete inundation as a consequence of a sandy inwash from the hintherland. (between phases B and C) and an at least partial flooding Note also the homogeneous transgression deposit in the up-during phase A (Wiemann & Rentzel 2015: 116−119). per section. Arbon-Bleiche 3 M1036, PPl. B) Same as A, XPL Furthermore, archaeological evidence of lake-level (from Ismail-Meyer, Rentzel, Wiemann 2013, 328, Figs. 8A–B). fluctuations within the sites can be find also as spreads of objects which were washed out by the flood itself. For instance, at Siedlung-Forschner on Feder Lake (south can be destructive (e.g. erosion can be caused by wave Germany) a large quantity of artefacts such as pottery, action) (Goldberg and Macphail 2006: 114). Flooding wooden tools and also animal bones was found out of of lakeside settlements due to surface flow have caused its original place. They were piled up against the internal erosional processes within anthropogenic accumula-side of the vil age palisade, due to the action of severe tions (Jacomet et al. 2004) ( Fig. 1.34). flood which moved the objects until they became trapped against the fence (Schlichtherle & Washlster 1986; Menotti Micromorphological investigation showed that the 2001b: 100). At Arbon-Bleiche 2, on Lake Constance, a uppermost parts of organic cultural layers were more large quantity of wooden planks were discovered in sec- affected by flooding, according to the acrotelm-catotelm tor L, deposited there by a major flood which occurred model. The loose acrotel of organic accumulations was at the end of the 16th century BC. Since the level of water faster eroded, while the dense, waterlogged “catotelm” in the Early Bronze Age is known (ca 392 m a.s.l) and was not affected by the flooding and remained in situ; the vil age of Arbon-Bleiche 2 was located at about 396 otherwise, a general homogenization of anthropogenic m a.s.l., the lake level had to raise quite considerably in sequences would have been the consequence (Ismail-this period. These examples show that lacustrine com- Meyer et al. 2013: 332). There are several micromorpho- munities were taking measures to face the natural phe- logical features which indicate flooding in the archaeo- nomenon of lake fluctuations. For instance, during the logical record, such as reworked layers containing a Late Bronze Age, at Ürschhausen-Horn, among others, micrite matrix, or big amounts of wel -sorted fine sands, some architectural attempts to combat rising humid-possibly mixed up with organic detritus and micro- ity were realised (Gollnisch-Moos 1999; Jennings 2014: charcoal. Archaeological deposits that do not contain 135). Unfortunately, those solutions have in some cases any freshwater indicators (such as, for instance, mol usc only been temporary, since the severity of flood could shel s) can be considered as in situ, whether they contain prevail and the exodus from the lakes became, in some fragile components, as wood ashes or well-preserved cases, inevitable. Thus, the variability of lake level could coprolites (Huber & Ismail-Meyer, 2012). This could be affect not only the intra-depositional formation of the 39 Katia F. ACHINO archaeological deposit but it could be also considered For instance, when a conflagration event has destroyed among the reasons that have caused the abandonment the settlement, this might be quickly followed by a site of lakeside settlements. Fire events − conflagrations can rebuilding directly above the previous (e.g. Wasserburg-be listed among intra-depositional processes as well as Buchau, Federsee Lake, Germany (Bil amboz 2006) or the likely reasons for the site abandonment, due to their in the proximity of the original (e.g. the Neolithic set-polyvalent nature and their repetitiveness during the past. tlement of Sutz-Lattrigen-Rütte (Biel Lake, Switzerland) (Hafner & Suter 2004: 23; Jennings 2012: 16). At Lucone di Polpenazze, sounding D, the occurrence of a sudden 4. THE LAKESIDE SETTLEMENT fire event is testified by the burnt elevated remains of the ABANDONMENT: INTRODUCTION house and a unique partial y burned beam of groundwater (“trave di falda”) was found; the site was immediately (af-At a certain time-span during the occupation of a ter one year, dated through dendrochronology) restored vil age inhabitants decided to abandon the settlement. through the planting of new posts (Baioni et al. 2007: This is defined as “the process whereby a place, an activ-89−90), then the material evidence produced during the ity area, structure or entire settlement is transformed abandonment has been absorbed simultaneously into the to archaeological context”(Schiffer 1987: 89; LaMotta reconstruction layer. On the contrary, when the site would & Schiffer 1999: 22; Cameron 2006: 28). The process of be re-occupied after years, decades or even centuries (such abandonment can occur on a different “level of analy-as the abandonment of Early Bronze Age settlements in sis”, concept general y used in social sciences (Babbie the northern Alpine region with a subsequent return dur- 2004; for application of this concept to lake-dwellings ing the Late Bronze Age, similarly to Ürschhausen-Horn see Wiemann & Rentzel 2015: 114−115); it can include and Oggeslshausen-Bruckgraben, or not re-occupied at a macro-level dimension, that examines the abandon- all (as Greifensee-Böschen (Eberschweiler et al. 2007), ment of lake-dwellings as a general phenomenon and the material consequences of the abandonment could in an inclusive scale, as abandonment of an entire set- be partially preserved on the archaeological record. tlement, a potential conglomeration of settlements, or a However, this evidence could probably be mixed up and structure/activity area. It is referred to the settlement and even deformed by post-depositional processes. When an its inherent dynamics; final y the micro-level is focused increase of water lake level has occurred after the aban-on houses or house locations (Ebersbach 2010, 2013). donment, the plan has been sealed and preserved in an The abandonment has also a temporal component, underwater condition (such as at Arbon Bleiche 3). since it can be a temporary, long term or permanent The conscious decision of leaving the site, as a phenomenon. Each spatial and temporal dimension temporal strategy or as a definite choice, was triggered has different consequences for the formation of the ar-by cultural as well as natural factors. In accounting for chaeological record. During the abandonment it can be the entirety of abandonment pictures, a straightforward assumed that residents will remove the most useful and multi-causal explanation is required, associated with an portable objects, according to several conditioning fac-approach that takes into account the differences involved tors (Stevenson 1982; Deal 1985; Schiffer 1985; LaMotta by peculiar strategies of abandonment in a micro scale & Schiffer 1999; Cameron 2006: 28; Schiffer et al. 2010). as well as in a macro dimension. Different modes of abandonment (e.g. see Longacre & Ayres 1968; Lange & Rydberg 1972; Bonnichsen 1973; Robbins 1973; Schiffer 1972, 1976, 1985; Baker 1975; Ste-4.1 DIFFERENT ABANDONMENT venson 1982; Cameron 1991; Joyce & Johannessen 1993; MODES IN THE LAKESIDE Kent 1993) could produce peculiar material evidence. SETTLEMENTS CONTEXT During an unplanned and quick abandonment many valuable and usable objects may be left where they were The abandonment of lakeside settlements often used, forming the de facto refuse (Schiffer 1996: 89−97); conveys images of catastrophe, mass migration and consequently, they could be removed for use elsewhere environmental crisis (Menotti 2001b: 145); nonethe- according to curate behaviours. These processes are two less, to correctly explore and interpret the complexity of sides of the same coin, since the former is an accretion abandonment processes a focus on the its causes is not process, while the latter a depletion activity (LaMotta exhaustive. An important role is played by the articula- & Schiffer 1999: 22). Investigating the chosen mode of tion between human behaviour at the time of abandon-abandonment, the complex situation that involves the ment and the resulting patterns in the archaeological formation of lakeside settlements has to be highlighted. record. They also hinge upon the different modes and A chain-like sequence of site construction, abandonment, strategies followed by inhabitants during their exodus. renovation/reconstruction and further final abandon- The short-term abandonment seems to be a quite ment characterises these contexts, rather than a simple widespread phenomenon in lakeside settlements, single linear sequence of events (Jennings 2012: 16). probably linked to changing climatic conditions; these 40 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES variations could force inhabitants to settle shallower Bodman-Schachen 1 (Constance Lake) (Köninger 2006) areas where they less likely experienced inundation in and at Dispilio (Orestias Lake) (Karkanas et al. 2011). the event of lake water rise (Menotti 2001b, 2003, 2004; At the lake-settlement of Zug-Sumpf (Switzerland) an Jennings 2014: 22). Some settlements, for instance Unter-abandonment of the site four years later to a flooding uhldingen-Stollenwiesen (Schöbel 1992), Cortaillod-Est/ event that took place around 944 BC was followed by a Cortalloid-Plage/Cortaillod-Les Esserts (Arnold et al. further phase of occupation occurred between 880 and 1986) and Auvernier-Nord (Arnold 1983), were re- 860 BC (Bauer et al. 2004; Jennings 2012). At Lazise-La occupied but underwent a spatial shift and were gradual y Quercia different site occupation phases (layers II, IV moved with each phase of re-occupation and new build- and VI) have been divided by clay levels characterizing ing activity. The Zurich-Mozartstrasse site shows cultural abandonment, identified within the stratigraphy (Foz-occupation over 24 centuries between the Neolithic and zati et al. 2015: 247). the Late Bronze Age, with at least 15 phases of occupa- At the site of Peschiera del Garda-Frassino, the tion and hiatuses (Gross et al. 1987; Conscience 2001; first pile-dwelling is separated from the above “dry” Schmidheiny 2006; Jenning 2014: 22). There, as much as settlement by an horizon of peat and lacustrine deposit, at Arbon-Bleiche 2 and Bodman-Scha chen 1, inhabitants that testified the occurrence of a water level change. The experimented slow abandonment processes. In these sites, abandonment of the underlying pile-dwel ing is defined directly affected by increasing water levels, inhabitants by an increase – and a consequent decrease − of the lake had enough time to plan the exodus, as demonstrated by water level that caused the formation of a peri-lacustrine the artefact distribution, as well as the conditions of the peat bog, probably occurred during the early phases of found houses. Although the word “abandonment” may the Middle Bronze Age (according to dendrochrono- cover a message of sudden catastrophic events, the Middle logical dates) (Martinelli & Kromer 1999), before the Bronze Age exodus from lakes in the northern part of the instal ation of the new “dry” settlement (Fozzati et al. Alps was a considerably long process which lasted more 2015: 245−7). than half a century. Lake waters were rising steadily but Few lake-dwellings show only a single short oc-people had enough time to plan the abandonment and cupation, as Arbon-Bleiche 3 (Jacomet et al. 2004; look for new land to settle again. A paramount aspect Leunzinger 2001) and Greifensee-Böschen (Jennings that former lake-dwellers had to take into consideration 2014) or sites where the Late Bronze Age abandonment was the safety of the new environment, which had to be have a permanent nature, as they were never resettled. located far enough from the lakeshores so that is would The decision whether or not to reoccupy former lakeside not have been influenced by the lake transgressions in the sites can be related to specific causes and involve, as wel years to come (Gross et al. 1987; Hochuli 1994; Menotti as trigger, specific explanations. The visual presence of 2001b: 163). former dwellings on the lake-scape (Jennings 2014: 34) The abandonment of a settlement can be related to plays a significant role: the material evidence of pile- a series of processes, which included two micromorpho- dwelling structures (timber, piles, palisade) must have logical y recognisable ones, according to Wiemann & been visible in the period following the abandonment. Rentzel 2015: these are “events of fire and lake-level These remains and even the social memory of success- increases after the abandonment, as well as the associ- ful y inhabiting that area (Arnoldussen 2013) could ated erosion and subsequent lake marl coverage” (Wie- push communities to return after a gap, as at some Late mann & Rentzel 2015: 119). At Zurich-Alpenquai the Bronze Age sites (Ürschhausen-Horn, at Nussbaum abandonment of the settlement within phase B seems Lake, Switzerland, Wasserburg-Buchau, at Feder Lake, to be related to a fire event, taking into account that the Germany, Hauterive-Champréveyres, at Neuchâtel Lake, layers of this phase were characterised by high loam Switzerland, Zurich-Alpenquai, at Zurich Lake, Switzer- content, only a small amount of organic material and land, and Zug Sumpf, at Zug Lake, Switzerland). There, the consideration that some of the loam bore revealed although it is unknown whether same communities were traces of burning (Künzler Wagner 2005; Wiemann & returning to their previous sites, the material culture Rentzel 2015: 119). In some cases the effect of erosion from the region indicates local development rather can erase clear evidence of the final phase of site and its than incoming populations to the area (Jennings 2012: abandonment on the archaeological record, as observed 13). Nevertheless, some factors could act to prevent the within the most recent phase at Zurich-Alpenquai and re-occupation of a lake-dwelling. Negative properties, also at Greifensee-Böschen, as stressed by Wiemann & values and associations of places (Chapman 1998: 112; Rentzel (Wiemann & Rentzel 2015: 114−119). Jennings 2014: 36) can go in this direction, together with Five distinct phases of settlement and occupation the indirect memories, that can be related to similar are attested at the site of Zurich-Kleiner Hafner that cov-places and times (Bender 2002: 107; Jennings 2014: 36). ers a period from the 4th to 2nd millennium BC (Suter The Middle Bronze Age lake-dwelling hiatus may et al. 1987; Jennings 2014: 22). Shorter cycles of aban- be interpreted in this perspective: when more favour- donment and re-occupation also occurred, such as at able climatic conditions and more stable lake levels 41 Katia F. ACHINO returned, social memories of settlements and the visual the data do not enable to recognise their deliberate or recognition of former pile-dwelling structures (Menotti unplanned nature, as in some Italian pile-dwellings and 2001a−b) allowed communities to come back to the lakeside settlements (such as Fiavé, Ledro, Lavagnone, lakeshore. The decision whether to resettle a site has been Lagazzi, Canar, Feniletto, Isolino di Varese and Ciseno). linked also to the will of reproducing or on the contrary Since in some circumstances single structures appear changing cultural values and meaning, through the use to have been destroyed by fire at different times, it is of historical, traditional and ancestral places (Chapman possible that they were not accidental conflagrations 1998: 110). According to this perspective, the continued but the deliberate and selective destruction of indi-use and re-occupation of lake-dwellings may have been vidual buildings. Instead of buildings simply being left an attempt to maintain the social status quo; this condi-to decay rapidly after the abandonment (Schöbel 2011), tion may enable to retain links to ancestral practices, micromorphological analysis have proved that burning beliefs and values, creating and continuing a sense of events may have been the last action. At Ürschhausen- community identity (Jennings 2014: 36). Horn, individual buildings were destroyed without fire The cyclic abandonment and re-occupation of spreading to adjacent, despite the close proximity to lake-dwellings suggests that they were constructed with structures. This deliberate destruction of dwellings and temporal considerations in mind (Gerritsen 2008: 151); households (Bönisch 2005) as opposed to accidents or they were built with an intended life-span or temporal “catastrophes” afflicting the vil age (Leuzinger 2000: 165) duration that may have been dictated by the durability may have marked the end of a life or household stage. of construction materials used, by agricultural concerns Otherwise, it could simply provide an easy method or related to the life cycle of the community, before they to clear a site in advance of fresh construction, or to were abandoned. The occurrence of “old” objects may ensure that incoming groups could not utilise previ- be interpreted according to a perspective of continuity. ous household structures (Jennings 2014: 17). In the For instance, Early Bronze Age needles in Late Bronze archaeological contexts that showed clearly signs of Age contexts in wetland assemblages also raise the pos- deliberate destruction by fire, a planned abandonment sibility that items were curated over extended periods as of temporary or indefinite nature can be imagined as cultural heirlooms (Fischer 2011: 1301−02). However, the most likely scenario. Further evidences provided for such items could be encountered also during Late Bronze Ürschhausen-Horn can confirm this reconstruction. The Age activities − as agricultural processes − and then typology, dating spread and quantity of artefacts recov- retained as curiosities (Hingley 2009). In any case, if ered from specific areas have been used as an argument they were retained as heirlooms, such objects may have against the sudden abandonment of lake-settlement been used as indicators of legitimacy to reside in certain (Müller 1993: 86). For instance, at Ürschhausen-Horn locations. Instead, if they were encountered in the local exceptional y little and few pieces of metalwork were environment they may have provided indications to found at the site, suggesting that some of the building settle specific sites. As highlighted by Jennings (Jen- were cleared before their deliberate abandonment (Nagy nings 2014: 118) further interpretation can be garnered 1999); this process finds support in ethnographic survey from the condition in which objects were deposited. (e.g. Deal 1985; Jennings 2014: 118). The single objects as well as material evidence of previ-Furthermore, the distribution of pottery at the ous occupation may be reused: if they were still visible settlement indicates that ceramics were placed along part of old houses, the may have been dismantled and the outside of the buildings and fragments of indi- the wood reused to build new dwellings situated near vidual vessels were dispersed amongst several struc- the abandoned site (Menotti 2001b: 146). The use of tures (Gollnisch-Moos 1999; Nagy 1999). Even in this halved or quartered timber for piles and the utilisation case ethnographic studies (e.g. Hayden & Cannon of recycled timber is attested at few Late Bronze Age 1983; Deal 1985) have demonstrated that ceramics settlements, as Hauterive-Champréveyres (Neuchâtel may be temporarily stored along the outside of build- Lake, Switzerland) (Pillonel 2007), Conjux Le Port 3 ings, following breakage and during the abandonment (Bourget Lake, France) (Bil aud 2008) and in oak piles such vessels are left in situ, as de facto/abandonment at Zug-Sumpf (Seifert 1996: 64−73) (Jennings 2012: 12); refuse, while intact and usable vessels are removed. the piles were removed at the sites of ZH-Mozartstrasse, All these data may suggest planned abandonment and Arbon-Bleiche 2 and Bodman-Schachen 1, except those destruction of buildings rather than accidental fire or driven in the ground (Menotti 2001b: 146). When re- hurried evacuation (Jennings 2014: 118). An inverse mains of previous settlements are still available but the circumstance seems to characterise the abandonment distance from the new site is quite substantial, it is not of the Viverone pile-dwelling (VI1-Emissario). In this worth it to shift the construction material for long dis-Middle-Late Bronze Age site apparently associated tances; then, settlements are destroyed by setting them metalwork consisting of an entire female “parure” and on fire (Menotti 2001b: 146). This practice seems to be weapons were found; scholars consequently suggested quite widespread, although, in the majority of cases, an hypothetical sudden abandonment of the site or an 42 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES a b Climate E-F & W-CH deterioration 3200-3100 BC 3800-3700 BC Lake-dwelling Favorable climate Crop failures occupational patterns More gathering Winter crops Direct Climate Inderect Droughts change Summer crops More hunting Zürich area Lake level Economic *LSI Decrease 3660-3600 BC fluctuation crisic Soil (more hunting) Overexploitation Forest Zürich area Displacement Sucess Human Failure 3200-3000 BC response *LSI Increase 2700-2500 BC (less hunting) Fig. 1.35: a) Direct and indirect influence of climate change on lake-dwelling occupational patterns (from Menotti 2009, 63, Fig. 2); b) negative effects of both favourable and unfavourable climatic conditions on crop cultivation in the northern Circum-Alpine region lake-dwelling tradition (from Menotti 2009, 64, Fig. 3). impossibility to recollect these artefacts (Menotti et al. land settlements. Because of the flat land morphology, 2012: 197). At Castel aro Lagusello (Piccoli 1982: 448) flooding reached also the lake hinterland, as it has the occurrence of some prestigious elements (such as clearly been shown by GIS computer simulations of amber and bronze artefacts) as much as some antler and lithic artefacts have suggested an hypothetical sud- den abandonment. Nevertheless, in interpreting our archaeological record, a potential further use of water, highlighted by Menotti (Menotti 2001b: 146) have to take into account. Water courses and water basins, if not used as sources of drinkable water, have always been used as natural dumps. Therefore, also the lake-dwellers discarded large quantities of pottery fragments, animal bones and other objects in the nearby lake, which in some cases was part of the settlement. As a result, the distribution of those objects can be misleading during archaeological analyses. 4.2 THE CAUSES OF ABANDONMENT IN THE LAKESIDE SETTLEMENTS CONTEXT Among the many combined factors that influence past social dynamics, climatic change directly or indi- rectly played a role in the abandonment of lake-dwellings (Magny 1992b, 1993, 1995, 2004a, 2004b; Menotti 2001a−b, 2003, 2004; Magny et al. 2009; Menotti 2009; Menotti & O’Sullivan 2012; Jennings 2014) ( Fig. 1.35). For instance, the direct effect of climatic dete- Fig. 1.36: GIS computer generated simulation of the Zurich rioration led to the increase of lake water level and Lake level as it might have been in the Early and Middle Bronze consequently the inundation of the surrounding wet-Age (from Menotti 1999, 149–52, Figs. 3 and 4). 43 Katia F. ACHINO lake transgressions in the Zurich bay, Arbon bay and of “negative” attitudes and perceptions of an area due Bodman bay at the end of the Early Bronze Age (sites to climatic and environmental change have recently of ZH-Mozartstrasse, Arbon Bleiche 2 and Bodman- been il ustrated by Leary (2009) linked to the early 20th Schachen 1; Menotti 1999; Menotti 2001b) ( Fig. 1.36 century abandonment of Hol and Island (Chesapeake shows the example of Zurich Lake). Despite this al-Bay, Maryland, USA): the sea level rise created negative terations of lakes, hydrological balance used to occur attitudes towards the future of the island, despite the fact regularly in seasonal term with controlled consequences. that it remained habitable for a significantly longer time When it assumed more drastic long-term character, a span (Arenstam Gibbons & Nichol s 2006). forced alternative strategy was required. Since til able Furthermore, lakeshore abandonment might have lands in site’s surroundings were almost entirely used been also caused by demographic expansion linked to for agriculture and animal husbandry, their flooding migrations and environment overexploitation. A good forced lake-dwellers not only to shift their habitations example is the Neolithic lake-dwellings at Chalain but also to face with economic crises related to food (France); possibly due to the influx of external cultural production and subsistence (Schibler & Studer 1998; groups (the Eastern-Swiss Horgen groups, South-west Menotti 2001a; Menotti 2003; Menotti 2009; Menotti Ferrieres groups and northwestern groups from the 2012; Jennings 2012, 2014). Furthermore, cooler/wetter Saone Plain), a demographic increment between 3200 conditions meant that sufficient crops could not be pro- and 3000 BC was experienced (Arbogast et al. 1995; duced for the comparatively large and high population Pétrequin et al. 2005). density settlements when contemporary inland sites are A series of effects, such as an increase in hunting considered (Arbogast et al. 2006). activity (due to a higher demand for meat), overex- Then, a loss of economic sustainability can be in- ploitation of cultivable land and the felling of primary cluded into the indirect influences of climatic changes forest trees for building houses were triggered. A com- (Jennings 2014: 20): the solution was mainly based on bination of all these factors was probably what forced mobility and diversification practices. Nevertheless, lake-dwellers to move to other areas, as the region of these combined direct and indirect effects may not have Clairvaux Lake, in search for more abundant natural been significant enough to cause the abandonment of resources (Arbogast et al. 2006). the lake-dwelling tradition across the entire Circum- The history of prehistoric settlements in wet ar- Alpine region, particularly given the varying sensitivity eas as those recognised at north of the Alps strongly of lake level changes across the region (cf. Bleicher 2013). contrasts with that reconstructed south of the Alps. Some cultural influences featured in the widespread In northern Italy, archaeologists observed that a rela- phenomenon of lakeside settlements’ abandonment: tive continuity of lake-dwellings was maintained al according to the scenario proposed by Menotti for the through the Bronze Age; furthermore, the Middle Middle Bronze Age hiatus (Menotti 2001b), this was not Bronze Age seemed to mark a maximal development simply a “settlement reaction” to altered conditions, but a of lake-shore and wetland pile-dwelling vil ages (Perini cognitive response to changed circumstances. An initial 1994; Guidi & Bellintani 1996; Martinelli 2005; Magny environmental y triggered crisis became a larger-scale & Peyron 2008; Magny et al. 2009: 576) ( Fig. 1.37). The cultural phenomenon, through local and interregional regional peculiarity of northern Italy is still confirmed exchange networks (Jennings 2014:20), as it came to by Terramare which developed in humid areas of Po include sites which would not have been directly affected plain during the Middle and Recent Bronze Age (Cre-by rising lake levels (Menotti 2001b: 141). maschi et al. 2006). Unfortunately, paleohydrological As within the lacustrine communities of the records established from high-resolution studies of northern Alpine region towards the Early Bronze Age lacustrine sediment sequences and based on robust (16th century BC), effects of the economic crisis experi-chronological data are still rare in northern Italy, to test enced by an influential cultural group within a regional whether differences observed between the history of context are bound to be transmitted on to other com- Bronze age lake-dwellings north and south of the Alps munities through commercial activities which link more were linked to different regional paleohydrological groups together (Menotti 2001b: 145−146). patterns or to a different socio-economic organisation The decision to desert lakeshores, which had ini- of societies. Nevertheless, through the pile-dwellings’ tial y been triggered by environmental factors, became available dataset, such as those of Ledro (Magny et al. cultural and the influence on lacustrine occupational 2009), for the Northern Italy, and some from Central patterns began to cover much larger areas, transform- Italy, such as, among others, Mezzano Lake (Giraudi ing the exodus into a global regional phenomenon. The 2004; Sadori et al. 2004), Fucino Lake (Giraudi 1998) majority of the Early Bronze Age lacustrine sites in the and Accesa Lake (Magny et al. 2007), scholars were northern Alpine region were abandoned within the able to draw some preliminary conclusions. Accord- 16th century BC and in particular towards the end of ing to Magny (Magny et al. 2009: 585−6; Magny 2013: it. As highlighted by Jennings (2014: 20), the influence 585−98), despite a climate characterised by increasing 44 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES that determined their sudden decline (Cremaschi 1997; Bernabò Brea et al. 1997; Cardarelli 2010). The relative degree of human influence and climatic factors largely differs on a regional scale, but on the Po Plain both Holocene climatic changes and anthropogenic activities produced distinctive geomorphological effects. Here much of the land was deprived of its original vegetation by fluvial modifications such as flooding and through human activities as forest clearance and ploughing, this producing intense aerial erosion (Marchetti 2002). Probably a coincidence of many factors (Bernabò Brea et al. 1997) with the synchronous occurrence of climate deterioration and overexploitation, as suggested by the archaeobotanical record of Montale, took place in the area. In fact, in this site signs of crisis have appeared archaeological y around 1300 BC when even the number of settlements in the area diminished, while remaining sites did not enlarge their boundaries (Cardarelli 1997). These data was compliant with the pollen diagram that, for this time-span, detected the fall in forest, less pastures and an increase in open areas with a more stable record of weeds (e.g. Centaurea nigra type , Cirsium, Polygonum aviculare type , Platago lanceolata type), probably occupying abandoned fields. Such a crisis was possibly due to overexploitation of woods and soils (Mercuri et al. 2006: 57). The environment was less suitable for cultivation than before and the wood was not able to recover quickly. Nevertheless, in marine and lake cores signs of deforestation continued and led to maxima at around 1100 BC (Mercuri et al. 2002; Oldfield et al. 2003). In agreement, archaeological data show that the Terramara di Montale was abandoned at ca. 1200 BC, when this culture ceased quite suddenly everywhere in the Po plain. This climatic event causing dry conditions may Fig. 1.37: Frequency of lake-dwelling per cultural phases north also have contributed to the final abandonment of the and south of the Alps. Upper panel: Neolithic and Bronze Age lake-dwel ings in eastern France and on the Swiss Plateau. Poviglio Santa Rosa Terramara (Reggio Emilia-Italy); Lower panel: frequency of Bronze Age lake-dwellings in north-the clear drop in the water levels during the late Recent ern Italy as estimated from archaeological remains found in Bronze age, corresponding to the final phase of the site wetland areas (from Magny 2013, 593, Fig. 34.4). occupation, involved the col apse of the hydraulic sys- tem discovered, in general, in Terramare culture and in particular at Santa Rosa. The moats surrounding most of sites were probably conceived to concentrate water moisture between 1500 and 1200 BC, Bronze Age set- and redistribute it to the surrounding country through tlements south of the Alps remained in humid areas a network of irrigation ditches (Cremaschi et al. 2006: of lakeshores and in the Po plain. On the contrary, 95). At Santa Rosa a system based on large water wel s the following drier climatic conditions appeared to be and interconnecting ditches was found; scholars stated synchronous with a general crisis of lake and wetland that in this recorded hydrological crisis, the aridity was vil ages and also coincided with an abrupt end of Tera limiting factor affecting land use at the final stage of ramare. As a working hypothesis, scholars suggested the settlement (Mercuri et al. 2014: 232), as it was the a peculiar socio-economic organisation of Bronze Age local expression of a regional dry event. The further societies in northern Italy (Magny et al. 2009; Magny pollen data from Terramara of Baggiovara (Cardarelli 2013: 594) ( Fig. 1.37). 2009; Mercuri et al. 2015) suggested that the site was For instance, the end of Terramara culture ap- always less forested and therefore less suitable for wood peared to be quite sudden everywhere in the Po plain; exploitation. The greater space for houses is confirmed climatic changes cannot be regarded as the only force by archaeological data on demography which states that 45 Katia F. ACHINO such pressure was higher in this area than elsewhere. col apse (Cardarelli 2010: 484). Nevertheless, the end of However, this is possibly among the causes of short this culture did not seem to have left widespread signs existence of Baggiovara. Cardarelli (2009: 48) con- of violent destruction, neither are there accumulated cluded that the Terramara di Baggiovara and Tabina di traces of natural events, as happens when flooding leaves Magreta, among others, were abandoned when a major deposits. Archaeologists are not able to establish whether re-organisation of the territory occurred in the Middle the abandonment was simultaneous across the entire Bronze Age. The land transformation occurred at that territory or it was a result of several years or decades of time became a cause of crisis for Baggiovara. There, a crisis. However, this last hypothesis seems more likely, limiting factor seems to have been the wood loss rather as archaeological evidence shows that various Terramare the a water shortage, that took place in later phases (Mer-completed their life cycle before the end of the Recent curi et al. 2015: 247). Also in the Emilia region, in the Bronze Age (RB2) (Cardarelli 2009; Cardarelli 2010: Terramara of Gaggio di Castelfranco Emilia (Modena) 485). The diaspora of Terramare’s inhabitants would be the phase of site abandonment is marked by the agricul-the result of a gradual abandonment of vil agers divided tural exploitation of the intra-site space, between the end in limited groups, over decades, fol owing a known proof the Middle Bronze Age and the beginning of the Late cess of penetration/colonisation (Yasur-Landau 2007). Bronze Age (Balista et al. 2008; Nicosia et al. 2011: 290). As suggested by Bietti Sestieri (Bietti Sestieri 2005) and Although is confirmed the role played by climatic supported by Cardarelli (2010: 486) the depopulation of component in the disappearance of Terramare, a multi- the Terramare could have occurred with the relocation causal explanation is required, as suggested by scholars, of small groups, ascribing to this dynamic the transfer that considered the end of the Terramare culture as a to neighbouring regions of techniques and know-hows consequence of a societal col apse (de Marinis 1975; pertaining to Terramare area. Barfield 1994; Balista & De Guio 1997; Bernabò Brea As in the case of Terramare, the Middle Bronze & Cardarelli 1997; Bernabò Brea et al. 1997; Cardarelli Age lakeside settlement hiatus was characterised by 1997; Pearce 1998; Cremaschi et al. 2006; Cardarelli considerable social changes related to economic crisis 2010; Cremaschi 2010; Frontini 2011). This cannot be those communities were experiencing. Three main Early interpreted as the result of a simple relationship between Bronze Age lacustrine sites (ZH-Mozartstrasse, Arbon-demography, climatic crisis and environmental decline; Bleiche 2 and Bodman-Schachen 1) probably played then, justifying the radical change that took place in a central role even influencing other lacustrine com- the Po Plain during the first half of the 12th century munities. Due to economic instability, these dwellers BC, social and political explanations are required. This decided that lakeshores were no longer safe enough to need did not hinder an environmental factor but may settle: since they were not committed to vast agricultural well have been triggered or enhanced by it (Bernabò production, trade networks and intra-vil age complex Brea et al. 1997; Cremaschi 2010). In a social and politi-social structures, although they were not threatened by cal system which took place within a tribal order3, the flooding waters, they left lakeshores even earlier than demographic growth as well as the diminution in land the three main sites mentioned above. The abandon- yield and increasing drought did not allowed Terramare ment of the northern Alpine foreland lakeshores (the to withstand, being impotent to change their economic so-cal ed Middle Bronze Age lake-dwel ers’ exodus) and social model, as well as their system of production. coincided with the expansion of the Tumulus culture, In this condition it was probably necessary to put an end towards the northern Alpine region fringes. This to the harmonious social development that had been culture covered a fairly vast territory namely Bavaria, a feature of Terramare for centuries. It is legitimate to northwestern Austria, the Baden-Württemberg region suppose that in some areas of territory occupied by Ter- between the Rhine and the Danube and a few sporadic ramare the transition away from the ancient tribal order areas around Constance Lake and Zurich Lake (Menotti may have been set in motion (Cupitò & Leonardi 2005; 2001b: 146−7). An interesting aspect of the Tumulus Leonardi 2010; Cardarelli 2006) but it appears general y culture is that it has never been found on lakeshores. evident that Terramare remained on the whole a society Two plausible hypotheses regarding this culture are characterised by a strong sense of tribe and community. formalised: since the time of its expansion was the same Social impracticability of a transition to a new system of as when lakes started to be deserted, probably the hostile production and a new political order seems to have been flooded lakeshores did not attract those groups; on the the principal reason for Terramare’s inability to respond other hand, the Tumulus culture in the Alpine foreland to the crisis and hence also the cause of their definitive could have developed from a process of acculturation between the Early Bronze Age lake-dwellers and the 3 For the use of word tribal see Cardarelli 1997, 2006, Early Bronze Age terrestrial groups. Indeed, while the 2009. In the broader sense, the meaning of tribal is substan-former were abandoning their lacustrine settlements, tial y equivalent to that of a community with a territorial base or functional and territorial as proposed in Peroni 1996, 1999, the latter were absorbing them (Köninger 1996; Menotti 2004 (Cardarelli 2010: 471). 2001b:147). However, it is sure that the abandonment 46 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES of the northern Alpine lakeshores towards the end of ponent (844 BC), led scholars to wonder as to whether the Early Bronze Age and the beginning of the Middle there is more to it than met their eyes. However, the Bronze Age generated an increment of cultural mobility current state of the art does not enable to explain why the throughout the entire Alpine region. settlement was left for good (Wiemann et al. 2012: 82). The climatic interpretation has been favoured The inland movement from lakes was, as already even exploring the cause of Middle Bronze Age hiatus mentioned, not limited to the northern Alpine region: settlements (Magny 1995; Menotti 2001b; Van Geel although it happened about a century later, also in the & Magny 2002; Magny et al. 2009). The final aban- southern parts of the Alps the quest for drier land to donment of the lake-dwellings, occurred in 800−600 settle occurred and the cognitive response to adaptive BC ca. in the northern Circum-Alpine region and in processes was quite similar to that of the northern lacus-1200 BC ca. in northern Italy (de Marinis 2009) has trine communities. For instance, at the site of Fiavé in the instead been interpreted as strongly driven by cultural pre-Alpine region of north-eastern Italy, the houses of factors (Jennings 2014: 23). Although the beginning of the last horizon, namely Fiavé 7, assumed particular Late the Iron Age was marked by a slight climatic deteriora-Middle Bronze Age- Late Bronze Age characteristics of tion, several phases of favourable lake water levels have construction which resembled those of land settlements. followed (e.g. Härke 1979: 32, 65; Pétrequin & Bail y All dwellings belonging to Fiavé 7 were built on the dry 2004: 40−44). Furthermore, although the time interval ground of both the island of zone 1 and on the hil y area when lake-dwellings were being abandoned across the of “Dos Giustinaci”, situated 200 metres south of zone 1 northern Alpine region appears to correspond to a pro- and 2. All houses of Fiavé 7 have large planimetry and longed period of higher lake levels, the gradual decline stone floors are made of gravel and pebbles, very simi-in the occupation of such sites began during the period lar to the typical Middle Bronze Age land settlements; of lower levels up until 800 BC (Bleicher 2013). The dwellers of Fiavè 7 chose to construct their houses ac- transition from the Bronze Age to Iron Age in Europe cording to this model, ignoring examples constructed is a complex time period which can in many respects by their ancestors in front of their eyes (Menotti 2001b: be seen as the expansion of cultural systems and pro-148). As the foundation of a “new” settlement, may cesses that existed during the Late Bronze Age (Thurston modification of construction models have symbolised 2009: 351). During this chronological phase cultures the succession of elites before the intention to relocate of the Circum-Alpine region started to gradual y re-was marked? Alternatively, the timing of settlement ject a tradition of lake-dwelling occupation in favour abandonment and relocation or renovation may have of open and upland settlements, fortified hil top sites been influenced by the age of inhabitants, agricultural (Härke 1979, 1989; Benkert et al. 1998; Jennings 2014: productivity, community beliefs, unusual events or the 23). The last lake-dwelling in the Alpine region to be structural condition of buildings (Ebersbach 2010: 152). abandoned was Ürschhausen-Horn, during the 630 BC Furthermore, asynchronous abandonment of (Bil amboz & Gollnisch 1998; Gollnisch-Moos 1999). dwellings within an individual settlement and the sug- Unlike the Middle Bronze Age hiatus, the Late Bronze gestion of immediate reconstruction after abandon- Age − Early Iron Age abandonment process occurred ment/destruction are indications that a climatically over an extended period of time, with lake-dwelling centred model for the abandonment of lake-settlements gradual y being abandoned and not reoccupied. In the does not elucidate the full situation. In some cases, northern Circum-Alpine region this phase has begun although superficially the example would appear to immediately following the Middle Bronze Age hiatus, corroborate the climatically driven abandonment since many lake-dwelling sites were never re-occupied hypothesis, a deeper analysis proves this assumption and the number of lake-dwellings known within the as simplistic. For instance, at the lake-settlement Zug- Circum-Alpine region is significantly reduced after this Sumpf a flooding event had occurred around 944 BC hiatus (Magny 2004b; Magny & Peyron 2008) ( Fig. 1.33). but the abandonment of the settlement was delayed by Furthermore, several Late Bronze Age settlements four years, with a temporary character, since a further show no indication of previous site occupation, such phase of occupation occurred on the site between 880 as Greifensee-Böschen and Konstanz-Raue, while few and 860 BC (Bauer et al. 2004). A further example of others, such as Steckborn and Kreuzlingen on the Con- continued occupation, despite an increasingly humid stance and Mörigen Lakes, showed re-occupation from or inundated environment, can be seen in the LBA the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (Jennings 2014: 23). settlement of Ürschhausen-Horn (Switzerland). At Although the lake-level transgression did not appear as this settlement, occupied between 870 and 800 BC, unique cause of the lakeside settlement abandonment, building techniques have changed over time in order to the climate component may have played an important compensate for increasing ground humidity (Gollnisch- role, as at the Zurich-Alpenquai site. The partial absence Moos 1999; Nagy 1999). These two examples provide of the crucial last occupational layer, associated with a clear indications that Late Bronze Age lake-settlements reliable dendrochronological date from a house com- were not always abandoned due to the threat of rising 47 Katia F. ACHINO lake-water and the inhabitants of some settlements sense of the term: examples of this phenomenon are the took measures to counteract increasing humidity and hearths in the Neolithic sites of Ehrenstein (Zürn 1965) continued occupation despite inundation. and Taubried (Strobel 2000) or the wooden instal a- However, the flooded area could have influenced the tions of Seekirch-Stockwiesen (Schlichtherle 2004) and economy of the community, which in turn may have led Greifensee-Böschen (Eberschweiler et al. 2007), as sug- to settlement displacement (Menotti 2003). Despite the gested by Bleicher (Bleicher 2013: 52). At Arbon-Bleiche preservation of structural elements and the potential for 3, the fact that the site was occupied only once, sealed by highly accurate dating of those elements, other than es-lake marl deposits soon after its abandonment and even tablishing settlement occupation phases and construction not disturbed by human or natural influences until it was sequences, relatively little theorisation of lake-dwelling bi-excavated in 1993, enabled the accurate reconstruction of ography or development has occurred (Jennings 2014: 5). some steps of its formation, revealed by a detailed micromorphological analysis. It was also possible to determine that the thin stratum above the lake marl, accumulated 5. POST-DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES straight after the vil age was abandoned, was not a subse-IN THE LAKESIDE quent occupation but a layer of reworked debris from the SETTLEMENTS CONTEXT same vil age, deposited by wave action much later (Ismail-Meyer & Rentzel 2004; Ismail-Meyer 2010; Menotti 2012: The significant difference between wetland and 272). Therefore, a full understanding of stratigraphic dryland contexts in preserving organic material is pointed deposits from a geoarchaeological perspective is crucial out in almost every wetland archaeological publication; in order to reconstruct why our archaeological record is the particular advantage of the pile-dwelling or lake-as it is now. This goal will be reached through the analysis side- lakeshore settlements is the preservation of finds of each stage of the deposit deformation. to a degree that is rarely found elsewhere. However, it is clearly understood that the level of preservation varies considerably from place to place even within waterlogged 5.1 NATURAL POST-DEPOSITIONAL conditions; different wetland ecosystems have different PROCESSES preservation properties, which go beyond sheer water- saturation. Soil chemical composition, pH, and redox After the deposition stage, a variety of changes can potential play a crucial role in the survival of artefacts after occur within an archaeological sediment. They can affect deposition (Menotti 2012: 226). Furthermore, a myriad artefacts on a micro scale, the settlement in a semi-micro of tightly interwoven cultural and environmental factors scale and, final y, the regional perspective in a macro can alter this “equilibrium” (Menotti 2012: 203; Menotti scale. Natural phenomena such as lake level transgres- & O’Sullivan 2013: 417). In most lakeside sites it is not sions and flooding, regardless of reasons that provoked easy to determine the extent of distortion provoked by them, perturb in different ways the archaeological re- natural processes in the anthropogenic signal. In such cord. The unstable nature of such changes can involve settlements, pile-dwel ings are often constructed on raised consequent lake level drops which favour erosion and platforms and the underlying deposits are therefore not the compression of archaeological layers. Furthermore, directly related to the actual anthropogenic activities. these transgressions involve wave action and water cur- Cultural materials falling in the water are moved, sorted rents that can rearrange the artefacts’ spatial distribution. and graded by wave action and redistributed by erosion Conversely, if the flooding becomes more stable, it can during lowering of the lake level and bioturbation in the partial y favour the preservation of the archaeological littoral zone (Karkanas et al. 2011: 84). Human activities, record. In a micro scale, wetland environments (e.g. peat, as the modern exploitation of lakes and their surround-fen, mire etc.) can facilitate some post-depositional pro-ings, can also alter our archaeological record. After the cesses as trampling and decaying processes, which affect settlement abandonment, however, natural environment in particular the micro and semi-micro scale of analysis. that preceded may sometimes be restored, granting a good preservation of the archaeological record. For instance, at Stagno, the restoration of lagoonal environment is testified 5.1.1 NATURAL POST-DEPOSITIONAL by the nature of sediments which sealed the archaeo- PROCESSES ON AN ARTEFACT SCALE logical deposit. This condition ensured the conservation of wooden structures, found in the grey organic clay Traces of occupation or trampling are phenomena banks at about 3.5 m below the soil level, whose spread well known from studies carried out on terrestrial set- reached an extension of about 4500 m2 (Giachi et al. 2010: tlements (Courty et al. 1989) and have also been ex-1260−1, 1267). Furthermore, the absence of strong post- perimental y recreated (for instance, Rentzel & Narten depositional deformations can avoid the re-arrangement 2000). Trampling assumes a central role among the most of objects that remain in their original place in the strict invasive process that can affect the artefact, particularly 48 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES within the cultural horizons; its effects may appear from the first moment of the site’s occupation. When human activities started on platforms, trampling led to a slight compaction of the surface. Wood chips from wood working, loam aggregates for floor and wall structures were accumulated (Pétrequin 1997; Leuzinger 2007); instead, remains of food preparation were trodden into the ground surface (Ismail-Meyer & Rentzel 2004; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 325−326), trampled by cattle and final y scavenged by dogs in rubbish heaps for bones (Bleicher 2013: 52). Since these are processes that reflect living conditions in the settlement, Bleicher proposed to consider them as an integral part of the archaeological record, rather than as a bias (Bleicher 2013: 52). Trampling is usual y limited to minerogeneous sediments that retain better the change of microstructure (Courty et al. 1994; Matthews 1995; Rentzel & Narten 2000; Ismail-Mayer et al. 2013: 333). Within shore platform sediments, as quoted by Wal ace (1999), archaeological traces of trampling in lakeside settlements are limited to instal ation horizons, loam layers (including clay), sandy in-wash layers and only slightly organic cultural layers, such as at Arbon-Bleiche 3, Lob-sigensee and Cham-Eslen (Huber & Ismail-Meyer 2012; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 327; 333) ( Figs. 1.38 and 1.39). Fig. 1.39: D) Polished section with the position of the thin sections marked in white; E) scanned thin sections and description of the micromorphological phases and their possible reconstruction, Cham-Eslen (from Ismail-Mayer, Rentzel, Wiemann 2013, 322, Figs. 3D–E). Fig. 1.38: left) An organic occu- pation deposit at the bottom is covered by a charcoal-rich bur- ning layer and an accumulation of inwashed sand from the hin- terland, mixed with lots of poppy seeds (disturbed on the right side). The top of the sandy layer is trampled (left arrow) and covered by charcoal, organic matter, and a burnt loam aggregate (right arrow). Arbon-Bleiche 3 M1030, PPL; right above) Homogeneous transgression deposit consisting of carbonate, fine sand, and clay containing reworked organic matter,microcharcoal, and bones. Arbon-Bleiche 3M1036, PPL; ri- ght below) Degraded wood rema- ins with faecal pellets (center) and mite precipitation (arrow). Stans- stad-Kehrsiten M440, PPL (from Ismail-Mayer, Rentzel, Wie mann 2013, 330, Figs. 9 E-F-H). 49 Katia F. ACHINO Traces of trampling in covered areas are not only 2012: 228). Another important factor in the preserva- characterised by horizontal y skimmed clay floors; they tion of organic material in wetlands is the presence of also occur within finely stratified cultural layers from bacteria: they are crucial for a large number of chemical covered areas. processes especial y in waterlogged soils. Two kinds of Despite positive results mentioned above, scholars bacteria are attested: the aerobic, requiring oxygen for pointed out also issues related to the micromorphologi-their metabolism while the anaerobic that do not need cal evidence of trampling in ductile waterlogged organic oxygen. The latter are divided into two further catego-sediments, as the hardness to be identified (Ismail-Meyer ries: facultative anaerobes which grow with or without et al. 2013). The high moisture content that characterises oxygen and obligate anaerobes that grow only without the deposit causes the sediment to swell quickly again it. Facultative anaerobes deplete the wetland oxygen, after being walked on, with few irreversible signs of reducing the redox potential and creating anaerobic trampling being preserved (Ismail-Meyer & Rentzel conditions, ideal for the preservation of organic material. 2004). However, they also contribute to the deterioration of Furthermore, recently grown roots of reeds and some organic material, such as wood (Sikora & Keeney rushes can penetrate from the shore into cultural layers, 1983; Freeman et al. 2004; Menotti 2012: 228). mixing them and changing the arrangement of remains, even if those are covered by 1−2 meters of lake marl (Haas & Magny 2004; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 334). 5.1.2 NATURAL POST-DEPOSITIONAL Post-depositional processes caused by reed growth can PROCESSES IN A SEMI MICRO SCALE: be seen, for instance, at the sites of Arbon-Bleiche 3 THE LAKESIDE SETTLEMENTS PERSPECTIVE and at Cham-Eslen (Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 334). Changes in the spatial distribution of artefacts may be caused even by flooding processes and wave actions Flooding processes may strongly affect the site (more details in next paragraph). Final y, degradation dimension: although the double nature of this phenom- and taphonomic processes can undermine the preser- enon (human action as natural factors), the analysis is vation of artefacts and ecofacts. The former are mostly there focused on the second scenario. These processes subdued to surface’s damages (polishing, bioturbation) may have a seasonal or temporal character, producing and loss of material consistency, while organic materi- lake-level transgressions, or a stable nature that involve als are subjected to more invasive processes. These can the overflow of lakeside settlements/pile-dwellings. include weathering and the depletion or humification Climatic oscillations during the Holocene seem to of the organic material. The general excellent state of have been the cause of important lake level changes; preservation of artefacts made from organic materials hydrological sensitivity of lakes themselves can also be and ecofacts is possible thanks to their quick cover by involved in these fluctuations (Magny 1992a: 328). A water or because the components “were embedded in a lowering of the lake level, during longer phases of dry water-satured environment and the preserved sediments and warm climate, exposed platforms of lake marl or never dried out after the material was deposited” (Wie- the previously deposited sediments (Schurrenberger et mann & Rentzel 2015: 112); however, micromorphologi- al. 2003); the latter may subsequently be re-covered by cal studies on organic layers from lakeside settlements al uvium deposits or even eroded. Traces of water level identified the presence of short-term flooding, which changes are preserved into the archaeological record can lead to phenomena like erosion, re-deposition, as layers of sand deposition, alternated with couche de displacement and modification of sediments embedding craie (chalk’s layers) as at Concise (Winiger 2008: 67). material evidence. Runoff and high lake levels are caused by heavy rainfall In this context, the balance between pH and redox and rapid snow melting, especial y in temperate zones potentials plays a crucial role: the pH provides the degree and mountainous areas. Major effects of flooding are of acidity or alkalinity in a given substance, whereas the erosion/outwash and redistribution of accumulations, redox potential gives the level of oxidation or reduction as well as depositions of brought-in sediments from the in the soil. In the event of temporary dewatering of a wa-lake itself or the hinterland (Turnbaugh 1978). When terlogged area, soluble minerals are oxidized and organic runoffs reach peatlands, unsaturated parts are quickly materials are more prone to degradation. Furthermore, filled up but the catotelm is not influenced by this pro-certain organic materials showed level of preservation cesses (Holden & Burt 2003; Baker et al. 2009). Runoff that varies according to different environmental condi-leads also to sediment transfer by surface flow from the tions. For instance, bones are better preserved in both hinterland and this sediment inflow from the catchment well-drained and waterlogged neutral to calcareous envi- area occurs mainly during water discharge in spring ronments, but not in periodical y wet ones. Conversely, (Mitsch & Gosselink 2007). High lake water tables may parasite eggs thrive in these latter conditions and not also lead to peat flooding and they too can be exposed to in either well-drained or waterlogged ones (Menotti wave action; the consequence is erosion and removal of 50 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES fine particles, leaving an aligned and well-sorted coarser substrate, such as sands and gravels (Keddy 2010). Flooding of lakeside settlements due to surface flow from the hinterland causes erosional processes within anthropogenic accumulations (Jacomet et al. 2004). In most cases the uppermost parts of organic cultural layers were affected by flooding: this fact probably is explained by the acrotelm-catotelm model. Whereas the acrotelm of organic accumulations was faster eroded, the dense waterlogged catotelm was not affected by the flooding and remained in situ. Lake flooding led to erosion and even to the removal of fine particles (Brochier 1983; Magny 2004b; Digerfeldt et al. 2007; Macphail et al. 2010); as pinpointed by scholars, in some cases lake flooding is combined with the deposition of micrite (Is- mail-Meyer et al. 2013: 334). This presence may confirm that the sediment was probably transported to an area that underwent a further reworking due to a lake trans- gression; general y, lakeward parts of sites were more affected by lake flooding, while runoffs influenced more landward part of settlement (Jacomet 1985; Jacomet et al. 2004). These components, as micrite, big amounts of well-sorted fine sands, possibly mixed up with organic detritus and micro-charcoal, composed reworked layers. This is the case of both Zurich-Opera and Zug-Riedmatt that yielded layers, composed of micrite and fine detritus (Wiemann & Rentzel 2015: 111). Conversely, deposits that do not contain any freshwater indicators (as mol usc shel s, oogonia, trichoptera larvae) can be considered as in situ if they contain fragile components, such as wood ashes or well-preserved coprolites (Huber & Ismail-Meyer 2012; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 334). At Arbon-Bleiche 3 and at Stansstad-Kehrsiten all areas showed flooding markers and also parts that have not been reworked by flooding water ( Fig. 1.40). Subaerial weathering, or the depletion of organic material is attested at Zurich-Alpenquai and Zurich- Opera, where a “jel y-like transformation substance, which resembles dopplerite (Stolt & Lindbo 2010) had been formed and the presence of fungal spores, wood remnants and mite droppings in organic tissue confirm the occurrence of weathering processes” (Wiemann & Rentzel 2015: 111). Sediments with a strong limnic influence are quite common in Cham-Eslen: lake flooding led to erosion and reworking of anthropogenic sediments, Fig. 1.40: The Arbon-Bleiche 3 thin sections of the column but in the central part of the building, archaeological M 1030 with the micromorphological y recognised phases of sediments could be considered as in situ (Huber & instal ation, organic accumulations beneath the house floor Bleicher 2009; Huber & Ismail-Meyer 2012) ( Fig. 1.41). and inwash of sand from the hinterland (from Ismail-Meyer, Rentzel, Wiemann 2013, 320, Fig. 2C). All investigated sites are covered by limnic sedi- ments indicating a final flooding event during, or shortly after, the abandonment (Jacomet 2004). This condition may avoid the quite destructive effect of a slow water rise that involves erosion caused by wave action (Goldberg & Macphail 2006: 114). This phenomenon, as well as currents in the littoral zone of lakeside settlements could 51 Katia F. ACHINO Fig. 1.41: Cham-Eslen, Overview of the site with the floor plan of the single house and the reconstruction of the small island. The house was constructed in the highest part of the island, but flooding led to reworking of parts of the cultural layer (from Ismail-Meyer, Rentzel, Wiemann 2013, 322, Fig. 3A). cause reworking, reprocessing and sorting of lake marl. the littoral zone: the progression of the shoreline and the Original laminations are destroyed, terrigeneous detrital formation of a flat surface can expand toward the centre sand accumulates, mol usc shel s are fragmented and al-of the lake with time (Magny 1978; Pétrequin & Magny gal filaments disconnected (Brochier 1983; Pétrequin & 1986; Platt & Wright 1991; Magny 1992a; 1992b). Sandy Magny 1986; Ostendorp 1990a; Ismail-Meyer & Rentzel layers produced by sediment input into it from the sur- 2004; Digerfeldt et al. 2007; Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: rounding landscape, through increased erosion of dryland 324). After the removal of finer particles, sand became sediments and soils, are attested in some archaeological enriched and a lag deposit was formed in the instance contexts; for instance, at Fondo Paviani, in the Profil 2, of a lake regression. Furthermore in some cases, as at within the Unit 2, a pale brown al uvium, mostly clay- Zug-Riedmatt, the overloading of several metres thick textured but grading lateral y to silts and sandy silts is delta deposits led to a change in the organic layers (Gross recovered (Nicosia et al. 2011: 284−5) ( Fig. 1.43). et al. 2013). The wave action may affect the occupational This al uvial episode took place after the early Iron layer of archaeological contexts that are not interested Age local archaeological phase (post 9th century BC) by dramatic fluctuation in lake level, as the open lakes. on the basis of stratigraphic correlations with the site For instance, at Dispilo lakeside settlements, into the of Perteghelle (Balista et al. 2006, Fig. 2). The extensive microfacies A, a mixing of materials from different oc-al uvial cover is linked to the reactivation of spring-fed cupational periods was attested as result of wave action streams in the local paleo-river valleys during this time- (Karkanas et al. 2011: 109) ( Fig. 1.42). span, determined most likely by climatic conditions. It is also accompanied by a phase of widespread soil erosion. Some archaeological contexts from Constance Lake This sand al uvial accumulations characterised even the (Arbon-Bleiche 3, Hornastaad and Allensbach) showed upper stratigraphic sequence of several lakeside settle- a leaching of the fine matrix that took place during the ments: for instance, at Cisano (Salzani 1990; Balista & Neolithic period and consequently sand beach deposits Leonardi 1996: 218), a low energy lacustrine deposit is were formed (Ismail & Rentzel 2004; Ismail-Meyer et al. attested, produced by sand movements from the sur- 2013: 323). At Mozartstrasse a leaching of organic materi-rounding landscape. Final y, the surface was made more als is attested in the layer 1-c7 (Schmidheiny 2011: 37). compact by a strong erosion. This uppermost part of the Wave erosion may even prevent a further accumulation in archaeological record may also be partial y modified by 52 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES a b Fig. 1.42: a) Northeast-southwest section of the mound through cores DSG1, DSG2 and DSG4.; b) northwest-southeast section of the mound through cores DSG4 and DSG5 (from Karkanas et al. 2011, 92–93, Figs. 5 and 6). 53 Katia F. ACHINO a b Fig. 1.43: Profile 2 with main litho-stratigraphic units (a) and pedogenic horizons (b) (from Nicosia et al 2011, 284, Figs. 6 and 7). the action of recently grown roots of reeds (floralturba-dam and dike constructions, mining, water pol ution tion); for instance, at Cortaillod-Les Esserts, roots ocand groundwater extraction (Mitsch & Gosselink 2007; cupied the north-western portion of the site already in Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013: 334). They may influence the 1927 (Arnold 1990: 95). artefact scale, in terms of spatial distribution as well as material preservation, settlement dimension − referring to the material consequence of the modern drainage − 5.1.3 PEDOTURBATION PROCESSES and also consolidation, compression, oxidation and IN A REGIONAL ANALYSIS SCALE pedogenesis, which eventually destroys the wetland (French 2003; Lindsay 2010; Gastaldo & Demko 2011). In wetland settlements quite all natural deposi- tional and post-depositional processes affecting the site scale, influence somehow also the regional perspective. 5.2.1 CULTURAL The lake-level fluctuations as well as the consequent eroPOST-DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES: sion or the col uvial/al uvial accumulations that altered RECLAMATION AND SCAVENGING the archaeological record of each site, provoked a macro IN THE LAKESIDE SETTLEMENTS CONTEXT scale effect as showed by the case study of Fondo Paviani with regards to the Valli Veronesi, or by Neuchâtel Lake, Across the northern Circum-Alpine region, indica-Chalain and many more sites described in next pages. tions of settlement development are collected through As cultural post-depositional processes also acted with dendrochronological dating. Since an asynchronous similar effects, this perspective is highlighted at the end model of structures’ construction and abandonment is of the chapter, in order to show a complete overview. attested (Jennings 2012, 2014), the presence of some ar- chaeological objects as well as structures can be analysed according to a reclamation perspective. For instance, the 5.2 CULTURAL POST-DEPOSITIONAL reutilisation of recycled entire or quartered timber could PROCESSES have occurred between different settlements located in the neighbourhood, mostly in the case of planned abandon-The archaeological record can be altered as a result ment. Indeed, if a catastrophic site’s abandonment took of cultural disturbance: major post-depositional effects place, it is not likely an intentional use of something that on wetlands and lakeside settlements are due to human probably could be destroyed or left behind due to danger. activities, such as agriculture, forestry, artificial lower-The same perspective can be applied to old objects found ing of lake levels, drainage systems, stream canalization, within the Late Bronze Age settlements. 54 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES Fig. 1.44: The extension of Mezzano Lake size during three characteristic periods, present time, 16–17th centuries and Bronze Age. The 20th century extent of the lake was the result of reclamation works (from Sadori et al. 2004, 6, Fig. 2). However, although this scenario is theoretical y Lucone Lake, that is currently a marshy area, a drainage explainable, it cannot be confirmed archaeological y. work was realised in AD. 1459, in order to increase the Nevertheless, this is an interesting perspective that could cultivation area (Stegagno 1907; Valsecchi et al. 2006: be useful within the archaeological record of a single 100). Fenland (England) represents one of the best ex- settlement. Furthermore, the possible other side of the amples of negative effects has on wetland environments, coin has to take into account: the scavenging. During a as Menotti suggested (Menotti 2012: 230). The intense post-abandonment phase, entire or fragmented objects drainage in the second half of the 19th century involved left behind could be useful, if not as raw materials (for a shrank of peat surface of more than 3 metres in less activities as well as building materials), as toys for kids, as than 50 years, as is shown by the famous Holme Fen highlighted in some ethnographical and archaeological posts (Menotti 2012: 230, Fig. 5.18, after Coles 1984: 28). analyses (Hayden & Cannon 1983; Deal 1985; Schiffer Correction of the Swiss Jura’s waters can be considered 1985: 987; LaMotta & Schiffer 1999; Cameron 2006). as one possible disturbance activity. This phenomenon consisted of a wide series of hydrological undertaking carried out in Switzerland in the region of three lakes: 5.2.2 CULTURAL Morat Lake connected to Neuchâtel Lake by the Broye POST-DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES IN LAKESIDE Canal, the latter connected to Bienne Lake by the Thielle SETTLEMENTS: THE DISTURBANCE Canal. These projects included operations of cleaning, restoration and diversion of rivers; the main works Modern drainage may be listed among the most took place in three distinct phases during the 19th and invasive disturbance processes in case studies under 20th centuries. The correction has helped to regulate analysis. Channels are often built in order to improve the hydrology, avoiding flooding and adding vast areas agricultural production or to control the water lake level. of valuable agricultural land. From an archaeological Drainage was carried out during the 15−17th centuries perspective, all these phenomena provoke a well-known at Mezzano Lake (Sadori et al. 2004: 8) ( Fig. 1.44), while dangerous process: the erosion. The strongest effects are at Ljubljansko barje (Turk & Velušček 2013: 183) drain-attested in some lakeside settlements across the Neu- ing operations were undertaken in the second half of châtel Lake, at the Concise and at Cortalloid, although the 18th century. The water-table has been artificial y this phenomenon is quite widespread (for instance at regulated for hydroelectricity production also at the Bourget Lake, Chalain Lake and Clairvaux, Paladru Ledro Lake (Magny et al. 2009: 576), whereas at the Lake (Isére) and Chens-sur-Léman (Haute-Savoie) (Pé- 55 Katia F. ACHINO of ploughing disturbance in the first 90 cm of deposit (Valsecchi et al. 2006: 101). Partial destroyed surfaces characterised some Terramare, as Montale (Mercuri et al. 2006: 44, 46) and Gaggio di Castelfranco (Balista et al. 2008). Indeed, their dark-coloured archaeological deposits were intensively quarried beginning in the late 18th century to be used as soil fertilizer on fields, particularly those devoted to the production of fodder for bovines (Conversi & Mutti 2009; Bernabò Brea & Mutti 1994; Nicosia et al. 2011: 280). Such deposits were erroneously thought to improve the chemical fertility of local soils due to their high content of organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous deriving from human activities. The land deprived of its original vegetation through ploughing and forest clearance for cultivation practices produced intense aerial erosion, as attested in some Fig. 1.45: High rate of erosion attested at Cortaillod-Les Esserts archaeological contexts from the Po Plain (Marchetti (from Arnold 1990, 97, Fig. 79). 2002 (cf. Bernabò Brea et al. 1997) and Grandi Valli Veronesi area (among others Fondo Paviani (Balista et al. 2006; Nicosia et al. 2011) and Fabbrica dei Soci (Balista 1990−1991) (Nicosia et al. 2011: 290). trequin & Pétrequin 1988). The higher rate of erosion is The process of forest clearing and agriculture pinpointed at Cortaillod-Les Esserts, where up to 1,8 m strengthened the outwash of sands and silts, that provoked a of archaeological deposit has been washed away (Arnold transport of detached sediments downslope and their dep- 1990: 95) ( Fig. 1.45). At Concise, the construction of a osition in the bottomlands (Turnbaugh 1978; French 2003; railway in the 19th century made erosion effects on the Zolitschka et al. 2003). This in-wash process certainly oc-deposit even stronger. At Chalain Lake, water lake level curred also within lakeside settlements. In Arbon-Bleiche has artificial y dropped 12 meters due the employment of 3, earlier beach deposits in the hinterland were eroded in hydroelectricity. This sudden drop caused the instability this way and this process of col uviation (triggered by heavy of the banks: 10 hectares or more fell into the lake, caus-rainfall) was even noticed during the excavation of the ing the loss of nearly half of the lakeside settlements. The archaeological site (Leuzinger, personal communication, seasonal imbalance, artificial y maintained, provoked 2003 quoted by Ismail-Meyer et al. 2013:325). Modification a strong soil erosion, with the deposit being further of shores are attested at the Banyoles Lake (La Draga) and deteriorated by the subsequent wild tourism. Bathers at Zurich Lake (Mozartstrasse): in the first case earthworks trampled archaeological deposits and exposed layers carried out in preparing the lake as a host venue for the in shallow waters (Pétrequin & Pétrequin 1988: 188). 1992 Olympic Games have impacted the site. The level In such a strongly affected area strategies were adopted 0 consisted of a deposition of rubble, while the levels I to to prevent the total loss of data; however, the analysis III are constituted of a set of dark clays in which surface of such procedures is beyond the aims of this chapter. disturbance and intrusions of modern materials have been detected, as a consequence of agricultural works developed Also all the modern intrusions can be considered in the area until 1989 (Palomo et al. 2014: 61). At Lucone post-sedimentary C-transforms: for instance, at Zurich-A Middle Bronze Age levels have been most completely Opera the settlement area has been covered by deposits destroyed by recent agriculture: material evidence dated linked with the construction of an embankment in 19th to this time-span have been retrieved mixed within the century and the organic layers had to bear a heavy load, modern agrarian soil or immediately below (Baioni et al. with a consequent strong compaction of the organic 2007: 88). At Zurich Lake the bay shores were modified in layers (Wiemann & Rentzel 2015: 111). In the same order to gain building land and its immediate vicinity is way a strong modification has been represented by the today rather different from how it looked during prehistoric artificial sinking of the level of Lake Zug performed at times (Jäckli 1990). The Early Bronze Age settlement of ZH-Risch-Oberrisch (Hochuli et al. 2010). Mozartstrasse was situated on the little peninsula which, Modern cultivation practices are further factor of because of in-filling processes, has completely disappeared. influence in the preservation degree of the archaeologi- The site today is underneath the Bernhard Theatre in the cal record, in particular respect to the upper layers. A north-western part of Zurich bay and its surviving Early first arable level 50 cm deep was found in the LAV1 core Bronze Age anthropogenic stratum lies at about 60−70 (from Lavagnone) (De Marinis et al. 2005: 228), while metres from the present shoreline at an altitude between at Lucone, two cores (Luc-1 and Luc-2) showed traces 403 and 404 metres a.s.l. (Menotti 1999: 147). 56 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: FORMATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESSES 5.3 NATURAL AND CULTURAL sites have already been lost due to erosion over past thirty POST-DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES: years. On Geneva Lake for instance, a survey carried out “DIVERSITY IN UNITY” between 1981 and 1985 showed that only a dozen set- tlements (out of over sixty) still retained anthropogenic This short overview of the most widespread post-layers in place (Ramseyer & Rouliére-Lambert 1996, 2006; depositional processes that may alter the lakeside settle-Menotti 2012: 232). In order to reconstruct deformation ments contexts suggested what archaeologists had already processes that produced our archaeological record, a hypothesised from the early 1980: these deformation pro- strategy based on “diversity in unity” is proposed as the cesses are mainly due to erosion. The cause of the increase most useful approach: combined analysis of cultural and in erosion is twofold: a marked change in climatic condi-natural post-depositional processes could constitute an tions (natural reasons) as well as an increase in human interpretative response to the changing material evidence activity around lakes. Together these causes have created of our archaeological context. Despite this imbalance an exaggerated effect of erosion that has been destroying can be triggered by natural phenomena, anthropogenic natural and cultural heritage in and around lacustrine factors are mostly to be blamed; short-term reductions areas. Particularly affected by this phenomenon is, as may be allowed, providing that the soil has sufficient mentioned, the Circum-Alpine region and its surround- water-retentive characteristics, but long-term may cause ings, where a large number of lake-shore archaeological serious problems (Menotti 2012: 226). ACHINO, K. F. 2016, From micro to macro spatial ANGELINI, P., M. C. DE ANGELIS, R. P. GUERZONI, dynamics in the Vil aggio del e Macine between D. GIGANTE, A. RUBINI, A. PROPERZI, R. XIX–XVI century BC. – Unpublished PhD thesis, VENANZONI 2014, Wood identification of pile Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona. dwellings from the Bronze Age San Savino site ACHINO, K. F., J. A. 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Today, due to the abandonment of fields, meadows The Ljubljansko barje is a river floodplain south- slightly predominate (Pavšič 1989; Lovrenčak & Orožen west of Ljubljana. The wet central part covers a little Adamič 2001: 380-390). more than 160 km2 ( Fig. 2.1). In the final millennia of In prehistoric archaeology, the Ljubljansko barje the Pleistocene and during a large part of the Holocene, is known primarily for two phenomena. The first is it held a lake that became completely overgrown by the pile-dwelling settlements that dotted the area marshes by the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Since then, with interruptions from the middle of the 5th to the many watercourses have gained importance. second half of the 2nd millennium BC (Velušček 2004a; The Ljubljanica river is the largest of them. From Velušček, Čufar 2014). The Ljubljanica river and its its karst sources in the west, it flows through the cen- tributaries are another phenomenon. At least since tral part of the Ljubljansko barje towards Grajski hrib, the Middle Bronze Age, it has been considered a cult where it cuts into the gravel deposits of the river Sava, landscape and later an important traffic route, which into which it discharges at Zalog. With the drainage gained importance especial y after the first contacts works and the extraction of the thick peat layers, the with Roman traders (Turk et al. 2009; Čufar, Merela, latter especial y intensively in the 19th and early 20th Erič 2014; Erič et al. 2014). Fig. 2.1: The map of the Ljubljansko barje with the archaeological sites and some more exposed geographical units mentioned in the text. (Elaborated by Tamara Korošec; source © ARSO.) 75 Anton VELUŠČEK Fig. 2.2: Walter Schmid’s site plan drawn up during the research work in 1907 and 1908 at the Notranje Gorice pile-dwelling site (after Schmid 1910: Fig. 3). The first archaeological finds indicating prehistoric Among the official y registered investigations, we settlement in the wetland were found in the mid-19th should also mention the research of Walter Schmid. In century, when the Südbahn/Južna železnica (‘Southern 1907 and 1908, he excavated the remains of pile dwel - Railway’) was built across the Ljubljansko barje. It was ings in a small bay at the northern edge of the wetland, at this time that the first pile dwellings were discovered at the foot of an isolated hil in Notranje Gorice ( Fig. 2.1) in Switzerland, the fame of which also aroused scientific (Schmid 1910). The excavation site was not as extensive and public interest in Slovenia (e.g. Hitzinger 1857). as that at Ig, but the site plan shows a clear progress in Contemporaneously with a pile-dwelling settlement the documentation of archaeological structures; there being found on the former island in Lake Keutschach, were still inaccuracies, but the site was divided into a in Carinthia, a topographical survey was also carried square grid ( Fig. 2.2). out in the Ljubljansko barje in 1864 (Hochstetter 1865), Schmid departed for Graz, Austria, in 1911 and though the first similar site was detected in 1875 north of a long research hiatus ensued. It took about 30 years Brunndorf/Studenec, nowadays the vil age of Ig, where before a new attempt at archaeological fieldwork was in this year and in the next two years extensive archaeo-undertaken, very soon interrupted by unfavourable logical excavations took place under the direction of weather conditions and the outbreak of World War II Karl Deschmann. He investigated three pile-dwelling (Velušček 1997a). Nevertheless, the popular Slovenian sites that became known as Deschmann pile-dwelling term ‘kolišče’ for a pile-dwelling settlement was intro- settlements I–III. Being an expert in many fields of the duced into the scientific literature during this period, natural sciences, macrobotanical and archaeozoological and the definition of the prehistoric wetland settlements remains were collected and at least some even identified. in the Ljubljansko barje was also proposed (Ložar 1931: As a pioneer of archaeological research in Slovenia, he 25, 1941a: 4). used research methods similar to those used in geology. After the war, Josip Korošec became professor of Excavation documentation was very rudimentary. The prehistory and early Slavic archaeology at the newly most valuble document is a site plan that Peruzzi made established Department of Archaeology at the University in the 1875 research season, which shows a batch of sev- of Ljubljana and continued research on the prehistoric eral thousand piles and, in the corner, a profile through wetland settlements. In 1953, he investigated at Blatna the soil layers (Vuga 1989, 2002). Covering more than Brezovica (Korošec 1963). Unfortunately, Korošec ap- 12,000 m2 (Leghissa 2020: 20), his excavations are the plied only seemingly better excavation methods than largest ever in the Ljubljansko barje wetlands. the researchers at the beginning of the century. The 76 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA description of the layers and other important data were on the interpretation of the excavation results (see very superficial. Special attention was paid to the num- Bregant 1996). Consequently, the prehistoric settlement ber of piles in a 4 m grid square (e.g. Korošec 1963: 11), at Maharski prekop was dated using the typological whereas the stratigraphic relationships between finds, analysis of pottery finds (Bregant 1974a, 1974b, 1975). structures and layers were almost neglected. The muddy Due to the presumed lower-quality and predominantly soil in the excavation site, which was trampled under- undecorated pottery, it was assumed that the settlement foot, was not very promising anyway. An important represented a decline in the cultural development of pile achievement was the involvement of experts from the dwellings in the Ljubljansko barje. A date to the Early natural sciences in the research. Thus, a palaeobotanist Bronze Age, which was little known at that time, was identified the scattered plant remains and especial y the therefore suggested as a pragmatic solution (Bregant samples of piles (cf. Šercelj 1981-1982: 102-103). 1974a: 36; see also Gabrovec 1983: 27). Applying comparable research methods, excava- However, the proposed age did not match the re- tions at Resnikov prekop followed in the second half of sults of the radiocarbon dating (Bregant 1975: 114; also the 1950s and again in 1962 (Bergant 1964; Harej 1975). see Gabrovec 1983: 28), which clearly indicated an earlier In addition, four pits were dug in a 2 m grid square to a date of the sampled piles and the site, most likely the 4th depth of two metres per day as part of the Ig trial trench-millennium BC. The discrepancy was resolved in 1984 by ing project in 1963 (Bregant 1964-1965). A participant Hermann Parzinger, who used a typological analysis of in the trial trenching noted it often happened that the the pottery to classify the settlement at Maharski prekop trench wal s col apsed very quickly, which made docu-in the early and developed stages of the Baden culture mentation difficult or impossible (after Leghissa 2017a, in the Middle Danube region. 32; also see Bregant 1964-1965: 179-180). Nevertheless, Extensive research was carried out at Parte in the some trenches did make it possible to identify the exact late 1970s and early 1980s. The excavation site was location of the sites that Deschmann had excavated located near the spot by the river Iščica, where the between 1875 and 1877. remains of Deschmann’s third pile-dwelling settlement Maharski prekop, covering 1208 m2, was the site (Deschmann III) were investigated in 1877 ( Fig. 2.7) of the most extensive research of any pile-dwelling (see Velušček 1997b; Leghissa 2021: Fig. 1). The research settlement in the Ljubljansko barje in modern history method was comparable to that used at Maharski pre- (cf. Bregant 1996). Excavations in the wetland north kop. The excavation site measured 640 m2. Pottery finds of the vil age of Ig took place between 1970 and 1977. were documented in 4 m grid squares fol owing arbitrary In addition to the main research area, small-scale trial levels that could reach a thickness of 130 cm, but mostly trenching was carried out at several locations on the in thinner horizontal units expressed in depths below the nearby meadows (Bregant 1975: 107). The excavation surrounding surface, such as 210-180 cm, 180-150 cm, methods remained similar to those employed previously. 150-120 cm and 120-110 cm. Profiles were documented The archaeological finds were mostly documented in 4 for each excavation year (Harej 1978, 1981-1982, 1987). m grid squares (Bregant 1974a, 1974b, 1975). Blocks of Hundreds of kilograms of sediment from the pre- sediment were cut, transported to the edge of the exca- sumed cultural layer were wet-sieved and yielded a large vation site and subsequently examined (Velušček 2013: number of seeds.1 Among them were several hundred 390). Several profiles that crossed the entire excavation seeds of grapevine ( Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris), which area were documented during the campaign and pro-were at the time the earliest in Slovenia (Šercelj 1981- vided important stratigraphic data. Unfortunately, only 1982: 104). The value of calcium carbonate, phosphorus some of the ground plans were recorded and rarely the and other elements associated with the layer rich in an- exact stratigraphic data of the finds (artefacts, piles, etc.). thropogenic remains (Stritar & Lobnik 1985) was meas-An enormous step forward was the significant ured. The wood used for the stilts was also identified, integration of the natural sciences into the research. with ash and oak predominating (e.g. Šercelj 1981-1982: Besides the archaeozoological (Drobne 1974: 1975) and 106). Several pile samples were sent to the 14C laboratory palaeobotanical (Šercelj 1974a, 1974b, 1975) studies, the in Zagreb for radiocarbon dating and the results, with a first analyses of the raw material for pottery produc-very high standard error, showed the settlement roughly tion (Osterc 1975) were carried out and soil data col- dated to the middle of the 3rd millennium, which cor- lected. The calcium carbonate, potassium and especial y responded to the Late Vučedol culture (Harej 1978: 74, phosphorus content was measured, the value of which 1981-1982: 46; e.g. see Forenbaher 1993). increases significantly in the layers where anthropogenic At the end of the 1980s, a preventive archaeological residues are present (Stritar 1975). research was carried out at the Konec site ( Fig. 2.10), Most surprising was the absence of dendrochronol-east of the isolated hill of Blatna Brezovica, where a few ogy, which was practised at that time in the research piles indicated a prehistoric settlement or even a pile- of lakeshore sites, especial y in countries north of the 1 Alps (Bil amboz 2004). This had a significant impact Animal bones were also collected but have remained unpublished. 77 Anton VELUŠČEK dwelling settlement. The reason for the small number Trial trenches were dug at Hočevarica (1998), Stare of architectural remains was sought in the possibility gmajne (several times between 2002 and 2021) and that trenches were located at the edge of the settlement Resnikov prekop (2002). The location of the trenches, area. In spite of this, experts welcomed the excavation one in Hočevarica and three in Resnikov prekop, was results due to the ceramic finds attributable to the Early determined by manual drilling to estimate the depth, Bronze Age, an age confirmed by the 14C date falling to presence and possible richness of the cultural layer. the end of the 3rd millennium (Dirjec 1991). Not far from the confluence of the river Borovniščica At the beginning of the 1990s, during the institu- with the Ljubljanica, remains of piles, animal bones and tionalisation of the independent Republic of Slovenia, prehistoric pottery were discovered at Blato that indicat-research on pile dwellings, wetland archaeology and ed a pile-dwelling settlement ( Fig. 2.10). The preliminary interest in the prehistory of the Ljubljansko barje ceased dating of the pottery points to the Late Middle Bronze for a while due to the change of generations of researchAge or beginning of the Late Bronze Age. The Blato site ers. Then, in the mid-1990s, Mihael Budja published a is the youngest currently known pile-dwelling settlement paper in which he partial y denied the existence of pile in the Ljubljansko barje (Velušček, Toškan, Čufar 2011). dwellings in the Ljubljansko barje (Budja 1994). Accord- Since the 1990s, the Department of Archaeology at ing to him, sites such as the 5th millennium BC Resnikov the University of Ljubljana has focused their investiga-prekop and presumably the 5th and 4th millennium BC tion efforts in the area north and north-east of Ig, where Maharski prekop2 were dry land settlements on the river there are many prehistoric settlement (pile-dwelling) bank, and not lakeshore pile dwellings. sites from Resnikov prekop to Spodnje mostišče ( Figs. After several decades, the Institute of Archaeology 3 and 9). They drilled several boreholes and excavated ZRC SAZU resumed its research in the wetland of the some test trenches. Technologies such as GIS and later Ljubljansko barje in 1995. In cooperation with the De- LIDAR were used for data analysis. Geophysical surveys partment of Wood Science at the University of Ljubljana, were also introduced (e.g. Mlekuž, Mušič, Medarič 2014; dendrochronology was introduced into the research, Mori & Mlekuž 2018; Horn, Mušič, Mlekuž 2021). which significantly changed the prevailing view on the This research has produced some very surprising prehistoric settlement of wetlands in Slovenia (e.g. Čufar interpretations, which some (see Velušček 1997b, 2007, et al. 1997; Čufar, Velušček, Kromer 2013). 2013; Velušček & Čufar 2008; Čufar et al. 2015) see as The research began with a settlement analysis and contradicting the known data. For example, the interpre- comprehensive archaeological topography of the wet- tation of the results of the last research campaign marks land of the Ljubljansko barje. The scientific literature two settlements from the 4th millennium BC on the and some archives were also reviewed (Velušček 1997a, map (see VirtualArch 2020: minutes 15:35-18:35; Horn, 1997b). The Institute has re-established the annual Mušič, Mlekuž 2021: Fig. 1a). The southernmost, which inspections of the drainage works in cleaning the main appears to be a smaller settlement, has been proposed ditches, which are systematical y carried out by services for the Gornje mostišče site. The second settlement is on the commission of the Ministry of Environment and much larger and connects the sites of Maharski prekop Spatial Planning of the Republic of Slovenia. This led to and partial y Spodnje mostišče including the intermedi-the discovery of new pile-dwelling sites such as Črešnja ate zone between them (Horn, Mušič, Mlekuž 2021: Fig. pri Bistri, Dušanovo and Trebež ( Fig. 2.10). Samples of 1b-d; VirtualArch 2020). piles for dendrochronological analyses were taken where The data obtained so far show a different picture. ditches and canals intersect prehistoric settlements, for Northeast of the vil age of Ig, approximately between example at Založnica, Hočevarica, Resnikov prekop, the river Iščica and the drainage canal Strojanova voda, Stare gmajne, Črešnja pri Bistri, Dušanovo, Trebež and four archaeological sites were discovered with remains Strojanova voda. Piles were also sampled in the Iščica of chronological y different pile-dwelling settlements riverbed at the Spodnje mostišče and Parte-Iščica sites, from the 4th millennium BC ( Fig. 2.3)3. According to and at Parte, Blatna Brezovica and Maharski prekop the 14C data, dendrochronological analyses and cultural which had been systematical y investigated many years assignment of artefacts, the earliest settlements are at earlier. Gornje mostišče and Strojanova voda (e.g. Velušček & Čufar 2008; Mlekuž, Mušič, Medarič 2014; Tolar 2018). Both are representatives of the Furchenstich (stab-and- 2 The dating of the Maharski prekop site has long been drag) pottery culture and dated to the first half of the 4th the subject of debate (e.g. Bregant 1975; Parzinger 1984; Bud-millennium BC. At Gornje mostišče, piles with charac- ja 1994; Mlekuž, Budja, Ogrinc 2006; Velušček 2009a). Nota-teristic pottery finds were also found and/or reported bly, there were many attempts to date the site to the second from the fields on the opposite side of country road half of the 5th millennium BC, which has no support in the pottery finds discovered so far that, in contrast, clearly place 3 The site of Resnikov prekop (see its position at e.g. Horn, the settlement in the 4th millennium BC (e.g. Velušček 2013; Mušič, Mlekuž 2021: Fig. 1a) is earlier. It is dated roughly to the Čufar et al. 2015). middle of the 5th millennium BC (cf. Velušček 2006b). 78 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA (cf. Velušček 1997b; Velušček & Čufar 2008), but this the largest settlement of the group, is also missing on the situation was not detected at all during the geophysi-above-mentioned map (see Horn, Mušič, Mlekuž 2021: cal survey (cf. Horn, Mušič, Mlekuž 2021: Fig. 1a-d) Fig. 1a; VirtualArch 2020; cf. Velušček 1997b; Velušček ( Fig. 2.4). The site of Strojanova voda ( Fig. 2.3), possibly & Čufar 2008; Tolar 2018). The occupation was followed Fig. 2.3: The archaeological zone northeast of the vil age of Ig in the Ljubljansko barje with marked locations of the pile-dwelling sites from the 4th millennium BC. (Elaborated by Tamara Korošec; source © ARSO.) Fig. 2.4: The archaeological site of Gornje mostišče with a) marked locations of recorded pottery finds, piles and other archaeological features (from Velušček 1997b) and b) research area of the Dimitrij Mlekuž’s research group (Mlekuž, Mušič, Medarič 2014; Horn, Mušič, Mlekuž 2021: Fig. 1a-d). Trenching or survey with confirmd archaeological finds (red), geophysical survey (pale red). (Elaborated by Tamara Korošec; source © ARSO.) 79 Anton VELUŠČEK Fig. 2.5: The archaeological zone in a bay south of the central part of the Ljubljansko barje with two sites of pile-dwelling settlements. (Elaborated by Tamara Korošec; source © ARSO.) by settlements attributed to the Stare gmajne cultural cal finds and structures suggests that the excavation site group. In the area a little further to the north-west, two lay outside the main area of the prehistoric settlement sites are known at a distance of about 200 metres from (Črešnar 2014). one another: Maharski prekop and Spodnje mostišče The excavation of the Špica site ( Fig. 2.1), already ( Fig. 2.3). The later settlements at Maharski prekop and discovered at the end of the 19th century (Velušček Spodnje mostišče, which are interpreted as a single 1997b) though almost nothing was known about it, at- large settlement in the VirtualArch 2020 movie, were tracted a lot of public attention during the research that not contemporaneous4, so they cannot represent one the Ljubljana City Museum conducted in 2009 and 2010. settlement as proposed. If the estimate of the research It revealed a settlement area mainly inhabited in the 3rd group is realistic, we are dealing with dozens or perhaps millennium BC and archaeological finds attributed to even more contemporary houses in this area. One would the Vučedol, Ljubljana and Somogyvár-Vinkovci cul- therefore expect an increased human impact on the tures often compared with Deschmann’s finds in the pile environment, which would be evident from the pollen dwellings near Ig (Klasinc et al. 2010; Šinkovec 2012). diagrams, but this is not the case (e.g. cf. Gardner 1997; In 2014, a group of archaeologists led by MA-Andrič et al. 2008; Andrič 2009). GELAN skupina LLC conducted archaeological inves-The Department of Archaeology at the Univer- tigations along the sewage pipeline near Kamnik pod sity of Ljubljana also carried out excavations at Zaloke Krimom. South of the industrial facilities along the ( Fig. 2.1), east of the vil age of Bevke and the isolated Črnelnik ditch, on the edge of the southernmost bay of hill of the same name. They unearthed a multi-period the central Ljubljansko barje, they found the remains of site dated to the end of the 3rd millennium (beginning a pile-dwelling settlement from the first half of the 4th of the BA A1 phase) and the transitional BA C/D phase. millennium ( Fig. 2.5) (Velušček et al. 2018). According to the lead researcher, the lack of archaeologi-Also important is the research of the Underwater Archaeology Group at the Institute for the Protection 4 The Maharski prekop site was intensely inhabited in the of the Cultural Heritage of Slovenia (ZVKDS). They first half of the 35th century BC, with some presumed signs of documented numerous archaeological finds in the activity at the end of the same century. In contrast, the main riverbeds of the Ljubljanica and its tributaries, some of habitation phase at Spodnje mostišče can be dated to the first which can be traced back to the Copper Age (e.g. Turk half of the 34th century BC, while habitation here could have begun at the end of the 35th century (see Velušček & Čufar et al. 2009; Erjavec & Gaspari 2012). The pile-dwelling 2008; Čufar et al. 2015). site at Veliki Otavnik Ib was found in the river Bistra, 80 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA a tributary of the Ljubljanica ( Fig. 2.10). Artefacts and Austria and Burgenland. This was followed by LB II piles dated it to the second half of the 4th millennium of the Epilengyel culture in north-eastern Austria, the (Gaspari et al. 2009). Also found was a settlement at Lasinja culture in south-eastern Austria, in Slovenia, Mali Otavnik dated to the Early Bronze Age (Gaspari in mainland Croatia and the western Danube basin in 2008). The remains of a Late Bronze Age dry land settle- Hungary, documented with pottery finds designated as ment known as Zalog I were found in the river Ljubija the Resnikov prekop -b and Bevke -a phase. The finds at the westernmost edge of the Ljubljansko barje basin from the Resnikov prekop -c, Maharski prekop -a, Blatna ( Fig. 2.1) (Gaspari 2006b). Brezovica -a, Notranje Gorice -a and Veliko mostišče Research, preventive archaeological excavations phases represent LB III with parallels in the Boleráz and topographic surveys also took place at the outskirts horizon in the Danube region. LB IV, documented in the of the Ljubljansko barje. They revealed settlements on Maharski prekop -b, Blatna Brezovica -b and Notranje dry soil at the edge of the basin, such as at Jezero (Nad-Gorice -b phases, ran parallel to the developed Baden bath, Rutar, Žorž 2011; Žorž 2014) and Iška Loka (e.g. culture. It was followed by LB V correlated with Máko- Velušček 2005a), and on the tops of dominant hil s in the Vučedol-Jevišovice B and described by the finds from surroundings, such as Sveta Ana, Sveti Lovrenc, Pungrt, the Notranje Gorice -c, Parte, Ig -a, Bevke -b and the Gradišče near Bevke, Tičnica and elsewhere ( Fig. 2.1) Kamnik phase. The LB VI horizon, detected at Ig -b (e.g. Vuga 1980; Gaspari 2018). The scattered remains and Preserje, was defined by the finds of the Ljubljana of the earliest pottery finds of the Resnikov prekop culture. The chronological links with cultures such as type from the isolated hill Breg near Škofljica, from the the Vinkovci in Slavonia and Polada in northern Italy front edge of the gravel fan of the river Iška near the also seemed significant. The last horizon, of LB VII, was vil age of Ig (Turk & Vuga, 1982; Frelih 1986; Velušček characterised by the Litzen pottery attributed to the 1997b) and from the settlements such as at Jezero5 and Notranje Gorice -d and Ig -c phase. Zamedvedica are also interesting ( Fig. 2.1); the last site Radiocarbon dating and later dendrochronology could be a pile-dwelling settlement. Deschmann, who challenged this chronology (e.g. Bregant 1975; Forenba- discovered it, reported the remains of piles that were her 1993; Velušček & Čufar 2003, 2014; Čufar, Velušček, later never confirmed (Turk & Vuga 1984: 87). Kromer 2013; Čufar et al. 2015). The LB I and II horizons were defined by the archaeological finds from the pile-dwelling settlement of Resnikov prekop, which Stojan Dimitrijević understood as a single-period settlement. 2.2 CHRONOLOGY He even used the pottery finds from Resnikov prekop OF THE PILE-DWELLING SITES to define the Lasinja culture. They were considered IN THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE representative of his stage II-A, which also includes the pottery finds from Drulovka, Ptuj and most other sites From the very beginning of archaeology as a with similar pottery from Slovenia (from Dimitrijević scientific discipline, a good chronology has been a 1979a: 146). prerequisite for understanding the palaeoenvironment, Although this definition still appears in the scien- past events and people (e.g. Thomsen 1837; Montelius tific literature (e.g. Samonig 2003; Šavel, Karo 2012), it 1903). In the mid-1990s, the introduction of dendro-does not correspond to modern findings (e.g. cf. Budja chronology into the research of wetland archaeology in 1983; Parzinger 1984; Velušček 2006b, 2011). This is the Ljubljansko barje was a major and important step quite evident in the case of Drulovka in Kranj. It is a towards achieving this goal. Previously, the chronology prehistoric site first investigated by Korošec in the 1950s published by Parzinger (1984) was widely accepted. This (e.g. Korošec 1960), which was followed by a significant chronological framework proposed a division of the excavation campaign in the 1980s (e.g. Valič 1988). It is a pile-dwelling settlements into seven horizons. A horizon multi-period site with remains of a Neolithic, Eneolithic was understood as the time span in which archaeologi-and Late Bronze/Early Iron Age settlement. Of these, cal finds and settlements could be set. Furthermore, a the Neolithic and Eneolithic finds appear to be the most chronological bridge between the middle Danube basin significant. Dimitrijević attributed them to a single and northern Italy was proposed to support the dating phase (Dimitrijević 1979a: 146, 1979b: 361). Not long efforts. ago, they were divided into three different chronologi- According to Parzinger, the first pile dwellings ap- cal and cultural phases (Guštin, Tomaž, Kavur 2005). peared during the LB I horizon (= Ljubljansko barje I), According to the latter interpretation, the Drulovka I with representative pottery finds of the Resnikov prekop phase belongs to the newly proposed Sava group of the -a phase that corresponds with the Sopot-Lengyel III Lengyel culture, which chronological y precedes the horizon in NW Croatia and also MBK IIb in Lower Lasinja culture (see Guštin 2005). The Drulovka II phase 5 The earliest phase of a multi-period site (see Žorž is represented by finds from the Lasinja culture, and the 2014: 423). last Neo-Eneolithic phase, Drulovka III, by finds from 81 Anton VELUŠČEK Fig. 2.6: The Stare gmajne site with two distinct occupation zones. (Elaborated by Tamara Korošec; source © ARSO.) the Furchenstich pottery culture. In absolute terms, this century, supports this proposal (Dimitrijević 1979a: 179; signifies the second quarter of the 5th millennium BC, Čufar & Korenčič 2006: 124)7. while the two phases following Drulovka I should be The Furchenstich pottery culture was defined in placed in later periods around 4200 (Drulovka II) and the Ljubljansko barje after the discoveries during the even 3650 BC (Drulovka III). second half of the 1990s. Chronological y, it should What appears to be significant is that parallels for be placed between the Parzinger horizons LB II and the pottery finds from the pile-dwelling settlement at III. The culture was first documented in Hočevarica Resnikov prekop come from the sites of the Sava group (Velušček 2004b), shortly afterwards in Gornje mostišče of the Lengyel culture (Turk & Svetličič 2005; Velušček and Strojanova voda (Velušček & Čufar 2008) and then 2006b). They can be related to the Drulovka I phase at the recently discovered sites of Črnelnik (Velušček (Guštin, Tomaž, Kavur 2005). There are no finds of et al. 2018) and Trebež. Dendrochronological analyses the Lasinja culture at Resnikov prekop6, which is not clearly assign them to the second quarter of the 4th mil-surprising given that the results of the archaeological lennium BC (Velušček et al. 2018; K. Čufar, personal excavations do not contradict the hypothesis of a short- communication). lived settlement that was never reoccupied (Čufar & Around 3500 BC, some decades after the last tree Korenčič 2006; Velušček 2006b). Despite the differences, felling for the youngest pile-dwelling settlement of the especial y in the ornamental motifs (e.g. see Turk & Furchenstich pottery culture was documented, new set-Svetličič 2005: 72), it is fair to assume that the Resnikov tlements appeared. Although their pottery is in many prekop settlement belonged to the Sava group and not ways similar to that of the previous culture, the obvious the developmental stage of the Lasinja culture, which difference is in the decoration. Richly decorated vessels is first attested later – during the 44th or 43rd centuries no longer occur. For several centuries, stab-and-drag BC (e.g. Velušček 2006b: 58-63, 2011: 229-231; Balen incision disappears completely from the pottery. This 2008: 27-28; Sraka 2012: 359, Fig. 11; Kramberger 2021: readily recognisable feature can be explained with the 40; Horvat 2020: 20). Radiocarbon dating, which sets arrival of newcomers from a different cultural or stylis-the settlement of Resnikov prekop roughly to the 46th 7 The radiocarbon dates published by Mlekuž et al. (2013: Tab. 1) suggest settlement activity at the Resnikov prekop site 6 Bine Kramberger argues that some pottery vessels show between the 6th and the second half of the 5th millennium features that link them to the Lasinja culture (e.g. Kramberg-BC, which has no support in material culture (cf. J. Korošec er 2014: 339, 340, 373, 374). 1964; Harej 1975; Velušček 2006b). 82 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA tic background. The new settlers were also looking for Almost two decades ago, some building activi- entirely new sites on which to build their settlements. ties at the Založnica site were tentatively dated to the This seems revealing, because they clearly avoided the beginning of the 27th century according to the FRSP2 architectural remains of some dwellings abandoned not chronology (see Velušček & Čufar 2003; Čufar, Velušček, so long ago that were probably still present and visible Kromer 2013). Davor Kržišnik has demonstrated in his (e.g. cf. K. F. Achino, in this monograph: Fig. 1.17). master’s thesis that the disputed chronology is consist- Dendrochronological research has recorded construc- ent with other chronologies of the Ljubljansko barje tion activities at pile-dwelling sites such as Maharski around 2500 BC (Kržišnik 2014: Fig. 22). On the other prekop, Črešnja pri Bistri and then at Spodnje mostišče hand, dendrochronologist Katarina Čufar considers this and Stare gmajne, where the last phase of occupation8 chronology peristently problematic in many aspects was dated towards the end of the 34th century BC (Čufar (K. Čufar, personal communication; cf. Leghissa 2021). et al. 2015). Be that as it may, the available data show we are The Ljubljansko barje was repopulated in the 32nd not far from reality when claiming that the Ljubljansko century. Judging by the pottery, it was a continuity of barje was settled in the first half of the 3rd millennium, development with the same cultural background, i.e. the which would correspond to Parzinger horizon LB V. Stare gmajne cultural group (Velušček 2009c). During Stab-and-drag incisions reappear and then predomi- this period the site of Stare gmajne was newely settled nate on the fine pottery for a while. Typical Vučedol ( Figs. 2.6 and 2.10). The new settlement was partial y pottery forms and decorative motifs are among them. built on the location of the former vil age, with the Influences or even imports from contemporaneous main concentration of dwellings about 200 m further cultures such as the Globular Amphora, Corded Ware, east towards the centre of the basin of the Ljubljansko Jevišovice and early Makó-Kosihy-Čaka phases are also barje ( Fig. 2.6). On the other hand, new settlements were very characteristic of this period, which continued until also established, such as Veliki Otavnik Ib (Gaspari et al. the 26th century, as Elena Leghissa (2017a: 276, 2021: 12, 2009) and Blatna Brezovica (Velušček 2009e). The latter, 29) argues. She cal s the phenomenon the Ljubljansko where dendrochronological analysis confirms building barje variant of the Vučedol culture (e.g. see Leghissa activities in the first half of the 31st century BC, marks 2021: 12-13). the end of a period that can be correlated with Parzinger During several research campaigns, building activi-horizons III and IV (Parzinger 1984). ties were much better documented at Parte, Založnica Archaeological research suggests there were no and Dušanovo, where many synchronized chronologies settlements in the Ljubljansko barje between the first reveal that settlement began at the end of the 26th century half of the 31st century and the emergence of the lo-and continued for half a century in Parte and until the cal variant of the Vučedol culture in the 28th century end of the 25th century in Založnica (Velušček & Čufar (Velušček 2014). In any case, it is important to mention 2003; Velušček, Toškan, Čufar 2011; Kržišnik 2014). The the alleged stone burial mound with scattered remains of results of absolute dating and several previous studies two adults and a child at Žabji grad above the southern (e.g. Dimitrijević 1979b; Harej 1987; Forenbaher 1993) edge of the Ljubljansko barje ( Fig. 2.1). Unfortunately, clearly show we are dealing with the LB VI horizon of the data on this discovery are incomplete and the find Parzinger (1984), which is otherwise known through the itself is contradictory in many ways. The radiocarbon finds of the Ljubljana culture that supposedly dominated dating of the charcoal supposedly dates the stone burial in the Ljubljansko barje during this period. mound to ca. 3000 BC (Nadbath, Rutar, Žorž 2011: 27). Surprisingly, research has provided an alternative Much more credible are the dates from the 28th interpretation. Many parallels for the pottery finds century BC obtained by 14C dating and the dendro- from Parte and Založnica9 come from the Pannonian chronological analyses of wood from the Parte-Iščica plain, from the sites of the Somogyvár-Vinkovci cul- pile-dwelling site (Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000: 99, ture (cf. Kulcsár 2009). Consequently, both the Parte Table 1; Čufar, Velušček, Kromer 2013). The same and Založnica sites were assigned to this post-Vučedol period of human presence and activity in the area is cultural phenomenon. Moreover, the chronological posi- confirmed by the radiocarbon dates of the horse bone tion of the Ljubljana culture was assessed as unclear and from Založnica (Toškan 2018) and the dugout from the problematic (Velušček & Čufar 2003: 141). immediate vicinity of the pile-dwelling settlement at To address this issue, there have been recent at- Veliki mah. Although the exact age of the latter site is tempts to revive old hypotheses (e.g. Korošec & Korošec still uncertain, the logboat has been 14C dated to 4210 1969; Dimitrijević 1979c; Parzinger 1984) according to ± 40 uncal BP (2820-2660 cal BC) (Erič 2008: 14; Erič, which the Ljubljana culture represents the main post- Gaspari, Kavur 2012: 398), suggesting the same age for Vučedol manifestation in the Ljubljansko barje (Leghissa the settlement as well (Velušček 2020a). 9 The contemporaneous site of Dušanovo was discov- ered later in 2010 and yielded similar finds attributable to the 8 Within the first or the earliest settlement at the site. same cultural context (Velušček, Toškan, Čufar 2011). 83 Anton VELUŠČEK 2017a; 2021). A proposal considers the two cultures the north and thought with 68% probability to have (Ljubljana and Somogyvár-Vinkovci) to be contem- occurred between 2525 and 2253 BC, which is also the porary. Moreover, at sites such as the 2nd Deschmann approximate time frame for the emergence of the Cetina pile-dwelling settlement (Deschmann II; Fig. 2.8), where style. Following the t-model, i.e. successive phases, the the pottery of the Ljubljana culture otherwise known for transition of both styles from the Ljubljana-Adriatic to its rich decoration allegedly or apparently prevails, the the Cetina style is 68% likely to have occurred between modestly decorated pottery of the Somogyvár-Vinkovci 2470 and 2324 BC. According to the 14C data and the culture is identified as common ware (or Begleitkeramik in results of the dendrochronological investigations, the German). Therefore, the culture of Somogyvár-Vinkovci youngest manifestations of this phenomenon are found seems to have played only a marginal role in the cultural in the Ljubljansko barje and in north-eastern Istria development of the region. In fact, it was subordinate to (Pupićina peć). It can also not be overlooked that, in the privileged Ljubljana culture in central Slovenia (com-his opinion, the Ljubljana-Adriatic style occurs at least pare with Leghissa 2017a: 284-285, 2021: 25). contemporaneously with the Classic and Late Vučedol Pottery finds attributed to the Ljubljana culture phases and most probably precedes the Cetina style are attested at several sites such as Parte, Parte-Iščica, (Forenbaher 2018: 152, 153). Založnica, Dušanovo (= Črni graben (e.g. see Velušček As far as the Ljubljansko barje is concerned, 2019: 73)) and Špica. According to Leghissa (2017a, Forenbaher identifies very characteristic pottery of the 2021), the most numerous and most representative Ljubljana-Adriatic style at the sites near Ig, where De- ceramic pieces of the Ljubljana culture are known from schmann conducted archaeological excavations in the the 2nd Deschmann pile-dwelling settlement10, which 19th century, but less characteristic and also less numerous led her to seek its origin in the Ljubljansko barje, where at the sites of Dušanovo, Črni graben, Parte, Parte-Iščica she believes it developed at the end of the 26th and con-and Založnica (Forenbaher 2018: 152). When discussing tinued until the 25th century. She also assumes a limited the first appearance of this style in the region, he refers eastward spread or influence of the Ljubljana culture. To to some similar pottery sherds found at Parte-Iščica, the west, it reached the Karst, where it occurred in its which is chronological y attributed to the Vučedol culture original form, and possibly even northern Italy. Leghissa (Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000; Forenbaher 2018). On the leaves open the question of the chronological and cultur-other hand, he argues that the proposed approximate age al relations with the somewhat different Adriatic variant of ca. 2400 BC for the disappearance of the style is based that spread along the central-eastern Adriatic coast with on unreliable 14C dates or contexts with the Ljubljana style its hinterland and on some islands, and considers the ceramics in the Ljubljansko barje, which is also the case low 14C dating of layers with the Ljubljana pottery from for the Pupićina peć site in north-eastern Istria and thus the caves Grapčeva špilja, on the island of Hvar, and the remains questionable. even more distant Odmut, in present-day Montenegro, Despite obvious genealogical differences, it is clear to be problematic. For her, the material culture from that both hypotheses, Forenbaher’s conditional y (cf. important sites such as Mala gruda, Velika gruda and Forenbaher 2018: 152), fix the occurrence of the Ljubljana Boljevića gruda should be assigned to the Montenegro culture in the Ljubljansko barje to the end of the 26th and variant of the Vučedol culture or even Yamnaya culture throughout the 25th century BC. As already highlighted, and not to the Ljubljana culture or its Adriatic variant according to Leghissa (2017a, 2021), the Ljubljana culture (Leghissa 2021: 11, 21, 28-30). was contemporaneous with the Somogyvár-Vinkovci Stašo Forenbaher (2018) takes a fundamental y culture. The most convincing argument for this claim can different approach. According to him, the Ljubljana-be found in the presence of the pottery of both cultures Adriatic style (or the Alpine and Adriatic variants of on the same supposedly single-period sites (cf. Leghissa the Ljubljana culture (see Dimitrijević 1979c)) occurred 2021: 23). While the pottery of the Ljubljana culture along the eastern Adriatic coast with the islands and presumably dominates at the sites near Ig, it occurs only hinterland, from Lake Skadar in the south to the Trieste sporadical y at Založnica and Dušanovo (see Velušček & Karst and Ljubljansko barje in the north. Čufar 2003; Velušček, Toškan, Čufar 2011), where pot- Using a model of independent phases, he sets the tery with analogies in the Somogyvár-Vinkovci culture beginning of the style in the south between the calendar predominates (e.g. Leghissa 2021: 23). years 3337 and 3027 BC. The end should be sought in Because the Somogyvár-Vinkovci culture represents a distant cultural phenomenon in the area of Ljubljansko 10 About 100 years after the investigations at the 2nd De-barje (see Velušček & Čufar 2003; Kulcsár 2009). Accord-schmann pile-dwelling settlement, some pottery finds were ing to Leghissa (cf. Leghissa 2017a: 284, f.n. 1260), these collected from Partovski kanal I (e.g. Harej 1974: Pls. 2: 4; sites/settlements could be either colonies of the promoters 3: 7) that most probably belong to the same settlement, as of the Somogyvár-Vinkovci style of pottery, or of actual researchers believe that the said drainage ditch cuts through the settlement in question ( Fig. 2.8) (e.g. Harej 1974; Velušček foreigners or newcomers who apparently invaded the 1997b). central area, the homeland, of the Ljubljana culture. 84 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA In any case, these hypotheses do not offer a convinc-wood for its construction came from the surrounding area ing explanation for the occurrence of the Somogyvár- (see Čufar & Velušček 2012). Since there is no settlement Vinkovci culture pottery finds at sites where the pottery in the vicinity11 or at the Dušanovo site itself that would of the Ljubljana culture is at least apparently (cf. Leghissa be several decades earlier than the one already identified, 2017a, 2021) more common (e.g. the Deschmann’s 2nd it is reasonable to assume that the documented human pile-dwelling settlement). It is not easy to accept the activities could be related to an as yet unknown earlier idea of common ware, or to imagine that there were two settlement phase datable before the mid-26th century BC contemporary settlements inhabited by a population that (cf. Kržišnik 2014: 56). If it did real y exist at the site of favoured typical ceramics of the Somogyvár-Vinkovci Dušanovo, it should predate for some decades the time culture, a dominant cultural expression in the Pannon- when, as Leghissa (2021: 29) argues, the Ljubljana culture ian plain at that time (Kulcsár 2009), only 10 to 15 km emerged in the Ljubljansko barje. from the presumed main settlement of the Ljubljana The Parte site, researched by Zorko Harej, is also culture (cf. Leghissa 2021). With that in mind, the first very interesting (e.g. Harej 1987). All determined pottery question is what type of sites are we dealing with? Are belongs either to the Ljubljana culture (Harej 1978: Figs. these truly single-period sites, as Leghissa (2021: 23) 2: 1,2,4-12; 3; 4: 2, 12, 1981-1982: Figs. 10: 6,15; 11: 5; argues, with ceramics from different cultural aspects, 15: 3,4,7, 1987: Figs. 1: 13,14; 9: 10,13, also see Leghissa or multi-period sites, or something else that we do not 2017a: 281) or to the presumably contemporary, ac- yet ful y understand? cording to some scholars (e.g. Parzinger 1984; Leghissa In the search for answers to these questions, we 2021), Somogyvár-Vinkovci culture (Harej 1978: Figs. will focus on the sites of Založnica, Dušanovo, Parte, 4: 1; 5: 9; 6: 11; 7: 1,4; 9: 9, 1981-1982: Pls. 10: 3; 11: 1-4; Parte-Iščica, Špica and the 2nd Deschmann pile-dwelling 17: 1,2,17; 23: 1,6,9, 1987: Pls. 5: 9; 6: 6,9; 11:10, etc.), or settlement. Among other things, they share the pottery even to the preceding Vučedol culture (Harej 1981-1982: attributed to the cultures of Ljubljana and Somogyvár- Pls. 10: 11; 22: 1, 1987: Pl. 9: 7,11; cf. Leghissa 2021). Vinkovci. In addition, the typical Ljubljansko barje On the other hand, the dendrochronological analy- variant of the Vučedol culture pottery was also found sis of the piles from Harej’s excavation site revealed a at the 2nd Deschmann pile-dwelling settlement, Parte-dating to ca. 2500 to ca. 2450 BC. The time frame again Iščica, Parte and probably also Špica, as it is reported by fal s in the period of the Ljubljana culture as Leghissa Klasinc et al. (2010: 64). (e.g. 2021) defined, which makes the cultural affiliation The earliest site in this group appears to be Parte-of the finds at least surprising, if not unbelievable. Iščica, dated to the 28th and 27th centuries BC. As for The extent of the Parte settlement/site is not known. the other sites, dendrochronological analyses and 14C The remains of supposedly another pile-dwelling site dating led scholars to largely agree they can be dated to were discovered in the river Iščica, about 50 metres the late 26th and 25th centuries BC, at least if excluding from Harej’s excavations, known as the Parte-Iščica the elusive date of the problematic FRSP2 chronology site ( Fig. 2.7). The dendrochronological analyses of the from Založnica (see e.g. Leghissa 2021: 12-13, 26). To piles found on the river bottom indicate more than one make things more complicated, the bone of a domes- occupation phase between the first half of the 28th and ticated horse was also found at Založnica, which is the end of the 27th century (Čufar, Velušček, Kromer currently the earliest find of its kind in Slovenia. The 2013). However, the extent of this site is also unknown. 14C dating points to the 28th century BC (Toškan 2018 Bregant assumed that it extended into the right bank and B. Toškan, personal communication), which again of the river Iščica, away from Harej’s excavation site supports the hypothesis of a possible earlier settlement (Bregant 1964-1965: 180). On the contrary, more recent phase at the site in question (cf. Velušček & Čufar 2003). topographic surveys have shown that the site extends An interesting situation can also be observed at only on the left bank of the present riverbed towards Dušanovo, where piles derive from two different zones of the area that Harej researched at Parte (Velušček, Čufar, separate drainage ditches more than 140 metres apart and Levanič 2000; Leghissa 2021). are dated in the years around 2500 BC. The dendrochro- Even though a small number of pottery finds nological y dated piles show traces of pruning for animal were recovered from the riverbed of Iščica (see feeding (Kržišnik 2014). The analysis of the sample with P. Korošec 1964; Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000), they the serial number DU -13-94 proves that pruning took place about 70 years before the tree was felled and used for 11 The nearest prehistoric settlement that could be dated the construction of the house dated to 2496 ± 18 BC. Two to the first half of the 3rd millennium BC is Veliki mah. Its other pile samples, also dendrochronological y synchro-age has as yet not been confirmed, but the 14C dating of the nized, prove a somewhat shorter period between the first dugout canoe found nearby suggests it was the 28th century recorded human contact with the trees and their felling. BC (Erič 2008; Erič, Gaspari, Kavur 2012; Velušček 2020a), Given the location of the Dušanovo settlement on which seems too early for the activity in question. Anyway, the western shore of the lake, it can be assumed that the the site is located about 4 km from Dušanovo on the opposite side of the modern-day riverbed of the Ljubljanica ( Fig. 2.10). 85 Anton VELUŠČEK Fig. 2.7: The archaeological zone at V Partih. The positions of three archaeological sites are marked: presumed so called 3rd Deschmann pile-dwelling settlement (Deschmann III), Parte and Parte-Iščica (e.g. from Bregant 1964-1965; Harej 1987; Velušček 1997b; Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000; Leghissa 2021). (Elaborated by Tamara Korošec; source © ARSO.) are considered culturally and chronologically het-appropriate (see Bregant 1975; Velušček 2006b, 2009a: erogeneous and can be attributed to the cultures of 310; Achino, Toškan, Velušček 2017). Vučedol, Ljubljana, Somogyvár-Vinkovci, and even to The Špica site also yielded a considerable number of the developed stage of the Early Bronze Age (Leghissa pottery finds attributed to the Ljubljana culture (Klasinc 2017a: 275, f.n. 1217, 2021: 23, 26). Among them, at least et al. 2010; Leghissa 2021: 25), but also pottery similar to the Somogyvár-Vinkovci culture and the EBA pottery the Somogyvár-Vinkovci culture and allegedly Vučedol finds do not correspond with the estimated age of the culture (Klasinc et al. 2010: 64; cf. Šinkovec 2012: documented settlement phase, which should be at least 255-257; Leghissa 2017a: 284, f.n. 1257). Publications a century earlier (cf. Velušček & Čufar 2003; Kulcsár and preliminary reports suggest that the lake and, in 2009; Čufar, Velušček, Kromer 2013; Leghissa 2021). particular, the hinterland streams and torrents strongly An explanation for this discrepancy must be sought influenced the taphonomy of the site (e.g. Klasinc et al. in erosion processes, even though a multi-period and 2010: 31, 34; Jančar 2016: 25-28; Andrič et al. 2017: 495); multi-cultural nature of the site cannot be completely this would explain the highly fragmented and abraded excluded (Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000; Leghissa 2021). Copper Age ceramic finds (Šinkovec 2012: 255). As for erosion, probably similar processes were Research has also shown that many layers from observed at nearby Parte. Harej (e.g. 1978: 62) reports the pre-settlement period are missing, probably due to sand deposits, small branches, pieces of wood, leaves and erosion processes. After the abandonment of the Late so forth scattered in different stratigraphic units above Copper Age12 settlement, the situation calmed down, and within the layer containing archaeological finds. although the possibility of erosion cannot be completely Ceramic fragments of the same vessel were found in excluded (Andrič et al. 2017: 495). Thus, it may not be different grid squares over 10 m apart or even at different surprising that artefacts such as bronze needles and two depths, half a metre or a metre apart (Harej 1978: 63, bronze daggers of the developed Bronze Age were found 1981-1982: 39, 41). There were also large differences in in the Copper Age cultural layer (Klasinc et al. 2010: the thickness of the cultural layer between some of the 60, Tab. 10). The same can be said for two horse bones squares. Consequently, the Parte site must be considered 14C dated to the Late Bronze and Iron Ages (B. Toškan, taphonomical y very complex and thus stratigraphical y personal communication). (and probably also chronologically) problematic. A 12 comparison with Maharski prekop and Resnikov pre- For the purposes of this monograph, the Somogyvár- kop where erosion processes were detected thus seems Vinkovci culture and its horizon will be referred to as the Late Copper Age culture according to Velušček & Čufar (2003). 86 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA Fig. 2.8: The most probable location of the 2nd Deschmann pile-dwelling settlement (Deschmann II) and Partovski kanal I (e.g. from Bregant 1964-1965; Harej 1974; Velušček 1997a, 1997b; Leghissa 2021). (Elaborated by Tamara Korošec; source © ARSO.) A sediment sample was also taken for luminescence other words, according to Andrič et al., they must have dating, 30 cm below the cultural layer, and is estimated occurred before the LCA settlement phase at the site. to be ca. 20,000 years old. In addition, 6 samples from However, it is telling that the sample of an unidentified the sediment column for pollen analysis were dated plant is at least several centuries later than the acorn. using the 14C method. Two samples taken 15 cm above With a measured age of 3750 ± 40 uncal BP (2161 BC) the cultural layer indicate the Iron Age. The 14C-dated (Andrič et al. 2017: Fig. 4), the unidentified plant was not acorn was found in the layer below the two. At first, it even used for age-depth modelling because of possible was assigned to the cultural layer (Andrič et al. 2017: disturbances in the sedimentation process13. Figs. 4, 5), whereas the newest interpretation proposes The most famous pottery finds of the Ljubljana it originated from the layer immediately below the cul- culture derive from the 2nd Deschmann pile-dwelling tural layer and probably arrived there during a flood that settlement (see Korošec & Korošec 1969; Leghissa affected the site prior to the LCA settlement (Leghissa 2017b). The site was excavated in 1876 and 1877 by 2021: 26, f.n. 169). Thus we must bear in mind that the Deschmann himself ( Fig. 2.8) (e.g. cf. Velušček 1997a; result of the acorn dating in the proposed new in situ Leghissa 2017a, 2021: Fig. 1). It was identified as the position is very important for drawing conclusions about main pile-dwel ing settlement (‘ der Hauptpfahlbau’) the taphonomy of the LCA settlement. (Deschmann 1878: 4). As special features, Deschmann As Leghissa (2021: 26) argues, the date 4040 ± 40 mentions ‘cord impressions’ on the pottery vessels and uncal BP (2562 BC) (after Andrič et al. 2017: Fig. 4) items related to metal urgical activities (Deschamann should itself provide a terminus post quem for the LCA 1876: 474-475, 478, 1878; also see Leghissa 2021: 12). settlement and thus an additional argument for the ab- In her dissertation, Leghissa (2017a, 2017b) has shown solute dating of the beginning of the Ljubljana culture that the pottery and/or fragments with the handwritten (see Leghissa 2021: 28). And that is not all; the position dates 1876 and/or 1877 are mainly attributable to the 2nd of the acorn under the cultural layer allows a direct Deschmann pile-dwelling settlement. Consequently, she stratigraphic comparison with the deepest 14C-dated also claims that all the pottery decorated with whipped- sample of unidentified plant remains. Following their cord impressions was found there. position, it can be assumed that both samples describe the last episodes of flooding events, which according to 13 Andrič et al. (2017: 495) occurred one or more times Andrič et al. (2017: 495) seek to explain this discrep- in the Late Pleistocene and Early/Middle Holocene. In ancy by younger roots or other plant material sinking into much older sediment. 87 Anton VELUŠČEK The discussion on the pottery from this site must Bronze Age A1 phase and the transition to A2. The 14C also take into account that Deschmann was mainly analysis of the animal bone sample offer a date of 3560 interested in the high-quality ceramics that looked ± 40 uncal BP (2020-1770 BC), which the author of that good and were better preserved, the rest being thrown publication deems probably contaminated and too late away. Certain amounts of pottery finds were also stolen (Gaspari 2008: 61, f.n. 5); this cal s for caution in the during the excavation (Bregant 1964-1965: 180-181, interpretation. 187; Leghissa 2017a, 2020), making it impossible to The metal finds from this period are also inter- estimate the actual number of ceramic finds for each esting. A Late Early Bronze Age dagger came to light cultural group, and which remains can be attributed to in the second year of Deschmann’s excavations in the the Ljubljana (Leghissa 2017b: Figs. 43: 1,3,4; 44: 2,4; area of the pile dwellings from the middle or even first 46: 7,8; 47: 1-3,5,6; 48: 1-3, etc.), the Vučedol (Leghissa half of the 3rd millennium at Ig, where fragments of 2017b: Figs. 8: 2,3; 11: 2; 16: 1; 40: 3; 62: 2,3, etc.) or the EBA Litzen pottery were also found (Gabrovec 1983: Somogyvár-Vinkovci cultures (Leghissa 2017b: Figs. 2: 31-34). Other metal finds are more likely to be chance 1; 3: 1,3,6,7; 4: 7, etc.); this is a situation widely recog- (e.g. Gabrovec 1983: 32; Potočnik 1988-1989; Pavlin nised by scholars. 2006; Turk et al. 2009) or often water finds. The latter In view of the above, it is (as yet) not possible to are mainly interpreted as cult finds (Turk et al. 2009), adequately solve the problem of the chronological posi-which is possible but cannot be generalized (cf. Velušček tion of the Ljubljana culture in the Ljubljansko barje, as & Čufar 2014: 61). Leghissa would have us believe (e.g. Leghissa 2021). The In recent decades, remains of prehistoric settle-question that arises concerns the finds (artefacts!), which ments from the Middle Copper Age or later periods must predate the end of the 26th century, that define a have been found along the river Bistra, as well as the presumably earlier phase at the Založnica and Dušanovo Ljubljanica in the wider area of the confluence with the sites. Could they be attributed to the Ljubljana culture Bistra (see Gaspari 2008; Gaspari et al. 2009; Velušček (see Velušček, Čufar 2003)? Not knowing the answer, 2019). One of these is located at Blato, a site discovered it seems that for the time being proposals can only be in 2010 ( Fig. 2.10). The remains of piles and pottery based on a personal decision of each researcher on how found on the cornfield, dating to the second half of the to classify the finds of the Ljubljana culture (cf. Foren-2nd millennium BC, suggest it was a pile-dwelling settle-baher 2018) – Leghissa (e.g. 2021) has done just that. ment (Velušček, Toškan, Čufar 2011). If this was indeed The chronological position of the Ljubljana culture the case, the location at the centre of the wetland basin that Leghissa proposes (e.g. 2021) raises many questions indicates it was most likely located ashore near the edge and does not offer conclusive evidence; a comprehensive of a receding lake. During this period and especial y in study is needed that takes into account the horizontal later centuries, the settlement of the Ljubljansko barje stratigraphy and physiognomy of individual sites from concentrated on the dry fringes (e.g. Iška Loka) or the the early and mid-3rd millennium in the Ljubljansko surrounding hil s (e.g. Tičnica, Sveta Ana, Sveti Lovrenc, barje. All available 14C dates must be evaluated according Pungrt). to the same criteria, as should the results of dendrochronological investigations. New fieldwork will probably be needed to clarify some issues and, final y, the theories of 2.3 A CASE STUDY: the 3rd millennium BC must be reconsidered and placed PILE-DWELLING SETTLEMENTS in a wider European context. IN THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE The Zaloke and Konec sites, east and west of Bevke ( Figs. 2.1 and 2. 10) (Črešnar 2011, 2014; Dirjec 1991; The last three decades of wetland research in the Velušček 1997b), shed light on the second half of the 3rd Ljubljansko barje have been marked by the activities millennium. Excavations there unearthed several piles of the Department of Archaeology at the University of and a large quantity of typical Early Bronze Age pottery. Ljubljana and even more so the Institute of Archaeol- The 14C dates support the dating of human presence at ogy ZRC SAZU. the sites in the final centuries of the 3rd millennium. The former research group drew attention by al- There is more data for the first half of the 2nd mil en- most denying the presence of pile dwellings in the area nium, i.e. the horizon of LB VII according to Parzinger in question or only dating them towards the end of the (1984). The greatest quantity of finds come from Mali period traditionally referred to as the pile-dwelling Otavnik ( Fig. 2.10). The site in the riverbed of the Bistra period. The results of the archaeological research at has been interpreted as a settlement, more precisely a Resnikov prekop and Maharski prekop and the area in pile-dwelling settlement (Gaspari 2008; Velušček 2008). between have been interpreted in a partial y contradic- The characteristic pottery with Litzen decoration dates tory manner (Budja 1994; Budja & Mlekuž 2008a, 2008b it to the Early Bronze Age, specifical y to the early and with references). A heated debate developed, but lost developed horizon of the Litzen pottery of the Early momentum after the publication of the results of the 88 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA 2002 excavation campaign at Resnikov prekop (Velušček both parts of the site clearly show (Tolar et al. 2021). In 2006a, 2013 with references). It turned out that the site addition, alder stumps were found in the cultural layer of had been natural y destroyed in late prehistory. The Trench 2 from 2006, only a few metres from the famous original settlement layer was eroded and the vertical wooden wheel with an axle. Their stratigraphic positions stratigraphy could therefore not serve as evidence for confirm that alder trees grew and were felled during the the hypothesis of a settlement on dry soil near a river formation of the anthropogenic layer, in other words (Budja 1994; also see Bregant 1964: 23). Furthermore, during the occupation of the site (Velušček 2009d). the remains of piles indicate a pile-dwelling settlement The most convincing argument for the existence of at Resnikov prekop. Since they are not present in large the ‘lake of the pile-dwellers’, as the famous Slovenian numbers, it can be concluded that the settlement was geographer Anton Melik called it (Melik 1946), are the short-lived and little or almost nothing was repaired or locations of the chronological y arranged pile-dwelling rebuilt on this spot (Bregant 1964: 22; Velušček 2006b; sites. Assuming that the prehistoric vil ages were located Achino, Toškan, Velušček 2017). The site has never on the shore of the lake (e.g. Velušček & Čufar 2008; Turk been repopulated. In Roman times, a road led over the & Velušček 2013)14, a pattern was first described in the exposed remains of the prehistoric site. In addition to south-eastern part of the Ljubljansko barje ( Fig. 2.9). the prehistoric finds, objects from the Roman period The earliest remains of a prehistoric stilt settlement were were also unearthed during the investigations in 1962 found at its southernmost point. For the subsequent vil- and 2002. They all came from a single layer with prehis- lages, sites were chosen to the north, towards the centre toric remains above the lake marl (see Korošec 1964a; of the modern-day wetland. It looks like they followed Velušček 2006b). the shoreline of the receding lake, as Ložar already sug-Comparable erosion processes can still be observed gested (cf. Ložar 1942). The last settlements, dated to the today. About 700 metres and a good kilometre north of middle of the 3rd or even the 2nd millennium, are more Resnikov prekop, the river Iščica eroded the cultural than a kilometre further north than those dated to the 5th layer of two sites with pile-dwelling settlements such as millennium BC. The intermediate area holds settlement Spodnje mostišče from the 4th and Parte-Iščica from the sites dating back to the 4th millennium. 3rd millennium ( Figs. 2.3 and 2. 7) (Velušček 2015). The It is also striking that all prehistoric settlements are same applies to Veliki Otavnik Ib ( Fig. 2.10), which is located almost parallel to the modern-day front edge partly situated in the riverbed of the Bistra (Gaspari et of the gravel fan of the river Iška in a distance between al. 2009). The consequences of erosion processes have 500 and 1200 metres. A reasonable explanation can be also been observed at Špica (Klasinc et al. 2010: 30) and found in their economy, which included agriculture (e.g. Maharski prekop (e.g. Bregant 1975), possibly also Parte Velušček, Čufar 2014), for which a gravel fan is very (e.g. Harej 1978). Erosion processes in the Ljubljansko suitable (Tancik 1965; Prus 2008). barje, influenced by water flows from the periphery and Pile-dwelling sites also came to light in the natural hinterland, thus make the investigation of past events bay south of the central part of the Ljubljansko barje. Fol-and the palaeoenvironment very difficult. It seems that lowing the model of a retreating lake, the pile-dwellers we have paid too little attention to this problem in our of the first half of the 4th millennium chose a spot on interpretations so far (cf. Gaspari 2006a). the edge, while those in the 3rd millennium used the The Institute of Archaeology ZRC SAZU con- central zone of the bay further north for their settle- ducted small-scale interdisciplinary research at Stare ment ( Fig. 2.5). gmajne, Blatna Brezovica and Hočevarica ( Fig. 2.10). A very similar picture is in the western Ljubljan- These sites have provided a lot of information about sko barje. Although the distribution of the pile-dwel - the environment in which the pile dwellings were built ing settlements of the 4th mil ennium seems confusing (e.g. Velušček 2009b; Andrič 2020). They show that the here, the settlements of the 3rd and 2nd millennia show a settlements stood on wet soil, probably not far from pattern ( Fig. 2.10)15. And here, too, it is repeated at the the inflow of a still unknown watercourse into the lake 14 (Turk & Horvat 2009a, 2009b; Turk & Velušček 2013). Deschmann discovered a large number of completely The obvious proximity of the settlement to water – river preserved ceramic vessels (e.g. Leghissa 2021), which is not comparable to the situation on all other pile dwellings in Lju-or lake – is confirmed by finds such as two dugouts from bljansko barje including Notranje Gorice investigated before Stare gmajne, which, together with a cart date to the World War I (Schmid 1910: Figs. 5-7). According to some 32nd century BC (see Velušček, Čufar, Zupančič 2009). interpretations, this could indicate the existence of real pile A lake environment can also be inferred from the dwellings on open water (e.g. Perini 1980: 31, 1994: 258; Bel - remains of birds and fish (e.g. Govedič 2004; Janžekovič intani, Silvestri, Franzoi 2014: 69). Leghissa, however, sug- & Malez 2004; Velušček et al. 2004; Janžekovič et al. gests a sudden abandonment of the settlements as an alterna-2021). However, the settlement at Stare gmajne was tive explanation (Leghissa 2017a: 276, f.n. 1223). 15 not erected on open water, but in a wetland, marsh or The settlement at Mali Otavnik from the early 2nd mil- swamp, as the finds of sheep and dog coprolites from lennium BC stands out in its age and location in the Ljubljansko barje. It lies in the immediate vicinity of the pile-dwelling 89 Anton VELUŠČEK Fig. 2.9: The archaeological zone north and north-east of the vil age of Ig with wetland sites arranged chronological y. (Elaborated by Tamara Korošec; source © ARSO.) Fig. 2.10: Western part of the Ljubljansko barje with marked locations of pile-dwelling settlements from different periods. (Elaborated by Tamara Korošec; source © ARSO.) level of individual sites. At Stare gmajne, for example, two different locations. The western part of the settle-a concentration of prehistoric dwellings was found on ment is mostly dated to the 34th century, while during the 32nd century the settlement centre shifted about settlement from the 4th millennium and in the hinterland of 150 to 300 metres to the east, towards the centre of the the pile-dwellings from the 4th and the mid-3rd millennium Ljubljansko barje ( Fig. 2.6) (Velušček 2009c, 2009d; ( Fig. 2.10). A possible explanation for the peculiar location of the site could be in its typology that may not be a pile- Čufar et al. 2009). dwelling settlement at all (Velušček 2019). 90 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA 2.3.1 STILT HOUSES? dwelling (e.g. Špica (Jančar 2016)). At Maharski prekop, they were found at different levels (Bregant 1974a, 1974b, The question of whether one can speak of houses 1975). Since two main groups have been identified, some on stilts in the Ljubljansko barje or whether they were authors assume two phases of habitation covering more dwellings with the floor on wet ground has a long and than eight hundred years (Mlekuž et al. 2012). Accord- lively history in Slovenia, especial y in the works of Ložar ing to Mlekuž et al. (2012), the lower piles belong to (1941b; 1942), Korošec (1955), Bregant (1964: 18-19) the early phase. Although this cannot be excluded in all and Budja (1994). Both interpretations can be found in cases, they should be interpreted with caution, as I have the literature, but it seems that the pile dwellings have shown (see Velušček 2013). been more popular (see Korošec 1955; Bregant 1964; Different levels of stilt heads have also been Velušček 2020b). In fact, it is a view present in the scien-documented at the Parte site (e.g. Harej 1987: 142, tific discourse since the beginnings of the pile-dwelling Appendix 1). Similarly, they vary by about 60 cm at research, when the first discoveries of piles and associ-Stare gmajne. The piles found in the river Bistra at ated prehistoric finds were interpreted as the remains of Veliki Otavnik Ib clearly indicate erosion processes dwellings with elevated floors built on wooden platforms in their transformation. Shorter and lower pile heads (e.g. Keller 1854; Deschmann 1875, 1876). Even today, can be found in the middle of the riverbed, others are this seems to be a pragmatic interpretation. However, preserved much higher on the bank slopes (Gaspari et the interpretation of a settlement on stilts relies on a al. 2009: Fig. 6.5). minimum of material evidence, i.e. mainly the existence In Stare gmajne, the heads of the piles without of load-bearing piles, with some exceptions related to traces of woodworking or subsequent reshaping pre- the environmental conditions and thus state of preserva- dominate. Deschmann observed a similar situation at tion. As it has been stated many times, the interpretation his first pile-dwelling settlement (Deschmann 1875: should not be simplified. 276). Photographs show that a similar assumption can The predominant wood species recorded at such be made for Blatna Brezovica (cf. Korošec 1963: 12, sites are ash and occassional y oak. Other woods such Pls. 2-7: 1, Appendices IV, VI, VII), Maharski prekop as beech, poplar, hornbeam, willow, maple, elm and (cf. Bregant 1974a, 1974b, 1975) and also Špica, where hazel are less present and they seem not to have been stilts appear “at the level of the cultural layers” (Klasinc so popular among the pile-dwellers for the load-bearing et al. 2010: 49). elements of their houses. An exception is the site at Resnikov prekop with a clear prevalence of alder piles, followed by ash (e.g. Šercelj 1981-1982; Čufar & Velušček 2012: 53). The tops of the piles (heads) usually come to light just above other archaeological remains (see also Korošec 1963: 21). In the cases of Hočevarica and Stare gmajne, the preservation of the heads is usual y related to the level of groundwater that prevents the decay of organic matter. In addition, there are strong fluctuations of groundwater level at Stare gmajne, which severely endangered the pile heads; traces of decay and desicca- tion are clearly visible ( Fig. 2.11). The situation is even worse where groundwater level lies too deep or where, for example, its fluctuations are more pronounced and especial y where the periods between dry and wet phases are longer. There, the process of decay is greatly acceler-ated. Good examples are the sites of Blatna Brezovica, on the canal bank of Lipovski kanal, where the wood survived so dried out that it is completely unsuitable for dendrochronological analysis (Velušček 2009e), and at Špica, where the already decayed piles in some places on the bank of the Ljubljanica river can only be recognised as dark circular patches in the soil (Klasinc et al. 2010: Fig. 8; Šinkovec 2012; Jančar 2016). The pile heads are sometimes found within a cultural layer, although their position and size indicate Fig. 2.11: Dried-up pile heads in the test trench at Stare gmajne that they were constructional elements of a prehistoric of the 2007 research campaign. (Photo: Dejan Veranič.) 91 Anton VELUŠČEK Fig. 2.12: The conical ends of the pile heads in the right bank of the Iščica river, at the Spodnje mostišče site, are the result of erosion processes. Fig. elaborated by Tamara Korošec. (Photo: Anton Velušček, 2014.) At Resnikov prekop, piles appeared only 10 cm deposited before the cultural layer was already eroded. As above the layer of lake marl. Something similar was a result, heavy artefacts, bones and stones are scattered documented during excavations in 1957 (Harej 1975: in the marl and trapped between the piles (cf. Achino, 146-147) and 2002 (Velušček 2006b: Fig. 5). Most of the Toškan, Velušček 2017). Where the piles protruded from piles were more or less horizontal y broken, including the bottom, they were abraded and sharpened ( Fig. 2.12). some with sharpened heads. Tatjana Bregant ruled out This process is ongoing. Another example of a natural y an anthropogenic origin for such head form. According sharpened pile head protruding from the bottom of the to her, they would have to have been gnawed on by bea- river Bistra at Veliki Otavnik Ib, on the opposite side of the vers (Bregant 1964: 10), which seems unlikely given the Ljubljansko barje, has been photographical y documented behaviour of today’s Eurasian beaver (Kryštufek 1991). In (see Gaspari et al. 2009: Fig. 6: 4). contrast, the pile heads at the Parte site were also mostly There is much less data about the depth the sharp-sharpened (e.g. Harej 1978: 76, Pl. 12: 2,7, 1981-1982: 98). ened pile tips reached, although Deschmann was the Heads with a length of 10 to 15 cm predominate, while first to report about them (Deschmann 1875: 276; also the sharpened end on the thicker stilts reaches a length of see Ložar 1942: 85). For the pile dwellings near Ig, he more than 20 cm. Zorko Harej suspects that they were of recorded that the piles were driven 4 to 5 feet16 deep anthropogenic origin and supported a heavy habitation into the mud (lake marl). At Maharski prekop, the piles platform (e.g. Harej 1978: 76). The lack of data prevents were driven up to 2 m deep into the marl (e.g. Bregant us from evaluating his opinion, though pile sharpening 1974a: 12), with some preserved over 4 m in length elsewhere appears to have been a natural process caused and reaching more than 3 m into the marl (see Bregant by water erosion. At Spodnje mostišče with piles from ca. 1974a: no. 17, 1974b: no. 33). At the Parte site, four piles 3400 BC, this process can be observed on the bottom of 16 the Iščica river, where the upper level of the lake sediment Approximately between 1.2 and 1.6 metres in the metric system. 92 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA to a depth of about 2 m (Bregant 1964: 21, Appendix 4). At Notranje Gorice, Schmid reported about two piles which reached a depth of 1.63 m and 2.56 m (Schmid 1910: 93a). While during the research of Harej most of the piles were driven about 1.35 m deep into the lake sediment (Harej 1975: 147). At Špica, 534 of the 2541 piles were completely excavated, of which only 24 did not have sharpened tips. Based on some photos and profile drawings, it can be assumed that most of them were driven deeper than 0.5 m into the marl (Klasinc et al. 2010: 49, Appendices 6, 7; Šinkovec 2012: Figs. 3, 5). There are also huge differences between sites in the density of the piles used for the understructure of prehistoric buildings. The site of Špica is an example with densely distributed piles. They are interpreted as the supporting structure of rectangular houses, both with and without a raised floor (e.g. Šinkovec, Zu- panc 2011), as can be seen most clearly, for example, in Trench 1004 (Jančar 2016). Comparable examples, albeit of a pile density seemingly lower probably due to inaccurately drawn excavation plans, can be found on the Peruzzi plan of the 1st Deschmann pile-dwelling settlement drawn in 1875 (Vuga 1989) and on the plan of the pile-dwelling settlement at Notranje Gorice from 1907 and 1908 ( Fig. 2.2) (Harej 1976: 89). Deschmann mentions densely arranged, round timber piles for the pile-dwelling settlement at Ig, which was excavated in his second and third year of research (Deschmann 1878: 4; Leghissa 2021: 12). Densely arranged piles are also Fig. 2.13: The complete excavated pile from the Resnikov prekop site reached a depth of 1.6 metres relative to the highest attested at the Parte-Iščica site in today’s Iščica riverbed level of the former lake sediment. (Photo: Anton Velušček.) (Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000: Fig. 8). The situation is different at other sites where the density of stilts seems to be much lower, such as Blatna Brezovica, Maharski prekop, Parte and Spodnje mostišče with partly worked tips were ful y excavated. They were (Čufar, Levanič, Velušček 1998: Fig. 10; Korošec 1963: driven 90 to 165 centimetres deep into the former lake Appendix X). They are arranged in clearly visible parallel sediment (Harej 1978: 64). A case documented in 2002 rows. There are mostly three rows per house, as docu- at Resnikov prekop shows that the sole whol y excavated mented at Parte ( Fig. 2.19) and Maharski prekop (e.g. pile was driven into the marl to a depth of about 160 Fig. 2.22) (Velušček 2001, Fig. 23; cf. Bregant 1996). The centimetres ( Fig. 2.13). Forty years earlier, piles were settlement at Maharski prekop was partial y surrounded found that were driven obliquely between 0.25 and 1 m by a double palisade of timbers ( Fig. 2.14). Otherwise, deep in the lake sediment and those that were inserted the piles, on average 8 to 11 cm thick, were mainly ar- Fig. 2.14: A palisade compo- sed of timbers in two rows was found in the pile-dwel- ling settlement at Maharski prekop (from Bregant 1974a: Pl. 1: 4,5). 93 Anton VELUŠČEK ranged in straight, parallel rows. They can also occur in smaller groups. Some rows overlap, possibly as the result of several habitation phases at a site or the insertion of additional piles during individual habitation phases (cf. Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000). As already mentioned, there is a dense network of piles at Part-Iščica. A large number of them indicate intensive building activity, e.g. repairs or construction of new dwellings (foundation of a new vil age), which almost overlapped the ground plans of the previous houses ( Figs. 2.15 and 2.21). And, importantly, all these processes took place over a short period of time, certainly not more than two centuries. The dendrochronological investigations identified two chronological y separate settlements or building phases at the site (cf. Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000: 89). The first habitation phase according to the PI-FRSP2 and PI-FASY1 chronologies (houses E1-E4) seems to date to the 28th and/or early 27th century, the next phase according to the PI-FRSP1 chronology (house B1) most likely to the second half of the 27th century (Čufar, Velušček, Kromer 2013). At the Parte-Iščica site, the ground plans of rectan- gular house substructures were dendrochronological y identified for the first time in the Ljubljansko barje (Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000). The three contempo- rary houses (E1 to E3) seem to have been intentional y arranged parallel to each other ( Fig. 2.16). This reinterpretation was of great importance for the discussion about the type of dwellings and settle- ments in the Ljubljansko barje. As a result, a new reconstruction of the prehistoric vil age at Maharski prekop was proposed, which differs significantly from Tatjana Bregant’s architectural model made for an exhibition in 1996 ( Figs. 2.17 and 2. 18). So far, the rectangular and detached houses have been documented also at Parte ( Fig. 2.19), Dušanovo17 ( Fig. 2.20) and Špica (see Jančar 2016). The predominant ground plan of the rectangular houses consisted of three straight and paral el rows. The roughly contemporary house models from different parts of Europe (e.g. Garašanin 1979: 113, Fig. 10: 11, Pl. 16: 7) and climatic conditions at the southern Alpine foothil s (e.g. Andrič 2009; Groneborn 2009) suggest that the middle row supported the midline of the house with the roof ridge, while the lateral rows represented 17 The discussed part of the Dušanovo site was initial y published as a separate site and called Črni graben (Velušček, Toškan, Čufar 2011; cf. Velušček 2019). Fig. 2.15: Parte-Iščica site in a river bed of Iščica with a group of piles of different chronological phases (after Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000: Fig. 8: left). (Drawing by Tamara Korošec.) 94 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA Fig. 2.16: Parte-Iščica: three rectangular ground plans of contemporary houses were discovered after dendrochronological analysis (after Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000: Fig. 6). (Drawing by Tamara Korošec.) 95 Anton VELUŠČEK Fig. 2.17: Proposed reconstruction of the pile-dwelling settlement at Maharski prekop prepared for an exhibition in 1996 (after Bregant 1996: 30). (Drawing by Tamara Korošec.) (or supported) the outer wal s. We can infer from the the buildings would have been divided into long, rather predominant distance of about 1.5 m between them, as narrow and functionless spaces (e.g. cf. Koeninger 2006: is the case at Maharski prekop from the mid-4th millen-80-87), which contradicts the knowledge and adaptabil- nium ( Fig. 2.22), as well as the houses of the Parte-Iščica ity that the pile-dwel ers had in their everyday life in the ( Fig. 2.16) and Parte (excavation campaign in 1981) 4th millennium BC18 (e.g. cf. Velušček 2004b, 2009b). ( Fig. 2.19) pile-dwelling settlements from the 3rd mil-18 lennium, that these substructures supported a raised E.g. the discovery of yarn, technical y advanced pre- historic cart, metal urgy, intentional use of wood for differ-floor. If the middle row were in the function of a wal , ent purposes (e.g. Tolar, Čufar, Velušček 2008; Velušček 2008; 96 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA Fig. 2.18: A modern reconstruction of the prehistoric pile-dwelling settlement at Maharski prekop became possible with the introduction of dendrochronology (after Velušček 2005b: 202). Fig. 2.19: Rectangular house plans that Zorko Harej unearthed at Parte (after Harej 1981-1982: Appendix 1, 1985: Appendix 1). (Drawing by Tamara Korošec.) [The orientation of the grid squares follows the course of the parallel drainage ditch (after http://gis.arso.gov.si/atlasokolja/profile.aspx?id=Atlas_Okolja_AXL@Arso (last visit: 9 June 2022)) and deviates slightly from Harej’s orientation (cf. Harej 1981-1982: Appendix 1).] 97 Anton VELUŠČEK Fig. 2.20: The drainage canal of Črni graben at the site of Dušanovo revealed a part of a rectangular house plan, which dates back to the beginning of the 25th century BC (from Velušček, Toškan, Čufar 2011: Fig. 8). (Drawing by Tamara Korošec.) While both Ložar (1941b) and Korošec (1955) dis-Janez Jalen wrote during World War II (Žebovec 2002). cussed the house/settlement type on the Ljubljansko barje As a result, interpretations almost exclusively followed a wetland, the use of a platform was widely popularised combination of both views, i.e. the view of Korošec who by the novel Bobri ( The Beavers) that the famous author proposed pile dwellings and that of Jalen who popularised habitation platforms. There are a few exceptions, which Pajagič Bregar et al. 2009; Tolar, Zupančič 2009; Velušček, Čufar, Zupančič 2009). received little scientific or public attention. These are the 98 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA Fig. 2.21: Dating of the piles from the river bed at Parte-Iščica revealed house plans E1 and E2, which were overlapped by more recent house B1 (after Velušček, Čufar, Levanič 2000: Figs. 3, 6 and 8). (Drawing by Tamara Korošec.) dry land settlements on the river bank at Resnikov pre- Šinkovec, Zupanc 2011). Dendrochronological evidence kop and Maharski prekop as proposed by Budja (1994) proves a dominance of detached houses, while additional and a reconstruction of a lakeshore settlement at Špica evidence supports Korošec’s view of dwellings on stilts. In presented by the Ljubljana City Museum, which offers Parte-Iščica, for example, houses E1 and E2 were partial y both possibilities, i.e. a combination of houses on stilts overlaid by the ground plan of house B1 attributed to the and ground-floor houses on presumably wet soil (see subsequent settlement phase ( Fig. 2.21). 99 Anton VELUŠČEK Fig. 2.22: Situation at Maharski prekop in grid squares nos. XV-XIX, XXI-XXIII, XXV and XXVI with partial y overlapping house plans of presumably different chronological phases (after Bregant 1975: Appendix 3; cf. Velušček 2001: Fig. 23; Mlekuž et al. 2012: Fig. 6; for chronology of the site see Čufar et al. 2015: Fig. 3). (Drawing by Tamara Korošec.) [The orientation of Bregant’s 1973 excavation plan (Bregant 1975: Appendix 3) is problematic and varies from publication to publication (e.g. cf. Bregant 1975: Appendix 3, 1996: 27).] 100 THE LAKE-DWELLING PHENOMENON: THE LJUBLJANSKO BARJE, SLOVENIA In Maharski prekop, where most probably at least The sedimentological and other palaeoenviron- two construction phases within the 35th century BC mental data are not discussed at length, but evidence have been documented (cf. Čufar et al. 2015: Fig. 3), does suggest that the Ljubljansko barje basin held a two houses in squares nos. XV-XIX, XXI-XXIII, XXV freshwater lake during the Neolithic, Copper Age and and XXVI partial y overlapped ( Fig. 2.22). At Špica, almost the entire Bronze Age. Its remains can be seen additional or later piles were driven into the already in the thick layers of lake marl deposits that are to be standing piles (Klasinc et al. 2010: 53, Figs. 30; 31: 2; found across the wetlands. When the lake completely Šinkovec 2012: Fig. 6); it can be assumed that some disappeared, probably in the second half of the 2nd mil- substructures of the earlier building activities were still lennium BC, the settlement pattern changed abruptly present and visible. They obviously represented an ob- and shifted, at least from the Middle Bronze Age on, stacle to new construction. To avoid it, it is reasonable gradual y at first and final y exclusively to the dry land to propose houses on stilts as an acceptable solution in on the outskirts and to the dominant hil s in the sur-these particular examples. roundings. In conclusion, it should be stressed that although The attractive shores of the lake were an important stilt houses probably predominated in the Ljubljansko trigger and incentive for settlement at the end of the barje, other house types cannot be ruled out, as we see Neolithic period in the area and later until the Bronze for example at Lake Keutschach in Carinthia, where a Age, which occurred in several waves between the first combination of house types coexisted in a single settle- half of the 5th and the second half of the 2nd millennium ment (Samonig 2003). The choice depended, it seems, BC. The first pile-dwelling settlements seem to have ap- on the environmental conditions and the needs of the peared in the Ljubljansko barje during the Sava group inhabitants. of the Lengyel culture in the second quarter of the 5th In the Ljubljansko barje, the piles of prehistoric millennium BC. The best known site of this group is dwellings are mainly arranged in rows and follow al- Resnikov prekop near Ig. Its first occupation phase was most exclusively one orientation, namely SSE-NNW. followed by dense settlement during the Furchenstich So far, there are only a few exceptions to this rule, pottery culture in the second quarter of the 4th millen- either because of environmental factors or because of nium. After another, albeit brief, interruption of some the special status of a house. Both were discovered in decades, another group of settlers appeared around Maharski prekop. One differently oriented group of 3500 BC. These were representatives of the Stare gma- houses followed the alignment of the wooden palisade jne cultural group, which dominated the area until the (Velušček 2001). Another one is a house believed to early 31st century BC. The next occupation horizon in have hosted a metal urgical activity; its ridge followed the Ljubljansko barje was in the period of the Vučedol, the W-E orientation and is unique within the settlement Ljubljana and Somogyvár-Vinkovci cultures, which (Velušček & Greif 1998; Velušček 2008; Toškan, Achino, lasted from the 28th to the end of the 25th century BC. We Velušček 2020). However, the SSE-NNW orientation do not yet have more precise data on the chronology of of dwellings clearly dominates and does not seem to be settlement for the end of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium, random. It approaches what is known in the building but we can expect a similar dynamic of continuous or industry as orientation along the heliothermal axis. De-recurrent changes in the settlement of the area. spite controversies of its effectiveness and applicability There is much less data on the continuity of occupa- (cf. Harzal ah et al. 2012), Andrej Pogačnik (1999: 81; tion within individual phases or horizons. It is unclear cf. Kos 2012: 41) has shown for central Slovenia that whether the Ljubljansko barje was continuously inhab- the heliothermic direction is rotated ca. 5º east to the ited during the entire period of the Furchenstich pottery north-south axis. This orientation compensates for the culture, for example, or during the similarly densely unequal solar radiation of east and west orientations of settled period in the first half and around the middle of house facades. Thus, west-facing facades are not over-the 3rd millennium BC. The only gap identified thus far heated in summer, while east-facing ones get more sun fal s in the time of the Stare gmajne cultural group and is in winter (cf. Velušček 2005b: 205, 2020c). estimated to have lasted between the end of the 34th and the middle of the 32nd millennium BC. The early phase is represented by settlements such as Maharski prekop, 2.4 CONCLUSION Črešnja pri Bistri and the first settlement at the site of Stare gmajne; the subsequent phase is represented by the This synthesis discusses some aspects of the relate settlement phase at Stare gmajne, Veliki Otavnik Ib search on wetland settlements in the Ljubljansko barje and Blatna Brezovica. based on almost 150 years of data collection. The main The question of continuity can also be discussed issues of the discussion are the exact chronology, the at the level of a single settlement phase. For example, relationship between the settlement pattern and the lake, it is not clear whether the vil age (prehistoric settle-and some architectural solutions. ment) at Založnica, which spanned almost the entire 101 Anton VELUŠČEK 25th century BC according to the dendrochronological The archaeological research of the Ljubljansko analyses, was inhabited continuously for about 80 years barje is still very incomplete, both in the wetland and or only sporadical y during this time period. Despite the in its surroundings. The most extensive campaigns 1428 documented and sampled piles, of which about took place more than a century ago using the research 30% were measured for dendrochronological analysis, methods valid at that time. An exception is the site of it is not yet possible to give a conclusive answer and the Špica, which was intensively excavated a decade ago as question remains open. preventive action. Unfortunately, the results are not yet The prehistoric settlements in the wetland of the available in the form of a comprehensive scientific study. Ljubljansko barje can be described as pile dwellings, A long-term, systematic and multidisciplinary research where stilt houses with elevated floors prevail. This project on a pile-dwelling site remains a desideratum particular architectural solution indicates an adapta- that Slovenian researchers postpone from year to year. tion to the special environment following the needs The technological development is extremely fast in and capabilities of the inhabitants. It can also be noted archaeology and wetland research methods are also that detached houses were built in the Ljubljansko barje constantly evolving. In such a project, it is hoped that from the 5th to the 3rd millennium BC. The possibility archaeology as a scientific discipline on the national of large settlement platforms, as interpreted less than 30 level will be able to apply some of these advancements years ago, must be discarded. An important observation to the study of the pile dwellings. This is indeed already also seems to be the predominant SSW-NNE orienta-happening, although to a very limited extent. tion of the houses, which must be considered one of The prehistoric wetland sites of the Ljubljansko many special skil s of the pile-dwellers who inhabited barje are today widely recognised as endangered (cf. the Ljubljansko barje several millennia ago. Only in one Velušček 2015). Without doubt, if we manage to protect case was it established that the prehistoric vil age was them from desiccation and other threats in time, the area partial y surrounded by a wooden palisade. of Ljubljansko barje will remain a unique archaeological Today, seasonal floods are a constant issue in the El Dorado without parallel in this part of Europe and central part of the Ljubljansko barje plain. A similar beyond. situation can be expected for the period of the pile dwellings, when floods probably affected the lowlands around the lake. The settlements, for which there is also Acknowledgements little relevant data, stood on intermittently wet soils (Stare gmajne, Blatna Brezovica), some may have stood The author acknowledges the financial support from the directly in the open water of the lake near the shore19. 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