217 Iz virni znans tv eni članek/ Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 1, 217—230 Besedilo pr eje t o/R eceiv ed:05/2021; spr eje t o/ Accep t ed:12/2022 UDK/UDC: 272-722.7:331.5 DOI: 10.34291/B V2022/01/V aupot © 2022 Vaupot, CC BY 4.0 Zoran Vaupot Hiring Lay Faithful in the Catholic Church: Comparing HRM Theory and Practice Zaposlovanje laikov v Katoliški Cerkvi: primerjava teorije in prakse pri upravljanju s človeškimi viri Abstract : The r ole of la y emplo y ees in the Ca tholic Chur ch has gr own ov er the pas t f e w de c ade s. A s a c onse que nce , the o v e r all quality of hum an r e sour ce s mana- g emen t (HRM), which includes the pr ocess of hiring , has bec ome crucial within Chur ch or g anisa tions. Aft er an ov er view of the g ener al theor etic al findings about the pr ocess of hiring , we continue by pr esenting a sur v ey e x ecut ed among member s of the Slov enian Bishops’ Con f er ence about v alue orien t a tions c oncerning the hiring of la y per sons within the Slo v enian dioceses. The sur v e y r esults w er e une xpect ed. W e a tt emp t t o e xplain them within the sc ope of pos- sible diff e r e nce s be tw e e n the g e ne r al HRM the or y finding s and r e se ar ch f ocu- sed e x clusiv ely on the Chur ch. Our c onclusion is tha t, as a rule, Chur ch pr actice does not f ollo w the principle of cr ea ting a lar g e pool of possible c andida t es f or the job. Ra ther , it depends on mor e per sonal, individual in vit a tions c ommuni - c a t ed t o pr e viously select ed applic an ts. Keywords : Ca tho lic Chur ch, la y f aith ful, hiring , r ecruitmen t, human r esour ce ma- nagement Povzetek : Vlog a laik o v v K a t olišk i c e r k v i v z adnjih de se tle tjih nar ašč a. T o pa pom e - ni, da je v cerkv enih or g aniz acijah v edno bolj pomembna splošna k ak ov os t funk cije upr a vljanja s člo v eškimi viri (UČV), ki vključuje tudi pr oces izbir e bodo- čih sodela v ce v . P o pr egledu spl ošnih t eor e tičnih spo znanj o pr ocesu izbir e sle- di pr eds t a vit e v ank e t e, iz v edene med člani Slo v ensk e šk of o v sk e k on f er ence, o usmeritv ah pri vr ednot enju glede z aposlov anja laik ov v slov enskih šk ofijah. Neprič ak o v ani r e z ult a ti r azisk a v e nas v odijo k posk usu isk anja r azlag e v okviru mor ebitnih r azlik med splošnimi ug ot o vitv ami t eorije UČV in r azisk a v ami, osr e- dot očenimi z g olj na Cerk e v . Ug ot a vljamo , da cerkv ena pr ak sa načelu oblik o v a- nja v elik eg a nabor a mo žnih k andida t o v z a delo vno mes t o pr a viloma ne sledi. Raje g a nadomešč a z bolj osebnimi, individualnimi pov abili, ki jih posr eduje pr edhodno e viden tir anim pot encialnim k andida t om. Ključne besede : K a t olišk a Cerk e v , laiki, izbir anje, z aposlo v anje, upr a vljanje s člo v e - škimi viri 218 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 1. Introduction Basic ally , ther e ar e tw o sorts of emplo y ees in the Ca tholic Ch ur ch (her ea ft er , the Chur ch): clerics and la y s. The t ask s of clerics or or dained minis t er s ar e de fined b y the in t ernal leg al s y s t em (c anon la w) of the Chur ch, which r egula t es its or g a- nisa tion and dir ects its activities. The la w s and leg al principles included also ena- ble r ela tiv e inde pendence and decen tr alisa tion, which r esult in the indisput able authority and r esponsibility of clerics, both on the diocesan and parish le v els. These char act eris tics diff er fr om oft en-ob ser v ed public opinion, which per ceiv es the Chur ch as a ce n tr alise d and functional t op-do w n m anag e d or g anisa tion, with a milit ar y -lik e in t ernal or g anisa tional cultur e. In c on tr as t t o the position of clerics, the one of la y s or non-or dained w ork er s is not so pr ecisely de fined. This is r e flect ed in man y aspects of their r oles, s t arting with their hiring f or specific job s designa t ed f or la y people, but also the ne v er - -ending pr ocess of r ecruitmen t. 1 Fr om a his t oric al per spectiv e, the situa tion ma y be e xplained b y the initially v olun t ar y support of la y f aith ful t o the functions of the Chur ch. In such cir cum- s t ances, the clerics his t oric ally o v er sa w all s tr a t egic ally impor t an t t ask s and deci- sions. Ho w e v er , o v er all pr ogr ess in human a ff air s r esult ed in the or g anisa tional pr o- gr ess of all types of ins titutions w orldwide, and this did not bypass the Chur ch. 2. Church Identity and the Role of Lay Faithful F or a meaningful applic a tion of c on t empor ary HRM appr oaches in the Chur ch c on- t e x t t o pr eser v e or e v en s tr eng then its v alue iden tity while s triving f or e ff ectiv e human r esour ce manag emen t, it is necessar y t o place these issues under discus - sion in the br oader c on t e x t of the Chur ch’ s functioning. T o do this, it is necessar y t o t ak e in t o acc oun t the eccles iology of the Sec ond V a tic an Council and the r ole of the laity , especially in ligh t of r ecen t s ynodal e ff orts. Fr om the beginning of the 20 th cen tur y , the gr o wing import ance of la y f aith ful (P er še 2013; Šegula 2015) has also been f ormally admitt ed and support ed b y nu - me r ous offi cial docume n ts of the Chur ch’ s highe s t ins titutions, such as: „P as t or al 1 Neither in the ac ademic lit er a tur e nor in oper a tional HRM pr actice is ther e a c onsis t en t dis tinction be tw een ‚hiring ‘ and ‚r ecruitmen t ‘ . The t erms ar e oft en used as de f act o s ynon yms, or hiring is under - s t ood only as the final s t ag e of the r ecruitmen t pr ocess; in such c ases, the t erms ‚selection ‘ or ‚selectiv e hiring ‘ ar e also used. These ob ser v a tions should be k ep t in mind, especially when r eading the theo - r e tic al o v e r vie w chap t e r . Ho w e v e r , w e c onsis t e n tly unde r s t and and use , in our o wn opinions or c onclu - sions, the t erm ‚hiring ‘ as a selection activity tha t t ak es place when a specific r ol e needs t o be filled b y finding , e v alua ting and es t ablishing a w orking r ela tionship with the mos t suit able per son, while r ecruit - men t is the c on tinuous pr ocess of a ttr acting the mos t qualified people t o an or g anisa tion, e v en in times without v ac ancies, in or der t o »k eep in t ouch with the labour mark e t and main t ain a ne tw ork of pot en - tial c andida t es« (Osoian and Z aharie 2014, 132). In other w or ds, as in t er c onnect ed activities w e c om - pr ehend r ecruitmen t as a br oad, ong oing s tr a t egic HRM pr ocess (which underlines its in fluence on objectiv e indic a t or s of firm perf ormance) and hiring as a mor e f ocused, pr oject -based t ask. 219 Zoran Vaupot - Hiring Lay Faithful in the Catholic Church Le tt er of 1919“ (1919), „Ma t er e t Magis tr a “ (1961), „Lumen Gen tium “ (1964), „ Gaudium e t Spe s “ (1965), „ A pos t olic am A ctuosit a t e m “ (1965), „P opulor um P r o- gr essio“ (1967), „E c onomic Jus tice f or All“ (1986), „Solicitudo R ei Socialis “ (1987), „ Cen t esimus Annus “ (1991), „ Communities of Salt and Ligh t “ (1993), „ Called t o Global Solidarity “ (1997), „E v er y da y Chris tianity: T o Hung er and Thir s t f or Jus tice “ (1998), „ W elc oming the Str ang er Among Us “ (2001), „Deus Carit as Es t “ (2005), „F orming Consciences f or F aith ful Citiz enship “ (2012) and „E v ang elii Gaudium “ (2013). The Sec ond V a tic an Council (1962–1965) led t o signific an t lo ng-t erm chang es i n the r ene w al of the i den tity of the Chur ch i n g ener al , i ncluding the r ol e of the laity . The ne w emphasis on the c o-r esponsibility of all Chris tians, summarised b y P er še (2014), mean t tha t the f aith ful should mo v e fr om being passiv e r ecipien ts of pas t or al gifts t o bec oming activ e participan ts in the Chur ch. A ne w turning po - in t occurr ed with the 1987 S ynod on „ The V oc a tion and Mission of the Laity in the Chur ch and the W orld“ . A y ear la t er , as a r esult of this mee ting , P ope John P aul II published „ Chris tifideles Laici“ (1988), in which the v oc a tion and mission of the laity is pr esen t ed in the par able of the w ork er s who , ha ving agr eed on their w a- g e s, ar e se n t b y the ir m as t e r t o w or k in his v ine y ar d. In this c on t e x t, w e c an r e c all the w or ds of P ope Benedict XVI who summarised the c on t en t of the 26 th Apos t o- lic Exhort a tion on the Chris tian Laity b y sa ying: »I ur g e y ou t o do e v er y thing pos - sible t o mak e the par ish a ‚ spir itual c omm unity ‘ f or pe ople - a g r e a t f amily whe r e w e also e xperience the ev en gr ea t er f amily of the univ er sal Chur ch, and earn thr ough the litur gy , thr ough c a t echesis and thr ough all the e v en ts of parish lif e t o w alk t og e ther on the w a y of true lif e.« (2006) In this c on t e x t, the r esults of the 2012 sur v e y ar e enc our aging. All the pri es ts sur v e y ed in the Ar chdiocese of Lju- bljana w e r e in f a v our of a gr e a t e r futur e r ole f or the laity in par ish ma tt e r s (P e r še 2014). Ho w e v er , as the author poin ts out, the laity should not only pla y a suppor - ting r ole t o pries ts but should also ha v e their o wn mission, in t erms of being ac- tiv e in the w orld and in the Chur ch. E v en St. John Henr y Ne wman, when ask ed about the r ole of the laity , r eplied, tha t without them, the Chur ch w ould seem limit ed (Ne wman 1991). These men tions ar e c onsis t en t with the Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Chur ch no. 543, which s t a t es tha t ther e ar e cert ain ar e - as in which the Chris tian laity liv e and w ork: all w orldly human r ealities, per sonal and social, cir cums t ances and his t oric al situa tions, s tructur es, and ins titutions. T o the e x t e n t tha t the laity s tr iv e t o har monise the ir actions with the v ision of God’ s lo v e in these r ealms, »f or the la y f aith ful t o be pr esen t and activ e in the w orld is not only an an thr opologic al and sociologic al r eality , but in a specific w a y , a theo- logic al and ecclesiologic al r eality as w ell« (P on tific al Council f or Jus tice and P eace 2004). Ho w e v er , the mos t e xplicit r ecen t announcemen t abo ut the gr o wing r ole of the la y f aith ful w as made b y P ope Fr ancis in his 22 December 2016 speech t o the R oman curia. P ope Fr ancis pr esen t ed the tw elv e guiding principles of the r e- f orm and t en th on the lis t w as the one c alled ,Ca tholicity ‘ , off ering e xplicit support f or the gr o wing import ance of the r ole of the la y f aith ful within the Chur ch: 220 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 »Among the Officials, in addition to priests and consecrated persons, the catholicity of the Church must be reflected in the hiring of personnel from throughout the world, and of permanent deacons and lay faithful carefully selected on the basis of their unexceptionable spiritual and moral life and their professional competence. It is fitting to provide for the hiring of greater numbers of the lay faithful, especially in those Dicasteries where they can be more competent than clerics or consecrated persons. Also of great importance is an enhanced role for women and lay people in the life of the Church and their integration into roles of leadership in the Dicasteries, with particular attention to multiculturalism.« (F r ancis 2016) The guiding principle cit ed her e c ould har dly be mor e e xplici t in its na tur e, al- lo wing f or no r eal cr ea tivity in in t erpr e t a tion fr om those in char g e of its imple - men t a tion. Since the t ask of hiring is men tioned twice, w e will f ocus our r esear ch on this activity (see not e 1). It is based on the need f or highly qualified la y people t o fill the positions pr e viously held mos tly b y clerics. W e h ypothesise tha t, among Chur ch officials, ther e is an indisput able alignmen t t o clearly de fined v alues and principles during the pr ocess of hiring la y f aith ful f or the needs of Chur ch or g anisa tions. W e s t art b y e xplaining the br oader c on t e xt of the Chur ch’ s functioning f or a meaningful applic a tion of c on t empor ar y HRM appr oaches. The sec ond chap t er is de v ot ed t o an o v er vie w of the e xis ting , g ener al theor e tic al findings c oncerning the pr ocess of hiring , which is one of the dominan t pr ocesses within the ar ea of HRM. Th e empiric al r esear ch in t o the v alue orien t a tions c onc erning the hiring of la y per sons with in the Slo v enian dioceses will be pr esen t ed in the thir d chap t er . This is f ollo w ed b y a c omparison of g ener al HRM findings and the pr esen t a tion of pr actice in the Chur ch. These ob ser v a tions will be discussed in the f ourth chap t er . Finally , our c on clusions ar e orien t ed t o w ar ds r ec ommenda tions f or the scholar s of futur e r esear ch in this ar ea. 3. The Church and hiring 3.1 The typology of faith-based organisations Although the e xpr ession ,f aith-based or g anisa tions ‘ (as the opposit e of secular or g anisa tions) is c ommonly used t o describe or g anisa tions wher e r eligion has a cert ain degr ee of in fluence o v er job ser vice pr ogr ammes (Biele f eld 2006), w e pr e- f er t o use the typology as es t ablished b y Sider and Unruh (2004). Based on their r eligious char act eris tics, these author s diff er en tia t e be tw een f aith-permea t ed (the r e lig ious dime nsion is be lie v e d t o be e sse n tial), f aith-ce n tr e d (r e lig ious me ssag e s and activities ar e e xplicit, but participan ts c an op t out), f aith -a ffilia t ed (some vi- si b l e i n fl u en ce o f th ei r r el i gi o u s f o u n d er s, b u t n o r eq u i r emen t f o r emp l o y ees t o 221 Zoran Vaupot - Hiring Lay Faithful in the Catholic Church e xpr ess f aith or eng ag e in r eligious pr actices), f aith-backgr ou nd (t ending t o look and ac t in a se c ular w a y , thoug h his t or ic al tie s t o a f aith tr adition m a y e xis t ), f a - ith-secular partner ship s (typic ally secular in adminis tr a tion, but dependen t on r eligious partner s f or v olun t eer s and in-kind support) and secular or g anisa tions (no r e f er ence t o r eligion). The dilemma of whe ther the use of this typology is appr opria t e only f or the social ser vices (which embr ace activities fr om pr oviding g oods and ser vices t o individuals t o enhancing the o v er all quality of lif e) and educ a tional or g anisa tions and pr ogr ammes, or also f or the purpose of de fining other types of Chur ch-c on - ne c t e d or g a nisa tions (e . g ., c om panie s e s t ablishe d b y t he Chur c h), r e m a ins una d- dr essed in the scien tific lit er a tur e. Ho w e v er , ha ving per sonal e xperiences in w orking f or a f aith-based or g anisa ti- on, r especting the principle of c onsis t ency in e v alua tion whic h supports the a f o- r emen tioned typology , and since w e ar e unable t o r e v eal an y w ell- f ounded ar gu- men t ag ains t this appr oach, w e op t f or its utilisa tion. In so do ing , w e enable the c onditions f or es t ablishing the possible crit eria t o be inc orpor a t ed f or the purpo - se of assessmen t of the c andida t es included in the hiring pr ocess: their alignmen t with the pr e viously de fined r eligious v alues and principles of each or g anisa tion. 3.2 Characteristics of the Hiring Process One of the t ools f a v our ed b y modern HRM specialis ts is c ompe t ency (In f orma- tion R esour ces Manag emen t Associa tion 2012). 2 The c ompe t ency -based man- ag emen t model, as under s t ood b y Dar ós, Conc a and Sáe z (2003), is articula t ed in thr ee basic dimensions: acquisition (hiring), s timula tion (salar y and incen tiv e policy ) and de v e lopm e n t (tr aining manag e m e n t). The main pur pose of the hir ing pr ocess is t o e v alua t e the futur e w orking perf ormance of the select ed c andida t e r ealis tic ally (Oso ian and Z aharie 2014). The hiring – a selection pr ocess tha t usu - ally includes mor e than one per son – is discrimina t ory in its na tur e. How ev er , the noun ,discrimina tion ‘ should be under s t ood and accep t ed b y its de finition of »the ability t o r ec ognise a diff er ence be tw een one thing and another« and not b y its dominan tly neg a tiv e c onnot a tion, as »the pr actice of tr ea ting somebody or a particular gr oup in socie ty less f airly than other s« (O xf or d Learner ’ s Dictionar y , s. v . »discrimina tion«). The r esult of the hiring pr ocess, which is cert ainly an e thic ally challenging t ask f or the manag er s, is one or mor e select ed applic an ts, who g e t salaries and addi - tional financial or non- financial bene fits, but usually also r eject ed c andida t es who r emain without the desir ed job, along with its opportunities and adv an t ag es. »It is ther e f or e a r eality of or g anisa tional lif e tha t manag er s eng ag e in acts tha t harm people /…/ Although individuals migh t pr e f er t o a v oid per - 2 Compr ehe nded as the r ela tion be tw een humans and w ork t ask s (McClellan d 1973), a c ombina tion of motiv es, tr aits, self -c oncep ts, a ttitudes or v alues, c on t en t kno wledg e or c ognitiv e beha viour skills (Spen - cer , McClelland and Spencer 1994) or a mix tur e of kno wledg e, skills, abilities, motiv a tion, belie f s, v alues and in t er es ts (Fleishman 1995). 222 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 f orming them alt og e ther , f ailur e t o acc omplish these t ask s thr ea t ens the gr ea t er g ood f or which the y ar e in t ended.« (Pinning t on, Macklin and Cam- pbell 2007, 237) As one of the normally unpleasan t, but sometimes jus t una v oidable, manag erial choices, harming people is alw a y s an ethic al issue. When it c annot be a v oided, the ar gument using ‚necessary evil‘ (Molinsky and Mar golis 2005) is, by virtue of its logic and cont ent, the same type of e xplanation as the one about ,gr eat er good‘ . Both ar e, in r eality , based on the philosophical concept of Utilit arianism (Bentham, Mills, Sid- gwick, and other s), the most widely known f orm of Consequentialism, as an appr oach to the normative ethics which serve as the f oundation f or modern techniques of cost - -benefit analysis in the ques t f or economic efficiency (Mar seille and K ahn 2019). A poorly or g anised and e x ecut ed hiring pr ocess c an in v olun t arily e x clude pot en - tially a ttr activ e job c andida t es, as w ell as those w orking f or c ompe tit or s and who- se onboar ding c ould r epr esen t a double win a t the same time: s tr eng thening our s and w eak ening the c ompe tit or ’ s or g anisa tion. In or der t o or g anise and e x ecut e the hiring pr ocess e ff ectiv ely , which is itself in t ended t o support building a high-per - f ormance or g anisa tion, w e pr opose t o t ak e in t o c onsider a tion the fi n d i n g s of P f e f - f er (1998), who lis ts the main poin ts t o be r espect ed: the e xis t ence of a lar g e ap- plic an t pool fr om which t o select; scr eening f or the cultur al fit and a ttitude of c andida t es; clarif ying a lis t of the mos t critic al skills, beha viour s, or a ttitudes cru- cial f or success; e x ecuting se v er al r ounds of scr eening t o build c ommitmen t and p r o v e seri o u sn ess; i n v o l vi n g sen i o r p eo p l e as r ecru i t er s, an d e x ecu tin g th e fi n al e v alua tion of the r esults and the whole pr ocess perf ormance. The multi-c andida t e selection activity leads t ow ar d a pr ocedur e ev en mor e c om- ple x than w ould be the c ase with only one applic an t. A lar g e applic an t pool ma y be ensur ed by diff er en t sour ces (e. g., lis t acquisition, member ship dir ect ories, pr oprie - t ary or g anisation websites, social media, r ef err als, colleges, job f air s and employment ag encies) tha t c an be gr ouped by using v arious crit eria; f or e x ample, in t ernal/ e xt er - nal or f ormal/inf ormal (Kirnan, F arley , and Geising er 1989). Still, ev ery sour ce mus t be activ a t ed by the appr opria t e a ttr action activities; f or e x ample, by using the spe- cific content of r ecruitment messages (Highhouse et al. 1999) to achieve the t ar geted char act eris tics of the applic an t pools bec ause, if the mos t desir ed and pr e viously iden tified c andida t es do not actually apply f or the openings, they c annot be hir ed. In addition, the e xis t ence of a lar g e applic an t pool c an mask the possible ab- sence of the bes t c andida t es and the or g anisa tion ma y not e v en be a w ar e of this. Coupled with the high c os ts of the hiring activity , both f acts ma y lead t o dissa tis- f action with the r esults of the hiring pr oject and a decision b y the or g anisa tion not t o r epea t the pr ocedur e. The r esult ma y also be poorly -perf orming r ecruits. R ecen tly – and especially in the c ase of in t erna tional or g anisa tions – w e ha v e ob ser v ed a tr end t o hir e people fr om div er se backgr ounds and skills, with firms p r ep ar ed t o tr ai n and p r omo t e th ei r emp l o y ees (S an g ee th a 2010). The i ncr eased number of c and ida t es in the selection pr ocess thus in tr oduc es a v arie ty of c om- pe t e ncies, e nabling c omparisons t o be made . If an or g anisa tion wishe s t o a v oid 223 Zoran Vaupot - Hiring Lay Faithful in the Catholic Church the multi-c andida t e pr oce dur e f or the r e ason of lack ing in t e r nal HRM c ompe t e n- cie s and/ or e nough de dic a t e d pe r sonne l, the possibility of outsour cing the hir ing pr ocess is an op tion, although a tt en tion mus t be paid t o its possible dr a wback s, especially the high c os ts of outsour cing and insufficien t quality of r ecruits, due especially t o the unclear r eques t a ft er the specific c ompe t encies. As Judg e and F erris ha v e writt en (1992), the import ance of c ompan y cultur e fit is r e flect ed in under s t anding how including fit as a hiring selection crit erion ma y assis t or g anisa tions. They lis t f our possibilities: fit as a c on tr ol mechanism (c on tr ol is achi- ev ed alr eady thr ough the selection (e x -an t e) r a ther than thr ough the socialisa tion (e x -pos t) pr ocess), fit as an assur ance of w orkf or ce homog eneity (hiring people si- milar t o e xis ting employ ees will help t o cr ea t e or main t ain the or g anisa tion’ s homo- g eneity), fit as a job-r ela t ed crit erion (especially r elev an t with r eg ar d t o the gr owing import ance of the service sect or) and fit as an or g anisa tional public image enhancer . If or g anisa tions ar e aw ar e tha t their w eb pr esen t a tions mus t also c onsider the cul- tur al, sociological and ps y chological elemen t during the localisa tion pr ocess (V aupot 2020), wha t w e under s t and as a f orm of e xt ernal or en vir onmen t al accultur a tion, it is e v en mor e normal tha t fit t o the or g anisa tional cultur e is e xpect ed fr om futur e employ ees, which c ould be e xplained as a f orm of in t ernal accultur a tion. B y de fin ing the mos t critic al skills, beha viour s, or a ttitudes cr ucial f or success, c om panie s de sc r ibe the , ide al‘ c andida t e tha t is e xpe ct e d t o fit w ithin the or g a- nisa tion b y posse ssing a cle ar ly de fine d se t of abilitie s f or c omple ting the ir spe ci- fic t ask s (Elrick 2016). This activity is de fined as cr ea ting a ‚c ompe t ency model‘: a descriptiv e t ool or beha viour al job description, based on the seminal w ork s of McClelland (1973) and Bo y a tzis (1982). It usually iden tifies a gr oup of se v en t o nine c or e c omp e t encies needed t o w ork success fully within a specific or g anisa ti- on or indus tr y (Shippmann e t al. 2000; V azir ani 2010). Under the c ondition tha t these skills, beha viour s, or a ttitudes ar e objectiv ely e v alua t ed and c on firmed f or the select ed c andida t e, the perf ect ma t ch with the or g anisa tion’ s r equir emen ts should be assur ed. Ho w e v er , e v er y par ame t er inclu- ded in such a de finition e x cludes cert ain types of c andida t es tha t do not fit within the model. Bo w en, Ledf or d and Na than (1991) emphasise the import ance of the »appr o- ach t o selection in which emplo y ees ar e hir ed t o fit the char act eris tics of an or - g anisa tion, not jus t the r equir emen ts of a particular job« (Bo w en, Ledf or d and Na than 1991, 35). Similarly , Riv er a (2012, 1) c oncludes tha t »hiring is mor e than jus t a pr ocess of skills sorting; it is also a pr ocess of cultur al ma t ching be tw een c andida t es, e v alua t or s, and firms«. In c onsequence, although pr epar ed with the positiv e in t en tion of finding the bes t c andida t e, the one-dime nsional c ompe t en- cy modelling appr oach ma y easily bec ome ine fficien t and discrimina tiv e in the neg a tiv e sense, since »firms ma y ignor e or deliber a t ely den y tha t diff er en t types of w ork er s ha v e the ability t o do a giv en job« (Windolf 1986, 237). Putting applic an ts thr ough se v er al scr eening r ounds of in t er vie w s and rig or ous selection is a pr otr act ed pr ocedur e tha t r esults in se v er al bene fits: c ar e ful scrutin y 224 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 of those who pull thr ough and be tt er de v elopmen t of the c ommitmen t of the select ed c andida t es. It c an also f os t er the f eeling of bec oming a member of an elit e gr oup, which positiv ely in fluences their motiv a tion (P f e ff er 1998). Ho w e v er , based on our pr actic al e xperience, the number of scr eening r ounds, usually lar g er than thr ee, should be jus tified t o a v oid a neg a tiv e c oun t er -e ff ect, e v en among the bes t c andida t es. Especially f or positions tha t diff er en tia t e the or g anisa tion fr om its c ompe tit or s, the r ole of senior people as r ecruit er s is crucial. P f e ff er pr esen ts an e x ample of their in v olv emen t in the hiring pr ocedur e f or fligh t a tt endan ts a t Sing apor e Airli - nes since the y ar e »an import an t poin t of c on t act with the cus t omer and one w a y in which Sing apor e Airlines diff er en tia t es its ser vice« (1998, 100). As put b y Carlson, Connerle y and Mecham (2002, 461; 465), »it is bec oming clear tha t e ff ectiv e r ecruitmen t is critic al t o or g anisa tional success /…/ the fir s t priority of r ecruitmen t should be a ttr acting the bes t possible applic an ts«. Lik e an y othe r pr oc e ss of the or g anisa tion, the hir ing pr oc e ss pe r f or m anc e should be e v a- lua t ed. This is ab solut ely in line with Deming ’ s PDCA (Plan-Do-Check -Act) c oncep t (Moen and Norman 2009). The activities c onnect ed t o hiring pr ocess e v alua tion ar e f ocu sed on the quality measur emen t of select ed c andida t es, but also on the e ff ectiv eness of the pr ocess itself . In their sur v e y of 620 or g anisa tions r epr esen ting c ompanies of all siz es, the Aber deen Gr oup r e v ealed tha t c ompanies with the bes t t alen t acquisition pr o- gr ammes achie v ed the bes t r esults with the f ollo wing hiring perf ormance crit eria: time t o h i r e, q u al i ty o f h i r e, n e w h i r e r e t en tion an d h i ri n g man ag er s’ o v er al l sa- tis f action with the pr ogr amme (Min t on-E v er sole 2008). Se v er al c ommon char act eris tics of the bes t perf orming or g anisa tions ha v e also been dis c o v er ed: in t ense c ollabor a tion be tw een hiring manag er s and r ecruit er s, activ e use of their w eb sit es as t ools f or sho w c asing the cultu r e and job opportu - nities, pr e-scr eening of the job c andida t es f or t echnic al c ompe t encies and a clear under s t anding of wha t applic an t sour ces pr o vide the bes t quality job c andida t es f or their or g anisa tion (Aber deen Gr oup 2008). The in tr oduction of the quan tit a tiv e, financial aspect of ev alua tion ma y be e xpr essed b y the c alcula tion of the c os t -per -hir e (CPH), oft en c onsider ed as the mos t import an t me trics. Acc or ding t o Corpuz (2006), the appr opria t e CPH e v alu - a tion should include in the analy sis the f ollo wing elemen ts: in t ernal c os ts (e. g., r ecruiting office salaries, s t a ff tr a v el c os ts, lodging , adminis tr a tion), c os ts of e x t er - nal r ecr uit er s, c ompan y visit e xpenses of the c andida t es, dir ect f ees (e. g., adv er - tisi n g , j o b f ai r s, ag en cy , an d e x ecu tiv e sear ch f ees) an d o th er d a t a (e. g. , an a v er a- g e annual salary of r ecruits, number of in t er vie w s v er sus the number of hir es, accep t ance r a t e, r eloc a tion c os ts). In c on tr as t t o Corpuz ’ s (2006) appr oach, the Sar a t og a Ins titut e’ s HR E ff ectiv eness model pr o vides the other r ecruit er s’ c os ts and the adminis tr a tiv e c os ts. These c os ts ar e added as a fla t 10% w eigh t ag e. The- se simplifie d me tr ics, which a v oid c onside r ing the r e al c os ts, ar e also the mode l’ s main short c oming (Sang ee tha 2010). 225 Zoran Vaupot - Hiring Lay Faithful in the Catholic Church A v oiding the e x tr emes of an e x clusiv ely qualit a tiv e or quan tit a tiv e appr oach, the models of Utility Analy sis (U A) ar e in f act a c ombina tion of both. Acc or ding t o Bodr eau (1991, 622), utility analy sis is based on »the pr ocess of describing , pr e- dicting , and/ or e xplaining wha t de t ermines the use fulness or desir ability of deci- sion op tions«. These models a tt emp t t o iden tif y the ,r e turns ‘ (typic ally de fined as pr oductivity and e xpr essed in mone y t erms) associa t ed with the use of v arious r e cruitme n t and se le ction pr oce dur e s. T w o s tr ands of r e se ar ch de sign c an be ob- ser v ed tha t should be c onsider ed c omplemen t ar y: those tha t f ocus on the impact o f r ecru i tmen t o n th e i n d i vi d u al c an d i d a t e an d th o se i n wh i ch th e o r g an i sa tio n i s the unit of analy sis. Ho w e v er , each e v alua tion me thod has adv an t ag es and disad - v an t ag es (Barber 1998) and its applic a tion depends on the cir cums t ances of the particular e v alua tion c ase. 4. Empirical Research Ha ving e xplained se v er al of the main poin ts t o be c onsider ed during the hiring pr ocess, w e pr oceed with an a tt emp t t o e v alua t e empiric ally the v alue orien t a ti- ons of high-r anking Chur ch leader s c oncerning modern HRM pr actices in hiring. In doing so , we ha v e e x ecut ed an anon ymous surv ey among the member s of the Slov enian Bishops’ Conf er ence (SBC), whose ecclesias tical authority cov er s the geo- gr aphical territory of the R epublic of Slovenia. This accounted f or ten member s at the time of the r esear ch (2021). They all r eceiv ed a print ed v er sion of the ques tionnair e, whose content and r esear ch r esults ar e pr esented in T able 1. Aft er initial dis tribution, tw o r eminder s t o fill in the ques tionnair e wer e sent. In t ot al, the pr ocess las t ed ap - pr o ximat ely one month. F our r eplies wer e r eceiv ed, though one had to be e x cluded fr om the analysis owing to its non-alignment with the ins tructions f or completion. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 pr e f er t o a v oid a ff ecting individuals 67 33 pr e f er ence f or bene fits t o the or g anisa tion pr e f er one c andida t e 33 67 pr e f er ence f or mode c andida t es pr e f er r espect f or priv acy 100 pr e f er ence f or c onsider a tion of per sonality tr aits man y pa ths lead t o r esults 33 67 prior de finition of e xpect ed c ompe t encies is necessar y pr e f er f as t selection pr ocedur e 67 33 pr e f er multi-s t ag e selection pr ocedur e no added v alue b y senior member s of the c ommision 33 33 33 senior c ommission member s ar e use ful v e tt ed c omposition of the c ommision is critic al 33 67 HRM e xperts ar e needed as member s of the c ommission pos t -analy sis of the selection pr ocess is not needed 33 67 pos t -analy sis of the selection pr ocess is bene ficial Table 1: Results of a survey among members of SBC. Distribution of the answers on the 7-point semantic differential scale (in %). For details of the survey, please contact the author. 226 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 Alr eady , fr om the beginning of the empiric al part of the r esear ch and bec ause of the small siz e of the popula tion addr essed, it w as ob vious tha t no c omple x s t a- tis tic al analy sis of r esults w ould be possible. E v en if w e agr ee with R osc oe (1975) tha t sample siz e s be tw een 30 and 500 ar e appr opria t e f or the majority of analy - ses, but tha t »in c ase of simple e xperimen t al r esear ch with tigh t e xperimen t al c on tr ols, succe ss ful r e se ar ch is possible with sample s as small as 10 t o 20 in siz e « (Sek ar an 2003, 295), the use of Y amane’ s (1967) r ec ommenda tions w ould s till br ing us t o a sam ple siz e of nine r e c e iv e d ans w e r s t o ob t ain sig nific an t r e sults f or the t ot al popula tion of 10, with the c on fidence le v el of 90%. In or der t o r aise the c on fidence le v el, the t ot al pop ula tion of the SBC should ha v e ans w er ed the sur - vey. So , mor e than jus t the c onclusion tha t appr o xima t ely one-thir d of SBC mem- ber s ar e g ener ally w ell-aligned t o the v alue orien t a tions of modern HRM pr ac- tices c oncerning the hiring pr ocess, the ob ser v a tion tha t almos t tw o-thir ds de- cide d not t o ans w e r the 8-que s tion and 15 -minut e sur v e y a ttr acts our in t e r e s t. Is ther e an y specific r a tionale f or tha t choice? Aft er e x cluding the mos t c ommon r easons f or not r esponding t o the sur v e y (e. g., v ague, sensitiv e or difficult ques tions, ab sence of sur v e y r ele v ance and its leng th, time bu r den, irr e v er en t tr ea tmen t, sur v e y sa tur a tion, security c oncerns) as pr oposed by T our ang eau e t al. (2000) and Gideon (2012) owing t o their impr ob- ability , w e h ypothesise tha t no ans w er situa tion in the pr esen t ed c ase is pr edom- inan tly the c ons equence of an ab sence of clear per sonal opinions about the spe- cific t opic in ques tion. 5. Discussion and Conclusion In tr ying t o v erif y the h ypothesis, w e analy se whe ther ther e ar e an y publicly a v ai- lable v alue orien t a tions of the Chur ch officials or e xperts c oncerning the hiring pr ocedur e f or the la y f aith ful. In such a c ase, these guidelines ma y ha v e in t erf er ed wi th th e g en er al HRM r ec ommen d a tion s an d r esu l t ed i n th e d eci si on o f cert ai n SBC me mber s not t o ans w er the pr esen t ed sur v e y , t o a v oid r e v ealing a pot en tial c on flict situa tion be tw een the diff er en t se ts of v alues. Aft er s tudying the select ed and r ela tiv ely sc ar ce lit er a tur e tha t deals with the subjects of HRM theor y and pr actice in the Chur ch, w e c onclude tha t tw o t opics, c onnect ed t o hiring activity , ha v e a ttr act ed the special a tt en tion of ac ademics. The fir s t subjec t is the w a y parishes appr oach the possible c andida t es f or job v a- c ancies and, sec ond, the import ance of the c andida t e’ s fit. These ar eas of r esear ch c an be c on t e xtually r ela t ed t o the fir s t tw o phases of P f e ff er ’ s a f or emen tioned model (1998): the e xis t ence of a lar g e applic an t pool fr om which t o select, and scr eening f or the cultur al fit and a ttitude of c andida t es. Within the fir s t t opic pr esen t a tion, w e s t art by men tioning Murnion, who publis- hed his work about la ys as new parish minis ter s (Murnion 1992). When t alking about 227 Zoran Vaupot - Hiring Lay Faithful in the Catholic Church hiring activity , he diff er entiat es between the ,pr of essional‘ appr oach and the one (let us c all it ,per sonal‘) tha t r ela t es t o the pas t or ’ s pr evious e xperience with the la y per - son t o be hir ed. Accor ding t o the surv ey , the ,per sonal‘ appr oach has been dominant and used in almos t 82% of the hiring pr ocedur es. As F o x writ es (2010), this obser v a- tion has been c onfirmed by tw o subsequen t pieces of r esear ch by Murnion and De- Lambo (1999) and DeLambo (2005). In the latter , the author r evealed that mor e than half of la y parish minis t er s ha v e been inf ormed about the a v ailable minis try position thr ough dir ect c on t act fr om the pas t or or other parish employ ees. It is a logic al assump tion, then, tha t in hiring decisions, pas t or s v alue per sonal qualities, good interper sonal skills, specific ministerial e xperiences, pr a y erfulness and the sharing of a similar ecclesiology . In 2010, DeLambo c omple t ed these pr e vious r esults with the ob ser v a tion tha t only 22% of la y parish minis t er s ha v e fir s t r eceiv ed inf orma tion about the a v ailable position thr ough mor e f ormal means, lik e mag azine adv ertisements, int ernet pos tin- gs, the r eligious or der netw ork, et c. The c onclusion is tha t little emphasis is placed on pr evious e xperience, lik e f ormal educ a tion or tr ainings, and »in t erms of r ecruit - men t pr actices and job qualific a tions, la y parish minis try r emains lar g ely inf ormal« (DeLambo 2010, 36–37). The t opic of cultur al fit and the a ttitude of c andida t es in c onnection with both scien tific and r eligious/biblic al principles has a ttr act ed the a tt en tion of Cousins, An- der son and DeK ruyter (1990), who list thr ee important criteria to be consider ed when hiring: Chris tian c ommitmen t (it mak es people bett er w ork er s since they mos t pr o- bably ev alua t e their activity as a v oc a tion), c ompa tibility (t eam pla y er s who fit the Chur ch’ s cultur e and whose c ompet ence is c ompa tible), and a c ombina tion of c om- pet ence, dedic a tion and vision. Messina (2007) f ocuses on f our ar eas in the pr ocess of r ecruitmen t and selection. Besides the cultur al and position fit of the applic an ts, their e xpect a tion of job security mus t be acknowledg ed. The author underlines tha t the whole pr ocess should be w ell-or g anised and unhurried, but also tr anspar en t. The starting point of R oberts’ (2015) r esear ch is the concept of serv ant leader ship pr omoted by scriptur e. The author supports the e x ecution of a r ealis tic job-pr eview , which tackles the positive and neg ative char acteristics of the specific job and the who- le org anisation. Such an appr oach enables the candidates themselves to evaluate reali- stically whether their per sonal attributes are a suitable fit. Meetings between the ap- plicants, supervisor s and current employees can support this down-to-earth evaluation. The priority of fir s t c onsidering the per son-or g anisa tion fit and only la t er the per - son-job fit during the pr ocess of hiring is emphasised by Wins t on (2018). Finally , be- sides the c oncern f or using both in t ernal and e xt ernal sour ces t o es t ablish a lar g e pool of appr opria t e c andida t es t o choose the righ t per son f or the job, Busuttil and V an W eelden (2018) highligh t the import ance of ma t ching the mos t appr opria t e c andida t es t o specific jobs (a s tructur al per spectiv e), but also their fit with the who- le or g anisa tion (a r ela tional per spectiv e). W e c onclude by our obser v a tion tha t ther e is no import an t diff er ence be tw een the theor etic al, g ener al HRM r ec ommenda tions and those dealing specific ally with 228 Bogoslovni vestnik 82 (2022) • 1 the Chur ch hiring pr ocedur es as pr esen t ed in the lit er a tur e. The only issue accen tu- a t ed in the Chur ch situa tion is a diff er ence in the fir s t phase of the hiring pr ocess. Based on the pr esen t ed r esear ch, which describes this pr actice ‚as is ‘ without ev a- lua ting its (in)appr opria t eness, it seems tha t Chur ch pr actice usually does not f ollow the principle of cr ea ting a lar g e applic an t pool of possible c andida t es f or the job. Ra ther , this is r eplaced b y mor e per sonal, individual in vit a tions c ommunic a t ed t o pr e viously -select ed applic an ts. Whe ther only one or mor e in vit ed applic an ts t ak e part in the selection pr ocess does not seem t o be of primary import ance. Wha t r e- ally appear s t o c oun t is tha t the scr eening of the c andida t e’ s fit is an activity usually e x ecut ed be f or e c andida t es ar e in vit ed t o en t er the selection pr ocess and tha t they ma y ev en be una w ar e of the f act. W e ar gue tha t the pr esen t ed c onclusions about diff er ences betw een theory and pr actice ma y also , a t leas t partially , e xplain de facto r ejection of our sur v ey by an import an t part of the SBC member s. T o v erify the v ali- dity of such an in t erpr e t a tion, it w ould be in t er es ting t o c onduct a similar type of r esear ch within the sc ope of the Bishops’ c onf er ences of other c oun tries. This c ould r epr esen t an in t er es ting s t arting poin t t o w ar d implemen ting a mor e s tructur ed appr oach, not only f or the purpose of the c on tinuous impr ov emen t of hiring pr oce- dur es in the Chur ch but also of its ov er all HRM pr of essionalism. Initia tiv es such as the cr ea tion of the Dic as t er y f or Laity , F amily and Lif e in 2016, when P ope Fr ancis mer g ed pr eviously separ a t e bodies in t o one ins titution, c an mak e an import an t c on- tribution. Acc or ding t o the pr e f ect, Car dinal K e vin Joseph F arr ell, the thr ead tha t c onnects these ar eas is the fundamen t al r ole of the laity in the Chur ch: they ar e c al- led, abov e all, t o contribut e t o the f orma tion of the Chris tian lif e of other la y people, and t o assume gr ea t er r esponsibility in their parishes and dioceses (Zamuda 2019). The w ork of the dic as t ery soon bor e fruit in the f orm of the launch of the w ebsit e www .laityin v olv ed.or g , which pr esen ts initia tiv es and good pr actices in t erms of the ev angeliz a tion, f orma tion and encour agemen t of la y people tha t ha v e been success- ful in some countries and could be imit at ed in other s. Also , good pr actices in r elation t o the empow ermen t of the laity and the c orr esponding HRM appr oaches ar e nee- ded to achieve this goal. Abreviation HRM – Human r esour ces manag emen t. References Aberdeen Group . 20 0 8 . 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