Bri tt on & Tesser, 1991). According to Valcour (2007) work–life balance is of huge importance for organi ‐ za ti ons, employees, and socie ti es across the world. It improves organiza ti onal e fficiency, reduces stress, and improves employee well ‐being and health. (Sánchez ‐Hernández, González ‐López, Buenadicha ‐ Mateos, & Tato ‐Jiménez, 2019). Furthermore, control over work hours or quality ti me management also has been associated with lower work family conflict (Jansen, Kant, Nijhuis, Swaen, & Kristensen, 2004). In modern organiza ti onal se tti ngs, more and more employees report work overload, complex work demands, and longer working hours (Vogel, 1 INTRODUCTION The subject of work–life balance (WLB) con ‐ nected with the role of work overload is extremely relevant nowadays (Aggarwal, 2018). As workplace expecta ti ons rise, employees struggle to manage their ti me and juggle work and personal lives, as well as to achieve high results at work (Kossek et al., 2010). Managing the ti me or ti me management can be viewed as a way of monitoring and controlling ti me (Eilam & Aharon, 2003). In essence, what people gain from ti me management is not more ti me, but be tt er work–life balance (Misra & McKean, 2000; Work overload and ti me management are becoming increasingly important as demands increase in both professional and personal life, which relates to work–life balance. Work overload and ti me management also have serious implica ‐ ti ons for individual work performance. This study examined how ti me management moderates the e ffect of job overload on job performance, as well as the rela ti onship between work overload and work–life balance. The results show that work overload has a nega ti ve impact on job performance and work–life balance. This study also shows that ti me man ‐ agement moderates the rela ti onship between work overload and job performance, making the rela ti onship between these two factors less nega ti ve. These findings suggest that it is important for both individuals and organiza ti ons to pay more a tt en ti on to ti me management because it can improve work–life balance and work performance. Keywords: work overload, ti me management, job performance, work–life balance THE INTERPLAY AMONG WORK OVERLOAD AND TIME MANAGEMENT IN PREDICTING JOB PERFORMANCE AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE Iza Zorec School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana zorec.iza@gmail.com Jan Ho čevar School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana jan.hocevar2@gmail.com Luka Eržen School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana luka.erzen@ef.uni ‐lj.si Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 47 Abstract Vol. 10, No. 2, 47 ‐65 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2021.v10n02a04 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 48 Iza Zorec, Jan Ho čevar, Luka Eržen: The Interplay Among Work Overload and Time Management in Predic ti ng Job Performance and Work–Life Balance 2012). Employees o ft en feel overloaded with work because of an excessive number of performance re ‐ quirements (Lewis, 1998). Virick, Lilly, and Casper (2007) found that employees with increased work ‐ load have lower perceived work–life balance. Poulose and Dhal (2020) demonstrated that individ ‐ uals with high workload face di fficul ti es in balancing work and life. Other findings suggest that posi ti ve ti me management is associated with self ‐rated aca ‐ demic performance (Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, & Phillips, 1990), job sa ti sfac ti on (Landy, Rastegary, Thayer, & Colvin, 1991), self ‐perceived organiza ‐ ti onal performance (Lim & Seers, 1993), and lower perceived job overload. As far as we are aware, there currently are no studies that discussed a clear rela ti onship between ti me management as a moderator and WLB, work overload, and job performance. However, there are some studies of ti me management as a moderator between di fferent constructs, which we discuss sub ‐ sequently. Numerous studies have focused on work– life balance and its importance in today’s world (Fleetwood, 2007; Crompton & Lyone tt e, 2006; Hjálmsdó tti r & Bjarnadó tti r, 2021). However, despite the increasing interest of researchers in studying work–life balance, to our knowledge there is li tt le re ‐ search describing a clear rela ti onship between work–life balance and ti me management skills. Fen ‐ ner and Renn (2010) showed that individuals who practi ce ti me management are able to separate their work behaviors from their family behaviors and es ‐ tablish a be tt er work–life balance. Jex & Elacqua (1999) demonstrated that the rela ti onship between work–family conflict and mental health was strongest among respondents who reported prac ti c ‐ ing more ti me management. In addi ti on, Kha ti b (2014) found a nega ti ve correla ti on between ti me management and perceived stress. This means that be tt er ti me management skills lead to lower stress levels, which is associated with be tt er performance. With our research, we hope to gain new insights into this rela ti onship between ti me management and work performance. However, several studies have shown a strong correla ti on between work–life bal ‐ ance and employee job performance, implying that they are connected (Kim, 2014; Smith, Smith, & Brower, 2016), yet represent two di fferent but re ‐ lated aspects of desirable work outcomes. When talking about job performance, it is im ‐ portant to bring work overload into the picture. Job performance can be increased and decreased by work overload (Bazillai, 2021). Brown & Benson (2005) showed a posi ti ve correla ti on between work ‐ load and job performance, whereas Ladebo & Awotunde (2007) showed that overload leads to employee exhaus ti on when they find it impossible to meet the resource demands of job requirements. The present study adds another contribu ti on to this not fully clarified correla ti on between overload and job performance. When discussing work overload, another area needs to be addressed, namely WLB. Virick et al. (2007) found that employees with in ‐ creased workload have a lower perceived work–life balance. Poulose & Dhal (2020) showed that indi ‐ viduals with high workloads have di fficulty balanc ‐ ing work and life. We clarified and further examined these connec ti ons between the two domains. This study examined how ti me management moderates the e ffects of work overload on job per ‐ formance, which is crucial for organiza ti ons and their produc ti vity, and how ti me management mod ‐ erates the rela ti onships between work overload and work–life balance. Firstly, we predicted that ti me management would be related posi ti vely to job per ‐ formance and work–life balance. Secondly, we pre ‐ dicted that higher perceived work overload leads to poorer work–life balance, and lower perceived work overload leads to higher job performance. Accord ‐ ing to Johari, Ridzoan, & Zarefar (2019), work over ‐ load does not have a significant impact on job performance; however, people usually react di ffer ‐ ently to workload. Some embrace it and take it as a challenge, whereas others show frustra ti on. We in ‐ ves ti gated this further under specific boundary con ‐ di ti ons of ti me management. Recently, many employees changed their job occupa ti on due to COVID ‐19 (25% more than usual), and many employees work from home (McKinsey, 2021). COVID ‐19 has led to a rapid change in the workplace. Many people began working from home, which has become the new normal (Kirby, 2020). This can be a problem for some, because the bound ‐ aries between work and leisure can become blurred. Work and private life easily threaten to merge when people live and work in the same rooms, leading to poorer work–life balance if an em ‐ Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 49 ployee’s perceived workload is higher (Telser, 2021). Therefore, we inves ti gated whether a higher per ‐ ceived workload leads to a worse work–life balance in this changed work environment. Skinner and Pocock (2008) found that work overload has two ef ‐ fects on work–life balance. Moreover, increased workload o ft en leads to longer working hours, and this contributes to feelings of strain. This research evaluated this on a di fferent sample of individuals whose work environment had recently changed. Finally, we studied whether lower perceived workload leads to higher job performance. Previous research found inconsistencies with these two con ‐ structs. Overload may increase job performance in some cases and decrease it in others. Brown & Ben ‐ son (2005) showed a posi ti ve correla ti on between workload and job performance, whereas some other studies showed that overload is associated with the outcome of lower job performance. Ladebo & Awotunde (2007) showed that overload leads to employee exhaus ti on when it is impossible for them to meet the resource requirements of job demands. However, a moderate workload can lead to performance gains. Our research has the poten ti al to contribute to the literature in several ways. Firstly, we inves ti gated whether nega ti ve e ffects of work overload can be tamed through be tt er ti me management. Secondly, we inves ti gated how work overload a ffects job per ‐ formance and work–life balance, adding ti me man ‐ agement as a moderator. To our knowledge, this has not been studied before, and therefore is of great value to future researchers. In addi ti on, we inves ti ‐ gated how work overload and ti me management alone a ffect job performance and work–life balance. Kumar, Kumar, Aggarwal, & Yeap (2021) found that job performance is a ffected by di fferent factors such as family distrac ti ons, distress, and discomfort. They found that role overload does not nega ti vely a ffect job performance when working from home. We tested this finding on a di fferent sample and inves ti ‐ gated specific boundary condi ti ons related to ti me management. These findings may be of prac ti cal use to organiza ti ons and individuals who wonder if over ‐ load when working from home can be tamed through be tt er ti me management, leading to be tt er produc ‐ ti vity. Organiza ti ons can assess whether it is beneficial to train their employees to be more produc ti ve in order to learn be tt er ti me management. In addi ti on, Jex & Elacqua (1999) found that engagement in ti me management ac ti vi ti es had a posi ti ve feedback e ffect on employee mental health, but their research also showed that ti me management behaviors did not moderate the e ffect on overwork. We tested these results in a modern se tti ng in which technology plays an important role in ti me management ac ti vi ti es. Finally, our research also could provide prac ti cal benefits to organiza ti ons to be tt er understand em ‐ ployee health and performance in the workplace. Nowadays, with more and more tasks to complete, we can feel greater strain, which can translate into poorer mental health and consequently poorer job performance. The findings on ti me management as a moderator between work overload and job per ‐ formance may be of use to organiza ti ons as feelings of overload can be prevented through ti me manage ‐ ment training. However, people tend to struggle in the search for perfect work–life balance, so our re ‐ search may be of prac ti cal use to managers respon ‐ sible for employee job sa ti sfac ti on and e fficiency. 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Work–Life Balance and Work Overload Work–life balance is a rela ti vely modern ex ‐ pression (Warren, 2015). The concept might give an impression that it is a new problem, but there is no novelty in the core concept (Phipps & Prieto, 2016). The WLB metaphor is a social construct that has emerged in recent years, but the dilemmas associ ‐ ated with managing paid work alongside other areas of life, par ti cularly family, have been the subject of research for several decades (Lewis, Gambles, & Rapoport, 2007; Sirgy & Lee, 2017; Peeters, Jonge, & Taris, 2014; Warren, 2015). Work–life balance is defined as a person’s ability to meet his or her work and family obliga ti ons as well as other nonwork ac ti vi ti es and responsibili ti es. All defini ti ons of work–life balance can be catego ‐ rized based on two key dimensions. The first can be defined as role engagement in mul ti ple roles in work and nonwork life (Sirgy & Lee, 2017). The second can be understood as minimal conflict between work and nonwork roles (Sirgy & Lee, 2017). Sirgy & Lee (2017) also stated that WLB equilibrium is achieved Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 50 through e ffec ti ve management of role conflict, in which conflict or disrup ti on occurs when resources to meet role demand are threatened or lost Work or workplace environments of employees can strongly influence their non ‐work life situa ti ons and vice versa, which is o ft en referred to as “work– family interference” (Mache, Bernburg, Groneberg, Klapp, & Danzer, 2016). Over the last two decades, the line between a person’s work life and nonwork life has become increasingly blurred (Peeters et al., 2014). This largely is due to changes in family struc ‐ tures, the increasing parti cipa ti on of women in the workforce, and technological changes that have al ‐ tered the nature of work through the introduc ti on of remote working prac ti ces (Peeters et al., 2005). Work overload refers to the inability to com ‐ plete tasks in the allo tt ed ti me, which can lead to impairment of social and private life (Kirch, 2008). It can result from addi ti onal workload, but it does not have to. It also can be caused by mistakes some ‐ one makes at work, poor ti me management, or or ‐ ganiza ti onal problems (Daniels, 2017). It is believed that massive work overload can deplete workers’ exis ti ng resources, resul ti ng in fewer resources available to cope with tasks or de ‐ mands outside of work (Karatepe, 2013). Vogel (2012) pointed out that workers who are given too many work tasks are more likely to experience stress and fa ti gue, leading to an imbalance between work and life domains. Chawla & Sondhi (2011) examined the rela ti onships between perceived work overload and WLB among Indian women and found that WLB was nega ti vely predicted by perceived work over ‐ load. This is because WLB provides benefits in the form of a combina ti on of increased job sa ti sfac ti on and loyalty; promo ti on of job performance; reduc ‐ ti on of costs due to turnover, absenteeism, recruit ‐ ment, and selec ti on; and increased organiza ti onal produc ti vity (Lazar, Osoian, & Ra ti u, 2010). To adapt organiza ti onal structures to the needs of employees or to respond to government regula ti ons on gender equality and family protec ti on, many companies al ‐ locate resources to work–life balance ini ti a ti ves (Pasamar & Cabrera, 2013). H1a: Perceived work overload is nega ti vely related to work–life balance. 2.2 Work Overload and Job Performance Work overload can also occur when a person is exposed to a higher ‐than ‐normal workload (Daniels, 2017). Kirch (2008) defined work overload as a situa ‐ ti on in which the demands of the job exceed the indi ‐ vidual’s ability ( ti me or resources) to cope with them. Job performance is one of the most important criteria for determining the e fficiency of an organi ‐ za ti on (Vathanophas, 2007). It is a func ti on of the ap ‐ plica ti on of a person’s skills, abili ti es, and inclina ti ons in performing a job in an organiza ti on (Hackman & Oldham 1976; Steers & Rhodes 1978). Performance is influenced by the complexity of the job, and is de ‐ fined in di fferent ways depending on the many phases and complica ti ons of the job (June & Mah ‐ mood, 2011). There seem to be so many variables that a ffect job performance that it is almost impos ‐ sible to make sense of them (Pushpakumari, 2008). According to Johari et al. (2019), people react di fferently to their workloads at the workplace. Some embrace it and take it as a challenge, whereas others show frustra ti on. As people are promoted and climb the corporate ladder, their workload in ‐ creases. This can a ffect their job performance, be ‐ cause they have to handle more pressure at their workplace (Johari et al., 2019). Chadegani, Mo ‐ hamed, & Iskandar (2015) found that when employ ‐ ees are exposed to more work than they can handle, they begin to perform the work with less e ffort, which means that the tasks are completed with lower quality. Ali & Farooqi (2014) also supported this in their research, which found that work over ‐ load leads to poor employee performance, which also leads to job dissa ti sfac ti on. Furthermore Johari et al. (2019) suggested that the rela ti onship be ‐ tween workload and job performance is not always linear. Employee produc ti vity increases up to a cer ‐ tain point, a ft er which it begins to decline. There ‐ fore, these results indicate that job performance is highest when workload is moderate (Johari et al., 2019). However, if an incen ti ve plan and proper training are given to employees, their performance can increase and they can become more sa ti sfied with their jobs (Tahir et al., 2012). However, Johari et al. (2019) showed that work overload has no significant e ffect on the job perfor ‐ mance of government auditors. When auditors’ cur ‐ Iza Zorec, Jan Ho čevar, Luka Eržen: The Interplay Among Work Overload and Time Management in Predic ti ng Job Performance and Work–Life Balance Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 51 rent workload exceeds their usual workload, they experience stress. When this situa ti on occurs, they usually make extra e ffort to cope with this high de ‐ mand. They o ft en view work overload as a chal ‐ lenge, and this means that it can have a posi ti ve e ffect on job performance in this situa ti on. Johari et al. showed that there is a posi ti ve correla ti on be ‐ tween work overload and job performance, which is not always the case. Furthermore, Brown & Ben ‐ son (2005) also showed a posi ti ve correla ti on be ‐ tween work overload and job performance. On the other hand, other studies showed that work over ‐ load is associated with lower job performance of in ‐ dividuals. Ladebo & Awotunde (2007) stated that overload leads to employee exhaus ti on when it is impossible for them to meet the resource require ‐ ments of job demands. However, moderate work ‐ load also can lead to performance gains. H1b: Perceived overload is posi ti vely related to job performance. 2.3 Time Management and Work–Life Balance Individuals who excel at ti me management o ft en overes ti mate the passage of ti me, set dead ‐ lines for themselves, and consistently monitor ti me use. These individuals typically get more work done, which increases their e fficiency and o ft en lowers their percep ti on of work overload. When working from home, these improvements in e fficiently man ‐ aging work demands through ti me management o ft en lead to a reduc ti on in work–family conflict (Fenner & Renn, 2010). Time management is the process of planning and consciously controlling the ti me spent on cer ‐ tain ac ti vi ti es with the aim of increasing e fficiency or produc ti vity (Ahmad, Ahmad, Wahab, & Shobri, 2012). This is very important because if one does not develop skills for be tt er ti me management, one’s life can become very stressful and unproduc ‐ ti ve (Size, 2004). To avoid this, it is crucial that a per ‐ son creates a good work–life balance in addi ti on to good ti me management skills (Anwar, Hasnu, & Jan ‐ jua, 2013). WLB is about people having some degree of control over when, where, and how they work. The results of a good WLB strategy include higher produc ti vity; be tt er recruitment and reten ti on; lower absenteeism; lower overhead costs; a be tt er customer experience; and a more mo ti vated, sa ti s ‐ fied, and equitable workforce (Anwar et al., 2013). Nowadays, there are more and more interrup ‐ ti ons in the workday because people must switch between professional and personal texts, emails, and websites, which o ft en leads to fragmented and short a tt en ti on spans and loss of process because they cannot focus on their work or nonwork role for longer periods (Kossek, 2016). Therefore, ti me man ‐ agement skills need to be used to balance work and leisure (Grissom, Loeb, & Mitani, 2015). Although there are many ways to organize and manage ti me, the fundamental basis for any ti me management process is linked to the planning process (Farrell, 2017). In se tti ng and planning individual and orga ‐ niza ti onal priori ti es, an organiza ti on’s vision and purpose help employees determine their work and what is most important to accomplish. Plans help to avoid wasted tasks and underproduc ti ve ti me (Fit ‐ simmons, 2008). In addi ti on to planning, goal se tti ng is impor ‐ tant. If one is juggling a variety of tasks and respon ‐ sibili ti es, one will have a be tt er sense of what is important if one knows the vision and goals of the organiza ti on or one’s personal goals so one can focus on priority projects (Farrell, 2017). Jex & Elacqua (1999) provided evidence of the posi ti ve rela ti onship between ti me management and employee health mediated by other factors such as perceived control and conflict between work and family demands. The rela ti onship between work– family conflict and mental health was strongest among respondents who reported using more ti me management. Fenner & Renn (2010) found that in ‐ dividuals who prac ti ce ti me management behaviors, specifically se tti ng goals and priori ti es on a daily basis, can separate their work behaviors from their family behaviors. Those who do not prac ti ce this ti me management o ft en ac ti vely switch between family and work ac ti vi ti es while at home, resul ti ng in higher levels of reported work–family conflict. Time management prac ti ces have been shown to mi ti gate the e ffects of work–family conflict. H2: Time management is posi ti vely related to work– life balance. Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 52 2.4 Time Management and Job Performance Green & Skinner (2005) showed that ti me man ‐ agement training programs can lead to an under ‐ standing of the key principles of ti me management, which leads to improvements in relevant skill areas, which also are encouraged by their line managers. They found that the key factor leading individuals to experience the environment as stressful was related to control over workload and individuals’ percep ‐ ti ons of their ability to meet the demands placed on them. Green & Skinner suggested that ti me man ‐ agement training has a poten ti al role in stress man ‐ agement that posi ti vely a ffects the e ffec ti veness of individuals and organiza ti ons. However, Macan (1994) found that ti me management behaviors are not directly associated with posi ti ve outcomes for individuals, but work through percep ti ons of control over ti me, which has posi ti ve impact on job perfor ‐ mance. If a person thinks they have control over ti me, those outcomes will manifest. Benefits of e ffec ti ve ti me management may re ‐ sult in improved job sa ti sfac ti on and lower stress levels (Chase et al., 2013). Furthermore, Kha ti b (2014) found a nega ti ve correla ti on between ti me management and perceived stress. Individuals who have be tt er ti me management and consequently ex ‐ perience lower levels of stress were associated with be tt er academic performance. However, ti me man ‐ agement does not always have posi ti ve e ffects on individuals. Macan (1994) found that certain ti me management behaviors can have a posi ti ve e ffect on tension and job sa ti sfac ti on, but not on job per ‐ formance. Macan (1994) concluded that the use of ti me management behaviors, such as making to ‐do lists, is not beneficial for everyone. Making a list of tasks that individuals need to complete gives them objec ti ve feedback on their progress on projects or tasks that they need to complete. If they do not complete these listed ac ti vi ti es, the percep ti on of having li tt le control over ti me can be a deterrent. Campbell & Wiernik (2015) stated that job per ‐ formance must be explained from two perspecti ves: the behavioral perspec ti ve, and the outcome per ‐ spec ti ve. From the behavioral perspec ti ve, job per ‐ formance refers to what employees do or how their behavior is visible at work. From the outcome per ‐ specti ve, performance refers to the results of em ‐ ployees’ behavior. The behavioral and outcome as ‐ pects of performance are interrelated (Campbell et al., 1993). In addi ti on, job performance also can be divided into the dimensions of e ffec ti veness and produc ti vity (Pritchard, 1995). There is a significant di fference between produc ti vity and e ffec ti veness. Whereas e ffec ti veness refers to the degree to which something successfully produces a desired result, produc ti vity is explained as the e ffec ti veness of pro ‐ duc ti ve e fforts (Darvishmotevali & Ali, 2020). For more than 20 years, stressful working con ‐ di ti ons have been shown to be associated with poor mental health in workers (Jex & Elacqua, 1999). This has been shown to a ffect work performance. How ‐ ever, these e ffects can be tamed by be tt er ti me man ‐ agement, because it has a posi ti ve impact on stress and consequently on the e ffec ti veness of the indi ‐ vidual (Green & Skinner, 2005). Therefore, it is im ‐ portant for every individual, especially managers, to know the benefits of ti me management behaviors. Chase et al. (2013) divided ti me management into three di fferent categories: ti me es ti ma ti on behav ‐ iors, planning behaviors, and monitoring behaviors. Understanding and incorpora ti ng certain parts of ti me management could be beneficial to individuals because it could increase their work performance. Chase et al (2013) stated that ti me management al ‐ lows researchers to focus on their work. Time man ‐ agement ac ti vi ti es can help individuals eliminate distrac ti ons that a ffect their produc ti vity. A ft er scheduling ac ti vi ti es, an individual can monitor which task needs to be completed at a given ti me and can focus fully on that task, knowing that other work is due at another ti me (Chase et al., 2013). H2b: Time management is posi ti vely related to job performance. 2.5 Time Management as a Moderator between Work Overload and Work–Life Balance A high workload o ft en leads to an increase in work hours, which in turn contributes to feelings of overload (Skinner & Pocock, 2008). Frone, Yardley, & Markel (1997) found that work overload was posi ‐ ti vely correlated with hours worked, and both were posi ti vely related to work–life conflict. Skinner & Pocock (2008) confirmed that work overload was the Iza Zorec, Jan Ho čevar, Luka Eržen: The Interplay Among Work Overload and Time Management in Predic ti ng Job Performance and Work–Life Balance Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 53 strongest predictor of work–life conflict. Moreover, work–life conflict was found to increase with higher perceived workload. In general, researchers have found a nega ti ve rela ti onship between ti me manage ‐ ment and burnout or work overload, meaning that those who engage in less ti me management may ex ‐ perience higher levels of burnout than those who manage their ti me be tt er (Peeters & Ru tt e, 2005). A recent study (Daniels, 2017) found that more than 200,000 respondents reported being over ‐ worked and having di fficulty balancing their per ‐ sonal and professional lives. For these individuals, working more than 39 hours per week seems to make it too di fficult to balance their personal and professional lives (Daniels, 2017). Kirch (2008) found that work overload also o ft en leads to work ‐related stress, which in turn can cause burnout syndrome. Furthermore, according to Taylor, Repe tti , & See ‐ man (1997), employees who feel they have to work too long and too much on too many tasks report more stress, poorer health habits, and more health complaints than employees who do not su ffer from work overload. As men ti oned previously, Jex & Elac ‐ qua (1999) found that the rela ti onship between work–family conflict and health was strongest among respondents who reported using more ti me management. Specifically, regarding ti me manage ‐ ment as a moderator between work–family conflict and strain, Jex & Elacqua’s results showed that ti me management behaviors did not moderate the ef ‐ fects on strain. Furthermore, strain was posi ti vely associated with overload, implying that ti me man ‐ agement may have had an influence as a moderator between work–family conflict and overload, al ‐ though the links are not direct. However, all dimensions of ti me management were nega ti vely related to workload, implying that those who engage in more ti me management are less likely to su ffer from work overload and conse ‐ quently are be tt er able to balance work and life, ac ‐ cording to Skinner & Pocock (2008). Fenner & Renn (2010) highlighted the fact that individuals who prac ti ce ti me management are able to separate their work behaviors from their family behaviors. Macan (1994) also found that prac ti cing ti me man ‐ agement behaviors was associated with lower levels of work–related tension, and thus of overload, and higher levels of job sa ti sfac ti on. Moreover, the ef ‐ fects of work overload can be minimized through ti me management (Macan, 1994). Previous studies and numerous guidebooks suggest that one can use and improve ti me e fficiently and produc ti vely by se tti ng short ‐ and long ‐term goals, keeping ti me logs, priori ti zing tasks, making to ‐do lists and sched ‐ ules, while also organizing one’s workspace (Claessens, van Eerde, Ru tt e, & Roe, 2007; Macan, 1994). The purpose of ti me management is to in ‐ crease the nature of ac ti vi ti es to be carried out within a limited period, which means that ac ti vi ti es are planned wisely and one can limit the e ffects of overload (Karakose, 2015). Addi ti onally, e ffec ti ve ti me management provides an individual with the opportunity to devote more ti me to his/her family and rela ti ves despite being loaded with work, and enjoy life nonetheless (Karakose and Kocabas 2009). Consequently, by minimizing the e ffects of work overload and improving ti me management skills, one can establish a be tt er work–life balance (Karatepe, 2013; Aryee, Srinivas, & Tan, 2005; Vogel, 2012; Chawla and Sondhi, 2011). H3a: Time management moderates the rela ti onship between overload and work life balance. For high levels of ti me management, the rela ti onship is less negati ve. 2.6 Time Management as Moderator between Work Overload and Job Performance Time management can be helpful in avoiding work overload and possibly improving an individual’s work performance. Karatepe (2013) stated that work overload o ft en leads to ine ffec ti ve work perfor ‐ mance; therefore, limi ti ng work overload would ben ‐ efit the individual’s job performance. Employees who are overworked in terms of the number of tasks to be completed report more stress, prac ti ce poorer health habits, and report more health complaints (Taylor et al., 1997). These causes of overwork lead to employee dissa ti sfac ti on at work, which has been shown to reduce an individual’s job performance (Ali & Farooqi, 2014). Brown & Benson (2005) suggested that stress not only causes employees not to per ‐ form at their best, but s also can cause high perform ‐ ers in an organiza ti on to take shortcuts in their work Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 54 or even be tempted to leave the organiza ti on be ‐ cause they feel pressured at work. Daniel (2020) found that when ti me management is high, individ ‐ uals are be tt er able to cope with pressure at work and their work performance also increases. The value of ti me management lies in iden ti fying and managing tasks according to their importance and coordina ti ng them with other resources. Time man ‐ agement keeps things in order, which allows one to be more produc ti ve and fulfilled. This posi ti ve or nega ti ve ti me management is reflected in the per ‐ formance of the organiza ti on, which is why it is so important for managers (Daniel, 2020). Jex & Elacqua (1999) found overload to be pos ‐ i ti vely related to strain, and ti me management be ‐ haviors were posi ti vely related to feelings of control over ti me. Moreover, individuals who have a feeling of control over ti me experience lower levels of strain. Thus, feelings of control over ti me were neg ‐ a ti vely related to overload, implying that individuals who engage in more ti me management behaviors are less likely to be a ffected by overload (Jex & Elac ‐ qua, 1999). In addi ti on, Macan (1994) found that ti me management behavior operates through per ‐ cep ti ons of control over ti me. If a person believes that he or she has control over ti me, his or her work performance will increase. Using these two studies, we can conclude that with high ti me management, the rela ti onship between overload and job perfor ‐ mance is less nega ti ve, which means that when overload is higher, the use of ti me management can increase an individual’s job performance, because they have a feeling of control over ti me. In addi ti on, Ahmad et al. (2012) found that job performance is a ffected significantly by ti me man ‐ agement. They also pointed out that it is crucial for organiza ti ons to train their employees in the proper management of their ti me, because this is an im ‐ portant factor in achieving high employee perfor ‐ mance, which then is reflected in organiza ti onal performance. Specifically, employees pointed out that ti me management can be extremely beneficial for them to maintain their job performance when they do not have enough ti me to complete all their tasks (Ahmad et al., 2012). Ahmad et al. (2012) sug ‐ gested that by analyzing and priori ti zing tasks and making to ‐do lists, employees can structure and dis ‐ tribute their workload, and consequently improve their performance. Employees also can save ti me through the use of technology, which also was rec ‐ ommended by Packard (2016), who emphasized the posi ti ve e ffects of the use of various apps to orga ‐ nize everything from work to personal life. Technol ‐ ogy in conjunc ti on with scheduled breaks can help an employee clear their mind and fully focus on cur ‐ rent scheduled ac ti vi ti es (Packard, 2016). Specifi ‐ cally, the use of the Evernote applica ti on was suggested, because it proved to be the most e ffi ‐ cient (Packard, 2016). However, nowadays there are numerous applica ti ons on the market that can help employees improve their ti me management and performance, such as Trello, Asana, and ClickUp. H3b: Time management moderates the rela ti onship between overload and job performance. For high levels of ti me management, the rela ti onship is less nega ti ve. Iza Zorec, Jan Ho čevar, Luka Eržen: The Interplay Among Work Overload and Time Management in Predic ti ng Job Performance and Work–Life Balance Figure 1: Research model Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 55 The rela ti onships between work overload, work–life balance, ti me management, job perfor ‐ mance, and ti me management as a moderator be ‐ tween work overload and job performance and between work overload and work–life balance are expressed by the six formulated hypotheses visual ‐ ized in Figure 1. 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Sample and collec ti on of data To test the hypothesized rela ti onships between overload, job performance, work–life balance, and how ti me management moderates these rela ti on ‐ ships, we surveyed 127 working professionals. Of these respondents, 41% were students, 33% were full‐ti me employees, and 3% were self ‐employed in ‐ dividuals. Percentages of individuals who were re ‐ ti red, out of work or looking for work, unable to work, and other were negligible. This study was quan ti ta ti ve in nature, based on ques ti onnaire sur ‐ vey technique. The survey method was used for data collec ti on; a ques ti onnaire was used as an in ‐ strument of the survey method, and the ques ti on ‐ naire was distributed to a sample of the popula ti on. 3.2 Measurement Our sampling type was convenience sampling, which is a nonprobability sampling method and in ‐ cludes individuals who are most accessible to the researcher (McCombes, 2019). Par ti cipants in con ‐ venience sampling are selected based on their avail ‐ ability and willingness to take part in research (Barra tt & Shan ti kumar, 2010). The survey was distributed through social media sites, emails, direct contact with persons, and direct messages. Our constructs in the survey con ‐ sisted of workload, work–life balance sa ti sfac ti on, ti me management (assessment of ti me manage ‐ ment skills), well ‐being/stress scale, and job perfor ‐ mance. Work mode (before, during, and a ft er COVID ‐19, and preference for work mode in the fu ‐ ture) and demographic ‐based ques ti ons were also assessed. The ques ti onnaire contained a total of 20 ques ti ons, including seven demographic ques ti ons; four ques ti ons about work mode before, during, and a ft er COVID ‐19 (physical loca ti on, hybrid, or work from home; if it has changed; do respondents like it; and what will they prefer in the future); four scales from another group we worked with; and five scales of our own. The first scale, workload, con ‐ sisted of nine items or statements to which respon ‐ dents selected responses ranging from “”strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The second scale, ti me management, consisted of 15 items. The third scale, well ‐being or overload, consisted of six items. The fourth scale, work–life balance sa ti sfac ti on, con ‐ sisted of seven items. The fi ft h scale, job perfor ‐ mance, consisted of six items. This was followed by ques ti ons about work mode, demographic ques ‐ ti ons, and work experience. The survey was open for 26 days and was sent to 421 individuals, from whom 260 ques ti onnaires were incomplete and 34 were par ti ally finished, leaving us with 127 usable ques ti onnaires (30% re ‐ sponse rate). These 127 ques ti onnaires were used for the final analysis of the study. Matrix ques ti ons were used for well ‐being, job performance, ti me management, work–life balance, and workload. Respondents selected responses ranging from “strongly disagree” to ”strongly agree” with the statement that was part of the ques ti on on a par ti cular construct. All constructs were measured using 7 ‐point Likert scales ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. Mul ti ple ‐choice, open ‐ended ques ti ons were used for work mode and demographic data. The ques ti onnaire was based on previously val ‐ idated scales. For workload, we followed ques ti ons used by De Bruin & Taylor (2006) (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.137). When crea ti ng the work–life balance ques ‐ ti onnaire, we used Omar, Mohd, & Ari ffin’s (2015) Sa ti sfac ti on with Work ‐Life Balance scale (2013) (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.922). For ti me management, we applied the ques ti onnaire by White, Riley, & Flom (2013) (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.591). For well ‐ being, work overload and for examining the impact on work performance, we used the study by Rod ‐ well, Kienzle, & Shadur (1998) (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.717). The ques ti ons on demographics were based roughly on the ques ti onnaire of Omar, Mohd & Ar ‐ i ffin (2015), with adapta ti ons for our research con ‐ structs and our target group of respondents. Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 56 4 RESULTS Table 1 summarizes the respondents’ age, mean, and standard devia ti on for our constructs. For age, we asked a mul ti ple ‐choice ques ti on with response op ti ons of 17 and younger, 18 to 24 years, 25 to 34 years, 35 to 44 years, 45 to 54 years, and 54 or older. The mean was 3.02, which means that the average age of the respondents was between 25 and 34 years old, with a standard devia ti on of 1.198, which means that the responses were be ‐ tween 18 and 44 years old. The average age of 25– 34 years indicates that the respondents on average probably already were working or studying at some point in ti me, which was consistent with our target group. In response to our ques ti on about employ ‐ ment, 41% of respondents answered that they were students and 33% answered that they were full‐ti me employees, which was consistent with our desired sample, because these two groups were the most a ffected by the change due to COVID ‐19 in terms of work. This means that their work–life balance was challenged, and that their perceived overload had changed, which may lead to a di fferent work perfor ‐ mance. Our study also inves ti gated whether these e ffects could be tamed through ti me management. Table 1 lists the means, standard devia ti ons, and Pearson correla ti on coe fficients for the main variables. Interes ti ngly, the correla ti on between work–life balance and overload is moderate, nega ‐ ti ve, and sta ti s ti cally significant. This implies that the work–life balance of individuals with higher levels of overload worsens. Another interes ti ng finding is that the linear rela ti onship between ti me manage ‐ ment and work–life balance is posi ti ve and of mod ‐ erate to high strength. This means that, on average, the higher the level of ti me management, the be tt er was the work–life balance. Therefore we can con ‐ clude that, on average, ti me management has a pos ‐ i ti ve impact on our lives. The mean values for workload show that, on average, respondents are not exposed to excessive workload or that their workload is in line with their expecta ti ons. The standard devia ti on shows that a small number of respondents’ answers were far from the global mean, which means that they had similar answers. Analysis of the results for ti me management in ‐ dicated that, on average, respondents agreed that they managed their ti me well (mean = 4.84), but they disagreed, on average, that they could cor ‐ rectly es ti mate how much ti me they need to com ‐ plete a task (mean = 3.16). However, on average, respondents tended to agree (mean = 5.29) that they made to ‐do lists, which shows that although respondents felt that they controlled ti me, their ti me management was not necessarily e ffec ti ve. Based on our hypotheses, when we examined overload and well ‐being, we found that respondents who planned their daily ac ti vi ti es (mean = 5.13) or engaged in ti me management answered, on average, Iza Zorec, Jan Ho čevar, Luka Eržen: The Interplay Among Work Overload and Time Management in Predic ti ng Job Performance and Work–Life Balance Table 1: Descrip ti ve sta ti s ti cs and correla ti ons No. Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 Age 3.02 1.198 1 2 Workload 3.922 0.627 −0.057 1 3 Time management 4.588 0.605 −0.119 −0.014 1 4 Well ‐being 4.379 1.157 0.183* −0.227** −0.205* 1 5 Work–life balance 4.963 1.143 −0.024 0.155 0.453** −0.484** 1 6 Job performance 5.178 0.873 0.250** −0.182* 0.406** 0.005 0.247** 1 * denotes correla ti on significant at the 0.05 level (2 ‐tailed) ** denotes correla ti on significant at the 0.01 level (2 ‐tailed) Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 57 that they had enough ti me to do their work properly (mean = 5.13). Interes ti ngly, when asked if most peo ‐ ple feel overwhelmed by work at their job, respon ‐ dents answered that they agreed with this statement (mean = 4.7), but, on average, they tended to dis ‐ agree that work overwhelmed them (mean = 3.8). The overall mean scores for work–life balance show that, on average, most respondents were suc ‐ cessful in balancing their work and personal lives and had a good work–life balance (mean = 4.96). However, the standard devia ti on for all work–life balance scores is somewhat high (standard devia ‐ ti on = 1.14), which means that the responses were more sca tt ered around the mean. When asked if re ‐ spondents were sa ti sfied with their work–life bal ‐ ance, on average they tended to somewhat agree (mean = 5), with 34% of responses rated as agree. Interes ti ngly, 23% of respondents indicated that they felt that they run out of ti me before ge tti ng im ‐ portant things done, the mean for which was 4.3 (neither agree nor disagree = 4), but they also indi ‐ cated that they felt they were among the slowest at work (mean = 5.36; 31% agree and 20% strongly agree). This shows that it is not necessarily poor ti me management that causes them to run out of ti me to do their work; it also could be the speed of the work that the respondents are doing. 4.1 Hypotheses tes ti ng To test Hypotheses 1a, 1b, 2a, and 2b, we used linear regression. For Hypotheses 3a and 3b, we used the process method with linear regression. Lin ‐ ear regression is used when the value of one variable is to be predicted based on the value of another vari ‐ able (Isobe & Feigelson, n.d.). First, we tested the re ‐ la ti onship between work overload and work–life balance resul ti ng from Hypothesis 1a. Work–life bal ‐ ance is the dependent variable, and the constant is represented by work overload. The model summary of Hypothesis 1a is presented in Table 2. The values of R and R 2 are given. The R value indicates the simple correla ti on, which is 0.155 for Hypothesis 1a, which does not indicate a high de ‐ gree of correla ti on. The R 2 value indicates how much of the total varia ti on in the WLB variable can be explained by the workload variable; in this case, only 2.4% of the total varia ti on can be explained, which is not very much. Significance indicates how well the regression model predicts the dependent variable. In our case, the sta ti s ti cal significance of the regression performed was not su fficient: p = 0.072, which is more than 0.05, and means that the regression model did not predict the outcome vari ‐ able sta ti s ti cally significantly. We found that the em ‐ pirical results do not support Hypothesis 1a. Secondly, we tested the hypothesis that lower perceived overload leads to higher job perfor ‐ mance. Job performance is the dependent variable, and the constant is represented by work overload. The model summary of Hypothesis 1b is presented in Table 2, with the R and R 2 values. The R value was 0.182 and the R 2 value is 0.033. This means that 3.3% of job performance can be explained by work overload, which is not much. We also can determine whether the regression model predicts the depen ‐ dent variable significantly well. The significance value indicates the sta ti s ti cal significance of the re ‐ Table 2: Model summary of hypotheses R R 2 p ‐value (significance) b ‐value (coe fficient) β Standard error of the es ti mate H1a 0.155 0.024 0.072 0.283 0.155 1.13380 H1b 0.0182 0.033 0.037 0.258 0.182 0.86175 H2a 0.406 0.165 0.000 0.577 0.406 0.80098 H2b 0.453 0.205 0.112 0.849 0.453 1.02332 H3a 0.1799 0.0324 0.9747 0.0017 — 0.3872 H3b 0.2695 0.0726 0.0247 ‐0.1434 — 0.3597 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 58 Iza Zorec, Jan Ho čevar, Luka Eržen: The Interplay Among Work Overload and Time Management in Predic ti ng Job Performance and Work–Life Balance gression model performed. The p ‐value is 0.037, which is less than 0.05 and indicates that the whole regression model does predict the outcome variable sta ti s ti cally significantly. On this basis, we can accept Hypothesis 1b. The next hypothesis we tested states that bet ‐ ter ti me management has a posi ti ve e ffect on work– life balance. In this case, the dependent variable is work performance and the independent variable is ti me management. The model summary of Hypoth ‐ esis 2a is presented in Table 2, which gives the val ‐ ues of R and R 2 . The R value, which indicates the simple correla ti on, is 0.406, which indicates a high degree of correla ti on. The R 2 value in this case is 0.165, which is higher than that of other models. The p ‐value is less than 0.05. The p ‐value allows us to support Hypothesis 2a, which means that the re ‐ gression model as a whole predicts the outcome variable sta ti s ti cally significantly. Hypothesis 2b states that be tt er ti me manage ‐ ment leads to higher work performance. Table 2 summarizes this model. The dependent variable is WLB, and the independent variable again is ti me management. The R ‐value is 0.453, and the R 2 value is 0.205, which is slightly higher than that of the pre ‐ vious models. To support or reject our hypothesis, the significance Value was determined. The p ‐value is 0.112, which is higher than 0.05. The overall re ‐ gression model did not sta ti s ti cally significantly pre ‐ dict the outcome variable. Consequently, empirical data did not support Hypothesis 2b. The last two hypotheses we tested involved ti me management as a moderator of the rela ti on ‐ ships between the other domains. Hypothesis 3a states that ti me management moderates the rela ‐ ti onship between overload and work–life balance. When the level of ti me management is high, the re ‐ la ti onship is less nega ti ve. In this case, the depen ‐ dent variable is workload, and the independent variables are represented by work–life balance and ti me management. The summary of the model for this hypothesis is presented in Table 2. The R value or simple correla ti on is 0.1799, which is not very high and does not indicate a high degree of correla ‐ ti on. The R 2 value, which indicates how much of the total varia ti on in the workload variable can be ex ‐ plained by the WLB and ti me management vari ‐ ables, indicates in this case that only 3.24% of the total varia ti on can be explained, which is signifi ‐ cantly su fficient. The p ‐value is 0.9747, which is sig ‐ nificantly higher than 0.05. Therefore, we cannot accept Hypothesis 3a. Hypothesis 3b states that ti me management moderates the rela ti onship between overload and job performance. When ti me management is high, the rela ti onship is less nega ti ve. Again, we used lin ‐ ear regression, with work overload as the depen ‐ dent variable and work performance and ti me management as the independent variables. The re ‐ sults are summarized in Table 2. The R ‐value is 0.2695, and the R 2 is 0.0726, which is quite high compared to the other models. Most importantly, the p ‐value indicates how well the regression model predicts the dependent variable, and in this case, the sta ti s ti cal significance of the regression per ‐ formed was su fficient, because the p ‐value is 0.0247 which is less than 0.05. This means that we can sup ‐ port Hypothesis 3b. 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Theore ti cal Contribu ti ons Time management is becoming increasingly im ‐ portant due to the amount and variety of work to which people are exposed. As a result, people o ft en are subject to overload, which a ffects their work– life balance and job performance. This issue is par ‐ ti cularly important because people’s workspaces and loca ti ons have changed during the pandemic. From a theore ti cal perspecti ve, our study inves ti ‐ gated whether and how overwork a ffects work per ‐ formance and work–life balance. We tested this on a di fferent sample of individuals who were a ffected by the pandemic COVID ‐19. We found that ti me management as a modera ‐ tor can help reduce the nega ti ve rela ti onship be ‐ tween work overload and work performance when ti me management is high. However, we cannot demonstrate this for the rela ti onship between work overload and work–life balance. In this case, the re ‐ la ti onship is not less nega ti ve even when ti me man ‐ agement is high. As far as we are aware, these rela ti onships have not been studied before. Conse ‐ quently, our study provides addi ti onal empirical ev ‐ Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 59 idence of how focusing on ti me management can improve job performance even when work overload is present. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said for the rela ti onship between work overload and work–life balance. Contrary to the findings of Brown & Benson (2005), who showed a posi ti ve correla ti on between workload and job performance, our study found that lower perceived overload leads to higher job performance. This is in line with research by Ladebo & Awotunde (2007), who showed that overload leads to employee exhaus ti on when it is impossible for them to meet the resource requirements of job demands. In line with the research of Chadegani et al. (2015), Ali & Farooqi (2014), and Karatepe (2013), all of whom found that work overload leads to poorer employee performance, our study showed that lower overload leads to higher work performance. Thus, we confirmed the findings in the literature. However, we cannot say the same for the rela ti on ‐ ship between overload and work–life balance. Al ‐ though the previous studies by Frone et al. (1997) and Skinner & Pocock (2008) indicated a posi ti ve cor ‐ rela ti on between work hours and work–life conflict, our results refute the statement that higher overload leads to poorer work–life balance. This could be due to the change in workplace of the individuals whose work was shi ft ed from o ffice to home. According to Jex & Elacqua (1999), ti me man ‐ agement actually leads to be tt er work–life balance and sa ti sfac ti on, which is consistent with our find ‐ ings. We can confirm that be tt er ti me management has a posi ti ve e ffect on work–life balance. In con ‐ trast, we cannot claim that ti me management leads to higher job performance. This is consistent with research by Macan (1994), who found that certain ti me management behaviors can have posi ti ve ef ‐ fects on tension and job sa ti sfac ti on, but not on job performance. We found that be tt er ti me management is not necessarily associated with higher job performance. This is in contrast to Kha ti b (2014), who found that ti me management has a posi ti ve e ffect on perceived stress and that individuals with be tt er ti me manage ‐ ment and consequently lower stress also perform be tt er academically. Our study found that, on average, respondents agreed that they could manage their ti me well, but disagreed that they could correctly es ti mate how much ti me they need to complete a task. They also agreed, on average, that they tended to write to ‐do lists. All of this shows that although the respondents felt that they had control over ti me, their ti me man ‐ agement was not necessarily e ffec ti ve, which is con ‐ trary to Macan’s (1994) research which showed that posi ti ve outcomes occur when a person feels that they have control over ti me. In our study, this was not the case, because, on average, respondents were confident that they could complete their daily tasks, but they also somewhat agreed that they o ft en ran out of ti me before they could get impor ‐ tant things done and that they did not manage their ti me well. 5.2 Prac ti cal Implica ti ons From a prac ti cal perspec ti ve, we can say that our research has the poten ti al to raise awareness of the importance of ti me management, job perfor ‐ mance, work–life balance, and work overload in both corporate culture and personal life. The boundary between work and personal life slowly is disappearing, which has become one of the biggest problems today. In par ti cular, during the COVID ‐19 pandemic, many people reported that they had dif ‐ ficulty juggling work and personal life. Our study found that ti me management has a posi ti ve e ffect on the rela ti onship between overload and job per ‐ formance, sugges ti ng that organiza ti ons would ben ‐ efit from ti me management training for their employees. Consequently, these findings can be very useful for managers if they want to increase the e fficiency and job performance of their employees. It is of great importance for them to know that plac ‐ ing a heavy workload on their employees will not lead to the desired results. In contrast, if they im ‐ pose only as much work on their employees as they can handle, the results are likely to be be tt er than expected. One of the main aspects of this study is the concept of ti me management, which, if used properly, can be very useful for managers. As men ‐ ti oned previously, by developing their employees’ ti me management skills, managers can expect to have a posi ti ve impact on their employees’ work– Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 60 Iza Zorec, Jan Ho čevar, Luka Eržen: The Interplay Among Work Overload and Time Management in Predic ti ng Job Performance and Work–Life Balance life balance, which can benefit both the company and the employees themselves. With a be tt er work– life balance, employees can focus fully on their work and give 100% because they are less preoccupied with non ‐work ‐related concerns. Time management is useful not only when it comes to work–life bal ‐ ance; as men ti oned previously, it also can serve as a mediator between overload and job performance. Thus, when managers provide ti me management training to their employees, it can have a posi ti ve impact on the rela ti onship between overload and job performance and make the rela ti onship less nega ti ve, which ul ti mately can lead to be tt er work outcomes and higher employee sa ti sfac ti on. 5.3 Limita ti ons and Future Research This research was conducted with 127 respon ‐ dents, which is a slightly smaller sample size than we expected. This could be due to the lack of ti me. We merged the survey with another group with sim ‐ ilar topics, which resulted in a larger ques ti onnaire and longer survey comple ti on ti me. This could be why many respondents did not complete the survey. Furthermore, all the main variables were measured based on a single survey, which possibly could lead to bias in the common methodology. For future research, we suggest conduc ti ng the ques ti onnaire with a larger sample. We also recom ‐ mend conduc ti ng some interviews with di fferent se ‐ lected respondents, e.g., full‐ti me employees, students, self ‐employed people, managers, etc. This not only would provide a larger number of re ‐ sponses on which to base the analysis, but also would show whether the survey results are credible. Our study was limited in ti me and resources; therefore, we did not examine the long ‐term e ffects of COVID ‐19 on perceived work overload and work– life balance. Therefore, for future research, it would be interes ti ng to compare the perceived work over ‐ load and work–life balance of individuals who work in an o ffice with those of individuals who work from home a ft er the pandemic. According to Telser (2021), working from home could be a problem be ‐ cause the boundaries between work and leisure could become blurred. When people live and work in the same space, their home and work could merge, leading to higher perceived work overload and consequently to a poorer work–life balance (Telser, 2021). In this context, future research could conduct a longitudinal study that would show the long ‐term e ffects of changes in the work environ ‐ ment on people. For some people, working from home is be tt er than working in an o ffice; for others, it is the oppo ‐ site. In a future study, we will inves ti gate whether working from home has a posi ti ve or nega ti ve e ffect on work performance when it is associated with a higher workload. It could be that people who have a lighter workload to manage at home start to be ‐ come preoccupied with their personal tasks, which can make them feel overworked and reduce their job performance. However, if they have more work to do, this could lead to be tt er job performance be ‐ cause they do not have ti me for personal tasks dur ‐ ing working hours. This would be contrary to the findings of Ladebo & Awotunde (2007), who showed that increased workload leads to employee exhaus ti on, which in turn leads to lower job perfor ‐ mance. 5.4 Conclusion In today’s world, be tt er ti me management is becoming increasingly important as demands in ‐ crease in both professional and personal life, also known as work–life balance. Work–life balance o ft en is a ffected by work overload. Especially in a corporate culture, many employees are over ‐ worked, which can lead to both poorer work–life balance and poorer job performance. It is important that companies figure out how to help their employ ‐ ees improve their ti me management skills, because this can increase the success of the company and the health of employees as they learn to be tt er bal ‐ ance their work and personal lives. Our study con ‐ firms that companies can help their employees achieve a be tt er work–life balance and increase their job performance through be tt er ti me manage ‐ ment. It also is important for managers to know that our research shows that business results are likely to be be tt er when employees are less overworked. We also showed that advanced ti me management moderates the rela ti onship between overload and work performance, making the rela ti onship be ‐ Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2, November 2021 61 tween the two less nega ti ve. The results are impor ‐ tant for organiza ti ons, and especially for managers. If they provide su fficient ti me management training, they can increase employee sa ti sfac ti on as well as work e fficiency and company results. The results also can be very helpful for employees, who can learn that higher work pressure or overload usually does not lead to higher work performance. Employ ‐ ees also can understand how important mastering ti me management is to their career and perfor ‐ mance, as well as to their health and family rela ti on ‐ ships. One of the main objec ti ves of this study was to analyze ti me management as a moderator between other domains in which, to our knowledge, there is a gap in the literature. Our research provided new insights into ti me management, which is becoming increasingly important in daily life. Given the fast pace of everyday life, it is important for both indi ‐ viduals and organiza ti ons to pay more a tt en ti on to ti me management. As this study proved, employees can improve their work performance if they pay more a tt en ti on to their ti me management skills, and this is extremely important for companies. REFERENCES Aggarwal, A. K. (2018). A Study on the Work ‐Life Balance Issues Faced by Micro and Small Village En ‐ trepreneurs (MSVEs) in India. 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