Beyond ethnic outbidding : electoral design and strategic adaptations in Iraqi Kurdistan

english

2025

volume 18, issue 2

ballot structures   ethnic party strategies   intra-ethnic competition   Kurdish politics   thresholds

Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za družbene vede
(Obvezni izvod spletne publikacije)
Alma Mater Europaea - Evropski center, Maribor
(Obvezni izvod spletne publikacije)

This study investigates how electoral system design shapes intra- ethnic competition, focusing on Iraqi Kurdistan from 1992 to 2013. Challenging Horowitz’s outbidding model, which assumes that ethnic parties escalate demands to outcompete rivals, this research demonstrates that electoral rules—including thresholds, ballot structures, and district demographics—mediate party strategies. Through mixed-methods analysis of elections, party platforms, and campaign materials, the findings reveal that high thresholds incentivize coalition-building, while their absence enables narrower appeals. Similarly, heterogeneous districts encourage inclusive strategies targeting diverse electorates, while homogeneous districts promote exclusivist appeals. The study concludes with actionable recommendations for electoral system design to balance inclusivity, stability, and representation in divided societies.

12.02.2026