1 ; *s M?Lfc .Z ;-^^* 3--_- **- esääöS^?'' -' >*-*?* :- ¦*. V; - 35/1 · 2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA ISSN 0583-6050 © ZNANSTVENORAZISKOVALNI CENTER SAZU Uredniški odbor / Editorial Board Franco Cucchi, University of Trieste, Italy Jože Čar, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Franci Gabrovšek, Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Slovenia Ivan Gams, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Matija Gogala, Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Slovenia Andrej Kranjc, Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Slovenia Marcel Lalkovič, Te Slovak Muesum of Nature Protection and Speleology Jean Nicod, Emeritus Professor, Geographical Institute, Aix en Provence, France Mario Pleničar, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Trevor R. Shaw, Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Slovenia Tadej Slabe, Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Slovenia Glavni in odgovorni urednik / Editor Andrej Kranjc Pomočnik urednika / Co-Editor Franci Gabrovšek Znanstveni svet / Advisory Board Ilona Bárány – Kevei, Pavel Bosák, Arrigo A. Cigna, Wolfgang Dreybrodt, Derek Ford, Helen Goldie, Laszlo Kiraly, Alexander Klimchouk, Stein-Erik Lauritzen, Bogdan Onac, Osborne Armstrong, Arthur Palmer, Ugo Sauro, Boris Sket, Kazuko Urushibara-Yoshino. Distribucija in prodaja / Ordering address: Založba ZRC/ZRC Publishing Gosposka 13, P.O.Box 306, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia Fax: +386 (0)1 12 55 253, E-mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si, http://zalozba.zrc-sazu.si Naslov uredništva / Editor’s address: Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU - Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU SI - 6230 Postojna, Titov trg 2, Slovenija Fax: +386 (0)5 700 19 99, E-mail: kranjc@zrc-sazu.si Spletni naslov / Web address: carsologica.zrc-sazu.si Sprejeto na seji I V. razreda SAZU dne 31. marca 2006 Cover photo: Qinglongtan spring north from Kunming (photo J. Kogovšek). Cena / Price Posamezni izvod / Single Issue Individual / Posameznik: 3.559,00 SIT / 15 EUR Institutional / Institucija: 5.990,00 SIT / 25 EUR Letna naročnina / Annual Subscription Individual / Posameznik: 5.990,00 SIT / 25 EUR Institutional / Institucija: 9.585,00 SIT / 40 EUR ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 2006 SLOVENSKA AKADEMIJA ZNANOSTI IN UMETNOSTI ACADEMIA SCIENTIARUM ET ARTIUM SLOVENICA Razred za naravoslovne vede – Classis IV: Historia naturalis ZNANSTVENORAZISKOVALNI CENTER SAZU Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa – Institutum carsologicum LJUBLJANA 2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA je vključena v / is included into: Index to Scientifc & Technical Proceedings (ISTP, Philadelphia) / Index to Social Sciences & Humanities Proceedings (ISSHP, Philadelphia) / Ulrich's Periodicals Directory / COS GeoRef / BIOSIS Zoological Record. ACTA CARSOLOGICA izhaja s fnančno pomočjo / is published with the fnancial support Agencije za raziskovalno dejavnost RS / Slovenian Research Agency in / and Slovenske nacionalne komisije za UNESCO / Slovenian National Commission for UNESCO. ACTA CARSOLOGICA * VOLUME / LETNIK35. NUMBER / ŠTEVILKA 1.2006 CONTENTS VSEBINA UVOD INTRODUCTION Jean NICOD 5 HALf A CENTURy Of ACTA CARSOLOGICA: fROM SLOVENE KARST TO GENERAL KARSTOLOGy UN DEmI-SIeClE D’ACtA CARSOlOgICA: DU KRAS SlOveNE a lA KARStOlOgIE géNéRAlE. ČLANKI PAPERS (ARTICLES) trevor FAUlKNER 7 TECTONIC INCEPTION IN CALEDONIDE MARBLES TEKTONSKA INCEPCIJA V KALEDONSKIH MARMORJIH Stanka ŠEBElA, Janja KOgOvŠEK 23 HyDROCHEMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND TECTONIC SITUATION Of SELECTED SPRINGS IN CENTRAL AND NW yUNNAN PROVINCE, CHINA HIDROKEMIČNE ZNAČILNOSTI IN TEKTONSKI POLOŽAJ IZBRANIH IZVIROV V OSREDNJEM IN SZ yUNNANU, KITAJSKA Franci gABROvŠEK, Borut PERIC 35 MONITORING THE fLOOD PULSES IN THE EPIPHREATIC ZONE Of KARST AQUIfERS: THE CASE Of REKA RIVER SySTEM, KARST PLATEAU, SW SLOVENIA SPREMLJANJE POPLAVNIH VALOV V EPIfREATIČNI CONI KRAŠKEGA VODONOSNIKA: PRIMER REKE REKE, KRAS, JZ SLOVENIJA Janja KOgOvŠEK 47 fIZIKALNO-KEMIČNE ZNAČILNOSTI IZLOČANJA TRAVERTINA – PRIMER PODSTENJŠKA (SLOVENIJA) PHySICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Of TRAVERTINE DEPOSITION – THE CASE Of PODSTENJŠEK (SLOVENIA) Bulat R. mAvlyUDOv 55 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IS IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH LEDENIŠKI PSEVDOKRAS Jean NICOD 69 LAKES IN GyPSUM KARST: SOME ExAMPLES IN ALPINE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES JEZERA V KRASU V SADRI: NEKAJ PRIMEROV IZ ALPSKIH IN SREDOZEMSKIH DEŽEL Paolo FORtI, Ermanno gAllI, Antonio ROSSI 79 PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA NENAVADNO MINERALOGENO JAMSKO OKOLJE V MEHIKI: PODROČJE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS martin KNEZ, tadej SlABE 99 LITHOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ROCK RELIEf Of THE LAO HEI GIN SHILIN-STONE fOREST (LUNAN, SW CHINA) LITOLOŠKE IN MORfOLOŠKE ZNAČILNOSTI TER SKALNI RELIEf LAO HEI GIN KAMNITEGA GOZDA (LUNAN, JZ KITAJSKA) John J. PINt 107 VULCANOSPELEOLOGy IN SAUDI ARABIA VULKANOSPELEOLOGIJA V SAVDSKI ARABIJI Sonata Dulce F. REStIFICAR, michael J. DAy, Peter B. URICh 121 PROTECTION Of KARST IN THE PHILIPPINES VARSTVO KRASA NA fILIPINIH Stephan KEmPE, hans-Peter hUBRICh, Klaus SUCKStORFF 131 THE STORy Of THE 1833 fERCHER SURVEy, POSTOJNSKA JAMA, CONTINUES: AN ADDITIONAL DOCUMENT AND NEWLy DISCOVERED INSCRIPTIONS ZGODBA fERCHERJEVE IZMERE POSTOJNSKE JAME (1833) SE NADALJUJE: DODATNI DOKUMENTI IN NOVO ODKRITI NAPISI Stanislav JUžNIč 139 KARST RESEARCH IN THE 19TH CENTURy - KARL DEŽMAN’S (1821-1889) WORK O RAZISKAVAH KRASA V 19. STOLETJU - PRISPEVEK KARLA DEŽMANA (1821-1889) Pierre-Olaf SChUt 149 E. A. MARTEL, THE TRAVELLER WHO ALMOST BECAME AN ACADEMICIAN E. A. MARTEL, POPOTNIK, KI JE SKORAJ POSTAL ČLAN AKADEMIJE Stephen A. CRAvEN 159 POSTOJNSKA JAMA IN SLOVENIA, THE SÜDBAHN AND THE VISIT Of JOHN CHARLES MOLTENO: THEIR INfLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT Of RAILWAyS IN SOUTH AfRICA POSTOJNSKA JAMA, JUŽNA ŽELEZNICA IN OBISK JOHNA CHARLESA MOLTENA V SLOVENIJI: NJIHOV VPLIV NA RAZVOJ ŽELEZNIC V JUŽNI AfRIKI IN MEMORIAM Jurij KUNAvER 163 IN MEMORy Of MARIAN PULINA (1936-2005) RECENZIJE BOOK REVIEWS Andrej KRANJC 166 COLIN J. R. BRAITHWAITE: CARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND ROCKS, A MANUAL fOR EARTH SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS France ŠUŠtERŠIč 168 T. WALTHAM, f. BELL, AND M. CULSHAW: SINKHOLES AND SUBSIDENCE; KARST AND CAVERNOUS ROCKS IN ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION REPORTS POROČILA Andrej KRANJC 170 ACADEMICIAN JOSIP ROGLIć AND HIS WORK HALf A CENTURy Of ACTA CARSOLOGICA: fROM SLOVENE KARST TO GENERAL KARSTOLOGy I have in hands some old issues from 1970 to 1980 of Journal published by the Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU and I can tell you that this is a highly scientifc journal since its frst number but I see also transformations and editorial progress achieved by Acta carsologica. In the frst two decades the Journal essentially published works concerned with karst of south-western Slovenia giving us a comprehensive knowledge of certain areas and opening new problems. Let me mention some monograph’s contributions of I. Gams about the Cerknica polje (1970), f. Habe about the underground world of Predjama (1970), A. Kranjc about the Kočevje polje (1972) and R. Gospodarič about the sediments in Križna jama (1974) and cave sediments of Taborska (Županova) jama (1987) and articles of P. Habič about Cerknica lake (1974), Mrzlek karst spring (1982), geomorphology of Suha Krajina (1988). Tese works and many others … bear witness about the activity of researchers of Postojna and we used them as the reference literature related to Slovene karst. A turning point occurred about 1990. Because of international meetings organized by or together with the Karst Research Institute of Postojna Acta carsologica opened to international contributors; geographical feld of researches was considerably enlarged and important thematic issues were published. We, the french, were the frst to take advantage with the proceedings of the french-Slovene Round Table « Le Karst des moyennes montagnes méditerranéennes » (24-27 juin 1991 – coinciding with the independence of Slovenia) published in Acta carsologica xx, 1991. Among the consecutive thematic issues about the international meetings let us mention the proceedings of « man on karst » by I. Gams at Postojna in 1993 (xxIV, 1995, 591 p.), and Alcadi 96 consecrated to history of speleology (xxVI/2, 1997, 508 p.) and symposium in Ljubljana in 1999 « ground-water pollution in Karst » (29/1, 2000). Annual meetings of International Karstological School, the frst one being in Lipica in 1993 organized by the Karst Research Institute provided excellent thematic issues: specially interesting is the one of the 10th Classical Karst (31/3, 2002) giving new methods about the paleokarst studies and also the 11th with prevailing topic about the karst terminology (32/2, 2003). Let us cite also 33/2, 2004 oriented towards new researches of Dinaric karst, to problems of dating and vulnerability of karst systems. Referring to the last published volumes one can see all the variety of contributions. A lot of other authors joined Slovene and nearby European authors. It is a plea- UN DEMI-SIeCLE D’ACTA CARSOLOGICA : DU KRAS SLOVeNE a LA KARSTOLOGIE GÉNÉRALE. Ayant eu en mains quelques numéros des années 1970-80 de la Revue éditée par l’Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa, dans le cadre des publications de l’Académie des Sciences et Arts de Slovénie, je peux ici témoigner de son grand intéret scientifque des les premiers numéros et des transformations et progres éditoriaux d’Acta carso-logica. Dans les deux premieres décades, la Revue a publié essentiellement des travaux sur les karsts du Sud-Ouest de la Slovénie, en nous donnant une connaissance ap-profondie de certains secteurs, et en posant les éléments de problématiques nouvelles. Citons parmi les monogra-phies celle d’I. Gams sur le poljé de Cerknica (1970), de f. Habe sur le monde souterrain de Predjama (1970), d’A. Kranjc sur le poljé de Kočevje (1972), de R. Gospodarič sur les sédiments dans la Križna jama (1974) et les rem-plissages de la grotte de Tabor (1987) et les articles de P. Habič sur le lac de Cerknica (1974), la source Mrzlek (1982), la géomorphologie de la Suha Krajna (1988). Ces travaux, et tant d‘autres…, témoignant de l’activité des chercheurs de Postojna, nous servent de référence sur les karsts slovenes. Un tournant a été pris vers 1990. Grâce aux rencontres internationales, organisées par ou avec l’Institut de Postojna, Acta carsologica s’est ouverte aux contributeurs extra-slovenes; le champ géographique d’investigation s’est considérablement élargi, et des numéros théma-tiques importants en sont issus. Nous français, avions été les premiers a en bénéfcier, avec la publication des actes de la Table-ronde franco-slovene « Le Karst des moyen-nes montagnes méditerranéennes » (24-27 juin 1991 -coincidant avec l’Indépendance de la Slovénie…), publiés dans Acta carsologica xx, 1991. Parmi les numéros thé-matiques consécutifs a des rencontres internationales, on retiendra celui des actes du symposium « man on karst » dirigé par I. Gams a Postojna en 1993 (xxIV, 1995, 591 p.), celui d’Alcadi 96 consacré a l’histoire de la Spé-léologie (xxVI/2 , 1997, 508 p.) et celui du symposium de Ljubljana en 1999 « groundwater pollution in Karst » (29/1, 2000). Les réunions annuelles de l’International Karstological School, a partir de celle de Lipica en 1993, programmées par l’Institut de Postojna, ont donné lieu a de tres bons numéros thématiques: celui consécutif a la 10eme « Classical Karst » (31/3, 2002) est particuliere-ment intéressant sur les méthodes nouvelles dans l’étude des paléokarsts, de meme celui la 11eme, dont le theme directeur était la terminologie karstique (32/2, 2003). Citons aussi le n° 33/2, 2004, particulierement orienté sur les recherches nouvelles dans les karsts dinariques, ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 5-6, LJUBLJANA 2006 JEAN NICOD sure for a geographer to fnd in every new volume recent information about the Alpine and Dinaric regions and also texts about less known karsts, as for example Bulgaria, Turkey, Iran and even more distant (China, Cuba). Tus, progressively enriched by diferent contributions about many research topics, Acta carsologica succeeded to attract international audience in karstological domain, scientifc speleology, and history of underground explorations. Even more, certain articles treat the problems of applied research, such as protection of sites and karst waters, very important topics for Slovenia, but also very useful for readers… With increase in number of authors and research topics the thickness of volumes increased also. Tey are better and better edited, fgures and photographs in colour: pleasure at reading is combined with scientifc interest. It is difcult to express our gratitude and felicitations to A. Kranjc and his colleagues from the Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, to workers and responsibles for this publication over the years and our thanks go to the Slovene Academy of Sciences and Arts for sponsoring and fnancing. Our wish is that this journal, edited by our Slovene friends thrives in future. Jean NICOD les problemes de datation et la vulnérabilité des systemes karstiques. En se référant aux derniers numéros parus, on voit toute la variété des contributions. Aux auteurs slovenes et européens proches se sont joint bien d’autres. C’est un plaisir pour un géographe de trouver dans chaque tome des informations nouvelles sur les régions alpines et di-nariques, mais aussi des textes sur des karsts moins con-nus, comme ceux de Bulgarie, de Turquie et d’Iran ou plus lointains (Chine, Cuba…). Ainsi, progressivement en-richie de contributions variées sur de nombreux themes de recherche, Acta carsologica a pu acquérir une audience internationale dans les domaines de la karstologie, de la spéléologie scientifque et de l’histoire de l’exploration du monde souterrain. De plus, divers articles traitent de pro-blemes de recherche appliquée, comme la protection des sites et des eaux karstiques, themes tres important pour la Slovénie, mais ailleurs aussi de grande utilité… Avec la progression du nombre des auteurs et des champs de recherche l’épaisseur des volumes s’est accrue… Ils sont de mieux en mieux édités, avec des fg-ures et des photos en couleurs: l’agrément de la lecture se conjugue avec leur intéret scientifque. On ne saurait trop mesurer notre gratitude et nos félicitations a A. Kranjc et a tous ses Collegues de l’ Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU, artisans et responsables de cette publication au cours des ans, et nos remerciements a l’Académie Slovene des Sciences et des Arts d’en avoir assuré le patronage et le fnancement. Et nous ne pouvons que sou-haiter que l’audience de cette revue éditée par nos amis slovenes s’accroisse encore! Jean NICOD 6 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 TECTONIC INCEPTION IN CALEDONIDE MARBLES TEKTONSKA INCEPCIJA V KALEDONSKIH MARMORJIH Trevor fAULKNER1 Abstract: UDC: 551.24:551.44(48) Trevor Faulkner: Tectonic inception in Caledonide marbles A fundamental diference between caves in sedimentary limestones and those formed in a repeatedly-glaciated 40000 km2 region in central Scandinavia that contains over 1000 individual marble outcrops and has nearly 1000 recorded karst caves is the metamorphic grade of the karst bedrock and its negligible primary porosity. Allied to this is the fne-scale foliation and consequent lack of ‘bedding-plane’ partings. Indeed, the foliation is commonly vertical in the western part of the study area, where sub-horizontal openings must be along joints or other fractures. Te deepest cave is only 180 m deep, despite outcrop vertical ranges reaching over 900 m. Caves tend to cluster together and are positioned randomly in a vertical dimension, whilst commonly remaining within 50 m of the overlying surface. Additionally, despite some stripe karst outcrops being several tens of kilometres in length, there are no regional scale caves, and karst hydrological system distances are invariably shorter than 3.5 km. Because the caves are relatively short and epigean and there is a complete absence of long, hypogean, cave systems, speleogenesis by the (chemical) inception horizon hypothesis is unlikely. A tectonic inception model is derived that proposes that it is only open fracture routes that could provide the opportunity for dissolution and enlargement into cave passages in the Caledonide marbles. It is hypothesised that the dimensions of these fractures are related to the magnitude, and perhaps to the frequency, of local earthquakes and commonly-small tectonic movements that arose mainly from the isostatic rebound that accompanied deglaciation at the end of each major Pleistocene glacial. Te openings formed along inception surfaces between the limestone and adjacent aquicludes and at inception fractures that are entirely within the limestone and are commonly (though not universally) parallel to, or orthogonal to, the foliation. Te model builds on reports of a ‘partially detached’ thin upper crustal layer in similar settings in Scotland and is supported by observations of later neotectonic movements, as indicated by sharp edges and slickensides in most present relict cave passages and sporadically on the surface. Keywords: Caledonide, epigean, foliation, ice margin, inception fracture, inception surface, marble, near surface aquifer, neotectonics, seismicity, tectonic inception, stripe karst, Weich-selian. 1 Limestone Research Group, University of Huddersfeld, Queensgate, Huddersfeld, HD1 3DH, UK e-mail: trevor@marblecaves.org.uk, telephone : +44 (0)1625 531558 post: four Oaks, Wilmslow Park North, Wilmslow, Cheshire, SK9 2BD, UK Received / Prejeto: 03.03.2006 Izvleček: UDC: 551.24:551.44(48) Trevor Faulkner: Tektonska incepcija v kaledonskih marmorjih V centralni Skandinaviji je več kot tisoč izdankov marmorja v katerih je znanih preko tisoč jam. Razlika med temi jamami in tistimi v apnencih, je pogojena s procesi metamorfoze in zanemarljivo primarno poroznostjo prvih. S tem je povezano drobno plastenje (foliacija) in posledična odsotnost lezik. Najgloblja jama je globoka 180 m, kljub temu, da vertikalni razpon izdankov znaša do 900 m. Jame največkrat najdemo v skupinah in so v vertikalnem merilu precej naključno porazdeljene, pri čemer jih redko najdemo več kot 50 m pod površjem. Kljub temu, da so nekateri izdanki pasastega krasa dolgi več deset kilometrov, zelo dolgih jam ne poznamo, kraški hidrološki sistemi pa ne presegajo dolžine 3.5 km. Ker so jame kratke in blizu površja, je kemijska incepcija manj verjetna. Zato predlagam model tektonske incepcije, ki predvideva, da so jame v kaledonskih marmorjih nastale zgolj vzdolž sistemov odprtih razpok, pri čemer je dimenzija in frekvenca teh razpok povezana z magnitude tektonskih premikov, ki so nastali kot posledica izostatičnega uravnoteženja ob umikih ledenikov po ledenih dobah. Sistemi takih razpok so nastajali vzdolž incepcijskih površin med marmorji in neprepustnimi plastmi in vzdolž incepcijskih razpok v marmorjih, ki so vzporedne ali pravokotne s plastenjem. Model gradim tudi na poročilih o delno odcepljenem tankem vrhnjem delu skorje v podobnih okoljih na Škotskem. Model podpirajo tudi opažanja kasnejših neotektonskih premikov, na katere kažejo ostri robovi in tektonska zrcala v jamah in na površju. Ključne besede: Kaledonidi, plastenje, rob ledenikov, incepci-jska razpoka, incepcijska površina, marmor, plitvi vodonosnik, neotektonika, seizmičnost, tektonska incepcija, pasasti kras, Weichelij. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 7–21, LJUBLJANA 2006 TREVOR fAULKNER INTRODUCTION Central Scandinavia is a repeatedly-glaciated 40000 km2 region that contains over 1000 individual Caledo-nide marble outcrops and over 1000 karst caves with a total passage length >72 km, within an area about the size of Switzerland (fig. 1). A factual review of data assembled into karst and cave databases (faulkner, 2001 and 2005a) revealed that cave development has been predominantly phreatic, so that, commonly, just a single vadose streamway underlies upper-level relict phreatic passages with few vadose elements, cre- Te Inception Horizon Hypothesis (IHH; Lowe, 1992; Lowe and Gunn, 1997) proposed that the initiation of proto-conduits occurs as a syngenetic cave formational process during diagenesis. Te long, slow, non-karstic, inception phase is driven by capillarity, earth tides or ionic difusion at great depth and over great distances within stratigraphical partings or adjacent porous or fractured rocks. Eventually, chemical dissolution increases conduit sizes to explorable dimensions. How does this hypothesis stand in relation to the karsts and caves of the study area? LACK Of PRIMARy POROSITy Most of the high (up to amphibolite) -grade metalime-stones of the study area exhibit little memory of their original diagenesis, afer their subduction and meta-morphism to marble at elevated temperatures and pressures: any proto-conduits formed syngenetically during diagenesis were closed as the rock experienced chemical and physical changes in lithology. Te recrystallisa-tion to metacalcite produced a rock with a fne-scale foliation and a primary porosity that can be regarded as negligible, even over the long timescales available for ‘conventional’ inception. Te same applies to any mica schist, amphibolite, granite or gneiss lying adjacent to the marble: these rocks could not have sufcient primary porosity to act as aquifers carrying water to the limestone surface. LACK Of STRATIGRAPHICAL HORIZONS Te foliation is commonly vertical in the western Helgeland Nappe Complex (HNC; fig. 1), but caves in such vertical stripe karst (VSK; foliation dip 81–90o) commonly display morphologies similar to those in horizontally-bedded limestones, with many horizontal passages ating an upside-down morphology. Recharge to the karst is primarily allogenic and discharge commonly remains unsaturated with calcite; autogenic recharge is relatively insignificant, mainly occurring during the spring snowmelt. These caves have their own morphological style, recognisable right across the area, which differentiates them from caves formed in ‘classical’ karsts in sedimentary limestones. A key question to address is “Why do these caves exist at all?” orthogonal to the foliation (faulkner, 2005a), despite the lack of inception horizons to guide their formation along particular bedding plane partings. Tere are also no consistent systems of sills or other intrusions to act as inception horizons, so that the horizontal openings must be along joints or other fractures. LACK Of REGIONAL-SCALE SySTEMS Te IHH suggests that inception takes place over extremely long timescales, at great depths and over great distances. Tere is no evidence that such a mechanism has taken place in the study area, despite some of the ‘stripe karst’ outcrops exceeding 50 km in length. Tere are no regional-scale caves; there are no known allogenic or autogenic sink-to-rising hydrogeological drainage systems longer than the 3.5 km that occurs at Vallerdal on the border between Norway and Sweden; and there is no evidence of very deep cavities or wells in the meta-carbonates. Te steep foliation and metamorphic history have lef many completely separate stripe karsts. Teir contained caves are, by necessity, commonly short (mean length = 85 m) and completely unrelated to each other internally, even if proximate in the feld, so that regional-scale inception is not possible. ExISTENCE Of SHALLOW SySTEMS Despite the large vertical range (VR) of some of the me-talimestone outcrops (up to 956 m), the deepest cave is only 180 m deep, and only four others are more than 100 m deep. Te mean cave VR is only 8.8 m and it rarely exceeds 15% of the local outcrop VR. Tus, the caves are commonly extremely epigean and there is a total absence of long, hypogean, cave systems. It is self-evident when visiting such systems (e.g. a short shallow ‘through cave’ that carries a stream along a vadose passage from one THE INCEPTION PROBLEM 8 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 TECTONIC INCEPTION IN CALEDONIDE MARBLES Fig. 1: tectono-stratigraphic map of central Scandinavia, from gee and Sturt (1985). Te numbers indicate the area’s various allochthons and nappes. most nappes contain metacarbonate outcrops that are commonly aligned N–S and decrease in size (along with a common reduction in metamorphic grade) in an easterly direction. Caves are only recorded in metalimestone outcrops in the Uppermost Allochthon (7; i.e. in the helgeland Nappe Complex, hNC and the Rodingsfell Nappe Complex, RNC) and in the Koli Nappes of the Upper Allochthon (6). Small marble outcrops occur in the Seve Nappes of the Upper Allochthon (5) and in the lower Allochthon (3), without recorded caves. Te middle Allochthon (4) does not contain metacarbonates. entrance to another) that such passages have no relationship to any deeper, regional-scale, hydrogeology, even if it existed. Whereas it could perhaps be considered as a possibility that all such short and shallow caves are the lowest remnants of much longer systems formed deep below landscapes that have since been eroded away, this seems most unlikely as the carbonate outcrops would not have been consistently longer in the past than at present. THE IMPLAUSIBILITy Of THE IHH TO ExPLAIN INCEPTION IN SOME METALIMESTONES from the four arguments presented above, the IHH cannot explain the inception of the overwhelming majority of caves in the study area. However, elements of the Hypothesis may explain parts of the inception process in some caves, or groups of caves. for example, inception that is guided along sub-horizontal aquicludes within the foliation of marbles in low angle karst (LAK; foliation dip 0–30o) seems likely, as at Ytterlihullet in Bryggfelldal. Similarly, inception along-strike at lithological boundaries within lower grade metacarbonates in angled stripe karst (ASK; foliation dip 31–80o), as at korallgrottan in Sweden, is also feasible. However, even in these examples, another mechanism is needed to explain an initial porosity. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 9 TREVOR fAULKNER THE TECTONIC SOLUTION Despite the difculty in utilising the IHH to explain the inception of the studied caves, these caves exist and their origins must post-date the last phase of metamorphic activity. Te consistent style of the caves suggests that a consistent set of processes guides their inception, development and eventual destruction. Two major clues to the inception process were noted in analysing the cave morphologies: externally, their epigean association with the landscape, and internally, the dominance of relict phreatic passages. ASSOCIATION Of CAVES WITH LANDSCAPE All cave passages in both VSK and ASK lie within 50 m of the overlying surface. Even in Ytterlihullet (LAK), all parts of its streamway are ?93 m below the surface. Its stream resurges, fows along a short surface valley, and then sinks again in the same limestone outcrop before fnally resurging some 200 m above the base of the limestone, and some 300 m above the valley foor. Tus, this cave and most other active caves act in harmony with local hydrology and have an intimate, epigean, association with their local landscape. It seems safe to assume that these caves evolved in association with the shaping of their local topography, whose dominating process is the cycle of glaciation and deglaciation that has been repeated many times since the late Tertiary. RELICT PHREATIC PASSAGES Te absence of relict vadose caves shows that all relict caves in the area developed phreatically, as did nearly all the higher-level abandoned passages in the active caves. However, it is not possible to imagine present circumstances, even during spring melt, when most of these relict caves could be fooded to create phreatic conditions for their enlargement. It may be possible to envisage earlier landscapes where these passages were submerged under meteoric conditions, but a much simpler explanation is that these passages enlarged subglacially or during deglaciation phases, when whole valleys could be inundated by glacial meltwater. THE TECTONIC INCEPTION MODEL Te development (and destruction) of the present suite of karst caves can therefore be addressed by considering the way that glaciation has eroded the land surface, and perhaps provided sufciently aggressive meltwaters to enlarge passages by dissolution. But these processes cannot explain the actual inception along proto-con-duits. Without such openings, glacial meltwaters would not penetrate into high grade metalimestone, even under pressure. Te tectonic Inception model hypothesises that, through several separate, but commonly related, mechanisms, the stress release arising from the isostatic rebound and surface erosion that accompanied deglacia-tion at the end of each glacial cycle, plus longer-timescale plate tectonics, caused the formation of tectonic fractures in the upper (epikarstic) part of the limestone (fig. 2). Tus, openings are created along inception surfaces between the limestone and adjacent aquicludes (which may include dolostones), and by inception fractures that are entirely within the limestone, but are commonly (though not universally) parallel to, or orthogonal to, the foliation. Tis model builds on the observations that “the continuing seismic and tectonic activity (in similar settings) in Scotland may be best understood in terms of a ‘partially detached’ thin upper crustal layer” (Davenport et al., 1989, p 191) and that near-surface limestones are not very ductile and produce brittle fractures during folding, faulting and removal of overburden stress by erosion (e.g. Doré and Jensen, 1996, pp 426–427). It is also assumed that the maximum thickness of permafrost during glaciation is c. 100 m. Rock above this level is subjected to more severe temperature cycling and freeze-thaw processes than rock below it, and is therefore more likely to form inception fractures when triggered by seismicity. Te practical expression of these processes was provided by Boulton et al. (1996, p 403), who noted from pumping tests that the crystalline basement rocks of the Scandinavian shield (primarily non-carbonates) have “a surface horizon of fractured bedrock about 100 m thick which has a hydraulic conductivity of 10-6ms-1”. Tis provides a near surface aquifer that is commonly found in crystalline rocks worldwide (Gustafson and Krasny, 1994). Te idea of tectonic speleogenesis in karst rocks has a precedent, because Riggs et al. (1994) proposed this at Fig. 2: marble at Indrasen quarry, velford: Shattered nature of the epikarst in high-quality metalimestone altered by contact metamorphism. 10 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 TECTONIC INCEPTION IN CALEDONIDE MARBLES Devils Hole, Nevada, although without subsequent dissolution. Te only known paper to discuss the importance of fracturing by stress release in the development of cave passages in sedimentary limestones was by Sa-sowsky and White (1994), who anticipated some of the processes described herein, but for a non-glacial setting in Tennessee. THE GLACIAL / TECTONIC CyCLE Because the tectonically-induced inception fractures are commonly produced at the end of each glaciation, there may not always be sufcient time for phreatic passages to enlarge to explorable dimensions during the remaining Tectonic inception (and indeed any inception hypothesis) is not easy to prove. Tectonic fractures may be too narrow to observe visually and may no longer be recognisable afer karstic dissolution and enlargements to explorable passages. Tus, the Tectonic Inception Model is supported by several lines of evidence for Caledonide tec-tonism and fracture formation in the following sections. Te hydrogeology of fractured rock, including fractured metalimestone, was considered separately by faulkner (2003 and 2005a). CALEDONIDE EVIDENCE fOR TECTONIC ACTIVITy faulkner (1998) reviewed recent ideas on the importance of tectonic activity to cave development in sedimentary limestones. Te idea that tectonism sensu lato has infu-enced karst cave development in Norway has been suggested, or hinted at, by several authors. Tus, Hoel (1906, p 8) raised the possibility that Aunhattenhullet 1, 2 and 3 and Langskjellighattengrotta in Velford in the study area were formed by “dislocations”. Horn (1947: McGrady translation, 1978, p 135) noted that the Norwegian coastal area at the Arctic Circle is still unstable tectonically, which should favour joint formation, or the widening of old joints. Kirkland (1958) thought that collapsed blocks on the foors of chambers in the Svartisen area could have resulted from movements along faults and from seismic disturbances. Lauritzen (1989a, 1989b and 1991b, p 122) suggested that cave passages in Norway are almost always guided by the line of intersection between two planes (but see section 4). His statistical analysis revealed that commonly shear fractures (faults and shear joints) and less commonly tension fractures are utilised as primary guiding voids for speleogenesis. Onac (1991) noted caves formed by gravitational mass movement near Narvik, time of that particular deglaciation. Hence, the cyclic processes of glaciation, deglaciation and tectonic opening combine together to develop cave passages: tectonic inception provides fractures that permit the circulation of meltwaters that can be chemically aggressive even without dissolved CO2 (faulkner, 2004a and b; 2005a), both during that deglaciation and during the next glacial and deglacial phases. As the cycle repeats itself, passages near the surface enlarge and become removed by glacial and fuvial erosion (as noted by Isacsson, 1994, at korallgrottan), and new passages form at geologically lower levels. and the infuence of tectonic faults in guiding subterranean streams. Randall et al. (1988) reported on the hydrogeologi-cal framework of the NE Appalachians (USA), a region with a comparable metamorphic Caledonide geology. Tey noted high hydraulic yields from fractured non-porous bedrock, especially from wells that intersect contacts between diferent lithologies. Earlier work was quoted that showed that fractures decrease in size and frequency some 50–75 m below the surface. Te water-table confguration in uplands nearly replicates the topography throughout the region, so that inter-basin fow systems involving signifcant fux have not been shown to exist, as in central Scandinavia. Carlsten and Strahle (2001) reported that open, and partly-open, fssures were found in a borehole at Bodagrottorna in non-carbonate rock on the Swedish Baltic coast at depths at least down to 150 m, in an area that was very active seismically in the early Holocene. TECTONIC MECHANISMS Seismic and aseismic tectonic processes that create fractures can arise from several separate mechanisms. Te evidence for considerable isostatic uplif during the melting of the 2–3 km-thick Weichselian icesheet is well documented. Tat part of the evidence for uplif that is associated with caves includes Sjöberg (1981a and b), who discussed 50 elevated caves in east Sweden formed by cobble abrasion at the coast of the Baltic, and Sjöberg (1988) who discussed elevated coastal caves in central Norway. Tat seismic tectonic activity accompanied the uplif was documented by: Husebye et al. (1978); Mörner (1980); Stephansson and Carlsson (1980), who discussed a Caledonian Zone of seismicity; Anderson (1980), who suggested that the maximum number of earthquakes af- fORMATION Of TECTONIC fRACTURES ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 11 TREVOR fAULKNER ter deglaciation would occur just inland along the coast, especially in regions of large elevation diferences perpendicular to the coastline; Sjöberg (1987), who classi-fed Swedish neotectonic cave types as occurring a) in split roches moutonées, b) in collapsed mountain slopes, and c) in sub-horizontally displaced mountain tops, and who postulated that talus caves in Sweden were formed by earthquakes caused by the early and rapid Holocene uplif that Mörner (1979) estimated at 20–50 cma-1; Sjöberg (1996a), who dated the formation of scree and talus caves by a huge tectonic event at 9400–9200a BP; Sjöberg (1996b) and Mörner (2003), who recorded that the Swedish nuclear industry now accepted that Sweden sufered heavy earthquakes immediately afer the Weich-selian glaciation; Sjöberg (1996c), who listed Swedish Holocene earthquakes with magnitudes from 5–8 and showed how the formation of seismotectonic caves could be dated by studying sof sediment deformation in varved clay, as also discussed by Sjöberg (1999a and b); Kejonen (1997), who described seismotectonic crevice caves in finland that developed from 12–8 ka BP; and by Mörner (2003) who presented 15 papers to demonstrate that Scandinavia was an area of high seismic activity at the time of deglaciation. Mörner et al. (2000) noted that palaeoseismic events occurred in the Stockholm area about every 20 varve years from ~10490 to ~10410a BP, and listed 15 events in Sweden with magnitudes between 6 and >8 from ~12500 to ~1000a BP, some being associated with tsunamis. Because the records came from the whole of Sweden, no region was aseismic during the deglaciation period. Te formation of the Bodagrottor talus cave (close to the borehole discussed in section 3.1) by the ‘blowing-up’ of a roche moutonée occurred at 9663a B P, by the dating of a varve that arose from a synchronous earthquake-generated tsunami that swept across the Baltic sea 33 varve-years afer local deglaciation. from the size of the individually moved blocks, this earthquake may have had a magnitude >9–10. A map produced by Mörner et al. (2000) shows that each seismic event occurred as the ice margin passed overhead, commonly from west to east during deglaciation. Tus, from all this evidence, it is sensible to suggest that some fractures in the metacar-bonates of the Caledonides were caused by surface strain release, or by deeper seismic activity, associated with the fast, early Holocene, uplif, at a time roughly coincident with the passing of the ice margin. Te uplif was not necessarily uniform, even at a local scale. Diferential uplifs caused crevasses and other changes of slope, particularly along ridges. Braa-then et al. (2004) described four types of failure of rock slopes that occur especially in valley shoulder locations, where faulkner (2005a) showed that cave dimensions are maximised. Additionally, Warwick (1971), ford and Ewers (1978) and Lauritzen (1986) suggested that pressure release at the sides of valleys could create fracture zones, including afer melting of the local valley glacier (e.g. fig. 3). Fig. 3: Entrance to Johngrotta, tosenford: tectonic openings caused by pressure relief at side of ford. Caving lamp for scale, at entrance to 15 m-long fssure. Rohr-Torp (1994) found excellent linear relationships (R2>0.85) between the local present rate of uplif (which itself is positively correlated with the total Holo-cene uplif) and the mean and median of both borehole yield and the reducing depth required to achieve an adequate yield, at sites across southern Norway. Concluding that young tectonic events have rejuvenated old fractures, he proposed a simple rule to predict the typical yield of a randomly-placed drilled well in Precambrian rocks in fennoscandia: the yield is 180 Lh-1 at a place with 0mma-1 uplif from a well at 80–85 m depth, increasing by 100 Lh-1, from a required depth of 6 m less, for each extra mma-1 of uplif. Present study area uplif rates vary from 2.5–5.5 mma-1, going inland. Te fracture patterns and dimensions that may support this groundwater storage and fow in Norway were discussed by Banks et al. (1996) and by Gudmundsson et al. (2002). ford (1983, p 157) referred to this mechanism in Canada as “isostatic groundwater pumping”. Torson (2000) noted that there is now a blurring between the study of basic tectonics, and the study of glaciotectonics, and further, that seemingly trivial changes in stress may be sufcient to nucleate earthquakes, especially if there is a change in crustal pore pressure. Muir-Wood (2000, p 1410) stated that, at de-glaciation, the tectonic strain energy that was accumulated during the whole period in which the icesheet had been in place “can be liberated in a major seismic outburst”. Stewart et al. (2000) noted that horizontal plate motions normally drive crustal deformation, but with 12 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 TECTONIC INCEPTION IN CALEDONIDE MARBLES the onset of glaciation, this style is overprinted by the glacial stress, and new horizontal crustal motions increase outwards from the icesheet centre. Tey showed that subglacial water penetrates into the crust below enhanced icemelt in topographic hollows, increasing the pore-water pressure, and that large icesheets stabilise underlying crustal faults, whereas deglaciation destabilises the faults. Periods of cover by maximal Scandinavian icesheets represent times of seismic quiescence, due to the mufing efect of the weight of ice, as the land is gradually compressed and isostatically depressed (Johnston, 1987). In fennoscandia, faulting is linked to zones with very steep ice gradients, or to the fnal stages of recession, when the bulk of seismic activity probably occurs within a few hundred years. During the similar deglaciation of Scotland, local movements were caused by diferential glacial load fexure stresses (Davenport et al., 1989; Ringrose et al., 1991), at places with the steepest ice gradients (Stewart et al., 2000). Johnston (1987) also noted that artifcial reservoirs can trigger earthquakes by increasing hydrostatic pressure. It occurs to this author that local deglacial earthquakes may similarly be triggered by the formation of ice-dammed lakes. fjeldskaar et al. (2000) suggested that stress-generating mechanisms can be grouped into three classes: frst-order stresses across Fennoscandia that arise from the longer-term plate tectonic NW–SE compression ridge-push forces caused by oceanic spreading from the Atlantic Ridge; second-order stresses that are limited to Scandinavia; and third-order stresses that relate to local features (e.g. topography) and rarely extend beyond ~100 km. Any of the above mechanisms may result in fractures open to the surface. Tey may fll with water in summer, so that any winter freezing would subject the rock to increased stress. Te magnitude of any widening is proportional to the sub-zero (oC) temperature at the surface (Matsuoka, 2001). Although most widening is reversed on thawing, there is a tendency for the fracture to be permanently enlarged, and then to admit a higher volume of water during the next freezing cycle. Te temperature cycling of rocks of difering lithologies that have unequal coefcients of thermal expansion would also promote fracture enlargement along contact zones. Indeed, Gud-mundsson et al. (2002, p 64) stated that “stresses tend to concentrate at the contact between dyke rock and the host rock and generate fractures that may conduct groundwa-ter”. Tus, tectonism commonly leads to a growth in the size of the near-surface fracture network, even without invoking karstic processes. If ice-dammed lakes completely froze in winter or during a period of local permafrost, then submerged fractures would also be subjected to further stress and widening. Another mechanism to increase fracturisation is hydrofracturing (e.g. Gudmundsson et al., 2002). Tis process forces groundwater upwards through bedrock at gaps in permafrost, which may apply to metacarbonates during parts of the glacial cycle. At the base of a 500 m-deep ice-dammed lake, the excess pressure would be 50 atm. Tus, water can be injected into fractures that may occur within any underlying metalimestones, and, according to Banks et al. (1996, p 230), such pressures in a borehole may be sufcient to stimulate already fractured bedrock and to create new fractures. Lubrication by water would also amplify the efects of local seismicity. Tere is no reason to suppose that the concentrated seismic creation of fractures during the Weichselian deglaciation was unique: similar processes must have occurred during the demise of all previous Cenozoic glacials (and perhaps stadials). However, from the spe-leothem chronozones proposed for Norway (Lauritzen, 1991a), there are long intervals of several 10 ka when speleothems did not grow, and full glacial coverage can be inferred. It therefore seems likely that the largest magnitude earthquakes only occurred once per 100 ka glacial cycle. NEOTECTONICS In addition to the postglacial uplif, there are two main sources of evidence of neotectonics in Scandinavia: the recent earthquake record, and the observation of movement along faults (e.g. Husebye et al., 1978; Olesen, 1988; Bungum, 1989; Olesen et al., 1992 and 1995). Local instrumentation can now record small earthquakes of magnitude 2, as summarised on a neotectonics map by Dehls et al. (2000a). Te seismic events tend to follow N–S alignments at depths commonly focused above 15 km at the Atlantic Ridge, along the Continental Shelf edge, along the Norwegian coast, rather randomly along the border and onto the Swedish shield, and along the Swedish Baltic coast. Many earthquakes have occurred in northern Norway and along the coast of southern Norway since 1750 AD, but lower frequencies and magnitudes coincide with the study area, which occupies a ‘saddle’ position between higher mountain ranges. Central Scandinavia probably acted as a focus for ice fow during late Cenozoic glacia-tions. With thinner icesheets, there was less stress relief and lower seismicity at each deglaciation. Additionally, increased ice fow increases glacial erosion, leading to less surface relief and less diferential stress, and the increased sedimentation on the Voring Plateau, of the coast of the study area, may have a dampening efect. Te historical record of signifcant, but comparatively smaller and less frequent neotectonic earthquakes in the study area (fig. 4) may be representative of relative seismic ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 13 TREVOR fAULKNER activity during the whole Holocene, although, following the ‘pulse’ of deglaciation seismotectonics, the style of seismicity does change, as noted by Stewart et al. (2000, p 1381): “Whereas present-day seismicity is concentrated around the margins of the former icesheet, on deglaciation, earthquakes predominated at the centre of the rebound dome”. However, neotectonic earthquakes do follow the Rana Fault Complex south along the coast of the study area, and the largest recorded Northern European near-shore earthquake, of magnitude 5.8, occurred on 31 August 1819 AD in Rana, just north of the study area. Some 10000 micro earthquake shocks were recorded instru-mentally at Meloy, 70 km north of the study area, during 10 weeks in 1978 (Bungum et al., 1979). Tese were up to magnitude 3.2, were heard and felt locally, and caused cracks in walls and chimneys. Te documented active postglacial faults are commonly NE–SW-trending reverse faults that lie within a 400 km x 400 km area in northern fennoscandia (e.g. Arvidsson, 1996). Teir lengths and maximum scarp heights vary from 3–150 km and from 1–30 m. fault of-sets range up to 13 m (Dehls et al., 2000b). A magnitude 4 earthquake occurred near one of these faults in 1996, when large amounts of groundwater poured out of the escarpment. Te fault length to ofset ratio indicates that the structure itself resulted from an earthquake with a magnitude above 7. Te work of Olesen et al. (2004, p 17) “supports previous conclusions regarding a major seismic ‘pulse’ (with several magnitude 7–8 earthquakes) which followed immediately afer the deglaciation of northern Fennoscandia” . Te earthquakes may not just be caused by isostatic rebound afer the removal of ice. Tey may also indicate the opportunity for adjustment to glacial erosion afer the ‘mufing’ efect of the ice cover has gone. Te 2 km-wide W–E Basmoen fault zone is just north of the junction between the HNC and the Rodingsfell Nappe Complex (RNC) and can be traced for 50 km along Ranaford (fig. 4). It has a maximum displacement of 10 m, escarpments up to 80 m, provides evidence of recent movements (30– 40 cm between 8780 and 3880a BP: Hicks et al., 2000), and was associated with the 1819 earthquake. Te Rana area was the subject of an in-depth seismic study, NEO-NOR, from 1997–1999, when some 267 local earthquakes were recorded with magnitudes up to 2.8 by Hicks et al., (2000), who stated (p 1431): “Te Rana area has a signif-cant amount of the total seismic activity in onshore northern Norway” and concluded that postglacial uplif is the most likely cause for this continuing high level of seismic activity. Muir-Wood (2000) discussed postglacial very shallow stress-relief phenomena, known as ‘pop-ups’, which are prevalent along the margins of the Laurentian ice- sheet, but relatively unknown in Scandinavia. However, Roberts (2000) reported ofset structures in boreholes at road-cuts that are regarded as stress-relief features initiated by blasting. Within road tunnels there is anecdotal evidence that civil engineers report the sounds of rock moving, and ‘rock bursts’ occur when rocks fall from the roof, afer blasting is complete. At the surface, crushed rocks and slipped blocks and notches on skylines may indicate postglacial movements along faults and nappe boundaries. Olesen et al. (2004, Appendix A) included 54 clas-sifed claims of neotectonic movements from onshore mainland Norway, prior to new evidence discussed here (section 3.4). Te earthquakes and fault movements are commonly parallel manifestations of neotectonic activity that arise from both glacial isostatic uplif and the longer-term plate tectonics. Olesen et al. (1992) reported that the earliest detectable displacement in finnmark (the northernmost county in Norway), is of Proterozoic age, indicating an extremely long-lived fault zone. Such fault zones and their adjacent sub-parallel accommodation faults lie parallel to the strike of the foliation, and give low resistivity readings due to ingress of water into fractures. Whereas the plate tectonic processes constitute the most important fault-generating mechanism in finnmark, stress relief could still have been triggered during the deglaciation period. Tere are no known extensive faults wholly within the study area, which, as noted above, is less seismically active, although Olesen et al. (1995) showed an earthquake zone that extends NE across the north of the study area, passing through Mosjoen and Korgen (fig. 4). Because the Weichselian icesheet had melted by 850014Ca BP, the present pattern of neotectonic seismic activity corresponds more to the horizontal stress feld. As well as being concentrated at the centre of the rebound dome, the earthquake pattern from 10000–850014Ca BP was probably aligned along the mountain ranges, and represented the vertical isostatic rebound. A conclusion from this review of neotectonic activity is that the seismic and aseismic creation and enlargement of near-surface fractures continued throughout each interglacial, to supplement the more intense fracture sets produced at each deglaciation. Tese processes probably combine to create a spectrum of fracture apertures, lengths, frequencies and interconnectivities within the metalimestones. Such fracture systems may include subsystems that vary from being too small to transmit water, to those that are great enough to permit turbulent fow (without requiring karstic dissolution) over path lengths that in the study area reach up to 3.5 km. 14 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 TECTONIC INCEPTION IN CALEDONIDE MARBLES Fig. 4: historical earthquakes in the study area (various sources). EVIDENCE fOR TECTONIC ACTIVITy fROM THE STUDy AREA None of the 54 claimed examples of Norwegian neotec-tonic movement (section 3.3) lie within the study area. Te lithologies of afected or adjacent rocks are rarely given, but there is no indication that any are in carbonate rocks. Tus, a list of 56 possible examples of tectonic movements in metalimestones presented by faulkner (2005a, Appendix D1) may be the frst recorded for the study area, and the frst observed in both exokarstic and endokarstic situations. Altitudes range from near sea level to 770 m. Elgfell provides many good examples. Most underground observations are intended to provide direct evidence of movement, afer formation of the observing passage, rather than direct evidence of tectonic inception. Only one observation concerns fallen, broken or curved stalactites and stalagmites, which can be diagnostic of earthquakes and relative roof movement. A few more unrecorded examples probably do exist, but spe-leothems are rare in the study area anyway, and most of those that do exist are small and probably grew in the Ho-locene, afer the large earthquakes occurred. Speleothems that grew in earlier interglacial periods have commonly been removed by subsequent deglacial outfows. Te few chambers with roof spans greater than c. 6 m commonly contain fallen blocks, which almost universally comprise limestones with clean, sharp, angular surfaces. Tis suggests that they fell afer any deglacial deposition, and are situated high enough above streamways not to have been eroded by Holocene food waters. Only two of the chambers are lit by daylight from nearby entrances, so that only these two may experience severe, seasonal, frost action. Te others are not in entrance areas, and their disturbance by seismic shock seems the best explanation (e.g. fig. 13). Human intervention is most unlikely, because of the common inaccessibility. However, all the large chambers are within 30 m of the overlying surface, and most within 15 m, so that a second possible process is downward fexing of the roof by the weight of an overriding icesheet (providing the cave was not flled by ice or water), as proposed by Warwick (1971), and upward fexing when the ice melted. A third explanation based on the freezing to a total ice fll during glacial conditions also cannot be ruled out. It is the author’s opinion, made afer feld trips to marble caves in central Scandinavia, northern America and Scotland, that evidence of small Holocene tectonic movements (e.g. bedrock movement that displays sharp edges or slickensides, without subsequent calcite dissolution or deposition) can be found in all relict passages in metalimestones in the Caledonides. Movements in VSK seem to occur in either vertical or horizontal slabs that are typically 1–3 m thick. Te movements, presumably caused by W–E compressive stress, are commonly horizontal, normal to the strike, and have typical moved distances of only a few centimetres (and, rarely, several tens of centimetres), as expressed at the surface and within cave passages. Te horizontal movement of vertical slabs of limestone 1–3 m thick is compatible with the survey leg length of many caves in the study area, suggesting that joint systems (in, e.g., VSK) are produced by this process (figs. 5 and 6). Longer straight passage elements, and very wide, but low, passages, may arise from the horizontal movement of horizontal slabs of limestone (figs. 7, 8 and especially 9 and 10). Tese observations agree with those of Olesen et al. (2004, p 13): “the Norwegian bedrock consists of individual blocks that, to some degree, move independently of each other”. According to Mörner (2003, p 72), a passing seismic wave can cause bedrock to lif up and then sink back, whilst the ground is being severely shaken. Tis probably happened at Clif Cave in Jordbrudal (figs. 9 and 10). Because most tectonic movements are of only a few centimetres, explorable cave passages are unlikely to be truncated along faults, and few such blind passages are known in the area. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 15 TREVOR fAULKNER Fig. 5: Scallop in Elgfellhola: 11cm tectonic movement at scallop (highlighted), which occurred afer formation of the passage, probably synchronously with movement in the nearby Paradox Cave (Fig. 6). Fig. 6: Slickensides in Paradox Cave, Elgfell: tectonic movement of ~20 cm afer enlargement of passage to its present size. A possible alternative explanation is that there has not been any movement, but that diferential erosion or corrosion has given the appearance of movement. Fig. 7: Kidney lake Cave, Jordhulefell: Relict phreatic passage, with ~2 m diameter. A prominent horizontal tectonic movement bisects the passage, probably resulting from seismic amplifcation, because the cave lies in a ridge. Although this movement occurred afer the passage enlarged to it present size, cave inception probably took advantage of a similar movement at the end of the Saalian deglaciation. Photo by P. hann. Fig. 8: horizontal tectonic movement on Elgfell: mass movement outward (afer glacial smoothing) of 2 m-thick slab of metalimestone, with proto-conduits at upper fracture. Tis could arise particularly if the apparent movement is aligned with the foliation. However, the photographic evidence for tectonic movements discussed above is compelling. Te evidence provided at elgfellhola (fig. 5) is particularly convincing, because the movement is across the foliation, is seen all the way around the passage walls, has a 1 mm-thick fault gauge wafer protruding up to 50 mm, and includes an 11cm step across a wall scallop. Te evidence of protruding fault gauge wafers at surface sites (e.g. fig. 11) that appear to cross-cut karren and stream channels suggests that these movements occurred in the Holocene, afer the transport of ice across the area. Te wafers could have been extruded beyond the faces of the limestone blocks by the seismic movements, or else Holocene chemical dissolution of the surface has lef the more resistant wafers exposed to a height that indicates 16 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 TECTONIC INCEPTION IN CALEDONIDE MARBLES Fig. 9: Clif Cave entrances: Shattered clifs and towers of limestone near the Rockbridge, Jordbrudal. Fig. 10: Clif Cave entrance from inside: horizontal opening of c. 1 m to both lef and right that split foor of phreatic passage to create a box-like profle. Tis is the largest known tectonic movement in the study area. the extent of local surface lowering, or wall retreat in a cave. Te wafers are calcitic, with polished surfaces and unknown dissolutional characteristics. Te observed tectonic movements in karst caves commonly follow the plane of the supposed inception fracture. Additionally, caves commonly display a high concentration of joints and fractures (c.f. the epikarst in sedimentary limestones) that lie parallel to, or normal to, the plane of foliation, and in some cases at other angles. Tese openings may not show lateral movement, but the variable degree of sharpness or smoothing by dissolu-tional water indicates that they probably represent a general settling upwards of large superfcial carbonate blocks afer seismic shocks. Te sporadic lines of speleothems beneath roof joints indicate ‘failed’ vertical inception fractures, which transmit water more readily in vadose rather than phreatic conditions. Fig. 11: Diverging fow on Elgfell: Diverging fow of cofee across vertical fracture with fault gauge, suggesting that movement occurred afer the surface fow was established. Fig. 12: Fountain at litl hjortskar, Svenningdal: Spring at high stage from metalimestone fractures 1 m above level of adjacent stream. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 17 TREVOR fAULKNER Fig. 13: Te Blockpile, Kvannlihola 2: Well-away from freeze-thaw infuences, this collapse likely occurred during early holocene earthquakes. It is self-evident that if tectonic caves can form in non-carbonate rocks, such as the entrance to Secret Stream Cave in mica schist (fig. 14), then, despite metalimestone perhaps being slightly more ductile than some other local lithologies, there almost certainly exist natural conditions that promote the creation of tectonic caves in marbles, as listed by faulkner (2005a). Such caves may be recognised by their angular or triangular passage profles, especially at roof level. (Sediments, clastic materials and fallen rock may provide a fatter, sub-horizontal, foor). Whereas the movements along fractures in caves primarily formed by karstic dissolution are commonly small (the c. 1 m movement in Clif Cave, figs. 10 and 11, is exceptional), the movements at purely tectonic caves could be much greater. It is also self-evident that if a limestone tectonic cave later became part of a drainage route, under vadose or phreatic conditions, then normal karstic chemical and mechanical erosion processes would apply, and, over time, the passage would enlarge. If the drainage was phreatic, then eventually the evidence of its tectonic inception could dissolve away. Even in vadose conditions, the signs of an original tectonic movement may be destroyed in all but the highest, perhaps inaccessible, levels. Te only known examples in the study area of caves in metalimestone that Fig. 14: Secret Stream Cave, Elgfell: Primarily a tectonic cave, formed at junction of mica schist and marble. Te mica schist has split and rotated upwards. Te pick-axe is a relic of small-scale mining activity. possibly enlarged tectonically to explorable dimensions and later enlarged signifcantly by karstic processes are the adjacent caves nordlysgrotta and marimyntgrotta in Velford, which may also have passages truncated by tectonic movements (faulkner, 2005b). Whenever a Caledonide karst passage has been studied by the author, it has always been found to follow either the contact between metalimestone and another, non-carbonate, rock, or a narrow (commonly horizontal in VSK) fracture plane in the limestone. Because there are likely to be rheological diferences between rocks of differing lithologies, tectonic fractures are particularly likely to form at lithological contacts, under all conditions of seismic and aseismic tectonic movement. It is not necessary to have intersecting fractures for tectonic inception: apertures are uneven, and channel fow follows the widest part of the opening (Hanna and Rajaram, 1998). Nor is movement along the plane of the fracture necessary: a separating aperture adjacent to, or within, the limestone is sufcient. Such local rock splitting, especially vertical, may arise near the surface from deglacial and erosional unloading, without necessarily being triggered by seismic or aseismic processes. EVIDENCE fOR TECTONIC INCEPTION 18 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 TECTONIC INCEPTION IN CALEDONIDE MARBLES CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the accepted facts of seismic and slow tectonic activity in Scandinavia (section 3), it is argued here that all the solutional karst caves of the study area were initiated by tectonic inception. Tectonic activity creates fractures and some of these fractures must be open, as shown by the extreme cases of explorable tectonic caves. for the vertical stripe karsts in the HNC (at least), it seems probable that horizontal movements produce sublinear sections of horizontal and vertical fractures with apertures that match the mm- and cm-scale banding of the foliation. Te availability of chemically aggressive waters during meteoric and glacial conditions (faulkner, 2005a) that can pass easily through connected fssures that lie close to the surface, and that commonly have high hydraulic gradients (fig. 12), promotes karstic enlargement. Indeed, just as it seems impossible for karst caves to exist in the metalimestones of the study area without tectonic inception (section 1), it also seems impossible for them not to exist, given the tectonic history and the availability and fow regimes of chemically aggressive waters. Hence, all the karst caves are hybrids. Afer tectonic inception, conduits enlarged by dissolutional karstic processes, some with marine modifcation, and some with observable tectonic modifcation subsequent to inception. Monogenetic cave types in metacarbonate rocks are limited to wholly tectonic caves, wholly sea caves (formed by wave action), and jettegryter (rock-mills, formed by mechanical action during deglaciation). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Tis paper reports part of a wider project to study spe-leogenesis in Caledonide metacarbonate rocks (faulkner, 2005a), for which the helpful and patient supervision provided by Professor John Gunn and Dr. David Lowe is gratefully acknowledged. for this aspect of the project, Dr. Rod Gayer generously invited me to attend his lectures on Caledonian–Appalachian Tectonics at the University of Cardif, and a feld trip with Dr. Colin Davenport and his students at the University of East Anglia to study neotectonics in the Scottish Caledonides was extremely benefcial. 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Kogovšek: Hydrochemic characteristics and tectonic situation and of selected springs in central andNW Yunnan province, China Te yunnan Province lies on the eastern rim of the collision zone between the Indian plate and Eurasia. Tis region is characterized by complex Cenozoic structures and active seismotec-tonics. In the year 2004 the areas north from Kunming and the NW part of yunnan were studied. Te measurements of the temperature, conductivity and the analyses of carbonate, phosphate and nitrate were performed in Quinglongtan spring and in the accumulation lake that is situated lower than the spring. Te springs are situated in the wider zone of the xiaojiang fault along which lef horizontal movements are taking place. Along the wider zone of the Zhongdian fault between the town of Zhongdian and the yangtze River on the south there are more springs. Tiansheng Qiao (T = 57.5oC) and xiageiwenquan (T = 48,3 - 66.8oC) are thermal springs along which tufa is deposited. Te Baishuitai spring has high mineralization and lower temperature (T = 11.1 - 13.3oC) and deposits calcium carbonate in the form of gours. All studied springs are connected with active fault zones. Te studied areas mostly represent the contact areas between carbonate and non-carbonate rocks. key words: springs, tectonics, travertine, yunnan, China. Izvleček UDK 556.3:54(510) S. Sebela & J. Kogovšek: Hidrokemične značilnosti in tektonski položaj izbranih izvirov v osrednjem in SZ Yunnanu, Kitajska Provinca yunnan leži na vzhodnem robu kolizijske cone med Indijsko in Evrazijsko ploščo. Za to ozemlje so značilne zapletene kenozojske strukture in aktivna seizmotektonika. V letu 2004 smo proučevali ozemlja severno od Kunminga in SZ del yunnana. Meritve temperature, specifčne električne prevodnosti in analize vsebnosti karbonatov, fosfatov in nitratov smo opravili na izvirih Quinglongtan in v nižje ležečem akumulacijskem jezeru. Izviri se nahajajo v širši prelomni coni xiaojiang, ob kateri se vršijo levi zmiki. V širši prelomni coni Zhongdian preloma med mestom Zhongdian in reko yangtze na jugu se nahaja več izvirov. Tiansheng Qiao (T = 57,5oC) in xiageiwenquan (T = 48,3 - 66,8oC) sta termalna izvira, ob katerih se odlaga lehnjak, Baishuitai pa je močno mineraliziran izvir z nižjo temperaturo (T = 11,1 - 13,3oC), ki odlaga kalcijev karbonat in gradi ponvice. Vsi ti izviri so vezani na aktivne prelomne cone. Izbrani predeli večinoma predstavljajo kontakt med karbonatnimi in nekarbonatnimi kamninami. ključne besede: izviri, tektonika, lehnjak, yunnan, Kitajska. 1 Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU, Titov trg 2, 6230 Postojna, Slovenia, e-mail: sebela@zrc-sazu.si Received / Prejeto: 20.01.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 23–33, LJUBLJANA 2006 STANKA ŠEBELA & JANJA KOGOVŠEK INTRODUCTION Exposed karst areas in China comprise about 900.000 km2 and the karst area in yunnan includes 110.900 km2. Te yunnan region in southwest China is located in the boundary area between the active Tibetan Plateau to the west and the stable South China platform to the east. Tis region is characterized by complex Cenozoic structures and active seismotectonics. Te studied area is part of the Tree parallel rivers of yunnan Protected Areas, which is inscribed in the UNESCO’s World Heritage List. Te area represents geological history of at least 50 million years associated with the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate, the closure of the ancient Tethys Sea, and the uplifing of the Himalayan Range and the Tibetan Plateau. Te site consists of 15 protected areas (in eight geographic clusters) in the mountainous northwest of yunnan Province and extends over a total area of 1.698.400 ha, encompassing the watershed areas of the yangtze Tufa as a general name covers a wide variety of calcareous freshwater deposits, which are particularly common in late Quaternary and Recent successions. Tufa is the product of calcium carbonate precipitation under a cool water regime and typically contains the remains of micro- and macrophytes, invertebrates and bacteria. Te term travertine is restricted to all “freshwater” thermal and hydrothermal calcium carbonate deposits dominated by physico-chemical and microbial precipitates, which invariably lack in situ macrophyte and animal remains. Tufas are usually distinguishable from travertines, even in ancient deposits, by the comparatively high diversity of contained plants, including macrophytes, and animals (ford & Pedley 1996). In China’s vast karst landscapes there are many tufa deposits. Tey are known in Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Tibet Provinces. Some of the tufa cascades in Gui-zhou are broadly comparable with the Plitvice barrages Tectonic development of the SE Asia includes the Indian subcontinental collision, which represents the penetration of a rigid block (representing India) into layers of plasticine in a partly confned block (Asia) (Tapponnier (Jinsha), Mekong (Lacang) and Salween (Nu Jiang) rivers. Te rivers pass through steep gorges, in places up to 3.000 m deep. At their closest the three gorges are 18 km and 66 km apart. Our research work in this region was performed within the Slovene-Chinese project with yunnan Institute of Geography from 18-29th October 2004. In the previous years most researches were oriented to the area around Kunming (Lunan) and SE from Kunming (xichou, Qiubei, Guangnan) (figure 1). Shilin, feng-cong, fenglin, karst caves were studied (Knez & Slabe 2002; Šebela et al. 2004) and water tracing tests were performed (Kogovšek et al. 1997; Kogovšek & Liu Hong 2000). In the year 2004 it was the frst time that the areas of NW yunnan were visited and some thermal and non-thermal springs with tufa deposits related to active tectonics were studied. (ford & Pedley 1996). frančišković, Bilinski et al. (2003) analysed the tufa from Guangxi. One tufa sample originated in the Pleistocene, and the others in the Holocene. Te travertines in China are divided into two major geochemical groups: the meteogenes and thermogenes. Te thermogenes are essentially hydrothermal deposits, where CaCO3 is precipitated from high-CO2 groundwa-ters. Most of this CO2 comes from deep within the crust as a result of magmatic degassing or limestone decarbon-ation with DIC (dissolved inorganic carbon) values typically >>10 mM/l. Tey are usually found in tectonically and/or volcanically active regions (Pentecost & Zhang 2001). Tibet, in spite of its cold dry climate and high altitude, has a scatter of tufa deposits, mostly either calcareous crusts on colluvium or associated with geothermal springs (Waltham 1996). et al. 1982). Te Red River fault zone (figure 1) is the major geological discontinuity that separates South China from Indochina. Today it corresponds to a great right-lateral fault, following for over 900 km the edge of four TUfA DEPOSITS TECTONIC SITUATION 24 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 HyDROCHEMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND TECTONIC SITUATION Of SELECTED SPRINGS Fig. 1: tectonic situation of yunnan (afer Burchfeld & Wang 2003). 1 = yulong Snow mountain 5596 m above sea level; lake, 2-ZF = Zhongdian fault, JF = Jianshui fault, QF = Qujiang fault, 3 = studied areas, 1 = tiansheng Qiao and Xiageiwenquan springs, 2 = Baishuitai tufa deposits, 3 = springs north of Kunming, 4 = right-lateral slip along the fault, 5 = lef-lateral slip along the fault. Slika 1: tektonske razmere yunnana (po Burchfeld & Wang 2003). 1 = yulong Snow mountain 5596 m nad morjem; jezero, 2-ZF = Zhongdian prelom, JF = Jianshui prelom, QF = Qujiang prelom, 3 = raziskovana mesta, 1= izviri tiansheng Qiao in Xiageiwenquan, 2 = Baishuitai ponvice, 3 = izviri severno od Kunminga, 4 = desni zmik ob prelomu, 5 = levi zmik ob prelomu. narrow (<20 km wide) high-grade gneiss ranges that together form the Ailao Shan-Red River metamorphic belt (Leloup et al. 1995). Te movement along the Red River fault has been dominantly right lateral since the close of the Tertiary. Te best evidence comes from ofsets of tributary streams of up to 5-6 km in the last 2 to 3 Ma (amounting to slip rates of 2-5 mm/yr). No signifcant earthquake has occurred along the fault in the last 2000 years (Allen et al. 1984). Tapponnier et al. (1982) surmise reversal of movement on the Red River fault from the initial lef-lateral sense during the frst 20 to 30 Ma following the onset of the Indian collision. A diferent regional stress pattern now favors adjustment by dextral slip. Te orientation of the fault is consistent with N-S shortening and E-W extension. Geological relations near the NW termination of the Ailao Shan suggest the Red River fault had a minimum of 14 - 48 km of right-lateral displacement in pre-Plio-cene (and presumably post -17 Ma) time and only 5-6 km of displacement in Quaternary time (Allen et al., 1984; Wang et al., 1998). Active right-lateral displacement on the eastern part of the Red River fault zone is interpreted to be caused by a segment of the fault zone being rotated counterclockwise by shear related to the lef-lateral xiao-jiang fault system (Wang et al. 1998). Stating that the Red River fault has been displaced by the xiaojiang fault, it can be concluded that with respect to its present kinematics, the eastern part of the Red River fault does not accommodate large motions nowadays (Michel et al. 2000). Te northwest-striking Jianshui and Qujiang faults (figure 1) and probably the Zhongdian fault show evidence for diferent amounts of middle Ce-nozoic (pre-Pliocene and post-early Paleogene) lef-lat-eral displacement that range from 6-25 km. Te age and orientation of the lef-lateral faults suggest that the faults are related to a regional deformational event associated with important lef-lateral shear on the Ailao-Shan shear zone (Burchfel & Wang 2003). Te Zhongdian fault (figure 1) appears to have undergone only lef-lateral displacement, some of which may be middle Cenozoic in age and some post-Miocene in age. Active displacement on the Zhongdian fault is interpreted to mark the eastern boundary for a small crustal fragment that rotates clockwise around the eastern Himalayan syntaxis (Burchfel & Wang 2003). Active right-lateral movement on the Jianshui fault (figure 1) can be documented by numerous geological (ofset structures) and geomorphic (defected rivers and pull-apart basins) features. Active right-lateral displacement of the Quijiang fault is demonstrated by numerous scarps and ofset Holocene feature and seismic activity (Burchfel & Wang 2003). SE of Zhongdian the Zhongdian fault passes through a series of basins flled with Quaternary sediments and the analysis suggests lef-lateral stream defections indicating the fault is active. Te fault bends south at the Jinsha River and merges with the active lef-lateral Jian-chuan fault (Burchfel & Wang 2003). Quaternary basins and lakes north of Dali and within the southern part of the xiaojiang fault zone are areas of local active extension (Wang & Burchfel 2000). Only the Jianshui fault and possibly the Quijiang fault contain evidence for right-lateral reactivation of older lef-lat-eral faults (Burchfel & Wang 2003). Te xiaojiang fault system is at least 2-4 m.y. old, and possibly as old as 6-8 m.y., which suggests rapid right-slip did not begin on the ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 25 STANKA ŠEBELA & JANJA KOGOVŠEK Quaternary Jianshui and Quijang faults until lef-lateral shear within xiaojiang fault system was well underway (Burchfel & Wang 2003). Te Pliocene-Quaternary sedimentary fll in pullapart basins associated with lef-lateral xianshuihe-xiao-jiang fault system indicated that this fault system was initiated by at least 2-4 Ma (Wang et al. 1998). Kunming is moving due south with respect to Sun-daland-South China indicating sinistral movement along the xiaojiang fault system with a rate of 11 ±4 mm/yr. Te xianshuihe-xianjiang fault system sufers pure sinis-tral strike slip faulting in its central part with respect to South China (Michel et al. 2000). SEISMICITy In the broad sense, strike-slip faults and earthquakes in SW China result from the eastward motion of the Earth’s crust that is driven by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian continental plates beneath the Himalaya Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau to the west. Tere is an obvious diference between the southern segment and northern segment of the Red River fault from the viewpoint of modern seismicity. Te most disastrous earthquakes occurred in the northern segment. feigl et al. (2003) report that the Red River fault did not slip faster than 1 or 2 mm/yr between 1994-2001 near Tác Ba, Vietnam. A strong earthquake occurred in Lijiang area in yunnan Province on february 3, 1996 (M = 7.0). Te epicenter was determined to be in the seismically active region of the Hengduan mountains, which belong to the Alpine-Himalaya seismic belt. Kunming is situated in the middle and southern part of seismically active xiaojiang-fault. In the year 1833 earthquakes (M = 8.0) were located in the area of Songmin (figure 1). Te focal mechanisms of the 1966 earthquakes on the N-S-striking xiaojiang fault imply lef-lateral slip along it. A normal component of slip on the roughly N-S faults south from Kunming has created several Quaternary half-grabens, some of them flled by lakes (Tappon-nier & Molnar 1977). An earthquake of M = 7.7 occurred on the Quijiang fault in 1970 (Tunghai earthquake). Te event produced a 60-km-long surface break and with a maximum right-lateral displacement of 2,7 m (Liu et al. 1988; Ma, 1989). SPRINGS NORTH fROM KUNMING Upper Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian shallow-water carbonates build the south China tower karst, south from Kunming. Near Kunming basalt rock is inter-bedded with the Upper Permian limestones. Within the frame of the feldwork the accumulation lake and Quinglongtan spring (figure 2) north from Kunming were studied on 21st October 2004. Te water from several springs is lead to a common channel that runs into the accumulation lake that was made for irrigation and water supply of Kunming. Te springs are located in the wider zone of xaojiang fault (figure 1), which is still tectonically active. Te measured temperature and conductivity (SEC) of the three main springs showed that the water from the springs belong to the same source (temperature 14.7oC and SEC 277 µS/cm). Te water in the accumulation lake was warmer (19.4oC), while the SEC measurement was within the values of the Quinglongtan spring. Te carbonate concentration in accumulation lake and in the springs was low; just 135 mg CaCO3/l (2.7 mekv/l) what means it was a little bit lower than total hardness (146 mg CaCO3/l or 2.92 mekv/l, figure 3). In Tianshen-gan area we measured such low values of hardnesses in karst springs at high hydrological conditions (Kogovšek 1998). Te phosphate concentration in accumulation lake and in the spring was under the detection limit of the method (<0,01 mg PO43-/l), the nitrate concentration was 4,6 or 4,4 mg NO3-/l, what shows good water quality. 26 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 HyDROCHEMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND TECTONIC SITUATION Of SELECTED SPRINGS Fig. 2: Qinglongtan spring (one of the several springs) north from Kunming (photo by J. Kogovšek). Slika 2: Qinglongtan izvir severno od Kunminga (foto J. Kogovšek). SPRINGS NORTH Te water supply for the Lijiang derives from the nearer Zhenzhuquan spring (figure 4), where the water is cached in a smaller lake that is regulated for tourism. Part of the water is accumulated into the channels that run through the Lijiang town. On the principal spring Fig. 4: Zhenzhuquan spring near lijiang (photo by J. Kogovšek). Slika 4: Izvir Zhenzhuquan pri lijiangu (foto J. Kogovšek). 12 • • Ca+Mg-96-97 • Ca+Mg-04 10 I 8 o E a 6 S + (8 4 - y 2 .«• 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Karbonati - Carbonates (mekv/l) Fig. 3: total and carbonate hardness of sampled springs in year 2004 and sampled karst waters in tianshengan area in the years 1996 – 97 at diferent hydrological conditions. Slika 3: Celokupna in karbonatna trdota vzorčevanih izvirov v letu 2004 in vzorčevane kraške vode na področju tianshengan v letih 1996-97 v različnih hidroloških pogojih. fROM LIJIANG there is a pumping area (figure 5) that is still used for water supply of the Lijiang. During our visit on the 24th October 2004 we met many natives who come to take the water from the spring. Te water temperature was 14.8oC, SEC 370 µS/cm, carbonate hardnesses 158 mg CaCO3/l (3,16 mekv/l), and the total hardness 162 mg CaCO3/l (3,24 mekv/l). Tese measurements fall well with characteristics of groundwater and karst springs in Tianshengan area near Stone forest (Kogovšek et al. 1997, Kogovšek 1998). Te water had good quality regarding the low chloride concentration (1 mg Cl-/l), the nitrate concentration (1,3 mg NO3-/l), and the o-phos-phates (< 0.01 mgPO43-/l). yulong Snow Mountain (5596 m) consists of Paleozoic carbonate rocks and in the eastern area of Tertiary clastic rocks with marlites and calcareous rocks (Huang Chuxing 2004). Bai Shui He river that runs on the northern slope of the mountain showed the temperature of 9,6oC (23rd October 2004), low SEC (196 µS/ cm), low carbonate hardness (109 mg CaCO3/l or 2.17 mekv/l) and just 1 mg NO3-/l. Te pH measurement showed value 8.2. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 27 STANKA ŠEBELA & JANJA KOGOVŠEK Fig. 5: Te pumping area at Zhenzhuquan spring (photo by J. Kogovšek). Slika 5: črpališče na izviru Zhenzhuquan (foto J. Kogovšek). About 42,2% of the Zhongdian County represents carbonate surface. Most of the carbonate rocks are from Devonian and Cretaceous. Some are from lower Permian and the middle and lower Triassic (Huang Chux-ing 2004). In the wider zone of the Zhongdian fault near the town of Zhongdian and yangtze river there are more tectonic depressions that are developed inside carbonate rocks but border also to other rocks as magmatic, sandstones and marbles. In such cases we don’t deal with the true karst poljes. All depressions are related to active tectonic faults that are NW-SE oriented with active sinistral horizontal movements. In the area of the active Zhongdian fault there are more springs (figure 1). Some are thermal springs others have lower temperature and many of them precipitate tufa deposits. Te spring waters are supposed to come from the depths. During our feld studies we visited the xiageiwenquan thermal springs, Tiansheng Qiao thermal spring, and Baishuitai tufa deposits. All three locations are tourist attractions. Xiageiwenquan (figure 6) is situated about 10 km east from the Zhongdian town and represents about 10 smaller and bigger thermal springs in the distance of 300 m. In the area there are older and younger still active travertine deposits. Te area is built of Triassic limestones, sandstones and mudstones. yuan Daoxian (2002) mentioned 9 springs with discharges between 0,5 to 1 l/s and temperature between 36,6 and 67,4oC. Te SEC values of the springs were between 1676 and 2660 µS/cm. Our measurements taken on the 26th October 2004 detected the temperature being between 48,3 and 66,8oC, Fig. 6: Xiageiwenquan thermal spring (photo by J. Kogovšek). Slika 6: termalni izvir Xiageiwenquan (foto J. Kogovšek). and minimal discharges. Te SEC values were from 1260 to 1510 µS/cm (measurements were performed with WTW instrument Lf 90 at ref. temperature 20oC). Tiansheng Qiao is situated some km south from xiageiwenquan, along the active sinistral horizontal Su-oge-xuejiping fault on the western side of the Jinsha river. Te fault is a deep and wide fault formed in the early stage of Permian but still active today. A hot liquid of the gabbro plasma efuses up through this fault. And it is the precondition to form tufa landscapes (Huang Chuxing 2004). Te attraction of the Tiansheng Qiao is the natural bridge with Shuodugang river running below it (figure 7). Te limestone natural bridge is 40 m high, 10 m wide and 15 m long. In the area there is also the Tiansheng Qiao thermal spring with travertine deposits. Huang Fig. 7: Natural bridge of tiansheng Qiao (photo by J. Kogovšek). Slika 7: Naravni most tiansheng Qiao (foto J. Kogovšek). SPRINGS SOUTH fROM ZHONGDIAN 28 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 HyDROCHEMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND TECTONIC SITUATION Of SELECTED SPRINGS Chuxing (2004) speaks about sulphur springs, formed in diferent stages. Te east side is from the earlier stage and the west side from the later stage. Travertine deposits at a relatively high speed with the estimated sedimentation 1-5 cm/year. By comparison with other in the surrounding areas the travertine of Tiansheng Qiao did not form earlier than 5000 years ago. Te thermal water of the Tiansheng Qiao spring is accumulated into the thermal pools (figure 8) used by Fig. 8: Termal spring of tiansheng Qiao is accumulated into the pools (photo by J. Kogovšek). Slika 8: termalni izvir tiansheng Qiao je speljan v bazene (foto J. Kogovšek). tourists. Te Shuodugang river had (25th October 2004) the temperature of 10oC and low SEC (115 µS/cm). Te water of the thermal spring had the temperature of 57,5oC and high SEC (1805 µS/cm), high carbonate concentration (20 mekv/l) higher chloride values (27 mg Cl-/l) and the sulphate values of 26 mg SO42-/l. High SEC value means high concentration of dissolved substances. Te water probably contains other substances but our analyses were limited to the analyses mentioned above. Te scenic spot is the gathering place between the surface and underground water, and also the converging place of the N-S trending Suoge-xuejiping fault and another E-W trending fault (Huang Chuxing 2004). baishuitai spring contain high mineralizated waters with regular temperatures. Baishuitai is situated about 20-30 km north from the yangtze river. Te area is built of Triassic rocks (limestones and sandstones) as well as of Permian rocks and Quaternary (delluvium) rocks. Because the spring water is oversaturated it deposits dissolved mineral substances. In this sense the slopes are covered by mostly white tufa. Te tufa dams and gours (figure 9) are covering the areas of Lower and Middle Triassic limestones. Te water resurges from diferent springs. Te spring area is covered by deciduous trees, which are the source for pollution and also the food for Fig. 9: tufa gours of Baishuitai (photo by J. Kogovšek). Slika 9: Baishuitai ponvice (foto J. Kogovšek). algae growth. Te springs are decorated with Buddhist symbols. Many people visit the spring area and walk over the tufa deposits what causes dams’ destruction. Te park administration is trying to protect the area. Te springs’ temperature is between 11,1 and 13,3oC. Te SEC measurements showed a little bit over 1000 µS/ cm what means that the water has a lot of dissolved carbonates. Total hardness was 600 mg CaCO3/l (12 mekv/l) and carbonate concentration 560 mg CaCO3/l (11,2 mekv/l). Te ratio Ca/Mg of the water was equal to 4,4, what shows that the Mg values are 4,4-times lower then the Ca and that the water is coming from the hinterland. Te water had low nitrate and phosphate concentrations and 40 mg SO42-/l of sulphates. Te temperature and conductivity measurements of the water in the gours along the water fow showed the 14 12 • 10 v. .v *» . V«' J" • Ca+Mg-02 ¦ CatMg-99 Ca*Mg-98 • Ca+Mg-96-97 • Ca+Mg-04 200 400 600 80C 1000 1200 SEC (pS/cm) Fig. 10: SEC and total hardness of karst waters from diferent parts of yunnan (Kogovšek 1998) and in the article mentioned springs. Slika 10: Specifčna električna prevodnost in celokupna trdota kraških voda iz različnih delov yunnana (Kogovšek 1998) in v članku omenjenih izvirov. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 29 STANKA ŠEBELA & JANJA KOGOVŠEK increase of temperature and lowering of the SEC values, what is typical of intensive carbonate precipitation. At the bottom of the slope the water is led into the channel that runs to the nearest village where it is used for water supply and irrigation. Total hardness of this water was only 240 mg CaCO3/l (4,8 mekv/l), with 210 mg CaCO3/l belonging to carbonates (4,2 mekv/l). Te ratio Ca/Mg was 3, suggesting mainly the calcium carbonate precipitation (from 1 liter of water up to 360 mg CaCO3 was deposited) while magnesium remains in the solution. Te same results were obtained in tufa precipitation at Podstenjšek spring in Slovenia (Kogovšek 2006). Te Te yunnan Province lies on the eastern rim of the collision zone between the Indian plate and Eurasia. Tis region is characterized by complex Cenozoic structures and active seismotectonics. Te Quinglongtan spring (T = 14,7oC and low values of SEC, carbonate and total hardnesses) are situated north from Kunming. Similar values were detected in the area of Tianshengan, yunnan at high hydrological conditions. Te Zhenzhuquan spring near Lijiang had the same temperature but higher values of the SEC and hardnesses. Quinglongtan and Zhenzhuquan springs and accumulation lake had low levels of phosphate (under 0,01 mg PO43-/l) and low nitrate concentrations (from 1,3 to 4,6 mg NO3-/l) and are showing good water quality. Te springs are situated inside the xiaojiang fault zone along which sinistral horizontal movements are still active (figure 1). Most probably they are karst springs. In the wider zone of the Zhongdian fault between Zhongdian town and the yangtze river there are more tectonic depressions, which are developed inside carbonate and non-carbonate rocks. In this sense they are not lower concentration of sulphates (5 mg/l) compared with the values of the higher spring shows partial sulphate precipitation only. Tese are our frst results, which should be expanded, as the nice and attractive gours need to be protected from numerous visitors. Liu Zai-Hua et al. (2004) reported about researches of geochemical indicators (saturation index, pH, CO2 partial pressure) in cal-cite-precipitating stream and channel at Baishuitai. Baishuitai tufa deposits in yunnan are comparable with the Plitvice travertine dams in Croatia. Tey are probably thermogene (Pentecost & Zhang 2001). the true karst poljes. All depressions are developed inside NW-SE and N-S oriented active fault zone with sinistral horizontal movements. In the wider zone of the Zhongdian fault there are more springs related to active tectonics. Tiansheng Qiao (T = 57,5oC) and xiageiwenquan springs (T = 48,3 -66,8oC) are thermal springs with tufa deposits. Baishuitai is very mineralized spring with lower temperature (T = 11,1 - 13,3oC), which deposits mostly calcium carbonate. Te ratio of Ca/Mg decreases along the precipitation path, what means that Mg remains in solution. Also the sulphates are partly precipitating. Baishuitai travertines are probably thermogene (Pentecost & Zhang 2001). Because carbonate tufas are very sensitive to water and climate Huang Chuxing (2004) performed the geo-morphological investigations to provide scientifc basis for the protection of tourist tufa resources of Tiansh-engqiao. Te study was performed within the Slovene-Chinese project with yunnan Institute of Geography between 18-29th October 2004 and supported by Agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost RS. 30 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 HyDROCHEMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND TECTONIC SITUATION Of SELECTED SPRINGS REfERENCES Allen, C.R., Gillespie, A.R., Han, y, Sieh, K.E., Zhang, B. & Zhu, C., 1984: Red River and associated yunnan province, China; Quaternary geology, slip rates, and seismic hazard.- Geological Society of America Bulletin 95, 686-700. Burchfeld, B.C. & Erchie, Wang, 2003: Northwest-trending, middle Cenozoic, lef-lateral faults in southern yunnan, China, and their tectonic signifcance.-Journal of Structural Geology 25, 781-792. feigl, K. L., Duong, Chi, Cong, Becker, M., Tran, Din, To, Neumann, K. & Nguyen, Quang, xuyen, 2003: Insignifcant horizontal strain across the Red River fault near Tác Ba, Vietnam from GPS measurements 1994-2000.- Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 5, 04707, European Geophysical Society. ford, T.D. & Pedley, H.M., 1996: A review of tufa and travertine deposits of the world.- Earth-Science Reviews 41, Elsevier, 117-175. frančišković Bilinski, S., Bilinski, H., Barišić, D. & Horvatinčić, N., 2003: Analysis of Karst Tufa from Guangxi, China.-Acta Geologica Sinica, vol. 77, no. 2, 267-275. Huang, Chuxing, 2004: Characteristics and formation mechanism of tufa landscape at Tianshengqiao, Zhongdian County, yunnan Province, China.- unpublished report, 1-8. Knez, M. & Slabe, T., 2002: Lithologic and geomorpho-logical properties and rock relief of the Lunan stone forests.- In: Gabrovšek, f. (ed.), Evolution of Karst: from Prekarst to Cessation. Ljubljana, Založba ZRC, 259-266. Kogovšek, J., Petrič, M. & Hong, Liu, 1997: Properties of underground water fow in karst area near Lunan in yunnan. In: KRANJC, Andrej (ed.). Tracer hydrology 97: proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Water Tracing, Portorož, Slovenia, 26-31 May 1997. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, 255-261. Kogovšek, J., 1998: Physical and chemical characteristics of groundwater of Tianshengan area (Te wider area of the tracing experiments). South China Karst 1 (Zbirka ZRC, 19), Založba ZRC, 91-98, Ljubljana. Kogovšek, J., & Hong, Liu, 2000: Water tracing test in the Tianshengan region, yunnan - China at high water level.- Acta carsologica 29/2, 249-260, Ljubljana. Kogovšek, J., 2006: fizikalno-kemične značilnosti izločanja travertina - Primer Podstenjška (Slovenija). Acta carsologica, 35/1, 47-45, Ljubljana. Leloup, P.H., Lacassin, R., Tapponnier, P. , Schärer, U., Zhong, Dalai, Liu, xiaohan, Zhang, Liangshang, Ji, Shaocheng, Phan, Trong Trinh, 1995: Te Ailao Shan-Red River shear zone (yunnan, China), Tertiary transform boundary of Indochina.- Tectono-physics 251, 3-84. Liu, y., Peng, x., Huang, Z., 1988: A deformational study afer the Tonghai earthquake.- Journal of Seismo-logical Research 4, 369-376. Liu Zai-hua, Zhang Mei-liang, you Sheng-yi, Li Qiang, Sun Hai-long, Wang Jin-liang, Wu Kong-yun, 2004: Spatial and diurnal variations of geochemical indicators in a calcite-precipitating stream-Case study of Baishuitai, yunnan.- Geochimica, vol. 33, no. 3, 269-278. Ma, x., (Ed.) 1989: Lithospheric Dynamics Atlas of China.- Cartographic Publishing House, Bejing, China, 68 pp. Michel, G.W., Becker, M., Angermann, D., Reigber, C. & Reinhart, E., 2000: Crustal motion in E- and SE-Asia from GPS measurements.- Earth Planets Space 52, 713-720. Pentecost, A. & Zhang, Z., 2001: A review of Chinese travertines.- Cave and Karst Science Volume 28, number 1, 15-28. Šebela, S., Slabe, T., Liu, Hong & Pruner, P. , 2004: Speleo-genesis of selected caves beneath the Lunan Shilin and caves of fenglin karst in Qiubei, yunnan.- Acta Geologica Sinica, vol. 78, no. 6, 1289-1298. Tapponier, P. & Molnar, P. , 1977: Active faulting and tectonics of China.- J. Geophys. Res., 82, 2905-2930. Tapponnier, P. , Peltzer, G., Le, Dain, A.y. & Armijo, R., 1982: Propagating extrusion tectonics in Asia: new insights from simple experiments with plasticine.-Geology 10, 611-616. yuan Daoxian, 2002: Karst Dynamic Systems of China. IGCP 299. Geological press, Beijing. Waltham, A.C., 1996: Limestone karst geomorphology in the Himalayas of Nepal and Tibet.- Z. Geomorphol. N. f. , 40 (1), 1-22. Wang, E., Burchfel, B.C., Royden, L.H., Chen, L., Chen, J. & Li, W. , 1998: Te late Cenozoic xianshuihe-xiao-jiang, Red River, and Dali fault systems of southwestern Sichuan and Central yunnan, China.- Geological Society of America Special Paper 327, 108. Wang, E. & Burchfel, B.C., 2000: Late Cenozoic to Ho-locene deformation in southwestern Sichuan and adjacent yunnan, China, and its role in formation of the Southwestern part of the Tibetan Plateau.- Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol. 112, number 3, 413-423. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 31 STANKA ŠEBELA & JANJA KOGOVŠEK HIDROKEMIČNE ZNAČILNOSTI IN TEKTONSKI POLOŽAJ IZBRANIH IZVIROV V OSREDNJEM IN SZ yUNNANU, KITAJSKA POVZETEK Kitajska provinca yunnan je tektonsko zelo zanimiva, še vedno je tudi tektonsko zelo aktivna, kar dokazujejo močni potresi. Leži na stičišču dveh velikih tektonskih plošč Azijske na severu in Indijske na jugu, ki se podri-vata ena pod drugo. Prelom Ailao Shan - Red River je eden najbolj izrazitih prelomov na Kitajskem. Današnje gibanje ob prelomu je desnozmično za 2-8 mm na leto. Prelom najprej sledimo zahodno od mesta Dali, potem pa se nadaljuje proti JV yunnana po dolini Rdeče reke (Slika 1). Sledimo ga vse do obale vietnamskega morskega zaliva Tonkin v Južnokitajskem morju. Kunming se nahaja v xiaojiang prelomni coni, znotraj katere se vršijo levi zmiki. V okviru terenskega dela 18. do 29.10.2004 smo si severno od Kunminga ogledali akumulacijsko jezero in više ležeči izvir Quinglongtan (Slika 1, točka 3), ki prispeva vodo v akumulacijo. To so zgradili za oskrbo Kunminga s pitno vodo in za namakanje. Meritve temperature in specifčne električne prevodnosti (SEP) treh glavnih izvirov Quinglongtan so pokazale, da gre za isto vodo (temperatura 14,8oC in SEP 277 µS/cm). Voda v akumulaciji je bila toplejša (19,4oC), po SEP pa je le minimalno odstopala od vrednosti izvira Quinglongtan. Vsebnost karbonatov je nizka (135 mg CaCO3/l) tako v izvirni vodi kot v akumulaciji in je bila le malo nižja od celokupne trdote (146 mg CaCO3/l). V izviru in v akumulaciji je bila koncentracija fosfatov pod mejo detekcije (<0,01 mg PO43-/l), koncentracija nitratov pa je bila 4,6 oz. 4,4 mg NO3-/l, kar kaže glede na omenjena parametra dobro kakovost vode. SZ del yunnanan je premrežen s številnimi prelomnimi conami. Severno do Dalija se od preloma Red River odcepi še ena močna prelomna cona. V skrajnem SZ delu yunnana se ta prelom imenuje po tibetanskem mestu Zhongdian, ki leži na nadmorski višini nekaj čez 3.000 m. Prelom Zhongdian, ob katerem se vršijo levi zmiki, poteka vzporedno z dolino reke yangtze, nato pa se obrne proti jugu, v smeri mesta Dali, kjer se razširi v širšo prelomno cono. Mesto Lijiang, ki je v UNESCO-vi kulturni dediščini od leta 1997 je 3.februarja 1996 stresel močan potres z magnitudo M = 7.0 po Richterju. Mesto se nahaja v širši prelomni coni generalne smeri sever-jug, ki povezuje Zhongdian prelom z Red River prelomom. Mesto Lijiang se z vodo oskrbuje iz bližnjega izvira Zhenzhuquan (Slika 4), kjer so vodo zajezili v majhno jezerce, ki je turistično zelo obiskano. Del vode je speljan 32 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 po kanalih skozi mesto, pred časom je bil to verjetno način oskrbe mesta z vodo. Na glavnem izviru je črpališče (Slika 5) za oskrbo mesta s pitno vodo. Ob našem obisku smo srečali številne domačine, ki so prišli na izvir po vodo. Dne 24.10.2004 je bila temperatura izvira 14,8oC, SEP 370 µS/cm, karbonatna trdota je bila 158 mg CaCO3/ l, celokupna pa 162 mg CaCO3/l. Voda je imela nizko vsebnost kloridov, nitratov (1,3 mgNO3-/l) in fosfatov in je bila glede na te parametre dobre kakovosti. Bai Shui He reka, ki priteka z območja yulong Snow mountain (5596 m), je imela temperaturo le 9,6oC, nizko SEP (196 µS/cm) in nizko karbonatno trdoto (2,17 mekv/ l), pH = 8,2 in je vsebovala le 1 mg NO3-/l. V širši prelomni coni Zhongdian preloma med mestom Zhongdian in reko yangtze je več tektonskih depresij, ki so razvite v apnencih, mejijo pa tudi na nekraške kamnine, kot so magmatske kamnine, peščenjaki. Tako ne gre vedno za prava kraška polja. Vse depresije so vezane na aktivne prelomne cone, ob katerih se vzdolž prelomov smeri SZ-JV vršijo levi zmiki. V širši prelomni coni Zhongdian preloma se nahaja več izvirov, ki so močno mineralizirani in izločajo del raztopljenih snovi. Nekateri so termalni, drugi pa nimajo povišane temperature. Glede na raziskave kitajskih znanstvenikov gre za izvire, kjer voda prihaja na dan iz velikih globin. Izmed številnih izvirov je potrebno poudariti tri: naravni most s termalnim izvirom Tiansheng Qiao (Slika 1, točka 1), xiageiwenquan (termalni izviri) (Slika 1, točka 1) in Baishuitai (ponvice) (Slika 1, točka 2). Vsa tri mesta so dobro obiskane turistične točke. xiageiwenquan se nahaja 10 km južno od Zhongdia-na in obsega več termalnih izvirov, ob katerih najdemo starejše in mlajše plasti sige. Tudi ti izviri so vezani na aktivne tektonske prelome. Toplo vodo uporabljajo v terapevtske namene. Dne 26.10.2004 smo izmerili temperaturo na treh izvirih in ugotovili, da dosega voda od 48,3 do 66,8oC ter da vsebuje obilo raztopljenih snovi, saj je bila izmerjena količina raztopljenih snovi - SEP od 1260 do 1510 µS/cm. Tiansheng Qiao se nahaja ob aktivnem levo zmičnem Suoge-xuejiping prelomu na zahodni strani reke Jinsha. Naravni most (Slika 7), pod katerim teče reka Shuodugang, je zgrajen iz apnenca in je 40 m visok, 10 m širok in 15 m dolg. Neposredno ob naravnem mostu je termalni izvir Tiansheng Qiao, ki izloča travertin. Odlaganje travertina naj ne bi bilo starejše kot 5.000 let. HyDROCHEMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND TECTONIC SITUATION Of SELECTED SPRINGS Voda termalnega izvira Tiansheng Qiao je imela 25.10.2004 temperaturo 57,5oC, zelo visoko SEP (1805 µS/cm), visoko vsebnost karbonatov ter povišane vrednosti kloridov in sulfatov. Verjetno vsebuje še številne druge snovi, vendar so bile naše meritve in analize omejene le na zgoraj omenjene parametre. Topla voda z izvira odteka v bazen v sklopu »toplic« (Slika 8), kjer ponujajo različne terapevtske usluge. Neposredno ob bazenu tekoča reka Shuodugang je imela tedaj temperaturo 10oC in nizko SEP. Tudi baishuitai izvir je vezan na aktivno tektoniko. Ker je voda na izvirih prenasičena, izloča ob polzenju po pobočju raztopljene mineralne snovi. Tako je celotno pobočje pokrito z belo prevleko, ki ga krasijo manjše in tudi zelo velike ponvice (Slika 9). Ponvice so se oblikovale na širšem področju spodnje in srednje triasnega apnenca. Voda izvira v več izvirih, del pa je priteka po manjšem kanalu iz višjega izvira. Izvirno področje je delno poraslo predvsem z listavci, tako da je odpadlo listje vir onesnaževanja oz. vir hrane za različne alge, ki motijo belino pobočja. Svoje dodaja tudi turistični obisk. Očitno se tega do določene mere zavedajo upravljalci, saj so na nekaj mestih napeli vrvi, ob našem obisku pa so se zanimali kaj merimo. Meritve so na več izvirnih točkah pokazale, da je temperatura izvirov med 11,1 in 13,3oC. Meritve SEP, ki so dale vrednosti celo nekoliko nad 1000 µS/cm, so nakazale, da izvirna voda vsebuje veliko raztopljenih karbonatov, kar so potrdile kasnejše analize vode. Celokupna trdota je znašala 600 mg CaCO3/l, od tega je bilo kar 560 mg CaCO3/l karbonatov. Razmerje Ca/Mg vode je bilo enako 4,4. Voda je imela nizke vsebnosti nitratov in fosfatov, vsebnost sulfatov pa je bila 40 mg SO42-/l. Meritve temperature vzdolž pobočja in v ponvicah so pokazale segrevanje vode in upadanje SEP in razmerja Ca/ Mg ter vsebnosti sulfatov, iz česar smo sklepali na intenzivno izločanje kalcijevega karbonata ter delno sulfatov, medtem ko magnezij ostaja v raztopini. Podobno smo ugotavljali tudi za izvir Podstenjšek v Sloveniji. Do dna pobočja se je iz enega litra vode izločalo povprečno 360 mg CaCO3. Voda je speljana nato po kanalu do bližnje vasi, kjer jo uporabljajo kot pitno vodo in vodo za namakanje. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 33 COBISS: 1.01 MONITORING THE fLOOD PULSES IN THE EPIPHREATIC ZONE Of KARST AQUIfERS: THE CASE Of REKA RIVER SySTEM, KARST PLATEAU, SW SLOVENIA SPREMLJANJE POPLAVNIH VALOV V EPIfREATIČNI CONI KRAŠKEGA VODONOSNIKA: PRIMER REKE REKE, KRAS, JZ SLOVENIJA franci GABROVŠEK1 & Borut PERIC2 Abstract UDC 556.3 (497.4-14) Franci Gabrovšek & Borut Peric: Monitoring the flood pulses in the epiphreatic zone ofkarst aquifers: The case of Reka river system, Karst plateau, SW Slovenia Te Reka river sinking into Škocjan caves (Škocjanske jame) is the main allogenic input into the aquifer of Classical Karst. So far the subsurface fow of the Reka river between Škocjan caves and the spring of Timava in Italy has been reached in fve caves. Two were recently discovered in Slovenia. Continuous logging of water levels and temperatures in four of these caves was established in spring 2005. Te paper presents and briefy discusses the frst results obtained in three of them. Te results are indicating a fast passage of a food wave along a well developed conduit system. key words: karst hydrology, aquifer, food pulse, Reka, Kras, Slovenia. Izvleček UDK 556.3 (497.4-14) Franci Gabrovšek & Borut Peric: Spremljanje poplavnih valov v epifreatični coni kraškega vodonosnika: Primer reke Reke, Kras, JZ slovenija Reka Reka, ki ponika v Škocjanske jame, je najpomembnejši alogeni vir, iz katerega se napaja kraški vodonosnik. Doslej so med Škocjanskimi jamami in izviri Timave v Italiji našli pet jam, kjer je mogoče priti do podzemnega toka Reke. Dve so pred kratkim odkrili v Sloveniji. Pomladi leta 2005 se je začelo stalno spremljanje nivoja in temperature vode v štirih od teh jam. Članek predstavlja in na kratko obravnava prve rezultate, pridobljene na treh merilnih mestih. Rezultati kažejo na hitro potovanje poplavnega vala po dobro razvitem sistemu kraških kanalov. ključne besede: kraška hidrologija, vodonosnik, poplavni val, Reka, Kras, Slovenija. INTRODUCTION Te Kras (Classical Karst) plateau has been attracting researchers for more than a century. Its aquifer is as complex as a karst aquifer can get. A more than 300 m deep vadose zone, huge underground cavities, all possible fow regimes, complex recharge and discharge conditions and complex evolution, enough to believe that the system is far from being resolved. Tis paper presents the frst results of an ongoing efort to put a new stone into the puzzle of the aquifer of Kras. fig. 1 presents a generalized map and a cross-section of the Kras plateau and its surroundings. It shows the main geological formations, caves with the active underground fow and the measurement points presented in this paper. Kras belongs to the Adriatic-Dinaric tectonic plate in the region of the Outer Dinarids (Kranjc, 1997). Te folds sink towards NW under Soča alluvium. Te same direction is also followed by the main draining conduits from SE of the plateau. Te area is mostly composed of Cretaceous and Tertiary carbonate sediments. Te depth of the unsaturated zone reaches more than 300 m. Many caves, remains of an old drainage network, can be found along its complete vertical profle. 1Karst Research Institute, ZRC SAZU, Titov trg 2, SI-6230 Postojna, Slovenia 2Park Škocjanske jame Public Agency , Škocjan 2, SI-6215 Divača, Slovenia Received / Prejeto: 20.06.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 35–45, LJUBLJANA 2006 fRANCI GABROVŠEK & BORUT PERIC Underground Reka course Caves with underground Reka flow Flysch Stations / / / Fig. 1: Simplifed map and cross-section of the Kras plateau with main geological formations, caves and measurement points presented in this study. Below the piezometric surface, the structure of the aquifer is largely unknown. An indicator of a well developed conduit system was a sudden collapse in the Reka stream near Gornje Vreme in 1980, at the fysch-lime-stone contact, where around 1 m3/s still disappears underground (Brilly et al., 2002). Te focus of our study is epiphreatic zone, characterized by a high fow variability of the Reka river which is the main allogenic input to the aquifer. Te river fows about 50 kilometers on impermeable fysch rocks, continues for another 7 kilometers as a surface fow on a limestone terrain, and starts its underground course at Škocjan caves. It emerges at the Timavo springs in Trieste Bay. Te air distance between Škocjan caves and springs of Timavo is around 33 km. Based on the data of the Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia for the period 1961–1990, the average discharge of the Reka River is 8.26 m3/s. Te ratio between low and high waters reaches 1 to 1700 with the maximum measured discharge 305 m3/s, and minimum 0.18 m3/s. Te springs of Timavo have an average discharge of 30.2 m3/s. Beside main spring, the aquifer discharges through the many other smaller springs in the vicinity, many of which are bellow the sea surface. Eforts to reach Reka between Škocjan caves and the springs of Timavo have long history (Kranjc, 1997). At the moment we know fve caves leading to the active subsurface fow: Kačna cave and Labodnica/Grotta di Trebi-ciano are well known and have already been thoroughly investigated. Recently, three additional caves were pushed down to the depths of active Reka fow: Lazzaro Jerko in Italy; Jama 1 v Kanjaducah and Brezno v Stršinkni dolini in Slovenia. Te river has also been reached through Brezno 3G, which turned out to be another entrance of Kačna cave. In Škocjan caves and Kačna cave it is possible to follow several kilometers of the underground river, while only small fragments are accessible in other caves as the confning siphons are not far apart, therefore further exploration is lef to cave divers. for more information on geology, speleology, hy-drogeology and history of exploration and research of Classical Karst and its aquifer refer to (Cucchi et al., 2000; Galli, 1999; Kranjc, 1997; Mihevc, 2001). 36 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 MONITORING THE fLOOD PULSES IN THE EPIPHREATIC ZONE Of KARST AQUIfERS Cuchi and Zinni (2002) reported on the continuous monitoring of physical parameters of the subsurface Reka fow. Tey have measured level, temperature and specifc electric conductivity in Škocjan caves, Grotta di Trebiciano/Labodnica, Lazzaro Jerko and Timavo springs. Based on more than 100 food events, a distinction was made between three principal types of food waves, characterized by the presence or absence of in-fow from the sources that feed the Timavo river system: namely the Reka River, Brestovica basin and Soča-Vipava rivers basin. Te temperature and conductivity changes between Škocjan caves, Labodnica/Trebiciano and Laz-zaro Jerko cave indicate that the underground fow is fast (even more than 800 m/h) and continuous. Teir results indicate a “direct drainage” along Škocjan-Labodnica/ Trebiciano-Lazzaro Jerko. Tey proposed that the aquifer of Classical Karst is at the 3rd state of the ford-Ewers’s speleogenetic model (ford & Ewers, 1978). OBSERVATION POINTS Except in Škocjan caves, the underground fow of Reka is not easy accessible. To reach it one must descend between 250 and 330 m down vertical shafs and steep galleries. New entrances are rarely found. During the food events when the water rises and squeezes the air from the voids and fractures, an intense airfow can be detected at some spots at the surface. Tese are the spots where cavers start following narrow leads through the vadose zone and hope to enter an easy passage to the river. Normally it takes years of digging and climbing to succeed. Except in Škocjan caves and Kačna cave, all the discoveries have been done this way. Between february and October 2005, data loggers were placed in Škocjan caves, Kačna cave, Jama 1 v Kan-jaducah and Brezno v Stršinkni dolini. Data from the frst three caves have been retrieved so far and are presented Škocjanske jame - Martelova dvorana Škocjan caves - Martel's hall Kačna jama ¦ Škocjanski kanal Kačna cave ¦ Škocjan channel in this paper. Te distance between Škocjan caves and Kačna cave is about two kilometres. Te direct distance from Kačna cave to Jama 1 v Kanjaducah is about seven kilometers (see fig. 1). Te instruments were fxed to the underground river banks. In Škocjan caves and Kačna cave the micro location was chosen so that the instruments cannot be damaged by larger pieces of fotsam. fig. 2 shows simplifed sketches of the caves with the positions of measurement points. In Škocjan caves it was fxed at Martel’s lake (P1) at the end of 2.2 millions m3 large Martel’s chamber, in Kačna cave at rapids in Škocjanski kanal passage (P2), in Kanjaduce (P3) and Brezno v Stršinkni dolini it is located at terminal sumps at the end of the caves. Jama 1 v Kanjaducah Fig. 2: Simplifed sketches of the caves with positions of the measuring points. Flood levels based on fotsam occurrence (mihevc, 2001) are marked in Kačna cave. maps of Škocjan caves and Kačna cave were obtained from the Karst Research Institute archive and Slovenian cave cadastre. map of Jama 1 v Kanjaducah was obtained from the web site of Sežana caving club (http://www.brlog.net/jds/kanjaduce.htm). ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 37 fRANCI GABROVŠEK & BORUT PERIC INSTRUMENTS To log water level and temperature we use TD Diver produced by Van Essen, a Schlumberger company, Holland (fig. 3). Instruments measure and record pressure and temperature. Recently we have introduced instruments (CTD Diver) which additionally log specifc electric con- range of 100 m. Precision of the level measurements is 0.1% of the full range, i.e. 10 cm in our case. Precision of temperature sensor is 0.1°C. Data from the instrument can be retrieved to computer via optical bridge as shown in fig. 3. Fig. 3: Datalogger in the ofce, connected to the computer via optical reader (lef) and fxed to the wall of the terminate lake of Jama 1 v Kanjeducah (P3) (right). ductivity. Te instruments are autonomous, the autonomy being guaranteed by the life span of internal batteries which is 8-10 y (depending on measurement frequency) and internal memory which can hold up to 24000 readings (TD). Tey are easy to program by the enclosed sofware. Te sampling interval is between 5 seconds and 99 hours, sampling can be linear, logarithmic or event based. We used the instruments with the measurement Te pressure sensor is a ceramic transducer therefore the measured level value is the sum of water and air pressure converted to a water column. for small level fuctuation (e.g. decimeter scale), the levels should be compensated with the barometric measurements of the surrounding atmosphere. Since we are interested in the large scale oscillations, we have not done that. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Te main input to our system is the sinking stream of Reka therefore the fow hydrograph at the station Cerkvenikov mlin provided by Slovene Environmental Agency is taken as an input data into the system. As mentioned, there is a considerable leakage from Reka into the karst aquifer before to the arrival at Škocjan caves which is neglected in the course of discussion. One should also consider the dispersed and concentrated input to the conduits from the karst surface along the entire pathway. Te latter was reported by divers who conducted research in the terminal siphons of Škocjan caves. Results for the entire period are shown in fig. 4. During the spring, four food events with the level rise of several meters occurred. A dry period followed with some small scale events in August. fig. 5 presents larger events in a weekly time window. Upper graphs show levels, whilst lower graphs their time derivatives, i.e. rising and dropping rates in m/h. Top axes give dates, bottom axes give time in hours elapsed since the recording started in Škocjan caves (february 18th, 2005). Note that the fow at Cerkvenikov mlin is in units of 10 m3/s. 38 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 MONITORING THE fLOOD PULSES IN THE EPIPHREATIC ZONE Of KARST AQUIfERS 18F 5" 16-"fc 14: o 12: c 10: O 8: i- x 2: Z? 20 18 16 14 5" 12 2-10 H 8 6 4 2 Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Date [morrth/day/year] Fig. 4: Upper fgure presents fow rates at Cerkvenikov mlin (C) and levels at points P1-P3 during the whole period. lower fgure shows temperatures at measurement points. Colour code is valid for both graphs. ¦ I I ~ - Cerkvenikov mlin (C) -Skccjan caves (P1) - Kacna cave (P2) : - Jama 1 v Kanjaducah (P3) : u I 11 ^.i-------f^i-L^-j^kj 5fe^Äö\; ~ \/ Üf*' First event (Fig. 5a), starting on March 27th, is compiled of two food pulses with time lag of a day with peak fow rates at 15 and 25 m3/s respectively. Te level response to the frst pulse was of similar magnitude in all three caves. Second pulse with 25 m3/s did not make a considerable diference in Škocjan caves (P1) and Kan-jeduce (P3), yet the level in Kačna cave (P2) rose for almost 7 meters. Slow increase of the input fow resulted in a slow increase of the levels. In Kačna cave (P2) the rate of level increase reached 0.9 m/h. Second event (Fig. 5b) on April 9th , started with a 60 m3 pulse which dropped to 20 m3/s in 3 days. Long recession of input fow resulted in long recessions of levels in P1 and P2. Tis is the only event when the levels at P3 are above those at P2. One could attribute this to the unknown recharge along the pathway between Kačna cave and Jama 1 v Kanjaducah. 3/26/2005 Date [mnVdd/yyyy] 3(28/2005 3/30/2005 4/1/2005 B80:00 900:00 920:00 940:00 960:00 980:00 1000:00 1020:00 Elapsed time [hlrmm] Date [mm/doyyyyy] 4/11/2005 4/13/2005 4/15/2005 Cerkvenikov mlin (C) Skocjan caves (P1) Kacna cave (P2) Jama 1 v Kanjaducah (P3) 1200:00 1220:00 1240:00 1260:00 1280:00 1300:00 1320:00 1340:00 1360:00 Elapsed time [hh:mm] 4/gj/2005 Date [mm/dd/yyyy] 4/27/2005 4/29/2005 5/1/2005 Cerkvenikov mlin (C) (PI) Kacna cave (P2) Jama 1 v Kanjaducah (P3) 1600:00 1620:00 1640:00 1660:00 1680:00 1700:00 1720:00 1740:00 Elapsed time [hh:mm] 5qg/2005 Date [mm/dd/yyyy] 5/20/2005 5/22/2005 5/24/2005 2140:00 2160:00 2180:00 2200:00 2220:00 2240:00 2260:» 2280:00 2300:00 Elapsed time [hh:mm] Fig. 5: Te evolution of levels and level changes during for major food events. Colour codes are valid for upper and lower graphs. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 39 fRANCI GABROVŠEK & BORUT PERIC Tird event (Fig. 5c) on May 25th was the largest. It comprises a single pulse with a maximum fow of 120 m3. Te responds at P1 and P2 is vigorous. At P2 (Kačna cave) the rate of level rise reached 9 m/h. Maximum level at P1 (Škocjan caves) is 4 m, at P2 18 m and at P3 14 m. How undisturbed the food wave passed the way to P2 can be seen from the kink in the rising limb of hydrograph which is nicely preserved in the level hydrograph at P2. Fourth event (Fig. 5d) is similar but smaller compared to the third event and needs no further discussion at this point. Tere were several small food events following the dry period in August. One of them is shown in the fig. 15. All levels show a sharp rise suggesting that the passage of the pulse through the system is little afected by the restrictions. Te next step we take is to plot our results versus input. Terefore, fig. 6 presents the levels at all points in dependence on the fow rates at Cerkvenikov mlin. We shifed the levels back in time with respect to fow to consider the travel time between Cerkvenikov mlin and 40 60 80 Q[mVs] 100 120 18 16 14 12 g 10 = 8 6 4 2 0 •TT- /J..... /^;> /:':'¦ :- L7 ¦ •• ' Is // •¦'. /j../ • rfirhdš iL • Jama 1 v Kanjaducah 20 40 60 80 Q[m3/s] 100 120 Fig. 6: levels in Škocjan caves and Kačna cave (a) and Jama 1 v Kanjaducah (b) in dependence on the fow rates at Cerkvenikov mlin. particular measuring point. Terefore, the fow rates at time t are plotted with the levels at time t+ t, where t is the average value given in the Tab. 1. Te choice is rather intuitive and although dubious for several reasons, the results are satisfactory for the frst estimation. Levels in Škocjan caves and Kačna cave show similar behavior below 10 m3/s. Te level rises as the recharge increases according to the relations valid for the open channel fow (Dingman, 2002). When the fow exceeds 15 m3/s, the curve in Kačna cave deviates. We attribute this to the constrictions downstream from the P2 in Kačna cave, which becomes fully fooded when fow exceeds 15 m3/s. fig. 7 presents an extended elevation of the section of the Kačna cave which includes P2. Grey area gives the passage height which is 4-7 m. Te passage is about 15 m wide. Vertical scale above P2 shows levels, each bar representing 2 m. Dotted line gives the level of P2. To see what happens when part of the channel becomes completely fooded, we have employed a simple numerical model of sloping channel system with restrictions as shown on fig. 8. A system of four rectangular channels, each 400 m long, 5 m wide is subjected to the water input from the lef. Channel 1 and 3 are more than 50 m high, while channel 2 and 4 representing restrictions are 3 and 1.5 m high. We used Storm Water Management Model (V.5) obtained from the US Environmental Protection Agency (http://www.epa.gov/ednnrmrl/models/swmm/index. htm). Te model allows calculations of fow and transport through the system of opened and closed channels as a response to a direct input or an input from the prescribed catchments area. One can apply static, kinematic or dynamic routing method and thus simulate many scenarios which are relevant for karst, when matrix fow could be neglected. Te model has good potential for further in-depth exploration of food wave passage through a well developed karst system (Campbell & Sullivan, 2002). To a system presented on fig 8. we introduced linear increasing fow rates. Te Q-H graphs at points p and p 1 2 are presented on fig. 9. Initially an open channel fow exists along the whole domain (fig. 8a). Te relation between fow and level for a uniform fow in an open channel can be obtained from the Chezy equation (Dingman, 2002). flow and level are related by the power law ? h ? Q , where n = 6/10 for a uniform rectangular channel (see fig. 9). As the channel 4 becomes fully fooded (fig. 8b) the level at p2 deviates. Now the mass balance at point p2 in channel 3 requires A{H)^ = Qin(t)-Qout (1) where h is the level, A(h) is the area of water surface in the channel 3 and Q (t) is the infow into the channel 40 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 MONITORING THE fLOOD PULSES IN THE EPIPHREATIC ZONE Of KARST AQUIfERS Penasti rov Brzice Škocjanski kanal lOm Fig. 7: Extended elevation of the section of Kačna cave that includes our measurement point. grey area presents the channel height, dotted line the level of P2. Remapped from the original survey tables. (Source: Slovenian cave cadastre) 135 MS b 13ff 130 \^^ a 130 --^^ 130 125 ^~~~^-^^ 125 ^~~~--^^ 125 120 ^~^ 120 ^"~~ 120 115 115 115 ~11B 1 — 110 — 110 L105 L105 L105 C 100 ^^ C 100 -—-^^ C 100 O 95 *ssJ ^^^ O 95 — O 95 tS 90 'S 90 *(0 90 S 85 ^^^^ 3 O 65 S 85 LJJ 80 ^4 UJ 80 UJ 80 75 75 75 70 70 70 65 65 65 60 60 60 0 200 40 0 600 800 1.000 1.2 00 1.400 1.600 0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 0 Distance (m) Distance (m) 1,000 1.200 1.400 1,6 Distance (m) Fig. 8: System of sloping channels with restrictions. Restriction between points 4 and 5 is smaller than one between 2 and 3. A) Open channel fow is active along the whole domain. B) Restriction between points 4 and 5 is fooded. C) Both restrictions are fooded. 60 80 qn[m3/s] Fig. 9: levels at points p 1 (red line) and p2 (black line) in dependence on the input fow rates Q. letters denote the situations a, b and c presented on Fig. 8. 3. Qout is the outfow to the channel 4, given by Darcy-Weisbach (Beek et al., 1999) equation AH + Az = ,Qout -kQout 2gS2d (2) f is the friction factor, L the length of the conduit, S its cross-section, d its hydraulic diameter and g gravitational acceleration. ?h is the diference between entrance and exit levels of channel 4 and ?z the elevation diference between the two sides. Combining Eqs. 1 and 2 we get Aäm+ dt 4k ylH(t) + Az=Qin(t) (3) Solution of Eq.3 gives the time dependence of the level, assuming that Qin(t), k and A are known. for arbitrary input we can fnd numerical solutions. We present model results when a food wave recorded at Cerkve-nikov mlin on May 25th (see fig. 5) passes the system on the fig. 8. fig. 10a presents the level hydrograph at p2 and the input fow hydrograph Qin., whilst fig. 10b the fow-level curve. Te dashed blue line on both fgures denote the rising limb of the hydrograph. Te fow-level curve (fig. 10b) exhibits a hysteresis which can be also observed on the fow-level curves of our real recorded hydrographs (fig. 6), particularly for point P3, but also at P2. One reason is diferent location of fow and level hydrograph. Going downstream, the error we make by applying a constant time lag between the fow at Cerkvenikov mlin and the level at the station increases. We suspect that this is the main reason for the large areas of the hysteresis curves for Jama 1 v Kanja-ducah. Another reason for the hysteretic behavior is food-ing caused by restrictions. for an in-depth study of this behavior we would have to analyse the solutions of Eq. 3, what we are not about to do. To demonstrate this we employ the even simpler model shown on fig. 11. It comprise of a large 50 m high and 20 m wide channel ending with a 2 m high restriction of the same width. Input is at ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 41 fRANCI GABROVŠEK & BORUT PERIC 140 120 100 Sf 80 S1 60 I 40 20 0 r\\ a) / •~ , > -~ * • i i \ < ^ ~-~ , , 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 Elapsed time [hh:mm] 35:00 35 30 95 "b) ^1 ^zU m -ir 10 5 u 40 Fig. 10 ) 20 40 e 0 80 100 120 1 ( \ tm3/s] : model results of the event (Fig. 5c) passing through the system on Fig. 8. a) Dashed line presents the input fow rates, full lines give the level hydrogram h2 b) Flow-level curve. Te results are given in figs. 12 and 13. fig. 12a, presents the level response to a linear increase and drop of the fow rates (dashed line) for L = 1 km and diferent 140 120 100 To" "E 80 L 60 E, x 40 20 a) , i ' i i , * , > , a=0.7 m, , v , \ / a=0.9m v\ ' \\ ' // a~1 * \ ' \ x ' —¦? =1.b m^ v \ '^y ä 00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 Elapsed time [hh:mm] a=0.7 m 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 qn[m3/s] Fig. 11: Simple model of a large channel ending with restriction. Te length of the entrance channel is l, a is the height of the restriction, A the surface area of the water prior to it and Qin(t) the input fow hydrograph. the lef-hand side and increases linearly from 0 to 150 m3/s between 0 - 24 hours and decreases linearly with the same slope during the second 24 hours. Fig. 12: a) Flow and level hydrographs for linearly increasing/ decreasing food wave through the model given in Fig. 11. l=1 km. Diferent lines present results for various apertures of restriction as denoted on the fgure. b) Q-h plots for diferent restriction apertures. heights of the restriction as given on the graph. for a = 2 m we see that the shape of level curve resembles that of the fow. As the height of the restriction decreases the fow through it is more and more inhibited and the level curves become distorted. fig. 12b shows Q-H plots for these cases. Te areas of the curves increase as the height of the restriction decreases. fig. 13 presents case where the restriction height is constant, but the length of the input channel changes from 1 km to 20 km. Te geometry of restriction is constant, with the height of 1 m. Te level curves now de- 42 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 MONITORING THE fLOOD PULSES IN THE EPIPHREATIC ZONE Of KARST AQUIfERS 140 120 100 S? "E 80 L 60 E, 1 40 20 a ) 1 X ---- q / 1 X -L= 1km , \ -L=2km , X -L-5km ' \ L-9nkm , , V \ , \ , , x ! x ' 1 00:00 05:00 10:00 15:00 20:00 25:00 30:00 35:00 Elapsed time [hh:mm] 60 80 100 CUm3/s] Fig. 13: a) Flow and level hydrographs for linearly increasing/ decreasing food wave through the model given in Fig. 11. a=1 m. lines present results for diferent lengths of the input channel as denoted on the fgure. b) Q-h plots for diferent lengths of the input channel. As the monitoring of flood waves continues it will be very interesting to observe the dynamics of foods that may be of a larger scale than those in 2005. In 2002 an instrument was put into Škocjan caves that measures the water level. It recorded floods reaching 40 meters, much larger compared to a 5-meter flood in the present monitoring. The fastest rise recorded in Škocjan caves was 9 m/h. Unfortunately no such measurements were conducted in Kačna cave before 2005, where much steeper rises may be expected. Environment Agency data show that the Reka river discharge varied largely at individual foods. We analyzed seven flood pulses to estimate the velocity of their propagation through the observed system by taking the peak to peak distance of the level derivative, i.e. the points of the highest rising rate. Not all foods could be easily analysed this way, as the input hydrograph was rather complex. Results are presented in Tab.1. Date Q [m3/s] Time C-P1 [h] Time C-P2 [h] Time C- P3 [h] 27-Mar-05 15 2.5 3 6.3 25-Apr-05 120 2 3.5 10 1-Jul-05 19 2 2.5 5 5-Jul-05 10.1 2.5 3.5 8 7-Aug-05 10 3.5 4.5 9.5 11-Aug-05 26 2.5 4 7.5 29-Aug-05 19 2.5 3 5 Average travel time: 2.5 3.4 7.3 Tab. 1: travel times of selected food pulses from the hydrograph at Cerkvenikov mlin (C) to martelova dvorana in Škocjan caves (PI), brzice (rapids) in Kačna cave (P2) and terminate lake in Jama 1 v Kanjeducah (P3). pend on the fow-restriction relation given by Eq. 3, and also on the distortion of the input food wave due to its propagation in the open channel. Even though the models give at least qualitative explanation of what might happen in the real system, the latter is (un)fortunately not as simple as that. Explorers have been following fow directions and food remains in Kačna cave since the discovery of Reka in the cave back in 1972. Tere are many bypass and overfow passages, two of them just a few meters above and few meters below the P2, both joining together and leading to a system of galleries at a higher elevation. Based on the fotsam occurrence. Mihevc (2001) found that extreme foods in Kačna cave reach 130 meters above P2. As can be seen from the table, about 2.5 hours is needed for the food pulse to reach P1 in Škocjan caves, less than an hour more for P2 in Kačna cave and additional 4 hours for P3 in Jama 1 v Kanjaducah. An interesting point is that there are no big variations in the speed along the way. Kačna cave, which is approximately on the half way between Cerkvenikov mlin (C) and Jama 1 v Kanjaducah (P3) is also approximately at the half time of food pulse travel between C and P3. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 43 fRANCI GABROVŠEK & BORUT PERIC TEMPERATURES Temperature is a parameter which carries much information on hydraulic and thermal conditions in the karst interior (Genthon et al., 2005; Liedl et al., 1998). Water exchanges its temperature with surrounding rocks on its underground course. The heat flux is proportional to the temperature gradient normal to the water-rock boundary. Assuming a good mixing of water, the water-rock temperature difference should decrease exponentially with the length of its underground flow. The exponential factor is a function of flow rate, geometry of the channel and the normal temperature gradient. fig. 14 presents the temperature evolution during recession after a large flood event (see fig. 5b). Daily tem- rates drop and the peak to peak distance increases. Oscillations at P3 are hardly observed and vanish when the fow is low enough (e.g. smaller than 0.5 m3/s). further data and analysis are needed to understand the temperature dynamics upon arrival of the food pulses. Nevertheless, we see from fig. 15 that the levels and temperatures respond simultaneously to a small event on August 11th. Along completely fooded parts the level signal is pressure transferred, and therefore faster than the temperature signal. Simultaneous arrivals of both signals show the absence of such segments, leading to a conclusion that an open surface fow of Reka along most of the | 1.4 I 12 — 10 i 0.8 ^0.6 I. 0.4 0.2 S Cerkvenikcv mlin (C) Skocjan caves (P1) Kama cave (P2) - Jama 1 v Kanjaducah (P3) 5/6/2005 5/13/2005 Date [month/day/year] $11/2005 8/12/2005 8/13/2005 8/14/2005 Date [month/day/year] 8/15/2005 Fig 14: Flow, level and temperature following a food event. Numbers at the temperature curves indicate peak to peak diference in hours between the temperatures at P1 and P2. perature oscillation at Kačna cave follows that of Škocjan cave, but its amplitude progressively decreases as the fow Fig. 15: level and temperature responds to a small food event following a period of dry conditions. way could be expected at least for event of comparable scales. CONCLUSION AND fURTHER PERSPECTIVES Te intention of this paper was to present the frst results; therefore conclusion will be rather short. Tere is a fast passage of a food wave through the presented part of the system. To give the relation between the travel time of the water parcel and that of the food pulse further data and analysis are required. Nevertheless some data indicate that the these times are similar at least for small food events (see fig. 15). During low fow, travel times become order of magnitude larger (fig. 14). from the passage of food waves through the system we anticipate a (continu- ous) system of large conduits also in the parts which are inaccessible at the moment. Many assumptions are still to be proved. Data are being recorded at all measuring points. Valuable sets of data is expected from Brezno v Stršinkni dolini and caves on the Italian side of the plateau, which are located in the area where the gradient becomes practically fat. further actions include in-depth time series analysis, integration of precipitation data, dye tracing of main Reka fow with feld fuorimeters positioned in caves and 44 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 MONITORING THE fLOOD PULSES IN THE EPIPHREATIC ZONE Of KARST AQUIfERS further numerical modelling of events passing through the conduit-restriction systems with open channel and pressure fow. flooding could be an important factor for the genesis of large voids in the studied caves (Mihevc, 2001). Large oscillations of water levels could be important if not crucial factor for the genesis of large voids like sub/ vertical galleries in Jama 1 v Kanjaducah and Brezno v Stršinkni dolini and Lindner’s hall in Grotta di Trebi- ACKNOWLEDGMNETS Tis research would not be possible without an invalu- terreg project “Monitoring of the underground fow of able work of generations of cavers in all investigated cave. reka Reka” (Vzpostavitev monitoringa podzemnega toka Tanks to cavers from Divača and Sežana for the help Reke). with our work. Te study has been supported by the In- REfERENCES Beek, W. J., Muttzall, K. M. K., &Van Heuven, J. W. , 1999: transport phenomena. John Wiley & Sons, 329 pp, Chichester, New york. Brilly, M., Mikoš, M., Petkovšek, G., Šraj, M., Kogovšek, J., Drobne, D., & Štravs, L., 2002: Te experimental monitoring of water regime in the Reka river.- Acta carsologica, 31, 65-74, Ljubljana. Campbell, C. W.Sullivan, S. M., 2002: Simulating time-varying cave fow and water levels using the Storm Water Management Model.- Engineering Geology, 65, 133-139. Cucchi, f.Zinni, L., 2002: Underground Timavo river monitoring.- Acta carsologica, 31, 75-84, Ljubljana. Cucchi, f., forti, P. , Marinetti, E., &Zinni, L., 2000: Recent developments in knowledge of the hydrogeol-ogy of the classical karst.- Acta carsologica, 29, 55-78, Ljubljana. Dingman, S. L., 2002: Physical hydrology. Prentice Hall, 646 pp, Upper Saddle River, N.J. ford, D.C.Ewers, R., 1978: Te development of limestone caves in the dimensions of length and depth.- Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 15, 1783-1798. Galli, M., 1999: Il timavo, esplorazioni e studi. Vol. 23, Atti e mem. Comm. grotte “E. Boegan”, Societa Alpina delle Giulie, 195 pp, Trieste. Genthon, P. , Bataille, A., fromant, A., D’Hulst, D., & Bourges, f., 2005: Temperature as a marker for karstic waters hydrodynamics. Inferences from 1 year recording at La Peyrere cave (Ariege, france).-Journal of Hydrology, 311, 157-171. Kranjc, A., Ed., 1997: Slovene Classical Karst - “Kras”. ZRC Publishing, 321 pp. Liedl, R., Renner, S., & Sauter, M., 1998: Obtaining information about fracture geometry from heat fow data in karst systems. In: Jeannin, P.-y.& Sauter, M.(Ed.): modelling in karst systems, Université de Neuchâtel, 143-157. Mihevc, A., 2001: Speleogeneza Divaškega krasa. Vol. 27, ZRC, ZRC Publishing, 180 pp, Ljubljana. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 45 COBISS: 1.01 fIZIKALNO-KEMIČNE ZNAČILNOSTI IZLOČANJA TRAVERTINA – PRIMER PODSTENJŠKA (SLOVENIJA) PHySICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Of TRAVERTINE DEPOSITION – THE CASE Of PODSTENJŠEK (SLOVENIA) Janja KOGOVŠEK1 Izvleček UDK 556.3:553.556(497.4) Janja Kogovšek: Fizikalno-kemične značilnosti izločanja trav-ertina - primer Podstenjška (Slovenija) Podane so osnovne fzikalno-kemične značilnosti kraškega izvira Podstenjšek, ki je v preteklosti izločal karbonate, o čemer pričajo bloki travertina ob strugi. Meritve in analize izvira ter njegovega vodnega toka niže na več zaporednih točkah so pokazale, da se iz vode prek celega leta izloča kalcijev karbonat. Intenzivnost izločanje je odvisna od pretoka in od segrevanja oz. ohlajanja vode. Iz enega litra vode se je na prek 1 km dolgi poti izločalo od nekaj do 36 mg CaCO3/l, večina tega že na prvih 400 m. ključne besede: krasoslovje, kraški izvir, fzikalno-kemične značilnosti, izločanje kalcijevega karbonata, Slovenija. Abstract UDC 556.3:553.556(497.4) Janja Kogovšek: Physico-chemical properties of travertine deposition - the case of Podstenjšek (Slovenia) Te basic physico-chemical properties of the karst spring Podstenjšek, depositing carbonates in the past shown by travertine blocks in its riverbed are given. Measurements and analyses of the spring and its water fow downwards at several sampling points showed that during the whole year the water precipitates calcium carbonate. Te intensity of deposition depends on discharge and warming or cooling of water. from one litre of water at the distance of one kilometre from some to 36 mg CaCO /l 3 are deposited, the majority at the frst 400 m. key words: karstology, karst spring, physico-chemical properties, calcium carbonate deposition, Slovenia. UVOD Podstenjšek je kraški izvir, ki je vezan na stik paleogen-skega apnenca z neprepustnim fišem (Gospodarič et al. 1968). Po krajšem toku se izliva v Reko. Njegovo zaledje na severu sega do zaledja Pivke. Desna stran doline Zgornje Pivke je v povirnem delu od Knežaka do Pivke zelo ozka in omejena v glavnem na razmeroma malo razčlenjen kraški greben, Taborski hrbet. Na njegovi JZ strani je dolina Reke, tako da poteka po hrbtu razvodje med jadranskimi, med katerimi je tudi Podstenjšek, in črnomorskimi pritoki (Gospodarič et el. 1968). Jenko (1954) je ocenjeval, da se iz okolice Knežaka in Korit-nic kar okoli 90% vode odteka v Bistrico, kar pa ni bilo potrjeno z barvanjem. Vodozbirno območje Podstenjška sestavljajo kaver-nozno-razpoklinski apnenci in dolomiti kredne in paleo- genske starosti s srednjo prepustnostjo (Kovačič 2001). Izvir se napaja z infltracijo padavin. Leta 1992 so ga zajeli za oskrbo prebivalstva s pitno vodo. V neposrednem območju zaledja leži naselje Šembije. Konec devetdesetih let so zato v Šembijah uredili kanalizacijo, odpadne vode pa speljali na čistilno napravo. Vzdolž struge zgornjega dela Podstenjška so gmote travertina, ki pričajo o njegovem odlaganju v preteklosti. V letih 1994, 1996, 1998 in 1999 smo zajeli deset serij vzorcev vode Podstenjška, v večini primerov pa tudi vodo Podstenjška na točkah dolvodno, da bi ugotovili osnovne značilnosti izvira in izločanje travertina iz njegove vode. 1 Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU, Titov trg 2, 6230 Postojna, Slovenija; kogovsek@zrc-sazu.si Prejeto / Received: 06.12.2005 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 47–54, LJUBLJANA 2006 JANJA KOGOVŠEK Opazovanja Podstenjška sem zastavila tako, da sem zajela različnejše hidrološke razmere, od nizkih do visokih voda. Spremljanje izločanja vzdolž njegove poti je Izvir Podstenjšek (A1) je zajet za vodooskrbo. Večji del vode priteka iz Kozje jame, prelivna voda pa odteka mimo črpalnice (a). Drugi del vode Podstenjška prihaja na dan v treh izvirih desno od črpalnice (b, c in d), če gledamo dol-vodno (slika 1). V sušnih razmerah je bil aktiven le izvir b. Vzorce smo zajemali na tem izviru, saj sem ugotovila, da je njegova sestava v okviru napak določitev enaka vodi, ki priteka iz Kozje jame (a). V času rednih opazovanj smo zajemali vzorce še pod mostom (A2), pred sotočjem (A3) z desnim manjšim pritokom ter niže v ravninskem toku pri hrastu (Ab). Vzorčevali smo tudi omenjeni desni pritok na izviru (b1) in pred sotočjem z zgornjim tokom Podstenjška (b2). Ob vzorčevanju smo na izbranih točkah merili temperaturo in specifčno električno prevodnost (SEP) s konduktometrom Lf 91 (20oC), frme WTW, zadnje tri tako potekalo ob različno velikih pretokih in v razmerah, ko se je voda na poti izločanja segrevala ali ohlajala oz., ko ni prihajalo do bistvenih sprememb temperature. serije pa s konduktometrom Lf 196 (25oC). Te vrednosti smo na osnovi primerjalnih meritev z obema merilnikoma preračunali na vrednosti pri 20oC. Vsebnost raztopljenega kisika sem določala z oximetrom OxI 196, pH pa s pH 90, vse frme WTW. Vzorce vode sem zajemala v polietilenske plastenke brez zraka in so bili kasneje isti ali pa naslednji dan analizirani. Pri prenasičenih vzorcih namreč ob prezračevanju lahko prihaja do izločanja karbonatov. V laboratoriju smo določevali še vsebnost karbonatov, kalcija, magnezija, kloridov, nitratov, sulfatov in fosfatov po standardnih metodah (Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater 1992). Zajeli smo 10 serij vzorcev. MESTA OPAZOVANJ IN METODE DELA Sl. 1: Zajemna mesta na izviru in vzdolž toka Podstenjška (vir: temeljni topografski načrt merila 1: 5000, © geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije, 1978). Fig. 1: Sampling points at spring and at downwards water fow (Source: temeljni topografski načrt merila 1: 5000,© geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije, 1978). 48 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PHySICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Of TRAVERTINE DEPOSITION - THE CASE Of PODSTENJŠEK (SLOVENIA) PADAVINSKE IN HIDROLOŠKE RAZMERE V okviru 10 opazovanj, ko so bile opravljene meritve in vzorčenje, smo zajeli najrazličnejše razmere od nizkih do visokih voda. Ker nismo imeli meritev pretoka, so vsakokratne hidrološke razmere podane opisno. Ob prvem vzorčenju 29.1.1994 so bili aktivni vsi izviri, skupni pretok b+c+d sem ocenila na nekaj litrov, medtem ko je bil pretok pod mostom, ko se mu pridruži še prelivna voda iz Kozje jame (a) okoli 20 l/s. Konec decembra 1993 je padel sneg, prva dva tedna v januarju pa je padlo kar nekaj dežja (v Postojni okoli 140 mm), nato pa ni bilo omembe vrednih padavin. Ob drugem vzorčenju 25.3.1994 so bili pretoki po oceni nekoliko nižji, skupni pretok pod mostom pa sem ocenila na okoli 10 l/s. februarja je padlo malo padavin, v Postojni le 90 mm. Desni pritok (B) je izviral podobno kot januarja 1994 pri drevesu. Dne 1.12.1994, ko sem tretjič zajela vzorce, je bil skupni pretok Podstenjška pod mostom tolikšen, da je dobro prekrival dno, medtem ko je izvir B izviral više kot v času predhodnih vzorčenj. V začetku novembra je padlo v Postojni 100 mm dežja, nato pa je bilo sušno. Ob vzorčenju 20.3.1996 je bil skupni pretok še nižji kot decembra 1994, saj mesec dni skoraj ni bilo padavin, vendar pa je bilo površje cel januar in februar pokrito s snežno odejo. Dne 15.5.1996 sem ocenila vode od višje do visoke. V začetku aprila je intenzivno deževalo, kar nekaj dežja pa je padlo tudi maja pred vzorčenjem (v Postojni 90 mm). Ob vzorčenju 6.8.1996 je bil najvišji izvir d suh, pretok izvira c pa je bil nižji kot izvira b, ki sem ga ocenila na 0,5 l/s. Pod mostom (A2) je bil pretok najnižji od vseh dotedanjih vzorčenj, okoli 5 l/s. Dne 13.11.1996 sem pretoke ocenila kot srednje do višje in pretok izvira b na 1,5 l/s. V času vzorčenja 10.8.1998, ko so prevladovale sušne razmere, smo ocenili pretok izvira B1 le na 0,25 l/s. Ob vzorčenju 13.10.1998 so bili pretoki visoki, najvišji v okviru opazovanj, pod mostom je bila gladina vode nekako 30 cm nad dnom. Ves oktober je intenzivno deževalo in do dneva vzorčenja je v Postojni padlo že prek 180 mm dežja. Dne 26.1.1999 je bil izvir d skoraj suh, izdatnejša sta bila c in b. Pod mostom je gladina vode dosegala 5-10 cm višine. Januarja je v Postojni do 26. dne padlo namreč le 55 mm snega in dežja skupaj. REZULTATI MERITVE TEMPERATURE, SEP IN pH Meritve in vzorčenja so zajela razmere prek celega leta. Povprečna temperatura Podstenjška (izvir b) je bila 10,3oC, prek leta je nihala od 9,7 do 10,3oC. Povprečna temperatura izvira B1 je bila 10,1oC. Voda Podstenjška se je vzolž svojega toka poleti segrevala, najbolj avgusta; pozimi, decembra in januarja se je ohlajala; marca in oktobra pa se njena temperatura ni bistveno spreminjala (slika 2). Povprečna SEP Podstenjška je znašala 417 µS/cm, najnižjo vrednost 404 µS/cm je dosegel maja 1996 ob najvišjem spomladanskem pretoku v okviru opazovanj. SEP je nihala v intervalu 20 µS/cm. Podobno smo izmer- Sl. 2: meritve temperature in SEP: na izviru Podstenjška (A1) ter na točkah A2 in A3, na izviru B1 in pred sotočjem na točki B2 ter na točki AB. Fig. 2: temperature and conductivity measurements: at Podstenjšek spring and at points A2 and A3, at B1 spring, at points B2 and AB. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 49 JANJA KOGOVŠEK ili na izviru B1, le da so vrednosti nihale v intervalu 30 µS/cm (slika 2). Povprečna vrednost pH Postenjška je znašala 7,6 in je nihala med vrednostima 7,3 in 7,9. Podobno smo izmerili tudi za izvir B. CELOKUPNA IN KARBONATNA TRDOTA TER Ca/Mg Povprečna celokupna trdota Podstenjška (10 določitev) je bila 4,51 mekv/l in je nihala v sorazmerno ozkem intervalu od 4,26 do 4,74 mekv/l; povprečna karbonatna trdota je bila 4,19 mekv/l in je nihala v intervalu 3,98 -4,47 mekv/l. Potek celokupne trdote je vzporeden s potekom karbonatne trdote in SEP prek leta. Opazne so nižje vrednosti spomladi ter višje konec poletja in v jesensko-zimskem obdobju. Nekarbonatna trdota je nihala v intervalu 0,26 – 0,38 mekv/l. Podobne vrednosti z manjšimi odstopanji je izkazoval tudi izvir B1. Povprečna vrednost razmerja Ca/Mg Podstenjška je bila 11,1 in je nihala v intervalu 6,4-14,1. To nakazuje, da priteka voda v izvir pretežno iz apnenčastega, delno pa tudi iz dolomitnega sveta. Izstopajočo najnižjo vrednost (6,4) je Podstenjšek dosegal oktobra 1998 ob najvišjem pretoku v okviru opazovanj, ko je pritekala v izvir voda z najširšega zaledja, očitno intenzivneje tudi z območja, ki ga gradijo dolomiti. Tedaj smo v okviru opazovanj zabeležili tudi najvišjo karbonatno in celokupno trdoto. Ob nizkem, srednjem in višjem vodostaju so vrednosti Ca/Mg nihale okoli vrednosti 11,6. Podobno smo ugotavljali tudi za izvir B1, le da so njegove vrednosti nihale v nekoliko ožjem intervalu (Slika 3). Popolnejšo sliko nihanj omenjenih parametrov bi podale zvezne meritve oz. meritve v primernem časovnem intervalu, posebno še v času vodnih valov po padavinah, ko običajno prihaja do največjih sprememb, kar so pokazale že podrobne meritve drugih kraških izvirov (Kogovšek 1999, 2001, Kogovšek et al. 2003). KAKOVOSTNI PARAMETRI: KLORIDI, NITRATI, fOSfATI, SULfATI V okviru meritev in analiz smo leta 1996 začeli tudi z analizami za določitev vsebnosti nitratov, fosfatov, kloridov in sulfatov. Kljub sorazmerno majhnemu številu analiz (7 do 9) jih lahko privzamemo kot oceno tedanjega stanja, saj so analize zajele različne vodostaje in različne čase prek leta. Povprečna vrednost kloridov je bila 3,8 mg Cl-/l, vrednosti pa so bile v intervalu 2,4 - 5 mg Cl-/l. Povprečna vsebnost nitratov je bila 6,7 mg NO3-/l, analize pa so pokazale vrednosti v intervalu 5,5 – 7,9 mg NO3-/ l. Povprečna vrednost o-fosfatov je bila 0,03 mg PO43-/ l, vrednosti pa so bile v intervalu 0,02 – 0,05 mg PO43-/l. Vsebnost sulfatov je nihala od 7,8 do 10,5 mg SO42-/l, povprečna vrednost pa je bila 8,9 mg SO42-/l. Kloridi, nitrati in o-fosfati izvira B1 se sorazmerno dobro ujemajo z vrednostmi za Podstenjšek, z občasnimi manjšimi odstopanji. Nekoliko izraziteje pa odstopajo sulfati. Konec leta 1998 in januarja 1999, ko je bila postavljena čistilna naprava za naselje Šembije, nismo opazili opaznega izboljšanja kakovosti Podstenjška. Vendar pa ne vemo, ali je tedaj že obratovala. Iz dosedanjih raziskav spiranja kontaminantov skozi 100 m debelo vadozno cono vemo, da pride po odstranitvi vira onesnaženja do največjega izboljšanja kakovosti vode v prvih treh letih (Kogovšek 1997). Ker so izhodne vrednosti nitratov, fosfatov in kloridov sorazmerno nizke, bi lahko pričakovali kvečjemu zmanjšanje do polovičnih vrednosti. Sl. 3: Potek celokupne trdote (Ca+mg) ter razmerja Ca/mg Podstenjška (A1) in izvira B1. Fig. 3: total hardness (Ca+mg) in ratio Ca/mg of Podstenjšek spring and B1 spring. 50 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PHySICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Of TRAVERTINE DEPOSITION - THE CASE Of PODSTENJŠEK (SLOVENIA) IZLOČANJE KALCIJEVEGA KARBONATA Izločanje karbonatov iz vode Podstenjška smo spremljali z meritvami SEP ter vzporednimi analizami karbonatov, kalcija ter celokupne trdote vzdolž toka Podstenjška na razdaljah A1-A2 in A2-A3 ter skupno na razdalji A1-AB (tabela 1), ko se mu je pridružil še stranski dotok B2. Vzporedno smo spremljali tudi izločanje iz vode pritoka na odseku B1 – B2 (tabela 1). vode, kar je 3 mg CaCO3 /l (slika 4). Vendar pa ima ob visokih pretokih nasproten učinek erozija. Ob najnižjih pretokih marca 1996 ter avgusta 1996 in avgusta 1998 je prišlo ob segrevanju vode do najintenzivnejšega izločanja že na prvem 305 m dolgem odseku A1-A2. Na prezračevanje vode, uhajanje CO2 in posledično izločanje kalcijevega karbonata, je poleg strmca ugodno vplivalo še segrevanje vode. Izločila se je Tabela 1: Izločanje kalcijevega karbonata na opazovanih odsekih. Table 1: Calcium carbonate deposition at diferent sectors. Relacija Razdalja (m) Izločeni CaCO3 – minimum Izločeni CaCO3 – maximum (mekv/l) mg CaCO3/l (mekv/l) mg CaCO3/l A1 - A2 305 0 0 0,38 19 A2 – A3 260 0,06 3 0,28 14 A1 – A3 365 0,06 3 0,58 29 B1 - B2 215 0,16 8 0,38 19 A1 - AB 1050 0,15 8 0,72 36 Pokazalo se je, da se izloča predvsem kalcijev karbonat, saj so vrednosti karbonatov, kalcija in celokupne trdote vzdolž poti sočasno in enako upadale. Odstopanja so bila v okviru predvidenih napak določitev (do 0,04 mekv/l). Medtem je ostajala vsebnost magnezija skoraj nespremenjena, kar je skladno z dejstvom, da je topnostni produkt MgCO3 v primerjavi s CaCO3 večji. Podobno sem ugotavljala za izločanje sige v Planinski jami (Kogovšek & Habič 1981). Meritve so pokazale, da se iz vode Podstenjška in njegovega pritoka (B1) izloča kalcijev karbonat prek celega leta, vendar različno intenzivno. Velik strmec začetnega toka omogoča intenzivno prezračevanje vode. Na izločanje oz. na stopnjo izločanja najbolj vpliva pretok, saj smo ob najvišjem ocenjenem pretoku 13.10.1998 ugotovili najmanjšo stopnjo izločanja. Na odseku A1-A3 se je izločalo le 0,06 mekv CaCO3 iz litra več kot polovica (0,5 – 0,7) kalcijevega karbonata glede na izločeni kalcijev karbonat na celotni poti A1-AB. Ob najvišjem pretoku oktobra 1998 na tem odseku nismo določili izločanja in sklepam, da je bilo tako majhno, da ga je prekril razredčevalni efekt. Ob nizkih in srednjih pretokih ob ohlajanju vode v zimskih mesecih, je prihajalo do največjega izločanja na drugem odseku A2-A3. Ohlajanje vode je v tem primeru zaviralo uhajanje CO2, tako da je prišlo do najizdatnejšega izločanja nekoliko kasneje. Avgusta 1996 se je ob nizkem vodostaju in ob segrevanju vode izločil ves razpoložljivi kalcijev karbonat že do točke A3. Običajno se je izločanje nadaljevalo do točke AB, vendar pa je bilo izločanje na odseku A3-AB znatno manjše v primerjavi z izločanjem na začetnem delu toka od A1 do A3 (slika 5). Sl. 4: Celokupna trdota (Ca+mg) na opazovanih točkah vzdolž toka Podstenjška (A1, A2, A3 in AB) ter na desnem pritoku (B1, B2). Fig. 4: total hardness (Ca+mg) at observed points (A1, A2, A3, AB and B1 and B2). ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 51 JANJA KOGOVŠEK Sl. 5: Izločeni kalcijev karbonat ob različnih razmerah prek leta na odseku A1-A3 in odseku A1-AB, ter vsakokratna sprememba temperature na točkah A3 oz. AB glede na temperaturo izvira. Fig. 5: travertine deposition during diferent hydrological conditions at section A1-A3 and A1-AB and temperature change at same sectors. SKLEPI Kamninska sestava zaledja kraških izvirov se odraža v kemijski sestavi njihove vode. Prek leta se lahko spreminja sestava vode v odvisnosti od padavinskih in hidroloških razmer. Sestava vode Podstenjška, ki se napaja z infltracijo padavin, s povprečno vrednostjo Ca/Mg 11,1 (6,4 – 14,1) nakazuje, da dobiva vodo predvsem z apnenčastega sveta in le delno z dolomitnih območij. V času najvišjega vodostaja, oktobra 1998, ko se napaja z najširšega območja, je bil delež vode z dolomitnega sveta večji, kar se je odrazilo v nižji vrednosti Ca/Mg. Občasne meritve izvira Podstenjška v času različnih hidroloških razmer prek leta so pokazale na majhna nihanja temperature, SEP in pH ter vsebnosti karbonatov, kalcija in magnezija. Povprečna temperatura je bila 10,1oC in je nihala v intervalu 0,6oC, povprečna vrednost SEP (20oC) pa 417 µS/cm in je nihala v intervalu 20 µS/cm. Povprečna celokupna trdota je bila 4,51 mekv/l, povprečna karbonatna trdota pa 4,19 mekv/l in sta nihali v intervalu 0,5 mekv/l. Vsebnost nitratov je nihala okoli vrednosti 6,7 mg NO3-/l, kloridov 3,8 mg Cl-/l, o-fosfatov 0,03 mg PO43-/l in sulfatov 8,9 mg SO42-/l. Čeprav naselje Šembije leži in se širi v neposrednem zaledju Podstenjška, pa bi zaradi čiščenja odpadnih voda pričakovali zboljšanje oz. ohranitev kakovosti njegove vode, ki jo uporabljajo za vodooskrbo. Vendar pa lahko le sistematična opazovanja, ki vključujejo tudi podrobno dogajanje v vodnih valovih po padavinah, pokažejo učinkovitost čiščenja. Voda Podstenjška je na izviru glede na zunanje pogoje prenasičena s karbonati in jih na svoji poti v dolino odlaga. Odlaga predvsem kalcijev karbonat. Največji del kalcijevega karbonata izloči že na začetni 365 m dolgi poti (A1-A3), manjši del pa še ob nadaljnji 700 m dolgi poti (A3-AB). Sorazmerno velik strmec na začetnem delu poti (A1-A3) omogoča dobro prezračevanje vode in izhajanje CO2, ki je v poletnih mesecih, ko se voda na poti izločanja segreva, še hitrejše. Tako se poleti ob nizkih pretokih izloči ves razpoložljivi kalcijev karbonat že na prvi 365 m dolgi poti, najintenzivneje pa se je izločal že na prvem 305 m dolgem odseku. V zimskih mesecih ob ohlajanju je prišlo do najintenzivnejšega izločanja nekoliko kasneje. Ob visokih pretokih je stopnja izločanja minimalna in na celotnem več kot 1 km dolgem toku se je iz 1 l vode izločilo le nekaj mg CaCO3. Največjo stopnjo izločanja pa smo izmerili ob nizkem pretoku, ko se je iz enega litra vode izločalo do 36 mg CaCO3/l. 52 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PHySICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Of TRAVERTINE DEPOSITION - THE CASE Of PODSTENJŠEK (SLOVENIA) LITERATURA Gospodarič, R. & Habe, f. & Habič P. , 1986: Vodni viri za oskrbo Postojne. Elaborat, 113. Knjižnica IZRK, Postojna. Jenko, f., 1954: Vodnogospodarska osnova porečja Ljubljanice. 4. Hidrogeologija in hidrologija. Rokopis. Projekt nizke zgradbe, Ljubljana. Kogovšek, J. & Habič P., 1981: Preučevanje vertikalnega prenikanja vode na primerih Planinske in Postojnske jame. Acta carsol., 9, 129-148, Ljubljana. Kogovšek, J., 1997: Pollution transport in the vadose zone. V: Günay, Gültekin (ur.), Johnson, A. Ivan (ur.), Tez-can, Levent (ur.), Atilla, A.Özlem (ur.). Karst waters & environmental impacts: proceedings. Rotterdam; Brookfeld: A.A. Balkema, 1997, 161-165. Kogovšek, J., 1999: Nova spoznanja o podzemnem pretakanju vode v severnem delu Javornikov (Visoki kras) = New knowledge about the underground water drainage in the Northern part of Javorniki Mountains (High Karst). Acta carsol., 28/1, 161-200, Ljubljana. Kogovšek, J., 2001: Monitoring the Malenščica water pulse by several parameters in November 1997 = Večparametersko spremljanje vodnega vala Malenščice novembra 1997. Acta carsol., 30/1, 39-53, Ljubljana. Kogovšek, J., Diković, S., Petrič, M., Rubinić, J., Knez, M., Hrvojić, E. & Slabe T., 2003: Hydrochemical research of the Mlini spring, Istria. Ann, Ser. hist. nat., 13/1, 91-102, Koper. Kovačič, G., 2001: Okoljevarstvena problematika vo-dooskrbnih območij občine Ilirska Bistrica. Diplomska naloga. Univerza v Ljubljani, filozofska fakulteta, Oddelek za geografjo. 89 str. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 53 JANJA KOGOVŠEK PHySICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Of TRAVERTINE DEPOSITION - THE CASE Of PODSTENJŠEK (SLOVENIA) SUMMARy Podstenjšek is a karst spring at the contact of paleogene limestone and impermeable fysch (Gospodarič et al., 1968) draining afer a short stream into the Reka river. Recharge area of the Podstenjšek consists of cavernous-fssure limestone and dolomite of Cretaceous and Pale-ogene age with medium permeability (Kovačič 2001). Te spring is fed by rainfall infltration. Since 1992 it is captured for drinking water supply. In 1994, 1996, 1998 and 1999 we sampled ten series of water samples during diferent weather conditions and also samples of the Podstenjšek in a downgradient portion to fnd out the basic properties of the spring and its travertine deposition capacity. Lithology of the karst springs is refected in chemical composition of water. Over one year the water composition may change due to rainfall and hydrological circumstances. Te Podstenjšek water, fed by rainfall infltration, is characterized by average value of Ca/Mg 11.1 (6,4 – 14.1) indicating that water comes mostly from limestone region and only partly from dolomite. During the highest water level in October 1998 when water fowed from the widest area the rate of dolomite water was higher and the Ca/Mg ratio was consecutively lower. Periodical measurements of the Podstenjšek spring in a time of diferent hydrologic conditions showed little temperature variations as well as SEC and pH and carbonate, calcium and magnesium levels over the whole year. Average temperature was 10.10oC oscillating in an interval of 0.60oC, average SEC value (200oC) was 417 µS/cm in an interval of 20 µS/cm. Te average total hard- ness was 4.51 mekv/l, and average carbonate hardness 4.19 mekv/l oscillating in an interval of 0.5 mekv/l. Te nitrate level varied around 6.7 mg NO3-/l, chloride level 3.8 mg Cl-/l, o-phosphates 0.03 mg PO43-/l and sulphate levels 8.9 mg SO42-/l. Although Šembije village lies and grows in the immediate recharge area of Podstenjšek one would expect the ammelioration of the water quality due to purifying of waste waters. But the analyses at the end of 1998 and 1999 did not show any efect of purifying. We know that washing and improvement of water quality demands a certain time and only systematic observations including a detailed study during water pulses afer heavy rainfall can show the ef-ciency of purifying. Te Podstenjšek water at the spring is supersaturated by carbonates and they are deposited on the fow towards the valley. Mainly calcium carbonate is deposi-ted.Te largest part of calcium carbonate is deposited at the beginning of 365 m long fow and only smaller part in further 700 m. Relatively high gradient at the initial part allows a considerable aeration of water and release of CO2; this augments in summer months when water warms up during its fow. Tus in summer at low discharge all the available calcium carbonate is deposited at the frst 365 m long fow and the most intensively at the frst 305 m. In winter when water cools down the most intensive deposition occurred a little later. During high discharge the rate of deposition is minimal and on the entire fow, more than 1 km long, only few mg of CaCO3 were deposited from 1 l. Te highest deposition occurred at low discharge when up to 36 mg of CaCO3/l was deposited from 1 l. 54 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH LEDENIŠKI PSEVDOKRAS Bulat R. MAVLyUDOV Abstract UDC 551.332:551.44 BulatR. Mavlyudov: Glacial karst Glacial karst (GK) is combination of phenomenon and processes as a result of which specifc surface forms and cavities inside ice are formed. Hummocky relief with abundance of lakes, channels and reservoirs inside ice and on ice-rock contact are typical for GK. GK development occurs under acting of physical process of ice melting instead of limestone dissolution in classical karst. However processes directivities and arising forms in both cases are similar at system level. As karst processes in ice origin very fast it is give possibility to use them as physical models for limestone karst. Vice-versa, we can understand GK better if we use results of limestone karst investigations. However in both cases only general regularity can be used because some specifc features are typical for each kind of karst. GK shows in development of such forms in ice: internal drainage systems (moulins, shafs, cascades, vadose galleries and phreatic channels, siphons, griphons) and under ice (vadose and phreatic channels), dry and water fll dolines on clean ice and on ice covered by moraine (debris-covered glaciers), glacier caves. Stages of GK development completely correspond to stages of limestone karst development. But because of glaciers motion it is possible to observe all stages of GK development on the surface of the same glacier from decrepit (at glacier tongue) up to early (in upper part of ablation zone). GK has large signifcance in glaciers evolution. GK is widely spread in all temperate and polythermal glaciers of the world. Te accelerated glaciers degradation in present time gives a task of mandatory analysis of GK because of many glaciers can disappear very soon. keywords: glacial hydrology, debris-covered glacier, karst of glaciers, internal drainage systems, glacial karst evolution, similarity of glacial and calcareous karst. Izvleček UDK 551.332:551.44 BulatR. Mavlyudov: Ledeniškipsevdokras Ledeniški psevdokras je skupek procesov, katerih rezultat so značilne površinske oblike in jame v ledenikih. Za ledeniški psevdokras je značilen grbinasti relief z jezeri in kanali v notranjosti ledenika in ob stiku led-kamnina. Procesi, ki ustvarjajo ledeniški psevdokras in kras v karbonatih in evaporitih se razlikujejo, vendar so oblike, ki nastajajo v obeh sistemih, podobne. Procesi v ledu so hitri, zato je ledeniški psevdokras lahko primeren fzični model krasa v apnencu. Po drugi strani lahko s poznavanjem krasa v apnencih bolje razumemo ledeniški psevdokras. Seveda govorimo le o splošni podobnosti med fenomeni, medtem ko se oba tipa “krasa” v podrobnostih razlikujeta. Stopnje razvoja ledeniškega psevdokrasa se ujemajo s stopnjami rasvoja v apnenčastem krasu. Zaradi gibanja ledenika lahko razvojne stopnje ledeniškega psevdokrasa spremljamo vdolž ledenika, od jezika do ablacijske cone. Ledeniški psevdokras je razširjen v ledenikih zmerne klime (temperate glaciers) in v politermalnih ledenikih. ključne besede: ledeniška hidrologij a, pokriti ledenik, ledeniški psevdokras, notranji drenažni sistem, podobnost glacialnega in apniškega krasa. *Author uses the term Glacial karst, which denotes features on the glacier surface and inside the glacier that result from the melting of ice. Other terms are used for his phenomena, like glacier pseudokarst (see John Gunn (ed.), Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst, fitzroy Dearborn, 2004) Institute of geography RAS, Staromonetny per. 29, Moscow 109017, Russia, e-mail: bulatrm@bk.ru Received / Prejeto: 16.03.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 55–67, LJUBLJANA 2006 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV INTRODUCTION In xIx century there was no karst division into separate kinds by rocks structure. Limestone on continents is the most widespread rock, which have direct or indirect in-fuence on people life. Superfcial and underground karst forms have begun to study mainly in limestone areas. Other kinds of karst rocks occupy smaller areas on the earth, therefore karst phenomena in them were studied less ofen. Glaciers are situated only in mountains and in Polar Regions, because features of their superfcial relief and cavities have investigated later. We considered history of glacial caves research earlier (Mavlyudov, 2004a). HISTORy Of GLACIAL KARST STUDy Researchers were interested with perennial ice in calcareous cavities. But as caves in glaciers were considered as caves with ice in limestone these absolutely various cavities by genesis have received the uniform name «ice caves» and quite ofen studied by the same researchers (Balch, 1900). But nevertheless many scientists quite understood diference between these caves and specially accented attention on it (Browne, 1865, Listov, 1885). But about similarity of karst phenomena in glaciers and in limestone scientists began to speak only at the end of xIx century (Sieger, 1895). He said that porosity, solubility and weakened planes to the same degree characterized both for ice and limestone. Similar forms for glaciers and limestone are: karrens, natural shafs, moulins, caves, galleries, dolines, depressions without runof etc. He found conditions necessary for relief formation on glaciers that similar to karst relief: fat glacier surface with small quantity of crevasses and slow ice movement. Moraine cover on ice surface protects it from melting but ice ablation occurs with large intensity only on walls of crevasses and moulins. At the end of xIx century this phenomenon was known for glaciers of Europe, America, New Zealand and Polar areas. Sieger considered that it is necessary to collect additional information for explanation of this karst analogy in limestone and ice. famous Russian geographer A. A. Kruber (1915) wrote that «karst phenomena origin in gypsum, in salt, in ice, but, frstly, these rocks in comparison with limestone occupy considerably smaller areas, and, second, the phenomena in named rocks represent some specifc features in comparison with phenomena in limestone». Tus, Kru-ber did not distinguish karst phenomena in limestone, gypsum, salt and ice. Te frst who in Russia has used for glaciers term GK was geographer S.V. Kalesnik (1935, 1939). He comes to conclusion about GK existence afer study glaciers in headstream of Naryn River (Tien Shan) during 2nd International Polar year. Describing dolines and moulins at tongues of some Central Asian glaciers (on Zerafshan Glacier, on Petrov’s Glacier, on Pamir glaciers etc.), Kale-snik wrote that «apparently, here before us is glacial karst that is especially probable on glacier tongues, in areas of maximal ice melting and maximal concentration of subglacial water. Because GK originate in plastic material this is a reason why all crevasses origin afer collapse of ice above subglacial tunnels are masked, soldered and alloyed». Term GK with reference to geomorphology is present in monumental work devoted to quaternary glacia-tion (Charlesworth, 1957) in which it is spoken about GK wide spreading on glaciers in diferent parts of the world, which difer by small surfaces inclination and slow movement. for ice with moraine cover cryoconite holes, dolines and depressions with moulins and without them, karrens, caves and under surface rivers, blind and dry river valleys are typical. All of these forms have the duplicates in limestone. He distinguishes GK and karst only by ice plasticity and by presence of moraine cover on ice. In the other book Kalesnik (1963) give other name for this phenomenon - ice karst. Repeatedly GK concept in glaciology is entered a little bit later (Clayton, 1964). In opinion of the author for GK a plenty of dolines and depressions (frequently flled by small lakes), tunnels and caves, disappearing water-streams, blind valleys, large springs, natural ice bridges and arches, karrens, separate ice blocks and residual sediments (ablation tillites) are typical. He saw full analogy of forms in ice and limestone. Terefore he has automatically transferred development laws of limestone karst to GK. Tere are 4 same conditions necessary for GK and limestones karst origin, which were precisely formulated in the middle of xx century (Tornbury, 1954), but were known earlier (Kruber, 1915). It was supposed that GK was widely distributed on dead edges of North American glacial sheet in time of its degradation (Clayton, 1964). In our opinion fast destruction of glacial sheets, which edges at last glaciation were 56 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH terminated on land, depends on wide GK development (Mavlyudov, 2005, 2006). During many years afer Clayton’s publication term GK in glaciology was almost not mentioned. Usually considering relief on glaciers tongues recently began to use term «debris-covered glaciers» (Nakawo, young, 1981). Cross relief and huge lakes quantity are typical for such glaciers. Generalization of publications about GK was made in one of glaciology reports (Benn, Evans, 1998). But it begins since Clayton only. In work (Benn, Evans, 1998) it is marked that moraine sediments on ice restrict ice melting and it concentrates mainly in places where moraine cover is broken: on moulins walls and on slopes of dolines and lake depressions. Depressions slopes become too abrupt to keep of rock debris so clean ice here is usually exposed; intensity of ice melting here is maximal. Ice melting on walls (back-wasting) - one of the most important components of ab- lation in lower glaciers parts covered by moraine such as Khumbu (Nepal) or Tasman (New Zealand) (Iwata, et al., 1980, Kikbridge, 1993 and others). Importance of ablation localization in vicinities of depressions and crevasses on retreating debris-covered glaciers tongues just also had result, in opinion of authors, occurrence of term GK. Certainly, GK and limestone karst are not identical processes. fissures in calcareous areas extend by calcium carbonate dissolution, and on glaciers crevasses extend preferably by ice melting. In the frst case it is chemical process, in the second - physical. Very detailed description of sedimentary and erosive processes and relief forms connected with each stage of GK development was given for edges of outlet Kötlu Glacier, Myrdalsjökull in Iceland (Krüger, 1994). In work (Benn, Evans, 1998) it is shown that GK may occur at tongues of surging glaciers when afer fast motion glacier tongue remains motionless for a long time. TERMINOLOGy Of GLACIAL KARST Recently GK study have progress as a result of creation of the international commission «Glacial Caves and Karst in Polar Regions» (GLACKIPR) in structure of IUS (Actes, 1995, Eraso, Pulina, 1992, 2001, Proceedings, 1991, 1992, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2005). Big part of symposiums materials connected with GK study. In 1994 question of commission renaming was discussed. Term «cryokarst» in the name of commission has received biggest (but not common) recognition in comparison with term «karst». It has resulted that 3-5 commission symposiums occurred under the name «Glacial Caves and Cryokarst in Polar and High-Mountains Regions». However ambiguity of term «cryokarst» has resulted that since 6th symposium in 2003 the commission has returned to the former name. It is not necessary to forget that the term «cryokarst» is the European analogue of the term «thermokarst» (Monroe, 1976), i.e. it is more applicable to frozen rocks than to glaciers. In Russian glaciology term GK of Kalesnik is not used any more. In glaciological dictionary (Kotlyakov, 1984) this term is absent. In karstology for description of glacier caves frstly was used the term «thermokarst» (Maksimovich, 1963), but subsequently this term be- gan to name areas with thaw dolines in frozen rocks. In karstological literature the term «pseudokarst» more frequently used (Andrejchuk, 1992). However this term ignore similarity of the processes in ice and in soluble rocks and also full coincidence of their karst forms. Some attempts of introduction of new term for description of processes in ice were undertaken. for example term «glaciokarst» was ofered (Andrejchuk, 1992). But this attempt cannot be named successful as this term for a long time is used for designation of karst in limestone, originated under glaciers or activated by glacial meltwa-ter (Monroe, 1976). As now study of glaciers relief that similar to karst began increase, it is quite obvious, that has ripened necessity for term describing formation of this specifc relief. for our opinion it would be reasonable to use term Glacial Karst (GK). Tis term shows that phenomena in glaciers are very similar to phenomena in karst rocks. Te word «glacial» (but not ice) means features of this type of karst is formed not simply in ice but namely in glaciers. On analogies, calcareous karst it will be necessary to name «karst of limestone massifs» or «limestone karst». ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 57 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV CyCLE Of GLACIAL KARST DEVELOPMENT On available representations (Clayton, 1964) by analogy to karst in limestone (Kruber, 1915) cycle of GK development consists of three stages: young, mature and decrepit. Basing on works (Cvijich, 1909, 1918, Kruber, 1915), we have added in cyclic evolution of GK delopment one more stage - early stage (Tab. 1) (Mavlyudov, 2004b). On the same glacier it is possible to fnd all stages of GK development from the earliest up to decrepit stage (fig. 1). Tis is one of essential distinctions of GK from calcareous karst. Especially well it can be seen in tongues of retreating glaciers (from the ice edge) where it is possible to see gradual transitions from decrepit stage of GK through mature to stages of youth and early. On active glaciers the set of these stages will be incomplete. frequently on such glaciers it is easy to fnd only early or less ofen – young stages of GK development. Briefy we shall consider each stage of GK development. EARLy STAGE. for this stage of GK development is typical almost full absence of superfcial forms and weak channels develop- ment inside glaciers. Glacier surface here is completely free from moraine. Besides, this area is situated closely to snowline (ELA) and may completely or not completely be clear out from snow in separate years. At presence frn there may be channels as in it thickness (originate at vertical infltration of meltwater jets), and on frn/ice contact. However these channels are insignifcant. As catch areas of superfcial water streams are still insufciently extensive, large internal channels here may not form yet. Dye tracing of water carried out closely to ELA have shown that water moves from here up to glacier tongue with very small velocity. Time of water movement was about some weeks (Bingham et al., 2005 and others). It says about small channels opening in the upper part of glacier ablation zone. Nevertheless these channels exist, that allows allocating this stage of GK development. Tis stage may develops in the lower part of accumulation and in the upper part of ablation areas not only there, where there are water streams on glacier surface and crevasses in ice, but also where water infows from areas adjoining to glacier or drain from lakes situated on rock/ice contact. tab. 1 – GK development cycle (Clayton, 1964) with author changes Stages GK development Early young Mature Decrepit Karst forms Channels in snow, frn, on contact ice/ frn, small moulins, widen crevasses, englacial channels Moulins, shafs, englacial and subglacial channels Dolins, caves, tunnels, water channels Karst windows, depressions, ?????????, uvalas, residual ice blocks Drainage Mainly surfcial Partly surfcial, partly internal Mainly internal Internal, surfcial (afer ice disappear) Ice thickness, m 150-400 and more 50-150 10-50 0-10 Surfcial moraine deposits, thickness, m Absent Absent, except median moraines, some centimeters Some centimeters, later > 1 m, unstable from 1.5 to > 3 m, stable Vegetation on moraine deposits No No first weakened grass; subsequently bushes Grassy and wood vegetation Lakes, cleanliness of water, density of population Rare lakes, in cracks, cold, transparent, without life Enough rare, cold, transparent, without life In dolins, cold, silty, without life In dolines, depressions, uvalas and poljes; isolated from ice by moraine sediments; warm and clean; fresh-water plants and animals Glacier movement Active Inactive from small activity to motionless Immobile 58 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH fig. 1. Scheme of glacier with internal drainage system; on the right – massif of dead ice. 1 - cold ice layer; 2 - temperate ice layer; 3 – snow and frn; 4 - englacial and subglacial channels; 5 - glacial crevasses; 6 – moraine cover; 7 – lake water. H – vadose englacial channels (Hooke channels); R – freatic englacial channels (Röthlisberger channels); N -subglacial channels (Nye channels); Lc – linked-cavities channels behind bed ledges; L - lakes. I-IV – GK stages: I – early, II – young, III – mature, IV – decrepit. yOUNG STAGE. Boundaries of this stage distribution on glaciers are upper part of ablation zone above and a zone of occurrence of median moraines on ice surface - below. On active glaciers this stage may occupy almost all ablation area. On less active glaciers area of young stage may occupy half of ablation area. On almost motionless glaciers young stage can be found out only in the uppermost parts of ablation area (fig. 2). As catch areas here are extensive enough, large superfcial water streams may be formed. It promotes development of large channels in internal drainage. Occurrence of median moraines ofen promotes stream localization along moraines and formation of large water-streams. It leads to formation of developed systems of an internal drainage. Dye tracing of water streams has shown, that water velocity through channels beginning in this zone, are comparable to velocity in superfcial water-streams and may reach 1 m/s (Stenborg, 1969 and others). Our speleological researches have shown that channels sizes inside ice are great enough: pits have depth up to 100 m and more, pits diameter may be up to 10 m and more, galleries width may be 0.3-4 m, height of galleries – from 2 up to 20 m. Te channels sizes directly depend on volume of water-streams absorbed in ice. Superfcial active glacier §§ iiii^IllllmiiiB se m i active glacier ¦'. earl y / yo«»9 //: ; -;/¦;; ; una et i ve glacier decrepit almost unmoved glacier // / Watere- ; ]f\ : fig. 2. Relationship of sizes of various zones appropriate to diferent stages of GK development on glaciers with diferent activity degree. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 59 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV forms are submitted basically by closed lake depressions on ice, which are not numerous. Teir number may grow in places of crevasses formation. MATURE STAGE. Tis stage is typical for parts of glaciers covered by moraine (fig. 3). In the upper part of this stage zone moraine cover does not exceed 1/3 of glacier surface but in the englacial and subglacial channels. Subsequently small lakes merge into one large lake. Afer that development of karst process departs on second plan and as the frst acts calving. Absence of glacier tongue damming leads to GK development under dry scenario when lakes exist at different levels. Expansion of lakes depressions occurs on ring crevasses by ice collapse (fig. 4). As a result of GK fig. 3. Block-diagram showing development of mature and decrepit GK stages (Krüger, 1994). a-b) mature stage; c) decrepit stage. 1 - strips of rock fragments in glacial ice; 2 - ridges with ice core; 3 – through-shape valley; 4 - melting escapes of clean ice; 5 - rock fragments fow (colifuction); 6 - crevasses expanded by melting; 7 - subglacial channels; 8 - dolines; 9 - collapsed arch of tunnel; 10 - doline expanded by melting and collapse; 11 - lake extending due by melting on slopes; 12 - dead ice; 13 - hummocky plain, free from ice; 14 - superfcial glacial sediments; 15 - lakes; 16 - subglacial sediments. middle part moraine covers ice completely. Tus in direction to glacier tongue thickness of moraine cover grows up to meter and more. At moraine cover thickness lower then 10 sm there is ice-melting activization due to stones heating (Nakawo, 2000). Tis is expressed in growth of quantity of meltwater on glacier surface. When moraine thickness exceeds 10 sm reduction of ice melting begins. At moraine thickness more than 0.5-0.7 m ice melting practically completely stops. for upper part of mature zone wide development of superfcial water-streams and internal channels are typical. for lower part of mature zone superfcial water-streams are not usual and for glacier surface smoothed hummocky relief is typical with plenty of dolines and depressions, many of which are occupied by lakes. Ice melting occurs here basically on lakes slopes. Lakes water is heated up much more strongly than ice covered by moraine (Sakai et al., 2000). for this reason lakes quickly grow. Quite ofen this stage, which is well expressed in relief on glacier surfaces, is named as GK (Krüger, 1986, Benn, Evans, 1998). In dependence of dammed degree of glacier tongues GK development may realized both by lake or dry scenario (Mavlyudov, 2005). Lake scenario of GK mature stage develops where glacier tongue is dammed by rock bar or end moraine. It conducts to formation of extensive lakes connected by numerous fig. 4. View on collapse of dry scenario of mature stage of GK. Bashkara Glacier, Central Caucasus, 2005. activity glacier will disintegrate completely (at lake scenario) or will broken into separate blocks of dead ice (at dry scenario). DECREPIT STAGE. Tis stage develops on tongues of motionless glaciers or within the limits of isolated dead ice massifs (fig. 3). Tickness of moraine cover changes from 1 to 3 m. Nu- 60 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH merous windows are typical even at continuous ice cover. Except dolines and small depressions larger depressions - uvalas and poljes here are typical also. Water streams wandering under ice provide fast ice destruction. Wide directions range for water streams provides formation of big quantity of caves with small water streams. Galleries expansion in caves includes also action of airfows. Because of small ice thickness caves galleries are not compressed by plastic deformation. But for galleries are typical vaults collapses. In process of GK development area of glacier ice decrease. It continues until complete ice disappearance. Tere are some variants of transition from one GK stage to another: 1) in active glaciers, 2) in motionless glaciers. In frst case at stable position of ELA there is evolutionary displacement of GK stages boundaries in direction of glacier tongue. Tat is why area of young stage of GK development is displaced on glacier downwards turning into mature stage. By similar way changing of other GK stages occurs. All stages of GK development are formed approximately in one place of glacier surface during the long period. In this case boundaries of stage zones of GK development remain approximately on the same places. At ELA lowering there will be replacement of all zones boundaries in direction to glacier tongue. Progressive movement of all GK zones boundaries in direction to upper glacier part will occur at glacier edges retreating and ELA increasing. When processes of GK formation will include all glacier surface, the further decreasing of glacier dimensions will result in size reduction or full lost of upper zone (early stage). So quantity of zones may be reduced gradual. Afer some time there will be only one zone (decrepit stage). Ten the glacier will completely disappear. In surging glaciers all events occurs by other way. In period before surge all GK stages will develop in glacier ablation area. During surge all GK structures will be completely destroyed. As ice melting during surge does not stop but existing ways of water throughfow will be destroyed during glacier motion, it may stimulate local water accumulation in englacial and subglacial reservoirs. It can lead to sudden water outbursts from under glaciers during surge. Afer surge GK structure begins to restore on all extent of ablation area. firstly all ablation area will be in early and young GK stages. Intensity of GK development will increase in area of dead ice. It connects with features of local climate (warmest on glacier), moraine cover thickness on glacier surface, big quantity of crevasses, the crossed glacier surface that provides fast development of numerous lake depressions and their intensive growth. Terefore in the lower glacier part GK develops more intensively than in other glacier parts. It will result appearance frstly of two, then of three and, at last, of all 4 GK zones in ablation area. Increasing GK development in area of dead ice promotes accelerated ice degradation that prepares possibility for new glacier surge. It seems that calculated and real ice melting intensity under moraine cover difers very signifcant. full destruction time of the Glacier Kolka tongue in the Caucasus afer surge in 1969 was estimated as 25-30 years (Khodakov, 1978). But really glacier tongue has disappeared afer 11 years. It means that GK increase ablation of debris-covered glaciers in some times. Now we will outline channels evolution inside glaciers. Some authors (for example, Mikhajlev, 1989) tried directly apply schemes of karst cavities evolution to GK cavities. He considered that glacier caves as well as limestone caves evolve through following stages: crevasse-slot-hole, crevasse-channel, gallery, channel and collapse. In his opinion, the crevasse-slot-hole stage is characterized by occurrence of open fssures on glacier/ bed contact and in glacier body in accumulation zone. Crevasse-channel stage is characterized by occurrence of narrow horizontal subglacial crevasses on contact with bed in accumulation area. Gallery stage is typical for ablation area with development of subglacial and englacial channels. Channel stage is usual for ablation zone with active development englacial and subglacial caves. Separate grottoes may reach 30-40 m length and 20 m height. Vaults collapses in subglacial caves conduct to formation of large dolines and depressions on glacier surface. Collapse-ablation stage is typical for moraine-covered part of glacier. Caves roof collapses and depression sizes growth are typical for this stage. However we automatically may not transfer character of limestone caves development on ice. Against limestone caves, which mainly change in agreement with all these stages, in ice only channels at glaciers tongues can evolve through all this stages. Other channels may develop only up to gallery stage but then channels can completely disappeared because of secondary ice flling or under action of ice plastic deformation (creep). We know that later type channels on glaciers consist overwhelming majority. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 61 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV GLACIAL KARST SPREADING GK is enough widespread phenomenon. It was found on a plenty of glaciers all over the world: in Alaska (Clayton, 1964; Russel, 1893; Tarr, Martin, 1914), in Iceland (Krüger, 1994; Badino, 2002; Eraso et al., 2002), in Spitsbergen (Gallo, 1977; Griselin, 1991; Shroeder, 1991, Krawczyk, Pulina, Rehak, 1997; Pulina, 1982, 1984, 1997; Mavlyudov, 2002; Mavlyudov, Solovyanova, 2003), in the north of Canada (Iken, 1972, Bingham et al., 2005), in Sweden (Stenborg, 1968, 1969; Holmlund, 1988), in Caucasus (Mavlyudov, Solovyanova, 2005), in Alpes (Maroue, 1995, Piccini et al., 2002), in Altai, in Central Asia (Kales- nik, 1935; Mavlyudov, 1994, 1995; Popov, 1936; Spengler, 1936; Badino, 2002), in Himalayan (Iwata et al., 1980, Mavlyudov, 1992), in Andes (Aniya, 2001), in New Zealand (Kikbridge, 1993), Greenland and Antarctica (Eraso et al., 1991) and in other places. Absence of any regions in the previous list simply means insufcient quantity of researches in this area. GK play important and possibly also an integral role during destruction of the majority of temperate and polythermal glaciers, especially if they are in retreating stage. SIMILARITy AND DIffERENCE Of GLACIAL KARST AND LIMESTONE KARST Similarity GK and karst in soluble rocks is shown in convergence of cavities forms. Similarity of GK and karst is determined by identical conditions of cavities formation in soluble rocks and in ice. for cavities formation is need: 1) soluble rocks, 2) fssures and crevasses in rocks, 3) solvent of rock, 4) solvent movements and aggressiveness. Similarity of features of karst and GK also is shown in similarity of characteristics of both drainage systems. Tey have similar structure (arborescent channels form), an evolutionary cycles, seasonal prevalence of development, dependence on climate and rock conditions; they are singenetic to relief, divided into superfcial and internal components. Despite of processes diference of chemical rocks dissolution and physical ice melting both these process lead to identical results - loss of rock or ice layer on channels walls on contact with water-streams. Not consider kinetic of process of rock chemical dissolution by action of water streams and process of ice melting under action of water streams at molecular level we may speak about general similarity of this processes. Tis processes similarity is determined by similarity of curves of limestone dissolution and ice melting, which have linear character (Gabrovchek, 2000; Shumskij, 1955). formulas of carbonate concentration changes in water and of ice melting under action of water streams in time are almost similar (Eraso, Pulina, 1992, page 14-16). Tis similarity also defnes forms of convergence in limestone and in ice. And as solvent in both processes is one substance – water, it defnes similarity in hydraulic processes in both cases. Tis similarity underlies of possible data exchange between GK and karst in soluble rocks in the feld of cavities origin and evolution. Distinctions of processes occurred in limestone and in ice are determined, frst of all, by various physical properties of ice and rocks. Density of ice is 917 kg/m3, density of limestone - 2500 kg/m3, heat conductivity of ice is 2.22 Wt/(m°K), heat conductivity of limestone – 0.9 Wt/(m°K), specifc thermal capacity of ice is equal 2,12 KJ/(kg°K), specifc thermal capacity of limestone – 2.5 KJ/(kg°K) (Shumskij, 1955, Dzidziguri et al., 1966). As we see, the basic distinctions between limestone and ice are shown in rocks density, which approximately in 2.5 times is higher for limestone, and in heat conductivity which approximately in 2.5 times is more for ice. Te last means that at identical heat arrival to both rocks, ice will heat up less than limestone. But it also means, that for cooling of ice and limestone on equal quantity of degrees, from the frst it is necessary to remove approximately in 2.5 times heat more than from the second. But the basic distinctions of processes occurring in limestone and ice are determined not by distinction in rocks thermophysical properties but by speed of their destruction. Terefore distinctions of processes in soluble rocks and in ice are determined by: speed of processes or speed of superfcial and internal forms development; duration of evolution cycle; abort of development in winter time; presence of ice movement; presence of ice plastic deformations; ability for ice to heal of crevasses and cavities; infuence of thermal conditions of ice; monolithness of ice, absence of some types of fssures in ice; diference of chemical process of rock dissolution from physical process of ice melting; channels displacement downwards on glacier during evolution. Essential diference in physical properties of limestone and ice is shown in signifcant distinctions in be- 62 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH havior of drainage systems inside these rocks. But common structure of internal drainage systems in both rocks allows to speak about similarity of evolution of internal drainage in both rocks at a level of system. Te ideological afnity of glacial hydrology with karst hydrology and speleology means not only afnity IMPORTANCE Of G Internal glaciers drainage study is necessary part of nival-glacial systems researches (Krenke, 1982). GK has complex infuence on glaciers. Investigations has shown that GK presence in glaciers cardinally changes physical ice properties, ice permeability for water, structure and chemistry of glacial runof, character of sediments removing by water streams, separate characteristics of glaciers: water level position in diferent parts of glaciers, changes of cold ice layer thickness by ice warming around drainage channels. All these changes can be incentive reasons of numerous phenomena in glaciers: water outbursts, winter runof, changes in speed of ice movement, glaciers surges, accelerated deglaciation. At some stages of glaciers evolution (in particular in deglaciation period) GK begins to control practically all processes in ice thickness and many processes on glaciers surface, becomes determining factor of glacier development. Without taking into account GK infuence on glaciers mistakes are possible in: 1) hydrological calculations; 2) hydrological processes modeling in glaciers; 3) results interpretation of majority of indirect methods of GK study (dye tracing of waters, runof studying, defnition of throughfow time, runof chemistry, suspense sediments transport, cold ice layer thickness measurements etc.). If we do not know GK structure, it becomes not clear as water moves in ice thickness. If we shall not study GK: 1) an glaciers interior remain for us as «black boxes», 2) we shall irrevocably lose valuable scientifc information based on character of internal glaciers destruction; 3) we shall not understand many processes in glaciers. Only expensive ice drilling or study of glaciers water runof regime usually give information about glacier internal structure. GK drainage channels researches allow us: a) to receive direct information about glacier structure, to make large crevasses survey, to establish presence and amplitudes of ice replacement on them afer time of cavities formation; b) to take ice samples of any size from necessary depths for diferent purposes (defnition of permeability, durability, water-saturation etc.); c) to determine morphometric characteristics of cavities. Analysis and mathematical processing of mor- in research methods of drainage systems in glaciers and limestone, but also afnity of theories describing drainage systems and their separate elements origin and evolution. for this reason many conclusions about GK structure and evolution are received by analogy to structure of drainage systems in limestone (Mavlyudov, 2006). CIAL KARST STUDy phometric parameters of GK drainage channels allow to receive statistically steady parameters of channels sizes and content of cavities in ice of separate glaciers and their parts. Analysis of plans and vertical cuts sections of separate cavities allows to determine main directions of crevasses and their connections with orientation of tension ellipsoid in separate parts of concrete glaciers. By statistical analysis of the data about length of rectilinear sites of drainage channels it is possible to determine sizes and a confguration of ice blocks, to establish density of hydro-logically active crevasses inside these blocks. Usually hydrological research is possible only in catch and outfow areas of glacial waters. Application of karstological (speleological) methods allow to carry out hydrological research also in internal water transit zone – directly inside drainage systems. Researches of them allow: A) to establish position of water level (uniform hydrostatic water level, isolated conduits, «double porosity» with various fltration properties for crevasse zones and internal parts of ice blocks with small quantity of fssures and crevasses). B) to establish structural and fltration anisotropy of glacier by realization of indicator experiments. C) to establish character of water movement (free, pressure head, laminar, turbulent) in various parts of drainage systems to receive settlement characteristics of water streams inside drainage systems (stream velocity, water level, discharge, Reynolds and fraud numbers and so on) and glacier in whole (fltration index etc.), to dismember hydrographers of springs (upwellings) at glaciers tongues (with allocation of dead volume in underground dammed and accumulative lakes) and curve of exhaustions (with allocation of various components of glacial runof). D) to coordinate seasonal changes of hydrodynami-cal parameters and temperatures of glacial water with data of meleorological and hydrological investigations on surface, with changes of springs discharges and with fuctuations of water levels in moulins and boreholes. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 63 BULAT R. MAVLyUDOV E) to receive diferential values of GK activity for diferent seasons and hydrodynamical zones of glaciers. GK study in future will allow to receive quantitative indicators of growth and dynamics of drainage channels in diferent glaciers and in diferent regions. With the help of these indicators in future, probably, it will be possible to make quantitative estimations not only for speed of origin and destruction of internal drainage systems, but also its role at diferent stages of glaciers evolution. further study of internal drainage will enable to explain mechanisms of such catastrophic glacial phenomena as outbreaks of glacial lakes and fast ice motion (surges). Detail study of an internal drainage will allow to understand GK evolution. It will enable to approach us to explanation of ancient glacial sheets destruction from quantitative positions. Research of GK together with others glaciological researches will allow to look in a new fashion at a role of water in glaciers. It will enable to explain both properties of ice and feature of glaciers (movement, metamorphism, degradation features etc.). Investigations of glaciers drainage systems, laws of their origin and evolution during ablation season and long periods of time, and also in connection with conditions and structure of glaciers enables to coordinate among themselves combinations of superfcial and internal glaciers drainage systems. But also it is possible to solve inverse task: on basis of drainage systems study to understand conditions of separate parts and of whole glaciers. It will allow in the future on the basis of GK study including remote sensing methods together with the control of glaciers tongues positions to receive more Tus forms and processes, which result in formation of karst relief (superfcial and underground) on glaciers can named GK. Despite of some distinctions determined basically by ice properties, full similarity of superfcial and internal karst forms in ice and limestone is observed. It means, that GK may serve as model for calcareous karst and on contrary. It is especially important as speeds of formation and evolution GK in millions times is higher than at calcareous karst. But we need take into account full, wide and trustworthy information not only about a structure and a condition of many glaciers of a planet, but also character and tendencies of regional climate change. Isomorphism of GK and karst allow to use achievements in research of one of karst type for fnding out of development laws for other karst type. Calcareous karst is now enough well investigated. It means that laws of limestone karst development may be used for fnding out corresponding laws in GK. And this «laws conversion» is possible without entering serious corrections (in view of time diference of drainage systems formation, and also in view of special properties of ice: fuidity and plasticity). It results now and will result in future progress in GK study including glaciers internal drainage. But it means also that many laws received at GK study may be used without very serious changes at researches of calcareous karst. It is especially tempting because of diferent speed of karst forms origin in limestone and ice (many hundreds thousands years for limestone karst and from several months to several years for GK). It means possibility not only directly observe origin of karst forms in glaciers of diferent regions with various climate, to carry out their exact measurements or even to put some types of experiments. It means GK may serve as natural model of calcareous karst. Certainly, not now, not in the future it will be impossible automatically to transfer laws of origin of separate forms from one karst type to another. But it does not mean that in general it will be impossible to take advantage from it. Hope therefore is quite competent that big interest, which has originate recently to GK study, in future will result in progress of calcareous karst study. diference between ice and rocks and processes of chemical rocks dissolution and physical ice melting. GK also defnes a lot of processes on glaciers: change in thermal ice conditions, maintenance of fast water delivery in ice thickness, water-contents changes in ice, ice properties changes, maintenance of glacier surges, outbursts of glacier-dammed lakes etc. Terefore GK study has the big prospects in future. CONCLUSIONS 64 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH REfERENCES Actes du 3 Symposium International «Cavites glaciaires et cryokarst en regions polaires et de haute montagne», Chamonix-france, 1-6.xI.1994. – Annales litterai-res de l’universite de Besançon, n. 561, serie Geographie, 34, ed. M. Griselin, 1995, p. 138, Besançon. Andrejchuk, V.N., 1992: Some aspects of glaciokarst study. – Problems of Pseudokarst. Abstracts, 58-62, Perm (in Russian). Aniya, M., 2001: Glacier variations of Heilo Patagónico Norte, Chilean Patagonia, since 1944/45, with special reference to variations between 1995/96 and 1999/2000. – Bulletin of Glaciological Research, 21, 55-63, Tokyo. Badino, G., 2002: Te glacial karst. - Nimbus, 23-24, 82-93. Balch, E.S., 1900: glacieres or freezing caverns. - Allen, Lane and Scott, p. 337, Philadelphia. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corp., New york, 1970. Benn, D.I. Evans, D.J.A., 1998: glaciers and glaciation. – Arnold, p. 734, London. Bingham, R.G. Nienow, P.W. Sharp, M.J. & S. Boon, 2005: Subglacial drainage processes at a High Arctic poly-thermal valley glacier. – Journal of Glaciology, 51, 172, 15-24. Browne, G.f., 1865: Ice caves of France and Switzerland. A narrative of subterranean exploration. – Longmans, Green and Co, p. 315, London. Charlesworth, J.K., 1957: Te quaternary era with special reference to its glaciation. – 1, 2, Arnold, p. 1700, London. Clayton, L., 1964: Karst topography on stagnant glaciers. – Journal of Glaciology, 5, 37, 107-112. Cvijić, J., 1909: Bildung und dislocierung des Dinarischen. – Petermanns Geogr. Mitteilungen, 55, 6-8, Cvijić, J., 1918: Hydrographie souterraine et evolution morphologique du karst. - Rec. trav. Insts. geol. Alpine, 6, 4, p. 56, Grenoble. Dzidziguri, A.A. Duganov, G.V. Onioni, Sh.I. et al., 1966: Termophysical parametres of mountain rocks and methods of their fnding. – Metsniereba, p. 228, Tbilisi (in Russian). Eraso, A. Antigüedad, I. & A. 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Glacier Caves and Glacial Karst in High Mountains and Polar Regions. Collection of reports. – Proceedings of 7th International Symposium, Azau, Kabardino-Balkarian Republik, Russia, 5-11 September, 2005, Institute of Geography RAS, 2005, p. 178, Moscow. Griselin M., 1991: Les marges glacées du glacier Loven-Est, Spitsberg: un milieu original lié aux écoule-ments sous-glaciaires. – Proceedings of 1st International Symposium Glacier Caves and Karst in Polar regions, ITGE, 35-67, Madrid. Holmlund, P. , 1988: Internal geometry and evolution of moulins, Storglaciaren, Sweden. – Journal of Glaci-ology, 34, 117, 242-248. Iken, A., 1972: Measurments of water pressure in moulins as part of a movement study of the White Glacier, Axel Heiberg Island, Northwest Territiries, Canada. – Journal of Glaciology, 11, 53-58. Iwata, S. et al., 1980: Surface morphology in the ablation area of the Khumbu Glacier. – Seppyo, 42, 9-17. Kalesnik, S.V., 1935: Glaciers of Bolshoj Naryn. – Tien-Shan. 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MAVLyUDOV 66 Krenke, A.N., 1982: mass exchange in glacial systems on area of USSR. – Gidrometeoizdat, p. 288, Leningrad ( in Russian). Kruber, A.A., 1915: Karst area of Mountain Krimea. – p. 319, Moscow (in Russian). Krüger, J., 1994: Glacial processes, sediments, landforms and stratigraphy in the terminus region of Myrdalsjökull, Iceland. – folia Geographica Danica, 21, 1-233. Listov, yu., 1885: Caves - ice-houses. – Data for geology of Russia, 12, 105-280, Sanct-Petersburg (in Russian). Maksimovich, G.A., 1963: Fundamentals of Karstology, 1. – p. 445, Perm (in Russian). Mavlyudov, B.R., 1992: Ice evaporation in the glacier cave (Kangware Glacier, South Tibet). – Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium glacier Caves and Karst in Polar regions, february 10-16, 1992, Midzygorze, Poland, 81-91, Silesia University, Sosnowies. Mavlyudov, B.R., 1994: Collapse phenomena on glaciers. – Karst Collapses. Abstracts, «Nauka», 17-20, Ekaterinburg (in Russian). Mavlyudov, B.R., 1995: Tongue oscillations of Northern Inyltchek Glacier. – Data of Glaciological studies, 79, 95-98, Moscow (in Russian). Mavlyudov, B.R., 2002: Some data about hydrology of glacier Aldegonda (Spitsbergen). – Complex investigations of Spitsbergen nature, 2, 120-125, Kola Scientifc Centre of Russian Academy of Science, Apatity (In Russian). Mavlyudov, B.R., 2004a: History of glacial speleology. – Karstology: xxI century, Perm University, 346-351, Perm (In Russian). Mavlyudov, B.R., 2004b: Glacial karst. – Karstology: xxI century, Perm University, 69-74, Perm (In Russian). Mavlyudov, B.R., 2005: Glacial karst as possible reason of quick degradation of Scandinavian glacier sheet. – Glacier caves and glacial karst in high mountains and polar regions. Ed. B.R. Mavlyudov, 68-73, Institute of geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow. Mavlyudov, B.R., 2006: Internal drainage systems of glaciers. – Institute of geography RAS, p. 396 + xxxii, Moscow (in Russian). Mavlyudov, B.R. & Solovyanova I.yu., 2003: Drainage system of Aldegonda glacier, Spitsbergen. – 6th International Symposium “glacial Caves and Karst in Polar Regions” (3-8 September 2003, Ny-Alesund; Svalbard, Lat. 79oN). Monografco SEDECK, 163-169, Madrid. Mavlyudov, B.R. & Solovyanova I.yu., 2005: Caves of Bashkara Glacier (Central Caucasus); morphological features. – Glacier caves and glacial karst of high mountain and polar regions. Ed. B.R. Mavlyudov, 61-67, Institute of geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 Mikhajlev, V.N., 1989: Karst of Kirgiziya. – Ilim, p. 148, frunze (in Russian). Monroe, W.H., 1970: A glossary of karst terminology. – Geological Survey Water-Supply paper 1899-K, United States government printing ofce, p. 26, Washington. Moreau, L., 1995: Glacier d’Argentiere: hydro-électricité et glaciologie – Actes du 3 Symposium International «Cavites glaciaires et cryokarst en regions polaires et de haute montagne», Chamonix-france, 1-6.xI.1994. Annales litteraires de l’universite de Be-sançon, 561, serie Geographie, 34, ed. M. Griselin, 17-22, Besançon. Nakawo, M. & young G.J., 1981: field experiments to determine the efect of a debris layer on ablation of glacier ice. – Annals of Glaciology, 2, 85-91. Nakawo, M. Raymond, C.f. & fountain A. (eds), 2000: Debris-covered glaciers. – IAHS Publ. 264, p. 289. Piccini, L. Romeo, A. & Badino G., 2002: Moulins and marginal contact caves in the Gornergletscher, Switzerland. – Nimbus, 23-24, 94-99. Popov, V.I., 1936: Some surface formations of fedchenko Glacier. – Te Pamir. Northern Pamir and fedchen-ko Glacier. Annals of glaciological expeditions, 1, CUCGMS, 173-196, Leningrad (in Russian). Proceedings of 1st International Symposium Glacier Caves and Karst in Polar Regions, October 1-5, 1990, Madrid, Spain. – ITGE, 1991, p. 237, Madrid. Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium Glacier Caves and Karst in Polar Regions, february 10-16, 1992, Midzygorze, Poland. – Silesia University, 1992, p. 127, Sosnowies. Proceedings of 4th International Symposium Glacier Caves and Cryokarst in Polar and High Mountain Regions. Sept. 1-7, 1996, Rudolfshütte, Salsburg, Austria. – Salzburg Geographische Materialen, 28, 1998, p. 155, Salzburg. Proceedings of 6th International Symposium Glacial Caves and Karst in Polar Regions, 3-8 September 2003, Ny-Alesund; Svalbard, Lat. 79oN. – Mono-grafco SEDECK, 2003, p. 193, Madrid. Proceedings of V International symposium on Glacier Caves and Cryokarst in Polar and High Mountain Regions, 15-16 April 2000, Courmayeur, Italy. – Nimbus, Rivista della societa meteorologica itali-ana, 23-24, 2002, 81-157. Pulina, M., 1982: Karst related phenomena at the Bertil Glacier, West Sritsbergen. – Kras i Speleologia, v. 4 (13), Katowice, p. 67-82. Pulina, M., 1984: Glacierkarst phenomena in Spitsbergen. – Norsk Geografsk Tidsskrif, 38, 3-4, 163-168, Oslo. Pulina, M., 1997: Relieves of surface on subpolar glaciers. – Polish Polar Studies. 24th Polar Symposium, 215-222, Warszawa. GLACIAL KARST, WHy IT IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH Russel, I.C., 1893: Malaspina Glacier. – Journal of Geology, 1, 217-245. Sakai, A. Takeuchi, N. fujuta, K. & Nakawo M., 2000: Role of supraglacial ponds in the ablation process of a debris-covered glacier in the Nepal Himalayas. – Debris-Covered Glaciers, IAHS Publ, 264, 119-130. Schroeder, J., 1991: Les cavites du Hansbreen creusees par les eaux defonte. Svalbard, 77° Lot. N. – Proceedings of 1st International Symposium Glacier Caves and Karst in Polar regions, ITGE, 21-33, Madrid. Shumskij, P.A., 1955: Bases of structural ice study. – Pub-lising house of USSR Academy of Sciences, p. 492, Moscow (in Russian). Sieger, R., 1895: formation des Causs das glaciers (Karstfarmen der Gletscher). – Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, 34, 7, 494-495. Spengler, O.A., 1936: Short hydrological issue of head-stream of Muksu River. – Te Pamir. Northern Pamir and fedchenko Glacier. Annals of glaciologi-cal expeditions, 1, CUCGMS, 111-149, Leningrad (in Russian). Stenborg, T., 1968: Glacier drainage connected with ice structures. – Geografska Annaler, 50, ser. A, 1, 25-53. Stenborg, T., 1969: Studies of the internal drainage of glaciers. – Geografska Annaler, 51, ser. A, 1-2, 13-41. Tarr, R.S. & Martin L., 1914: Alaskan glacier studies of the National Geographical Society in the yakutat Bay, Prince William Sound and Lower Copper River regions. – National Geographical Society, Washington. Tornbury, W.D., 1954: Principles of geomorphology. – Wiley, p. 618, New york. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 67 COBISS: 1.01 LAKES IN GyPSUM KARST: SOME ExAMPLES IN ALPINE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES JEZERA V KRASU V SADRI: NEKAJ PRIMEROV IZ ALPSKIH IN SREDOZEMSKIH DEŽEL Jean NICOD1 Abstract: UDC 556.55(467.1) 551.444(467.1) Jean NICOD: Lakes in Gypsum Karst: some examples in Alpine and Mediterranean countries. Numerous lakes of varying types have been studied in these areas. Teir origin proceeds from the geomorphological processes in the gypsum karst: land subsidence or collapses in relation with the active dissolution of the gypsum and other evaporites, particularly in depth, at the groundwater level. Most are small lakes, ofen ephemeral ponds in the alpine gypsum karsts, or fooded sinkholes in alluvial plains, in keeping with the fuctuations of the water-table. However, in the Mediterranean lands and Central Europa, some lacustrine basins are more important expanse; they arise from a complex evolution, and put various environmental problems. So are particularly studied the case of the lake of Besse in Provence, and in comparison the problems of the lakes of Pergusa (Sicily) and Ban-yoles (Catalonia). key words: Evaporite karst, gypsum, lake, Alps, Mediterranean. Izvleček UDK 556.55(467.1) 551.444(467.1) Jean Nicod: Jezera v krasu v sadri: nekaj primerov iz alpskih in sredozemskih dežel V teh predelih so bila preučevana številna jezera različnih tipov. Nastala so zaradi geomorfoloških procesov v krasu v sadri, kot so: ugrezi ali udori v zvezi z raztapljanjem sadre in ostalih evaporitov, predvsem v globinah, v višini talne vode. Večina teh jezer je majhnih, često so to občasna jezerca v krasu v sadri v Alpah, ali pa zalite vrtače v aluvialnih ravninah, ki odražajo nihanje gladine talne vode. V sredozemskih deželah in v Srednji Evropi pa so nekatera povodja teh jezer precej večja; njihovemu nastanku so botrovali različni dejavniki in v zvezi z njimi se pojavljajo različne ekološke težave. Kot primer je posebej predstavljeno jezero Besse v Provansi, za primerjavo pa še jezeri Pergusa (Sicilija) in Banyoles (Katalonija). ključne besede: evaporitni kras, sadra, jezero, Alpe, Sredozemlje. INTRODUCTION Although the lakes in gypsum or evaporites karst are not generally studied, but only by local or punctual works, their processes of formation and evolution are very interesting. Tey present specifc characteristics comparatively to karstic lakes in limestones and dolomites: - the quick genesis of their basin, frequently by breakdown, collapse or sufosion processes consecutive to the accelerated solution of the gypsum or andhydrite (and more in the halite lens!) (NICOD 1993, KLIM-CHOUK 1996, 2002); - the possible extension by solution and land subsidence, recess of the borders by solution and collapse, or coalescence of contiguous sinkholes; - their variable water level, depended not only on the hydrologic conditions (change of the groundwater level, input-output balance), but also on the subsidence or collapse of their basin bottom; - the silting by the clay derived from the weathering of the argilaceous beds joined up the gypsum or other evaporites: 1 Emeritus professor, florida 1, 35 Av. 24 Avril 1915, f 13012 MARSEILLE. Received / Prejeto: 13.03.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 69–78, LJUBLJANA 2006 JEAN NICOD - the high mineralization, poor ichtyologic fauna, locally anoxic water and possible sulfydric gas irruption in relation with the bacterial action on dissolved sulphates. As do all the phenomenons in gypsum karsts when they occur in the urban and suburban areas, the gypsum THE LAKES IN SMALL KARSTIC DEPRESSIONS Most small lakes are located in karstic forms, funnel or sinkholes, produced by breakdown or collapse processes in relationship with active solution (fg. 1). In the alpine gypsum karst, as that of Col du Joly, Beaufortin (Savoie, france), a feld of many funnels extend upon the outcrop of gypsum layers, in the mountain pasture, near 1900-2000 m (NICOD 1988). When the bottom of these depressions are blocked by residual clay or issued from mo-rainic deposits, the lakes can be formed, but fast changed into marshs and bogs. (Photo 1) Photo 1: Small transient ponds in gypsum funnels, in the alpine pasture near Col du Joly (1989 m), in the northern Beaufortin (Savoie). On the contrary, the gypsum lakes in the lower altitudes, in plateau or plain, are connected with the aquifer, either in alluvial deposits, example of the lagunas (doline-lakes) in the Ebro terraces (W Zaragoza SORIANO, 1991), or with a multilayered aquifer, as in gypsum karst of the triassic plateaus of the inner Provence (example of the Louciens, La Roquebrussane, Var Department). Te level of those lakes depends to the watertable, as the case they can be perennial or temporary; in the occurence of speed groundwater lowering, the bottom of the basin may be changed by subsidence or collapse processes. In the example of the Grand Loucien, the excessive level variation cause sometimes rockslides in limestone borders: so this crater-like landform tend to extend. (Photo 2) lakes give main impact problems: the changes of lake level and possible extension, or on the contrary silting and trend to marsh. Photo 2: Te « grand loucien » near la Roquebrussanne (Central var Department). Collapse basin in middle trias limestones, variable level in connection to the groundwater. THE POSSIBLE COMBINATION Of PROCESSES. Some lacustrine basins proceed from a combination of two or several development processes. So in high altitude (near 2300 m) and alpine landscape, the lake of the Combe de la Nova in Beaufortin (Savoie), a submerged uvala in triassic gypsum band between shales, fows out in a sink-cave, active rockfall site (fg. 1, II). In the case of the lake of Mont-Cenis pass (1970 m, in Savoie, at the french-italian border) the glacial origin is clear, but a part of this basin is in a triassic gypsum band, where numerous funnels and sinkhole are opened; this structural arrangement has given a problem of losses, because of the raised level since the ftting out of the basin as reservoir for the hydroelectric power-plant (NICOD 1993). In the case of the Bonne Cougne pond, near flassans in central Var Departement, it is spring-lake located in small polje in dolomites of middle Trias, now drained; its origin is in keeping with the dissolution of the underlying evapor-itic lens, as in the lake of Besse (infra). In the « Causses » of the Middle Atlas (Morocco), several lacustrine basins in liassic limestones and dolomites proceed from the same processes: disssolution of underlying triassic gypsum lens, some in diapiric structures, and subsidence of the layers on top. Some are seasonal lakes (daias), as in the Ouiouane polje, and turn into salt crust in summer (MARTIN 1981). (Photo 3) fORMS AND ORIGINS Of THE GyPSUM LAKES. 70 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 LAKES IN GyPSUM KARST: SOME ExAMPLES IN ALPINE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES Geologic setting 1-mode of iformation of the basin Type Processus Hydrology 2-Lakes in evolution Type Hydrology Examples References 3-Lakes at the end of evolution modes of formation and evolution of the gypsum lakes I - 3 sequences with respect to lithologic and geomorphologic conditions A- Gypsum & anhydrite band : Alpine Karsts b- Alluvial plain/ gypsum or evaporites C- limestone plateau/ gypsum or evaporites funnel Solution vadose circulation Under-alluvial doline Solution + subsidence at alluvial water-table level n Breakdown in defooded cave (i of n) funnel-lake over « plug », possible drain gypsum lakes Col du Joly, Beaufortin NICOD (1988) Lake in doline permanent or temporary at alluvial water-table level n Lagunas in Ebro terraces W Zaragoza SORIANO (1991) « Crater » lake variable level n in keeping with the deep water-table Grand Loucien La Roquebrussanne (Var) NICOD (1967, p.175) A*-Contact karst Gypsum / shales II – Compound cases C* Polje in compound structure Gypsum lens in triassic dolomites Lac de la Nova (Beaufortin , Savoie ) NICOD (1988) Lac de Bonne Cougne (SE flassans, Var) Fig. 1: Some basic types of formation and evolution of the lakes in gypsum karst. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 71 JEAN NICOD Photo 3: Te lake of the Combe de la Nova (2300 m, Beaufortin Savoie), submerged uvala in triassic gypsum band between shales. loss in the gypsum rockfall (1994). THE CASE Of AGUELMANE AZIGZA: RAIN-GAUGE LAKE ! Aguelmane Azigza (the Green Lake in Berber language) is situated in the southern part of the Causses of the Middle Atlas (Morocco). Tis main lake of the Causse of Ajdir, without outlet, gives spectacular inter-annual water-level changes: it is a record of the dry and humid periods at the regional scale. It is extended in the eastern end of an important polje, old landform expanded in the liassic dolomites, near 1490 m high, characterised by cupola hums and fat ground covered by residual deposits, dolomitic sands and terra rossa (MARTIN, 1981). Te basin of the lake is a subsidence depression, following the fault system, in relationship with the dissolution of the evaporites in the underlying triassic formation. Active collapses and block-fallings in dominant scarps of liassic dolomitic limestones prove the permanence of this process. Tis play of dissolution at groundwater level, in the area of Causse of Ajdir is correlated with some sulphated and salt springs, north of this Causse, in the Oum-er-Rbia canyon (EL KHALKI & AKDIM 2001). (Photo 4 and Photo 5) Photo 4: Small lake (daia), doline in diapiric structure (Causse d’Ajdir, middle Atlas). Dry in summer, with salt crust (Photo y. El Khalki). Photo 5: Te lake Azigza, in the Causse d’Ajdir (middle Atlas). low level showed by the white scree, below the trail and cedar forest. Tis part of the Middle-Atlas Causses is relatively good sprinkled and snow-covered in winter; the cedar forest subsists on the base of the scarps; but the inter-annual change of the rainfall and snow amount is very important. Te rainfall and snow-melting in the polje supply the Aguelmane, however with high evaporation (~ 600 mm/y); but the lake-level is in connection with the aquifer in the dolomitic layers. Also this level can changed between 1490 m (in 1960) and 1471 m (1984), and even 1470 m in 1990. In high level, the lake may overfow in the polje; in lowest level, it covers only 37 ha, with 38 m of maximum deep. Te low level is in relationship with dry sequences, but a phase-lag of one or two years between the weak precipitations and the lowest water-level has be recognised (fLOWER & fOSTER, 1992): in my opinion that is caused by the slow response of the aquifer play in the liassic dolomites. SOME MAIN LAKES. In Central-Europe and Mediterranean countries, some largest lakes give variable forms, in relationship with diverse structures and hydrogeological settings, multiple evolution processes and various water supply. Te table 1 shows the most important and knownest lakes, as representative examples of environmental problems. 72 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 LAKES IN GyPSUM KARST: SOME ExAMPLES IN ALPINE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES Tab. 1: Main gypsum lakes in Central-Europe and Mediterranean countries, sorted according to their extension. Lake Region, Land References Surface Altitude Depth. average max Type Genesis Lithology Working Hydrosystem Peculiarities L. Invârtita (Nucşoara) Argeş Distr., Transilvania, Rom. BULGAREANU 1997 L de besse (Besse-sur-Issole) Var Dept., E Provence, f. NICOD 1991/99 nixsee (Nixei) Harzvorland (E Göttingen), D. PRIESNITZ, 1969 Laguna Grande (Archidona) Betic range, Andalucia, Spain PULIDO-BOSCH, 1989 Aguelmane Azigza Causse of Ajdir, Middle-Atlas, M. MARTIN 1981 Lago di Pergusa (Enna) Central Sicily, Italy D’AMORE 1983 estany de banyoles (Banolas) Ampurdan, Catalonia, Spain JULIA BRUGUES 1980 Demiryurt gölü (Todürge gölü) Karst of Sivas, Anatolia, Turkey ALAGÖZ, 1967 0.02 km2 877 m ~5 m Extended sinkhole from a ponor in the end of 19th c. gypsum, aquitanian sandstone Supplied by groundwater anoxic basin emit H2S 0.04 km2 245 m 3-4 m 9 m Collapse doline Middle-Trias limestones -id.- gypsum In connection with aquifer + made-man supply by Issole partial drain-of in 1989 0.02-0.08 in food › 250 m 6 m Little polje dolomites gypsum of Zechstein flooded by spring (Springwiese) outfow › ponor 0.06 km2 Subsidence depression gypsum & halite of Trias In relation with aquifer › fuente Camacho Saline, dry in summer 0.34 km2 1490 a 1471 m 33 m (en 1989) Collapse fault trough near polje in dolomites of Lias Trias clay + evaporites Supplied by polje & aquifer very variable water-level Rain-gauge lake! 1.18 km2 667 m 1,8 m Large doline Pliocene marls Messinian gypsum + halite Rain supply + groundwater without outlet trend to silting 1.83 km2 173 m 10 m au N 20 m au S 130 m ! Coalescence of sinkholes + travertine dam Eocene marls/gypsum Supply by aquifer Anoxic bottom emit H2S 3.3 km2 1295 m ~4 m 28 m (funnel) Submerged uvala Miocene gypsum Supply by aquifer +afuent Outfow › Kizyl-yrmak summer reduction ›salt crusts ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS Te leak of the Lac de besse (Central Provence), a «bot-tomless lake»! Tis widest lake (4 ha) in the triassic plateaus of the Var Department is located near the old little town of Besse-sur-Issole. Its basin is a karstic depression in anticlinal structure of the middle Trias limestones (Muschelkalk); below the factured limestones (that make up the spur and clif at the NW), the «Anhydritgruppe» formation is constituted by dolomites, dolomitic marls and gypsum (fg. 2). Mainly, the confned aquifer in these tri-assic formations and the outfow to the Issole river main- tains the level of the lake, normanly nine metres deep; but in the dry years, the level can progressively subside, as in 1878; on account of this lowering, a small canal diverted from the Issole contributes to the supply of the basin. (Photo 6) In december 1989, the level falls quickly, and the regional press print in enormous headlines: «Apres le goufre glouton, le lac qui fuit!», afer the greedy pit, the leaky lake! A small cave opened on foot of the limestone clif has absorbed in part the lake water (fg. 3), as previously in similar event in 1987 for one river near ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 73 JEAN NICOD Fig. 2: Sketch of the lake of Besse, in its geological site. Fig. 3: Partly draining of the lake of Besse in December 1989, by cleared pipe in the muschelkalk spur. lakes 1) Tourrettes in eastern Var Department. Tis phenomenon in lake of Besse is in relation with the drastic subsidence of the water-table, near 20 m. Two factors are added: - the efect of several consecutive dry years; - the efect of the over-working of the alluvial groundwater in the Issole valley by numerous well-borings, because the two aquifers are partly in connection. Some improvment are worked in 1990, fnanced by Var Department: - tightness of the critic area, by a cover of clay compacting; - reftting of the canal from Issole river. for this improvment, the lake level is restored; unfortunately a new falling occurs for some years, in relation with new dry climatic period. 74 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 Photo 6: Te lake of Besse-sur-Issole (Central var Department) in 2005. view towards the muschelkalk spur. Arrow marks the place of the 1989 sink. furthermore, in the decreased lake, the water become sligtly anoxic. Tese conditions cause some environmental problemes in the town of Besse, because the circumference of the water plan is shady recreation area, very important at the time of summer days for the citizens and tourists of next camping. Te decay of the Lago di Pergusa (near enna, in Central Sicily). Tat larger lake (1.83 km2), without outlet, is located in a wide oval karstic basin, from subsidence origin, in pliocene marls, upper gypsums of the gessoso-solffera formation of Messinian (upper Miocene) (fg. 4). Numerous karstic phenomenons are recognized in this formation (fORTI & SAURO, 1996). Te fowing on the sur-roundly sides (catchment area of 6 km2), and the ground- LAKES IN GyPSUM KARST: SOME ExAMPLES IN ALPINE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES Fig. 4: Te lago di Pergusa, in its environment. g eology from the Carta geologica d’Italia, 1/100 000, CAltANISSEttA , II Ediz., 1955 water of multilayered aquifer maintain the level. But its surface is reduced by the sedimentation, with silts from the weathering in Pliocene marls, and aquatic vegetation growth; moreover its level tend to subside (Tabl. 2). tab. 2: Decay of the Lago di Pergusa, from D’AMORE, 1983. Dimensions 1896 1977 Perimeter 5.5 km 4.3 km Surface 1.83 km2 1.35 km2 Maximum depth 4.6 m 2.4 m Middle depth 2 m 1.8 m Volume 5.8 x 106 m3 2.6 x 106 m3 Unfortunately, the site has been altered in the sixties at the time of the development programme of mezzogior-no: an autodrom has encircled the lake! Te growth of the Pergusa village, with hotels and campings, has increased the water polllution in summer, and the eutrophication with the proliferation of the green algae (Charophyceae). for to cure to the site deterioration, the Consorzio di Bonifca di Borgo Cascino di Enna supply the lake from the regional hydrosystem and the site has been classifed as «green Zone». Te estany de banyoles (banolas), the large lake of Catalonia in urban area. Te large lake (~2 km2) of Banyoles is situated in the NE of Barcelona, at the active tectonic boundary between the hills of Garrotxa and the subsiding basin of the Ampurdan (fg. 5). Te lacustrine complex depression is located in the blue marls over gypsum and limestone formations of the Eocene. Te confned artesian aquifer of these limestones, supplied by a large catchment in the north-western hills, concurs to gypsum dissolution. Te lake has a double origin: - the coalescence of some funnels and subsidence depressions; ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 75 JEAN NICOD Fig. 5: Te geomorphological situation of the lake of Banyoles. - the water-level control by a travertine dam, build-ed on the Riu Terri outlet. Round the lake, eight ponds (estanyols), of which one from a recent collapse in 1978 near Porqueres, show the enlargement by the solution and subsidence processes. In the lake bottom, several deep funnels (Cap de Bou – 130 m) play as artesian springs (fg. 6). In funnels, sulphate muds are in suspension (SANZ, 1985). Te travertine dam has been builded on the waterfalls at the outlet of the lake to Riu Terri, with waters of high carbonate-sulphate mineralization and by the action of the incrusting algae (Cyanophyceae) (JULIA BRU- GUES, 1980). A part of the town of Banyoles is builded on the travertines and several levels of travertine formations are extended in the Terri valley, with paleontologi-cal and archeological sites; but the oldest and highest accumulation is the Pla d’Usall in the north. In this plateau, the Platja spring, more 40 m above the lake-level, proves again the power of the artesian hydrosystem. Te Estany of Banyoles constitutes an noteworthy ecological site with its ichtyologic fauna (abundance of carps), but also important recreation area for all water sports. Clearly that activity, and the urbanization of the area round the lake are pollutant sources. 76 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 LAKES IN GyPSUM KARST: SOME ExAMPLES IN ALPINE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES f A – Te bottom of the Lake of Banyoles 1 - travertine dam, 2 - deep funnel (m), 3 - suspension muds, 4 - H2S concentration, 5 - H2S migration b - Funnel working i Fig. 6: Te bottom of the lake of Banyoles (from SANZ,1985). CONCLUSION Te three lakes of Besse, Pergusa, and Banyoles show the specifc hydrogeological conditions. On account that most representative examples of environmental hazards produces high sensivity to anthropogenic changes, par-and problems. As all phenomenons in gypsum karsts, ticularly with. the extent of urbanization atreas. their evolution depends on the active dissolution, and ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 77 JEAN NICOD REfERENCES Abella, C. i Amettler 1986: L’Estany de Banyoles con a unitat ecologica; «1 Jornades sobre l’Estany de Ban-yoles (1984)», Diputació de Girona, p. 27-32. Alagöz, C.A., 1967: Jips karst Olaylari ... - Les phénomenes karstiques du gypse aux environs et a l’est de Sivas; Ankara Universitesi Pasimevi, 126 p. + cartes h.t. Andreichuk, V. & Klimchouk, A., 2002: Karst breakdown mechanisms from observations in the gypsum caves of the western Ukraine: implications for subsidence hazard assessement; Int. J. Speleol. 31 (1/4) p. 55-88. Bulgäreanu, V.A.C., 1997: Solution lakes in gypsum evaporites: Lake Invârtita (Nucşoara) Romania; Internat. J. of Salt Karst Research, 6, p. 55-65. D’Amore, G., 1983: Il problema della conservazione e della utilizzazione del lago di Pergusa; Atti del Con-vegno: La protezione dei laghi e delle zone umide in Italia, Memorie Soc. Geogr. Italiana, xxxVIII**, p. 405-411. El Khalki, y. & Akdim, B., 2001: Les dolines d’efondre-ment et les dolines-lacs des Causses du SW du Mo-yen Atlas (Maroc); Karstologia 38, p. 19-24. forti, P. & Sauro, U., 1996: Te Gypsum karst in Italy; «Gypsum karst of the World», Internat. J. Speleology, Roma, 25 (3-4), p; 339-250. Julia Brugues, R., 1980: La conca lacustre de Banyoles Besalu; Centro d’Estudios Comarcals de Banyoles, 188 p. Klimchouk, A., 1996: Te typology of gypsum karst; «Gypsum karst», Int. J. Speleol, 4, chap. 1-4, p. 49-60 Klimchouk, A., 2002: Subsidence Hazards in diferent Types of Karst: Evolutionary and speleogenetic Approach.; Int. J. Speleol., 31 (1/4), p. 5-18 Martin, J. 1981: Le Moyen Atlas central, étude géomor-phologique. (Tese Paris VII, 1977); Notes et Mé-moires du Service géol. du Maroc, 288 et 288 bis, 445 p., 110 fg., 32 ph. 5 cartes. Nicod, J., 1988: Le Beaufortin oriental; Revue de Géog. Alpine, Grenoble, LxxVI (2), p. 121-146. Nicod, J., 1993; Karsts des gypses, Morphologie, hydrologie, environnement; Karstologia n° 21, p. 21-30. Nicod, J., 1999: Phénomenes karstiques et mouvements de terrain récents dans le Dépt. du Var; Risques na-turels (Avignon 1995), CTHS, Paris, p. 115-130. Priesnitz, K., 1969: Der Nixseebecken, ein Polje im Gipskarst des südwestlichen Harzvorland; Jb. Karst u. Höhlenkunde (München), H.9, xVI, p. 73-87. Pulido-Bosch, A., 1989: Les gypses triasiques de fuente Camacho: Réunion franco-espagnole sur les karsts d ‘Andalousie, p. 65-82. Sanz, M., 1985: Estudi hidrogeologic de la Conca de Banyoles-Garrotxa, Centro d’Estudios Comarcals de Banyoles, 250 p. Soriano, M.A., 1991: Characteristics of the alluvial dolines developed because of gypsum dissolution materials in the Central Ebro Basin (Spain); Z. Geomorph. N.f., Suppl. Bd. 85, p. 59-72. 78 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA NENAVADNO MINERALOGENO JAMSKO OKOLJE V MEHIKI: PODROČJE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS Paolo fORTI1, Ermanno GALLI2, Antonio ROSSI Abstract UDC 552.54:551.44(72) Paolo Forti & Ermanno Galli & Antonio Rossi: Peculiar minerogenetic cave environments of Mexico: the Cuatro Cié-negas area Te karst area of Quatro Ciénegas (Coahuila, Mexico) represents an ideal site to study cave mineralogy, because it hosts caves of diferent age and genesis (karst, thermal, mine caves). Among the speleothems studied is worth to mention a nest of aragonite cave pearls found deep inside the Reforma mine characterized by the total absence of growing layers inside them. Despite only few studied caves (8), some 32 diferent cave minerals have been detected, one of which is new for the cavern environment (kingsmountite) and another one, still under study, which probably will result new for science. Due to the scientifc interest of their chemical deposits it should be very important to protect in the future the natural cavities of the karst systems of Cuatro Ciénegas in order to preserve a scientifc patrimony, actually only partially known. keywords: cave minerals, guano minerals, minerogenetic mechanisms, climate, Cuatro Ciénegas desert, Mexico. Izvleček UDK 552.54:551.44(72) Paolo Forti & Ermanno Galli & Antonio Rossi: Nenavadno mineralogeno jamsko okolje v Mehiki: področje Cuatro Cienegas Kraško ozemlje Quatro Ciénegas (Coahuila, Mehika) predstavlja idealno območje za preučevanje jamske mineralogije, saj so tam jame različne starosti in različnega nastanka (kraške, termalne, jamski rudniki). Med preučevanimi kapniki je vredno omeniti gnezdo aragonitnih jamskih biserov globoko v rudniku Reforma, za katere je značilna popolna odsotnost rastnih plasti (»letnic«). Kljub majhnemu številu preučevanih jam (8) je bilo odkritih 32 različnih jamskih mineralov, eden izmed njih nov za jamsko okolje (kingsmountite), drugi pa, ki je še v preučevanju, bo najbrž novo znanstveno odkritje. Zaradi znanstvenega pomena kemijskih odkladnin bi bilo zelo pomembno naravne jame kraškega sistema Quatro Ciénegas zaščititi, da bi s tem ohranili znanstveno dediščino, za zdaj šele deloma poznano. ključne besede: jamski minerali, minerali guana, mineralogeni mehanizmi, podnebje, puščava Quatro Ciénegas, Mehika. INTRODUCTION Te natural caves are the seats of complex minerogenetic processes controlled by peculiar conditions existing in every single cave (Hill & forti, 1997): hosting rock, cave sediments and circulating fuids are the most important factors controlling the development of the chemical de- posits in caves. forti (1996) stated that the hyperkarstic evolution occurs according to two chemical and physical contemporary processes: the corrosion/dissolution of pre-existing rocks and the deposition of speleothems with an extremely variable chemical composition. 1 Istituto Italiano di Speleologia, Universita di Bologna & La Venta Exploring Team, forti@geomin.unibo.it 2 Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universita di Modena e Reggio Emilia Received / Prejeto: 29.11.2005 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 79–98, LJUBLJANA 2006 PAOLO fORTI, ERMANNO GALLI, ANTONIO ROSSI Recent researches, performed on internal cave deposits of European and extra-European locations, have brought to the identifcation of particular and extremely rare mineral phases, whose crystalline nature and chemical composition are strictly related to geological, clima-tological, lithological and hydrogeological continuously changing parametres (frau et al., 1998; Lattanzi et al., 1998). Some very diferent minerogenetical mechanisms may induce the deposition of crystalline and/or amorphous phases, that are stable as long as the environmental conditions remain constant. Tese “products” can easily change or slightly modify if the genetical conditions change (Benedetto et al., 1998; forti et al., 1999, 2000, 2001). In this framework the thermal caves, which have been characterised at least once during their evolution by the presence of fuids with complex chemistry, are extremely interesting, permitting the evolution of poly- genetic complex chemical deposits, mostly, although not always, correlated to the “Sulphur cycle” (forti, 1989; frau & Sabelli 2000). Another peculiar class of natural cavities is represented by the “mine caves”, cavities without any natural entrance, which have been intersected by mine galleries or other artifcial tunnels: their minerogenetic interest comes from the possible interaction between karst fuids and ore bodies (forti 2005, De Waele & Naseddu 2005). Te karst area of Quatro Ciénegas (Coahuila, Mexico) represents an ideal site to study cave mineralogy, because it hosts caves of diferent age and genesis (karst, thermal, mine caves) and therefore the chemical deposits developed inside them should result quite diferent from cave to cave, allowing the detection of many simultaneous and/or subsequent minerogenetic mechanisms. In the present paper the observed speleothems are described and the related minerogenetic mechanisms are discussed in detail. THE KARST Of CUATRO CIÉNEGAS Cuatro Ciénegas plain is a Natural Protected Area since 1994; it is located in the state of Coahuila, Mexico, in the Sierra Madre Oriental at the eastern edge of the Chihuahua desert (fig. 1). moist air coming from the cyclones developing in the Mexican Gulf. Te rainiest period is September, with an average of 35 mm; anyway some years, particularly strong events Tis desert is characterized by a single period of rain, which normally consists of short but strong rainstorms in the summer period: they are caused by the Fig. 1: location map and a general view of the Cuatro Ciénegas desert. may cause the fall of over 5 mm in a few hours, thus transforming the depressions in swallow ephemeral lakes. 80 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA Long rectilinear anticline ridges characterize the landscape of Cuatro Ciénegas whereas major valleys correspond to synclines. Te most inclined slopes of major structures, mostly facing S W, ofen display vertical or overburden beds. Along them, deep transversal and longitudinal valleys form a typical trellis drainage pattern. In the pedemontane areas, several coalescent fuvial fans form a wide regular surface gently inclined, where streams display a disrupted and irregular pattern. Runof is quite absent in these areas. Te plains behave as endo-reic basins where major storms form shallow lakes and ponds, the evaporation of which causes the formation of sulphates deposits. Eolian gypsum dunes occur in these areas. Some of the major caves in the area of Cuatro Cié-negas are hypogenic in origin, created by rising thermal water. Te best example is the Cueva Rancho Guadalupe, in the NE of Sierra la fragua. Tis cave has a typical dendritic pattern and consists of maze conduits and spherical rooms (Bernabei et al., 2002). Tough it receives little rain, the Cuatro Ciénegas valley has abundant subterranean water, which creates hundreds of small pools, marshes, rivers, lakes (large, saline lakes locally called lagunas or playas), and canals with a unique biota of great interest to the international scientifc community and at risk of extinction (fig. 2). A peculiar characteristics of the pools is the presence of living stromatolithes, which act as local primary agents of the food chain. Despite the relevant ecological interest of the aquatic environment of Cuatro Ciénegas only in 2000 La Ven-ta Exploring Team started a hydrogeological study of the pools and of high surrounding mountains proving that most of the pool recharge comes from karst structures; during this research over 60 caves were explored and mapped (forti et al., 2003). Te karst of Cuatro Ciénegas underwent a complex evolution over a very long span of time, which may be evaluated of several tens of millions years. Actually most of the karst systems show a rather inactive evolution, even if corrosion and/or depositional processes are still going on somewhere. Te speleogenetic mechanisms were very difer-ent among each other and therefore produced peculiar forms, which now allow reconstruction at least the mean steps of the complex evolution the caves of Quatro Cié-negas underwent. Tis evolution may be subdivided into four principal types (forti et al. 2003), which may be also regarded as subsequent stages being rather in chronological order even if some overlap occurred: 1. Te genesis of mine caves (hyperkarst phenomenon) 2. Te genesis of thermal caves (hyperkarst phenomenon) 3. Te genesis of meteoric caves (karst phenomenon) 4. Te development of biogenic forms inside previously formed caves (hyperkarst phenomenon) Te frst two mechanisms are related to the uplifing of deep hot fuids, the third to the seepage of meteoric (rain) waters, the forth to the presence of huge bat communities, which colonized mainly the caves of the third type. Te study on the speleothems of the Cuatro Ciéne-gas caves, started in 2001, and it is far to be completed, Fig. 2: Aerial view of the pools of the Cuatro Ciénegas desert. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 81 PAOLO fORTI, ERMANNO GALLI, ANTONIO ROSSI but on the basis of the achieved results it is evident that this karst region can be considered as one of the most interesting in the world from the point of view of the hosted cave minerals. Tis uncommon richness of mineralogical phases, most of which phosphates, is the direct consequence of the complex karst evolution this area underwent. Moreover, some of the “normal” karst caves became in the past (since several years ago) shelter for huge colonies of bats, thus allowing the accumulation of widespread guano deposits up to several metres thick: inside which microbiological reactions gave rise to an extraordinary variety of minerals. finally the karst springs are fed by mineralized waters uplifing from rather deep circuits and the peculiar A detailed analysis of all the samples by the stereoscopic microscope was performed to distinguish and to separate the diferent mineralogical phases present in each sample. Ten the single phases were analysed by a powder difractometre (Philips PW 1050/25), when the material was quantitatively enough and homogeneous, or by a Gandolf camera (O: 114.6 mm, exposition: 24/48 hrs), when the material was scarce or inhomogeneous. Always the experimental conditions were: 40Kv e 20 mA tube, CuK? Ni fltered radiation (? = 1.5418 A). Te analyses Te speleological interest of the mining areas around Cuatro Ciénegas is represented by the existence of “mine caves” (De Waele & Naseddu 2005, De Waele et al., 1999, 2001; forti et al., 1999), karst cavities without any natural connection with the surface, which has been intersected by the mine galleries. Te oldest actually known karst (paleokarst) phenomena of the Cuatro Ciénegas area (forti et al., 2003) are those connected with the formation of the metallic sulphides ore bodies, mainly consisting of lead, zinc and, in a lesser extent, of silver, extensively mined in the past (De Vivo & forti 2002). Te area of Cuatro Ciénegas was one of the very frst Mexican regions in which mining activities started since the frst half of the 14th century. Tese activities lasted until 1958, when the most important mine (the Reforma mine) was defnitively closed because the reached depth, climatic conditions of the desert of Cuatro Ciénegas inducing strong evaporations creating a “sabkha” type environment thus allowing the deposition of even very soluble minerals. Te scarcity of available time for the cave exploration and for mineral sampling obliged to restrict the mineralogical study to a rather small number of natural cavities. Anyway they have been selected to represent all the diferent environmental and minerogenetic conditions existing in Cuatro Ciénegas. Among the analyzed caves there are mine caves (Reforma Mine), thermal caves (Cueva Rancho Guadalupe), karst cavities with bat colonies (Cueva Rossillo) and Cue-va de los Murcielagos. of the clay minerals were done not only over the natural samples but also afer a glycerine treatment. Almost all the samples analyzed by Gandolf camera were later used to obtain images and chemical qualitative analyses through an electron scanning microscope (SEM Philips xL40) with an electronic microprobe (EDS-EDAx 9900) at the C.I.G.S. (Centro Interdiparti-mentale Grandi Strumenti) of the Modena and Reggio Emilia University. far below the water table, made the production costs higher than the exploitation profts. Te ore bodies consist of sulphides with some su-pergenic minerals, most of which carbonates, dispersed within a carbonate breccia or flling karst cavities (Vargas et al., 1993). Te fuids fowing inside the carbonate rocks developed caves along the bedding planes and the major discontinuities, mainly where the rock was highly fractured and therefore more permeable. Tese fuids simultaneously, or just afer the development of the caves, flled them with lead and zinc sulphides as in the case of the Reforma Mine. Due to the progressive cooling down and loosing pressure of the thermal fuids, at the end of the mineral deposition, euhedral (middle thermality) quartz and fnally low thermality calcite was formed. ExPERIMENTAL METHODS THE MINE CAVES AND THEIR MINEROGENETIC MECHANISMS 82 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA In the frst hypothesis (MVTOD) the caves flled by ore bodies should testify an old karst stage, partially connected to the seepage of meteoric waters, in a Cretaceous carbonate platform environment; in the second hypothesis the caves developed due to the uplifing of high temperature and pressure fuids, formed by the strong volcanic activity, which took place in the Upper Miocene (about 10-15 Myr BP). Tis type of caves are practically never directly accessible and, even when intersected by mine galleries, they are hardly recognizable if completely deprived of the hosted ore bodies. Teir dimensions normally are of a few metres, but sometimes they are larger than ten metres. Tey exhibit an irregular shape without structural control; ofen they are rounded cavities elongated perpendicularly with respect to bedding. Good examples of such caves are visible inside the still accessible galleries of the Reforma Mine. Tese cavities are relatively rare worldwide and extremely important from the minerogenetic point of view: for example in Italy the mine caves of the Iglesiente (Sardinia) are the most known (De Waele et al. 1999, 2001). Peculiar low-enthalpy reaction normally takes place inside such cavities, thus allowing the evolution of interesting and ofen rare speleothems and cave minerals. In the area of Cuatro Ciénegas the mine caves are surely widespread even if they are actually very scarcely known. Tis study took into consideration only a few cavities intersected by the main galleries inside the Refor- It is a large cavity over 70 metres high and 100 long, developed along the big fault which controlled the deposition of the Pb/Zn sulphide ore bodies. Eight samples were taken from the wall of this cave where the primary minerals have been transformed to give rise to alteration compounds (fig. 4). Te 6 detected minerals were: Calcite: vitreous transparent euhedral rombohedral crystals up to 1 cm in size developed over iron hydroxides or as milky white to pale pink crusts; Fig. 3: Te 30 metres high pit giving access to the Cueva de los Cristales inside the Reforma mine. ma Mine: among them only the Cueva de los Cristales (fig. 3) has a dimension of some tens of metres. Chlorite: it is an Mg, f fllosilicate; it consists of grains of diferent size with the same characteristics of the antigorite to which is always strictly associated; goethite: it is present as earthy from yellow to pale brown grains of diferent size; gypsum: it is present as thin dark grey layers covering the walls of small holes within the calcite crystals; hematite: it gave rise to a) small earthy reddish spe-leothems over sub-spherical hemi-transparent calcite grains or b) hard grains the powder of which has the typical bloody red colour. CUEVA DE LOS CRISTALES ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 83 PAOLO fORTI, ERMANNO GALLI, ANTONIO ROSSI Fig. 4: Cueva de los Cristales: transparent calcite crystals with hematite (A), illite (B) and goethite (C) within a broken speleothem. LEVEL 12 A few more samples were collected in small karst cavities the “Level 12” gallery of the same mine, from 300 to 600 m from the entrance and at the end of this gallery. Tey consist of heterogeneous materials characterized by the presence of diferent mineral phases. Te 6 detected minerals were: Calcite: orange-yellow globular masses; goethite: it is present as earthy from yellow to pale brown grains of diferent size; gypsum: it is present as small lens-shaped aggregates of vitreous pale to dark grey crystals; hematite: it is strictly related to calcite and goe-thite; Illite: this K fllosilicate is the major constituent of a clay and it consists of very small pale green-grey spheres over a black lithoid substratum; Quartz: small euhedral transparent crystals. Te total number of the cave minerals found inside these mine caves (8) is by far lower than expected: in fact no lead or zinc compounds have been observed, while it is sure that such kind of minerals should be anyway present inside the karst cavities developed within the ore bodies. In fact in a previous paper (Vargas et al., 1993) ce-russite, anglesite, smithsonite, hemimorphite, hydrozi-ncite, hematite and limonite are reported as common supergene minerals of this mine. All of them have been well documented in the mine caves of Iglesiente (Hill & forti, 1997), which are characterized by ore bodies and structural-lithological conditions very similar to those of Cuatro Ciénegas. Terefore it is logical to suppose that these minerals developed also inside the natural cavities of this mine. But the principal ore body is actually completely fooded and therefore it is impossible to be reached; this fact is probably the main reason why these minerals have not been observed during the present study which has been focused only over the few mine caves existing in the upper part of the mine. THE ARAGONITE CAVE PEARLS One of the most important fndings from the scientifc the internal growing layers were completely lacking point of view is a nest of aragonite cave pearls in which (forti, 2004). 84 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA Along the tunnel at the foot of the 170 m pit of the Reforma mine, several cave pearls nests were found lined with ultra-white pearls ranging from 1–2 mm to 2 cm in diameter (fig. 5 lef). Tis tunnel was used by miners until just 50 years ago which would suggest that these speleothems only began to grow once the mine was abandoned, thus dating these formations at just half a century. Te largest pearls have a diameter of about 14 mm and the average size of their nuclei is 3 mm, therefore the average growth of those spleothems has been approximately 0.1 mm/year. Such a growth rate is considered average-average/fast for a carbonate speleothem in general and for a cave pearl in particular (Hill & forti 1997). Some of the pearls were found to have a caulifower-shaped morphology, as a consequence of the coalescence of several single smaller pearls. Tis allows to state that the water supply to the nest should have been variable with periods of fast dripping followed by slow dripping or even completely dry periods, during which the originally insulated pearls cemented together. In fact cementation of diferent pearls may occur only if any kind of vibrations (induced by dripping) is completely avoided (forti, 1983). Anyway, since composite pearls are quite rare, this would suggest that completely dry periods were far less frequent than the wet ones. A mineral analysis by x-rays powder difractions of the pearls has shown that the pearls consist of pure aragonite, the deposition of which is favoured when ions such as magnesium, lead and zinc, etc. are present in the feeding water (lead and zinc were originally extracted in the mine). Te cave pearls found in the Reforma Mine are extremely interesting because they completely lack growing layers (fig 5, right), which would be of 0,1 mm/year if annual (Backer et al., 1993). However, the Cuatro Cié-negas climate (dry/hot) would eventually have caused the development of many layers/year. In fact in such a climatic conditions, the relative long periods in between two subsequent rains surely avoid permanent dripping of infltration water over the pearls nest, thus the development of the external layer would result stopped. If so, each rainfall or each series of close rainfalls would cause the development of one specifc layer (Piancastelli & for-ti, 1997). Terefore the absence of concentric structure in the pearls of the Reforma mine is the result of very peculiar climatic conditions: • Pearls must have a rather constant water supply during its growing. • Te chemical composition of the water supply must remain unchanged (irrespective of seasonal changes). Tese seemingly simple conditions are in practice extremely difcult to be ftted in nature, which would explain why speleothems with no internal layers have been observed for the frst time in the world here. Te Cuatro Ciénegas climate could hold the key to the evolution of these speleothems. Its aridity prevents most vegetal growth and soil covering, which in any case get quickly swept away by the regular strong winds. Terefore the infltration water undergoes little or even none of the usual soil processes. But this is not enough to explain the presence of the cave pearls in the Reforma Mine. Te low rainfalls, high evaporation-transpiration, poor permeability around the mine could never guarantee a low but constant water supply in the tunnels. Terefore the water dripping into the pearl nests only occasionally may partially result from the rare rainfalls. Te constant presence of water in the depths of the mine is due to the daily temperature extremes typical of the Cuatro Ciénegas semi-arid climate and to the many man-made, interlinking tunnels on many diferent levels within the mountain, which in turn has a very stable temperature. Tese conditions allow for condensation, which would account for the constant presence of a few but continuously dripping water deep within the mountain. Fig. 5: Te pearls nest of the Reforma mine (lef) and a polished section of a cave pearl lacking of growing layers (right). ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 85 PAOLO fORTI, ERMANNO GALLI, ANTONIO ROSSI Tis condensation also explains the lack of any cy-clicity in the depositional mechanism and, therefore, the absence of any (annual) growing layers. In fact the carbon dioxide content in condensation water is maintained stable due to CO2 rather constant partial pressure within the mine over the year and the scarcity of meteoric water. Some of the most interesting cavities of the Cuatro Cienegas belong to this group; their genesis is linked to the uplifing of deep hot and chemically aggressive waters, which easily dissolve the rock during their slow movement toward the topographic surface. Tese waters were depleted of the heavy metals and of the other low solubility salts but represented the fnal stage of the processes, which gave rise to the mine caves. Te thermal caves, as well as the mine ones, are commonly called hypogenic, because they are generated by fuids coming from the depth (forti, 1996). Tey normally lack of a natural entrance on the surface and when it is present, ofen it is the result of the demolition of the hosting outcrops by meteoric degradation. Te “pure” thermal caves are those whose development is exclusively controlled by the efect of thermal water uplifing, they are normally referred to as “mono-genic”: this kind of cavity is rare enough in the world and they have been described in details rather exclusively in the area of Budapest (Muller & Sarvary, 1977). A “monogenic” cave is characterized by the presence of a reservoir of the thermal water (the equivalent of the magmatic chamber for a volcano), which consists of a huge “basal” chamber; several splitting and/or anas-tomized spherical cavities develop from the roof of such a chamber giving rise to a peculiar “branched tree” structure. Te thermal caves of Cuatro Cienegas belong to this category; therefore their importance exceeds the local interest (fig. 6). Te Rancho Guadalupe cave, which is located just at the foot of the Sierra La fragua, represents the best example of monogenic thermal cave. It is a classical 3D maze cave with a net of conduits interconnecting large chambers all characterized by typical thermal corrosion forms. Due to the presence of some strange speleothems observed during the frst visit, nine samples have been taken for an accurate mineralogical study, during the frst exploration of this cave. Later, due to the peculiarity evidenced by the one sampled on top of an organic deposit rich in vegetal f-bres up to 1 cm long, bird droppings and other animals for these reasons the pearls found in the Reforma Mine has more far-reaching consequences. Tey have provided a method, based on the growth layers within a speleothem, for evaluating both qualitatively, as well as maybe quantitatively, the predominance of condensation over climatic-controlled water infltration. excreta 4 more samples have been selected by the same deposit. Te study of the sampled speleothems confrmed the extraordinary importance of the secondary chemical deposits hosted in the Rancho Guadalupe cave (forti et al., 2004). Inside this cavity 18 diferent cave minerals have been observed (Tab. 1). Anyway the origin of only a few of them is directly related to the thermal processes which gave rise to the cave itself, others begun to grow afer the thermal fuids defnitively abandoned the cave and the meteoric waters entered the cave and fnally some others were originated by the mineralization of some organic remains which were accumulated inside by small animals (mainly rodents) which use the cave as a shelter (fig. 7). Fig. 7: Cueva Rancho guadalupe: a general view of a rodent shelter in a side passage close to the entrance of the cave where, beside whewellite, ardealite and sepiolite, a new still undefned mineralogical phase has been found. Te detected minerals are: Aragonite: this polymorph of calcite is not common and it forms small milky-white to pale hazel-brown spheroidal grains; Calcite: very common it is present as: a) radial aggregates of elongated (30x5 mm) vitreous, semitransparent, THE THERMAL CAVES AND THEIR MINEROGENETIC MECHANISMS 86 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA Fig. 6: Sketch for the evolution of the Rancho guadalupe cave. A: due to the thickness and the low fracturation degree of the limestone, the uplifing of the thermal waters induces the development of a huge hydrothermal chamber in which they accumulates. B: Te convective motions develop the upward evolution of a dendritic series of cohalescent subspherical voids. C: when part of the cave becomes partially unsaturated, the difusion of CO2 in the cave atmosphere allows for the development of some epiphreatic speleothems (cave cloud in black in the sketch) and the sedimentation over the cave foor of cave rafs, developed at the water-atmosphere interface; at the same time the meteoric seeping water starts the normal karst process in the unsaturated zone. D: the progressive erosion of the surface connects the cave to the exterior; the cave is then abandoned by the thermal waters. All the thermal forms and/or deposits are therefore fossilised, and meteoric seeping waters develop gravitational speleolothems (stalactites, stalagmites, fowstones…). prismatic crystals which are ofen part of speleothems (fowstones); b) pale pink to brick-red hard material; or c) saccaroidal to powdery incoherent material; Carnotite: this very rare uranil vanadate is present as small aggregates of canary-yellow small tabular crystals (SEM images in fig. 8a,b); Chlorapatite: it forms hard dark hazel-brown mi-crocrystalline aggregates. Te presence of Cl was con-frmed by EDAx analyses; Dolomite: it is present as aggregates of opaque, milky grains associated with sepiolite within the thick cave rafs deposit covering the whole foor of the thermal basal chamber; Fluorite: it has been identifed in a single sample: it consists of earthy and/or saccaroidal milky white grains within a speleothem (fowstone) on the wall of a small side bell shaped cavity; gypsum: it is present as: a) vitreous, milky crystals within a crust over a corrosion pocket of the wall; b) aggregates of small vitreous semitransparent dark-grey prismatic crystals; hydromagnesite: it gives rise very small spheroidal silky shining white aggregates of microcrystals. It is normally associated with monohydrocalcite (SEM image in fig. 8c); monohydrocalcite: it normally consists of a earthy dust consisting of cream-white to pale hazel-brown micro spheres; sometimes it gives rise thin crusts and aggregates of small and fragile silky-lustre bladed crystals over the vegetable fbres (SEM images in fig. 8d); Niter: it presents: a) ofen as small eforesces of aggregates of thin transparent silky tabular crystals, often with a radial structure to simulate “an open book”; ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 87 PAOLO fORTI, ERMANNO GALLI, ANTONIO ROSSI Tab. 1: Minerals identifed in the karst systems of Cuatro Ciénegas: G – Cueva Rancho Guadalupe; L – Leona; M – Cueva de San Vicente (or de los Murciélagos); P – Cueva de Las Pinturas; R – Cueva Rosillo; Re – Reforma Mine; T – Tanche Nuevo; V – Vibora karst mineral Chemical formula * System Figure no. References hAlIDES G fluorite CaF2 Cubic 9a Anthony et al. (1997), vol. III, 205 G Sylvite KCl Cubic Anthony et al. (1997), vol. III, 545 OXIDES R Asbolane 0.5[(Ni,Co)(OH)J[MnO • nH.O] 2 2 2 Hexagonal Anthony et al. (1997), vol. III, 26 R, Re Goethite a-FeOOH Orthorhombic Anthony et al. (1997), vol. III, 223 Re Hematite Fe.O, 2 b Trigonal Anthony et al. (1997), vol. III, 239 R Lepidocrocite y-FeOOH Orthorhombic 9f Anthony et al. (1997), vol. III, 312 G Opal-CT SiO, • nFLO 2 2 8e Smith (1998) G, M, R, Re Quartz Si02 Trigonal Anthony et al. (1995), vol. II, 672 CARBONAtES AND NItRAtES G, Re Aragonite Ca[C03] Orthorhombic Anthony et al. (2003), vol. V, 31 G,LjRjRe.XV Calcite Ca[COJ Trigonal Anthony et al. (2003), vol. V, 101 G, Re Dolomite CaMg[CO,l, 5 1 Trigonal Anthony et al. (2003), vol. V, 191 G Hydromagnesite Me.[(OH),|CO,).l -4FLO «-o 2 b 4 2 Monoclinic 8c Anthony et al. (2003), vol. V, 310 G Monohydrocalcite Ca[CO ] • H20 Hexagonal 8d Anthony et al. (2003), vol. V, 465 G Niter K[NO ] Orthorhombic Anthony et al. (2003), vol. V, 497 SUlFAtES G, L, R, Re, T Gypsum CalSO.l • 2H.O 4 2 Monoclinic Anthony et al. (2003), vol. V, 271 PhOSPhAtES AND vANADAtES M, P, R Apatite group Ca_[(F,OH,Cl,0)|(PO,,CO,),l Hexagonal 15d,e Pau & fleet (2002) R Ardealite Ca,H[SOj PO. ]-4H,0 2 41 4 2 Monoclinic 12c Anthony et al. (2000), vol. IV, 23 L, R, T Brushite CaH[POJ • 2H,0 4 2 Monoclinic 9c,d Anthony et al. (2000), vol. IV, 83 G Carnotite KJUOJVOJ, • 3H,0 2 21 4 2 2 Monoclinic 8a,b Anthony et al. (2000), vol. IV, 96 G Chlorapatite CaJCl|(PO,),l b 4 b Hexagonal Anthony et al. (2000), vol. IV, 111 R Crandallite CaAl,[(OH),|PO,OH|POJ b o b 4 Trigonal Anthony et al. (2000), vol. IV, 130 R Kingsmountite Ca4FeAl4[(OH)2|(P04)3]2. 12H20 Monoclinic 15a,b Anthony et al. (2000), vol. IV, 282 R Montgomeryite Ca4MgAl4[(OH)2|(P04)3]2. 12H20 Monoclinic Anthony et al. (2000), vol. IV, 387 R Taranakite K3A15[(P030H6)3|(P04)2] • 18H20 Trigonal 15c Anthony et al. (2000), vol. IV, 581 M, R Variscite A1[P04]. 2H20 Orthorhombic Anthony et al. (2000), vol. IV, 621 M, P, R Whitlockite Ca„(Mg,Fe)[PO,OH|(PO,)6] Trigonal 15d,e,f Anthony et al. (2000), vol. I V, 653 SIlICAtES Re Illite (K,H,0)AL[(H 0,OH)J(Si,Al), OJ b 22 21 4 10 Monoclinic Brigatti & Guggenheim (2002) G Sepiolite Mg„ [(OH),|Si,0,J • 12FLO ^B 2 6 lb 2 Orthorhombic 8e,f Anthony et al. (1995), vol. II, 722 ORgANIC COmPOUNDS R Bitumen nC H x y R Guanine CSH,(NH,)N, O 0 5 2 4 Monoclinic 9e Anthony et al. (2003), vol. V, 265 G Whewellite CaC,0,.H,0 2 4 2 Monoclinic 9b Anthony et al. (2003), vol. V, 755 NEW mINERAl( Mg hydrated carbonate (?) ?) G Unknown *Classifcation and chemical formulae afer Strunz & Nickel, 2001. 88 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA d Fig. 8: SEm images of minerals from Cueva Rancho guadalupe: a) inclusion of platy crystals of carnotite in tabular gypsum; b) magnifcation of a); c) aggregate of tabular crystal of hydromagnesite; d) fan like aggregate of platy crystals of monohydrocalcite; e) microspheres di opale-Ct with fbrous sepiolite; f) fbrous sepiolite. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 89 b a c f e PAOLO fORTI, ERMANNO GALLI, ANTONIO ROSSI d Fig. 9: SEm images of cave minerals from Cueva Rancho guadalupe (a, b) and Cueva Rossillo (c, d, e, f): a) net of irregular fbres of sylvite; b) spheroidal aggregate of prismatic crystal of whewellite; c) aggregate of triangular plate crystals of brushite; d) close view of brushite crystals; e) aggregate of microspheres of guanine; f) star-like aggregates of lepidocrocite crystals. 90 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 b c f e PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA b) sometimes as transparent crusts over the organic material; Opal-Ct: detected as incoherent milky white sof material like sawdust (SEM images in fig. 8e); Quartz: identifed only by x-ray difraction analyses within a thin gypsum-calcite speleothem; Sepiolite: it gives rise to small hard milky white aggregates associated with dolomite within the cave rafs deposit covering the whole foor of the thermal basal chamber (SEM images in fig. 8e,f); Sylvite: observed as tufs of vitreous, transparent bended flaments inside small pockets in the cave walls (SEM images in fig. 9a); Whewellite: this calcium oxalate monohydrate is present as small spherical aggregates of euhedral greasy, THE KARST CAVES AND THEIR Te most widespread karst phenomena are surely those connected with the seepage of meteoric water. Te karst forms induced by the difuse and/or concentrated seepage are quite absent: in fact, even if the nature of the rock is carbonate and the fracturation degree is high, deep karst phenomena are normally scarcely developed and concentrated in very restricted areas. Most of the known cavities are sub-horizontal: they started as small interbedded conduits, which later have been widened by physical degradation starting from the entrance. Ofen they host plenty of speleothems even of huge dimension. Sometimes the caves are fragment of old huge drainage tubes. Many of the cavities in the Sierra San Vincente and in the Canon el Pedregoso are relict of old phreatic galleries developed in a period in which the rainfalls were by far higher than actually. Often the karst caves do not host speleothems and/or cave minerals of interest: usually only cal-cite speleothems (stalactites, stalagmites, flowstones, etc…) are present, often with evident corrosion features induced by condensation processes. Among the cave minerals the crust and crystal aggregates of gypsum are fairly common: most of them are related to the dissolution of the discontinuous layers of this mineral present within the carbonate sequence, but some are generated by the oxidation of the sulphides associated to the ore bodies. Normally the karst caves have scarce minerogenetic importance, but those, which have been and/or still are shelter for huge colonies of bats may exhibit a wide variety of secondary cave deposits. In fact actually the most semitransparent prismatic crystals grown inside the cop-rolites (SEM images in fig. 9b). Anyway the uncommon richness and variety of the hosted cave minerals is not the principal reason of interest of this cave: in fact its importance from the mineralogical point of view depends on a mineral deposit, which has never been observed before in nature and which seems to be completely new for science. It is a highly crystalline magnesium compound, probably a hydrated carbonate, which is presently under examination to defne univo-cally its structure and chemical formula. It occurs as extremely small (a few microns in diameter) milky white sof earthy spheroidal aggregates of tabular crystals inside organic materials (mainly vegetable fbres). INEROGENETIC MECHANISMS active minerogenetic processes are related to the presence of guano deposits. Several thousand of years ago millions of bats colonized some caves, mostly of meteoric origin, afer the active water fow stopped inside, thus allowing the development of widespread deposits of an incredible amount of guano (fig. 10). Fig. 10: Cueva Rossillo: one of the widespread large guano deposits. Te oxidation and mineralization processes of guano are strongly exothermic and release high quantity of H2O and CO2 thus inducing strong convective movements within the cave atmosphere, and producing a discrete amount of strong acids: mainly nitric (HNO3), sulphuric (H2SO4) and phosphoric (H3PO4). Tese processes may have strong morphologic consequences (fig. 11), causing the development of peculiar condensation-corrosion forms like megascallops on the protruding walls and huge spherical domes in the cei- ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 91 PAOLO fORTI, ERMANNO GALLI, ANTONIO ROSSI lings or allowing for the evolution of corrosion furrows and/or holes in the cave foor. Te condensation water reacts with the carbonate rock, the other minerals eventually dispersed inside, the clay and sand deposits giving rise to many secondary minerals, among which the phosphates are the most widespread and may develop even as huge speleothems (fig. 12). CUEVA ROSILLO It is a classical karst cave which has been deeply modified by the presence of an extremely large bat colony over a long time interval. The cave consists of a single Fig. 11: Sketch of the morphological and mineralogical efect induced by guano deposits (Forti et al., 2004). huge gallery (average size 10 x 10 metres) some 1 km long. Its origin is related to important karst drainage below the groundwater level in a period in which the climate must be by far more humid than actually. The widespread presence of domes in the ceiling, mega-scallops in the walls and sponge-works on the floor is the direct consequence of the still occurring strong acid aggression due to the presence of huge fossil Fig. 12: Cueva Rossillo: a) a thick phosphate fowstone developed in the fnal part of the cave; b) layers diferent in colour and/or texture are evident in a polished cross section; c) microsphere of pale yellow ardealite in a small void of the speleothem; d) the diferent layers observed with a polarizing microscope with crossed nicols. and/or actual guano deposits. The main cave gallery present on the floor a 5-7 m deep canyon developed when the lowering of the groundwater lever allowed for an epiphreatic to unsaturated evolution. Later 92 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA the canyon was rather completely filled by sediments (mainly guano and its by-products): in the last century these sediments were intensely mined to produce fertilizers (fig. 13). Fig. 13: One of the many tunnels dug by guano miners in the foor of the main gallery of the Cueva Rossilo. Where the guano leaking seeped along the limestone beds then gave rise to huge speleothems with inside layer of diferent thickness and colours, which ofen presented small cavities flled sometimes by pale vitreous crystals or dusty hazel-brown to pale pink grey material. In one case, the seepage of organics leached by guano in the upper series of the cave developed small black stalactites, the colour of which was due to the presence of bitumen within the diferent growing layers of the spe-leothems (fig. 14). A total of 15 samples have been taken from sediments on the cave foor and from speleothems; the observed minerals are: Apatite group: this generic name was given to hy-droxylapatite, carbonate-hydroxylapatite, carbonate-fu-orapatite and fuorapatite because it was rather impossible to discriminate among these phosphates. Tey are the most frequent phases in both the sampled sediments and speleothems. Teir morphology resulted extremely variable: a) hard microcrystalline china-ware material, Fig. 14: Cueva Rossillo: polished section (lef) of the black stalactite and a thin section (right) of it showing thin bitumen flms adsorbed over calcite layers. sometime layered with colours ranging from ivory to hazel brown, from pale brown to dark brown due to the dispersed presence of carbon rich phases; b) plastic light greasy pale pink powder, which sometime gives rise to small spheres, which in turn may be insulated or aggregated to form thin crusts; c) tufs of radial aggregates of thin vitreous colourless to white acicular crystals; d) irregular grains of hard orange-red material (SEM images in fig. 15d,e); Ardealite: vary rare, it has been observed only in one sample where it was associated to gypsum within a small sphere of greasy pale lemon-yellow microcrystalline material (SEM image in fig. 12c); Bitumen: this organic compound is responsible for the pigmentation of the growing layers of a small dark brown calcite stalactite (5 x 2 cm) collected already broken close to the cave entrance. Te concentration of this compound was high enough to allow a strong H2S smell while crushing the sample; Asbolane: this Ni and Mn hydroxide is rare for the cave environment and in 4C was identifed only in a couple of samples. It consists of small black earthy and spongy spheres within an earthy white material; Brushite: common mineral which has been observed in several forms: a) thin crusts of vitreous, semitransparent milky white to pale greenish tabular crystals; b) aggregates of transparent lance shaped crystals; c) tufs of thin elongated fairly bended crystals; d) aggregates of sof earthy grains, of small prismatic tabular crystals and of pale hazel-brown larger crystals; e) earthy milky white irregular grains; f) lens shaped aggregates of shining crystals within the earthy milky white material (SEM images in fig. 9c,d); Calcite: it is by far the most common mineral and consequently it is present in very diferent forms: a) in sub-spherical aggregates of radial elongated (30 x 5 mm) semitransparent vitreous prismatic crystals, similar to those observed inside some speleothems in a side cor- ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 93 PAOLO fORTI, ERMANNO GALLI, ANTONIO ROSSI d Fig. 15: SEm images of cave minerals from Cueva Rossillo (a, b, c) and Cueva de los murcielagos (d, e, f): rose-like aggregates of tabular crystals of kingsmountite; b) tabular subparallel crystals of kingsmountite; c) prismatic ditrigonal crystals of taranakite; d) radial aggregates of fbrous crystals of apatite with rombohedral whitlockite; e) magnifcation of d) to put in evidence an overgrow of whitlockite; f) aggregate of euhedral rombohedral, sometime twinned, whitlockite crystals. 94 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 b a c f e PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA ridor; b) hard pale pink to brick-red microcrystalline material; c) as incoherent ochre-yellow sandy to dusty sediment; Crandallite: extremely rare; it has been observed only in a single sample as thin irregular vitreous crust partially covering a yellow grain; goethite: it is present as earthy lemon-yellow to ochre-yellow grains; guanine: this rare organic compound gave rise to small black partially hard grains (SEM image in fig. 9e); gypsum: rather common; it is present as: a) aggregates of fbrous silky-lustre micro crystals; b) vitreous lustre, transparent slightly grained, tabular prismatic crystal with a pseudo-square base; Kingsmountite: it is always associated with mont-gomeryite and whitlockite; it is present as: a) thin small pale pink crusts or spheroidal aggregates of silky lustre, silver shining scaled crystals, which cover the walls of some cavities within the milky white material; b) aggregates of radial (open book) extremely thin silky blades over the surface of a single milky white grain (SEM images in fig. 15a,b); lepidocrocite: this polymorph of goethite is fairly rare; it has been observed only in the alteration crust developed over an iron art craf (a small vessel or a cup) probably lef by guano miners some tens of years ago and now found some 50 cm inside the fresh guano. Te alteration crust consists of a millimetric layer of empty ochre-yellow to ruby red micro-spheres; at large magnifcation prismatic structures seem to be present over their surface. In this crust lepidocrocite is strictly associated with goethite, apatite and gypsum (SEM image in fig. 9f); montgomeryite: it gave rise to small (O < 2.5 mm) pale yellow partially empty spheres, which consist of silky tabular radial crystals arranged in concentric layers; Quartz: it has been found as cave mineral a single time over a sub-spherical grain of variscite. It consists of a hard thin transparent crust; taranachite: spherical sof aggregates of saccaroidal vitreous milky white micro-crystals (SEM image in fig. 15c); variscite: very rare observed in a single sample where it is the nucleus of a rounded grain with the outer part made by quartz. It consists of lemon yellow micro-crystalline material; Whitlockite: semitransparent thin hard crusts with the outer surface smooth or consisting of semi-spheres of colourless or pale yellow to pale brown, vitreous, sometimes silky shining crystals covering the walls of some small empty voids within a china-ware material (SEM images in fig. 15d,e,f). CUEVA DE LOS MURCIELAGOS (BATS CAVE) Tis cave has been drastically modifed by guano miners, who lef inside most of their art crafs like wood ladders and leaching structures: for this reason the cave is know also with the name of San Vincente mine. Anyway it is a classical karst cave, partially modifed by the hyperkarst reactions connected with guano digestion. Seven samples have been collected in this cave: three consist of fragments of small calcite stalactites, three of which consist of fragments of broken calcite stalactites (soda straw) and/or stalagmites; some pieces of fow-stones consisting of honey yellow calcite are also present. Most of these samples are covered by a thin whitish powder. Te other four samples are globular yellowish speleothems (up to 15 mm in diameter) the structure of which consists partially of pale yellow fbrous radial crystals and of a hard layered material with plenty of small cavities, sometimes covered by a thin semi-transparent calcite layer. Beside calcite, the other observed minerals are: Apatite: the phosphates hydroxylapatite, carbon-ate-hydroxylapatite, carbonate-fuorapatite and fuor-apatite are grouped under this generic name, due to the difculty to discriminate among them. Tey occur as: 1) small aggregates of fbrous pale-yellow material; b) vitreous semi-transparent layers over the fbrous material; c) crusts consisting of small milky white to cream yellow spheres; Kingsmountite: this Ca, fe, Al phosphate is easily recognized even at naked eye; it consist of: a) bladed millimetric bladed crystals with easy cleavage b) small crusts made by perfectly rounded shining yellow grains dispersed inside in an earthy whitish material; Quartz: hard thin transparent crust in association with variscite; variscite: semitransparent thin hard crusts with smooth outer surface. A few other karst caves have been sampled during the study (Leona, Las Pinturas, Tanche Nuevo, and Vi-bora) but they resulted of scarce mineralogical interest hosting only very common cave minerals (calcite, gypsum, hydroxilapatite and whitlockite) and therefore they will not be described here. Anyway their hosted chemical deposits are summarized together with those of all the other caves in the Tab. 1. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 95 PAOLO fORTI, ERMANNO GALLI, ANTONIO ROSSI fINAL REMARKS Te mineralogical study of the secondary chemical deposits developed within the karst systems of Cuatro Ciénegas put in evidence the great variety of mineroge-netic processes which were and/or are still active in this area: this is the reason why the number of observed cave minerals (Tab. 1) is very high in comparison to that normally present in a single karst area. Moreover, the study of some of the caves in the area, even if not exhaustive, confrmed their extraordinary mineralogical interest: in fact in two natural cavities (Cueva Rossillo and Cueva Rancho Guadalupe) over 15 diferent cave minerals have been found, number which puts them among the most interesting caves of the world as for variety and richness of hosted mineralogical species. Some of the 32 identifed minerals (ardealite, as-bolan, carnotite, crandallite, monohydrocalcite, mont-gomeryite, niter, sepiolite, sylvite, variscite, whitlockite) must be considered “rare” in the cave environment (Hill & forti, 1997), while one Al, fe, Ca hydrated phosphate (kingsmountite) has been cited for the fst time as cave mineral from Rossillo cave. Previously this mineral was described by Dunn et al. (1979) from the Mine foote, near Kings Mountain town, North Caroline (USA): the kingsmountite of Ros-sillo cave has the same morphology of the olotype, occurring as bladed tiny crystals, usually in radial hemispherical aggregates up to 1 mm in diameter. Kingsmountite is isostructural and therefore with an x-ray powder pattern similar to that of montgomeryite, but it may only be discriminate on the basis of chemical analyses because kingsmountite lacks of signifcative amounts of Mg. While phosphate largely prevails in Rossillo cave due to the large amount of guano deposits, oxides and carbonates are the main cave minerals in the Rancho Guadalupe cave. In this cave it is worth of mention the presence of carnotite as small aggregates of bright, greenish-yellow plate crystals < 50 µm in length, as inclusion in tabular gypsum (fig. 8 alb); this occurrence seems to be very similar to that of the Horsethief Cave, Wyoming (USA) (Mosh & Polyak, 1996). In the Rancho Guadalupe cave there are several different silicate minerals: quartz, sequences of aligned mi- Te authors thank “La Venta Exploring Team”: without its efort in preparing, organizing and carrying out the 3 cro-spheres (up to 15 µm in diameter) of opal-CT (fig. 8e), and sepiolite (fig. 8f), the origin of which should be related to diagenetic processes involving opal in an Mg-rich environment ( the simultaneous presence of dolomite supports this hypothesis). Among the organic compounds the guanine of Cue-va Rossillo and wewellite of Cueva Rancho Guadalupe are worth of mention. Te frst of these compounds (fig. 9e) gave rise to micro-spheres up to 20 µm in size and it is extremely rare for the cavern environment and up to present it was reported only from a few caves where it derived directly from bat guano mineralization. Whewellite of Rancho Guadalupe forms sub spherical aggregates of prismatic crystals (fig. 9b): its origin is related to animal excreta (Martini et al., 1990). finally the magnesium carbonate from Cueva Ran-cho Guadalupe, still under study, is highly probably to become not only a new cave mineral but probably new for science. Beside this ongoing research, the mineralogical studies in the karst systems of Cuatro Ciénegas cannot be considered concluded, mostly those related to the mine caves. As already written in the relative paragraph, the cave minerals observed in these caves are far to represent if not the totality at least a signifcant portion of those which should have developed in this environment: future research shall be surely addressed toward this topic. Anyway the mine environment has already proved to be of noticeable interest and scientifc importance: in fact a completely new kind of cave pearls has been observed in the Reforma mine. It is thank to these cave pearls to be possible to realize a new method to defne the relative ratio between condensation and seeping waters feeding a speleothem. Due to the peculiarity and noticeable scientifc interest of the secondary cave minerals of the karst systems of Cuatro Ciénegas it should be important that the natural cavities of such an area would be protected in the near future, in order to preserve their very high scientifc patrimony, which actually is only partially known. years of explorations in the Cuatro Ciénegas area this research would not be possible. Moreover they are grateful ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 96 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PECULIAR MINEROGENETIC CAVE ENVIRONMENTS Of MExICO: THE CUATRO CIÉNEGAS AREA to Área de Protección de flora y fauna Cuatro Ciénegas, Instituto Coahuilense de Ecologia, Semarnap, Conabio and Pronatura Noreste A.C., for allowing feld research. finally, the authors are indebted with all the participants to “Cuatro Ciénegas” Project for their help in the feld and logistic support and to Drs. Pier Luigi fabbri and Massimo Tonelli of the C.I.G.S. of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia for the precious help given at the electronic microscope. 1 Research granted by PRIN project “Studio morfologico e ge-netico di speleotemi di particolari ambienti carsici italiani e dell’America Centrale” leaded by Paolo forti REfERENCES Anthony J.W. & Bideaux R.A. & Bladh K.W. & Nichols M.C., 1995: Handbook of Mineralogy – Vol. II (Silica, Silicates). - Mineral Data Publishing, Tucson, Arizona, 904 pp. Anthony J.W. & Bideaux R.A. & Bladh K.W. & Nichols M.C., 1997: Handbook of Mineralogy – Vol. III (Halides, Hydroxides, Oxides). - Mineral Data Publishing, Tucson, Arizona, 628 pp. Anthony J.W. & Bideaux R.A. & Bladh K.W. & Nichols M.C., 2000: Handbook of Mineralogy – Vol. IV (Arsenates, Phosphates, Vanadates). - Mineral Data Publishing, Tucson, Arizona, 680 pp. Anthony J.W. & Bideaux R.A. & Bladh K.W. & Nichols M.C., 2003: Handbook of Mineralogy – Vol. V (Borates, Carbonates, Sulfates). - Mineral Data Publishing, Tucson, Arizona, 813 pp. Backer A. & Smart P.L. & Edwards R.L. & Richards D.A., 1993: Annual growth bandings in a cave stalagmite. - Nature 304, 518-520. 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Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung – Stuttgart, 870 pp. Vargas, J. C. & Duran Miramontes, H. A. & Sanchez Silva E. & Arias Gutiérrez M. A. & Parga Pérez, J. J., 1993: Monografa geologico-minera del estado de Coahuila. Secretaria de Energia, Minas e Industria Paraestatal, Subsecretaria de Mines, Mexico, publi-cacion M-9e, 154 pp. 98 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 LITHOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ROCK RELIEf Of THE LAO HEI GIN SHILIN-STONE fOREST (LUNAN, SW CHINA) LITOLOŠKE IN MORfOLOŠKE ZNAČILNOSTI TER SKALNI RELIEf LAO HEI GIN KAMNITEGA GOZDA (LUNAN, JZ KITAJSKA) Martin KNEZ1 & Tadej SLABE1 Abstract UDC 551.435.8(510) Martin Knez & Tadej Slabe: Lithological and morphological characteristics and rock relief of the Lao Hei Gin shilin-stone forest (Lunan, SW China) Te Lao Hei Gin stone forest is yet one more of the diverse and famed Lunan stone forests created from subcutaneous karren. Te initial morphogenesis of the stone pillars started along almost horizontal bedding planes and mostly sub-vertical faults and cracks already covered by thick layers of sediments and soil. Te forest’s stone pillars stand individually or in groups. Te dominant and most characteristic shape of the pillars is mushroom-like, with alternating lithological characteristics of the carbonate beds expressed in a vertical direction. key words: Lunan shilin-stone forests, lithology, rock relief, morphogenesis, SW China. Izvleček UDK 551.435.8(510) Martin Knez & Tadej Slabe: Litološke in morfološke značilnosti ter skalni relief Lao Hei Gin kamnitega gozda (Lunan, JZ Kitajska) Lao Hei Gin kamniti gozd je še eden izmed raznovrstnih in znamenitih lunanskih kamnitih gozdov, ki so nastali iz podtalnih škrapelj. Inicialna morfogeneza kamnitih stebrov je namreč začela potekati vzdolž skoraj vodoravnih lezik in večinoma subvertikalnih prelomov in razpok že pod debelimi plastmi naplavin in prsti. Kamniti stebri v gozdu so posamezni ali gručasti. Prevladujoča in najbolj značilna oblika stebrov je gobasta, saj se v njej v navpični smeri odražajo spreminjajoče se litološke lastnosti karbonatnih plasti. ključne besede: lunanski kamniti gozdovi, litologija, skalni relief, morfogeneza, JZ Kitajska. INTRODUCTION Shilin-stone forests (Knez & Slabe in print) developed from subcutaneous karst karren where thick layers of sediments and soil covered the carbonate rock. Tey are composed of stone pillars and stone teeth (Song 1986), formed on various horizontal and mildly inclined rock beds (5–150), cut by vertical faults and cracks (ford & Salomon & Williams 1996). Te central part of the Lunan stone forest covers over 80 ha, while larger and smaller stone forests spread over 350 km2. Unique among the stone forests is Lao Hei Gin. Te forest is composed of pillars, standing in groups or individually, that can reach up to 20 m in height. Most are lower, however, up to about 10 m. Te dominant and most characteristic form of the pillars is a mushroomlike shape. Watercourses run through caves that occur some 20 to 30 m deep below the forests. We have presented our research of the Lunan stone forests in more detail in descriptions and collected notes published in the book “South China Karst 1” (Chen et al. 1998) and elsewhere (e.g. Knez & Slabe 2001a, 2001b, 1 Karst Research Institute, ZRC SAZU, Titov trg 2, SI-6230 Postojna, Slovenia, e-mail: knez@zrc-sazu.si, slabe@zrc-sazu.si Received / Prejeto: 29.06.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 99–105, LJUBLJANA 2006 MARTIN KNEZ & TADEJ SLABE 2002). In this article we are adding the results of our exploration of yet another stone forest, unique in its formation. Figure 1: lao hei gin stone forest. Slika 1: lao hei gin kamniti gozd. LITHOLOGICAL Te geological column is divided into 5 lithologically and morphologically diverse sequences: A, B, C, D and E (figs. 3, 4, 5). Sequence A is built mostly of low-porous and grained late diagenetic dolomite, sequence B is of highly porous late diagenetic grained dolomite, sequence C is of slightly dolomitic limestone, sequence D is of low-porous grained late diagenetic dolomite and sequence E is of compact speckled dolomitic limestone. Te total thickness of the researched geological profle (stone pillar) is 26 m. SEQUENCE A Tis sequence is 7 m thick. Te lower part of the stone pillar is formed from highly re-crystalised dolosparite to dolomicrosparite of a grainstone type. Te primary limestone had been highly diagenetically transformed – under a microscope we can observe subhedral to euhedral dolomite grains, which form a hipidiotopic to idiotopic structure. Te dolomite grains are up to one-third of a Te Lao Hei Gin stone forest (figs. 1, 2, 3) lies 20 km north of Major Stone forest. Individual stone pillars and larger rock blocks shaped by corrosion and erosion cover only about 2 km2. Morphologically the stone pillars are similar to those in the Naigu stone forest. Figure 2: lao hei gin stone forest. top view. Slika 2: lao hei gin kamniti gozd. Pogled z vrha. Figure 3; Cross section of the lao hei gin stone forest. Slika 3: Prerez lao hei gin kamnitega gozda. TICS Of THE STONE fOREST millimetre in size. In difused light they mostly have a slightly brown hue, whereas individual larger grains are exceptionally clean and almost totally translucent. Autogenous overgrowth is clearly visible in a small percentage of the dolomite crystals. Te rock also contains a certain percentage of calcite. Secondary porosity is substantial. SEQUENCE B Sequence B is 8 m thick and does not mineralogically differ much from sequence A; on average, however, the rock does contain twice the amount of calcite as the rock from sequence A. Te rock in this sequence is a grainstone-type dolosparite to dolomicrosparite. Grainstone-type dolomite (dolomicrosparite to dolosparite) consists of subhedral to euhedral dolomite grains that form a hip-idiotopic to idiotopic structure. Te essential diference of the rock from both sequences is that the rock in sequence B shows substantially more secondary porosity than the rock in sequence A. On average, the dolomite 100 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 LITHOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ROCK RELIEf Of THE LAO HEI GIN STONE fOREST Figure 4: Single mushroom-like stone pillars. Slika 4: Posamezni kamniti stebri gobastih oblik. Figure 5: Stone pillar, which shape is dictated by rock. Slika 5: Steber, katerega obliko narekuje kamnina. crystals are smaller than the crystals in sequence A – in the upper part of the sequence even less than one tenth of a mm – and less pure. SEQUENCE C Sequence C is 4 m thick. Here the rock is mostly limestone with no more than 10% dolomite crystals. Te boundary between sequences B and C is sharp and immediately Figure 6: Subcutaneously shaped stone teeth. Slika 6: Podtalno oblikovani kamniti zobje. transforms into biopelintramicrite to biopelmicrosparite in the vertical direction. Te fossil remains are generally less preserved; only occasionally did some foraminif-eras and thick-shelled gastropods have better undergone the diagenetic processes. Secondary porosity is barely present. SEQUENCE D Te thickness of sequence C is 5 m. Te upper part of the pillars forms a highly re-crystalised and grained do-losparite to dolomicrosparite. Te boundary between sequence C and sequence D is ofen blurred and difcult to determine visually and macroscopically. Te primary limestone was highly diagenetically altered. Under a microscope we can observe subhedral to euhedral dolomite grains, which form a hipidiotopic to idiotopic structure of the rock. Te dolomite grains in this sequence are also about one-third of a mm in size. In difused light the dolomite grains mostly have a slightly brown hue. SEQUENCE E Sequence E is up to 2 m thick. Massive dolomitic limestone is characteristic for the upper part, which we found only on some pillars. On the outside it has a coarse and speckled appearance, characteristic of a large part of the Naigu stone forest (Knez & Slabe 2001a). Because of the bulginess on the rock surface, coarseness and subsequent algae overgrowth, the dolomite felds are dark grey. On the rock surface we can see them as dark grey to black spots, which gradate into lighter limestone felds in all directions. In most parts of the sequence, the percentages of the surface, as well as volume, of non-dolomitic limestone and dolomitic zones are equal. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 101 MARTIN KNEZ & TADEJ SLABE SHAPE Of THE STONE fOREST Te larger groups of stone pillars consist of several tens of pillars (figs. 1, 2, 3, 4). Between them are corroded fssures or narrow passages. Te smaller groups of pillars, composed of ten or fewer pillars, are most ofen cut only by cracks and corroded fssures. Over a relatively large area of the stone forest we fnd only individual pillars and stone teeth. Individual pillars are relatively large, broad and high, or else they are low and wide. Te bedding is refected in the form of pillars mainly because of the diverse composition of the rock. Below the soil, as well as on the surface, the B beds decay and de- compose faster, and subsequently the individual thinner and tall pillars are unstable. Te tall pillars are generally mushroom-shaped. Te beds of sequences A, C and D are more resistant and extensive. In some areas the upper parts of the pillars have disappeared, and only low pillars formed in rock sequence A are preserved. Subcutaneous tubes transformed by rainfall dripping down the pillars frequently hollow the porous rock of the beds B. Te rare pillar tops that form in such rock are ofen diversely shaped. THE ROCK RELIEf Of THE STONE fOREST We fnd three distinct types of rock forms on the pillars: subcutaneous forms, forms created by rainfall and combined rock forms. Te creation of these rock forms and their uniqueness is defned mainly by the rock itself, especially where it is exposed. Te subcutaneous forms are less explicitly defned by the rock. SUBCUTANEOUS ROCK fORMS Tese forms are divided into those that were formed below the deposits and the soil as the result of water fowing at the contact of the rock and the soil, and forms created by water percolation through the soil that only partially covers the rock, and the rock forms that formed at the level of the soil or deposits that surround the rock (Slabe 1999). Te frst group of subcutaneous rock forms are subcutaneous channels of various sizes that were formed by continuous water-fow at the contact of the rock and the deposits that covered the rock and flled the fssures in the vertical cracks. Te diameter of the larger channels can reach up to several metres (fig. 6). Tey dissect all diferent rock sequences. At the tops of the higher pillars they were transformed by rainfall, while the B beds decompose too quickly for the channels to remain preserved on them for a longer period. Tey are therefore mainly a characteristic of the lower parts of the pillars and stone teeth. Subcutaneous scallops that form on the relatively permeable contact area of the rock and the deposits are preserved mostly in beds A, C and D or on the B beds that had been exposed for only a shorter period. Also the walls of the largest subcutaneous channels could be dissected by them. Te more extensive pillar tops and teeth are segmented by mid-sized and smaller subcutaneous chan- nels and subcutaneous cups (Slabe 1999, 259) that were formed under the soil that partially covered the rock, therefore as the result of water percolation through the soil and its fow along the area where it touches the rock. Tey have characteristic semi-circular cross sections or cross sections in the shape of the upturned letter omega. Tey are wider at the lower part of cross-section, their diameters can reach up to 1 m. Tey are usually linked into a branched network. Te subcutaneous cups (Slabe 1999, 263) are of various sizes and diameters, from a few centimetres to a metre or more. Tey occur on the tops of large pillars and on the bottoms of funnelled notches in the walls below them. Te most porous strata are fairly densely perforated by subcutaneous tubes of diameters ranging between a few centimetres and a metre or two. Te pillars in the B beds are generally distinctly undercut below the ground, which is visible from the overhanging lower parts of the pillars that have developed on these rock strata. COMBINED ROCK fORMS Tese are the larger channels in the upper parts of the pillar walls. Tey develop as the result of water fowing from subcutaneous channels, which appear on the larger pillar tops, or by water dripping from the funnelled notches. Subcutaneous cups occur at the bottom of the latter or else were once present there. Tey thus have larger or smaller funnel-shaped outlets at the edges of the tops, which have in most cases been transformed by rainfall. Tey are especially noticeable in the beds of the A, C and D groups, or, if the top is in the D beds they reach to the B beds. Teir distribution and shapes, relatively narrow and deep, are defned by how crushed the rock is, how 102 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 LITHOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ROCK RELIEf Of THE LAO HEI GIN STONE fOREST serrated the rims of the rock are, and also by the composition of the rock. Rainfall transforms, mainly deepens, the former subcutaneous channels and cups that criss-cross the wider tops. Such rock formations therefore exhibit traces of subcutaneous dissolution of the rock and of the rainwater, which can gradually, with the denudation of the rock, completely take over. Below the soil the channels and cups are relatively evenly shaped with smooth walls, but as they become exposed their shapes become distinctively uneven with many branches and segmented rims. Half-bells are formed on the more durable levels of soil and deposits that surround the pillars (Slabe 1999). ROCK fORMATIONS CARVED By RAINfALL Tese types of rock formations, especially the smallest futes and cups, do not occur on this type of rock. Te exceptions are the more limited highest zones of the stone forest, where the tooth tops are created in the dolomitic limestone of the E beds. Segmentation of most of the tops is therefore defned by the composition and diversifca-tion of the rock (fig. 7). Rock exposed to rainfall is coarse Figure 7: Te top of stone pillar carved by rainfall. Slika 7: vrh kamnitega stebra oblikovan z deževnico. Te stone pillars in the forest are either solitary or in groups within which there are only cracks and fssures. Tey were formed at various levels on nearly horizontal rock beds and in corresponding shapes. Te exposed lower part of the geological profle or stone pillar is composed of fully dolomitised limestone, the middle part (sequence B) is composed of porous dolomite and the upper parts of the stone pillars are composed of more durable limestone and dolomitic limestone, resistant to erosion. Sequence B rock beds decay and decompose and contains only rock formations that do not exceed the size of the individual segmentation of the coarse surface. Te solution pans with distinctly segmented and coarse surfaces are developing from subcutaneous cups; only the bottoms of solution pans that are covered by thin layer deposits and are overgrown remain even and relatively smooth. On the steep walls the segments resemble channels, usually very narrow but relatively deep and angulated, with diameters that measure 1–10 cm and are 2–3 m long. At the highest section of the stone forest we fnd do-lomitic limestone on the pillar tops, with futes carved in them (fig. 8). Smaller channels of a diameter of 1–2 cm Figure 8: Dolomitic-limestone stone teeth. Slika 8: Dolomitno apnenčasti kamniti zobje. appear on the limestone where there are felds of dolomite in the limestone, which generally protrude a centimetre or two from the wall and do not exhibit other rock formations. faster, below, as well as above the ground, and since they are generally covered by more durable strata, the pillars form characteristic mushroom-like shapes. Te pillars are wider below the narrower parts if the lower dolomite strata are exposed. Te rock relief consists of various groups of rock forms: subcutaneous, those carved by rainfall and combined forms – their characteristics are defned by the composition of the various rock beds. Te tops are sharp and well segmented around the cracks. Such are all the CONCLUSION ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 103 MARTIN KNEZ & TADEJ SLABE forms carved by rainfall – these are channeled rock forms and solution pans. Teir surface is notably coarse. On limestone beds that occur only in some of the highest lying parts of the stone forest, the futes and small channels are evenly shaped. On porous and faster-disintegrating beds, there are no distinct rock formations carved by rainfall, except at the beginning on exposed rock covered by more rounded parts of the subcutaneous rock relief. Chen xiaoping, Gabrovšek, f., Huang Chuxing, Jin yu-zhang, Knez, M., Kogovšek, J., Liu Hong, Petrič, M., Mihevc, A., Otoničar, B., Shi Mengxiong, Slabe, T., Šebela S., Wu Wenqing, Zhang Shouyue & Zupan Hajna, N., 1998: South China Karst I.- Založba ZRC, 19, 247 pp., Ljubljana. ford, D., Salomon, J.N. & Williams P. , 1996: Les »forets de Pierre« ou »Stone forests« de Lunan.- Karstologia 28/2, 25-40. Knez, M., 1998: Lithologic Properties of the Tree Lunan Stone forests (Shilin, Naigu and Lao Hei Gin).- In: Chen xiaoping et al., South China Karst I, Založba ZRC, 19, 30-43, Ljubljana. Knez, M. & Slabe, T., 2001a: Oblika in skalni relief stebrov v Naigu kamnitem gozdu (JZ Kitajska).- Acta carsologica 30/1, 13-24, Ljubljana. Knez, M. & Slabe, T., 2001b: Te Lithology, Shape and Rock Relief of the Pillars in the Pu Chao Chun Stone forest (Lunan Stone forests, NW China).- Acta car-sologica 30/2, 129-139, Ljubljana. Tese are distinctly formed on all diferent types of rock beds. Only their surface is mildly coarse. In our research we have observed (Knez 1998; Slabe 1998; Knez & Slabe 2001a, 2001b) that the lithological composition and tectonic properties of the rock play a decisive role that corresponds to the morphological picture of the stone pillars and that are essentially important in selective corrosion and erosion. Knez, M. & Slabe, T., 2002: Lithologic and morphological properties and rock relief of the Lunan stone forests. In: Gabrovšek, f. (ed.), Evolution of karst: from Prekarst to Cessation.- Založba ZRC, 259-266, Ljubljana. Knez, M. & Slabe, T., in print: Shilin - Te formation of Stone forests on Various Rock (Lunan, yunnan, China).- Acta geologica sinica (Engl. ed.), Beijing. Slabe, T., 1998: Rock relief of pillars in the Lunan stone forest.- In: Chen xiaoping et al., South China Karst I, Založba ZRC, 19, 51-67, Ljubljana. Slabe, T., 1999: Subcutaneous rock forms. Acta carsologi-ca 28/2, 255-271, Ljubljana. Song, Lin Hua, 1986: Origination of stone forest in China.- International Journal of Speleology 15 (1-4), 3-13. REfERENCES 104 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 LITHOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ROCK RELIEf Of THE LAO HEI GIN STONE fOREST LITOLOŠKE IN MORfOLOŠKE ZNAČILNOSTI TER SKALNI RELIEf LAO HEI GIN KAMNITEGA GOZDA (LUNAN, JZ KITAJSKA) POVZETEK Lao Hei Gin kamniti gozd (Sl. 1, 2, 3, 4) je nastal iz podtalnih kraških škrapelj. Karbonatne kamnine so bile namreč pokrite z debelimi plastmi naplavin in s prstjo. Kamniti stebri in kamniti zobje so se razvili v raznovrstnih, skoraj vodoravnih ali položnih skladih kamnine, ki so jo razkosali navpični prelomi in razpoke. Gozd sestavljajo stebri, ki so gručasto strnjeni ali pa posamezni in dosežejo do 20 m višine, večina je nižjih, visokih do 10 m. Prevladujoča in najbolj značilna oblika stebrov je gobasta. 20 do 30 m globoko pod gozdom so jame, skozi katere se pretakajo vodni tokovi. Lao Hei Gin kamniti gozd leži okrog 20 km severno od Shilina. Posamezni kamniti stebri in večji korozijsko in erozijsko preoblikovani bloki kamnine zavzemajo le okrog 2 km2. Morfološko so kamniti stebri podobni tistim iz Naigu kamnitega gozda. Glede na litološke in morfološke značilnosti smo geološki stolpec razdelili v 5 sekvenc: A, B, C, D in E (Sl. 3, 5). Sekvenca A je zgrajena večinoma iz slabo poroznega zrnatega poznodiagenetskega dolomita, sekvenca B iz zelo poroznega poznodiagenetskega zrnatega dolomita, sekvenca C iz rahlo dolomitnega apnenca, sekvenca D iz slabo poroznega zrnatega poznodiagenetskega dolomita, sekvenca E iz kompaktnega marogasto dolomitiziranega apnenca. Skupna debelina raziskanega geološkega profla (kamnitega stebra) je 26 m. Večje gruče kamnitih stebrov so sestavljene iz več deset stebrov. Med njimi so špranje ali pa ožji prehodi. Manjše gruče stebrov, ki jih sestavlja deset in manj stebrov, pa sekajo največkrat le razpoke in špranje. Na razmeroma veliki površini kamnitega gozda so le posamezni stebri in skalni zobje. Posamezni stebri so razmeroma veliki, široki in visoki ali pa so nizki (1-2 m) in široki. Skladovitost kamnine se v obliki stebrov odslikava predvsem zaradi različne sestave kamnine v posameznih plasteh. Skladi B tako pod tlemi kot na površju prepereva-jo in razpadajo hitreje in posamezni tanjši ter visoki stebri so zato neobstojni. Visoki stebri pa so praviloma izrazite gobaste oblike. Skladi A, C in D so namreč obstojnejši in obsežnejši. Ponekod zgornjih delov stebrov ni več, ohranjeni so le nizki stebri, ki so oblikovani v kamnini A. Porozna kamnina skladov B je pogosto prevotljena s podtalnimi cevmi, ki jih preoblikuje deževnica, polzeča po stebrih navzdol. Redki vrhovi stebrov, ki se oblikujejo na takšni kamnini, so največkrat neenotnih oblik. Skalni relief sestavljajo vse značilne skupine skalnih oblik, podtalne (Sl. 6), tiste, ki jih dolbe deževnica in sestavljene skalne oblike, jim pa značilnosti v precejšni meri določa sestava različnih skladov kamnine. Vrhovi so ostrih in ob razpokah drobno razčlenjenih oblik, takšne so vse skalne oblike, ki jih dolbe deževnica, to so žlebovom podobne skalne oblike in škavnice, njihova površina pa je izrazito hrapava (Sl. 7). Na apnenčastih skladih, ki se pojavijo le na posameznih najvišjih delih kamnitega gozda, so žlebiči in žlebovi pravilnih oblik. Na poroznih in hitreje razpadajočih skladih ni značilnih skalnih oblik, ki jih dolbe deževnica, le sprva, po razgaljenju kamnine, jih prekrivajo zaobljene oblike podtalnega skalnega reliefa. Te se namreč izrazito oblikujejo na vseh različnih skladih kamnine. Le njihova površina je drobno hrapava. Pri naših raziskavah vse bolj ugotavljamo (Knez 1988; Slabe 1988; Knez & Slabe 2001a, 2001b), da se tudi najmanjše litološke razlike v kamnini zelo jasno odražajo v morfogenetskem razvoju kamnitih gozdov. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 105 COBISS: 1.02 VULCANOSPELEOLOGy IN SAUDI ARABIA VULKANOSPELEOLOGIJA V SAVDSKI ARABIJI John J. PINT1 Abstract UDC 551.21:551.44(532) John J. PinP.Vulcanospeleology in Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia has over 80,000 km2 of lava felds, locally known as harrats. However, only a few studies of lava caves in Saudi Arabia have been published internationally. Tis article summarizes the published and unpublished fndings of all known expeditions to lava caves in the kingdom. Prior to 2001, reports of such caves were mostly limited to sightings of collapse holes by vulcanologists surveying the lava felds. few caves were entered and no cave maps were produced. In 2001 and 2002, expeditions were organized to Harrat Kishb, located northeast of Makkah (Mecca). Tree lava caves measuring 22 m, 150 m and 320 m in length were surveyed and the collapse features of a fourth cave—possibly over 3 km long—were studied. Two throwing sticks, a plant-fber rope and the remains of stone walls were found in some of these caves. In 2003, lava tubes measuring 530 m and 208 m were surveyed in Harrat Ithnayn and Harrat Khaybar, respectively. Animal bones and coprolites were found in both caves. In 2003 and 2004, studies were carried out in Hibashi Cave, located in Harrat Nawasif/Al Buqum, 245 km southeast of Makkah. Te cave was surveyed (length: 689.5 m) and found to contain two layers of burnt bat guano overlying a bed of redeposited loess up to 1.5 meters deep and up to 5800 years old. At least 19 diferent minerals were found, three being extremely rare organic compounds related to the guano combustion. Bones, horns, coprolites, ruins of a wall and a human skull ca. 425 years old were also found. Tere is evidence of many more lava caves in Saudi Arabia, particularly in Harrat Khaybar. formal archeological and biological studies have not yet been carried out in Saudi lava caves but may produce interesting results. key words: lava tubes, lava caves, Saudi Arabia, vulcanospel-eology, speleology. 1 UIS Commission on Volcanic Caves, thepints@saudicaves.com Received / Prejeto: 16.03.2006 Izvleček UDK 551.21:551.44(532) John J. Pint: Vulkanospeleologija v Savdski Arabiji V Savdski Arabiji je preko 80.000 km2 lavinih polj, lokalno poznanih pod imenom harrat. O njih je bilo do sedaj v mednarodni literaturi objavljenih le malo študij. Članek povzema objavljana in neobjavljena odkritja vseh znanih odprav v lavine cevi. Pred letom 2001 so vulkanologi poročali o udorih, ki so jih opažali med raziskovanji polj v lavi, obiskali pa so le malo jam, jamskih načrtov ni bilo. V letih 2001-2002 so organizirali več odprav na območje Harrat Hishb, nedaleč od Meke. Raziskali in izmerili so tri jame, dolge 22, 150 in 300 m. Poleg tega so raziskovali tudi podorne oblike četrte jame, verjetno dolge preko 3 km. V jamah so našli dve sulici, vrv iz rastlinskih vlaken in ostanke kamnitega zidu. Leta 2003 so na območju polj v lavi Harrat Ithnavn in Harrat Khaybar raziskali in izmerili 530 in 208 metrov dolgi jami. V njih so našli živalske kosti in kopro-lite. V letih 2003-2004 so raziskovali v jami Hibashi na območju polja Harrat Nawasif/Al Buqum, 246 km jugovzhodno od Meke. Jama je bila izmerjena v dolžini 690 m, v njej pa so našli dve plasti izgorelega netopirskega gvana, ki pokriva plast presedi-mentirane naplavine, debele 1.5 m in stare do 5800 let. V jami je bilo najdenih vsaj 19 različnih mineralov, od tega so trije izredno redke organske spojine, nastale kot posledica izgorevanja gvana. Našli so bile tudi kosti, rogove, koprolite, ostanke zidov in človeško lobanjo staro 425 let. V Savdski Arabiji je še veliko neraziskanih cevi v lavi, predvsem na območju Harrat Khaybar. Pravih arheoloških in bioloških raziskav še ni bilo, si pa lahko od njih veliko obetamo. klljučne beside: cevi v lavi, jame v lavi, Savdska Arabija, vulkanospeleologija, speleologija. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 107–119, LJUBLJANA 2006 JOHN J. PINT INTRODUCTION Tis article presents a brief history of Vulcanospeleol-ogy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and summarizes the known studies carried out in Saudi lava caves. Some of these studies have been published internationally (forti et al., 2004; forti, 2005; Pint and Pint, 2005) or locally in Saudi Arabia (Roobol et al., 2002; Pint et al., 2005). Others are alluded to in non-scientifc feld trip reports on the Saudicaves web site (www.saudicaves.com). Many other details still remain in the feld notes of the speleologists who visited the caves. It is hoped that this article will assist researchers and authorities in ascertaining what is presently known about lava caves in Saudi Arabia and in determining the nature and direction of future vulcano-speleological studies on the Arabian Peninsula. fig. 1 shows the location of most of the lava felds (Harrats) of Saudi Arabia, which cover an area of at least 80,000 km2. Cave locations are given in the text below, but seconds of latitude and longitude have been omitted, in order to help protect these caves from accidental damage or deliberate vandalism. Te exact locations of these caves can be found in Pint, 2002. 108 Fig.1: map showing the major Cenozoic lava felds of Saudi Arabia. VULCANOSPELEOLOGy IN SAUDI ARABIA EARLy STUDIES Roobol and Camp (1991a) reported the existence of lavatube caves up to 10 m high on Harrat Khaybar, a large lava feld north of Medina. In one of these caves—located in a fow from Jebel Qidr Volcano—delicate lava stalactites were observed. A 100-meter-long lava tube in southern Harrat Khaybar was found to contain a fuma-role at its deepest point. In another publication, Roobol and Camp (1991b) describe lava tubes on Harrat Kishb, which is located northeast of Mecca. In particular, they mention seeing the collapse holes of a lava tube which might be 3 km long. REPORT ON THERMAL ACTIVITy IN A LAVA TUBE Geologist Mahmoud Al-Shanti reports that his father, Dr. Ahmed Al-Shanti, one of Saudi Arabia’s most eminent geologists, once investigated reports that an individual had sufered severe leg burns inside a cave probably located in Harrat Khaybar. Because the cave appeared to be inside a lava feld and might indicate renewed thermal activity in the area, the government requested Dr. Al-Shanti to investigate. A visit to the cave in question proved that the source of heat was a smoldering fre beneath the surface of a large bed of dry guano (Al-Shanti, 2003). Te only other cave in Saudi Arabia where guano fres have been documented is Ghar Al Hibashi (see below). The kIShb SuRveYS Te frst expedition to Harrat Kishb took place November 10-14, 2001, led by Dr. J. Roobol, J. Pint and M. Al-Shanti. Te project took place at the urging of Dr. William Halliday, member and founder of the Commission on Volcanic Caves of the International Union of Speleology (UIS). By coincidence, Dr. Roobol had received, from geologist faisal Allam, several photographs of cave entrances found some 6 km east of Jebel Hil in Harrat Kishb. Accordingly, the goals of the expedition were to locate the caves shown in the photographs as well as to precisely locate the collapse holes west of Jebel Hil which were observed by Roobol and Camp (1991b) and thought to be entrances to a lava tube. Afer much searching, the photographed caves were located and one of them, Mut’eb Cave, was surveyed. In addition, the GPS locations of twelve collapse entrances of the Jebel Hil Lava Tube were taken, a difcult undertaking since 12 km of mostly a‘a lava had to be traversed on foot. EARLy MEASUREMENT Of KAHf AL SHUWAyMIS Perhaps the frst attempt to accurately map a lava tube in Saudi Arabia was made by Mamdoah Al-Rashid, headmaster of the Shuwaymis school system, who used a 50 m-long tape to measure the length of Kahf Al Shuwaymis, located in Harrat Ithnayn and described below. Te date of this event is not recorded, nor is there any reference to the use of a company, but Mr. Rashid’s calculation of the cave’s length (500 m) comes very close to the length of 530 m measured in a recent survey using a compass and a Disto laser measuring device (fig. 7). If the length of side passages (30 m) is removed from the total, Mr. Rashid’s results are exactly on the mark (Rashid, 2002). While the above reports and incidents indicate that Saudi Arabia does indeed have lava caves, they did not result in the production of lava-cave maps or studies of the genesis, nature or content of such caves. Tis situation changed in November of 2001 when Dr. John Roobol led an expedition to the vicinity of Jebel Hil Volcano in Harrat Kishb. Te explicit purpose of the expedition was to locate and survey lava caves, as well as to describe them accurately. A second visit to Harrat Kishb was made from february 2-5, 2002, again led by J. Roobol, J. Pint and M. Al-Shanti. Ghostly Cave was surveyed and a new cave, Dahl faisal, was located and surveyed. Te results of the Kishb Surveys were published in Roobol et al., 2002. GEOLOGy Of THE HIL BASALT All the surveyed caves found in Harrat Kishb are located in the Hil Basalt, which is a basaltic lava feld younger than one million years, with an area of 5,892 km2, centered about 270 km northeast of Jeddah. Tese deposits comprise both scoria cones and lava fows which were probably formed during a moist climatic period or pluvial interval and which are distinguished from overlying subunits because they are signifcantly eroded (Roobol et al., 2002). MUT’EB CAVE Mut’eb Cave, or Kahf Al Mut’eb is registered as number 124 in Pint, 2002 and is located at 22°55’N, 41°24’E. RECENT STUDIES ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 109 JOHN J. PINT Geological setting Te cave is found in a sinuous ridge of smooth, hard pa-hoehoe lava curving around an older, obstructing scoria cone in the volcanic deposits of the Hil Basalt. Description Te cave is 150 m long. Te entrance to the cave measures 3 x 7 m and is found on the eastern side of a collapse 20 m in diameter. Tere are remains of an ancient, man-made wall across the front of the cave. A single passage trends east, sometimes reaching a width of 20 m. Te passage height varies from 3 to 5 m. Sand or clay-rich sediment cover the foor to an undetermined depth. Te cave contains abandoned wasps’ nests, mounds of rock-dove guano, animal bones, and bat urine stains on the walls and ceiling. A 40-cm-long cord composed of long plant fbers, with one knot in it, was hidden beneath a fat rock at the eastern end of the cave (Roobol et al., 2002; Pint and Pint, 2005). Comments To the author’s knowledge, Mut’eb was the frst lava cave in Saudi Arabia to be accurately surveyed (Grade 5D in the survey classifcation system used by the British Cave Research Association. Tis requires a magnetic survey with horizontal and vertical angles measured to ±1o; distances recorded to the nearest centimeter, station positions identifed to less than 10 cm and measurement of signifcant changes in passage dimensions at survey stations and wherever needed.) See fig. 2. Because a man-made structure is found at the entrance to this cave and because an apparently ancient artifact was found deep inside, it is suggested that the cave be investigated by archeologists. Note that Mut’eb Cave, in Harrat Kishb, is located approximately 55 km east of the celebrated Darb Zubaydah, a well-marked trail complete with shelters, water wells and reservoirs one day’s march apart (See fig. 12). Te trail led from Baghdad to Mecca and was built by Queen Zubaydah, the enterprising wife of Caliph Harun al-Rashid around the beginning of the ninth century A.D. GHOSTLy CAVE Ghostly Cave or Kahf Al Ashbaah is registered as number 123 in Pint, 2002 and is located at 22°55’N, 41°25’E. Geological setting Te cave is found in a fat area of basaltic pahoehoe lava in the volcanic deposits of the Hil Basalt. Description Te cave is 320 m long. Te entrance is a collapse 10 m in diameter with a 7 m drop to a fat foor below. Te passage leads of east and west. Up to 50 stalagmite-like mounds of rock-dove guano are found just inside the entrance to the western passage along with the remains of a stone wall partly buried beneath bird guano. Te cave passages Fig. 2: map of mut’eb Cave. 110 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 VULCANOSPELEOLOGy IN SAUDI ARABIA Fig. 3: map of ghostly Cave. Fig. 4: Trowing sticks found in ghostly Cave are fat on the bottom and curved on top to provide aerodynamic lif. have a maximum width of 30 m and vary in height from 1 to 3 m. Both passages have white, calcareous patches on the ceiling and a thick layer of powdery dust on the foor. Analysis of the dust showed high concentrations of calcium, phosphate and potassium salts. Bats are found at both extremes of the cave. Two fat, L-shaped wooden throwing sticks were found in dark areas of the two passages, resembling similar instruments depicted in Neolithic rock art found in Saudi Arabia. See fig. 3 and 4 (Roobol et al., 2002; Pint and Pint, 2005). Comments Man-made constructions and two ancient throwing sticks were found in this isolated and difcult-to-enter cave. Digging in the sediment which completely covers the cave foor may produce historically or archeological-ly important fnds. As noted in the comments on Mut’eb Cave, Ghostly Cave is located approximately 55 km east of the celebrated Darb Zubaydah (see fig. 12). DAHL fAISAL Dahl faisal is registered as number 162 in Pint, 2002 and is located at 23°11’N, 41°27’E. Geological setting Te cave is found in a nearly fat-lying “whale-back” lava fow of the Jabal Zuwayr volcano. Te fows of this volcano consist mainly of basanite and alkali olivine basalt with small volumes of hawaiite, phonotephrite and phonolite and are located in the northern portion of the Hil Basalt. Description Dahl faisal is 22 m long. Te cave is entered through a smooth, 3-m-long pipe, 80 cm diameter at its narrowest ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 111 JOHN J. PINT Fig. 5: map of Dahl Faisal. point, oriented at a 60° angle. Tis appears to have formed when the cave was created. Below the entrance tube lies a heap of rocks apparently piled up by people using the cave in the past. Dahl faisal consists of one room, 17 x 22 m, with a maximum ceiling height of 3 m. Sediment of unknown depth covers the original foor. Te cave contains basaltic stalactites, stalagmites and lava levées. Desiccated animal scat apparently from wolves, hyenas and foxes was also found. See fig. 5 (Roobol et al., 2002; Pint and Pint, 2005). Comments Dahl faisal is located 60 km east of Darb Zubaydah and about 70 km southeast of Mahad adh Dhahab, an operating gold mine and reputedly the site of one of King Solomon’s Mines. See fig. 12. Carbon-14 dating of wood from fres used for smelting suggests that the mines are 3,000 years old. Tis information, together with historical studies, indicate that gold, silver and copper were indeed recovered from this region during the period considered by some to be the reign of King Solomon: 961-922 B.C. (Kirkemo et al., 1997, Levy et al., 2004). Evidence of human use and the proximity of Fig. 6: Collapse Structure 6 of the Jebel hil lava tube, looking west, showing the upper part of the lava tube with geologists standing on the roof. the cave to known historical sites, suggest that it could contain artifacts. JEBEL HIL LAVA TUBE Tis lava tube extends westwards from Jebel Hil. Along its length are aligned small rootless shields, collapse holes, subsided areas and one area of local updoming. Twelve such features were located, one of which is shown in fig. 6. Te lava tube is up to 20 m high and the depth of its foor beneath the surface varies from 28.5 to 42.5 m, measured by Disto Laser Measuring Device at each hole. Te surface features of this lava tube were mapped and described, and they suggest that the tube is at least 3 km long. However, the cave itself was not entered. A detailed map and description of these features are given in Roobol et al., 2002. OTHER CAVES LOCATED ON HARRAT KISHB Two other lava caves, first Cave and Bushy Cave were also located during the Kishb surveys. Te entrance to first Cave is a collapse 20 m deep in what appeared to be 112 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 VULCANOSPELEOLOGy IN SAUDI ARABIA a lava tube. It was not entered due to apparent instability of the entrance walls. Bushy Cave is a nearly round room 12 x 13 m, possibly formed by a gas bubble. It was sketched, but not surveyed. The ShuwAYmIS eXPLORATIOnS A reconnaissance for caves in Harrat Ithnayn and northern Harrat Khaybar was undertaken by J. and S. Pint, November 6 to 10, 2002. Te head of the local school district, Mamdoah Al-Rashid showed them Dahl Rumahah in northern Harrat Khaybar and Kahf Al Shuwaymis in Harrat Ithnayn. Both caves were briefy entered and photographed. April 14-17, 2003, J. Pint and M. Al-Shanti led a trip to this area. Kahf Al Shuwaymis was surveyed as well as collapses and other features between the cave and the source volcano, Hazim al Khadra. Sept. 14-17, 2003, the same team returned to the Shuwaymis area to map Dahl Rumahah. No geological report on the Shuwaymis explorations was published by Saudi Geological Survey due to the cutting of funding in 2005. KAHf AL SHUWAyMIS Kahf Al Shuwaymis or Shuwaymis Cave is registered as number 177 in Pint, 2002 and is located at 26°14’N, 40°07’E. Geological setting Tis cave is located at the foot of Hazim Al Khadra Volcano in Harrat Ithnayn, which is a lava feld centered 240 km north-northeast of Medina. Tis lava is mildly alkaline with low Na and K contents and its age ranges from ~3 million years to present. Te cave is entered through one of at least seven collapses located in a roughly straight line 2.5 km long with a bearing of 164° from the center of the volcano. Termal activity, manifested in fumaroles emanating from shelter caves, was noted along this line, at a distance of 560 m from the lip of the volcano and 2.1 km from Kahf Al Shuwaymis. Description Te cave is 530 m long. Te entrance is a collapse hole 15 m in diameter overlooking the foor of a horizontal passage 5 m below. A steep breakdown slope leads to a mostly south-trending passage varying in width from 4 to 15 m. with a typical height of about 10 m. Speleothems are limited to lava stalactites under 5 cm in length. Tere are at least four caches of animal bones, presumably carried into the cave by hyenas. A narrow channel of sand runs almost the entire length of the cave, indicating water fow in the past. Air currents entering the cave were noted from the east wall near station 12 and from the foor near station 17. Tere is a small, parallel upper passage between stations 8 and 9. Evidence of present-day, small- Fig. 7: map of Kahf al Shuwaymis. animal activity was noted in this passage. Radon gas levels of 17.4 Pci/L and 10.2 Pci/L were measured inside this cave. Te cave map is shown in fig. 7 (Pint, 2004). Comments Archeologist Marian Bukhari briefy visited this cave in 2005. She states that the cave was used as a dwelling and may contain burial pits (Bukhari, 2006). It should be noted that this cave lies only 26 km northeast of a major Neolithic rock-art site. Petroglyphs from the site are shown in fig. 8. DAHL RUMAHAH Dahl Rumahah (also spelled Romahah) is registered as number 176 in Pint, 2002 and is located at 25°56’N, 39°54’E. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 113 JOHN J. PINT Fig. 8: Ostriches, camels and Nabatean script on a sandstone clif located 26 km from Kahf Al Shuwaymis. Geological setting Tis cave is located 169 km NNE of Medina in the northern part of Harrat Khaybar, part of an area comprising 20,560 km2 of lava fows. Te lavas and volcanoes in Harrat Khaybar are mildly alkaline with low Na and K low wall outside the entrance channels rainwater into the cave, which local people say was used as a reservoir. Most of the cave is a single, nearly fat, northwest-trending passage from 1.5 to 7 m wide and 2.5 m high. Rooms north of station 7 and south of station 11 terminate in very low crawls which may be connected. In September of 2003, it was found that dry sediment covered the foor of the southeast part of the cave while mud foored the northwest portion and occurred along part of the eastern wall. Water droplets and cave slime cover the ceiling at the far northwestern end of the cave. A natural bridge 1.5 m thick crosses the passage near its western end. Calcium-and-carbonate-rich percolation water leaked through ceiling cracks, producing white stalactites, curtains and fowstone. Tere is a large area of bones, including hedgehog and porcupine quills, mixed with desiccated hyena, wolf and fox coprolites. Te highest radon level noted in Saudi caves was found in Ruma-hah: 119 Pci/l. Te cave’s temperature was measured at 25°C. Within a period of four hours the relative humidity rose from 68% to 74% at one point in the cave. Te cave map is shown in fig. 9 (Pint, 2004). content and include alkali olivine basalt (AOB), hawaiite, mugearite, benmoreite, trachyte and comendite. Te age of the Khaybar lavas ranges from ~5 million years old (orangish fow feld) to post-Neolithic (reddish-orange lava fows), to historic (black lava fows). Rumahah Cave is found in a black fow. Description Te cave is 208 m long and has a horizontal entrance 1 m high by 1.5 m wide, set in a small depression. A long, Fig. 9: map of Rumahah Cave. Comments Te radon level found in this cave seems high for a lava tube. It is possible that radon gas is entering the cave through cracks in the foor. Te complete skeleton of an unknown animal is found in this cave, cemented to the foor by cal-citic speleothems. Tere is evidence (including construction of a water-retaining wall) that this cave has long been used as a water reservoir. It should be noted that this cave lies only 22 km south of a major Neolithic rock-art site and is located roughly 126 km east of the old Nabatean Incense 114 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 VULCANOSPELEOLOGy IN SAUDI ARABIA Trail between yemen and Petra. A paleontological and ar-cheological survey of the cave should be undertaken. The hIbAShI STuDIeS Six feld trips to Hibashi Cave in Harrat Nawasif/Al Bu-qum took place between January 2003 and June 2004, led by J. Pint and/or M. Al-Shanti. Samples of cave formations and debris were collected and sent to cave mineralogist Prof. Paolo forti for analysis. Due to the many unusual and some rare secondary minerals found in the cave, Ghar Al Hibashi was added to the list of the ten mineralogically most important lava caves in the world (forti et al., 2004; forti, 2005). Dr. Peter Vincent and fayek Kattan participated in a visit to the cave on August 31, 2003 to take samples of the sediment overlying the original cave foor, for age-dating by Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL). A sample from the human skull found lying on the surface, deep inside the cave, was sent out for carbon-dating. Redeposited loess (10 micron mean particle size) covers most of the cave foor. Researchers planning for the exploration of Martian lava tubes are using photographs and maps of Hibashi cave to produce robotic motion simulations for testing the capabilities of microrobotic designs to navigate inside the caves of Mars (Pint et al., 2005). HIBASHI CAVE Hibashi Cave or Ghar Al Hibashi (also spelled Hebashi) is registered as number 180 in Pint, 2002, and is located at 21°08’N, 42°08’E. Geological setting Ghar Al Hibashi lies near the center of Harrat Nawasif/ Al Buqum, a group of lava fows located east of Makkah (Mecca). Tese titaniferous, olivine basalts are described as gray to dark gray, vesicular, medium-grained and pro-phyritic (Ziab and Ramsay, 1986). Pint et al., 2005, speculate that Ghar Al Hibashi may lie in basalt dated at ca. 1.1 million years by Hötzl et al., 1978. Description Te cave is 689.5 m long. Te cave entrance is a collapse 14 m in diameter located in a slightly elevated area of a major basaltic fow emanating from a large crater to the southeast. A steep slope leads down to a gallery which intersects the east-west-oriented main passage of the cave. Tis passage is typically 12 m wide, increasing to 33 m at its eastern end. Te height ranges from <1 m to >9 m. Te cave map is shown in fig. 10. Te foor of Hibashi Cave is mostly covered with as much as 1.5 m of loess (having lain up to ca. 5800 Fig. 10: map of hibashi Cave. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 115 JOHN J. PINT years inside the cave, according to OSL dating), underlying beds of burnt bat guano at the extreme ends of the main passage. Volcanic levees, stalactites and stalagmites are common. At least 19 diferent minerals were found in the cave, three of them being extremely rare organic compounds related to the guano combustion. Bats and small animals live in the cave. Bones, desiccated animal scat and a human skull ca. 425 years old (fig. 11) were also found in the cave (forti et al., 2004; forti, 2005; Pint et al., 2005; Pint, 2005). Fig. 11: Part of a human skull found inside hibashi Cave and carbon dated at 425±30 years B P. Comments Te well-preserved scat of hyenas, wolves and foxes is found throughout the cave. Studies of plant material and other substances contained in these coprolites could be rewarding. Phytoliths preserved in the plant material may be used for identifying the plants and may shed light on the process of desertifcation which has taken place on the Arabian Peninsula. A wall built inside the cave indicates that it was used by humans at some point. Ar-cheologists, paleontologists and historians may wish to explore what may be hidden in the thick bed of loess covering the cave foor. OTheR InveSTIGATIOnS On May 29 and 30, 2001, J. Pint few over parts of Northern Harrat Rahat by helicopter. Pint noted areas of Pa-hoehoe lava at 24° 15’ N, 39° 40’ E; 22° 34’ N, 39° 20’ E and 24° 28’ N, 39° 44’E and noted what appeared to be collapse entrances to lava caves at 24° 17’ N, 39° 41’ E and 24° 21’ N, 39° 42’ E. Most of these locations may be difcult to access by vehicle or on foot. None of the sites observed from the air during this feld trip have yet been visited. In february of 2003, an attempt was made to survey Dahl Um Quradi, a lava tube located in southern Harrat Khaybar. J. Pint and M. Al-Shanti led this feld trip with J. Shawali acting as guide. Just outside the cave entrance, SGS geologist Saeed Al-Amoudi was seriously injured and had to be rescued by helicopter, resulting in the cancellation of the survey. However, it was noted that the cave has a walk-in entrance measuring 2 x 3 m and a vertical (collapse) entrance 4 m in diameter and ca. 5 m deep. Tis lava tube may be 100-200 m long. Jamal Shawali stated that there is another lava tube in the area, but this could not be visited. In January, 2004, J. Pint, S. Pint and A. Gregory travelled to the center of Harrat Khaybar. Te entrances to several lava tubes on the fanks of the basaltic strato-volcano Jebel Qidr were observed and photographed. According to Roobol et al. (2002) this volcano may have last erupted in 1800 A.D., suggesting that lava caves in this fow may be among the youngest and most pristine in Saudi Arabia. In May of 2004, a search for lava caves in Harrat Harrah, in the extreme northwestern corner of Saudi Arabia, was undertaken by an SGS team led by Mahmoud Al-Shanti. Tis same lava fow extends across the border into Jordan, where several lava tubes have been found and studied (Kempe et al., 2004; Kempe and Al-Mala-beh, 2005). It was therefore hoped that lava caves would also be found on the Saudi side. Although no noteworthy caves were encountered, a well 13 m wide and 24-25 m deep was found on a small basalt hill. Ancient script -apparently Tamudic—covers many rocks near the cave entrance suggesting that this well may have been in use at least 2,000 years ago. Due to the instability of the well’s walls, it was not entered. Te location of the well is given in Pint, 2002. 116 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 VULCANOSPELEOLOGy IN SAUDI ARABIA fUTURE POSSIBILITIES POTENTIAL fOR THE fURTHER DISCOVERy AND TOPOGRAPHy Of LAVA CAVES Saudi Arabia has at least 80,000 km2 of lava felds, roughly divided into twelve major harrats. During a short period of four years, six of these harrats were visited and in each of them some feature of interest to vulcanospeleolo-gists was observed. Te core team which located and/or entered these cavities consisted of only fve individuals (J. Pint, M. Al-Shanti, S. Al-Amoudi, A. Al-Juaid and S. Pint). It can only be concluded that with more time and/ or more personnel, many more lava caves will be found in Saudi Arabia. Tis assertion, in the case of Harrat Khaybar, is backed up by the many references to lavatube collapse holes in Roobol and Camp (1991a), including descriptions of numerous collapses on whale-back formations up to 25 km long, situated up to 25 km from Fig. 12: map of two ancient caravan trails in Saudi Arabia, showing lava felds. Afer hussein Sabir, 1991. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 117 JOHN J. PINT the source volcanoes, indicating a potential for lava tubes up to 50 km long in Saudi Arabia. To these collapses may be added the lava tubes observed in southern and central Harrat Khaybar (mentioned above under Other Investigations) but not yet explored. At present the record for longest mapped lava cave in the Middle East is held by Al-fahda Cave, 923.50 m long, in Jordan (Kempe and Malabeh, 2005). POTENTIAL fOR NEW SPELEOLOGICAL STUDIES • mineralogy: Signifcant and unusual cave minerals were found in Hibashi Cave (forti et al., 2004; forti, 2005) but such studies have yet to be undertaken in other Saudi lava caves. • Archeology: Saudi lava caves lie near ancient sites of human habitation as well as adjacent to several ancient caravan trails (fig. 12). All mapped lava caves contain structures or artifacts indicating use or visits by humans in the past. Te only recorded visit to a Saudi lava cave by an archeologist (Bukhari, 2006) revealed indications that the cave may have been used as a dwelling and may contain burial sites. A search of archeological journals in february of 2006 suggests that few if any formal archeo-logical studies have ever taken place in Saudi lava caves. • biology: Many lava caves were formed a million or more years ago and are located in remote areas of dif-fcult access. Speleologists have found numerous indications that a variety of living creatures inhabit or inhabited the Saudi lava caves thus far explored (Roobol et al., 2002; Pint et al., 2005). A february 2006 search of biol- It is likely that Saudi Arabia’s lava felds contain a great many caves and possibly some of the longest lava tubes in the world. It is also likely that archeological, mineralogi-cal and biological cave studies (among others) will yield important discoveries. Reconnaissance for caves in the lava felds of Saudi Arabia should, therefore, be resumed. I thank Dr. Maher Idris of the Saudi Geological Survey for his constant support of cave studies. I deeply appreciate the feld work of Susana Pint, Mahmoud Al-Shanti, Saeed Al-Amoudi, Abdulrahman Al-Juaid and many others, such as Mamdoah Al-Rashid, Peter Harrigan, John Semple, Peter Vincent, fayek Kattan, Jamal Shawali, Greg ogy journals suggests that no biological studies have ever been carried out in any Saudi lava cave. PROBLEMS RELATED TO LAVA-CAVE STUDIES In some parts of the world, the scientifc study of caves has a long history and over the years, organizations dedicated to speleology were founded in the private sector, the public sector or both. In Saudi Arabia, however, public realization of the nature, extent and resource value of the Kingdom’s caves (limestone, lava and others) is a very recent phenomenon. Saudi Arabia has no laws specif-cally related to caves and no private or government organization specifcally concerned with speleology. Many of the speleological studies carried out in Saudi Arabia were done by foreigners living in the country for only a few years. for the most part, the results of these studies were not properly recorded. Recent speleological work by a semi-government organization (the Saudi Geological Survey) has laid an excellent foundation for speleology in Saudi Arabia. However, its work has been somewhat limited to the feld of geology, which is only one of the several sciences included under the umbrella of speleology. Speleo-archeol-ogy and biospeleology, for example, have been neglected. Te formation of a Kingdom-wide speleological organization, whether academic, governmental or recreational, might provide the coherence and stability that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia needs for a sustained study of its caves. Te establishment of a Kingdom-wide organization dedicated to speleology may foster studies in all branches of cave science and facilitate the preservation and dissemination of the resultant fndings. Gregory and John Weatherburn, who made our feld trips successful. Special thanks to Dr. John Roobol, Dr. Paolo forti, Dr. Stephan Kempe and the ingenius Dado Quero for their invaluable assistance in preparing this and previous reports on volcanic caves in Saudi Arabia. CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 118 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 VULCANOSPELEOLOGy IN SAUDI ARABIA REfERENCES Bukhari, M., 2006: Email communication with John and Susana Pint. forti, P. , Galli, E., Rossi A., Pint, J. & Pint, S., 2004: Ghar Al Hibashi Lava Tube: Te Richest Site in Saudi Arabia for Cave Minerals. Acta carsologica, 33/2 11 Ljubljana, pp 189-205. forti, P. , 2005: Genetic Processes of Cave Minerals in Volcanic Environments: An Overview, Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, v. 67, no. 1, p. 3-13: National Speleological Society . Hötzl, H., Lippolt, H.J., Maurin, V. , Moster, H. & Rauert, W. , 1978. Quaternary Studies on the recharge area situated in crystalline rock regions, In: S.S. Al-Sayari and J.G. Zotl (eds.), „Quaternary Period in Saudi Arabia,“ pp. 230-239. Springer Verlag. Kempe, S., Al-Malabeh, A. & Henschel, H.-V., 2004: Lava caves of Jordan. – 11th International Symposium on Vulcanospeleology, 12-17 May, Azores, Abstract Volume. Kempe, S. & Al-Malabeh, A., 2005: Newly discovered lava tunnels of the Al-Shaam plateau basalts, Jordan. – EGU Geophysical Research Abstracts, 7: 03204. Kirkemo, H., Newman, W.L. & Ashley, R.P., 1997: Gold. U.S. Geological Survey Information Services, Denver. Levy, T.E., Adams, R. B., Najjar, Hauptmann, M. A., Anderson, J.D., Brandl, B., Robinson, M.A., & Higham, T., 2004: Research reassessing the chronology of biblical Edom: new excavations and 14C dates from Khirbat en-Nahas (Jordan) Antiquity 78: 863-876. Pint, J. 2002: Master list of GPS coordinates for Saudi Arabia caves (updated August, 2005): Saudi Geological Survey Confdential Data file SGS-CDf-2001-1. Pint, J., 2004: Te lava tubes of Shuwaymis, Saudi Arabia, presentation given at the xI International Symposium on Vulcanospeleology, Pico Island, Azores. Pint, J. & Pint S., 2005: Searching for lava tubes in Arabia, NSS News, May 2005, pp. 9-15. Pint, J., Al-Shanti, M.A., Al-Juaid, A.J., Al-Amoudi, S.A., & forti, P. , with the collaboration of Akbar, R., Vincent, P. , Kempe, S., Boston, P. , Kattan, f.H., Galli, E., Rossi, A., & Pint, S., 2005: Ghar al Hibashi, Harrat Nawasif/Al Buqum, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Saudi Geological Survey Open-file Report SGS-Of-2004-12, 68 p. 43 fgs, 1 table., 2 apps., 1 plate. Rashid, M., 2002: Personal Communication to J. Pint. Roobol, M.J. and Camp, V.E., 1991a: Geologic map of the Cenozoic lava feld of Harrats Khaybar, Ithnayn, and Kura, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Saudi Directorate General of Mineral Resources Geoscience Map GM-131, with explanatory text, 60 p. Roobol, M.J. and Camp, V.E., 1991b: Geologic map of the Cenozoic lava feld of Harrat Kishb, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabian Directorate General of Mineral Resources Geoscience Map GM-132, with explanatory text 34 p. Roobol, M.J., Pint, J.J., Al-Shanti, M.A., Al-Juaid, A.J., Al-Amoudi, S.A. & Pint, S., with the collaboration of Al-Eisa, A.M., Allam, f., Al-Sulaimani, G.S., & Banakhar, A.S., 2002: Preliminary survey for lavatube caves on Harrat Kishb, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Saudi Geological Survey Open-file report SGS-Of-2002-3, 35 p., 41 fgs., 1 table, 4 apps., 2 plates. Ziab, A.M. & Ramsay, C.R., 1986: Explanatory notes to the Geologic Map of the Turabah quadrangle, Sheet 21E, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, Deputy Ministry for Mineral Resources, Jeddah. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 119 COBISS: 1.01 PROTECTION Of KARST IN THE PHILIPPINES VARSTVO KRASA NA fILIPINIH Sonata Dulce f. RESTIfICAR1, Michael J. DAy2, & Peter B. URICH3 Abstract UDC 551.44:502.7(599) Sonata Dulce F. Restifcar, Michael J. Day, & Peter B. Urich: Protection of Karst in the Philippines Te article presents an overview of the current status of karst protection in the Philippines. Prior studies indicate that of the 35,000km2 of karst landscape in the country, about 29% is protected . However, protection of karst has not to date been a priority of the Philippine government, and the country has no existing legislation that is directly decreed for protection and conservation of karstlands. Most contemporary karst protection is indirect, in that the karst is located within protected areas established for other, although ofen related reasons, such as ecological conservation, water supply protection and tourism. However, it appears that the Philippine government is gradually recognizing explicitly the need to protect karst landscapes. Te establishment of the National Caves and Cave Resources Management and Protection Act in 2001 and the inclusion of karst water resources in the country’s National Action Plan (NAP) under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifcation (UNCCD) are signifcant steps towards explicit protection of karst areas. Although the existing legislation only addresses specifc facets of karst landscape, it may stimulate additional programs and legislation that will more broadly protect karst landscapes nationally. key words: Philippines, karst, caves, protected areas, environmental legislation. Izvleček UDK 551.44:502.7(599) Sonata Dulce F. Restifcar, Michael J. Day & Peter B. Urich: Varstvo krasa na Filipinih Članek predstavlja pregled stanja zaščite krasa na filipinih. Prejšnje raziskave kažejo, da je zaščitenega 29% od 35.000 km2 flipinskega krasa. Vendar pa do sedaj zaščita krasa ni bila prednostna naloga vlade in država nima zakonodaje, ki bi izrecno zahtevala zaščito in ohranjanje kraške pokrajine. Današnja zaščita krasa je posredna, ko je kras v zaščitenih področjih, razglašenih zaradi drugih, čeprav pogosto podobnih razlogov, kot so ekološka zaščita, zaščita pitne vode ali turizem. Vseeno pa kaže, da flipinska vlada postopoma spoznava pomen neposredne zaščite kraške pokrajine. Pomembni koraki k zaščiti kraških področij so ustanovitev National Caves and Cave Resources Management (Državne uprave jam in jamskih virov), Odlok o zaščiti iz 2001 in vključitev kraških vodnih virov v National Action Plan (Državni izvedbeni plan) v okviru United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifcation (Listina ZN za boj proti dezertifkaciji). Čeprav obstoječa zakonodaja upošteva samo določene poteze kraške pokrajine, lahko vzpodbuja dodatne programe in akte, ki bi omogočali celovitejšo zaščito kraške pokrajine v državnem okviru. ključne besede: filipini, kras, jame, zaščitena področja, okoljs-ka zakonodaja. 1 University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Department of Geography, 3210 North Maryland Avenue, Bolton Hall, Room 410, Wisconsin 53211, USA e-mail: restifs@onid.orst.edu 2 University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Department of Geography, 3210 North Maryland Avenue, Bolton Hall, Room 410, Wisconsin 53211, USA e-mail: mickday@uwm.edu 3 International Global Change Institute, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 2001, New Zealand, e-mail: pbu@waikato.ac.nz Received / Prejeto: 18.01.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 121–130, LJUBLJANA 2006 SONATA DULCE f. RESTIfICAR, MICHAEL J. DAy, & PETER B. URICH INTRODUCTION Te Philippines’ natural resources have long been stressed (Ong et al. 2002), and deforestation, degradation of land and water resources, and air, water and soil pollution are among the serious environmental problems that the country currently faces. Recognizing this, the Philippine government has passed legislation and instituted programs designed to preserve its remaining natural resources and to rejuvenate the environment. Tis legislation and the resource protection and conservation programs apply to the broad spectrum of national natural resources, including forest, marine and aquatic resources, wildlife, and natural landmarks, but they ofen lack a sound geomorphological basis. Te Philippines contains a diverse array of tropical karst landscapes that cover about 10% of the total land surface (Piccini & Rossi 1994; Balázs 1973). Despite this, the country has no legislation that is specifc to the protection and conservation of these distinctive and signif-cant physical resources. Te inclusion of karst protection in the country’s resource conservation efort would enhance the emerging resource protection program by explicitly including a landscape resource that difers from others in its geomorphology and hydrology. Moreover, other critical components of the national ecosystem would also be protected since the conservation of karst landscapes will concomitantly protect watersheds and habitats of unique wildlife, especially the cave-dwelling species whose existence depends on the karst. In this paper we provide an overview of environmental and resource protection in the Philippines, and assess the extent of karst protection in the country. We examine the legislation passed by the Philippine government in order to conserve natural resources and to protect the environment, and we identify legislation that directly or indirectly protects karst landscapes. We conclude with a brief outline of the karst areas that are currently being aforded protection. PROTECTED AREA LEGISLATION: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Te enactment of Executive Order No. 33 on April 25, 1910 marked the beginning of a conscious efort to protect the Philippines’ physical patrimony. Executive Order 33 created the frst park in the country - the Rizal National Park in Zamboanga, which is established in honor of the country’s national hero (PAWB 1989). Te 1930s witnessed the Philippine National Park Movement, pioneered by then Senator Camilo Osias and forestry Director Arthur fisher, who explored the country, identifying natural wonders that should be set aside for public enjoyment (PAWB 1989). Te Philippine’s frst legislation regarding park establishment and management was established in 1932, when Act No. 3915, entitled “A n Act for the Establishment of National Parks, Declaring such Parks as Game Refuges and for Other Purposes”, passed on february 01, marking the formal beginning of the country’s resource conservation efort. Act 3915 defned a national park as “a portion of the public domain reserved or withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or disposal under the laws of the Philippine Islands, which because of its panoramic, historical, scientifc or aesthetic value, is dedicated and set apart for the beneft and enjoyment of the people of the Philippine Islands” (WCMC 1992). Te Act became efective in 1934 through the issuance of forestry Administrative Order No. 7, entitled the National Park Regulations, which specifed the man- agement, development, conservation and use of national parks (PAWB 1989). In 1975, the National Park Regulations were updated through Presidential Decree 705, or the Revised forestry Code of the Philippines. Te Revised forestry Code included a provision for the allocation of forestland for purposes such as national parks, national historical sites, game refuge, wildlife sanctuaries and forest reserves. Te Code was subsequently amended in 1978 by Presidential Decree 1558 (PAWB 1989), and in 1981 the Code was further amended by Presidential Decree 1559 in order to “… further strengthen the code to make it more responsive to present realities and to the new thrust of government policies and programs and forest development and conservation…” among others. In addition, the 1981 revision provided an updated defnition of a national park: “a forest land reservation essentially of primitive or wilderness character which has been withdrawn from settlement or occupancy and set aside as such exclusively to preserve the scenery, the natural and historic objects and the wild animals or plants therein, and to provide enjoyment of those features in such a manner as will leave them unimpaired for future generations.” from 1932 to 1952, the Bureau of forestry in the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources (DANR) was responsible for national parks administra- 122 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PROTECTION Of KARST IN THE PHILIPPINES tion (WCMC 1992). In 1952, the Commission of Parks and Wildlife was created under Republic Act No. 826, and was placed under the control and supervision of the President of the Philippines (PAWB, 1989). Tis Republic Act was amended several times through Executive Orders, Letter of Implementation, and Presidential Decrees (WCMC 1992). In 1987, through Executive Order No. 192, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) was created and was vested with primary institutional responsibility for the management of national parks, reserves and other protected areas. Executive Order 192 also created six staf bureaus within the DENR, among which the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) was given the primary responsibility of managing the country’s protected areas as well as the conservation of biodiversity, genetic resources, and endangered wildlife resources. CONTEMPORARy PROTECTED AREA LEGISLATION Te Philippine Constitution mandates the State “to protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthy ecology” (Tan 1998). Tis duty is codifed in the Philippine Environmental Policy, which is the national blueprint for environmental protection (Tan 1998). Tis Policy, together with the Philippine Environment Code, which contains the basic principles regarding the country’s environmental and natural resource concerns, represents the basic law pertaining to the Philippine environment (Tan 1998). Te Philippine government’s commitment to environmental and resource protection is manifested in the 1990 Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development, which includes “a clear commitment on the behalf of government to establish protected areas as the principal instrument for conservation” (WWf 1991 in WCMC 1992). Republic Act No. 7586, also known as the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act, was Te Philippines contains a wide array of tropical karst landscapes. Te most signifcant karst areas are on the larger islands, with the most extensive being the Calbiga Karst on the island of Samar. Tere are also signifcant karst areas in the Cagayan, Kalinga-Apayao, Ilocos and Bicol regions of Luzon, on Bohol and Cebu in the Visa-yas, and in Negros, Davao and Cotabato in Mindanao (fig. 1). Te karst areas vary considerably in terms of landforms and age, although most of the karst is formed passed in 1992 to make provision for the establishment of integrated protected areas system as well as to “replace the fragmented and obsolete legislative foundation of protected areas in the Philippines” (Pollisco 1995). Te NIPAS Act of 1992 established the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) that “shall encompass outstanding remarkable areas and biologically important public lands that are habitats of rare and endangered species of plants and animals, biogeographic zones and related ecosystems, whether terrestrial, wetland or marine, all of which shall be designated as protected areas.” Te management and administration of NIPAS was placed under the DENR through the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB). Te NIPAS Act mandates that a PAMB should be created for each established protected area, with each PAMB being composed of the following members: the Regional Executive Director, a representative of the regional government, a representative from the municipal government, a representative from each barangay covered by the protected area, a representative from each tribal community, at least three representatives from Non-Government Organizations and/or the local community, and a representative from other departments or national government agencies involved in protected area management. Each board member serves for a term of fve years. Eight categories of protected areas were established under the NIPAS Act: strict nature reserves; natural parks; natural monuments; wildlife sanctuaries; protected landscapes and seascapes; resource reserves; natural biotic areas; and other categories established by law, conventions or international agreements to which the Philippine Government is a signatory. As of 2004, about 5.1 million hectares or about 17% of the Philippines’ total land area is classifed as protected (DENR 2004). Te country has 293 protected areas; of which 209 are created under the initial components of the system and 84 were created under the NIPAS system (DENR 2004). in Tertiary and Quaternary carbonates (Balázs 1973). Te most striking surface karst landforms are steep-sided karst towers, which are exemplifed by the towers of Coron Island in northern Palawan and on the west coast of Palawan. Pinnacle karst is also developed in Palawan (Longman & Brownlee 1980). Dome-shaped karst hills dominate the karst landscape of the island of Bohol, and there are also locally numerous dolines, dry valleys, poljes and caves. Te longest reported cave extends to about 15 DISTRIBUTION Of KARST ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 123 SONATA DULCE f. RESTIfICAR, MICHAEL J. DAy, & PETER B. URICH Fig. 1: Karst areas in the Philippines (based on Balázs 1973) km - and the deepest cave reaches a depth of about 163 m (Urich 1996). PROTECTION Of KARST Day & Urich (2000) reported that the Philippines protects about 29% of its total karst landscape. Protection of karst areas has not, however, been a deliberate policy on the part of the Philippine government. Te country has no existing legislation that directly addresses the protection and conservation of karst areas, and karst protection is largely efected through indirect means, that is karst happens to occur within areas designated for protection on the basis of other, although perhaps related criteria. Some existing karst areas are protected essentially because of their aesthetic and therefore tourism value, while others fall within nature or resource reserves, natural parks and monuments, wildlife sanctuaries or protected landscapes and seascapes. Recently, however, it appears that the Philippine government is beginning to recognize explicitly the importance of protecting certain karst areas 124 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PROTECTION Of KARST IN THE PHILIPPINES and components. One signifcant step was undertaken by the government to protect the country’s caves through the issuance of DENR Department Administrative Order No. 4, Series of 1994, which established the Cave Management and Conservation Program (CMCP). Te CMCP is intended to protect and safeguard the country’s caves through various programs including policy development, research, human resource development, information, education and communication campaigns, and community and stakeholder involvement in management and conservation (PAWB 2004a). Te CMCP is also more broadly signifcant particularly in the context of protection of karst because “…almost all caves in the Philippines are formed in limestone” (Bacalian 1993). One of the initial components of CMCP is the assessment of the state of Philippine caves, which produced an initial inventory of about 2,466 caves in 35 of the country’s 76 provinces (Bacalian 1993). In the implementation of the CMCP under the NIPAS Act, three caves have been proclaimed as protected areas: Calbiga Protected Landscape, Pamitinan Protected Landscape, and Penablanca Protected Landscape (PAWB 2004a). In 2001, eforts to protect, conserve and manage the country’s caves and cave resources were further strengthened via the passage of Republic Act No. 9072, which is also known as the “National Caves and Cave Resources Management and Protection Act”. Te implementation of this Caves Act is directed through multiple agencies whose main functions are as follows: 1. DENR: permit issuance, information dissemination and education campaign; 2. Department of tourism: promotion of caves clas-sifed as ecotourism sites, and visitor management; 3. National museum: protection and management of caves with cultural and archeological features; 4. National historical Institute: protection of sites with historical value; 5. local government Units; and, 6. Palawan Council for Sustainable Development: in the case of Palawan Province. One of the provisions of the Caves Act is the continuing inventory of the country’s caves. As of 2003, the cave inventory listed 1,525 caves (PAWB 2004b), only 204 of which have been studied in detail. Tere is some duplication in terms of provisions between the Caves Act and the NIPAS Act; for instance, 87 of the caves listed under the former also fall under the Integrated Protected Area Program (IPAP). Te Caves Act’s role in terms of protecting the karst landscape is limited at best. It is intended mainly for the management and conservation of a wide mélange of the country’s caves and cave resources and it is not directly targeted toward the protection of broader karst land- scapes. Although the Act may serve to protect individual caves in karst areas, it is not specifcally decreed for their protection. However, other legislation does exist that indirectly protects karst landscapes: 1. Republic Act 9147 or the “Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act” aims to conserve the country’s wildlife resources and their habitats, and can be used to protect wildlife resources in specifc karst areas. 2. Republic Act 7942 or the “Mining Act” contains provisions relating to areas closed to mining operations. Tese include all areas under NIPAS, which includes several karst areas. 3. DENR-DOT Memorandum Circular 98-02 (Guidelines for Ecotourism Development in the Philippines) and Executive Order No. 11 (Establishing the Guidelines for Ecotourism Development in the Philippines) provide guidelines for the management of caves used for ecotourism activities. 4. Republic Act 4846 or the “Cultural Properties Preservation and Protection Act” may be invoked to protect cave resources of cultural signifcance. Te Philippine Government is a signatory to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifcation (UNCCD), which is a United Nations agenda aimed at combating desertifcation and at mitigating the efects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/ or desertifcation. UNCCD was ratifed by the Philippine Senate in february 2000 and came into full force in May of the same year. UNCCD requires each signatory nation to prepare a National Action Plan (NAP), which is one of the key instruments in the Convention’s implementation (UNCCD 2004). Te Philippines’ proposed National Action Plan is designed as a Convergence Plan of Action of the National Government for combating land and water degradation and desertifcation, and for reducing poverty (Concepcion 2004). Te implementation of the plan will involve the participation of the Department of Agriculture (DA), the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR), the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), and the DENR. One of the six Community-Based Tematic Programs included in the NAP is “Participatory Management of Karst Water Resources in Small Islands”, and this program potentially will have a direct impact on karst water resource conservation nationally. PROTECTED KARST AREAS At the national scale, there is surprisingly limited information about many protected areas that do or may include karst, so here we focus on those major karst areas that are known to be protected. In this context, twenty-three karst areas in the country are currently known to have protected status (Table 1). Tese are areas whose ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 125 SONATA DULCE f. RESTIfICAR, MICHAEL J. DAy, & PETER B. URICH Protected Karst Area Location Karst features National Parks 1. Balbalasang-Balbakan Kalinga-Apayao Caves with outstanding stalactites and stalagmites, karst tower 2. Callao Cave Cagayan 9-kilometer long cave with an active stream 3. Hundred Islands Pangasinan Caves, some caves are underwater 4. Minalungao Nueva Ecija Cathedral-like caves 5. Biak-na-Bato Bulacan Several caves with rivers 6. Mt. Banahaw-Mt. Cristobal Laguna and Quezon Series of caves 7. Libmanan Camarines Sur Several caves, series of crystal caverns and cataracts 8. Mt. Isarog Camarines Sur Series of crystal caverns 9. Caramoan Camarines Sur Cave 10. Bulusan Sorsogon Limestone formations 11. Puerto Princesa Subterranean River Palawan Several caves, sinkholes, karst tower, karren, 8-kilometer long St. Paul Cave with tidal underground river, pinnacle karst 12. Bulabog-Putian Iloilo Caves, springs 13. Guadalupe Mabugnao-Mainit Cebu Interconnected caves 14. Sudlon Cebu Cave system 15. Kuapnit Balinsasayao Leyte Caves 16. Sohoton Natural Bridge Samar Stone bridge, cave with cathedral-like chamber and underground river, caves are typically phreatic 17. Initao Misamis Oriental Caves 18. Mt. Kitanglad Bukidnon Caves Protected Landscape 1. Pamitinan Rizal Caves 2. Calbiga Samar Cave system with 3 prominent caves, sinkholes, cave with active stream, uvalas, underground rivers, cockpits, karst plateau 3. Rajah Sikatuna Bohol Caves, sinkholes, isolated mogotes 4. El Nido Palawan Cave, marine karst tower Natural Monument 1. Chocolate Hills Bohol Conical karst hills, polje tab. 1: Protected karst areas karst landscapes are recognized as such and whose protected status is clear (fig. 2). Te following summarizes some of these known protected karst areas. Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park (PPSRNP) in Palawan features a spectacular karst landscape. “More than 90% of the park comprises sharp, karst limestone ridges around Mount St. Paul which is itself part of a series of rounded, limestone peaks aligned on a north-south axis, along the western coast of Palawan” (WCMC 2000). Te principal feature of PPSRNP is its more than 8-kilometer long underground river (fig. 3). A distinguishing feature of this underground river is that “it emerges directly into the sea, and that the lower portion of the river is brackish and subject to tidal infuenc-es” (IUCN 1999). In 1991, the Philippine Government nominated PPSRNP as a UN Natural World Heritage Site but the nomination was deferred upon the recommendation of IUCN since the proposed area was deemed 126 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PROTECTION Of KARST IN THE PHILIPPINES Fig. 2: Protected karst areas in the Philippines too small by the IUCN Technical Evaluation Team to adequately protect its underground river watershed and to ensure the long-term viability of its signifcant biodiversity (PPSRNP 2000; IUCN 1999). In 1999, the area of the park was increased from its original mere 3,901 hectares to 22,202 hectares through Proclamation Order No. 212 (DENR 2000). Tis paved the way for its inscription as a Natural World Heritage Site in November of that year. Te expansion of its boundary, however, brought some consequential resource use conficts between the mandates of the park and the livelihood needs of the people whose lands have been included in its expanded boundary (Restifcar 2004). Its importance as a distinctive geological feature is further recognized in 2004 when the National Committee on Geological Sciences (NCGS) declared it as a National Geologic Monument. Samar Island Natural Park (SINP), which covers an area of about 333,300 hectares, including 37 municipalities and one city, was in 2003 declared a protected area under the NIPAS Act (Labro 2003). Several of the country’s most signifcant karst landscapes are located in Fig. 3: Te outfow of the St. Paul Cave underground river ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 – 2006 127 SONATA DULCE f. RESTIfICAR, MICHAEL J. DAy, & PETER B. URICH this area, in particular the Calbiga karst, which is one of the largest known karst areas in the country (eLGU 2004; IUCN Karst Project: Philippines undated). Te Calbiga karst covers an area of about 900 km2 (Balázs 1973) and, within this, the Calbiga Cave Protected Landscape, which was included in the NIPAS list in 1997, covers an area of 2,968 hectares (PAWB 2004c). Te Calbiga Cave Protected Landscape includes 12 caves, the largest of which is the 5 km long Langun-Gobingob System (eLGU 2004; IUCN Karst Project: Philippines undated). Sohoton Natural Bridge National Park also includes Pahulugan Cave, Sohoton Cave and Bugasan Cave plus spectacular limestone formations, including the limestone bridge whence the name Sohoton (which means “to pass through”) was derived (PAWB 1997). Conical karst hills, which are aptly called Chocolate Hills, are the most dominant feature of the karst landscape of central Bohol (fig. 4). Te Chocolate Hills Nat- Fig. 4: Te Chocolate hills of Bohol ural Monument, covering an area of about 1,776 hectares, was inscribed as a National Geologic Monument in 1988 by NCGS, and as a protected area under NIPAS in 1997. Te Chocolate Hills Natural Monument consists of about 1,268 more-or-less symmetrical, haycock-shaped 1. A barangay is the smallest political unit in the Philippines. 2. One of the programs of the National Committee on Geological Sciences (NCGS) is the establishment of National Geological Monuments, which aims to ensure the protection and preservation of the country’s geological structures and features with high scientifc, educational hills that rise some 30 meters above the surrounding ground. Te plains around these conical hills have been transformed into thriving rice-growing landscapes that are “connected to the less accessible mountain tracts” by “karst-springs at their foot” supplying water for irrigation (Urich 1989; Uhlig 1987). However, “Bohol’s 500-year history of sustained karstland occupation is seriously threatened today by the pressures of population, inappropriate application of agricultural technologies, and civil strife” (Urich 1993). Te Rajah Sikatuna National Park in Bohol is one of the most recent additions to the country’s list of protected karst areas. Te Park was established in 1987 and was assigned an area of 9,023 hectares (PAWB 1997). “Te Park’s geology is based on two distinct units: Pliocene to Pleistocene-aged limestone in the west and Late Miocene-to-Pliocene-aged limestone in the east and northeast” - wherein two distinct suites of karst landform have developed (Urich & Bliss 1992). Te younger limestone is dissected by discontinuous valleys, cockpits, isolated mogotes and extensive corrosion plains, while the Miocene-aged limestone is dominated by interfuvial valleys and extensive ridges, although both geologic units express similar subterranean and micro-karst features such as caves, sinkholes, subsurface drainage, estavelles and swallets (Urich & Bliss 1992). In 2000, the area was de-listed as a National Park and was designated a Protected Landscape instead. Tis change was made because the large number of people resident within its boundaries prevented the area meeting the criteria of a National Park. Te area of the Rajah Sikatuna Protected Landscape is currently about 10, 452 hectares (PAWB, 2005). Te Hundred Islands of the Lingayen Gulf consist of the lower rocks of the “Kegel” karst type (Uhlig 1980). Te Hundred Islands National Park consists of about 123 islands and covers an area of 1,676 hectares. Te Hundred Islands was declared a national park in 1983 (PAWB 2004d), and a National Geological Monument in 2001 (NCGS 2001). It is a resort area that has a vibrant tourism industry. or aesthetic value as well as to promote awareness of geology among the public (Virtucio undated). 3. Te Regional Executive Director (RED) is a DENR of-fcial. REDs are designated as Chairmen of the PAMBs under the NIPAS Act of 1992. END NOTES 128 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 PROTECTION Of KARST IN THE PHILIPPINES POVZETEK Do sedaj varstvo krasa ni bila prednostna naloga flipin-ske vladne politike, čeprav se to pričenja spreminjati. Čeprav se v tej državi zakonodaja le malo neposredno ukvarja z varstvom in ohranjanjem kraških področij, jih je nekaj zaščitenih posredno, ker so vključena v področja, zaščitena iz drugih razlogov. Nekaj kraških področij je zaščitenih zaradi estetskih in turističnih vrednot, nekaj drugih pa je vključenih v parke in rezervate. Na filipinih je sicer malo kraških področij, ki so prepoznavna zaradi kraških značilnosti in pomena za kras, Balázs, D., 1973: Karst Types in the Philippines - International Speleology 1973, II, Subsection Ba: Geo-morphology of the Karst Surface, 19-38. Bacalian, J. J., 1993: Why Should We Care for Our Caves? - People and Nature, 8-10. Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences (BMGS), 1986: geology and mineral Resources of the Philippines, volume two: mineral Resources. - Manila, Philippines, 228-230. Concepcion, Rogelio, 2004: Te Philippine National Action Plan for the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifcation and Drought (UNCCD): Summary - Briefng Material. Day, M. & Urich, P., 2000: An assessment of protected karst landscapes in Southeast Asia - Cave and Karst Science, 27, 2, 61-70. DENR, 2000: Estrada Declares Palawan Cave a Protected Area: Widens Area to 22,202 Hectares and Transfers Jurisdiction to DENR PAMB - Press Release, www. denr.gov.ph/020500.htm, Accessed on 25 March 2000. DENR, 2004: Summary of protected areas in the Philippines by Region -www.pawb.gov.ph/article/articlev-iew, Accessed 12 March 2004. eLGU, 2004: Calbiga Cave - elgu.ncc.gov.ph/ecommu-nity/calbiga-wsamar, Accessed July 2004. vendar jih je vedno več posredno zaščitenih zaradi vedno boljše okoljske zakonodaje. Še več, kaže, da flipinska vlada priznava pomen neposredne zaščite krasa. Sprejem Zakona o urejanju in zaščiti jam in jamskih virov ter podpis Konvencije Združenih narodov o boju proti napredovanju puščav (UNCCD) sta pomembna koraka flipinske vlade, ki bosta neposredno koristila kraškim področjem. Čeprav se ti pravni akti ukvarjajo le s posebnimi kraškimi oblikami, lahko vodijo v programe in dodatne akte, ki bodo neposredno zaščitili kras po vsej državi. IUCN, 1999: IUCN Evaluation of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List, Report to the Twenty-third Ordinary Session of the Word Heritage Committee - Marrakesh, Morocco, 29 November - 04 December 1999, 81-87. IUCN Karst Project: Philippines, undated. Labro, V. S., 2003: President: Samar park a protected area - www.inq7.net/reg/2003/aug/14/reg_1-1.html, Accessed 13 August 2003. Longman, M. W. & Brownlee, D. N., 1980: Characteristic of karst topography, Palawan, Philippines -Zeitschrif fur Geomorphologie, 24, 3, 299-317. NCGS, 2001: Declaration of the Hundred Islands as a National Geological Monument – Brochure. Ong, P. S., Afuang, L. E. & Rosell-Ambal, R. G., 2002: Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priorities: A Second Iteration of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan - Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Conservation International Philippines, Biodiversity Conservation Program-University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Development Studies, foundation for the Philippine Environment. PAWB, 1989: General Information: National Parks of the Philippines (As of Calendar year 1989). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Donna Genzmer and Ann Runyard of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Cartography and GIS Center for their help with the maps. REfERENCES ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 129 SONATA DULCE f. RESTIfICAR, MICHAEL J. DAy, & PETER B. URICH PAWB, 1997: Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Plan of Action - CDENR, UNEP and Bookmark Inc., Philippines. PAWB, 2004a: Cave Management and Conservation Program -www.pawb.gov.ph/programs/caves.htm, Accessed May 2004. PAWB, 2004b: Reported caves in the Philippines as of June 2003 (per Province) - Periodic Report. PAWB, 2004c: Protected Areas: Region 8 - www.pawb. gov.ph/Region-8.htm, Accessed July 2004. PAWB, 2004d: List of known and developed caves in the Philippines – Periodic Report . PAWB, 2005: Protected Areas (Pas) by Region: region 7 – www.pawb.gov.ph/region_7.htm, Accessed January 2005. Piccini, L. & Rossi, G., 1994: Italian Caving Exploration in the Island of Palawan, Philippines – Speleologia, 15, 31, 5-62. Pollisco, Marifl florinda, 1995: Park-People Relationships: Te Case of St. Paul Subterranean National Park and Its Neighboring Communities, Palawan, Philippines – Master’s thesis, Lincoln University, New Zealand. PPSRNP, 2000: Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park - www.puertoprincesa.org.ph/ppsrnp, Accessed December 2000. Republic Act No 7586, 1992: An Act Establishing the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS). Restifcar, Sonata Dulce f., 2004: Developing a framework for a Sustainable Use of Tropical Karst Landscape: Te Case of Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Philippines – Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA, 244 p. Tan, A. K. J., 1998: Preliminary Assessment of Philippines’ Environmental Law - www.sunsite.nus.edu. sg, Accessed 27 March 2000. Uhlig, H., 1980: Man and Tropical Karst in Southeast Asia: Geo-ecological Diferentiations, Land Use and Rural Development Potentials in Indonesia and other Regions – GeoJournal, 4, 1, 31-44. Uhlig, H., 1987: Agricultural geography and geoecology of karst-regions in Southeast Asia - International Symposium on Karst, Postojna, yugoslavia, 137-157. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifcation (UNCCD), 2004: Action Programmes -www. unccd. int, Accessed July 2004. Urich, P. B., 1989: Tropical karst management and agricultural development: example from Bohol, Philippines - Geografska Annaler, 71B, 2, 95-108. Urich, P. B., 1993: Stress on Tropical Karst Cultivated with Wet Rice: Bohol, Philippines - Environmental Geology, 21, 129-136. Urich, P. B., 1996: International Speleological Expedition: Philippines 1995 - International Caver, 18, 28-33. Urich, P. B. & Bliss, E., 1992: New Karst Park - NSS News, 41-42. Virtucio, L. T., undated: Te National Monuments Program of the National Committee on Geological Sciences - Briefng Material. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), 1992 Protected Areas of the World: A Review of national systems - www.wcmc.org.uk/cgi-bin/pa-paisquery. p, Accessed July 2004. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), 2000: Description of Natural World Heritage Properties: Philippines - www.wcmc.org.uk/protected_areas/ data/wh/princess.html, Accessed 25 March 2000. World Wildlife fund (WWf), 1991: Inception Report: Integrated Protected Areas System of the Philippines: feasibility Studies, Preliminary Design and other Support Components, World Wildlife fundUS, Washington, DC. – in: World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), 1992 Protected Areas of the World: A Review of national systems - www. wcmc.org.uk/cgi-bin/pa-paisquery.p, Accessed July 2004. 130 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 THE STORy Of THE 1833 fERCHER SURVEy, POSTOJNSKA JAMA, CONTINUES: AN ADDITIONAL DOCUMENT AND NEWLy DISCOVERED INSCRIPTIONS ZGODBA fERCHERJEVE IZMERE POSTOJNSKE JAME (1833) SE NADALJUJE: DODATNI DOKUMENTI IN NOVO ODKRITI NAPISI by Stephan KEMPE1, Hans-Peter HUBRICH2 & Klaus SUCKSTORff3 Abstract: UDC 551.442(497.4 Postojna)(091) Stephan Kempe & Hans-Peter Hubrich & Klaus Suckstorf: The story of the 1833 Fercher survey, Postojnska jama, continues: An additional document and newly discovered inscriptions Publications, archived documents and inscriptions help with the reconstruction of the history of Postojnska jama. Until recently, the circumstances of the frst mayor cave survey ever undertaken were not well known. It is the so called fercher Survey conducted in winter 1833; a cooperation between the Mine Ofce in Idrija and the Cave Administration that surveyed the entire cave known at the time. Documents from the Archive of the Karst Research Institute and an inscription in the Tartarus of Postojnska jama gave a frst insight into this story (Kempe, 2005). Te survey suggested that (in what is now Male jama) a connection could be blasted to shorten the visitor route. Now a further letter dated 5th September, was found shedding light on this mining attempt begun in summer 1833. In the letter the Cave Administration massively attacks the Mine Ofce. Tey claim that either the survey was not accurate or that the breakthrough was attempted at a wrong site. In consequence they demanded their expenses back, threatening with an investigation by the precinct administration. We also found three more inscriptions of the fercher Party, in Pisani rov and in the Old Cave, one by fercher and two by the miner Tracha. key words: history of cave survey, fercher, Postojnska jama, Slovenia. Izvleček: UDK 551.442(497.4 Postojna)(091) Stephan Kempe & Hans-Peter Hubrich & Klaus Suckstorff: Zgodba Fercherjeve izmere Postojnske jame (1833) se nadaljuje: dodatni dokumenti in novo odkriti napisi Objavljena dela, arhivirani dokumenti in napisi pomagajo rekonstruirati zgodovino Postojnske jame. Do nedavna so bile okoliščine prve velike jamske izmere še ne dovolj poznane. Gre za t.im. fercherjevo izmero v zimi 1833: v sodelovanju med Rudniškim uradom v Idriji in Jamsko upravo je bila izmerjena celotna do tedaj znana jama. Na podlagi dokumentov iz arhiva Inštituta za raziskovanje krasa in napisa v Tartarju (Postojnska jama) je bil mogoč prvi vpogled v to zgodbo. Na podlagi izmere je bil svetovan (v današnjih Malih jamah) preboj s pomočjo miniranja, ki bi obiskovalcem skrajšal pot. Najdeno je bilo pismo datirano s 5. septembrom, ki meče novo luč na ta rudarski podvig v začetku poletja 1833. V tem pismu Jamska uprava hudo napada Rudarski urad. Zatrjujejo, da bodisi izmera ni bila pravilna ali pa je bil preboj napravljen na napačnem mestu. Zato zahtevajo nazaj plačilo stroškov ter grozijo s preiskavo preko ustrezne instance. Odkriti so bili še trije novi napisi fercherjeve skupine, v Pisanem rovu in v Starih jamah, eden od samega fercherja in dva od rudarja Trahe. ključne besede: zgodovina merjenja jam, fercher, Postojnska jama, Slovenija. INTRODUCTION Te reconstruction of the history of the discovery of chived documents and inscriptions in the cave (among Postojnska jama rests on the study of publications, ar- others: Shaw, 1992; Shaw & Čuk, 2002; Kempe, 2003, 1 Institute for Applied Geosciences, University of Technology Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstr. 9, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany, email: kempe@geo.tu-darmstadt.de; 2 Am Langenmarkstein 31, D-64686 Lautertal; 3 Rosenweg 42, D-21502 Geesthacht. Received / Prejeto: 08.03.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 131–138, LJUBLJANA 2006 STEPHAN KEMPE, HANS-PETER HUBRICH & KLAUS SUCKSTORff sArnz %tz#i -i/ devn-^tn, /S^r.Z'zA/M.tt'/idi'rf/ Tartarus Panel B Jhxj wrflt JErL/&raji& *s/. Eimpitrto- tti efte Groltr Fercher, Urbas . fton ¦¦ r'-;-¦ / } //' * ¦¦'>•'/ Grof if It _ <'?.*< i.-ff //. -if *H 'i'"h.i: f*'-:ssiy Zitat ßt&Stit ti. JStfAwt, Q Ji'-žrtAti-zcij - iJcÄaniu' - Suvll*. &rJi, f'nptfttyZart dkUtn Grelle. S.7! J>ie Ztytzut mithld tirttj JKpÜefl* Tracha /j. .Sr/>toj& /turne von ^Jf&trdery F ffin TZeltl&rJ&rilojtdelciay ft? C&mmerciatiz. /fo/j/nr/2r pws /rieftnaeA /Pteji. jL.fteÄrtiveeL[ ?ur Gi-Q/te V. Bor/ Črv/Mini "&-!*• ^T^*f ifrfCJ r1: Fig. 1: Reduced map of the Fercher Survey, published by Schafenrath, 1834. Schafenrath reduced the original map to 1/8th and added the surface topography in the lower part of the map. Te letters t-S mark the attempted breakthrough between the two passages which today are called male jama. Te passage O-P is called today Pisani rov. Passage B is the Name Passage in the old part of the cave. Te locations of the four known inscriptions of the Fercher Survey team are indicated by arrows. ^i^ i,S.Mr Ayr. 2005; Kempe et al., 2004; Kempe & Henschel, 2004). Specifcally the years immediately afer the discovery of the main passage are not documented clearly in spite of the publications of Volpi (1821), Bronn (1826), Hohen-wart (1830, 1832a,b), Schafenrath (1834), and Schmidl (1854, 1858). Particularly the circumstances of the survey of the cave in 1833, the so-called fercher Survey, remained unknown (fig. 1). It was the largest highly professional survey conducted up to that point, with the Lee Survey of Mammoth Cave following a year later (Shaw, 1972). Te publication of the Tartarus Panel, on which the members of the survey team lef their names, gave opportunity to search for associated documents in the archive of the Karst Institute and of the Mines at Idrija. four letters and notes have been found by the librarian of the Karst Institute, Maja Kranjc. Tese German language letters were written in Current handwriting, in use at the time for ofcial documents. Tese letters have been transcribed and analyzed (Kempe, 2005). Tey show that the Grottenverwaltung (Grotto Commission) had asked the Bergamt (Mining Ofce) at Idrija for help with the survey. Accordingly the Bergamt had sent “Marktscheider” 132 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 AN ADDITIONAL DOCUMENT AND NEWLy DISCOVERED INSCRIPTIONS (surveyor) Michael Glantschnigg, “Huttmann” (mine supervisor) Johann fercher, “Gehülfe” (helper) Aloys Ur-bas, “fuhrmann” (coach man) Johann Leskovitz, “Bergmann” (miner) Johann Wruss and “Bergmann” Valentin Tracha to conduct the survey. fercher, Urbas, Wruss and Tracha inscribed their names during the survey at the south-hand branch of the Tartarus on february 7th, 1833. Glanschigg and Leskovitz seem not to have been active in the cave. One of the results of the survey was that the two passages, today forming the Male jama, ended very closely to each other. Te Grottenverwaltung therefore asked for help once more and the Bergamt sent Tracha on July 11th with a supply of 50 pounds of black powder Te letter is labeled “GV 52”, “GV” standing for “Grottenverwaltung”, dated September 5th, 1833, and is addressed to the “ löbliche k.k. Bergamt” at Idrija, i.e. to the “honorable Imperial-Royal Mining Ofce” at the mercury mine at Idrija. Troughout the letter, this address is repeated several times shortened to “löbl.”. Never a specifc person, such as fercher or Bergrat Prettmann (who signed two of the previous letters from Idrija; Kempe, 2005), is addressed directly. Tis is a specifc characteristic of what is called (derogatorily) “Amtsdeutsch”, the impersonal style of German-speaking administrations. It signals the power of the speaker as an ofcial of state towards a “subject”. Similarly, the signature of the letter is abstracted; here we think it should be read as “Letz” or “Betz”, but it may also be abbreviated and stand for “Lenertz”, (compare signature below No 57 GV, Oct. 8th, 1833, in Kempe, 2005), reminding of signatures of medical doctors in today’s society. Tere are other illegible words in the letter, some of which we were able to deduce from the context, others remain illegible; luckily these are not essential for understanding the content. Te entire note consists of ca. 2900 letters (without blanks) but has only eight sentences! Long and complicated sentences are another feature of “Amtsdeutsch” and even more so of the written German at the beginning of the 19th century. Another peculiarity of the letter is the largely missing commas that make reading difcult. In order to make discussion of the text easier, we have inserted numbers in parentheses at the beginning of each of the eight sentences. Te entire letter is carefully crafed, starting with some compliments but ending with the demand to reimburse the Grottenverwaltung for the funds spent on the failed Male jama connection. One cannot avoid the impression that the Grottenverwaltung actually tries to blackmail the Mine Ofce! in order to open up this blockage between the passages. Tis attempt, however, failed and the Grottenverwaltung apparently complained about the inaccuracy of the survey with the Bergamt. Tis upset fercher and he immediately wrote a rather angry letter on September 8th to the Bergamt that transmitted it immediately to the Grottenverwaltung (document 986). Now the letter of the Grottenverwaltung, dated September 5th was relocated in the Archive of the Karst Institute (Appendix 1) by Trevor Shaw and is transcribed here for the frst time. In addition we found three further inscriptions of members of the fercher party in diferent parts of the cave. Sentence (1) is the opening of the game: It states the fact that the Grottenverwaltung, trusting the fercher survey, has “allowed” continued work at the potential connection. We learn that actually three persons are involved in this work, one mining ofcial (“Bergbeamter”) and two miners (“Bergarbeiter”). from Idrija ofce Note 747 we originally thought only one miner (Valentin Tra-cha) was commissioned to do this work (Kempe, 2005). We also learn that this work seems to have been going on continuously since early July. Twice the Idrija ofce is pacifed by expressions like “gefällige Mitwirkung” and “Gefälligkeit” implying that the Grottenverwaltung is grateful for the help obtained in the matter. Sentence (2) prepares for the attack: It states that the “Herr Kreishauptmann” (abbreviated) (Graf zu Brandis4) became suspicious (“Mißtrauen… einge-fößt”) because the breakthrough hasn’t yet been made even though the survey (“nach dem Plan”) showed only a thin layer (“dünne Schicht”) which needed removal. Tis mistrust was further nourished by remarks of fercher that he made during his last visit when he commented on the state of progress (“Mittheilungen …. über den Stand der dießfälligen Arbeiten”). It is interesting to note that fercher here carries the title of a “prov. Oberhutmann” in contrast to document Idrija 429 in which he is listed simply as “Hutmann” (Kempe, 2005; Appendix). Possibly fercher had received a pay 4 Alois Schafenrath dedicated his guide to the cave in which he reproduced the fercher Survey in 1834 to “Seiner Hoch-und Wohlgeboren Herrn Clemens Grafen zu Brandis, freiherrn zu Leonburg, forst und fahlburg, k.k. wirklichem Kämmerer Seiner Majestät, Gubernialrath und Kreishauptmann zu Adelsberg”; accordingly Brandis was Kreishauptmann and Kommissionspräses in 1834 and most probably also in 1833.” THE LETTER Of THE GROTTENVERWALTUNG ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 133 STEPHAN KEMPE, HANS-PETER HUBRICH & KLAUS SUCKSTORff raise and had advanced from mine supervisor to mine superintendent in the summer of 1833. Te “prov.” in front of the title may be interpreted as “provisional”. Tis implies that fercher had not yet fully attained his new status, and that he might, by the criticism in the letter, have felt that this raise in status could be endangered, causing him to be specifcally upset. Sentence (3) shows the ammunition available: Te Kreishauptmann asked the county civil engineer (possibly A. Schafenrath) to do a survey of the ongoing connection job. Te engineer made a rough sketch (“Croquis”) of the situation in the cave that originally accompanied the letter but apparently now is either lost or misplaced. Tat map showed that the breakthrough attempt was not started at the place suggested by the fercher Survey. As a consequence the “Bergbeamter” leading the work was questioned or better “interrogated” (“einvernommen”). Passage (4) relates what the Bergbeamte said in his defense: He claims that he had been instructed by a Mr. “Bergschafer” (if this is a title or a family name remains unclear) before he lef, that he was to follow only his “hearing” (“sich nur an das Gehör zu halten”), because the map may not be trusted entirely. Te hearing then led him to the spot where they have started the actual breakthrough attempt. Now the attack commences packed into one very long and winding sentence (5): Even though the Kreishauptmann in his function as the chair of the cave board (“Grottenverwaltungskommission”) thanks the Bergamt many times (“erkennt in vollem Maße die Gefälligkeit an”) for sending the k k (kaiserlich – königlich) mine of-cials to survey the cave and to attempt the breakthrough, a public institution (“unter öfentlicher Aufsicht stehender fond”), such as the cave foundation, cannot possibly pay for a survey which is not correct (“Plan … der nicht richtig ist”) or for a connection which is guided simply by hearing, because sound may be misguided by the joints in the rock. In other words: the cave administration is boldly asking their money back for both the survey and the mining attempt! from Note Idrija 429 we know that the expenses for the survey amounted to 173 f. 32 Kr.4 or ca. 1750 € in today’s money and from Note Idrija 747 we learn that Tracha had obtained a minimum of 50 pounds of black powder at 16 f. 40 Kr.(Kempe, 2005). How much the miners were paid, in addition to the powder, is not known, but easily their costs could have doubled the amount charged for the survey. Te next sentence (6) is advancing one more argument, thereby making the claim inevitable: It explains that the cave administration is fully liable to the province 1 f. = 1 Gulden = 60 Kreuzer, Kr. board (“Bezirkspräsidium”) and that they must submit invoices to them according to the bylaws. It would therefore not be possible to justify expenses with such negative results and the province board would most probably make those persons accountable (“zur Verantwortung ziehen”) who carry the responsibility for the failure. Tis circumstance the mine administration would certainly understand… (“Es dürfe der Einsicht des löblichen Bergamtes nicht entgehen”). Afer maneuvering the Idrija administration into such a tight corner a helping hand is ofered in sentence (7): In order to prevent the investigation by the higher administration it is suggested to the Bergamt that they make those persons accountable (without the pressure of the superior administration) who carry the responsibility for either the inaccuracy of the map or the failure of the breakthrough. Tey should also calculate the cost of the connection passage, which so far has not reached more than one “Klafer” (ca. 2 m) in depth even though the miners have been working in two daily shifs. In the fnal sentence (8) the cave administration sets a time line for the response: Te result of the demanded ofcial act (“gefälligst einzuleitenden Amtshandlung”) are to be related as soon as possible (“in möglichst kürzester Zeitfrist”) in order to issue orders that minimize (“mindest lastspielige Weise”) the costs for the cave fund. All in all, and in spite of the many polite and fow-ery phrases, this is a rock-hard letter, very hostile and not at all timid towards the Idrija administration. One has to wonder about it because it must surely pollute any further cooperation between the two administrations. Afer all, the Idrija mine did not ask for the full expenses of the survey earlier in the year but only for travel expenses (“Reisespesen”) of the participants (Kempe, 2005). Even if there would be small inaccuracies in the survey, the fercher map is far superior to the previous foyker map (about which little is known; Hoh-enwart, 1830) that covered the main passage only. Even thinking about demanding this money back is rather unscrupulous. It must have been clear that this letter also ended any further attempt of the Idrija mine staf to open the connection. Apparently the mine administration passed the letter of the Grottenverwaltung directly to fercher. His angry and upset response of September 8th to the Bergamt that transmitted it in turn to the Grottenverwaltung is preserved (Kempe, 2005, Appendix). In it fercher avoids any answer with regard to the fnancial demands (which probably was the best strategy), rather he points out that the survey was not meant to be of the highest precision and that it was not made to accurately predict the distance between the two passages (simply because it was not known before that they would end so near to 134 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 AN ADDITIONAL DOCUMENT AND NEWLy DISCOVERED INSCRIPTIONS each other). He also points out that the breakthrough might be somewhat longer than expected from the map, but that it will be completed sooner or later. In order to settle the dispute he suggested to the mine administration that the passages in question should be resurveyed. Tis would yield the exact distance to be drilled though. furthermore he estimated that the break-through could be done at a cost of 50 Gulden per Klafer by two miners without supervision. Tis sounded like a very logical plan that, however, was not pursued since the work on Apart from the additional letter, we found further evidence of the work of the survey team in Postojnska jama itself. Tese are three inscriptions, which, together with the Tartarus Panel (Kempe, 2005) form an interesting historic monument. All are written in pencil and relatively small. Te frst inscription, written in Latin letters, was found by us on July 19th, 2005, a few meters beyond the formerly gated entrance to Pisani rov (Colourful Passage) on the right-hand side (south-wall), about 1.8 m above the foor. It was written by Johann fercher himself (fig. 2) in three lines and reads: “Aufgenohmen in Monat Fig. 2: Pencil inscription of Fercher and Urbas on the south wall at the beginning of Pisani rov, ca. 10 m from the former gate. (Photo: Kempe). Jäner 1833 Johann fercher Aloys Urbas”, followed by a small fourish. In modern German it should be spelled “aufgenommen im Monat Jänner 1833”, with “Jänner” being the Austrian equivalent of the High-German “Januar”. Translated, the inscription reads: “surveyed in the month of January, 1833”. On the Tartarus Panel (Kempe, 2005) fercher used the same term “aufnehmen” for “to the connection apparently was abandoned for several years. In expectation of the visit of Emperor franz Josef and Empress Elisabeth, March 11th 1857 the breakthrough was fnally completed in 1856 and is about 12 m long (Hitzinger, 1866). It is a pity that we do not know how this dispute between the two administrations was fnally settled, but one can guess that the mine administration did not refund any of the expenses. survey”. Tere the inscription is dated to february 7th, 1833, showing that the Pisani rov was surveyed earlier and that the survey party apparently worked their way inward, including all the side passages. It is interesting that only two of the survey team lef their names here, implying that they may have split up in groups to proceed more rapidly. Te second inscription is found a few meters inside the Pisani rov entrance on the same wall (fig. 3). It is Fig. 3: Pencil inscription of tracha on the south wall at the beginning of Pisani rov, ca. 5 m from the former gate. Part of the inscription has been obliterated by a hand imprint by a careless visitor. (Photo: Kempe). written in Current and reads: “Traha Valentin Zimmermann und Hauer in Idria (?), Zinnober(sublimierer)” with the last part of the word being almost illegible due to dirt from a hand imprint of a careless visitor. It is interesting that Tracha spells his name “Traha” here but in the inscription of figure 4 he writes “Troha”, while in the documents he is clearly spelled as “Tracha”. “Troha” would be the correct spelling in Slovenian while the same name in German would be spelled “Tracha” (pers. com. NEWLy DISCOVERED INSCRIPTIONS Of THE fERCHER SURVEy ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 135 STEPHAN KEMPE, HANS-PETER HUBRICH & KLAUS SUCKSTORff A. Kranjc). Te translation of the inscription is: “Valentin Tracha, carpenter and miner from Idrija, cinnabar sublimer”. It is a pity that the inscription does not carry a date, but Tracha may have visited this part of the cave afer the survey, intending to see it as well, possibly not having been part of the survey party. It is further interesting that he lists himself with his professions; apparently Tracha was a carpenter by trade and not a miner in the frst place. Cinnabar is the main mercury mineral -mercury sulphide (HgS) - that was mined at Idrija. Apparently Tracha carried an additional mining title, being responsible for the sublimation process of the cinnabar or its quality supervision.” Te third inscription is also by Tracha (fig. 4), but it is situated in the Old Adelsberger Grotte, the Imenski rov. In the attempt (work still in progress) to document all of the epigraphs in the historic section of the cave on July 21st, 2005, we divided the walls of the passage into panels, counting them from the entrance (Panel 1) to the end. Among the many inscriptions of Panel 9 such as those of Schafenrath 1829 and Löwengreif 1817, about 150 m from the passage entrance, Trocha’s inscription written in Current is found, inscribed in a nice one-line frame, similar to the frame drawn around the fercher party inscription on the Tartarus Panel. Te text has three lines and reads: „Valentin Traha Zimmermann und Hauer zu Idria bei der Vermessung der Grotte teilgenommen”. Te last line was deciphered with some difculty but is in itself Te newly deciphered letter from the Grottenverwaltung to the Idrija administration flls an important gap regarding the circumstances of the fercher Survey and the failed attempt to break through the blockage of the Mala jama in 1833. In a sense it is very modern, since it is an attempt to claim something like a warranty, asking back money that – as is claimed – was spent on a bad product! Te letter also throws light on the structure of the administration at the time and how ofcial supervision was used as a powerful threat against an opponent. It is a pity that the story remains somewhat open-ended, but hope exists, that one or the other document will still turn up, illuminating the circumstances of the fercher Fig. 4: Pencil inscription of tracha on Panel 9 in the Old Cave (Imenski rov). (Photo: Kempe). logical. Here Tracha repeated once more his profession, but he does not do us the favour repeating the cinnabar-word, instead he states “participated in the survey of the cave”. Interestingly he uses the word “Vermessung” instead of “Aufnahme” as fercher did. We carefully inspected the walls of the entrance to the Nemški rov, hoping to fnd a fercher signature as well, but failed to do so. Possibly this passage was among the frst to be surveyed and fercher did not have the idea as yet to leave a signature. Survey further. It would be particularly interesting to fnd the two sketches which originally accompanied two of the notes. Te fnding of three more inscriptions of the ferch-er Party also gives hope that eventually even more epigraphs may be located, possibly one at every side-passage entrance. Since the pencil signatures are not very conspicuous, they may have been overlooked so far. Te four inscriptions discovered as yet, are the most verbal of all of the inscriptions, carrying real information with regard to the history of the cave, not just stating that Mr. or Mrs. So-and-so have been there. CONCLUSIONS 136 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 AN ADDITIONAL DOCUMENT AND NEWLy DISCOVERED INSCRIPTIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Te authors thank Maja Kranjc and Dr. Trevor Shaw for providing the documents for this study. Tanks are due also to Dr. Tadej Slabe, Director of the Karst Research Institute for organizing the access to the Old Cave on July 21st, 2005. Stanislav Glažar guided us (S.K. and H.P.H. plus our students) on July 19th, 2005 through the cave when the pictures of the Pisani rov inscriptions were made. Mr. H. Süß, St. Marien, Österreich, helped in the interpretation of some of the Current abbreviations. Dr. M. S. Werner, Hilo, Hawaii, helped in editing. REfERENCES Bronn, H.C., 1826: Briefe aus der Schweiz, Italien und Südfrankreich im Sommer 1824. – Heidelberg, 652 pp, 4 Lithographs. Hitzinger, P. , ca. 1866: Beschreibung der berühmten Adelsberger Grotte in Krain; nach der vom k.k. Kreis-Ingenier Alois Schafenrath verfassten Beschreibung neuerlich bearbeitet und mit Zugabe einer Einleitung und einer Beschreibung der neuen Maria Anna-Grotte von P. Hitzinger, dann eines Situationsplanes der ganzen Grotte. – Maximilian Schäfer, Adelsberg, 32 pp. Hohenwart, f. Graf von, 1830, 1832a, 1832b: Wegweiser für die Wanderer in der berühmten Adelsberger und Kronprinz ferdinands-Grotte bey Adelsberg in Krain; als Erklärung der von Herrn Aloys Schafen-rath, k.k. Kreis-Ingenieur in Adelsberg, gezeichneten Ansichten dieser Grotte. – Wien, J. P. Sollinger, 3 Vol., 16 + 9 + 14 pp and 21 copperplates (Reprint 1978: Šajn, S., ed.; Introduction: Habe, f. & Šlenc, J.: Postojnska jama; 1. ed., Postojnska Jama THO; Postojna; 32 pp Introduction, folio). Kempe, S., 2003: Die alten Inschrifen der Adelsberger Grotte / Postojnska Jama. – Die Höhle, 54(2): 36-44. Kempe, S., 2005: Te inscriptions of the Tartarus Panel and the 1833 fercher-survey, Postojnska jama. – Acta carsologica, 34/1 (13):221-235. Kempe, S. & Henschel, H.-V., 2004: Alois Schafenraths „zerbrochene Pyramide” (Postojnska jama), ein Zeuge glazialer Höhlenvereisung? – Mitt. Verb. dt. Höhlen- u. Karstforsch 50(3): 76-81. Kempe, S., Bauer, I., Dirks, H., & Henschel H.-V. (2004): Schafenrath’s Inscription Column in Pisani rov, Postojnska jama. – Acta carsologica, 33/2: 299-312. Schafenrath, A., 1834: Beschreibung der berühmten Grotte bei Adelsberg in Krain. – I. Edlen v. Klein-mayr, Laibach, 32 pp, 2 Lithographs. Schmidl, A., 1854: Die Grotten und Höhlen von Adelsberg, Lueg, Planina und Laas, Text und Atlas. – Wilhelm Braumüller, Wien, 316 pp, 15 Plates. Schmidl, A., 1858: Wegweiser in die Adelsberger Grotte und die benachbarten Höhlen des Karstes. – 2. Auf., C. Gerold’s Sohn, Wien, 93 pp, 3 Lithographs. Shaw, T.R., 1992: History of Cave Science, the Exploration and Study of Limestone Caves, to 1900. - 2nd ed., Sydney Speleological Soc., Broadway, New South Wales, Australia, 338 pp. Shaw, T., & Čuk, A., 2002: Royal and other noble visitors to Postojnska jama. – Acta carsologica 31(1) (Suppl. 1): 106 pp. Volpi, G. de, 1821: Über ein bey Adelsberg neuentdecktes Paläotherium. – Maldinische Schrifen, Triest, 31 pp, 2 Plates. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 137 STEPHAN KEMPE, HANS-PETER HUBRICH & KLAUS SUCKSTORff APPENDIx Te following text has been transcribed from German Current handwriting. Numbering of the sentences and completions of words are inserted in parentheses. Te German is very old-fashioned, enriched with expressions from mining language. It is not possible to translate the text in a way reproducing the style of the letter. Moreover it has orthographic (compared to today’s German) and grammatical mistakes; commas are largely missing. for an explanation of the contents and meaning please refer to the text of the paper. GV 52, den 5.9.1833 An das löbliche k.k. Bergamt zu Idria (1) Im Vertrauen auf die Richtigkeit des durch gefällige Mitwirkung des löbl.(lichen Bergamtes) aufgenommenen Planes der hiesigen Grotte und auf die Zweckmäßigkeit der Einleitungen des durch die Gefälligkeit des löbl.(ichen Bergamtes) hierher abgesandten Bergbeamten mit 2 Bergarbeitern zur Ausführung des von der Grottenverwaltung beabsichteten Durchschlags hat man die Arbeiten bisher ihren Gang fortgehen lassen. (2) Die Länge ihrer Dauer im Vergleiche mit der dünnen Schicht die nach dem Plan zu durchschlagen war hat dem Herrn Kreishptm (Kreishauptmann) einiges Mißtrauen in diese Arbeit eingefößt, welche durch die Mittheilungen des Herrn prov.(isorisch) Oberhutmanns Joh. fercher bei seiner letzten Anwesenheit hier über den Stand der dießfälligen Arbeiten sehr vermehrt wurde. (3) Der zust(ändige) Kshptm (Kreishauptmann) fand sich nun veranlasst den hiesigen Kreisingenieur zu beaufragen über den Stand der Arbeit einen Plan aufzunehmen, und da dieser, wie aus beil.(iegendem) Croquis ersehen werden wolle, entnehmen läßt, daß die Arbeit ganz auf einer anderen Seite begonnen wurde als wo die bereits zu verbindenden Grotten zusammen trefen, so wurde der leitende Beamte über die Ursache davon einvernommen. (4) Er gab als Grund dafür an, daß er von Herrn Berg-schafer (?) vor seiner Abreise die Weisung erhalten habe, sich nur an das Gehör zu halten, indem der Plan nicht ganz verläßlich sey, ... da das Gehör ihn zu der Stelle, wo er anfng, geleitet habe, so habe er seine Arbeit dort begonnen. (5) Der zust(ändige) Kshptm (Kreishauptmann) als Vorstand der Grottenverwaltungskom (mission) erkennt in vollem Maße die Gefälligkeit des löbl.(ichen Bergamtes) in Absendung zweier k k Bergbeamten bei Aufnahme der Grotte das Vorangehen des Durchschlags, kann aber dabei nicht umhin lebhaf zu bedauern und dem löbl. (ichen Bergamte) sein Befremden auszudrücken, daß ein unter öfentlicher Aufsicht stehender fond, wie es der Grottenfond ist, so bedeutend in Anspruch genommen werde sollte, um einen Plan zu liefern der nicht richtig ist, und zweitens auf das Gerathewohl hin nach dem bei Klüfen so leicht zu täuschenden Gehör einen Durchschlag vorzunehmen. (6) Es dürfe der Einsicht des löbl. (Bergamtes) nicht entgehen, daß die Grottenverwaltung nicht im Stande seyn würde diese für ihren fond nahm-hafe Auslage bei solchem Resultate zu rechtfertigen, um das (?) B(ezirks?)präsidium, wenn ihm die Rechnungen, wie die Statuten der Verwaltungskom(mission) es vorschreiben, vorgelegt werden, wahrscheinlich welche Schuld daran tragen, zur Verantwortung ziehen werde. (7) Um dieser Compromittierung vor höheren Behörden vorzubeugen, wolle es dem löbl.(Bergamt) gefällig seyn, die Herren Bergbeamten denen entweder die Unrichtigkeit des Planes oder der Ausführung des Durchschlags zur Last fällt, schon dermahl5, wo es noch ohne Einfuß der oberen Behörden geschehen kann darüber zur Verantwortung zu ziehen, und dabei auch gefälligst die Quantität der bisherigen Leistung bei dem Durchschlage, die kaum eine Vertiefung von einer Klafer beträgt, mit den Kosten dafür, die täglig doppelte Tagschichte für jeden Arbeiter betragen, in Verhältnis zu stellen. (8) Es wird sich erbethen das Resultat der gefälligst einzuleitenden Amtshandlung in möglichst kürzester Zeitfrist eher mitzutheilen um so schnell als möglich Verfügungen zu erlassen um auf eine für den Grottenfond mindest last-spielige Weise das beabsichtigte Ziel zu erreichen. Signature: Letz or Betz or Letzner (compare Kempe, 2005) Adel(sberg) den 5.9. (1)833 dermahl = dermal: Austrian for „jetzt” 138 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 KARST RESEARCH IN THE 19TH CENTURy - KARL DEŽMAN’S (1821-1889) WORK O RAZISKAVAH KRASA V 19. STOLETJU - PRISPEVEK KARLA DEŽMANA (1821-1889) Stanislav JUŽNIČ1 Abstract UDC 551.44(091):929 Dežman K Stanislav Južnič: Karst research in the 19th century - Karel Dežman’s (1821-1889) work Karel Dežman’s research of the karst phenomena was examined. Among his works the cave research, description of Proteus, other cave animals and plants were found. A special concern was put on Dežman’s sources dealing with Proteus research. As the custodian of the Land Museum of Ljubljana, Dežman promoted the Ljubljanian natural history research of his time. His scientifc works are not very well known because he did not follow the political line of the ofcial Slovenian national representatives. key words: Karel Dežman, karst, caves, Proteus, Carniolan Land Museum. Izvleček UDK 551.44(091):929 Dežman K Stanislav Južnič: O raziskavah krasa v 19. stoletju -prispevek Karla Dežmana (1821-1889) Dežmanova raziskovanja krasa so pomembno poglavje zgodovine kranjskega naravoslovja. Med njimi so opisi jam, človeške ribice, druge kraške favne in fore. Posebna pozornost je posvečena Dežmanu in znanim opisom proteusa. Kustos Deželnega muzeja Karel Dežman je bil gonilna sila večine ljubljanskih naravoslovnih raziskav svojega časa. Slabo poznavanje njegovega dela je predvsem posledica njegovega političnega delovanja, ki ga je kmalu odtujilo poklicnim zastopnikom slovenskih narodnostnih prizadevanj. ključne besede: Karel Dežman, kras, jame, proteus, Kranjski Deželni muzej. INTRODUCTION Although Dežman was the most prominent natural history researcher in Ljubljana of his time, his work is now almost forgotten. Slovenes don’t remember him because they consider his political positions at least unfriendly. Germans don’t write about Dežman because he was obliviously not one of them. But politics should not efect decisively the greatness of Dežman archeological, botanical, or karst research, which we present in this treatise. Dežman began his popular lecturing in Ljubljana immediately afer he lef a high school teaching post and became the custodian of Ljubljanian Land Museum in Fig. 1: Karel Dežman. 1852. He delivered some popular lectures together with the Carinthian German filip Paushitz (* May 26, 1824 Nötsch), professor of physics at Ljubljanian high school (Schmidt, 1966, 140-141). In his very frst published Acts of the Museum Society in 1856 the Museum curator, Karl Dežman (Deschmann, * January 3, 1821 Idrija; † 1889), shortly reviewed natural historical research in Carniola. More or less, it was a kind of biography of six distinguished Carniolan naturalists: Scopoli, Hacquet, Wulfen, Karl Zois, Žiga Zois, and Hladnik (Dežman, 1856, 9; Schmidt, 1963, 148). 1 Institut za matematiko, fziko in mehaniko, Jadranska 19, Ljubljana, juznic@hotmail.com Received / Prejeto: 15.10.2005 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 139–148, LJUBLJANA 2006 STANISLAV JUŽNIČ DEŽMAN ABOUT CAVES On June 11, 1856 Dežman reported to Museum Society about his research of the cave Skednenca. He described other interesting natural historical samples found between Krim and castle of Mokrice under the Gorjanci hills. Te entrance into Skednenca was a difcult one. Te broken stones covered the main hall which had two holes, one of them used as the door. In the front face of the cave there was the lower much narrower port facing the south east side with many stalactites. Te smaller entrance had star-like cupola place which ends into lower hollow slit of stone wall facing the open space. Te cave was dry with some minor water from stalactite dropping into the basins. Dežman did not really like the scorpions, jags and mosquitoes at the cave. Tree to four walking hours from the cave Skednenca (today in township of Ig catalogued as No. 353) you could reach Počivavnik near the mountain Osredek (1300 m) in Kamniške Alps. Dežman used to visit the farmer house “Pri Benkotu” on the foot of the Krim Hill. Around Mokrice (Mokrc) many places borrowed their names from the Turkish war times, among them “Krvave Peči” with several interesting botanical species (Dežman, 1862, 95-97). Dežman frequently visited Kočevje, also as the elected political representative of the area. On April 14, 1858 Dežman showed to the Museum Society the red alumina stone which he recently picked up in Wicherle cave of Kočevje area. He claimed that no stone like that was ever found in any other Carniolan cave. Te Vienna student franc Erjavec (* 1834; † 1887), who later became pretty famous as a Slovene fction writer, made a chemical analysis of the Dežman’s stone. He found 8.05% of water, 10.74% of iron mine, 18.49% of alumina, 59.03% of fintstone, 2.83% of sand, and 0.83% of other ingredients, also with some traces of lime and magnesia. Museum Society members examined the possible technical and industrial use of Dežman’s stone for the fabrication of bricks; therefore they also checked the homogeneity, granulation, and melting-point of the sample. Tey looked forwards for the more accurate fnal results, and everybody was curious about the possibility of making available lower price alumina with lower transport costs. Dežman reported to the Museum Society about geology and fora of Kočevje area. He paid special attention to the formation of karst in Kočevje valleys under the castle fridrichstein, at the area of Seele (Željne), Grafenfeld (Dolga vas) and Mosel (Mozelj) with many karst funnels called “Dolina” (valley) by domestic people. All area from Mozelj to the hill of Verdreng is covered with hundreds of dolinas. from the elevated points around Poljane (Pölland) you could see the landscape covered with so many holes as the sieve. Dežman compared the area of holes having regular conic shapes with similar sieves at the middle of Cerknica Lake, like Vodonos or Rešeto. Inner walls of those funnels are very fat, covered with the dense grass. Many karst plants grow there, among them the characteristic Satureja pygmmaea Sieb. around Mozelj. Te system of holes dilled with water is situated under the surface. As Valvasor before him, Dežman was also interested in the wild romantic of Bilpa spring, Veliko and Malo Okno with many creeks between Bilpa and the castle of Kostel above the Kolpa River. Dežman paid special interest to the Ledena jama (Eis Grotte, Ice Cave) in Kočevski Rog and other caves near Ober-Skrill (Zgorni Škrilj, Zdihovo). Ice caves are the real snow cellars. “Afer one and a half hour of walking from Kuntscher (Kunčar) Cave you can reach a snow hole in Kočevski Rog. It is the great cave overhang with rectangle stone walls approximately 200 m deep. On the bottom, you could fnd the ice even during the hottest summers”. Te charcoal-burners from Kočevski Rog use it as their water supply. Ledena jama in Kočevsko is situated pretty low above the sea level compared with others of its kind. Te Kočevje area have the characteristics of Alp regions at the extraordinary low height. At noon on September 23, 1858 Dežman measured the temperature +1.25°C (1°R) in the cave, while at the shadow around snow hole the thermometer raised even to +21.25°C (17°R). Te cave ice was 20 m deep with more than 8 m of circumference. It had the structure similar to the ice in Kuntscher (Kunčer) Cave with more or less regular prismatic crystals of ice. Te stone walls were covered with coral-like porcupines hydnum coral-loides Scop. and other alpine plant Cystopteris montana l., otherwise found only at the heights 1000 m to 1800 m above the sea level. During the high summer of 1857 the visitors were able to fnd at Kočevski Rog the representation of all four year seasons: winter ice, fowering spring Ompholodes verna mch. in woods, the summer vapors, and the ripe autumn fruits (Dežman, 1862, 225-228). Later on May 6, 1883 Dežman wrote a long German letter on blue paper about Ledena Jama in Kočevje region. Most of Dežman’s writings about caves remained unpublished and are nowadays kept at the ARS (Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 13 “Speleology”). Among others, we could fnd there drawings of the cave Vihled (Wicherle) near Kolpa. Dežman visited the cave on September 9, 1850. His young friend, the medicine student franc Serafn Plemel (* September 30, 1828 Bled; † June 21, 1852 Vienna), draw the picture of the cave for Dežman. Vihled is a cave above the village Bilpa (Wilpen) on the very border between domains of 140 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 DEŽMAN ABOUT KARST - DEŽMAN O KRASU Kostel and Polland, which were abolished as a remains of the feudal system just before Dežman’s visit. During their tour Dežman and franc Plemel also visited the Selska (Seler) Cave near Verdreng in the former domain of Kočevje. Plemel did the drawing again on September 23, 1850. He fnished the map which he began already two years ago on September 21, 1848, just afer the Vienna July revolution that also had some echo at Kočevje. With Dežman’s help Plemel expressed an excellent knowledge and skill. Plemel was a son of a farmer Matija. Te family was very talented and later gave the very best Slovenian mathematician Josip Plemelj (* December 11, 1873 Grad on Bled; † May 22, 1967 Ljubljana). franc Plemel attended a local normal school between 1836-1840, a Ljubljanese high school (1840-1846) and the higher studies of philosophy (1846-1848). He learned physics from Janez Krstnik Kersnik. He attended the Dr. Anton Schubert’s († april 21, 1851) lectures on natural philosophy four hours per week. Schubert used the Knor’s zoology textbook, and botany and mineralogy textbook of friederich Mohs (* 1773; † 1839) from Graz just before Dežman returned to Ljubljana in 1849 afer his studies of medicine and a formal degree in law of Vienna University issued in 1849. When Dežman replaced gravely ill Schubert as a supplier on March 16, 1851 franc Plemel was already studying medicine in Prague and Vienna. Plemel eventually died in Vienna during the fourth year of his studies. Unusually, he did not use Knafelj scholarship for his studies. He made several successful botanical tours and discovered many new plants. His older brother, biologist Valentin Plemel (* January 7, 1820 Bled; † June 9, 1875 Koroška Bela), was ordained as the priest in Ljubljana on July 27, 1843. Valentin used franc’ innovations and presented a very good herbarium on Vienna World Exhibition in 1873. Dežman published some of Valentin’s works in Acts of the Lju-bljanian Museum Society. Alfonz Paulin (* September 4, 1853 Turniški Castle near Krško; † 1942) later used and further developed the Plemel brothers work. Dežman visited many other caves in the region, but he lef no other pictures of them. Besides Ledena Jama Dežman also wrote a letter about Vrlovka Cave at Ka-manje near Ozalj at the road for Karlovac in Croatia on August 19, 1866. Vrlovka was well known hiding cave during Turkish wars and it was opened for tourists in 1928. Dežman also mentioned Vražna cave and fnally wrote an undated letter about Postojnska cave on bright blue paper. He published several Hochstetter’s drawings of the Karst locations of their joint archaeology excavations (Dežman, Hochstetter, 1880) without specially pointing to any Karst peculiarities. Dežman’s collaborator, the Viennese Professor on Polytechnic ferdinand Knigt von Hochstetter (* April 30, 1829 Esslingen; † July 18, 1888 Vienna), published the research of Križna (Kreuzberg) Jama north of Lož at the next volume of memorials of vienna Academy. Hochstetter, Dežman, and their friends researched the cave in 1878 and 1879. Te northern hall of the cave was called Dežman’s hall until the end of Habsburg monarchy, as Dežman was the very frst to put his foot in it. Te southernmost part was named Hochstetter’s Treasury. A skeleton was found 2 km deep in Mogrizer Höhle (Mokriška Jama) and it was carried to the Dežman’s Museum of Ljubljana. Tey made a list of the animal skeleton parts found in Križna Jama. Hoch-stetter’s assistant between 1878 and 1882, later Professor Josef Szombathy (* June 11, 1853 Vienna; † November 9, 1943 Vienna), drew the coloured map of the Križna Cave in August 1879. He used the proportion 1:1000 and he added several enlarged details of the cave to the next table. Next he draw the map of Mrzla Jama (Merzla, Kalte Grotte, Cold Cave), one of several with that name in Carniola. fran and Matija Erjavec also participated in the research (Hochstetter, 1881, 294, 295, 302, 310, table II, table III). Many friends helped Dežman in his cave research. Dežman’s documents about caves are kept together with his writings about geography, descriptions of his Triglav climbing, the measurements of the heights in Carniola, hydrology, astronomy with letters and papers from Laibacher Zeitung, cosmology (with the description of the constellation of Serpents, the book of minister’s advisor Marian Koile about the Passage Instrument published in Brno in 1863, the measurements of the telegraph ofcers in Postojna and Ljubljana, and also in Idrija by a priest Aischolze, Dežman’s own description of the travelling Passage Instrument with two beautiful technical drafs at the end), mineralogy, the manuscript copies of the third part of Hacquet’s Oryctographia Carniolica oder physikalische Bescheibung des herzogthums Krain, Istrien und zum Teil der benachbarten länder (1784), geological excursion, seismology, speleology, the agriculture lectures of Ljubljanian professor Hlubek, mineralogy, chemistry, and at the end even some mathematical calculations with triangles and square roots. Dežman’s inventory of the Dol Archive and documents about his purchase of it for Rudolphinum are kept together with his manuscript autobiography, a letter to his friend J. Braun of Kočevje, and Dežman’s documents connected with the Central ofce for Meteorological and Magnetic measurements at Vienna. for several decades he and his sister Serafna measured the Ljubljanian weather conditions for the Vienna Central ofce (ARS, Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 1). ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 141 STANISLAV JUŽNIČ DEŽMAN ABOUT PROTEUS AND OTHER CAVE ANIMALS Te Proteus anguinus was one of the main topics on the regular monthly meetings of the Carniolian Museum Society. Dežman published some of his research of the cave plants and animals in his reports on the monthly meetings of the Museum Society. Most of Dežman’s feld research took place in Kočevsko, where he also used to win the pools. He became the honor citizen of Kočevje, as he was named earlier in his native Idrija (1861) and Tržič. He found several black Proteus in Kočevsko caves. Most of Dežman’s writings about zoology, karst and Proteus remained unpublished and are nowadays kept in ARS (Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature. AS854, fascicles 12 and 13). On January 14, 1857 Dežman reported to the Museum Society about the so-called hollow rubble from the fossil hills discovered by the Professor franc Un-ger (* November 30, 1800 castle Amthof near Lučane (Leutschach) in Styria; † february 13, 1870 Graz). Unger classifed it into the family of algae. Dežman also showed to the audience the example of Laurenti’s book, Synopsis reptilium, where the very frst description of the Carnio-lan Proteus was published. In his famous book, an Austrian Joseph Nicolas Laurenti (* December 4, 1735; † february 17, 1805), defned thirty kinds of reptiles and discussed their poisonous functions. Dežman certainly did not purchase the frst edition. He used ffy years later reprint, may be from the Erberg’s Dol collection which he later bought for Rudolphinum. Dežman also pointed to the Society publics the examples of ice diver Colymbus glacialis and arctic diver Colymbus arcticus. Both were caught in December 1857 in Cerknica Lake (Dežman, 1862, 105). On february 19, 1858 Dežman reported about gordius aquaticus l. which was found in drinking water in Trebnje. It was several centimeters long and the crafsman Klebel recently brought the sample right to Dežman’s Museum. Dežman also showed the samples of black coal which the student Alfons Müllner found in Alps (Dežman, 1862, 220-221). Te able young Müllner later eventually replaced Dežman as the Museum curator, but he never became his equal in karstology. PRINTINGS ABOUT PROTEUS Dežman’s writings about zoology and botany are kept in separate fascicle in ARS and are of special interest for Slovene karstology. Among the last manuscripts there is a very interesting bundle about Proteus. Dežman’s wrote sixteen pages of the A4 format letter about Proteus. It began with the list of the few tens of recent books and articles about Proteus which Dežman came across while reading secondary sources. Among the books in Rudol-phinum Dežman kept Laurenti’s 1818 book that Dežman showed to the Museum Society in Ljubljana, but he did not list it in his manuscript dealing just with recent literature. In the last botanical book of the fascicle the photography on glass is kept wrapped into a black paper following the habit of their time. Te Photography is well preserved with just a little damage at one corner. Tere is no comment about the date of photographing, its contents or use. We can still recognise four bean-like pictures in natural dimensions, two as negatives and other two as positives. Tat was probably one of the earliest photographs made for the natural history scientifc purposes in the area of today’s Slovenia. Dežman listed following books and articles about Proteus, with some biographical and bibliographical data added for this research: blainville, H.M.D. de, 1819: Dictionaire des sciences naturelles. 1-14. Levrault, Strassbourg. Reprint: 1820: Isis. 570 (Tourn. de Phys. according to Dežman, sine dato, 2r). Dele Chiaje, Stefano (* 1794; † 1860), 1840: Ricerche ana-tomico biologiche sul Proteo serpentis. Napoli. Confgliachi, Pietro (* 1779; † 1844), Rusconi, Mauro (* 1776; † 1849), 1818: Del proteo anguino di laurenti. Pavia: fusi (6 pictures, 119 pages, price 24 fr.). Reprint: 1819: fusi, Pavia. Confgliachi, P. , Rusconi, M., 1820: Isis. 570-590. Confgliachi, P. , Rusconi, M., 1821: Observatons on the Natural History and Structure of the Proteus Angui-nus (3 pictures). Edinburgh Phil.Journal. 4: 398-406; 5: 84-112. A. Constable, Edinburg. Confgliachi, P. , Rusconi, M., 1828: Sopra un Protes femines. Pavia. 142 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 DEŽMAN ABOUT KARST - DEŽMAN O KRASU Dalton, John Call, 1853: Some Account of the Proteus Anguinus in Sillimans Amer. Journ. (2) 15: 387-393. Reprint: 1853: Edinburgh new Phil. Journal. 55: 332-340. Van Deen, Isaac (Izaäk, * 1804; † 1869), 1834: Over de rijdelingsche takken van de zweraende zenum (Ner-on vagus) van den Proteus anguineus (1 picture). ti-jdiche voor natuurl. geschied. 1: 112-129. Fitzinger, Leopold Joseph (* 1802; † 1884), 1850: Ueber de Proteus anguinus. Wien. Ber. mat. Nat. 5/3: 291-303. - Separate: 1850: Carl Gerolds Sohn, Wien. Freyer, Heinrik (* 7. 7. 1802 Idrija; † 21. 8. 1866 Ljubljana), 1842: Ueber einen neue art von Hyposhthon (Proteus). (Wregman, W.F. Erichson) Archiv für Naturges chichte. 1: 289-290. hyrtl, Joseph (* 1811; † 1894), 1850: Bemerkungen über de Proteus anguinus. Wien.Ber. mat.Nat. 5/3: 303. mandl, Louis (* 1812; † 1881), 1839: Dimensions des globules sanguines du sang chez le Proteus. Compt. Rend.Acad.Sc. (Paris). 9: 739. mandl, L., 1839: Dimensions des globules sanguines du sang chez le Proteus. l’Institut. 7/310: 427. mandl, L., 1839: Note sur les globules sanguines du Pro-tée et des Crocodiliens (mit Abbildungen). Anal. Scienc.natur.ver.Zool. 12: 289-291. michacheles, C., 1829: Proteus Anguinus Aristoteli pror-sus igntus suit. Isis. 1270-1273. michacheles, C., 1831: Beiträge zür Naturgeschichte des Proteus. Isis. 499-509. Oken, Lorenz (* 1779; † August 11, 1851 Zürich), 1817: Ueber de Oben (Proteus Anguinus). With Pictures. Isis. 641-645. Rudolphi, Karl Asmund (* 1771; † 1832), 1819: Ueber de Proteus Anguinus. Isis. 1017-1019. - Translation: 1819. Phil. magaz. 53: 181-182. Rusconi, M., 1817: Descrizione anatomiza degli organi della circulazione delle larve delle salamandre aquatiche. frisi, Pavia (with 4 tables). Rusconi, M., 1827: Descrizione di un Proteus femina notabile per lo svilupo delle parti della generazione. With Pictures. Isis. 94-100. Translation: 1826: Frori-ep’s Notizien und der Natur und her Kunde. 16/332: 17-20. Rusconi, M., 1843: Nuove observazioni sopra il Proteus Anguino di Laurenti. Lettera al Alessandrini. Nuovo Anal. Delle Scienze nat. Bologna. 9: 177-179. - Reprint: 1744: giornale del Instituto lombardo e Bibl. Italiana. 6: 288-290. - Abstract: 1844: Isis. 502-503. Schmidl, Adolph von (* 18, Maj 1802 Königswart in Bohemia; † 20, November 1863 Buda), 1850: Notizen über den von ihm under der Planina-Höhle mitgebrachten und der Classe vorgezeigten Proteen. Wien.Ber.mat.Nat. 5/3: 228-232. Von Schreibers, Carl (* 1775; † 1852), 1802: A Historical and Anatomical Description of a Doubtful Amphibious Animal of Germany, Called by Laurenti Proteus Anguineus. Communicated by Sir Joseph Banks (* 1743; † 1820). Extract of the Philosophical transactions. (2) 91: 241-261. Von Schreibers, C., 1802: Johan Heinrich Voigt’s (* 27, June 1751 Gotha; † 6, September 1823 Jena) magazin für das Neueste Zustand der Naturkunde. 4: 727-732. Von Schreibers, C., 1818: Proteus Anguineus. J.G. Heub-ner, Viennae. Von Schreibers, C., 1820: Sur le Protée. Isis. 567-570. Von Schreibers, C., 1820: Lettre de M. Charles de Schreibers a M. Dumeril (A.M.C. Duméril (* 1774; † 1860)) sur le Proteé et observation de M. Blain-ville (Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville (* 1777; † 1850)) a ce sujet. Isis. 567. Von Schreibers, C., 1832: Philosophical transactions. Abstracts. 1: 47-49. Trevirianus, Gottfried Heinrich, 1820: De Protei Angui-nei encephale et organis sensuum die qui sitiones zootomicae. Com.Soc.Reg.Scient.götting. 4: 197-202. valentin, G., 1837: Bruchstücke aus der seineren anatomen des Proteus anguinus. (Dessen’s) Report für Anatom.und Physik. 1: 282-294. valentin, G., 1841: Ueber di Samentsierbündl und die afterdrüse des Proteus anguinus. Report für Anatom. und Physik. 6: 353-358. viator, 1837: On the Proteus Anguinus by Viator. Edward Charlesworth’s Te magazine of Natural history. 1: 625-530. Longman, Orme, Brown Green, and Longmans, London. wagner, Rudolph (* 1805; † 1864), 1837: Stud. Notes on Proteus Anguinus. Proceedings Zool. Society london. 107-108. Many Dežman’s references were published in Oken’s Isis, oder encyclopädische Zeitung von Oken. Oken, himself an active researcher of Proteus, was born as Lorenz Ockenfuss and studied at the University of Würzburg and Göttingen. He began to publish Isis Journal in 1816. He printed it monthly until 1818 and later continued with two volumes per year. Te publication ended with Volume 41 during the “time of troubles” of the revolutionary Spring of Nations in 1848. Oken got the title of adviser afer publishing the natural philosophy textbook in 1810. In 1828 he became the private docent in Munich, Professor in 1832, and fnally the Professor of natural philosophy at the new University of Zürich in 1833. In 1821 he purposed the organisation of the later famous Meetings of the German Natural ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 143 STANISLAV JUŽNIČ Historians and Physicians, that began with the very frst Leipzig gathering in 1822. Rusconi was the dentist in Pavia (Dežman, sine dato, 4r) and he performed detailed anatomical research of Proteus probably under the infuence of Janez Anton Scopoli. Scopoli taught at the University of Pavia between 1777 and his death in 1788 when Rusconi was still a teenager. Schmidl’s research of caves all over the monarchy and especially at Planinska Jama (Planina-Höhle) earned him a funny nickname “Höhlen Schmidl”. fitzinger, Hyrtl, and Schmidl participated at the debate about Proteus in Vienna Academy held on October 3 and October 31, 1850, and published in Wien.Ber. (5/3: 228-231, 291-303) later in the same year. Several other important scientist also took part in 1850 academic Vienna polemics about Proteus. Wilhelm Karl Knight Haidinger (* february 5, 1795 Vienna; † March 19, 1871 Dornbach), the director of the State Geological Bureau and section mine adviser, researched the Proteus habitus in Idrija very deep under the surface with the help of the mine commander, Rudolf. (Wien.Ber. 5/3: 229). Te correspondent member of the Vienna Academy and the Academy general secretary Ettingshausen’s close friend, freyer, draw the map of Proteus habitus in Carniola. Te samples from Magdalena’s cave were sold for 2 f up to 5 f at that time. With the same money you could buy 6 to 15 kg of beef in Ljubljana at that time (Melik, 1981, 31). Te wealthy put the Proteus in the glass bottles and showed them in their saloons like they used to show the goldfshes. 12 samples of Proteus were exported from Ljubljana to England (Wien.Ber. 5/3: 296). Dežman actually copied parts of Rusconi 1817 and 1827 Italian publication with his drawings included. Dežman sketched the Rusconi’s Proteus with pencil in a somewhat curved form (ARS, Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 12, sine dato, 4r). He showed all Proteus’ inner organs from Rusconi’s studies (1817, 1827). On the lef margin Dežman separately drew some organs of Proteus and discussed their particularities (Dežman, sine dato, 3r). With that in mind, we claim that Dežman was quite an expert for Proteus in Carniola of his time. Dežman drew the details with the letters a-l indicating the important parts of the picture. He used Italian language with excellent skill. Besides fgure 1 of female Rusconi’s Proteus Dežman also discussed fgure 2, which he did not reproduce (Dežman, sine dato, 4r, 4v). Dežman In Planina Mali Grad (Kleinhäusler) near the ruins of the castle they found new samples of Proteus. Curator-Adjunct fitzinger reported about the well known Proteus researcher of Celovec (Klagenfurt), the general vicar, Count Sigmund Hohenwart (* June 7, 1745 Celje; † 1825 Linz). Sigmund studied with Ljubljanese Jesuits, Janez Jožef Lucius Erberg (* february 11, 1712 Ljubljana; SJ October 18, 1732 Vienna; † June 29, 1787 Dol), and franc Ksaver Wulfen (* 1728 Beograd; SJ October 14, 1745; † March 17, 1805 Celovec). During the school years they made natural history researches around Ljubljana, and during holidays they visited Alps. Sigmund lived in Carinthia until 1809 as a Wulfen’s close friend. In 1792 and 1812 Count Sigmund published his natural historical researches of Carinthia. In 1809 he became the Archbishop at Linz. His collections of animals, plants, and minerals were later given to Joanneum of Graz (Dežman, 1856, 9; SBL, 1: 335-336). fitzinger mentioned that Schreiner got his Proteus from Žiga Zois in 1807. Löwengreif researched Proteus in Magdalena’s cave in 1797 and 1808. Sigismund’s relative, Count franc Jožef Hanibal Hohenwart (* May 24, 1771 Ljubljana; † 1844 Kolovec), was recognized as the best Carniolian researcher. He studied Proteus in 1825 at the creek near Lož (Laas). He made many tours to Alps, and headed the Carniola Land Museum as the president of the Museum curators and the president of the Carniola Agricultural Society between 1827 and 1834. fitzinger was also interested at the Proteus research outside Carniola. Dr. Zohar of Zadar and the Professor Carrara of Split found Dalmatian Proteus samples (Wien. Ber. 5/3: 296). described Rusconi’s opinion against the amphibian nature of Proteus (Dežman, sine dato, 4r). Dežman’s copying was one of his very useful habits. He also copied part of Hacquet’s Oryctographia (ARS, Pri-vatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 13) and German translation of Hallerstein’s Latin letters (ARS, 730, Gospostvo Dol, fasc. 194: 810-850). Some of the originals which Dežman copied are now considered pretty rare. Dežman also copied parts of Blanville 1819 publication in french language (Dežman, sine dato, 2r). Dežman cited Blanville, Cuvier (1801), and Humbolt’s critiques of Laurenti’s Proteus research (Dežman, sine dato, 2r, 3v, 4v). Dežman mentioned Rudolphi’s letter to Isis, Scopoli’s work, and Kitaibel’s letter about Lika in Strelovachka Pojana below Badany Alps and Velika PROTEUS DRAWINGS 144 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 DEŽMAN ABOUT KARST - DEŽMAN O KRASU Stirovachka below Berdo (Hill) Vissesruga (Dežman, sine dato, 2v). Hungarian Pál Kitaibel (* february 3, 1757 Nagymarton; † December 13, 1817 Pest) was one of the best chemistry and botanic student of Jacobus Winterl (* 1739 Eisenerz; † 1809) in Hungarian capital. CONCLUSION Dežman was the best versed and the most infuential Ljubljanian natural historian of his time. Te karst and cave research are just some aspects of his works, many of them published with the Vienna Academy of Science. Dežman’s work show that domestic Ljubljanian researchers of the caves and Proteus were well informed and able to perform some frst rate work of their own. It’s a pity that Dežman’s work was simply forgotten for political reasons. Our publication is just one of the key-stones needed for his scientifc rehabilitation, to end the sorrowful neglect of his scientifc achievements. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Tanja Žigon and dr. Janez Šumrada for useful suggestions, and Mellon grant of the University of Oklahoma for fnancial support of this research. REfERENCES AND ABBREVIATIONS ARS - Archive of the Republic of Slovenia Cuvier, G., 1807: Recherches anatomiques sur les reptiles regardés encore comme douteux par les naturalistes; faites a l’occasion de l’Axolotl, rapporté par m. de humbolt du mexique. - L. Hausmann, Paris. According to Dežman (sine dato, 2r): Cuvier, 1801: mémoires sur les reptiles douteux. Dežman, K., 1856: Einiges über die naturwissen-schaflischen forschungen in Krain. - Jahreshef des vereines des Krainischen landes-museums. 1: 1-11. Ljubljana. Dežman, K., 1858: Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte des Laibacher Morastes. - Zweite Jahreshef des vereines des Krainischen landes-museums. 2: 59-87. Ljubljana. Dežman, K., 1858: Bericht über die bei der monatl. Versammlungen der Mittglieder des Museal=Vereins gehaltenen Vorträge in den Jahren 1856 und 1857. -Jahreshef des vereines des Krainischen landes-mu-seums. 2: 88-142. Ljubljana. Dežman, K., 1858: Tracheophyta. - laibacher tagblatt. 32. Ljubljana. Dežman, K., 1862: Bericht über die bei der monatl. Versammlungen der Mittglieder des Museal=Vereins gehaltenen Vorträge in den Jahren 1858 und 1859. -Drittes Jahreshef des vereines des Krainischen lan-des-museums. 3: 219-236. Ljubljana. Dežman, K., 1856, 1878: - Sitzungs-Ber. verhandlungen d. zool. Bot. gesellsch. Wien. (SBL, 1: 134). Dežman, K., 1881: In Anton Kerner von Marilaun’s (* 1831; † 1898): Schedae ad foram exsiccatam Aus-tro-hungaricam a museo botanico Universitatis vin-dobonensis editam. - Ex Typographia caesarea regia aulica et imperiali, Vindobonae. Also in: Sitzunsgs-Ber. math. Naturw. Cl. Akademie Wien. 40: (SBL, 1: 134). Dežman, K., 1878: Ueber die vorjährigen funde im Laibacher Pfahlbau. - mitteilungen der Anthropologischen gesellschaf in Wien. 8:. Also: Selbstverlag, Wien. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 145 STANISLAV JUŽNIČ Dežman, K., Hochstetter, f., 1881: Prähistorische Aussiedlungen und Bergräbnisstätten in Krain. Erster Bericht. Mitteilungen der prähistorischen Kom-mision der mathematisch-naturwissenschaflichen Classe der kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschafen erstattet von Carl Deschmann und ferdinand v. Hochstetter nebst einem Anhange über zwei Skelette aus den Gräben von Roje bei Moräutsch in Krain von J. Szombathy. - Denkschrifen Akademie Wien. (1) 42/1: 1-54. Dežman, K., sine dato: Autobiography. – ARS. Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 1. Dežman, K., 1884: Gang der Witterung im Gebiet der deutschen und österreichischen Alpen vom December 1882 bis November 1883 zusammengestellt von Museal-Custos Carl Deschmann. - Zeitschrif des Deutschen und Österreichischen Alpen-vereins. - Salzburg. Dežman, K., sine dato: Writings about the zoology and Proteus. - ARS Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 12. Dežman, K., sine dato: Writings about the speleology with the drawings of the caves Vihled near Kolpa and Selska jama; letters about Ledena jama and jama near Ozalj. - ARS Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 13. Muzejski kustos Dežman je leta 1855 oživil Kranjsko muzejsko društvo in v njem dajal pomembno spodbudo ljubljanskim naravoslovnim raziskovanjem. V tem prispevku prvič v slovenskem zgodovinopisju podrobneje opisujemo Dežmanova raziskovanja kraških jam, fore in favne, kot jih je objavljal v poročilih z mesečnih predavanj in sestankov Društva. Ob tem smo si ogledali še Dežmanove skice jam in proteusa v njegovi zasebni rokopisni zapuščini shranjeni pri Arhivu Republike Slovenije. Poleg skic smo našli še številna pisma o kranjskih jamah, popis Dežmanu dosegljive literature o človeški ribici in Dežmanovo natančno analizo fzioloških posebnosti proteusa, povzeto oziroma kar prepisano iz Rusconijevih raziskav. Preučili smo Dežmanov popis najnovejših, predvsem domačih, italijanskih in britanskih objav o pro- Dežman, K., Seidl, f. 1898: Mittheilungen der Erdbe-ben-Commission der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschafen in Wien. VI. Die Erderschütterung Laibachs in den Jahren 1851-1886, worwiegend nach den handschriflichen Aufzeichnungen K. Deschmann’s zusammengestellt von ferdinand Se-idl. Vorgelegt in der Sitzung am 31. März 1898. -Wien.Ber. matemat-naturwiss. Classe. (2) 465-492. With extracts from Dežman’s earthquakes observations in Carniola between 1855-1885, published in Jahreshef des vereines des Krainischen landes-mu-seums. Ljubljana. Hochstetter, f., 1881: Die Kreuzberghöhle bei Laas in Krain. - Denkschrifen Akademie Wien. (1) 43: 293-310. Laurenti, J.N., 1768: Synopsis reptilium Emendam cum Experimentis Circa venena e Antidota, Reptilium Austriacourm etc. - Typis Joan Tomae etc., Vienae. - Reprint: 1818. - Pavia. (6 table, 199 pages). Melik, V. , 1981: Ljubljanske cene kruha in mesa v predmarčni dobi. - Kronika. 29: 27-33. Ljubljana. Plemel, V. , 1862: Beitrage zur flora Krains. - Drittes Jahreshef des vereines des Krainischen landes-mu-seums. 3: 120-164. Ljubljana. Schmidt, V. , 1966: Zgodovina šolstva in pedagogike na Slovenskem. II. del. - DZS, Ljubljana. Shaw, T.R., 1999: Proteus for Sale and for Science in the 19th Century. – Acta carsologica, 28 /1: 229-304. Ljubljana. teusu. Tako z uporabo objavljenih del in rokopisov prvič podrobneje predstavljamo Dežmanovo bogato znanje, ki je segalo celo do matematičnih in astronomskih ved. Popisali smo dela, ki jih je Karl Dežman objavil ali pa le napisal o krasu in o sorodnih vedah v Ljubljani ter v pomembnih dunajskih akademijskih publikacijah. S svojim delom je razširil sloves svojih in z njimi kranjskih znanstvenih dosežkov po celi Evropi. Slabo poznavanje Dežmanovega dela pojasnimo z njegovim političnim delovanjem, ki ga je kmalu odtujilo poklicnim zastopnikom slovenskih narodnostnih prizadevanj; nerodna politična stališča so ga oddaljila od tedanjih in poznejših voditeljev slovenskega naroda. Žal je zato doma kot naravoslovec slejkoprej ostal neznan: Nemo propheta in Patria. POVZETEK 146 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 DEŽMAN ABOUT KARST - DEŽMAN O KRASU Fig. 2: Dežman and Franc Plemel’s drawing of the cave vihled near Kolpa (ARS, Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 13 “Speleology”). Fig. 3: Dežman and Franc Plemel’s drawing of the cave Selska in Kočevsko region (ARS, Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 13, “Speleology”). Fig. 4: Dežman’s Passage Instrument, probably used for the determination of the geographical coordinates (ARS, Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 12, “Kosmographia”). ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 147 STANISLAV JUŽNIČ Fig. 5: Te title page of Dežman’s manuscript about literature and anatomy of Proteus (ARS, Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 12 “Proteus” 1r). Fig. 6: Dežman’s drawing of Proteus’ inner organs (ARS, Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 12 “Proteus” 3r). Fig. 7: Dežman’s drawing of Proteus as a copy of Rusconi’s study of female sample in 1827 (ARS, Privatae a archive of Karl Dežman, signature AS854, fascicle 12 “Proteus” 4r). 148 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 E. A. MARTEL, THE TRAVELLER WHO ALMOST BECAME AN ACADEMICIAN E. A. MARTEL, POPOTNIK, KI JE SKORAJ POSTAL ČLAN AKADEMIJE Pierre-Olaf SCHUT1 Abstract UDC 551.44(44):929 Martel É. A. Pierre-Olaf Schut: E. A. Martel, the traveller who almost become an academian Edouard-Alfred Martel lives in Paris. Like his father he studies to become a lawyer. Tis social position, fruit of the paternal heritage, does not fulfl his desire to become famous in the feld of science, which he considers as the source of progress for mankind. He has a passion for travelling and, in the course of his journeys, fnds a way to satisfy his ambitions, which run far beyond his Parisian legal practice. Almost by chance, he comes across what he would soon institutionalize as a new branch of natural science: speleology, that is to say the study of natural, underground caves. Will Martel, the ambitious traveller, manage to distinguish himself in the scientifc world? Te mans biography, supported by an analysis of his writings and his correspondence, illustrates the career of a tourist who wished to be acknowledged as a scientist. Showing the anonymous member of the Club Alpin français rising up to being candidate at the Academy of sciences, this biography illustrates the path of a self-made man right up to the highest spheres of science. It also demonstrates the distinction this illustrious man created between trips for tourist and explorations dedicated to scientifc purposes. key words: History of speleology, Martel, france, tourism, sci- Izvleček UDK 551.44(44):929 Martel É. A. Pierre-Olaf Schut: E. A. Martel, popotnik, kije skoraj postal član Akademije Edouard-Alfred Martel je živel v Parizu. Tako kot njegov oče je študiral pravo. Ta družbeni položaj, očetova dediščina, ni mogel izpolniti njegovih želja po slavi na polju znanosti, za katero je sodil, da je vir napredka človeštva. Zelo rad je potoval in ta popotovanja so bila zadoščenje njegovim željam in so visoko presegala njegovo pariško advokatsko prakso. Skoraj po naključju je naletel na, kar je sam kmalu uzakonil kot novo vejo naravoslovnih znanosti - speleologijo, to je preučevanje naravnih podzemeljskih jam. Ali se bo Martel, popotnik z visokimi cilji, uspel odlikovati tudi v znanosti? Biografja tega moža, podprta z analizo njegovih del in njegovega dopisovanja, prikazuje življenjsko pot turista, ki je želel biti priznan kot znanstvenik. Biografja prikazuje pot tega »samouka«, ki se je od anonimnega člana francoskega planinskega društva (Club Alpin fran-çais) povzpel do kandidata za Akademijo znanosti, to je prav v najvišje znanstvene kroge. Prikazana je tudi razlika, ki jo je ta znani mož ustvaril med turističnimi izleti in raziskovanjem v znanstvene namene. ključne besede: zgodovina speleologije, turizem, znanost, Martel, francija. INTRODUCTION Te discovery and exploration of the furthest and most rations had been led by colonists and soldiers, but also inhospitable areas of the world signals the end of the glo- by scientists and sometimes even plain tourists. What-bal conquest in the 19th and 20th centuries. Tese explo- ever their motivations, these men all opened up new 1 University Lyon I, pierre_olaf@hotmail.com Received / Prejeto: 21.07.2005 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 149–157, LJUBLJANA 2006 ence. PIERRE-OLAf SCHUT spaces and gave them meaning according to the way they viewed them. Tis is where the traveller’s personality plays an essential part. Te underground world is one of these inhospitable places which became the objects of systematic exploration from the end of the 19th century. Tis happened under the infuence of a man called E.A. Martel (1859 – 1938). Trough a biography of this active and somewhat ambiguous character – both a tourist by temperament and a scientist by inclination – we shall try to understand the meaning E.A. Martel gives to caves: are they to be considered as jewels for regional tourism; as privileged standpoints from which to observe natural phenomena: or both? Te scientifc aspirations of a man who would turn out to be the world specialist in underground research – limited by his social position and his inclination for tourism – were to give a specifc meaning to caves and the underground world for times to come. Te cradle which received young Edouard-Alfred in 1859 in Pontoise, Paris area, belongs to an upper middle-class family. His father is a lawyer. Trough hard work and a defnite sense of money saving, he has managed to haul himself up to this conquering social class of the 19th century. His own father before him had also worked hard to ensure the future of his family. According to the inheritance strategy, Edouard-Alfred’s father expects his son to follow in his steps and keep taking the family still a little higher up the social hierarchy. Respectful of parental authority, the young man accepts his fate. He studies law, becomes a clerk in 1881 then graduates and takes up the function of lawyer to the Paris court of appeal in 1883. When, soon aferwards, he buys his Parisian practice, it seems like the natural reward for several generations of hard working lawyers in the Martel family. To imitate the higher social classes, his family ofen goes on holiday trips (Boyer, 1999). At times when the father, dedicated to moneymaking, is too busy working, he sends of his wife and son alone. Tey follow the classic itineraries of the time, visiting Chamonix and Switzerland or the Pyrenees, which attract increasing numbers of visitors, thanks to their spas. Ten they start travelling abroad. Afer Germany and Austria, E.A. Martel makes the classic trip to Italy (Boyer, 2000). He is just a child, but his travel journal testifes of a defnite taste for picturesque landscapes, which seem to Martel’s passion for caves is an opportunity for us to search into both the development of tourism and the many scientifc discoveries of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. We shall analyze, in the course of his life’s events, the active role he played in the development of tourism and how he somewhat uncertainly went up the high spheres of science. Te biographic perspective leads us to use a corpus of documents essentially made of Martel’s own publica-tions1 and his correspondence2. for a complete bibliography of E.-A. Martel, see: Chabert, C., Courval, M. de, 1971: E.-A. Martel 1859-1938 Bibliographie. – Travaux scientifques du Club Alpin français, Paris. E.-A. Martel’s correspondence is published in: André, D., Cas-teret, M., Carlier, P. , Gautier, A., Kalliatakis, G., Renouard, C. & L., 1997: La Plume et les goufres. - Association E.-A. Mar-tel, Hyelzas-Meyrueis. impress him more than any of works of art seen in museums or churches. Tis taste for natural beauties leads him to join the ranks of the Club Alpin français. Te latter, a scholarly society, gathers together middle-class people, tourists and scientists around a common passion for the mountain environment. Together they work for its development, especially from the point of view of tourism (Rauch, 1986; Hoibian, 2000; Lejeune, 1988). Soon Edouard-Alfred takes an active part in the activities of the club. In the Austrian Alps, for example, he climbs the Gross Venediger (3673 meters), the Dachstein (2996 meters) and the Gross Glockner (3789 meters) one afer the other in difcult weather conditions. He also takes part in the social life of the club, giving conferences. Even though his professional obligations forbid him to travel as much as he would like to, Martel is able to talk about many places around the globe as he reads extensively, especially the Petermann’s geographische mitteilungen as well as the tour du monde magazines. His keen interest in geography appears very early in his life - probably sparked by his family trips - and he later deepens his knowledge through reading. In high school he gets the frst prize of the Paris schools geography contest, which gives him the opportunity to join the prestigious Société de Géographie. Te latter’s policy is to promote travelling in view of developing geographic knowledge. Martel’s own knowledge was added to a topographer’s skill, which led him to work at map adjustments in the Pyrenees and the Esterel. BOURGEOIS CHILDHOOD 150 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 E. A. MARTEL, THE TRAVELLER WHO ALMOST BECAME AN ACADEMICIAN PICTURESQUE CEVENNES In 1883, Martel discovers a region of france totally ignored by tourists, despite geographer A. Lequeutre’s praise of it: the Cevennes. Tourists tend to all follow the same tracks, trying to see what ought to be seen and thus missing unknown picturesque places. from his very frst, short stay in the Cevennes, E.A. Martel happens to row down the Tarn gorges. He is extremely impressed by what he sees: a lovely stream falling into the narrow gorges of a canyon, tall fgures carved in the rock and even some mediaeval vestiges. Tis discovery was like a revelation to him, inviting him to write and share his enthusiasm with many. He writes an article for the annual publication of the Club Alpin français. Afer praising the beauty of Haut Tarn, he tries to reorient the traditional tourist axis towards the Cevennes. He writes: “It is a shame to see, year afer year, herds of french tourists invade areas turned fashionable by the English, when places like Haut Tarn remain ignored and neglected” (Martel, 1883). Te following year Martel goes back to that region. He discovers the Causse Noir and uncovers a natural site: Montpellier-le-Vieux (Martel, 1884). Heaps of stone blocks so strangely shaped as to appear hand carved, to the point that the name of the place evokes the picture of a long forgotten city. from then on, his admiration for the area is such that he starts ofcially promoting it with tourists. As a spokesman to the Parisian travellers, an experienced lecturer and an inspired writer, he starts a real campaign in favour of the Lozere area (Poujol, 1999). Te climax of this wave of enthusiasm is indisputably the publication of his book, les Cévennes, in 1890. Tis work wins over a large number of readers always on the look-out for new journeys and practical books to organize them. Te demand is such that it is reprinted several times. As luck would have it, the publishing and success of the book take place just before the setting up of an association which will be unequalled in its work for tourism: the Touring-Club de france. Martel naturally becomes one of its frst members and, due to the success of his book, he enjoys a special status. Inevitably, the Touring-club de france is infuenced by his enthusiasm and directs its interest towards the regions Martel favours and promotes: the Esterel all the way to the Cevennes. Supported by the constant growth of the Touring-Club, his campaign is a success. But reducing his role to that of a propagandist would be too limiting. His true merit is to have uncovered the natural beauties of a region. Afer the Tarn gorges and Montpellier-le-Vieux, Martel’s attention turns to the dark caves that open up in several surrounding places. In Languedoc, the exploration of the Demoiselles cave by Marsolier des Vivetieres (1785) had contributed to the tourist fame of the area. Well, the caves in Cevennes are shining with decorations and, entering them, Martel immediately senses their potential in terms of tourism development. Terefore he immediately starts planning this. Te Dargilan cave is one of the frst ones he explores methodically in 1888. What he sees there makes him most enthusiastic. Martel’s own reputation contributes to the fame of the Cévennes. Te whole area soon becomes a favourite for the larger public. Te french Touring Club, inspired by E.A. Martel’s writings, organizes there its frst cycling trip. A few years later it remarks that the whole area had benefted from a growing tourist success. Martel’s work begins with the discovery of the Cev-ennes in the early 1880s and stops only at his death. Indeed his last book, Causses et Cévennes, an updating of the frst one, is published at a time when his health is already declining. Te man is responsible for revealing the most popular tourist sites of the region. His unceasing work was consecrated by many trophies. But his enduring love for that place also pulled him into another adventure, one which he had aspired to since early childhood. A GREAT DISCOVERy? Martel’s interest for natural sites and tourism is mixed with a desire to understand the world in which he lives. Since an early age, as an inheritor of A. Comte’s positivist philosophy, he has been especially sensitive to scientifc progress and the understanding of natural phenomena. Tis is the reason why he reads so much. He reads magazines like la Nature, which informs him of the latest discoveries, as well as many scientifc publications from scholarly societies. Tus, though a self-taught man, he is perfectly aware of the latest acquisitions of knowledge in many scientifc felds. for Martel this interest for science does not simply refect a strong attraction; it is perceived as a path that will help him realize his full potential and deepest ambitions. He wants to acquire knowledge, but he also and mostly wants to be acknowledged for his work. However, whereas mountain tourism suits his social position, can his excessive scientifc ambition - which we shall now study in detail ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 151 PIERRE-OLAf SCHUT - adjust to the Parisian lawyer’s hard working life he has inherited? Te whole adventure starts in a Cévennes cave – the Nabrigas cave – that Martel has heard of from his guide, H. Causse. Causse was enthusiastic about the potential scien-tifc interest of the prehistoric vestiges he had found there. As a matter of fact, since the beginning of the century, the cave had regularly been visited by famous palaeontologists and historians like N. Joly, M. de Serres, P. Cazalis de fondouce and E. Cartailhac (André, 1999), but this does not deter Martel. He is extremely keen on this new science that keeps revealing information relative to the history of mankind. Martel, young, curious and ambitious, sees here an opportunity to bring his own contribution to science. Tis is how he starts working at excavations with the help of his brother-in-law, the geologist Louis de Launay. Te latter fnds part of a human jaw in a cave where many vestiges of URSUS speleus had already been discovered, thus confrming that the cave had been inhabited by men in the Palaeolithic era. Martel is enthused by this frst discovery and throws himself into the work with redoubled vigour until he fnds pieces of pottery. from then on, he senses that this is his opportunity to contribute meaningfully to scientifc progress. His aim is to demonstrate through his fndings that men in the Palaeolithic era mastered the art of pottery. Prehistory had been especially fashionable since the early 1860s (Groenen, 1994). Even though palaeontology had been legitimized by G. Cuvier, at the end of the 18th century, the religious taboo linked to Soon Martel fnds interest in something else: cave study. His journeys in the Cévennes and the excavation work in Nabrigas had taken him into a dark world that was only waiting for the lights of science to be shed on to it. Earlier on, as he was touring through the Causses, he had wondered about one of the many mysteries of the underground world: hydrogeology. In 1884 E.A. Martel had written: “How many mine explosives should be used, how many dangers should be faced, in order to discover the capillaries and reservoirs of the Causses and solve the mystery of the communication between the swallow-holes and the valley caves? Who knows if some day, a brave explorer will extract from these limestone plateaux the secrets of their hydrography.” (Martel, 1884). Little did he know then that he himself would be that “brave explorer” a few years later. Martel’s new vocation can be understood on various levels. One thing is sure: this new path was all the more the existence of a form of evolving mankind kept pushing of further ofcial study in Prehistory for half a century. Consequently, in the last third of the 19th century, discoveries are many, contributing to the celebrity of the great characters standing for it. Soon Martel gets in touch with the most famous professors in order to present his work, confrm his hypotheses and get their support. When his work is done, his frst report to the Academy of Science is read out by A. de Quatrefages. During the sitting following this presentation, E. Cartailhac answers E.A. Martel and L. de Launay, refuting their conclusions. Martel lashes back by publishing several articles answering the expert’s points one by one. Only academic customs manage to put an end to the debate. Martel’s penetration of the prehistori-ans’ circle is now compromised. Aware of it, he turns his back on that science, but several people in that feld will keep a grudge against him. Tis episode is evidence both of Martel’s pugnacity and of his will to become famous through scientifc discoveries. It also shows how difcult such a task was to be. Well, if Prehistory, which had fascinated him so much up till then, rejected him, never mind! Tis was not going to dishearten him. Tere were many other sciences and he would fnd his own somehow. Tis sudden change of course shows not only how interested he was in science in general, but also how much he craved for acknowledgement from the highest scientifc circles. attractive to him as it synthesized his deepest aspirations. Since early childhood he had been a dedicated traveller and this interest was confrmed in the context of the Club Alpin français. Also as a tourist always on the lookout for picturesque landscapes, he fnds under ground level the change of scenery and the natural beauties that have always fascinated him and that make this region so lovable to him. Lastly, as a potential scientist, he is facing uncovered mysteries in a feld which has hardly been touched upon in Austria, but which seems to be starting to interest french science too. Indeed, in a book published in 1887, the eminent geologist, A. Daubrée, had opened the way to hydrogeology by showing the relationship between the localisation of water, its movements and the geological structures. In the summer 1888, Martel starts on his frst underground campaign. His objectives then are to cross the Bramabiau abyss and explore the Dargilan cave (Martel, CAVE STUDy 152 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 E. A. MARTEL, THE TRAVELLER WHO ALMOST BECAME AN ACADEMICIAN 1888). Tis plan testifes again to the perfect mixture of his many interests in one and the same activity: as he draws a precise map of the cave and lists all its beauties, the ftting out of the cave can be set into motion for the greatest beneft of the Cévennes. As for the Bramabiau abyss, it is a hydrological special feature as well as a remarkably picturesque site. Next to Mont Aigoual, a small stream of water sinks underground and seems to reappear 440 meters further and 90 meters deeper. Everybody assumes that these two streams are one and the same, but E.A. Martel demonstrates it irrevocably by following the water upstream. In his report of this experiment, he makes interesting remarks regarding underground water circulation. Te success met during this frst campaign encourages Martel to persevere along those lines. He soon gets in touch with A. Daubrée in order to have his opinion concerning his writings and also because the man is a member of the Academy of Science and, as such, can present his notes to his fellow academicians in his name. Indeed thanks to the man’s support, he can publish his frst reports to the Academy of science and develops his study of the underground. At frst he concentrates on the Cévennes and Causses region, but then considers doing the same sort of work abroad. first because this would allow him to make comparisons and therefore generalize his results and then because it would keep him in touch with his predecessors in underground study, especially in Austria. His acquaintances make it possible for him to set up a scientifc project sponsored by the Ministry of Public Education. Trough this project he meets his Austrian counterparts in the Austrian Karst. Tus completing his experience, bibliography and knowledge, E.A. Martel becomes an authentic expert in limestone massif hydrology. Afer six search campaigns in france and studies in the caves of Belgium, Greece and Austria, Martel decides Te cultural atmosphere of the late 19th century is favourable to the development of sciences. More than ever, science is synonymous with progress in the widest sense of the term. Nevertheless society has its own ways and Martel knows it. He uses this knowledge to get the means to acquire the much coveted status. His strategy is developed on several levels that build up progressively. first, aware of the fact that he cannot achieve his aim alone, E.A. Martel, afer publishing les Abîmes, decides to cre- to publish a synopsis of his work in a book entitled les Abîmes, in 1894. In this book, he does not just report the results of six years’ research, but tries to put forth the basis of a new branch of natural sciences: speleology or the science of caves. Te very word “speleology” is brand new. Mar-tel claims it was created by prehistorian E. Riviere. Te Greek root spelaion meaning “cave” and logos, meaning “discourse”, give a scientifc ring to the name of the practice. Martel defnes a vast program for this new science. Subjects appear according to his personal logic. He mentions hydrology, geology and mineralogy, meteorology and topography, which are all felds in which he has already been distinguished. Next to these are a few specifc aspects which either interest him personally or have been the object of subsidy requests to the Ministery of Public Education, like agriculture and public hygiene. Martel’s defnition also includes felds like fauna, fora, prehistory and palaeontology which brings everyone together by common consensus and through which he gets the support of famous scientists who have already worked in the underworld, like botanists and archaeologists (Gauchon, 1997). Tis sense of compromise is based on a desire to see speleology obtain full status as a science and more spe-cifcally as a branch of natural sciences. Te whole process was quite a touchy thing considering that the man was standing alone and had met with a few disappointments in the past. However, he now feels confdent that he has found his own true path. Having associated his name to a specifc feld of research, his personal fulfl-ment and acknowledgment by the highest scientifc institutions - and especially the Academy of Science - has to go through the legitimization of speleology, a science of which he would forever remain the precursor. But the point then was: could a Parisian lawyer, a “tourist”, create a science? ate a “Société de Spéléologie”. His book ensures both the defnition of speleology and its promotion. Its success confrms Martel’s status as an expert in the feld and makes it possible trustfully to consider support for the new Society. So in the year following the publication of his book, he starts recruiting the founder members of the Society. On September 15, 1894, Martel sends of a mailing to individuals and societies and publishes the same letter in THE LEGITIMIZATION Of SPELEOLOGy AND THE CONQUEST Of THE SCIENTIfIC WORLD ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 153 PIERRE-OLAf SCHUT several scholarly magazines like the Bulletin de la Société géologique de France and the Revue d’Anthropologie. In return Martel fnds 121 founder members ready to support the creation of the Société de Spéléologie on January 1st, 1895. As a lawyer living in Paris, he is a man of many connections. Being supported by celebrities in the world of science - like Dr Blanchard, member of the Academy of Medicine or G. Vallot, founder of the Observatory of the Mount Blanc - and the friend of infuential politicians like the deputy f. Deloncle - is assuredly a strong advantage for this new scholarly society. In the frst few years, the number of its members increases regularly. Martel does not limit membership to the french territory. Indeed, as opposed to many scholarly societies, the name of the Société de Spéléologie does not imply any geographical limitations. Martel has obviously understood that science can only be an international affair. from the very early days, he attracts into his society foreign counterparts he had a chance to work with, like Greek and Austrian researchers. Later his many missions in England, Russia, the United States, Italy and Spain give him opportunities to make useful contacts and attract more members. Te way he went about it has been called “a true international strategy” (Shaw, 1988). As a matter of fact, in 1895, one fourth of the Society members comes from foreign countries, numbers grow up to one third in 1904 and then remain in this proportion. Tis representation contributes to the credibility of the Society in france and to its recognition worldwide, thanks to a widespread difusion of its works. from the very beginning of the Society, E.A. Mar-tel creates a review in which he publishes reports from its members’ research. Te Latin title of the review, Spe-lunca, stresses its scientifc character. It is entirely edited by E.A. Martel himself. Spelunca soon turns out to be the main part of the Society activity, but this did not happen by chance. Martel is well aware that magazines are the perfect vehicle in the intellectual spheres of the late 19th century. Tey stress the legitimacy of a group and make their publishers and writers famous (Prochasson, 1991). Martel always attached a major importance to the Academy of Sciences (Choppy, 1999). Even though the least of his explorations is the object of several reports and publications; even though he regularly writes columns in la géographie, a scientifc journal, as well as more popular magazines like la Nature and is published by several tourist magazines like the Annuaire du Club Alpin Français, the Revue du touring-club de France, the Besides the publication of magazines, Martel takes part in many congresses in wich he explains what speleology is. Tese are perfect communication places for an interested public. Tey are aimed at an audience from various intellectual spheres, which contributes to the legitimi-zation of sciences and groups. Tis is how, in 1893, Martel had announced the publication of his book les Abîmes, by presenting a memoir on “speloelogy” at a congress organized by the Association pour l’Avancement des Sciences in Besançon. Every year, from 1896 onwards, speleology is represented at the Congres des sociétés savantes through a couple of members from the Société de Spéléologie. However Martel’s battlelines would not be complete without speleology pushing open the doors of University. Indeed since its reformation, university has become the most favoured place for developing scientifc research. In those days, the Sorbonne was inaugurating new courses in new subjects. E.A. Martel takes advantage of this opportunity. from 1901 he teaches a class on « Underground Geography ». Te recent appearance of physical geography and its development at university may appear to Martel as an entrance door to this world. Indeed by then he was famous as a geographer, not only for his work about the Cévennes, but also as a member of the Société de Géographie. As a matter of example, the famous geographer O. Reclus asked for his services to complete his major work, la grande géographie, published in 1911 and 1914. With regard to these realizations added to the sheer hard work of its promoter, speleology seems to acquire some destination or at least be acknowledged. Its spokesman benefts from it and by the end of the century he has become a celebrity. Te Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifques invites him to give a talk on speleology at their congress in 1899. He speaks afer Mr Loude who talks about x rays and before Mr Lumiere who presents his study on the photography of colours. Honoured and acknowledged by his peers, Martel feels ready to ask for the consecration he has always aspired to: a seat at the Academy of sciences. tour du monde or Causses et Cévennes, E.A. Martel has a special reverence for the old institution. Tis is where he always sends the very frst reports of his discoveries. By the time he applies for a seat there, he has sent 82 reports, 66 of which have been published. Te Academy has honoured Martel with the Gay prize of physical geography as a tribute to his work, les Abîmes in 1894 and with the Grand Prix des Sciences Physiques in 1907. THE ACADEMy 154 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 E. A. MARTEL, THE TRAVELLER WHO ALMOST BECAME AN ACADEMICIAN Tis success leads him to believe that he can apply for the seat lef vacant by the death of J. Tannery in 1910. To this efect he writes a letter to the Academy on December 11 of that year, but his application is turned down. In 1911, in order to prepare his next application, Martel writes out a document in which he presents a detailed account of his work and publications. He applies for a vacant seat in the free academicians section in february 1913, but there again, he is turned down. Tat same year in May he applies for the seat lef vacant by the death of E. Cailletet, only to be refused again. Afer this third failure, E.A. Martel has to face the truth: the Academy will never accept him. Tis is all the more obvious when he learns that he never got a single vote at any of his applications, not even from his own brother-in-law, L. de Launay. As a matter of fact, this was to become a matter of contention between them in the future. Martel explains his failure by the absence of the people who had supported him in his early days. A. Daubrée, for example, with whom he shared many views on hy-drogeology and whom he wished to emulate, had died in 1896. A. Gaudry, who had presented his prized works as well as thirty fve of his reports to the Academy, had died in 1908. In the absence of these men, he could still hope that L. de Launay, his childhood friend and brother-in-law, would support him. Te fact that he did not was a sore point for E.A. Martel. Getting a seat at the Academy had become a matter of personal importance to him. He wished to be at least equal to his brother-in-law in this respect. L. de Launay had ofen explored caves with him and shared his views on geology and other matters. As a professor at the Ecole des Mines, he was also interested in the richness of the underground and appreciated by the Academy for his discoveries. Why would E.A. Martel be less?. Probably feeling bad when confronted with Martel’s resentful disappointment, L. de Launay tried to make up for his disavowal by supporting him when the Academy awarded Martel the Joseph Labbé Prize in 1921 for his work entitled Nouveau traité des eaux souterraines. E.A. Martel desperately needed a consecration of his work on caves as a compensation for a difcult private life. Indeed Aline, his wife, had had a miscarriage in an accident with a hot air balloon her husband had insisted she few with him. Afer that she could no longer conceive babies and Martel’s in-laws never quite forgave him for that. As for his own parents, they resented the fact that he had dropped his attorney practice to dedicate his life to the modest trade of an underground explorer. So E.A. Martel did not get the longed-for recognition from the scientifc world, but the reasons may be found in the ambiguity of his position. When he frst started on his scientifc career, E.A. Martel was just a traveller but not in the manner of a tourist. He travelled in the way geographers used to at the beginning of the 19th century, bringing back from his trips precise observations and maps, thus contributing to the development of knowledge regarding known or unknown territories (Laboulais-Lesage, 2000). Tis way had been supported by the Société de Géographie since its creation in 1821, but it difers from that of physical geography which becomes an ofcial institution entering the university in the 1890s (Broc, 1994). Tis explicative geography is totally diferent from the previous descriptive one. It is mainly based on a new concept coming from the famous American geographer, Davis and supported in france by Margerie. Being deeply nationalistic, Martel refuses to accept the theory presented by the American. In the same narrow-minded way, he is soon taken over by progress in geology, but keeps judging and criticizing the latest theories. As a consequence, more and more ofen he quarrels with the scientists of his time, defending his outdated views in his “aggressive lawyer’s way” as he himself puts it. Tis is why P. Renault (1999) said about him: “Martel is a 19th century man who missed the 20th century transition for lack of a scientifc mind”. His lack of scientifc training appeared when E.A. Martel had to take position in a debate relative to dowsing. Unlike his colleague, E. fournier, a geologist at Be-sançon University, who spent a long time studying this “divinatory science” to fnally state it was scientifcally null, E.A. Martel could never quite make up his mind about the subject and even once declared it of value. Even his qualities as an observer were disparaged by some scientists besides the prehistorians. Tus R. Jeannel, a biologist researching cave fauna, went on a campaign with E.A. Martel, afer which he reproached the speleologist with the somewhat careless character of his observations. It may not be a matter of chance that prehistorian H. Breuil collaborated with the biospeologists for many years, whereas no archaeologist or biologist took part in the activities of the Société de Spéléologie. E.A. Martel tried to make up for his lack of scien-tifc training by reading a lot. He thus acquired a vast knowledge which enabled him to popularize many felds of science. Tis quality made him a popular writer, but discredited him with the scientifc community. Indeed only scientists benefting from a well established position can aford to produce such works without prejudice to their reputation. In the end, E.A. Martel’s scientifc career raises many criticisms. Lack of scientifc training and methodology, and difculty in participating constructively in the debates of his time, contribute to keeping him on the fringe of the scientifc establishment. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 155 PIERRE-OLAf SCHUT CONCLUSION E.A. Martel was deeply wounded by the rejection of the scientifc institutions. Also the first World War, which breaks out the year following his double rejection by the Academy of Sciences, weighs hard on him. Being too old to fght at the age of 55, he volunteers as a nurse, but his own health is weakened by arteriosclerosis. Terefore, afer the Armistice, he stops his exploration campaigns and does not do much to prevent the extinction of the Société de Spéléologie. He forsakes every ambition to enter the Academy of sciences, but keeps a scientifc activity within the Société de Géographie of which he becomes president in 1928 and puts more efort into the development of tourism, especially in the context of the Touring-club de france. Tere he fnds himself in a sphere where he is appreciated and praised. He receives many awards and, when he is still alive, even has the privilege to have his statue made in the Cévennes region he so much loved and glorifed. His last work, at the end of his life, was to complete his action in favour of tourist development in the Causses and Cévennes. Tis life story demonstrates the capacity of a self-trained man to assert himself in the late 19th century in- tellectual spheres which were especially open to scientifc initiatives. However integration has its limits: being allowed to express oneself does not mean being accepted and acknowledged by one’s peers. Martel’s law training and his tourist inclinations contributed to limit the quality of seriousness with which his works were evaluated. E.A. Martel felt he had not been well represented, but really his theoretical refections were probably not up to what can be expected from an Academician. No matter how many caves he explored and how many plans he drew, a scientist’s quality stays more with his analysis of data than with his collection of them. However Martel certainly lef his print in the discovery of the underground. following his tracks and example, many speleologists went underground to discover new networks, taking precise notes in the course of their explorations. His inheritance is still alive in the way people keep exploring caves: drawing surveys and trying to understand the working of the water networks. Indeed such activities would otherwise be surprising on the part of people who are now considered as “sportsmen”. BIBLIOGRAPHy André, D., Carlier, P., Gautier, A., 1999: La grotte de Nabrigas, premiere cavité lozérienne d’Edouard-Al-fred Martel– in André, D. (Ed.), l’homme qui voy-ageait pour les goufres. Archives départementales de la Lozere, Mende, 83-94. André, D., Casteret, M., Carlier, P. , Gautier, A., Kalliata-kis, G., Renouard, C. & L., 1997: la Plume et les gouf-fres. - Association E.-A. Martel, Hyelzas-Meyrueis. Anonyme, 1897: Voyage vélocipédique dans la région du Tarn - Revue du Touring-Club de france, 218-219. Boyer, M., 1999: histoire du tourisme de masse. – Presses Universitaires de france, Paris. Boyer, M., 2000: l’histoire de l’invention du tourisme. -Editions de L’Aube, La Tour-d’Aygues. Broc, N., 1994: Regards sur la géographie française de la renaissance a nos jours. - Presses Universitaire de Perpignan, Perpignan. Casteret, N., 1943: E.-A. martel explorateur du monde souterrain. – Gallimard, Paris Chabert C., Courval, M. de, 1971: E.-A. martel 1859-1938 Bibliographie. – Travaux scientifques du Club Alpin français, Paris. Choppy, J., 1999: Edouard-Alfred Martel et l’Académie des Sciences – in André, D. (Ed.), l’homme qui voy-ageait pour les goufres. Archives départementales de la Lozere, Mende, 187-194. Daubrée, A., 1887: les Eaux souterraines. – Vve C. Du-nod, Paris. Gauchon, C., 1997: Des Cavernes et des hommes. – Kar-stologia Mémoires n°7, éditions ffS-AfK. Groenen, M., 1994: Pour une histoire de la préhistoire. – J. Million, Grenoble. Hoibian, O., 2000: les Alpinistes en France. – L’Harmattan, Paris. L. de Launay dans la plume et les goufres Laboulais-Lesage, I., 2000: Voyager en géographe au xIxe siecle – in Chabaud, G., Cohen, E., Coquery, N., Penez, J. (Eds.), Les Guides imprimés du xVIe au xxe siecle, Belin, Paris, 475-485. Lejeune, D., 1988: les Alpinistes en France a la fn du XIXe et au début du XXe siecle. – Editions du CTHS, Paris. 156 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 E. A. MARTEL, THE TRAVELLER WHO ALMOST BECAME AN ACADEMICIAN Marsollier des Vivetieres, B.-J., 1785: Description de la Baume ou grotte des Demoiselles a St-Bauzile pres de ganges dans les Cévennes. Martel, E.-A., 1883: Le Canon du Tarn – Annuaire du Club Alpin français, 242-261. Martel, E.-A., 1884: Le Causse Noir et Montpellier-le-Vieux – Annuaire du Club Alpin français, 263-291. Martel, E.-A., 1888: Sous Terre – Annuaire du Club Alpin français, 238-294. Martel, E.-A., 1890: les Cévennes. – Delagrave, Paris. Martel, E.-A., 1894: les Abîmes. – Delagrave, Paris. Martel, E.-A., 1921: Nouveau traité des eaux souterraines. – Doin, Paris. Martel, E.-A., 1936: les Causses majeurs. – Artieres et maury, millau. Renault P., 1999: Edouard-Alfred Martel, explorateur ou savant – in André, D. (Ed.), l’homme qui voyageait pour les goufres. Archives départementales de la Lozere, Mende, 391-403. Poujol, O., 1999: Edouard-Alfred Martel et l’invention du tourisme en Lozere. – in André, D. (Ed), l’homme qui voyageait pour les goufres. Archives départe-mentales de la Lozere, Mende, 139-172. Prochasson, C., 1991: les Années électriques 1890-1910. – La Découverte, Paris. Rauch, A., 1986: Naissance du Club Alpin français La Convivialité, la Nature et l’Etat (1874-1880). - in Arnaud, P. & J. Camy (Eds), la Naissance du mouve-ment sportif associatif en France, Presses Universita-ires de Lyon, Lyon, 275-285. Martel, E.-A., 1911: france – in la grande géographie. Ed. by O. Reclus, t. 2, 77-196. Shaw, T. R., 1988: Martel’s visit to Mendip in 1904: Part of his international strategy ? - U.B.S.S. Proceedings, 18, 2, 278-291. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 157 COBISS: 1.04 POSTOJNSKA JAMA IN SLOVENIA, THE SÜDBAHN AND THE VISIT Of JOHN CHARLES MOLTENO: THEIR INfLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT Of RAILWAyS IN SOUTH AfRICA POSTOJNSKA JAMA, JUŽNA ŽELEZNICA IN OBISK JOHNA CHARLESA MOLTENA V SLOVENIJI: NJIHOV VPLIV NA RAZVOJ ŽELEZNIC V JUŽNI AfRIKI Stephen A. CRAVEN1 Abstract UDC 551.44(497.4 Postojna)(091) Stephen A. Craven: Postojnska Jama in Slovenia, the Südbahn and the Visit of John Charles Molteno: Their Infuence on the Development of Railways in South Africa. In November 1871 a successful businessman an d politician from South Africa toured Europe with his daughters. Tey arrived at Postojnska jama by train from Vienna. He wrote to the governor that it would be very desirable that the engineers should visit the Südbahn which crosses a rugged terrain comparable to that of the Cape mountains where technical problems and increased construction costs slowed the advance. Te discovery of diamonds inland was eventually responsible for the extension of the railway to Beaufort West and beyond. key words: history, Molteno, Southern railway, Slovenia, South Africa. Izvleček UDK 551.44(497.4 Postojna)(091) Stephen A. Craven: Postojnska jama, Južna železnica in obisk Johna Charlesa Moltena v Sloveniji: njihov vpliv na razvoj železnic v Južni Afriki Novembra 1871 je uspešni poslovnež in politik iz Južne Afrike potoval s svojima hčerama po Evropi. Obiskali so tudi Postojnsko jamo, kamor so prispeli z vlakom z Dunaja. Pisal je guvernerju, naj si inženirji ogledajo južno železnico, ki poteka po še bolj razgibanem terenu kot so gore v Kaplandiji, kjer se je gradnja upočasnila zaradi tehničnih problemov in dviga stroškov. Vendar je odkritje diamantov pospešilo dokončanje železniške proge v notranjost do Beaufort Westa. ključne besede: zgodovina, Molteno, Južna železnica, Slovenija, Južna Afrika. INTRODUCTION for three centuries the spectacular Postojna Cave in Slovenia (Habe 1986) has attracted the great, the good and lesser mortals. Until the collapse of the Austro-Hungari-an empire in 1918 the cave was known as the Adelsberger Grotte. fortunately for the historian since 1819 the early visitors were required to sign the visitors’ books which have survived, and which are kept at the Karst Research Institute in Postojna. Most of the visitors came from Europe, but also from the Americas and from Asia (Shaw 2000; Shaw & Čuk 2002). Tere were very few visitors from Africa. Tere are two reasons for the paucity of South African visitors. Tere were, compared with the northern hemisphere, very few people with the necessary fnancial and temporal resources. Te Cave was difcult of access from the Cape. Te Union-Castle Mail Steamship Company and its predecessors operated fast mailships from Cape Town via Las Palmas to Southampton in England. Tere were also intermediate ships which served Cape Town and the east African ports. Te much slower round-Africa ships sailed through the Suez canal and the Mediterranean, calling at Naples, Genoa and Mar- 1 7 Amhurst Avenue, Newlands 7700, South Africa, e-mail: sacraven@mweb.co.za Received / Prejeto: 26.08.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 159–162, LJUBLJANA 2006 STEPHEN A. CRAVEN seille before docking in England (Harris & Ingpen 1994). Trieste, the port of access for Postojna, is situated at the north-easterly limit of the Adriatic Sea. Ships plying the South African trade did not call there because there was insufcient demand for a diversion from the standard routes to a port which ofered very little South African business. Trieste was a busy and important port, being the most convenient maritime access which was controlled by the Austro-Hungarian empire. Te Government in Vienna in 1841 decided to build the Southern Railway (or Südbahn). Te tracks reached Postojna in 1856 and Trieste in the following year (Enciklopedija Slovenije, 1990). Tis railway greatly facilitated visitors’ access to Postojna and the Cave. Tree such visitors were John Charles Molteno and his two eldest daughters, Caroline and Elizabeth Maria (Betty), on 10 November 1871 during their European tour (fig. 1). Molteno was born in London on 5 June 1814 and emigrated in 1831 to the Cape where he soon pros- pered in business, and in sheep farming at Nelspoort near Beaufort West. He became a wealthy and infuential man (Harrington 1972). In 1854 he was elected Member of the Legislative Assembly for Beaufort West (Cape of Good Hope Almanac 1855). following the achievement of internal self-government in 1872 he was re-elected Member for Beaufort West (General Directory and Guide Book to the Cape of Good Hope 1872), and was appointed Prime Minister on 1 December 1872 (Kilpin 1938). During their tour of Europe Molteno and his daughters wrote letters to their family and friends (University of Cape Town Archives and Manuscripts Department BC 330: Molteno - Murray Papers). On 6 November 1871 Betty Molteno wrote from Vienna to her brothers Charlie, Percy and frank announcing her intention to visit the Adelsberger Grotte. On 18 November 1871 her father wrote from Venice to his wife confrming the visit: “I write [sic] you last from linz in Austria. Since we have visited several places, vienna, Adelsberg grotto, trieste &c and reached this on the 15th. but as usual I must leave the girls to tell you all this … Te Adelsberg grotto which we were in for near three hours is a truly wonderful sight a large (river) runs up to the hill where you enter the grotto and entering (the) cave entirely disappears and the water comes out again some 20 or 30 miles of.” Te daughters were not impressed with Postojna and its Cave. Betty’s next letter, dated 21 November 1871 and written from Brindisi to her step-mother, made no mention of the Cave. Her diary is similarly silent. Caro- Fig. 2: Sir John Charles molteno in 1882, aged 68 years (molteno 1900). line likewise wrote no letter between Graz and the east coast of Italy, and overlooked the Cave. Although Molteno was prompted to write a couple of sentences about the Cave, his mind was clearly on other things including the inter-related Cape politics and Cape railways. Indeed, he had always been an enthusiastic supporter of railways in the Colony. Te Cape Town Railway and Dock Company had been foated in London in 1853 and had reached Wellington, 96 railway Fig. 1: Te entries of molteno and his daughters in the Postojna Cave visitors’ book, 10 November 1871. 160 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 POSTOJNSKA JAMA IN SLOVENIA, THE SÜDBAHN AND THE VISIT Of JOHN CHARLES MOLTENO: THEIR INfLUENCE... km. (Durrant, Jorgensen & Lewis 1981) from Cape Town over easy country, on 4 November 1863 (Cape Argus 1863). Tis slow rate of construction is explained in part by the sparsely populated countryside and lack of industry (Houghton 1978). Te 1865 census reported a population of 236,300 in the Western Division, of which only 16% were economically active, and a low population density of 3.25 per square mile (1.25 per square km.) (Cape of Good Hope 1866; Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, 1866). To proceed beyond Wellington into the hinterland the railway had to cross the Cape mountains. Tis led to technical problems and increased construction costs per kilometre, a possible solution to which occurred to Mol-teno as he travelled on the Südbahn across the mountains from Vienna (Wien) through Graz (Gratz), Maribor (Marburg) and Ljubljana (Laibach) to Postojna (Adelsberg) and Trieste (Te Times Atlas 1898). A visitor to Slovenia in 1845 during the construction of the Südbahn well summarised its signifcance for Molteno: “Until marburg you ride along the [route of the] miracle railway under construction from graz to trieste. tunnels several hundred metres in length, viaducts, and stonewalled cuttings will make this railroad one of the greatest.” (Windisch-Graetz 1908). A later advertisement for the Cape Government Railways did not exaggerate: “Te Pioneers of railway construction were faced with apparently insurmountable difculties in climbing over and winding round Nature’s great upheavals before the tracks could be laid which were to connect the coastal towns with the interior.” (Te Mountain Club Annual 1908). Accordingly Molteno wrote to the Governor, Sir Henry Barkly, from Suez on 8 December 1871. Afer discussing the Egyptian railways which had been constructed over easy, fat, country he waxed eloquent about the Südbahn: “But of all the railways I have yet seen, that from vienna to trieste is the most difcult, and is acknowledged to exhibit the greatest amount of engineering boldness and skill, and the similarity of some of the mountain gorges and other difculties which will have to be overcome if railways extend very much at the Cape, would, I should imagine, render it very desirable that the engineers who have to plan and construct these should visit this line; it is 365 miles in length, and would in itself re- pay all the trouble and expense of a visit from the Cape for those who take an interest in such undertakings. But on the whole I fnd that what we shall have to contend with in constructing lines from the two ends of the Colony inland traversing the more level parts, especially say from the Wellington terminus towards the Diamond Fields, is small comparatively speaking, and looking to the changed condition of things consequent upon the Diamond Fields and extension of the Colony in every way, I think that even those who are inclined to be most cautious in committing the Colony to large and expensive undertakings, must admit that things which might have fairly been looked upon as tasks a few years ago, may be viewed in a very diferent light now.” (Molteno 1900). Tere is no record that an engineer was sent to inspect the Südbahn. Indeed, there would have been insuf-fcient time between receipt of the letter by the Governor and the appointment of the Select Committee in May 1872. Molteno returned from his European tour on the R.M.S. Northam from Southampton on 18 April 1872 (Cape Argus 1872), and resumed his political activities. Te railway problem had become more urgent with the discovery of diamonds near what became Kimberley in the northern Cape, and with the subsequent expansion of that industry in 1868 (Rosenthal 1964). On 10 May 1872 the House of Assembly appointed a Select Committee to report on the Cape Town Railway and Dock Company, which was tabled the following month. Molteno attended every meeting. Te Committee confned its enquiry to the fnancial implications of exercising the Government’s option to buy the railway. Tere was no discussion about its extension beyond Wellington (Cape of Good Hope Report 1872). Te problem was solved by the purchase of the railway company by the Cape Colonial Government at midnight on 31 December 1872 (Cape Archives Depot), and by reducing the gauge from 4 f. 81 ins. (1.435 m.) to 3f. 6 ins. (1.067 m.). Sir John Charles Molteno retired in 1883 (Molteno 1900), and died in Cape Town on 1 September 1886 (Cape Argus 1886). He was doubtless content in the knowledge that the railway which he had encouraged throughout his political career had eventually crossed the Cape mountains, and had reached his adopted Beaufort West on 6 february 1880 (Cape Argus 1880). ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 161 STEPHEN A. CRAVEN ACKNOWLEDGMENT Dr. Trevor Shaw of the Karst Research Institute in Postojna spotted the “Cape of Good Hope” entry in the visitors’ book, and kindly supplied the author with a photocopy. I am grateful to Mrs. Maja Kranjc, Librarian at the Karst Research Institute in Postojna, for the reference from Enciklopedija Slovenije. NOTES AND REfERENCES Cape Archives Depot A2324 p. 26 & PWD 2/411 pp. 43 & 44. Cape Argus 05 Nov. 1863 p. 3. Cape Argus 18 April 1872 p. 4. Cape Argus 07 feb. 1880 p. 3. Cape Argus 03 Sep. 1886 pp. 2 – 3. Cape of Good Hope, 1866: Census of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope 1865 [G.20-’66] (Cape Town: Saul Solomon). Cape of Good Hope Almanac, 1855: p. 113 (Cape Town: Van de Sandt de Villiers). Cape of Good Hope Report of the Select Committee appointed to consider and report on railway purchase. June 1872 [A2-’72], (Cape Town: Saul Solomon). Colony of the Cape of Good Hope 1865 (Blue Book), 1866: pp. V2 – V3 (Cape Town; Saul Solomon). Durrant A.E. & Jorgensen A.A. & Lewis C.P., 1981: Steam in Africa.- p. 179 (Cape Town: Struik). Enciklopedija Slovenije, 1990: 4 - Hac-Kare, Mladinska knjiga, pp. 363 – 364, Ljubljana. General Directory and Guide Book to the Cape of Good Hope … 1872: pp. 181 – 182 (Cape Town: Saul Solomon). Habe f., 1986: Te Postojna Caves and other Tourist Caves in Slovenia. (Postojna). H[arrington] A.L., 1972: Dictionary of South African Biography. Vol. 2 pp. 482 – 485 (Cape Town: Tafelberg). Harris C.J. & Ingpen B.D., 1994: Mailships of the Union-Castle Line. p. 23 (Vlaeberg: fernwood Press). Houghton D.H., 1978: p. 19 in Wilson M. & Tompson L. (eds.) Te Oxford History of South Africa (OUP). Kilpin R., 1938: Te Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope. p. 165 (London: Longmans, Green & Co.). Molteno P.A., 1900: Te Life and Times of Sir John Mol-teno K.C.M.G., first Premier of the Cape Colony. Vol. I., pp. 176 – 178 (London: Smith Elder & Co.). Te original letter was not found in the Cape Archives Depot; Vol. II frontispiece & p. 463. Rosenthal E., 1964: Encyclopaedia of Southern Africa. p. 141 (London: frederick Warne). Shaw T.R., 2000: foreign Travellers in the Slovene Karst 1537 – 1900. Založba ZRC, Karst Research Institute, 244 pp., Ljubljana. Shaw T.R. & Čuk A., 2002: Royal and other noble visitors to Postojnska jama 1819-1945. Kralji in drugi plemeniti obiskovalci v Postojnski jami 1819-1945.-Acta carsologica, vol. 31, 1, Supplementum 1, 107 pp., Ljubljana. Te Mountain Club Annual,1908: (12). “Te Times” Atlas (1898) maps 49 – 50 (London: Printing House Square). Windisch-Graetz L., 1908: Kindheit und Jugendzeit 1839 – 1850 iii. opp. p. 86 (Wien: Seidel). Cited by Shaw T.R., 2000: foreign Travellers in the Slovene Karst 1537 – 1900, p. 163; Založba ZRC, Karst Research Institute, 244 pp., Ljubljana. 162 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 IN MEMORIAM IN MEMORy Of MARIAN PULINA (1936-2005) On October 22, 2005 in Katowice Prof. Dr. Marian Pulina, our good friend for many years, died of a treacherous disease. It was only at the end of June 2005 that he attended the International Karstological School at Postojna and visited his Slovene friends. Alas, for the last time! Poland lost one of its grand men and scientists whose fgure and work adorned the whole country. His compatriots write that they lost a legendary speleologist, karstologist and explorer of Polar Regions, an outstanding geographer and geomor-phologist. In his youth Marian Pulina created Polish speleology and karstology from almost nothing and, helped by his adherents and co-workers, established the science internationally. We may add that numerous karstologists in Europe and in the world lost an exceptional friend and co-worker who never diferentiated whether one comes from a large, important country or from a smaller one. Since 1957 when he probably visited our country for the frst time Marian Pulina cherished friendly sentiments to Slovenia and Slovenes. Tis he proved by several ways, either by inviting us to regular Polish karstological days in the south of Poland, regularly held in february or we were his guests at some important professional expeditions of Polish geomorphologists (Siberia, Ural, Sval-bard). It was never difcult for Marian to wake up in the earliest morning hours to wait us at the railway station in Katowice and then drive us through densely populated mining industrial Śląsk either to his home where he lived with his wife Mrs. Maria Pulinova, professor at the same faculty at Sosnowiec or to his beloved faculty – Labo- ratory of Karst Geomorphology in Będzińska Street or to karstological meetings in Polish Sudetenland. During our contacts he never forgot to mention his earliest experiences which he obtained in the company of Slovene, in particular Ljubljana cavers at the exploration of Triglavsko brezno and other caves; he remembered many Slovene songs and he was an excellent story-teller both of serious and funny events. It was never boring in the company of Marian Pulina, his spirits were always high and his company inspired confdence and safety. He found a solution for every problem, in particular when he received numerous friends from abroad. Scientifc contacts with foreign countries were the highest imperatives for Marian Pulina as his motto was since the frst days of his career »Dla kontaktów!« Tis is why he was persona grata not only in Slovenia but also in Italy, Spain, and the former Soviet Union, Russia today, in particular in Irkutsk and specially in france and the Czech Republic. In his professional sphere he had contacts with Croatian karstologist and also Norwegian, Canadian and others. Marian Pulina was born on August 3, 1936 in Bydgoszcz in the north of Poland in a family of teachers where he spent his childhood. He studied geography in Wrocław from 1954 to 1959. At this time he started caving in the Sudety and Tatra Mts. At that time already Marian Pulina was becoming one of the leading Polish speleologists, organizing expeditions or taking part at them into shafs in the Tatras and abroad, to Triglavsko ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 163–165, LJUBLJANA 2006 IN MEMORIAN brezno for example. About the exploration of Jaskinia Śnieźna he wrote in Naše jame (1961, 3, 22-27). Te frst scientifc treatise about Naciekowa cave was published in 1957. When he fnished studies he worked at frst as a technician in a quarry and in a Research Station of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Wojcieszow and continued speleological explorations in the Sudety. In the years 1962 – 1964, as a scholar of the Polish Academy of Sciences, he was in Warszawa and within this research grant he visited in 1963 Prof. Jean Corbel in Lyon. Te contact with the topmost expert and modern research methods in karstology was extremely important as he achieved a deepened knowledge about karst and Polar Regions at the same time. Not only for the french and the international community but also for Pulina personally, at that time young and promising Polish researcher, the loss of mentor Jean Corbel was extremely painful. Pulina’s longing for knowledge brought him to the Lomonosov University in Moscow where he specialized in ice physics and a little later to the Institute of Earth’s Crust of the Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences in Irkutsk. At that time he got familiar with karst hydrology in the area of new Bratsk reservoir construction on the Angara River. In 1965 he defended his doctoral thesis at the Institute of Geography of the Polish Academy of Sciences. So there opened his career starting at the Institute of Geography of the University in Wrocław, Department of Geomorphology supervised at that time by Prof. Alfred Jahn. Prof. Jahn as an excellent expert on the Polish Pleistocene geomorphology exerted an infu-ence on young Pulina also. He stayed in Wrocław until 1976. During this time he lectured at the universities in Grenoble and Lyon thus starting a fruitful cooperation with many french universities and their karstologists, in the last time especially with Strasbourg and Bordeaux. In 1972 he successfully reached habilitation and this was another opportunity further to promote his scientifc and didactic growth. In 1975 he started to establish a new scientifc and didactic centre in a form of a Laboratory or School of karst geomorphology in the Department of Geomorphology, Silesian University in Sosnowiec. He was also a co-founder of Geosciences faculty at the same university and its deputy dean. At the Silesian university he was vice-chancellor for research activity and international cooperation (1990-1993), member of senate and, obviously, numerous commissions. He was the head of the Geomorphology Department and for many years the head of the School of Karst Geomorphology. In this context we remember his eforts for cooperation between the Ljubljana and Silesia Universities, which due to lack of interest on our side, regretfully did not come to life. Since 1976 and up to his premature death he was all the time the head of this sole School of karst in Poland. In 1966 he took part in the discovery and exploration of Jaskinia Niedzwiedzia in the Sudety Mts. and organized a multidisciplinary speleological research group. Tis group protected this cave opened in a marble quarry, and displayed it as a show cave. Te case and practice connected with Jaskina Niedzwiedzia helped to protect and touristically develop not only other caves in Poland but also elsewhere. Tis success encouraged M. Pulina to found in 1975 regular annual meetings of karstologists and cavers within the Speleological School, held every february in Lądek Zdrój at the south of Poland. At the beginning these were only Polish-Czech meetings related to Sudety karstological topics organized by the University in Wrocław. Since 1977 they have been international meetings of karstologists organized by the Silesian University. In 1991 he added the organisation of international meetings of karstological and nature conservation experts, named International School of Nature Protection in Karst Regions; the authorities of Landscape Parks in Poland and Moravian karst are included. Te meetings and exchange of experiences between the experts from west and east undoubtedly proved efcient to development of karstology. M. Pulina studied Sudety Mts., Tatras and Silesia – Krakow Upland but also karst areas abroad, for example in central Siberia. He organized numerous explorations and multidisciplinary scientifc expeditions or excursions to Siberia, Bulgaria, Czech, Cuba, Svalbard and Iceland. In karstology he was mostly interested in the chemistry of karst waters, chemical denudation, dynamic karstology, karst development in mentioned regions, karst climatology, periglacial phenomena in caves and cryochemistry. Te result of his studies are more than 150 papers and many books, among them the frst one related to karstology in Polish language. Te last book was published in france in September 2005. M. Pulina brought up hundreds of students, as founder of the Polish karstological school he bestowed his specifc karsto-logical knowledge on more than 100 students (not only Polish). As supervisor he educated many top experts and teachers. A special love of M. Pulina was Svalbard. for a Pole aware of Polish history of arctic endeavours since the end of the 19th century this is not uncommon. Very quickly M. Pulina established that in the polar world almost nobody is interested in the phenomena, entirely or partly karstic or when they are similar to karst. first of all these are caves in glaciers, excavated by glacier water during the summer but also true sinking streams and hydrothermal phenomena. Tis is why M. Pulina is considered as the initiator of cryokarst explorations, in particular cryochemistry and glacier caves. In later years he attended almost every year several months long ex- 164 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 MARIAN PULINA plorations of Svalbard’s glaciers, around Hornsund spe-cifcally and took part in the origin and development of the huge Polish research station there. Among other things he was the leader of the second one-year scien-tifc expedition to Hornsund 1979/1980. He succeeded in attracting the international experts and karstologists or speleologists, such as Adolfo Eraso (Spain), Jacques Schroeder (Canada) and Josef Rehak (Czech). All these eforts contributed to M. Pulina becoming the main Polish coordinator of polar researches. His work also is the scientifc geomorphological and glaciological workshop on Svalbard with international participation in the years 2002 and 2003. Let us stress another Marian’s quality connected both with his character and width of his geographical visions. On the way to objective scientifc goals he swore to cooperation between experts and professions, an interdisciplinary approach, in particular in karstology and polar researches. Beside geomorphology, very close to him were geology, chemistry and hydrology. As he was thinking he was also acting, he knew how to unite, connect and compare diferent views, attitudes and methodologies and their representatives. M. Pulina was a man with an extremely large circle of friends and co-workers, not only among geographers but also among many colleagues of other professions. Tis is the heritage to be cherished. In 1959 M. Pulina founded a journal named Spe-leologia and later, in 1977 the journal Kras i speleologia. He was a member of editorial board of french Karsto-logia, International Journal of Speleology, Polish Polar Research, Geographical Journal, etc. Permit me some words about Pulina’s contacts with Slovenia and Slovene karstologists. Quite early he has visited Slovenia and made contacts with some speleologists, for example Peter Habič. He visited Postojnska jama and Škocjanske jame. I think that for the frst time he visited the Department of Geography in summer term of 1957 when he lectured the students in Balcony hall about the Polish karst. According to oral communication of M. Vojvoda this visit lef an impression on students, as he was a foreigner from the other side of the iron curtain. Tus he came to Slovenia already as a caver and, so to say, in the middle of his studies he was a valued expert for caves and karst. At that time he made contacts with the Society of Cave exploration of Slovenia and some of its members took part in the expedition into Jaskinia Śnieżna. In Slovenia Pulina was mostly interested in middle- and high mountainous karst very similar to the Polish. Together with P. Habič, they visited his feld area between Idrijca and Vipava valley. In the autumn 1957 he went with me to the high mountainous karst of Kriški podi for several days. Pulina met A. Melik also, who presented him with one of his books Slovenija with dedication and he visited Prof. Ilešič. In 1959 the nestor of Polish speleologists Štefan Zwolinski, a person that Pulina highly respected, led the team of Wrocław Academic Tourist Club in cooperation with Wrocław University. Pulina had an important role in the expedition as he measured physico chemical properties of high mountainous karst waters and he reported about the expedition (Pulina 1960). He visited Kamniške Alpe also. In 1963 he came to Slovenia again, sampling water for chemical analyses near Vrhnika and in the mountains. Te next visit was in autumn 1965 when he participated at the 4th International Congress of Speleology and it pre-congress excursion into mountains around Triglav. His visits in Slovenia became more frequent when the summer Karstological School started and he became tightly connected with the Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU and also as a tutor of post-graduate studies at Polytechnics Nova Gorica. With special joy we remember his presence at Slovene-Polish-french round table in 1991 in the time when Slovenia fought for independence and he enthusiastically congratulated us and then he had great difculty to reach Ljubljana and home to Poland by side roads. Marian Pulina had a vivacious and adventurous life of scientist and researcher, always aiming high. Dangers did not avoid him. Twice he was in a mortal danger, the frst in a mineshaf in Upper Silesia by a stroke of lightning and the second time he fell into glacier fssure on Svalbard and had a narrow escape. All the time of his fruitful and rich life Marian was the member of Wrocław caving club, coordinator of a caving club in Warszawa and honorary member of Caving Club Aven, Sosnowiec. Slovene karst was a permanent inspiration for Marian Pulina and for us were many other precious karst and geomorphological horizons that he showed us in 40 years of uninterrupted fdelity. May the Polish earth rest light on him! Jurij Kunaver References: Gams, I., 1961: Triglavsko brezno. Naše jame, 1-2, 1-17, Ljubljana Pulina, M., 1960: Wrocławska vyprava speleologiczna w kras wysokogórski Alp Julijskich (Jugoslawia). Czasopismo geogra-fczne, xxxI/3 Pulina, M., 1961: Snežna jama, najgloblja jama na Poljskem. Naše jame, 1-2, 22-27, Ljubljana ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 165 ANDREJ KRANJC COLIN J. R. BRAITHWAITE: CARBONATE SEDIMENTS AND ROCKS, A MANUAL fOR EARTH SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS, WHITTLES PUBLISHING, ORSA PRESS, ISBN 1-870325-39-7, © 2005 Cdrbowte A Manual for Earth Scientists. and Engineers 166 Te subtitle of the book Carbonate Sediments and Rocks is »A Manual for Earth Scientists and Engineers« and it is designed as a manual mostly for engineers. ye t this is a really useful book for others, not only engineers, but also and maybe specially for students of geology and earth sciences. Te hardback book 241 x 170 mm includes 196 pages, 37 black and white and 96 colour pictures (20 pp section). Te work is divided into 16 chapters: from mineralogy and composition of carbonate sediments and rocks to their preservation. Some chapters are very short (Evaporites associated with Carbonates); some others are much longer and divided into subchapters (Carbonate Diagenesis: from Sediment to Rock covers 21 pages with 5 subchapters). Te frst six chapters deal with carbonate sediments from mineral composition to geochemistry, with characteristics of carbonate sediments, marine carbonate environments, evaporites associated with carbonates and continental carbonate environments to classifcation of carbonate sediments and rocks. Te seventh chapter treats diagenesis, a passage from sediment to rock. Special chapters are dedicated to dolomites and calcrete. In the last seven chapters there are more topics directly connected with karst. In the chapter entitled Limestones, Dolomites and Karst the author deals with dissolution of carbonate rocks, karst landforms, caves, precipitation of calcite, biogenic facies, karst and sea-level change and paleokarst. Special chapters are dedicated to karst hydrology and (engineering) hazards of karst. Although the book is relatively thin, the text is concentrated but on many places the topic is treated surprisingly in detail. Te classifcation of carbonate rocks does not mention standard authors only (Dunham and ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 166-167, 2006 folk) but considers relatively archaic Garbau (1904) and also more recent works, such as Choquette & Pray (1970) and Embry & Klovan (1971). Clear sketches and tables illustrate the subject, relatively complicated for a layman. Te diagenesis is similarly explained in detail. In general kar-stologists do not study calcrete, as this is mostly the domain of pedologists and other specialized branches (for example climatic geomorphologists). yet, a karstologist must be aware of origin of calcrete, as this is an important process. Although on fve pages only a reader gets acquainted not only with the process but also with many professional terms, not much used in karstol-ogy, such as globules, nodules, ooids, pisoids, pedotu-bules, rhizoliths, rhizoconcretions, crystallaria, etc. Te chapters 10 (Limestones, Dolomites and Karst) and 11 (Karst Hydrology) are the most important for karst. It is not an easy task to explain all the theories of karstifcation, superfcial and underground features, including paleokarst and karst hydrology on 17 pages. It is nicely said from where the name derives and what does it mean. Dealing with dissolution of limestone there are many chemical formulas, but no equations. Does it simplify the understanding or not? Superfcial karst features are divided to small-scale features, dissolution pits (including also spitzkarren and shilin), and large-scale features; here dolines and poljes seem to be the most important. Cvijić’s explanation of uvala is mentioned also (the author wrongly call it uvula). To the same group belongs also cockpit and tower karst. Tis chapter ends by precipitation, biogenic facies, karst related to sea-level change and paleokarst. Te chapters from 12 to 15 are dedicated to engineering geology of carbonates; they treat the engineering BOOK REVIEWS properties, methods of extraction, the hazards of karst, and deposits (hydrocarbons and mineral) within carbonates. Maybe there is not much new for engineering geologists but it could be very interesting for researchers treating karst theoretically or from other points of view. A reader learns that, for instance calcrete, of minor importance for us and maybe a disadvantage only for agriculture, is somewhere else the main building material for road construction. Physical properties of single carbonate rocks are presented particularly in detail. Although shortly described the cases of hazards on karst can be very instructive. Te methods how to identify the underground cavities are limited to boring and geophysical methods, including »georadar«. Instructive are examples of building collapses, cases of unsuccessful construction of dams on karst, subsiding and collapse of bridges, hazards on roads, railways and airports. Te chapter ends by water supply on karst and hazards related to karst in evaporites. All these examples show that engineer geologists and building engineers do not know enough of karst therefore such manuals, as this one of Braithwaite, are without doubt necessary and useful. In the area of »Classical Karst« we do not even think that the carbonate rocks, this means in karst and paleokarst, may hide important stock of oil. Te 15th chapter gives ore and oil fnding places in karst. Te cross sections illustrate the ore bodies near Pliberk in Triassic carbonates and structure of one part of famous Elk Point Basin in Alberta (Canada). Te last, 16th chapter, speaks of carbonate landscape protection, mostly related to quarries, physiognomy of the landscape, caves and fossils. for the last one the book gives an interesting example from france (Digne). Instead of selling 200 m2 of exposed Jurassic limestone with more than 500 ammonites to Japan, the elastomer mould was made. In 1991 the casts weighing 24 tonnes were assembled and the replica attracted already two million of visitors in Japan. Te book contains a comprehensive list of 399 references. Tere are authors of basic karstological and geomorphological works, from Curl, Cvijić, ford, Geze, Hutton and Sweeting. from our point of view is maybe surprising relatively small number of authors from so-called »classical”, Dinaric karst. Beside Cvijić the list contains only Roglić. Every author keeps to his individual choice of literature. But, as this is a book about carbonate rocks and not about karst one must not complain if the selection of literature is anglophone. On the other side this is a manual aimed to students also and it would be good if the literature is slightly more balanced. One can understand that there are no Russian, Polish, Czech or Hungarian authors, but there are no leading french authors either, such as fénélon or Nicod, not to mention Mangin’s contribution to theoretical knowledge of karst hydrology and this is less understandable. As quite a lot of time passes from time when the manuscript is delivered to time when the book is published, one can understand that the most recent literature is hard to be considered. But in this case the gap is considerable. from 399 cited works only 52 were published in 1990 or later, among them only two with year 2000, there are no younger. I regret this mostly because in the last time some very important works were published, such as, for example Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst Science edited by J. Gunn. Some other statements are out-of-date too, for example the list of the deepest caves in the world, which is understandable because of the quick changes in this feld. Te last pages contain a well composed and exhaustive index, including more than 600 entries which essentially improve the use of the book as a manual or textbook. for me, being karstologist, it is difcult to judge what such a manual means to engineer geologists but I can say that the book is very useful for our students of geology and geography and also to third degree karstolo-gists. Te book can be ordered by orders@booksource.net for the price of 40 GBP. Andrej KRANJC ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 167 fRANCE ŠUŠTERŠIČ T. WALTHAM, f. BELL, AND M. CULSHAW: SINKHOLES AND SUBSIDENCE; KARST AND CAVERNOUS ROCKS IN ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION. SPRINGER (IN ASSOCIATION WITH PRAxIS), 383PP. BERLIN, NEW yORK, CHICHESTER, 2005. One of the informal conclusions of the 13th International Karstological School, held at Postojna (Slovenia) in June 2005, was that the application of engineering geology approaches to general karst geomorphology has become urgent. Just a short time later, an echo appeared in the arena – in the form of the present book. Perhaps this coincidence is a good indication that such a book was really needed. Te names and backgrounds of the authors – among them Tony Waltham, a caver who is known throughout the world – promise a book of high quality. Te contents of this hard-back book, produced in the B5 format, are arranged into 13 chapters, each covering a specifc aspect of the central topic. Te text begins with a list of contributors, a list of fgures (240 in total), a list of tables (20 in total), a list of boxed articles (7 in total), and a glossary. At the end of the book there are references (441 in total), an index of locations and a subject index. Te list of all contributors (the 3 main authors plus 20 concerned with details of specifc topics), including their E-mail addresses, promises to be very useful. Tis comprehensive suite of ancillary information says a lot about the very useful arrangement of the book as a whole. Te main text begins with a chapter entitled Rocks, dissolution and karst. Tis is a short but comprehensive summary of the fundamentals of karst science, important to an engineering geologist. Carefully chosen illustrations (photos as well as diagrams) make the topic clear even to readers who are not acquainted in detail with the karst and the engineering problems that it poses. Te next chapter, Sinkhole classifcation and nomenclature, even manages to astonish someone who has some experience with collapse phenomena in the karst. Te variety of forms and related processes that are considered is truly wide, covering the span between solution sinkholes and subsidence, sufosion and dropout sinkholes. Table (2.1), 168 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 168-169, 2006 which is supported by drawings, makes the proposed classifcation clear. A useful section relates various types of sinkholes to diferent types of karst, while a “boxed example” introduces a general style feature of the book – the constant mutual inter-relation of general information and topic-specifc case studies. Te 3rd chapter, entitled Rock failure in collapse and caprock sinkholes, deals with perhaps the most attractive, but – as it turns out – generally less important aspect of collapse in the karst. A short, concise introductory section, covering various possible cases and some basic geomechanical views, is followed by a number of feld examples, which are well documented by photographs and very enlightening drawings. Te authors’ interests and coverage also extend to gypsum and salt. It turns out that Soil failure in subsidence sinkholes, as covered by the fourth chapter, appear less spectacular, yet (p.85), “Te vast majority of ground failures within karst are due to the erosion, transport and failure of the soils that overlie cavernous bedrock.” Te text here is organized in similar fashion to that in other chapters. What is attempted is the exposure of the relationships between surface features and their underground roots, whether in soil or in bedrock. Sections covering the evolution of sinkholes, the spatial distribution of sinkholes and subsidence sinkhole geohazards are a gold mine of ideas and information for a practical geologist. Te following (5th) chapter lists various forms of Buried sinkholes and rockhead features, including phenomena found in chalk. Chapter 6 covers Sinkholes in insoluble rocks, dealing mainly with lava tubes. Various examples from all over the world are so convincing that, though they are less well known, it is clear that related problems should not be overlooked. Again, the presentation of an engineering solution to a practical problem (Portland) makes the book into a kind of manual. Rock failure under imposed load over caves (Chapter 7) is a problem that is growing, RECENZIJE as karstifed regions of the world become more and more heavily populated. Te text covers a theoretical view of the problem, as well as providing practical examples. Te following chapter discusses Sinkholes induced by engineering works. It becomes apparent that changes in ground water behaviour (introduction of new water, the decline or oscillations of ground water level) trigger of the worst damage. Having completed discussion of the actual phenomena of sinkholes and related features, in the following chapter the authors consider ground investigation in sinkhole terrains, as the frst step in actively dealing with the problems. Te spectrum of useful methods presented is really large. Tables 9.2 and 9.3 present a concise survey of the methods available and the circumstances in which they should be used. Te 3-D simulations that are provided will prove interesting even to less practically oriented karstologists. Te 10th chapter, entitled hazard and risk assessment of sinkholes continues the logical extension of the text. flow charts, case studies and various tables ofer a rich source of suggestions for the feld geologist. Sections covering legislation… and … insurance discuss topics that are too ofen overlooked, but which may greatly infuence the course of investigation and remediation. Te main part of the book culminates in chapters 11 (Prevention and remediation of sinkholes) and 12 (Construction in sinkhole terrains). A selection of practical guidelines, encompassing the most important situations and based on practical examples provide a source of inspiration for any civil engineer faced with sinkhole problems during constructional and remedial works in the karst. finally, Chapter 13 presents a collection of sixteen carefully chosen case studies, each section written by authors who have directly faced the individual problems. Whereas the book discusses very diverse topics, while still managing to cover the central problem, it remains systematic and, above all, lucid. Te fgures have been carefully chosen and matched, and even those taken from existing literature have been redrawn to the same common (high) standard. Photographs are of high quality, and related directly to the text. Numerous practical examples are elaborated in Boxes, and usually supported by fgures. Some readers might wish for a deeper theoretical analysis of the geomechanical background of various sinkhole-related events, but to the present reviewer this possible lack is not a weak point. Instead it provides a warning that the gap between theory and practical ex- perience (in fact, insufcient knowledge of controlling parameters) is still large. Problems with sinkholes and related types of hole are widely known and are being wrestled with in many parts of the world. Nevertheless, before the present book the related data have never been put together in such a systematic way. It is, and it will remain, the essential work in this specifc feld of applied karstology. It is difcult to imagine that anyone will produce something more exhaustive and better founded in the foreseeable future. from the viewpoint of more general karstology, this book has also cleared up many a partial question concerning this specifc kind of karst dynamics. As mentioned above, it emerges that the main problem in the karst is not spectacular collapse phenomena in bedrock, but various failures of a soil mantle upon the rocky basement. Consequently, the problem does not originate in basically karstic processes, but in specifc relationships that originate at the interface between the karst (in a narrow sense) and non-karstic cover. Tus, the dynamic is less related to speleogenesis (or decay), and more to the karst surface phenomena. Additionally, the extent of collapse features in non-carbonate karstic rocks has become well related to carbonate karst features. And – fnally – the plea of the 13th International Karstological School has been resolved in the best way. It is now in the hands of karst geomorphologists to pick up what has been ofered to them and then to apply it. One might expect that this will become one of the most cited books in the karsto-logical literature in the near future. for a Slovene karstologist the book is of special interest, as it covers a number of cases in Slovenia. It becomes clear, that though perhaps among the most spectacular – except for the Chinese ones, which dwarf anything else – collapse phenomena in the Slovene karst do not pose serious problems. In Chapter 13 a section, written by Slovene authors, is dedicated to the experience acquired during motorway construction in Slovenia. Te importance of the contribution is manifold. Besides its promotion of the Classical Karst, it provides a good overview of the technical problems encountered during building works, as well as yielding an insight into the interface between the surface and the endokarst in the region that gave its name to these natural phenomena. france ŠUŠTERŠIČ ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 169 ACADEMICIAN JOSIP ROGLIć AND HIS WORK ACADEMICIAN JOSIP ROGLIć AND HIS WORK (INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIfIC MEETING, MAKARSKA 19th - 22nd APRIL 2006) 170 Josip Roglić is the most important Croatian geographer and geomorphologist and world renown karst geo-morphologist, the greatest expert on Dinaric karst. His most important achievements are the explanation of the genesis of corrosional plains (“zaravan”), the process of border-corrosion and the fuviokarst, including the term itself. His most infuential work in the feld of karstol-ogy is “Zaravni na vapnencima” (Corrosional plains in limestones), at least the most cited in Slovene karstologi-cal literature. When still at Belgrade University he was intended to become Cvijić’s successor, which was never realized. Afer setting at Zagreb Roglić initiated Natural History and Mathematical faculty, he was the founder of so-called Zagreb karstological school, and he edited Croatian Karst Terminology. Taking into account international relations he was the member of Karst Commission of International Geographical Union. He held close relations with Slovene karstologists and accordingly he has a great infuence upon the karstology in Slovenia. In 1906 Josip Roglić was born at a hamlet Roglići, Župa Biokovska, on the continental side of the Biokovo Mountain, karst ridge directly above the Adriatic coast. Tis is the reason why Geographical Society of Croatia and Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Classis of Natural History Sciences, decided to organise this international meeting. Te motor of the organisation was without doubt Prof. Mate Matas from Petrinja High School. Te charming small littoral town of Makarska, south of Split, still quiet as the tourist season did not yet started, was the place where 125 participants gathered for 4 days. Tey were from Croatia mostly and among them the most eminent teachers and researchers, numerous Roglić’s former students. Te work of the symposium included presentation of papers and the feld work. Afer the solemn opening of the conference two plenary papers ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 170-171, 2006 by M. Matas and D. feletar presented the life of J. Roglić and particularly his role at establishment the faculty of Natural History and Mathematics in Zagreb. During mornings 29 papers have been presented. Seven of them have J. Roglić and his work as the main topic while the others touched his work indirectly, taking into account topics and regions studied by Roglić (geomorphology, cartography, regional geography, littoralisation, globalisation). four papers were dedicated to Roglić’s work on karst: on karst geomorphology, on speleology, on karst toponimy and on his infuence upon karstology in Slovenia. But it does not mean that the topics were historically oriented, turned towards the time of Roglić. far from this. Tere were papers talking about digital maps and computer informatics basis too. I found very interesting the paper about karst research in the frame of military sciences. Among the others the author has shown digital maps of dolines: they counted 350.000 of them on the karst of Croatia! Te papers of Roglić’s younger colleagues and former students gave a special atmosphere to the conference. According to the fact that the main feld of interest of geography are space and landscape, half of the conference time was devoted to the feld work. In his degree work on Biokovo region J. Roglić divided the region in three belts: “blue” - littoral, “green” - foot of the mountain, and “white” - limestone karst mountain belt. According to this the feldwork was organised. During two afernoons and one full day the participants got opportunity to be acquainted with the littoral belt (between Split and the mouth of the Neretva river), with the foot of karst mountain (specially the contrast between the Eocene fy-sch and Mesozoic limestone) and the karst mountain ridges, including the highest belt of the Biokovo Mt. Visit to this mountain has also a special connection to J. Roglić: the excursion stopped at his humble native house at the REPORTS Polje “Jezero” behind the Biokovo mountain. hamlet of Roglići, far behind the main ridge. Te participants attended a ceremony: the unveiling of a memorial plate to Roglić and the opening of the Roglić’s mountain trail in Biokovo. Tat the evenings are not too long, the organizer provided professional and cultural events too. Of the last one the excellent performance of opera singers and the theatre actor must be mentioned. Te organizer was specially successful regarding publishing activities. Te Proceedings of the meeting was published at the beginning of the meeting already. Nice, hard back book of 566 pages, containing 34 papers which gives a well balanced view of Roglić’s life and work as well as various geographical aspects of Croatia and its karst. A special attention deserves Matas’ contribution on “Life and work of Academician Josip Roglić” (40 pages!), and regarding the karst, “Jezero – a contribution to understand the problems of the karstic poljes” by J. Markotić. Te Croatian geographers started the preparation of the celebration of Roglić’s 100 anniversary quite early, early enough to achieve great publishing achievement: during the years 2005 - 2006 they published Roglič’s works in 5 volumes, which were presented at the meeting. I am glad to say that the frst volume is just “Krš i njegovo značenje” (Karst and its signifcance), proving that Roglić is really the most important as a karstologist. Te other 4 volumes contain Roglić’s geomorphological works, works on Adriatic and works of regional geography, and the introduction to the cartography. Beside the frst volume also other volumes contain some works on karst or are treating karst too. Looking from the distant point of view, including Dinaric karst as a whole, where the term “karst” and karst science came from, we can state that there are republished complete works of two frst and the most important geographers - karstologists. Te frst one is a Serbian geographer Jovan Cvijić, whose complete works were published 1994 – 2000 in 14 volumes, and now Roglić’s work is completed too. Is it the turn of Slovene geographers to start to think about publishing the complete work of our greatest karstologist? Andrej KRANJC Solution futes on the Biokovo mountain karst. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1 - 2006 171 Metka Petrič CHARACTERISTICS OF RECHARGE-DISCHARGE RELATIONS IN KARST AQUIFER The book brings the analysis of relations between recharge and discharge of karst aquifers, i.e. input and output functions of karst system, which can be applied in order to define the characteristics of its functioning. Three different recharge-discharge models were set up. In the first one the I measured precipitation and in the second I I the effective infiltration were used as the I I input component. In the third model also I I characteristics of the subsystem of unsaturated I RUliSi^^HRMSl I zone anc' the temporal distribution of the I ¦¦¦¦¦MMPlPPMfl I recharge in fast and slow component were I HSvpSfifflV I taken into account. The functioning within the I |^^SjU|Uj|äJ^^I I system was expressed by the transfer I I function between the input and the output I i/;(^:-AR__^ I signal. The best results of the third model I I could be related to the existence of the certain I I mechanism that enables rapid entrance of the I I infiltrated precipitation water into karst I I drainage network, and on the other I I hand enables a part of infiltrated precipitation ! I to be temporarily stored during high waters and I I subsequently sustains the slower emptying of the I I aquifer also in period of low waters. 154 pp., 170 x 240 mm, paperback, ISBN 961 -6358-59-6. Price: € 12,50 (shipping and handling charged extra}, Please send your order to the publisher: ZALOŽBA ZRC / ZRC PUBLISHING PO Box 306 51-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia Fax: +386 1 425 77 94, E-mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si http://zalozba.zrc-sazu.si EVOLUTION OF KARST: FROM PREKÄRST TO CESSATION Edited by Franci Gabrovsek The book comprises proceed Cessation«, organised Institute ZRCSAZU in Postojna. The aim of questions like: When when does it end? Which determine the evolution caves develop? How is and distribution of connected to the state of do we date processes in The first half of the papers where authors questions quoted from the perspective The second half of papers covering karst geomorphology, speleogenesis, karst karstification in various events in karst and use in karst systems. ngsof the symposium »Evolution of Karst: From Prekärst to by the Karst Research September 2002 in the book is to answer does karst start and processes and events of karst? How do subsurface hydrology hypogean fauna karst evolution? How karst? book contains invited give answers to the above, each author of his own research. the book comprises current research on speleology and hydrology, paleokarst, settings, dating of geophysical methods 448 pp., 170 x 240 mm, paperback, ISBN 961-6358-63-4. Price: € 15.70 (shipping and handling charged extra). Please send your order to the publisher: ZALOŽBA ZRC / ZRC PUBLISHING PO Box 306 SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia Fax: +386 1 425 77 94, E-mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si http://zalozba.zrc-sazu.si Nadja Zupan Hajna INCOMPLETE SOLUTION: WEATHERING OF CAVE WALLS AND THE PRODUCTION, TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION OF CARBONATE FINES The main topic of the weathering of walls of cave passages. were the characteristics limestone and dolomite the type of solution and rock does not dissolve of incomplete solution weathered zones that passage walls. During gradually discolours and looses its mechanical chemical composition is almost identical parent rock, yet it is In described cases an may just prepare the mechanical transport of the flowing water. INCOMPLETE SOLUTION: CAVE WALLS .PROBdÖ?§t^ SPORT AND DEPOSITION OF CARBONATE FINES this monograph is carbonate rocks on the Of particular interest and peculiarities of the weathering processes, why all of the carbonate immediately. The results of carbonate rock are remain on the cave weathering the rock by increased porosity strength. Mineral and of the weathered zone to composition of much more porous. incomplete dissolution carbonate rock for the its weathered particles by 154 pp., 133 figures, 170 x 240 mm, paperback, ISBN 961 -6358-85. Price: € 15.00 (shipping and handling charged extra). Please send your order to the publisher: ZALOŽBA ZRC / ZRC PUBLISHING PO Box 306 SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia Fax: +386 1 425 77 94, E-mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si http://zalozba.zrc-sazu.si Wolfgang Dreybrodt, Franci Gabrovšek, Douchko Romanov with guest contributions by Sebastian Bauer, Steffen Birk, Rudolf Liedl, Martin Sauter, and Georg Kaufmann PROCESSES OF SPELEOGENESIS: A MODELING APPROACH The book draws recent advances in systems. Based on the limestone, and flow and fractures, it presents a situations that range a single fracture to the drainage patterns in karst aquifers. These to the evolution of in karstThe book offers that help to understand systems. It addresses geomorphologists, and interest to all scientists responsibilities for and management in BY SEBASTIAN BAUER. STEFFEN SIRK. RUDOLF LIEDL. MARIIN] SAUIER ANO tx GEORG KAUFMANN löMwOKD BY DER« C. FORD C A K S O I. O G I C A together the major the modeling of karst dissolution kinetics of transport processes in its hierarchy of cave genetic from the enlargement of evolution of cavernous confined and unconfined results are also applied leakage below dam sites a wealth of informations the development of cave geologists, hydrologists, geographers. It is also of and engineers who have groundwater exploration karst terrains. 376 pp., 250 figures and 8 tables, 170 x 240 mm, paperback, ISBN 961-6500-91 -0. Price: € 33.20 (shipping and handling charged extra). Please send your order to the publisher: ZALOŽBA ZRC / ZRC PUBLISHING PO Box 306 SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia Fax: +386 1 425 77 94, E-mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si http://zalozba.zrc-sazu.si Tanja Pipan EPIKARST - A PROMISING HABITAT Copepod Fauna, its Diversity and Ecology: A Case Study from Slovenia (Europe) "The study that follows, makes some real Dr. Pipan describes and sampling drips and more individual and work. Second, she is complete sampling number of species and other measures of Third, using canonical she begins to make chemical controls on the species. Fourth, the extreme spatial copepod distribution, of this fascinating filled with insightful observations." 1 C A R S O 1. O G 1 C A .*. A v •% c TANJA PIPAN EPIKARST -/i A PROMISING HABITAT while modest in tone, breakthroughs. First, utilizes techniques for pools that yield many species than previous able to assess how is by estimating the remaining to be found, sampling completeness. correspondence analysis, sense of the physical and distribution of individual she demonstrates heterogeneity of epikarst surely a hallmark habitat. The thesis is and provocative - from the Preface by David C. Culver, Professor of Biology, American University Washington, DC, USA 101 pp., 21 figures, 15 tables, 10 appendices, 170x240 mm, paperback, ISBN 961-6500-90-2. Price: € 16.00 (shipping and handling charged extra). Please send your order to the publisher: ZALOŽBA ZRC / ZRC PUBLISHING PO Box 306 SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia Fax: +386 1 425 77 94, E-mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si http://zalozba.zrc-sazu.si PRELIMINARy ANNOUNCEMENT SyMPOSIUM ON “TIME IN KARST” We would like to invite you to a symposium on “Time in Karst” to be held in Postojna, Slovenia, March 14 to March 18, 2007. Te meeting will be held at the Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU in Postojna, and participants will stay at the nearby Hotel Jama and Hotel Sport. Registration details will be available in September of 2006 at www.karstwaters.org. Registration will be $350 US ($200 for students). Te idea of the symposium is simple one—to examine what we know and what we can infer about the ages of caves, of karst landscapes, and of the organisms that inhabit them. Tis work is ofen scattered in the literature of diferent disciplines, and we think that there is much to be gained by bringing together leading researchers who work on time processes in karst. Te presentations will be grouped around six themes, which have strong interdisciplinary character: • Age of karst landscapes • Age of animal lineages • Cosmogenic dating methods • Historical biogeography • Paleokarst • Sediment records Te sponsoring organizations (the Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU in Slovenia and the Karst Waters Institute in the United States) both have a history of sponsoring important small meetings with an interdisciplinary character, and we are excited to be joining forces in this endeavor. In the Marie Curie programme sponsored by the European Commission, the Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU is leading a project SMART-KARST, which provides the grants for early-stage researchers. Participants of the symposium on “Time in karst” will be able to apply for this grant, which covers travel and living allowance, and registration fee. We hope you will participate in “Time in Karst” in March of 2007. For further information please visit the web site of the symposium: http://www.karstwaters.org/timeinkarst/tikan-nouncement.htm Tadej SLABE Te head of Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU David CULVER Karst Waters Institute ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/1, 177, LJUBLJANA 2006 WORLD KARST SCIENCE REVIEWS Journal of Cave and karst Studies of the National Speleological Society Volume 68(2), August 2006 CONTENTS Introduction to cave microbiology: A review for the non-specialist Hazel A. Barton, 43-53 Potential efects of recurrent low oxygen conditions on the Illinois cave amphipod S. V. Panno, K. C. Hackley, W. R. Kelly, H. H. Hwang, f. M. Wilhelm, S. J. Taylor, and B. J. Stif, 54-62 Architecture of air-flled caves within the karst of the Brooksville Ridge, west-central florida Lee J. florea, 63-73 Age constraints on cave development and landscape evolution in the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming, USA Greg M. Stock, Catherine A. Riihimaki, and Robert S. Anderson, 74-81 Arevision of the genus Typhlogastrura in North American caves with description of fve new species Kenneth Christiansen and Hanghang Wang, 82-95 World Karst Science Reviews 96-97 Cave Science News 99 International Journal of Speleology ISSN 0392-6672 July 2006, 35 (2) CONTENTS Termal Variations in the Hyporheic Zone of a Karst Stream Dogwiler Toby and Wicks Carol 2006, 59-66. Re-published from: Speleogenesis and Evolution of Karst Aquifers 3 (1), www.speleogenesis.info, Vashegyite from Gaura cu Muscă Cave Onac Bogdan P. , Zaharia Luminiţa, Kearns Joe and Veres Daniel, 67-73 2006 Paper presented during the 14th International Congress of Speleology Studies of Condensation/Evaporation processes in the Glowworm Cave, New Zealand de freitas Chris R. and Schmekal Antje Anna, 75-81 Re-worked from: Speleogenesis and Evolution of Karst Aquifers 3 (2), www.speleogenesis.info, Te distribution of diatom fora in ice caves of the northern yukon Territory, Canada: relationship to air circulation and freezing Lauriol Bernard, Prévost Clément and Lacelle Denis, 83-92 Radon in caves: clinical aspects Craven Stephen A. and Smit Berend J., 93-101 Identifcation of cave minerals by Raman spectroscopy: New technology for non-destructive analysis. White William B. I, 103-107. Paper presented during the 14th International Congress of Speleology Speleogenesis and evolution of karst Aquifers Volume 3(2), 2005 CONTENTS Underground drainage systems and geothermal Badino G., 25 pages (re-published from: Acta C Ground water fux distribution between matrix, constraints on modelling. White W. and White E., 6 pages. Ochtina Aragonite Cave (Slovakia): morphology, mineralogy and genesis. Bosak P. , Bella P. , Cilek V. , ford D., Hercman H., Kadlec J., Osborne A. and Pruner P., 16 pages (re-published from Geologica Carpathica 2002, 53 (6), 399-410) Karst and caves of Ha Long Bay, Vietnam. Waltham A., 9 pages (edited version of paper frst published in International Caver 2000, 24-31) Condensation corrosion: A theoretical approach. Dreybrodt, W. , Gabrovšek, f. and Perne, M., 22 pages (re-published from: Acta Carsologica 2005, 34 (2), 317-348) Prediction of condensation in caves. de freitas C. R. and A. Schmekal, 9 pages. Te role of karst in the genesis of sulfur deposits, fore-Carpathian region, Ukraine. Klimchouk A., 23 pages (Re-published from: Environmental Geology 1997, 31 (1/2), 1-20) fux. arsologica 2005, 34 (2), 277-316) fractures, and conduits: Acta carsologica 35, 1 (2006) Izdala in založila Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti in Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU v Ljubljani Grafčna priprava in tisk Tiskarna Lotos Postojna Naklada 700 izvodov ActA cArsologicA issn 0583-6050 • letnik/ Volume 35 • Številka/Number 1 • ljubljana 2006 IntroductIon Jean Nicod – Half a century of Acta carsologica: From Slovene Karst to General Karstology / un demi-siecle d’Acta carsologica : du Kras slovene a la Karstologie générale ArtIcleS Trevor Faulkner – tectonic Inception in caledonide Marbles Stanka Šebela, Janja Kogovšek – Hydrochemic characteristics and tectonic Situation of Selected Springs in central and nW Yunnan Province, china Franci Gabrovšek, Borut Peric – Monitoring the Flood Pulses in the epiphreatic Zone of Karst Aquifers: Te case of the reka river System, Karst Plateau, SW Slovenia Janja Kogovšek – Fizikalno-kemične značilnosti izločanja travertina – primer Podstenjška (Slovenija) Bulat.R. Mavlyudov – Glacial Karst, Why is it Important to Study Jean Nicod – lakes in Gypsum Karst: Some examples of Alpine and Mediterranean countries Paolo Forti, Ermanno Galli, Antonio Rossi – Peculiar Minerogenetic cave environments of Mexico: the cuatro ciénegas Area Martin Knez, Tadej Slabe – lithological and Morphological characteristics and rock relief of the lao Hei Gin Shilin - Stone Forest (lunan, SW china) John J. Pint – Vulcanospeleology in Saudi Arabia Sonata Dulce F. Restifcar, Michael J. Day, Peter B. Urich – Protection of Karst in the Philippines Stephan Kempe, Hans-Peter Hubrich, Klaus Suckstorf – Te Story of the 1833 Fercher Survey, Postojnska Jama, continues: An Additional document and newly discovered Inscriptions Stanislav Južnič – Karst research in the 19th century – Karl dežman’s (1821-1889) work Pierre-Olaf Schut – e. A. Martel, the traveller who Almost Became an Academician Stephen A. Craven – Postojnska Jama in Slovenia, the Südbahn and the Visit of John charles Molteno: Teir Infuence on the development of railways in South Africa 9770583605015