413
Documenta Praehistorica XLIII (2016)
Comparing different sampling methods in order
to reconstruct plant economies at the Eneolithic lake
dwelling site Stare gmajne, Slovenia
Tja[a Tolar, Anton Velu[;ek
ZRC SAZU, Institute of Archaeology, Ljubljana, SI
tjasa.tolar@zrc-sazu.si
Introduction
The Stare gmajne site is an Eneolithic (Copper Age)
pile dwelling site in Slovenia dated to the 4th mil-
lennium BC. According to dendrochronological and
radiocarbon dating, it was settled many times (∞u-
far et al. 2015). The earliest settlement ended be-
fore 3300 cal BC, and the latest around 3110 cal BC
(∞ufar et al. 2009; 2010; 2015). The site became
more widely known when a wooden wheel with an
axle, the oldest found to date, was discovered in
2002. Taking into account its radiocarbon dating
and the age of the settlement where it was found,
it is c. 5150 years old (Velu∏≠ek et al. 2009). In
2006 and 2007, the site was excavated; two 15m2
trenches (Velu∏≠ek 2009.54–55) were opened and
researched in detail (see Velu∏≠ek 2009).
During the excavation in 2006, a large loom-weight
was found in the latest settlement phase, which is
dendrochronologically dated to between 3160 and
3100±14 cal BC. The bottom of the loom-weight
was accidentally broken or fell off during the exca-
vation. It was carefully stored as a judgement sam-
ple for analysis in the lab. Waterlogged clayey mate-
rial was obtained from the interior of the broken
loom-weight and analysed in detail (Tolar et al.
2016).
In 2007, for the first time in Slovenia, excavations
included appropriate sampling and treatment me-
thods for archaeobotanical investigations of water-
logged material (Tolar et al. 2010). Three 1m2 qua-
ABSTRACT – The results of plant macroremains studies of the Eneolithic (c. 3160–3100 cal BC) lake-
shore settlement at Stare gmajne on the Ljubljansko barje in Slovenia are presented. Archaeobotani-
cal material was collected in two different ways: (1) systematic surface sampling from the cultural
layer, and (2) judgement sampling from an incompletely burnt large loom-weight. The preservation
state and the spectra of plant macroremains were different in both types of samples. The first study
primarily deals with the waterlogged plant remains of various types and taxa, while the second deals
with carbonised and half-carbonised cereal macroremains, mostly chaff. Both studies confirm the
cultivation of main crops: emmer, einkorn and barley.
IZVLE∞EK – Predstavljeni so rezultati analiz rastlinskih makroostankov z eneolitskega (ok. 3160–
3100 cal BC) koli∏≠a Stare gmajne z Ljubljanskega barja, Slovenija. Material za arheobotani≠ne raz-
iskave smo pridobili po dveh metodah: (1) sistemati≠no povr∏insko vzor≠enje iz kulturne plasti in
(2) vzor≠enje po presoji iz nepopolno ∫gane velike glinene ute∫i. Ohranjenost in spekter rastlinskih
makroostankov iz obeh vzorcev se bistveno razlikujeta. Prva ∏tudija se ukvarja predvsem z ne-zogle-
nelimi in z vodo prepojenimi makroostanki razli≠nih tipov in taksonov, medtem ko druga prou≠u-
je v glavnem zoglenele in pol-zoglenele ostanke ∫it, predvsem plev. Obe ∏tudiji potrjujeta gojenje glav-
nih kulturnih rastlin: dvozrnice, enozrnice in je≠mena.
KEY WORDS – Eneolithic; pile dwelling; Slovenia; plant economy; taphonomy
DOI> 10.4312\dp.43.20 
Tja[a Tolar, Anton Velu[;ek
414
drants from the 15m2 trench with an approx. 46cm
thick cultural layer were systematically surface sam-
pled and archaeobotanicaly analysed (Fig. 1). Both
the latest (upper 21cm of the sediment in the cultur-
al layer) and the earliest (lower 25cm of the sedi-
ment) settlement phases were investigated (Tolar et
al. 2011).
The present paper compares these two studies: sur-
face sampled sediment samples from the latest cul-
tural layer of the excavated trench in 2007 vs. judge-
ment sampled material from the loom-weight. Both
samples were waterlogged and therefore had great
potential for archaeobotanical investigation. There
are also important differences between the two.
Although preserved in waterlogged conditions, the
first study deals mainly with waterlogged plant
macroremains that were deposited on the surface
during the life of the settlement, while the second
deals mainly with carbonised plant macroremains
that were intentionally added by the dwellers to
reinforce the large clayey object. Comparing plant
remains that were preserved under various tapho-
nomic conditions and collected by different sampling
methods is important, because they can present dif-
ferent sources of evidence (Jones 1991; Tolar 2016.
46, 56–59, 62–65, 142–148, 166).
Material and methods
Two methodologically different archaeobotanical in-
vestigations from the same archaeological site (i.e.
Stare gmajne) and period (the latest settlement
phase) are presented and compared. The first inclu-
des an analysis of the surface sediment samples taken
systematically from the trench excavated in 2007.
The second includes an investigation of the material
from the broken loom-weight, called judgement sam-
pling. Therefore, two sampling methods, surface and
judgement (see e.g., Jacomet, Kreuz 1999; Tolar
2016.62–65) were applied and compared.
Surface sampling from the trench
From the Stare gmajne trench in 2007 (Fig. 1) sur-
face sediment samples of approx. 1 litre of sediment
per 1 depth/cut (see Fig. 1b) from the cultural layer
were collected. Horizontally, it was sampled from
three randomly chosen square metres (i.e. quadrants
1, 9 and 13) (Fig. 1a).
The 46cm thick cultural layer was divided vertically
into 8 depths/cuts of approx. 5cm (Fig. 1b). Depths/
cuts 4 and 5 pertain to the latest (i.e. the youngest)
settlement phase, while depths/cuts 7 and 8 pertain
to the earliest (i.e. the oldest) phase.
Altogether, 15 samples with a total volume of some
9 litres were analysed. The samples were first washed
and wet sieved, as proposed for waterlogged sedi-
ments (see e.g., Hosch, Zibulski 2003; Tolar et al.
2010). Sieves with 2mm and 0.355mm mesh sizes
were used. The collected waterlogged organic frac-
tions were stored (and kept) in water and at low
temperatures. Prior to the analysis, random sub-sam-
pling was necessary, especially of the small (i.e.
0.355mm) fractions, because the samples were very
rich in macroremains. In addition to whole seeds/
fruits and grains, grain fragments with embryo ends,
glume bases, rachis fragments, fragments of seeds/
fruits with the base and flax (Linum) capsule frag-
ments with a tip larger than 3mm were sorted out
and counted. A Leica MZ75 stereomicroscope with
6.3 up to 50 magnification was used for the exam-
ination. For identification, the reference collections
of IPAS, Basel and Institute of Archaeology ZRC
SAZU, as well as special literature (Berggren 1969;
1981; Anderberg 1994; Cappers et al. 2006; Jaco-
met 2006) were consulted.
Judgement sampling from the loom-weight
A special and very important find, a loom-weight
22.5cm high and 14.4cm wide, was discovered in
2006. During the excavations, the bottom of the
Fig. 1. The trench in 2007. a horizontally and b vertically (drawing T. Koro∏ec).
Comparing different sampling methods in order to reconstruct plant economies at the Eneolithic lake dwelling site Stare gmajne ...
415
weight broke off and its incompletely burnt, clayey
and waterlogged interior became visible. Its outer
parts were burnt, but the interior was full of water-
logged clayey material (Fig. 2) – original material
for making larger clayey objects.
The inner, clayey and waterlogged parts were re-
moved from the weight (Fig. 2b). In total, almost 1
litre of clayey sediment was obtained and analysed.
It was very carefully wet sieved through two sieves
with standard mesh sizes (2 and 0.355mm). Both
organic fractions were wet stored and examined un-
der a stereomicroscope at up to 50 magnification(s).
Identifications, type of remains, state of preserva-
tion and counts were noted. A careful morphologi-
cal study of different cereals remains (mainly chaff)
was made and the proportions of different cereal
types and crop species were calculated. Based on
this, an estimate of the clay-straw ratio used for mak-
ing the clayey objects was made (Tolar et al. 2016).
The main aim of the present paper is to summarise
and compare the archaeobotanical results from two
contexts (surface sampling from the trench and
judgement sampling from the loom-weight) from
the same site and period (i.e. the latest phase of pile
dwelling site Stare gmajne, dendro dated to c. 3160–
3100±14 cal BC) in order to reconstruct the plant
economy at the site, especially of cereals.
Results
Surface sampling from the latest cultural layer
of the Stare gmajne site
The concentrations of the identified plant macrore-
mains averaged 1572 remains per 1 litre of sedi-
ment; 95.4% of the identifiable plant macroremains
were preserved in an uncarbonised state, i.e. water-
logged.
A total of 38 taxa were identified, 5 of which were
cultivated: emmer (Triticum dicoccum), einkorn
(Triticum monococcum), barley (Hordeum vulga-
re), poppy (Papaver somniferum), and flax (Linum
usitatissimum) (Fig. 3). While the remains of poppy
and flax were mainly represented by the remains of
seeds/fruits (e.g., Figs. 3d, e), the cereal macrore-
mains were mainly represented by chaff remains
(e.g., Figs. 3a-c). Only 8 cereal grains (of all three
taxa) were sorted out. The concentrations of cereal
chaff remains (129 per 1 litre of sediment) are nor-
mal for waterlogged cultural layers (or even lower;
e.g., for the earliest settlement phase of Stare gmaj-
ne site, the average concentration of cereal macro-
remains is 652). They comprise general waste around
the site and are therefore not concentrated in a par-
ticular feature.
Another 7 taxa were presumably collected for human
consumption: turnip (Brassica rapa), acorn (Quer-
cus sp.), hazelnut (Corylus avellana), water chestnut
(Trapa natans), apple/pear (Maloideae), strawber-
ry (Fragaria vesca), and blackberry (Rubus fruti-
cosus).
Surface sediment samples also include the remains
of the wild (i.e. not nutritive) plant taxa: 4 water
plants, 9 lakeshore plants, 6 field weed and ruder-
al plants, 6 woodland plants, which give an insight
into the ecological conditions at the site in the time
of the pile dwellers. The settlement was located near
the lake; the dwellers also exploited the surround-
ing woodland for pasturing, gathering and tree
felling (for details from both the latest and the ear-
liest settlement phases, see Tolar et al. 2011).
Judgement sampling from the Stare gmajne
loom-weight
The density of botanical macroremains was high:
in the less than 1 litre of clayey material obtained
Fig. 2. Incompletely burnt pyramid-shaped 1.5kg
heavy clayey loom-weight was 22.2cm high and up
to 14.4cm wide. During excavations (a) and du-
ring cleaning in the lab (b) (photo a M. Turk and
b T. Tolar).
a
b
Tja[a Tolar, Anton Velu[;ek
416
from the loom-weight, a total
of 1950 identifiable plant ma-
croremains were sorted and
counted. They were all pre-
served in a carbonised or se-
mi-carbonised state. Among
them, more than 1800 very
well preserved and easily
identifiable cereal by-prod-
ucts, i.e. chaff (Fig. 4) and 22
cereal grains were identified.
The clay-organic material
(mainly chaff) ratio was eas-
ily determined. It is at least
93:7 (i.e. 93% of clayey mate-
rial and at least 7% of cereal
by-products) (for details, see
Tolar et al. 2016).
As well as 3 cereal taxa, em-
mer (Triticum dicoccum),
einkorn (Triticum monococ-
cum) and barley (Hordeum
vulgare), another 9 taxa were
identified: poppy (Papaver
somniferum), oak (Quercus
sp.), brome grass (Bromus
sp.), grasses (Poaceae), cf.
millet (Panicum miliaceum),
sedges (Cyperaceae), goosefoot (Chenopodium al-
bum), moth mullein (Verbascum blattaria), and St
John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum). In total, the
64 seeds/fruits of these ‘non-cereal’ taxa are not re-
presentative enough to enable interpretation of the
gathering economy or ecological conditions at the
site.
An experiment was conducted to learn why different
processes occurred when the plant remains were de-
posited in the loom-weight, i.e. mostly carbonised
in waterlogged clayey material. Dry plant material
(hay) was added to the clay from which two objects
shaped similarly to the Stare
gmajne loom-weight were
made. As well as tempering,
it became clear that the ad-
ded plant material allowed
very fine and easier mould-
ing and forming of the raw
clay. Two objects were made,
each of them burnt (baked)
on an open fire with hot coals
for different times. The added
plant remains in the object
that was burnt for a longer time (i.e. 3 hours and
35 minutes) were completely charred and highly re-
duced, while the plant remains in the second (that
was burnt for 2 hours less) were differently preserv-
ed, i.e. mostly in a carbonised and semi-carbonised
state, and some not carbonised.
Discussion
Comparison between the surface and judge-
ment sampled material
Although in both cases of sampling, the researched
material was waterlogged and clayey, the state of
Fig. 3. The most important cultivar macroremains from the Stare gmaj-
ne site, surface sampling: a emmer spikelet fork carbonised and uncarbo-
nised; b einkorn spikelet fork carbonised and uncarbonised glume base;
c barley rachis fragments carbonised and uncarbonised; d uncarbonised
poppy seed; e uncarbonised flax seed; f carbonised barley grains (photos
a-e T. Tolar, f D. Valoh).
Fig. 4. Most frequent macroremains from the loom-weight cereal by-pro-
ducts. a emmer spikelet forks; b glume bases; c barley rachis fragments
(photo D. Valoh).
preservation of the plant macroremains between
the two compared contexts varies. Some 95.4% of
macroremains from the surface cultural layer were
preserved in an uncarbonised, i.e. waterlogged state
(Fig. 3), while the plant remains from the loom-
weight are all preserved in carbonised (71%) or at
least in a semi-carbonised (29%) state (Fig. 4).
Table 1 presents some basic differences between the
surface (S) and the judgement (J) sampled material.
Lower concentration of plant macroremains in the
sediment samples from the cultural layer (S in Tab.
1) in comparison to the judgement sampled materi-
al from the loom-weight (J in Tab. 1) is evidence of
intentionally added (or used) plant macroremains
(especially of cereals) in the judgement sample. Evi-
dently, the greater diversity of plant taxa in the sur-
face samples in comparison to the judgement sam-
ple additionally indicates the intentional use of care-
fully selected cereal by-products for tempering the
large clayey object.
The plant spectra between the compared contexts
differs considerably. Samples from the cultural layer
contain remains of diverse plants (38 taxa altoge-
ther: cultivated, gathered and wild). Most of the re-
mains are not carbonised, i.e. waterlogged. On the
other hand, the sample from the loom-weight con-
sists mainly (96%) of 3 cultivar species: emmer, ein-
korn and barley, preserved in a semi-carbonised or
fully carbonised state; these macroremains (espe-
cially chaff) were intentionally added to the clay in
order to obtain well-tempered material for making
quite a large loom-weight.
As the judgement sampled material contains evi-
dently carefully selected and charred cereal by-pro-
ducts, the only possible comparison between the two
differently sampled and preserved materials is the
importance of cereal species for the plant economy
at the Stare gmajne site. Despite the different preser-
vation conditions (waterlogged vs. charred) in both
samples (surface and judgement) cereal by-products
(i.e. chaff) prevail over cereal grains. Therefore, the
grain units (i.e. 1 grain = 1
spikelet fork = 2 glume ba-
ses = 1 barley rachis frg.)
in 1 litre of sediment sam-
ple of both investigated
materials (surface-S and
judgement-J) were compar-
ed (Tab. 2). The only diffe-
rence between the two is
the preservation state: sur-
Comparing different sampling methods in order to reconstruct plant economies at the Eneolithic lake dwelling site Stare gmajne ...
417
face – waterlogged chaff vs. judgement – charred
chaff.
Cereal macroremains (especially by-products) are
obviously concentrated in the material from the
loom- weight (1412-J : 526-S). It seems that the pro-
portions of glume wheat-GW (i.e. emmer and ein-
korn) remains in the loom-weight are higher than
those of barley rachis fragments-B (949-GW : 463-B).
In contrast, barley grain units in the wet soil surface
samples from the cultural layer prevail over glume
wheat grain units (387-B : 139-GW). Was barley more
a popular crop species than glume wheats? Did the
inhabitants deliberately choose glume wheat by-pro-
ducts (although they were in a minority) for tem-
pering?
Data from a single loom-weight and the only and
first appropriately investigated surface sediment
samples from Slovenian pile-dwelling sites are not
sufficient for definite conclusions. More archaeob-
otanical studies at Ljubljansko barje pile-dwelling
sites should be made to answer the two questions
posed above. At the moment, we can only assume
that different taphonomical processes are the most
likely principal reason for such a result. Carbonised
plant material from the loom-weight could contain
more glume wheat by-products (i.e. glume bases
and spikelet forks of emmer and einkorn) merely
because of the taphonomy. The inhabitants may
have simply used the available chaff without selec-
tion, but differential carbonisation and destruction
rates of different plant types (e.g., Bowman 1966;
Hillman 1981; Boardman, Jones 1990; see also ex-
perimental work in this paper and Tolar et al. 2016)
that were added to the clay may have played the
main role. This could be one of the reasons for the
higher proportions of glume wheat over barley by-
products preserved in the incompletely burnt loom-
weight.
Tempering with plant macroremains
The clay which was used by the dwellers to make
the weight was tempered with probably uncarbo-
vol. of the vol. of organic no. of conc. per no. of no. of conc. of
sediment fractions ident. plant 1 litre of cultivar gathered cultivar
(ml) (ml) remains sediment taxa taxa remains
S 3200 420 1583 495 5 7 141
J ∏ 1000 65 1950 π 1950 4 1 π 1875
Tab. 1. Some of the basic archaeobotanical results for surface sediment sam-
ples S and judgement sample from the loom-weight- J. Both sediments were
waterlogged preserved and represent the same site and period (latest settle-
ment phase).
Tja[a Tolar, Anton Velu[;ek
418
nised cereal chaff to reinforce it (the experi-
mental work in this paper confirms this). It
has already been proven that tempering was
practised, not necessarily for loom-weights, at
earlier settlements throughout Europe (e.g.,
Hopf 1977; 1980; Borojevi≤ 2006; Henn et al.
2015). Ethnographic evidence from present-
day societies as well as the archaeobotanical
evidence of past societies indicate that by-pro-
ducts produced during cereal processing (i.e.
chaff, straw and weed seeds, as well as some
grains; e.g., Hillman 1981; 1984a) were used as fuel,
fodder or temper (Watson 1979; van der Veen 1999;
Henn et al. 2015). Examples of the use of cereal by-
products for tempering in the late Neolithic have
been found in plant impressions at many European
sites (e.g., Hopf 1977; 1980; Bakels 1984; Borojevi≠
2006). Imprints of wheat chaff and culm fragments
of wild grasses on daub and ceramics (e.g., Kohler-
Schneider 2007; Borojevi≤ 2006) are proof of this.
It is very difficult both to precisely identify the plant
material used and define its proportions, since there
are no techniques to identify the actual quantity of
straw and chaff used, because plant remains or even
just their imprints are preserved in burnt and dried
pottery or daub (Henn et al. 2015). Many attempts
have been made to calculate this ratio (Ginder 1996;
Borojevi≤ 2006; Henn et al. 2015), but the results
have never been straightforward. The unburnt orig-
inal material for making the clayey object from the
Stare gmajne site gives us an opportunity to calcu-
late this ratio. In less than 1 litre of waterlogged se-
diment from the loom-weight, 65ml of organic frac-
tions, mainly cereal by-products, were caught in the
sieves. Some 1950 plant macroremains were sorted,
identified and counted. Cereal by-products of bar-
ley, emmer and einkorn predominate; in total, 1412
grain units were counted. The clay-organic material
(mainly chaff) ratio is at least 93 : 7 (i.e. 93% of clay-
ey material and at least 7% of cereal by-products).
Conclusions
The results of the plant macroremain studies of the
Eneolithic lakeshore settlement Stare gmajne at Ljub-
ljansko barje are presented. Archaeobotanical mate-
rial was collected with two different sampling me-
thods: 1) systematic surface sampling from the cultu-
ral layer, and 2) judgement sampling from the in-
completely burnt large loom-weight. When compar-
ing the results, the preservation (taphonomy) and
the spectra of plant macroremains diverse greatly,
so the results of both studies yield different, but fa-
vourable conclusions.
The surface sampled sediment from the cultural la-
yer gives an insight into the plant economy and nu-
tritional habits of the settlers, as well as an insight
into the environment and ecological conditions on
and around the site. Six crop taxa were recorded.
Plants that had been gathered from the woodland,
woodland edges and the lake were also important
for nutrition. Other non-nutritive seeds/fruits re-
mains of wild flora indicate that the settlement was
located close to the lake or a slow-flowing river.
Marshy or lakeshore plant species and the ruderals
grew nearby or even within the settlement. The re-
mains of woodland plants and plants from wood-
land edges suggest that the settlers exploited the
nearby forest for gathering food, felling trees, pastu-
ring animals and hunting.
The judgement sampled sediment from the loom-
weight deals primarily with carbonised and semi-car-
bonised cereal macroremains (mostly chaff) that were
preserved inside the loom-weight and were intentio-
nally added to the clay to reinforce the large clayey
object. This gives a detailed insight into the cereal cul-
tivation and crop processing habits of the settlers. The
deliberate use of cereal by-products was confirmed.
The clay-cereal chaff ratio (93:7) was established.
It was possible to compare both studies with regard
to the cereal economy. The cereal by-products, which
were preserved in two different ways (not carbo-
nised in surface samples vs. carbonised in the loom-
weight), confirm the cultivation of the main crops:
emmer, einkorn, and barley. The greater importance
of barley is suggested by the surface samples, but
the judgement sample does not confirm this. The dif-
ferential carbonisation and destruction rates of diffe-
rent plant types when exposed to heat (e.g., Board-
man, Jones 1990; see the experiment) prevent us
from establishing which crop species predominated
at the Stare gmajne site.
The investigation of the surface samples yields ad-
ditional information about the plant economy. The
emmer einkorn emmer\einkorn barley
(Triticum (Triticum (Triticum (Hordeum Total
dicoccum) monococcum) di\monococcum) vulgare)
S 67 72 387 526
J 482 193 274 463 1412
Tab. 2. Numbers (concentrations) of grain units in 1 litre
of sediment for 3 cereal taxa. S surface samples from the
cultural layer in which uncarbonised cereal chaff predo-
minate; J judgement sample from the loom-weight in
which carbonised cereal chaff predominate.
Comparing different sampling methods in order to reconstruct plant economies at the Eneolithic lake dwelling site Stare gmajne ...
419
settlers’ activities and plant gathering, pasturing and
fodder collection had an impact on the vegetation in
the vicinity of the settlement (also e.g., Andri≠ et. al.
2008; Andri≠ in prep.).
The judgement sample provides supplementary in-
formation about crop husbandry practices, the de-
velopment stage and the inventiveness of the Ene-
olithic settlers. According to Marijke van der Veen
(1999), the use of chaff can be linked to various
scales of production and organisation in the agri-
cultural system. She suggests that different types of
use (casual use, intentional local use, use as a com-
mercial commodity) can be broadly correlated with
three developmental stages of agricultural produc-
tion. The intentional local use of cereal by-products
as temper suggests that pile dwellers all around the
Alps were highly organised and developed as a re-
sult of the expansion of crop production and pro-
cessing.
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