REVIEW OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT CAVES IN MONTENEGRO PREGLED NAJPOMEMBNEJŠIH JAM ČRNE GORE Mirela DJUROVIĆ 1 & Predrag DJUROVIĆ 2 * Abstract UDC 551.44(497.16) Mirela Djurović & Predrag Djurović: Review of the most sig- nificant caves in Montenegro The most significant caves in Montenegro were distinguished in response to their physical-geographic, biological, archeo- logical and morphometric characteristics (length and depth). Caves distribute in four distinctive regions: coastal karst, karst plateau (relict valley system), fluvial karst (recent hydrolog- ic systems) and the high mountainous karst area. The most outstanding within the last, due to abundances of the major caves with depths from a few hundred meters to 1,162 m, are four mountain regions: Mt. Durmitor, Mt. Lovćen-Orjen, Mt. Maganik and Mt. Bjelič. Key words: caves, karst, Dinarides, Mt. Prokletije, Montenegro. Izvleček UDK 551.44(497.16) Mirela Djurović in Predrag Djurović: Pregled najpomembnej- ših jam v Črni gori. Najpomembnejše jame v Črni gori so bile proučevane glede na njihove fizikalno-geografske, biološke, arheološke in morfo- metrične lastnosti (dolžina in globina). Jame so porazdeljene v štirih različnih regijah, in sicer v obalnem krasu, na kraških planotah, fluvialnem krasu (recentni hidrološki sistemi) in na območjih visokogorskega krasa. Med zadnjimi z najpomemb- nejšimi jamami, globokimi od nekaj sto metrov do 1162 me- trov, najbolj izstopajo štiri gorovja: Durmitor, Lovćen-Orjen, Maganik in Bjelič. Ključne besede: jame, kras, Dinaridi, Prokletije, Črna gora. 1 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy, Čika Ljubina 18-20, RS-11000 Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: mirela.djurovic@gmail.com 2 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Studentski trg 3/ III, RS-11000 Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: geodjura@gmail.com * Corresponding author Received/Prejeto: 12. 12. 2018 DOI: 10.3986/ac.vi.7182 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 50/1, 49-65, POSTOJNA 2021 COBISS: 1.01 INTRODUCTION Speleological investigations in Montenegro have been done for more than a hundred years. During this period over a thousand caves were explored. At the beginning of twentieth century the Cave Duboki do (Sarkotič-Höle) worthies the deepest explored cave in a world (Lahner 1917, 1919). In the second half of 20 th cen- tury the exploration of caves was focused at different as- pects: physical speleology, biospeleology, speleoarcheol- ogy, applied speleology (solutions of water-supply prob- lems), geoheritage (Djurović & Djurović 2010), as well as in attempt to identify the deepest and the longest caves. Speleological exploration within the last twenty years underwent dynamic evolution. This period characterizes the increasing interest and hunt for the deepest caves. There are several available reviews on the subject of speleological researches and their achievements in Mon- tenegro (Pretner 1961; Lješević 1980; Lješević & Barović 1981; Maksimović 1997; Djurović 2017). A need for new review on the most significant speleological objects arose from the fact that passed many decades, since the very last review has been published, from that period a num- ber of noteworthy caves were discovered. Therefore, the collection of data obtained throughout a range of studies carried out, their analyses, division and classification of the most significant caves were evaluated. The last two were employed by physical-geographic, biological, ar- cheological and morphometric characteristics (length and depth) of caves. FACTORS AFFECTING SPELEOGENESIS The most important factors in speleogenesis in Montenegro (Fig. 1) are geological background, size and thickness of limestone, altitude and denivelation of karst relief, recent climate and relic and contemporary geo- morphological processes. Rocks of different composition and age (from Pa- leozoic to Quaternary) are exposed in Montenegro (Bešić 1975, 1980, 1983). The most abundant are diverse car- bonate rocks of Mesozoic age that occur from the Adri- atic coastal area till the highest mountain peaks (>2,500 m a.s.l.). The thickness of limestones ranges from a few hundreds to about 1,500 m. In the central part of the state limestones are over 2,000 m thick. Carbonate rocks cover approximately 85 % of the territory of Montenegro. Mountainous relief is dominating in Montenegro. From its total spatial area of 13,812 km 2 only 10 % are plains (0-200 m a.s.l.) and approximately 56.7 % of its territory exceeds 1,000 m a.s.l. (Mladenović 1984). Such distribution of vertical elevation had significant role in speleogenesis governing the direction of water circula- tion in karst. Broad mountain plateaus are noteworthy in relief in Montenegro. They derived under fluvial- denudation processes from the Miocene through to Pliocene, i.e. during past geomorphological periods lack of tectonic events (Cvijić 1926; Milojević 1937). Most of plateaus oc- cur at high mountain relief environments, between 700 and 1,450 m a.s.l. All are intensively karstified and some are cut by canyons whose depth commonly exceeds 1,000 m (Djurović & Petrović 2007), supporting a vertical mi- gration of water in karst. Diversity of recent climate in karst regions is the consequence of their different elevation and distance from the sea. The average annual temperature ranges from 15.7 °C (in coastal karst - Herceg Novi) (Burić et al. 2012) to 4.7 °C (high mountainous karst - Žabljak) (Djurović 2012). The average air temperature in the high- est karst terrains, about 2,050 m a.s.l., is approximately 1.6 °C. In regions of 2,500 m a.s.l. is only about 0.1 °C (Djurović 2011). Montenegro receives the average annual precipita- tion of 1,798 mm. During winter (October-March) pre- cipitation reaches 1,223 mm (68 %), while in summer MIRELA DJUROVIĆ & PREDRAG DJUROVIĆ Fig. 1: Geographic position of Montenegro (Map by: Mirela Djurović). ACTA CARSOLOGICA 50/1 – 2021 50 REVIEW OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT CAVES IN MONTENEGRO (April-September) is only 575 mm (32 %) (Radojičić 1996). The annual precipitation in karst regions depends on their distance from the sea, their altitude and orog- raphy. The highest precipitation, of approximately 4,604 mm annually, receives karst terrains on west of Montene- gro, behind the Boka Kotorska Bay (Mt. Orijen). There has been recorded the absolute maximum of 7,067 mm in 1979 (Djurović & Djurović 2016). Karst terrains on north of Montenegro (Mt. Durmitor – Žabljak) receive annually 1,453 mm (Djurović 2011), whereas in the high- est karst terrains (> 2,500 m a. s. l.) this value approaches to 2,600 mm (Djurović 2012). Relief of the karst terrains above 1,800 m a.s.l. is af- fected by cryo-nivation processes beside the recent karst ones (Milivojević & Djurović 2010). Melting of snow, which retains during summer in a form of snowpack at high-mountainous karst terrain, produces meltwater that enable water to percolate for a pretty long period. Glacial processes that took part at all high-moun- tainous karst terrains in Montenegro (Cvijić 1889, 1903, 1913; Milivojević 2007; Milivojević et al. 2008; Djurović 2009; Stepišnik & Žebre 2011; Hughes et al. 2010, 2011; Petrović 2014) had significant influence on speleogenesis of deep caves. Numerous morphological traces of glacial process (cirque, glacial valley, glacial sholders, nunataks, lateral and terminal moraines) reflect on the intensity of glaciation. Glacial process took part during three stages (Djurović 2009). The oldest phase considers MIS 12 (470- 420 ka), the younger MIS 6 (190 - 130 ka) and the last, cirque one MIS 5d - 2 (110 - 11.7 ka) (Hughes et al. 2011). Glaciers that were formed during the mentioned glacial phases accumulated huge amounts of water in the highest karst terrains. During interglacial phases, the melting of snow produced notable amounts of meltwater that is re- sponsible for very intensive speleogenesis and deep karsti- fication. Consequently very deep caves formed. Such deep karstification is confirmed by karst springs with consider- able discharge. Such springs emerge at the bottom of deep canyons, karst poles or in the coastal area of Skadar lake and Adriatic Sea: Vukovo vrelo, Vidrovan, Gornjepoljski vir (Nikšićko polje), Ljutica (Canyon of the Tara river), Pivsko oko - 20 m 3 /s (Canyon of the Piva river) (Prohaska et al. 2004), spring Ljuta, Gurdić, Sopot, Spila (Boka Ko- torska Bay), Karuč, Bolje sestre (Skadar Lake). METHODOLOGY Results of speleological researches in Montenegro could be found in different publications ranging from scientific and professional popular journals over different elaborates to advanced digital media services (sites of dif- ferent speleological clubs, organizations, institutions and various informative services, etc.). Such a wide array of sources inevitably opens the question of whether the pre- sented data are credible. Results presented in scientific journals were employed in their original forms as have been already scientifically approved. The data from other sources were subjected to critical analysis that included analyzing of graphical displays (quality and accuracy of detail ground plan, longitudinal and transverse section of caves) (Jeannin et al. 2007; Sirotek & Weigel 2006), geographic location description, morphological and hydrological characteristics, as well as all other relevant data. The comparative analyses of obtained results with previous research results or those acquired by different researchers have been also applied (Y amaç 2018). Hence, all relevant parameters required for a cave to be included in a group of the most significant caves were critically analyzed. The Map of the most significant caves in Mon- tenegro has been created in a few stages. The first one included the delineating of karst areas using primarily the Basic geological map 1:100,000 SFR Yugoslavia (15 sheets) (Group of authors 1958-1968; Group of authors 1962-1966; Group of authors 1962-1967; Group of au- thors 1962-1967; Group of authors 1962-1969; Group of authors 1962-1969; Mirković et al. 1962-1968; Živaljević et al. 1964-1978; Mirković et al. 1965-1972; Mirković et al. 1967-1974; Mojsilović et al. 1973-1981; Mirković & Vujisić 1980-1986). As geological formations on these maps were not distinguished regarding petrology but rather by principles of stratigraphy, the additional analyses including analysis of detail topographic maps 1:25,000 and aerial photographs and satellite images were obligatory for ambiguous parts (Benson & Yuhr 2016). According to morphological, hydrological, climate and evolutionary data (Djurović 1998) the four distinctive karst regions, which are representative for karst speci- ficities in Montenegro and caves within, were recognized during the second stage (Djurović 2017). The next, third stage, involved the classification of caves into five catego- ries regarding their length, depth, hydrological, speleo- biological and archeological characteristics. Afterwards, the geographic location of the each of the selected caves in Montenegro was designated on the map along with re- lated graphical symbols. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 50/1 – 2021 51 MIRELA DJUROVIĆ & PREDRAG DJUROVIĆ REVIEW OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT SPELEOLOGICAL OBJECTS According to present knowledge of speleological objects, the most significant caves in Montenegro are located in four regions, which were distinguished by morphological, hydrological, climate and evolutionary characteristics: coastal karst, karst plateau (relict river systems), fluvial karst (recent river systems) and high mountainous karst (Fig. 2). Coastal karst is exposed along the coastal line of Adriatic Sea and Skadar Lake. Accelerated, glacial- eustatic rise of sea-level (Matthews 1990; Peltier 1999; Lambeck & Purcell 2005; Surić et al. 2005; Surić 2009; Slavec 2011), which correlates with the period after LGM (started before about 19 ka and lasted till 7 ka before), led to flooding of coastal caves (Lambeck & Chappell 2001; Lambeck et al. 2002). Change in sea-level (recent rise of ~1.8 ± 0.3 mm/yr is determined instrumentally) deter- mined hydrological function of these caves that occur today either as permanent or intermittent karst springs (Church et al. 2004). During fluvial maximum their discharge is moderate (e.g., Ljuta >180 m 3 ) (Stevanović 2010). Springs are distributed at low altitudes and many of them are at least partly beneath the sea level, i.e. Ska- dar lake level. Majority of caves is in the Boka Kotorska Bay: Spila (N o 8 in Tab. 1), Sopot (N o 9 in Tab. 1), Ljuta (N o 10 in Tab. 1), Gurdić (N o 11 in Tab. 1) (Renaud 1999; Guis 1999a, 1999b, 1999c; Milanović 2004; Eusebio et al. 2005a, 2005b; Mihajlovski 2006; Eusebio et al. 2007a, 2007b; Milanović 2007), along the coast of Skadar lake: Voločka Jama (N o 25 in Tab. 1) (Otava & Zajiček 1988, 1989, 1990; Szerszeń 2008; Graczyk 2011;) and Kreve- nica (N o 31 in Tab.1). One of the most significant caves in mountainous karst is the cave Savino oko (N o 57 in Tab 1.). Regardless of similar morphologic-hydrologic characteristics with the caves listed in the coastal karst region, it displays differences concerning its position (base of Prokletije), located at high altitude, type of spe- leogenesis, hydrogeological characteristics and so forth (Szerszeń 2008a, 2008b). Karst plateau region in Montenegro (Cvijić 1926; Petrović 1997) displays similar characteristic to other karst plateau areas in Dinaric karst (Gams 2004; Bognar et al. 2012; Bočić et al. 2015). More than a few tenths of square kilometers of Montenegrin karst plateau is lack of surface water and the overall precipitation tends to disappear into limestones lying below. Karst plateaus are intensively karstified areas, and dotted by numer- ous dolines and karrens that form a peculiar topography, commonly inaccessible. Morphological records of relict valleys (Cotton 1968) significantly changed under karst processes meanwhile are also recognized in the relief of the karst plateau region beside a karst forms. According to the results of their reconstruction a few larger relict valleys systems have been distinguished. A number of caves of different morphological and hydrological char- acteristics, time and type of genesis, etc., within were ex- plored. Within the relict valley system Mt. Lovćen - Cetin- jsko Polje - Skadar Lake are identified several long caves: Cetinjska Pećina (N o 22 in Tab. 1), Lipska Pećina (N o 23 in Tab. 1), Začirska Pećina (N o 26 in Tab. 1), Caves Spila- Babatuša (N o 27 in Tab. 1), and Grbočica (N o 28 in Tab. 1), (Petrović & Božović 1980; Lješević & Barović 1981; Mihevc 1983; Petrović 1997; Djurović et al. 2002; Lajovic 2010; Kovačević & Kovačević 2014). Caves in the other two relict valley systems are sig- nificantly deeper than the previous ones: - the Mt. Lovćen - Njeguško Polje - Boka Kotorska Bay are: Nyúl Lika (N o 17 in Tab. 1), Duboki Do (N o 18 in Tab. 1), Njegoš Pećina (N o 19 in Tab. 1), Bogoš Bar- lang Cave (N o 20 in Tab. 1), Cave Dögös (N o 21 in Tab. 1), (Radulović 1974; Habič 1980; Lješević & Barović 1981; Kiss & Takácsné - Bolner 2006; Takácsné - Bol- ner 2006; Hegedűs et al. 2010; Hegedűs & Takácsné – Bolner 2012, 2013), - the Mt. Orjen - Grahovsko polje - Dragaljsko polje - Boka Kotorska Bay: Gouffre du Brouillard (Maglena jama) (N o 4 in Tab. 1), Cave Pištet PT4 (N o 5 in Tab. 1), Cave Propast Pema (N o 7 in Tab. 1), (Dvořák & Večerek 2001; Večerek & Dvořák 2002; Groupe Spé- léologique Minos 2003; Večerek et al. 2003; Dvořák 2004, 2009, 2010, 2011; Dvořák & Dvořák 2008; Bind- ing 2010; Duxbury 2010; Binding 2011; Duxbury & Božović 2013). Fluvial karst in its broadest sense represents karst region having both, the fluvial and the karst relief forms (Gams 2004; Bognar et al. 2012; Furlani et al. 2016; Phil- lips 2017; Donnaloia et al. 2019). It is found in the north- ern and northeastern parts of Montenegro. Canyons and gorges in karst plateau were incised by large allogenic rivers (T ara, Piva, Morača, Lim etc.) (Djurović & Lješević 1994; Djurović & Petrović 2007) that carried water in amounts large enough to incise limestone masses but to remain as surface flows due to impermeable basement. The main direction of flows and groundwater pathways in this part of Montenegro has been driven by the deeply incised canyons. Underground karst flows emerge at surface in a form of abundant karst springs either at the bottom of gorges and canyons: Djalovića gorge - Pećina nad Vražjim firovima (N o 53 in Tab. 1) (Sirotek 2005, 2006, 2015) and, Juriško vrelo (N o 52 in Tab. 1), Mrtvica canyon - Jama (N o 67 in Tab. 1) (Šimiček & Kahle 2015) or on the margins of karst plateau: (Gornjepoljski Vir es- ACTA CARSOLOGICA 50/1 – 2021 52 REVIEW OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT CAVES IN MONTENEGRO tavelle and intermittent spring – near the city of Nikšić), Ljutica (canyon T ara), Pivsko Oko (canyon Piva), Oraška jama and Oboštičko Oko (in the vicinity of Danilovgrad city). The pronounced discharge of springs reflects on complex but recent hydrologic systems, in which the direct speleological researches are extremely hard, even at the edge of possibility in regards to technical difficul- ties. In spite of a numerous karst springs, due to men- tioned reasons, just a small number of caves have been explored in this region (Kličković 1997; Mirović 1997; Vučković & Kličković 1997). A number of abris, which formed during different stages of evolution of river val- leys, are also characteristic. In many of them were dis- covered Paleolithic settlements (Benac & Brodar 1958; Brodar 1962; Basler 1975), as well as remains of Qua- ternary fauna (Bogićević & Dimitrijević 2004; Argant & Dimitrijević 2007). High mountain karst is developed in a mountain highlands, which have been subjected to Pleistocene glacial processes allowing glacial karst to be formed (Stepišnik & Žebre 2011; Djurović & Djurović 2015). Currently is this area exposed to cryo-nivation processes along with the karst one (Lješević 2004; Milivojević & Đurović 2010; Djurović 2011). Caves in high mountain karst were carved by melt water, not by erosion force of surface flows that sink into limestone bedrocks (Adam- son et al. 2014; Žebre & Stepišnik 2015). Meltwater, de- rived by widespread glaciers melting at the end of the oldest glacial phase (MIS 12) in high mountain regions in Montenegro, was the main agent in cave develop- ment primarily (Milivojević et al. 2008; Djurović 2009; Hughes et al. 2010, 2011). The second intensive develop- ing phase took part during and at its end the Last glacial maximum. The influence of glaciers to speleogenesis terminated by melting of glaciers from the cirque gla- cial phase (MIS 5d-2), regardless the existence of cur- rent glacier Debeli namet at the Mt. Durmitor (Djurović 1999; Hughes 2007, 2008; Djurović 2012; Djurović & Djurović 2016). Very important factors in speleogen- esis in the current phase of the cave development are meltwater derived by melting of snow and snowpack at the surface, as well as accumulated snow and ice at the cave entrance. In a number of cave entrances were noted thick deposits of snow and ice (Gavrilović 1963) occa- sionally exceeding 100 m in thickness. Their melting enables the persistence of the erosion process in caves even in periods of lack of water supply from the surface. The deepest speleological objects occur in the highest levels of the high mountainous karst. Their abundance brought them the dominance within the most signifi- cant caves in Montenegro. Their entrances are in Pleis- tocene glacial forms (cirques and glacial valley) (e.g., Opasna Jama (N o 32 in Tab. 1) (Pavićević et al. 2015). Daily and annual water regime is very specific due to snow, particularly due to snowpack. Maximal recharge in caves is related to the intensity of melting of snow and snowpack, instead to the amount of precipitation. Mountainous regions at Durmitor, Maganik and Bjelič, including Lovćen with its slopes, are distinguishing in number of deep caves. Examples at the Mt. Durmitor mountain are Bunda Jama (N o 34 in Tab. 1), Jaskinia X 1108 (N o 36 in Tab. 1), Jama na Vjetrenim Brdima (N o 37 in Tab. 1), Jama Samo Lepo (N o 38 in Tab. 1), Jam- ski Sitem u Obručinama (N o 39 in Tab. 1), Jama Fliš (N o 40 in Tab. 1) and Jama u Malom Lomnom Dolu (N o 41 in Tab. 1) (Lješević et al. 1980; Lješević & Barović 1981; Mottram 1986; Garašić 1986a, 1986b, 1986c, 1986-1987; Courbon & Chabert 1986; Jackson 1987; Milinčić et al. 1996; Ćalić - Ljubojević & Mandić 2004; Vrviščar 2006; Podržaj 2009; Chojnacki 2010; Szczygieł 2010; Moody et al. 2013; Peters 2013). At the Mt. Maganik are beside the cave Iron deep (N o 47 in Tab. 1), which exceeds 1,000 m in depth, also known: Jama u Pribatovom Dolu (N o 43 in Tab. 1), Jaskina Nyx (Jama u Treštenom vrhu) (N o 44 in Tab. 1), Aither (N o 45 in Tab. 1), Jaskinia M13 (N o 46 in Tab. 1), Zoran Jama (N o 68 in Tab. 1) and Jaskinia M73 (N o 48 in Tab. 1) (Vujić 1994, 1999; Maślanka 2008; Dvořák 2011a; Furtak 2012; Adamec et al. 2013; Dvořák & Baldík 2013; Królewicz 2013-2017; Otava & Baldík 2013; Dvořák 2014; Šimiček & Kahle 2015). There are in the south part of the Mt. Prokletije (Bjelič) (Kardaś 1978): Jaskinia Do Savino Oko (N o 58 in Tab. 1), Jama frižider (N o 59 in Tab. 1), Abisso degli Uomini Liberi (N o 60 in Tab. 1), Jaskinia Łezka – Jaskinia Kolektor (N o 61 in Tab. 1) Cave Jaskinia Gornicza (N o 62 in Tab. 1), Jas- kinia Lodova (N o 63 in Tab. 1), Jaskinia Gigant (N o 64 in Tab. 1), Abisso dell’Ombra (N o 65 in Tab. 1) and Jas- kinia Niby Czarna (N o 66 in Tab. 1) (Kicińska & Najdek 2007; Najdek 2007, 2008; Najdek & Kasza 2008; Kasza et al. 2010a, 2010b; Kicińska et al. 2011; Santolin 2012; Kicińska & Najdek 2009 - 2013; 2013; Najdek & Kicińska 2013-2017; Vučetić & Andjelić 2013). There are on Mt. Lovćen: Jama u Majstorima (N o 16 in Tab. 1) (Skarep & Trnavac 2004), System Jages barlang (N o 13 in Tab. 1) - Kétlyukú barlang (N o 14 in Tab. 1) (Takácsné - Bolner et al. 2015) and Sistem Pala Skala (N o 15 in Tab. 1) (Mihalič et al. 2017; Tičar 2016; Tičar et al. 2017; Tičar & Koza- mernik 2018, 2018a). There are on the Mt. Orjen Jeskyně Kozí Díra (N o 3 in Tab. 1) (Dvořák & Večerek 2001) and on Mt. Pivska planina Todorova Jama (N o 33 in Tab. 1) (Lješević 1976). The early first description of cave animals in Mon - tenegro (Neotrechus suturalis) dated back in 1864 to L.W . Schaufuss (Pretner 1961). Recognition of the most significant caves in regards to diversity of fauna (Pret- ner 1977; Nonveiller & Pavićević 1999; Pavićević 1990; ACTA CARSOLOGICA 50/1 – 2021 53 MIRELA DJUROVIĆ & PREDRAG DJUROVIĆ Pavićević et al. 1999; Karaman 2000) is difficult due to imprecise determination or referring of caves in which fossil fauna were found. In many caves presented in this paper, which were distinguished according some an- other criterions, were discovered habitats of diversified cave fauna: Lipska Pećina (N o 23 in Tab. 1), Grbočica (N o 28 in Tab. 1), Jama na Vjetrenim Brdima (N o 37 in Tab. 1). Particular importance deserve depicting of cave fauna in: Megara (N o 29 in Tab. 1) (Niphargus zorae, G. Karaman, 1967; Speonesiotes pretneri, Müller 1934; Speo- nesiotes montenegrinus Z. Karaman 1967); Speonesiotes laticollis, Müller 1934 (Müller 1934; Karaman 1967a, 1967b; Barović 1995), Lipska Pećina (N o 23 in Tab. 1) (Anthroherpon absoloni, Gueorguiev 1990; Folkia mraze- ki, Nosek 1904; Bogidiella montenigrina, Karaman 1997; Neobisium umbratile, Beier 1938; Typhlogammarus mrazeki, Schäferna 1906) (Nosek 1904; Schäferna 1906; Beier 1938; Guéorguiev 1990; Karaman 1997), Grbočica (N o 28 in Tab. 1) (Adriaphaenops staudacheri, Schei- bel 1939; Elaphoidella montenegrina, Karanović 1997; Lithobius sketi, Matić & Darabantu 1968; Niphargus brevicuspis sketi, Karaman 1966) (Scheibel 1939; Kara- man 1966; Matić & Darabantu 1968; Karanović 1997), Obodska Pećina (N o 24 in Tab. 1) (Plagigeyeria monteni- grina Bole 1961; Saxurinator hadzii, Bole 1961; Spelaeo- discus obodensis, Bole 1964; Spelaeodiscus unidentatus, Bole 1961; Sphaeromides virei montenigrina, Sket 1957) (Sket 1957; Bole 1961, 1965), Jama na Vjetrenim Brdima (N o 37 in Tab. 1) (Adriaphaenops zupcense tartariensis, Pavićević 2001; Tartariella durmitoriensis durmitorien- sis, Nonveiller & Pavićević 1999) Ledena Pećina (N o 35 in Tab. 1) (Neotrechus hilfi grossi, Jeannel 1928; Leon- hardella antennaria antennaria, Apfelbeck 1907), (Non- veiller & Pavićević 1999; Pavićević 2001). Of particular importance are also three caves where five troglobiotic beetle species were identified: Vilina Pećina (N o 6 in Tab. 1) – Crkvice, Boljanovića Jama (N o 12 in Tab. 1) – Kotor and Pećina u Kučericama (N o 2 in Tab. 1) – Mt. Orjen (Groupe Spéléologique Minos 2003; Zagmajster 2007), Pećina nad Vražjim firovima (N o 53 in Tab. 1) (Remyella propiformis, Winkler 1933) (Moravec 2017). Archeological and paleontological caves represent morphologically simple and short objects. Many of them are attributed to long-lasting accumulation of sediments that contributed to paleontological and archeological findings to remain preserved. They occur all over karst regions excluding high mountain area. The Lower Pa- leolithic findings were discovered in the cave Trlica (N o 49 in Tab. 1) (Dimitrijević 1990; Codrea & Dimitrijević 1997; Crégut-Bonnoure & Dimitrijević 2006; Argant & Dimitrijević 2007; Derevjanko et al. 2012; Made & Dimitrijević 2015; Vislobokova   &  Agadjanian 2015). Traces of the Middle Paleolithic habitats were identi- fied in Mališina Stijena (N o 51 in Tab. 1), Bioče (N o 30 in Tab. 1) and Crvena Stijena (N o 1 in Tab. 1) (Brodar 1962; Vogel & Waterbolk 1972; Basler 1975; Brunnack- er 1975; Malez 1975; Radovanović 1986; Bogićević & Dimitrijević 2004; Đuričić 2006; Morley 2007). Remains of the Upper Paleolithic habitats are preserved in Crvena Stijena (N o 1 in Tab. 1), Mališina Stijena (N o 51 in Tab. 1), Medena Stijena (N o 50 in Tab. 1) and Trebački Krš (N o 55 in Tab. 1) (Benac & Brodar 1958; Rakovec 1958; Malez 1975; Radovanović 1986; Nikolić 1992; Đuričić 1996; Dimitrijević 1999; Mihailović 2014). Tab. 1: The most significant caves in Montenegro. No Name of cave Loc a tion En tr ance Deep Long 1 Crvena stijena Bilećko jezero 725* 20 - 2 Pećina u Kučericama Mt. Orjen * 3 Jeskyně Kozí díra Mt. Orjen 1011 662 1714 4 Gouffre du Brouillard (Maglena jama) Mt. Orjen 1120 >282 - 5 Pištet (PT4) Mt. Orjen – Kotor 725 455 - 6 Vilina pećina Mt. Orjen – Crkvice * 7 Propast Pema Mt. Orjen 680 318 >1500 8 Spila Risan 20 72 410 9 Sopot Risan 29 70 400 10 Ljuta Kotor 20 133 170 11 Gurdić Kotor 0 52 460 12 Boljanovića jama Kotor * 13 Jages barlang Mt. Lovćen 1320 216 944 14 Kétlyukú barlang Mt. Lovćen 1360 715 3600 15 Sistem Pala skala Mt. Lovćen 1328 667 984 16 Jama u Majstorima Mt. Lovćen 1195 388 - 17 Nyúl lika/Zečija rupa Njeguško polje 1112 400 1700 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 50/1 – 2021 54 REVIEW OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT CAVES IN MONTENEGRO 18 Duboki do Njeguško polje 997 505 >2247 19 Pećina Njegoš Njeguško polje 874 308 5300 20 Bogoš Njeguško polje 1074 279 >1617 21 Dögös barlang (Žestoka pećina) Njeguško polje 853 101 1100 22 Cetinjska pećina Cetinje 668 57 1067 23 Lipska pećina Cetinje 480 +155 1810 24 Obodska pećina Rijeka Crnojevića – Cetinje * 25 Voločka pećina Skadar Lake 6 47 250 26 Začirska pećina Cetinje 445 201 1173 27 Spila-Babatuša Virpazar - Trnovo 345/350 55 290+ 28 Grbočica Virpazar - Trnovo 390 87 798 29 Megara Podgorica 283 - 260 30 Bioče Canyon Morača * 31 Krevenica Tuzi 37 50 >200 32 Opasna jama Mt. Žijovo 1355 >500 >2000 33 Todorova jama Mt. Pivska planina 1660 297 - 34 Bunda jama Mt. Durmitor 2028 286 612 35 Ledena pećina Mt. Durmitor 2150 68 38 36 Jaskinia X 1108 Mt. Durmitor 2193 272 1799 37 Jama na Vjerenim brdima Mt. Durmitor 2175 775 1951 38 Jama Samo lepo Mt. Durmitor 2160 321 - 39 Jamski sitem u Obručinama Mt. Durmitor 2135 464 >2680 40 Jama Fliš Mt. Durmitor 2080 582 1672 41 Jama u Malom lomnom dolu Mt. Durmitor 2098 605 >1870 42 Jama u Crkvenom dolu Mt. Maganik - 463 - 43 Dvogrla jama u Pribatovom dolu Mt. Maganik 1720 395 - 44 Jaskinia Nyx (Jama u Treštenom vrhu) Mt. Maganik 1950 622 >1000 45 Jeskyně Aither Mt. Maganik 1920 380 - 46 M13 Mt. Maganik - 333 765 47 Iron deep (Železna jama) Mt. Maganik 1767 1162 3360 48 Jaskinia M73 Mt. Maganik - 473 646 49 Trlica Pljevlja * 50 Medena stijena Canyon Ćehotina * 51 Mališina stijena Canyon Ćehotina * 52 Juriško vrelo River Bistrica – Bijelo Polje 747 35 > 1000 53 Pećina nad Vražjim firovima River Bistrica – Bijelo Polje 835 - 17 500 54 Župan pećina Lubnica selo, Berane 1205 22 1160 55 Trebački krš Berane * 56 Čardak Mt. Greben – Gusinje 1969 175 1054 57 Savino oko Ropojana – Gusinje 1000 90 58 Jaskinia Do Savino Oko Mt. Bjelič 1998 256 588 59 Jama frižider Mt. Bjelič 2020 225 462 60 Abisso degli Uomini Liberi Mt. Bjelič 1910 402 849 61 Jaskinia Łezka-Jaskinia Kolektor Mt. Bjelič - 263 1011 62 Jaskinia Gornicza Mt. Bjelič 2019 585 2083 63 Jaskinia Lodova (Ledena jama) Mt. Bjelič 1945 451 1956 64 Jaskinia Gigant Mt. Bjelič 2116 296 1635 65 Abisso dell’Ombra Mt. Bjelič 1969 250 - 66 Jaskinia Niby Czarna-Babina sisa Mt. Bjelič 1885 236 1611 67 Jama Mt. Maganik (River Mrtvica) 350 56 1244 68 Zoran Jama Mt. Maganik 1780 >630 - * Arheological, paleontological or biospeleologically sites ACTA CARSOLOGICA 50/1 – 2021 55 MIRELA DJUROVIĆ & PREDRAG DJUROVIĆ Fig. 2: Map of the most significant caves in Montenegro. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 50/1 – 2021 56 REVIEW OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT CAVES IN MONTENEGRO CONCLUSION The most significant caves in Montenegro expose from the coastal Adriatic Sea and the Skadar lake to the highest mountain peaks (regions exceeding 2,000 m a.s.l.). Caves formed in carbonate masses occasionally over 2,000 m thick. Their development is ascribed to a range of paleoclimate (glacial/interglacial) and recent cli- mate conditions (mean annual temperature from 0 to 15 o C and mean annual precipitation of 1,500 to over 4,000 mm). Their genesis is attributed to various forces: water melted from glacier, snowpatch and snow, erosion by rivers, glacial-eustatic rise of global sea level, etc. Many caves preserved traces of Paleolithic inhabitants and also represent habitats of diverse cave fauna. Four regions in the high mountainous karst are particularly outstanding in abundances of the most significant caves in Monte- negro: Mt. Durmitor, Mt. Lovćen-Orjen, Mt. Maganik and Mt. Bjelič. Numerous caves vary in depth from a few hundred meters to 1,162 m. REFERENCES Adamec, V., Baldik, V. & Z. 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