ijems | scientific article CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean: ToBeorNottoBeanEntrepreneur? predrag ljubotina SchoolofAdvancedSocialStudiesinNovaGorica,Slovenia predrag.ljubotina@gmail.com jaka vadnjal GeaCollegeofEntrepreneurshipandEmuniUniversity,Slovenia jaka.vadnjal@gmail.com Thesignificanceofindividualandfamilytraitshasbeenthemain focusofrecentstudiesonfamilybusinesssuccession;neverthe- less,regionaleffectshavefrequentlybeenoverlooked.Usingin- dividuallevelcross-countrydata,thisstudyexaminestheeffects ofregionalcircumstances onthe careerchoice intentions offam- ilybusinessheirsregardingemployment,startingtheirownentre preneurialventure,orfamilyfirmsuccession.Byemployingdata fromthe2018 guesss surveyandapplyingbinominallogistic regression,wehavediscoveredthattwogroupsofseveralnations (Europeanandnon-EuropeanMediterraneancountries)havesev- eraldifferences.Wealsoshowthatindividualfeaturesinthefam- ilyfirm,andstart-uptime,aresignificantfactors,evenbeyond conditionssuchasuniversityenvironment,entrepreneurshipin thecurricula,entrepreneurialattitudes,locusofcontrol,power distanceandsubjectivenorms.Policiesregardingcompanysucces- sionandrelatedfirmsurvivalshouldbeparticularlybasedonvar- iousmacroeconomicandyouthlabourmarketfactorsinorderto reducesuccessionfailures. KeyWords:entrepreneurship,businesssuccession,family business,careerchoiceintention,Mediterraneanregion https://emuni.si/ISSN/2232-6022/16.221-249.pdf introduction The family context of businesses is typically included in the en- trepreneurship study field, which has expanded over the past few decadesfromtraditionalstudiesofstart-upoperationsandexpand- volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 | 221–249 [222] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal ingbusinessconcernsasapartofentrepreneurialdynamicsthrough to its lifecycle. Consequently, within the conventional family com- panycycle,familybusinesssuccessionhasrecentlybeenconsidered asapotentialnewventurecycle. Thispaperseekstoexaminetheproblemofstudents’careerde- cisions, which also includes family business succession as an op- tion. Various inputs, both internal and external, contribute to the process’complexity,makingitsproceduresdifficultanddemanding. However, before the Global University entrepreneurial Spirit Stu- dent’sSurvey(guesss)researchwasintroducedin2003,potential successorsandtheirownpositionswerelargelydisregarded,depriv- ingthemofthechancetospeakoutonthis,intheiropinion,impor- tantissue. As may be predicted, the first few decades of family business study were mostly carried out at us universities. A number of paradigms have been established for textbook thinking and uni- versity courses on family company management that are based on Americanbusinessandlivingculture.Theseincludetraditionalcor- porategovernancenormsandfamilyvalues.Thenotionthatfamily and family values are a very real foundation for operating a com- mon interestin businesshas only latelybeen confirmed by studies inthesectorthathavebeenextendedtoothernationsandcultures, beginning in Europe but quickly moving to other regions. As a re- sult, conventional research paradigms have begun to focus more ontheuniqueculturalcharacteristicsofmanynationsandareasof theworld,suchastheMediterranean,whichhassofarbeenatopic of common research in different socio-economic fields (Mongelli, Scardigno,andMerico2012). The state of the economy and whether it is growing or stagnat- ing are topics of frequent discussion in national development pro- grammes,politics,andamongthegeneralpublic.Economicscenario analyseshaveresultedinthedevelopmentofanumberofpolicyini- tiativeswiththegoalofboostingtheeconomyandraisingtheaver- ageperson’sstandardofliving. Additionally, it is well acknowledged that entrepreneurship is oneoftheprimaryglobaldriversofvaluecreation,employmentcre- ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [223] ation,innovation,andsocialchange.Inordertoinvestigatethepo- tential influence of circumstances on the profession choice inten- tionsoffamilybusinessheirs,anewstudyframeworkhasbeende- veloped.Theoveralldearthofresearchlinkingthediversecategories and taxonomies of entrepreneurialendeavours, including the vari- ousfamilybusinesssuccessionmodels,totheactivityanddevelop- ment of the economy in a given region, served as the impetus for writingthisarticle. A clear geographic division characterises the economy of the Mediterraneanregion.Accordingto(Glassmann2016),government modernisationinitiativesinsomeareasgaverisetothe‘familywel- fare model,’ which was based on labour contracts from big busi- nesses or the civil service, and provided substantial welfare bene- fits. In some areas, the ‘family business model’ is prevalent. This model developed as a result of the male breadwinner sacrificing social rights in favour of less protected employment alternatives (smallfirms). Onthe otherhand,familymembersthat makethisdecisionare more likely to pursue formal employment and higher educational goals, which may improve economic performance compared to ar- easwherethe‘familywelfaremodel’isstillprevalent.Inaccordance with these findings, the motivation emerged to verify the broader data set model, focused on the geographical area of the Mediter- raneanwithitsspecificcultural,economicandhistoricalcharacter- istics. In order to provide a theoretical framework and context for the research,webeginwithareviewofthepertinentresearchliterature. In this chapter, hypotheses are also derived for empirical investi- gation. The nextchapter presentsandexplainsthe field study con- ductedinsomecountriesoftheMediterraneanregionthatprovided the primary data, along with the methods, sampling and data col- lection procedures. Results from applying multinomial regression to the data are shown in order to help determine whether the hy- pothesesareacceptedorrejected.Weexaminetheresultsandtheir implications for potential real-world applications in the final sec- tion. volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [224] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal theoretical background and hypotheses development FindingaJobOrSelf-employment Findingajoborpursuingself-employmentisasignificantaspectof individuals’lives,andithasimplicationsforvariousfactorssuchas health,mentalwellbeing,careerdevelopment,andeconomicbene- fits.Severalstudieshaveexploredthesetopicsandshedlightonthe benefitsandchallengesassociatedwithfindingajoborengagingin self-employment. A study that examinedthe barriersandbenefitsof self-employ- ment on health found that self-employment can have both posi- tiveandnegativeeffects,suggestingthatfurtherresearchisneeded tounderstandthiscomplexrelationship(Rietveld,vanKippersluis, andThurik2015).Careerdevelopmentisanessentialaspectoffind- ing a job or pursuing self-employment. A recent study proposed a conceptual model for evaluating the professional development of women.Themodelcanbeappliedtovariousfieldsandprovidesin- sightsintothefactorsinfluencingcareeradvancement(Magraneet al.2012). The role of public policies in promoting self-employment is also atopicofinterest.Kumar(2012)developedamodelofself-employ- ment that incorporates transitions between unemployment and self-employment.Themodel caninformpolicymakers indesigning effective strategies to support individuals in their entrepreneurial endeavours (Kumar 2012). Furthermore, the impact of unemploy- mentinsurancebenefitsonself-employmenthasbeeninvestigated. A study which examined the relationship between social security and self-employment suggests that more self-employment is cre- ated when more social security is provided (Camarero Garcia and Hansch2020). Creativity and innovation are also crucial for entrepreneurship development, especially among young people. Juliana et al. (2021) investigated the relationship between creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurshipdevelopment. The study highlighted the positive impactofcreativityandinnovationonentrepreneurship(Julianaet al.2021). ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [225] Finding a job or pursuing self-employment has implications for individuals’ lives, especially at the beginning of their careers. For this reason, it is essential to know the factors that shape young people’s career decisions as precisely as possible, especially among the student population. In this regard, today’s demanding socio- politicalenvironmentisevenmoreunforgivingtowardsboththein- dividualandsociety,whichpaysinsufficientattentiontothisissue. MediterraneanCountries Differences between European and non-European Mediterranean countries can be observed in various aspects, including economic systems,healthcare,societalquality,culturalbackground,andtour- ism. Regardingeconomicsystems,Mediterraneancountriesarechar- acterised by a higher concentration of savings at the top and con- sumptionatthebottomoftheincomerankingcomparedtoNorth- ern European countries (Ranaldi 2020). This finding suggests that theremaybegreaterincomeinequalityinMediterraneancountries. SocietalqualityisanotheraspectthatdiffersbetweenEuropean and non-European Mediterranean countries. A study analysing the societal quality of Southern European Mediterranean coun- tries(Spain,Italy,Portugal,andGreece)foundthatthesecountries have lower societal quality than other European countries (Beri- catandMartín-Gimeno2020).Thissuggeststhat theremay be dif- ferences in governance, social cohesion, and other societal factors. Cultural background also influences the differences between Eu- ropean and non-European Mediterranean regions. Several studies have observed cultural disparities, with Greece as an example (Pe- trakis 2011). These cultural differences may influenceeconomic de- velopment indicators, other aspects of society, andindividuals’ ca- reer choices. These differences highlight the diverse nature of the Mediterranean region and the need for tailored approaches to ad- dress the specific challenges and opportunities faced by different countrieswithinthisregion. h1 Thereisadifferenceinstudents’careerintentioninfluencingfac- volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [226] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal tors between European and non-European Mediterranean re- gions. UniversityEnvironment Environmental factors can strongly influence the entrepreneurial process(KolvereidandIsaksen2012).Individualswouldnotdecide to start a company that is not embedded in the environment, in- stead preferring to consult their immediate environment, and are thus influenced by others, their intentions and decisions (Aldrich andZimmer1986). Thus, researchers list two important predictors of entrepreneur ialintentionfor the studentenvironment.Oneofthem isthe sup- portive university environment. If the university provides knowl- edgeandinspirationforentrepreneurship,thepossibilityofchoos- inganentrepreneurialcareerwillincrease(TurkerandSelcuk2009). Inasusceptibleperiod,theuniversityenvironmentplaysanimpor- tant, if not one of the key roles in students’ lives. At that time, students are expected to make a career decision after their stud- ies.Existingsurveysamongstudentsfromdifferentcountrieshave shown that career preferences are influenced by the reputation of entrepreneurship and the support of the university environment (Autioetal.2001). Research has confirmed that encouraging the entrepreneur is critical to promoting economic growth. Indeed, cultural and insti- tutional frameworks influence entrepreneurship (Wennekers and Thurik1999). Universityeducationaffectsthecareerchoiceofstudentssothat universitiescanbeapotentialsourceofentrepreneurs(Turkerand Selcuk 2009). The probability of starting a business is statistically greatestbetweenthe ages of 25and44(Wortman 1985).Thisis ex- actlywhyitissoessentialtoresearchthestudentpopulationinthis context. h2 Themoreastudentperceivessupportforentrepreneurshipinthe universityenvironment,themorelikelytheyaretochooseanen trepreneurialcareerrightaftertheirstudies. ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [227] EntrepreneurshipintheCurriculum Several studies have explored the relationship between univer- sity education and students’ career decisions and found that en- trepreneurship education programmes and university business in- cubatorsplayacrucialroleinshapingstudents’careerchoices(Guer- rero,Urbano,andGajón2020).Theseprogrammesprovidestudents with the necessary skills, knowledge, and opportunities to pursue entrepreneurialventuresandentrepreneurship.Ontheotherhand, thesameprogrammesalsoenhancestudents’employabilityoptions and increasetheir confidence in areas such as communication, col- laboration,opportunityrecognition,criticalthinking,andproblem- solving(RodriguezandLieber2020). Entrepreneurship education has been found to positively im- pact students’ attitudes towards entrepreneurial careers (Khalid, Islam, and Lee 2019). It increases students’ entrepreneurial self- efficacy, which is their belief in the ability to succeed as entrepre- neurs.Thisself-efficacy,outcomeexpectations,andentrepreneurial interestsinfluencestudents’careerchoices(UskuriandSesen2022). Furthermore, entrepreneurship education enhances students’ en trepreneurial skills, influencing the decision to become entrepre- neurs (Windiarti, Pulungan, and Adnyana 2022). The impact of en- trepreneurship education on career decisions is not limited to un- dergraduatestudents.Ithasalsobeenfoundtoinfluencesecondary students’careerreadiness.Education helpsstudentsdevelopanen trepreneurial mindset and increases their confidence in communi- cation, collaboration, and critical thinking (Rodriguez and Lieber 2020).Allmentionedskillsaretransferableandvaluable invarious careerpaths,notjustentrepreneurship. Theinfluenceofentrepreneurshipeducationoncareerdecisions isnotonlylimitedtotheeducationsystem,butalsoextendstothe broader ecosystem. Entrepreneurial university ecosystems, which include entrepreneurship education programmes and university business incubators, provide students with the necessary support andresourcestopursueentrepreneurialcareers(Guerrero,Urbano, andGajón2020).Theseecosystemsfacilitateemployabilityoptions forgraduates,includingacademicentrepreneurship. volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [228] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal Ithasbeenproventhatentrepreneurialuniversityeducationhas asignificantinfluenceonthecareerdecisionsofstudents.Itequips students with the necessary skills, knowledge, and opportunities to pursue entrepreneurial ventures. Entrepreneurship education programmes and university business incubators heavily influence students’ career choices and enhance their employability options. Universityprogrammesandecosystemsalsoincreasestudents’self- confidence.Wegroundourthirdhypothesisonthisbasis. h3 Themoreentrepreneuriallyrichthecurriculum,themorelikely studentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerrightaftertheir studies. EntrepreneurialAttitude The influence of entrepreneurial attitude on students’ career deci- sionsisatopicofgreatinterestinentrepreneurshipandeducation. Several studies have explored the relationship between entrepre- neurialattitude andcareer decisions, shedding light on the factors influencingstudents’choices. Arecentstudyfoundthatcollegestudents’entrepreneurialself- efficacysignificantlyandpositivelyaffectsentrepreneurialattitude andintention.Thestudyalsorevealedthatentrepreneurialattitude is partially intermediary in the relationship between entrepreneur ial self-efficacy and entrepreneurialintention (Liu et al. 2019). It is suggested that students with a solid entrepreneurial attitude are morelikelytoconsiderentrepreneurshipacareeroption. AnotherstudyfocusedonHungarianstudentsfoundthatapos- itive entrepreneurialattitude increasesthe chances of choosing an entrepreneurial career (Gubik 2021). The finding supports the idea thatentrepreneurialattitude playsacrucialroleincareerdecision- makingamongstudents. Moreover, the role of entrepreneurial mindset in career deci- sions has been explored in several studies. Burnette et al. (2020) conducted a growth mindset intervention to enhance students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy and found that this intervention pre- dictedcareerdevelopment.So,cultivatinganentrepreneurialmind- ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [229] set can positively impact students’ career decisions and outcomes. Overall,theliteraturesuggeststhatentrepreneurialattitude,self- efficacy,andmindsetareimportantfactorsthatinfluencestudents’ career decisions. Fostering a positive entrepreneurial attitude, en- hancing self-efficacy, and cultivating an entrepreneurial mindset can contribute to students’ consideration of entrepreneurship as a viable career option. These findings form the basis of our fourth hypothesis. h4 Thehigherthelevelofentrepreneurialattitude,themorelikely studentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerrightaftertheir studies. EntrepreneurialSkills Several studies have explored the relationship between entrepre- neurial skills and career choices, shedding light on the factors in- fluencingindividuals’decisionstopursueentrepreneurialcareers. CallananandZimmermandiscussedthecareerdecision-making processof entrepreneursandhighlightedthe needfor comprehen- sive models that consider both endogenous and exogenous influ- ences.Whileexistingmodelsprovideinsightsintothefactorsinflu- encingentrepreneurialcareerselection,theydonotcapturethefull complexity of the decision-making process (Callananand Zimmer- man2016).Furtherresearchisneededtounderstandtheinfluence ofentrepreneurialskillsoncareerdecisionsfully. Overall, the literature suggests that entrepreneurial skills, such as a growth mindset, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepre- neurialpassioncanpositivelyinfluenceindividuals’careerdecisions (Burnetteetal.2020).However,thedecisiontopursueanentrepre neurialcareeriscomplexandinfluencedbyvariousfactors,includ- ingjobsatisfaction,culturalvalues,andcareerstage(Blaese,Noemi, andBrigitte2021). Therefore,furtherresearchisneededtounderstandtherelation- shipbetweenentrepreneurialskillsandcareerintentionamongthe youngergenerations. h5 The higher the level of self-assessed entrepreneurial skills, the volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [230] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal morelikelystudentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerright aftertheirstudies. LocusofControl Theinfluenceoflocusofcontroloncareerdecisionshasbeenexten- sively studied in psychology. Locus of control refers to an individ- ual’s belief about how much he or she has control over his/her life andtheoutcomesexperienced(Lyons,Schweitzer,andNg2015).Re- searchhasshownthatlocusofcontrolispositivelyrelatedtocareer decision-making,careerself-efficacy,andcareermaturity.Individu- alswithahighinternallocusofcontrol,whobelievetheyhavecon- trol over their actions and outcomes, tend to be more decisive and proactiveinmakingcareerchoices(KimandLee2018;Siregar2021; Sholikah2021;Zellweger,Sieger,andHalter2011).Thoseindividuals havehigherlevelsofcareerself-efficacy,whichisthebeliefinone’s abilitytoperformcareer-relatedtasksandmakeeffectivecareerde- cisions successfully (Kim and Lee 2018; Turan 2021). Self-efficacy, in turn, leads to higher levels of career maturity, which is the abil- ity to make informed and realistic career choices (Kırdök and Har- man2018).Ontheotherhand,individualswithanexternallocusof control, who believe that external factors or luck determine their outcomes, may experience difficulties in making career decisions. They may feel less confident in their ability to make effective ca- reerchoicesandmayrelymoreonexternalsourcesofguidanceand decision-making(KimandLee2018;Al-Bahranietal.2021).Thiscan lead to lower career self-efficacy and maturity levels (Harman and Kırdök 2018). Additionally, research has shown that locus of con- trol is related to other factors that influence career decisions, such aspersonalitytraits,careerorientations,andsocio-economicstatus (Lyons,Schweitzer,andNg2015). Understandinganindividual’slocusofcontrolcanprovidevalu- able insights into their career decision-making process and inform interventionsandsupportstrategiestoenhancecareerself-efficacy andmaturity. h6 Thehighertheinternallocusofcontrol,themorelikelystudents aretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerrightaftertheirstudies. ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [231] PowerDistance Powerdistance,whichreferstotheextenttowhichindividualsina societyacceptandexpectpowerinequalities,hasbeenfoundtoin- fluencecareerdecisionssignificantly.Severalstudieshaveexplored therelationshipbetweenpowerdistanceandvariousaspectsofca- reer decision-making, including career proactivity, career success, careerintentions,andcareerexplorationbehaviour. Smaleetal.(2018)examinedthemoderatingroleofnationalcul- ture, including power distance, on the relationship between proac- tive career behaviours and subjective career success. The authors suggestedthatculturaldifferencesinpowerdistancecouldaffectthe meaningsattachedtocareerproactivityandsubsequentlyinfluence careerbehavioursandoutcomes).Inanotherstudy,YangandChau (2016) investigatedthe relationshipbetweenproactive personality, career success, and power distance orientation. The findings indi- cated that the extent to which leader-member exchange mediates the relationship between assertive personality and career success dependsonpowerdistanceorientation. Dalci and Özyapici (2018) exploredthe influenceof cultural val- ues, includingcollectivism andpower distance, on students’ inten- tionswhenchoosinganaccountingcareer.Theresultsrevealedthat collectivism and considerable power distance were associated with asignificantrelationshipbetweenparentalandpeers’influenceand students’ intentions of choosing an accounting career (Dalci and Özyapici2018).MoonandChoiexaminedtheimpactofcareerman- agementonorganisationalcommitment,withthemediatingroleof subjectivecareersuccess.Thestudyfoundthatproactivecareerbe- haviours, such as career transition and job change, were less com- moninhigh-power-distancecultures(MoonandChoi2017). Existing studies suggest that power distance can shape individ- uals’ career decisions and behaviours. In cultures with high power distance,individualsmaybelesslikelytoengageinproactivecareer behavioursandmayhavedifferentcareerintentionsthanincultures with low power distance. The cultural meanings attached to career proactivity and the influence of power distance on career success andexplorationbehaviourhighlighttheimportanceofconsidering powerdistanceinunderstandingcareerdecisions. volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [232] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal h7 The higher the level of perceived centralisation of society, the morelikelystudentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerright aftertheirstudies. SubjectiveNorms Subjective norms play a significant role in career decision-making. Several studies have explored the influenceof subjective norms on career decisions and have found that they can have both positive andnegativeeffects(Zellweger,Sieger,andHalter2011;Vadnjaland Ljubotina2016). Muzika et al. (2019) examined the relationship between subjec- tivesocialstatusandcareerdecision-makingself-efficacy.Thestudy found that a higher personal social level predicted lower career in- decisionandgreatercareerdecision-makingself-efficacy.Thestudy concluded that individuals with higher subjective norms are more confidentintheircareerdecisions.Amalia,Mayasari,andOgundajo (2021) found that internship experiences positively affected sub- jective norms, attitude toward behaviour, and perceived behaviour control,whichinfluencedcareerintentions.Consequently,positive internshipexperiencescanshapeindividuals’subjectivenormsand influencetheircareerdecisions. Overall,studiesconfirmedthatsubjectivenormssignificantlyin- fluence career decisions. Understanding these influenceson young peoplecanhelpindividualsmake moreinformedandauthenticca- reerchoicesindifferentsocietiesandregions. h8 Thehigherthelevelofperceivedsubjectivenorms,themorelikely studentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerrightaftertheir studies. EntrepreneurialParent The influence of parental factors on career decisions has been ex- tensively studied. Research consistently shows that parents signif- icantly impact shaping their children’s career choices. A study con- ductedonasampleofyoungpeopleaged14–18yearsoldfoundthat parents exert the most significant influence on their child’s career ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [233] choice compared to other social factors and pressures (Stritch and Christensen2016).Thishighlightsthecrucialroleofparentalinflu- enceincareerdecision-making. Moreover,studieshaveexploredtherelationshipbetweenfamily influencesandcareerchoicesacrossculturalcontexts.Forinstance, a survey of Asian Americans revealed that family influences, such as parental attachment and individualism-collectivism, are associ- ated with career decision-making self-efficacy (Kwong 2018). Cul- tural factors may therefore, interact with parental influence when shapingcareerchoices.Parentalexpectationsandperceptionsofca- reerchoicesalsoplayasignificantroleininfluencingtheirchildren’s decisions.Students’perceptionofparentalexpectationsisanessen- tialfactorincareerchoiceasaparentalinfluence(Agarwal,Kumar, andD’Souza2016).Similarly,parentalencouragement,providingin- formation aboutspecificcareers,andencouragingconsiderationof various education and career options significantly influence career choicesamongstudents(Okesina2022). Specifically, entrepreneurial parents have been found to impact their children’s career decisions. A study examining the entrepre- neurialintentionsandwillingnesstoconsiderentrepreneurshipasa careeroptionrevealedthatchildrenareinfluencedbytheirparents’ entrepreneurialbackground(Costa,Caetano,andSantos2016).Ac- cordingly, growing up in an entrepreneurial family can shape indi- viduals’attitudesandaspirationstowardsentrepreneurshipasaca- reerpath. Theinfluenceofentrepreneurialparentsonstudents’careerde- cisionsisacomplexandmultifacetedtopic.Parentssignificantlyim- pact their children’s career choices while cultural factors, parental expectations, and personal predispositions can mediate this influ- ence.Understandingtheroleofparentalinfluenceincareerdecision- makingunderdifferentsocietalconditionscanprovidevaluablein- sightsforcareercounsellingandguidanceprogrammes. h9 Studentswithentrepreneurialparentsaremorelikelytochoose anentrepreneurialcareerpathcomparedtotheirpeersfromnon- entrepreneurialfamilies. volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [234] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal methods ParticipantsandProcedures Withtheresearch,wewantedtoinvestigatestudents’careerinten- tions in the Mediterranean countries, namely in the context of en trepreneurial intentions. We explored particular factors and how they shape students’ career intentions. For this purpose, we used thedatacollectedintheframeworkofguesss2018(GlobalUniver- sityEntrepreneurshipSpiritStudentSurvey)intheresearch.More than 208,000 valid survey questionnaires from 54 countries were collected as part of the research. We collected data from Mediter- raneancountriesanddividedthemintotwogroupsforourresearch. Our goal was to compare European countries (Albania, France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Slovenia and Spain) with non-European countries(Algeria,Jordan,LebanonandTurkey). Theidentification-based guesss surveypresentedmultiplere- sponses and was conducted using the online questionnaire from September 2018 to January 2019. The survey allowed students to remainanonymous.Toourknowledge,itisthelargestglobalstudy of students’ careerintentions. At the same time, the study focuses preciselyontheaspirationlevelsofentrepreneurshipasacareerop- tion.Theresearchhasbeencarriedoutsince2006,everytwoyears. Each implementation is improved based on past experience. The 2018studyalreadyincludesawiderangeofsociologicalandperson- alitytraitsthatpotentiallyshapeayoungperson’scareerintention. Eachfactor ismeasuredusingrepeatedlyverifiedinstrumentsthat have been proven to be reliable in high-profile research so far. The collecteddatathusofferwidepossibilitiesforstudyingcorrelations betweenindividualfactorsaswellascomparingdifferentgeograph- icallyorotherwisedefinedgroupsofyoungpeople. Studentswhohavealreadyestablishedtheirowncompaniesare excluded from the analysis to allow a prospective view and avoid so-calledsurvivorbias,fromwhichretrospectivestudiesmightsuf- ferwheninterviewingentrepreneursaboutmotivesafterstartinga firm(Gartner1989).Sincewefocusedonstudentswhocanalready define their career goals immediately after completing their stud- ies, we excluded undefined respondents from the survey. After fil- ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [235] teringthedata,therewere33,970respondentsfromEuropeancoun- tries,whilethenon-Europeangroupconsistedof2,839respondents. 36,806studentsareincludedintheresearch,ofwhich38.7aremen and 61.3 are women. Among the respondents, 31 come from en trepreneurial families. As such, we considered families in which at least one parent is self-employed or is the majority owner of the company. In doing so, we reliedon one of the definitions of a fam- ilybusiness(BarnesandHershon1976).Respondentswereassured strictconfidentialitytoavoidtheinfluenceofsocialdesirabilitycon- cerns(Podsakoffetal.2003). Measures DependentVariable We asked students about their career decision (employee or en- trepreneur) immediately after completing their studies and five years thereafter.With the secondquestion, the time spanwas lim- itedtofiveyearsafterthestudiesaccordingtotheobservationthat typicalentrepreneursworkelsewherebeforestartingtheirbusiness (Brockhaus1987). Table 1 illustratesthe careerintention in both observed groups, i.e.,fortheperiodimmediatelyafterthestudiesandfiveyearsthere- after. We can understand that in both regions, the relationships changesignificantlyoveraperiodoffiveyears,whichisinlinewith previousstudies,accordingtowhichanindividualgainsexperience asanemployeeelsewherebeforestartinghisorherentrepreneurial career.Fromtheaboveresults,itcanbeseenthatasmallnumberof students realise their potential entrepreneurial intention immedi- atelyaftertheirstudies.Forthisstudy,wefocusedongroupcompar- table1 CareerIntentinEuropeanandNon-EuropeanMediterranean Countries European NonEuropean Afterstudy yearslater Afterstudy yearslater Employee . . . . Entrepreneur . . . . Donotknow . . . . volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [236] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal ison(Europeanandnon-EuropeanMediterraneancountries)inthe period which follows immediately afterstudy. Our dependent vari- able is therefore, categorical and can take two values: (1) employee or(2)entrepreneur. IndependentVariables Sevenfactorswereincludedamongtheindependentvariables,mea- sured using a 7-point Likert scale. We measured the university en- vironment’ssupportforentrepreneurshipwiththreeitems(Franke andLüthje2004).Thedegreeofinclusionofentrepreneurialcontent in the curriculum was captured by five items (Souitaris, Zerbinati, andAl-Laham2007).Fiveitemswereusedtomeasureentrepreneur ialattitude(LiñánandChen2009)andsevenitemsforself-assessed masteryofentrepreneurialskills(Zhao2005).Theinternallocusof controllevelisalsomeasuredwiththreescientificallyverifieditems (Levenson1973).Theperceptionofpowerdistanceinsocietyiscov- ered with three items taken from the globe survey (House et al. 2004). Three additional items also cover subjective norms (Liñán andChen2009). Inadditiontothementionedvariables,weincludedacategorical variable in the analysis, which was used to define whether the stu- dentcomesfromanentrepreneurialfamily.Itisapotentiallyimpor- tantfactorthatcanshapeastudent’scareerintention,asevidenced byexistingresearch(Zellweger,Sieger,andHalter2011). results Sincewecomparedtwoindependentsamples,at-testwasusedwith theintentionofcomparingthemeanvaluesforindividualvariables. The resultsof thet-testaregivenintable2,fromwhichwecansee the observed groups of countries differ in a highly statistically sig- nificantway,namelyinalltheobservedfactors. We can understand that students in the European part of the Mediterraneanfeelgreatersupportforentrepreneurialthinkingin their university environment. In this group of students, it is per- ceived that a greater importance is attributed to subjective norms in connection with their career purposes. The picture is different ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [237] table2 T-TestbetweenGroups(Non-EuropeanversusEuropean MediterraneanCountries) Variable t df Sig. md Universitysupportforentrepreneurship –. . . –. Entrepreneurshipinthecuriculum . . . . Entrepreneurialattitude . . . . Entrepreneurialskillslevel . . . . Levelofinternallocusofcontrol . . . . Perc.levelofpowerdistanceinthesociety . . . . Subjectivenorms –. . . –. for theother observedfactors, wherehigheraveragevaluesareob- served in the group of non-European Mediterranean countries. In these countries, the study curriculum contains more entrepreneur ial content. We also measured a significantly higher level of incli- nation towards entrepreneurship and self-assessment of entrepre neurial skills. The same applies to the degree of internal locus of controlandtotheperceiveddegreeofcentralisationofsociety.The resultsofthet-testthusconfirmhypothesis h1 withahighdegree ofstatisticalsignificance. Sincetheperceiveddifferencesbetweentheobservedregionsare highlystatisticallysignificant,withtheintentionofgainingdeeper insight into the relationships between the variables, we continued the analysis with a regression model. A regression model is devel- oped for each of the two regions, thus enabling the comparison of regression coefficients between the two models. Therefore, all hy- pothesesfromh2toh9aretestedineachofthetwogroupsandre- sultsarecompared.Sinceourdependentvariableiscategoricaland cantakeonlytwovalues(employeeorentrepreneur),logisticregres- sionisthemostappropriatemethod. Afterconstructingandtestingourlogisticregressionmodels,we foundthatchi-squaretestsarehighlysignificant(p=0,000),which shows that our models are significantly upgrading the null-model (intercept only model). A statistically non-significant Hosmer and Lemeshowtestadditionallyconfirmsthatwehaveagoodmodelfit inbothgroups(European:p=0.667,non-European:p=0.909).The volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [238] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal table3 LogisticRegressionModels Group Variable B Sig. Exp(B) NonEuropean Universitysupport –. . . Entrepreneurialcurriculum . . . Entrepreneurialattitude . . . Entrepreneurialskills . . . Locusofcontrol –. . . Powerdistance –. . . Subjectivenorms –. . . Parentsentrepreneurs . . . Constant –. . . European Universitysupport –. . . Entrepreneurialcurriculum . . . Entrepreneurialattitude . . . Entrepreneurialskills . . . Locusofcontrol –. . . Powerdistance –. . . Subjectivenorms –. . . Parentsentrepreneurs . . . Constant –. . . results of both regression models are shown in table 3. University support turns out to be an important factor in the European part oftheMediterranean,wherehighersupportstatisticallyandsignif- icantlylowersthe probabilityofdecidingonanentrepreneurialca- reerimmediatelyaftercompletingstudies.Itisaninterestingfind- ing,whichwouldcertainlybeworthyofin-depthresearchwiththe aim of finding the reasons for such a result. In the non-European partoftheMediterranean,wedidnotdetectstatisticallysignificant influential support from the university environment in relation to the probability of an entrepreneurial career. Our hypothesis h2 is rejected in both regions, although it is worth bearing in mind that in the European part, we detected significant results, but contrary toexpectations. Wemustalsorejecthypothesish3inbothregions,asoursample measurements do not contradict the null hypothesis. Thus, we did ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [239] notperceivethattheamountofentrepreneurialcontentinthecur- riculumwouldaffecttheprobabilityofchoosinganentrepreneurial career path immediately after completing studies. The finding ap- pliestotheentireMediterraneanarea. Hypothesis h4 can be confirmed for the entire Mediterranean area.Amorerecognisedindividual’sentrepreneurialtendenciesin- crease the probability of choosing an entrepreneurial career com- paredtoemployment.Theregressioncoefficientsindicateaslightly more pronounced influence in the European part of the Mediter- ranean,whereanincreaseintheinclinationtowardsentrepreneur- ship by one degree increases the probability of deciding on an en trepreneurial career immediately after study by 1.132 times. In the Non-EuropeanpartoftheMediterranean,thisfactoris1.074. Hypothesish5canbeconfirmedintheEuropeanpartofthe Mediterranean, where a higher self-assessment of entrepreneurial skillssignificantlyincreasestheprobabilityofanentrepreneurialca- reer after studying. We did not detect a statistically significantim- pactinnon-Europeanregions. A similar finding was also detected in the analysis of the influ- ence of the internal locus of control. In the non-European part of theMediterranean,thedegreeofinternallocusofcontroldoesnot significantly affect the probability of deciding on an entrepreneur ialcareer.Hypothesis h6 isthusrejectedinthisgroup.IntheEuro- pean Mediterraneancountries, the picture is different. Hypothesis h6 cannot be confirmed, but the observed results are statistically significant.Ahigherlevelofinternalbehaviouralcontrolreducesthe probability of deciding on an entrepreneurialpath immediately af- tercompletingstudies. Intheanalysisoftheimpactofthecentralisationofsociety,de- spite the known differences in the socio-political environment of theobservedtworegions,wedidnotdetectstatisticallysignificant impacts on the probability of choosing an entrepreneurial career among students in any region.Hypothesis h7 is thereforerejected fortheentireMediterraneanarea. Subjective norms are an important factor in both observed re- gions. In both cases, a higher level of subjective norms reduces volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [240] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal the probability of a student’s decision to pursue an entrepreneur ial career path. The aforementioned applies, of course, to the pe- riod immediately after the end of studies. The more importance a studentattachestotheopinionsofthoseclosetohim/her,theless likely he/she is to pursue an entrepreneurial career after complet- ing his/her studies. Here too, the reasons for such results should definitely be investigated more deeply. One could speculate that students want to maintain the positive opinion of those close to themandtherefore,finditmoredifficulttoembarkonariskyentre preneurialcareerpathwithoutpriorexperience. Wedetectedagreaterdifferencebetweenthegroupsintheinflu- enceofentrepreneurialparents.Parentalentrepreneursinthenon- European part of the Mediterranean do not significantly influence theiroffspring’sdecisionaboutcareerpathsimmediatelyaftercom- pletingtheirstudies.ItisentirelydifferentintheEuropeanpartof the Mediterranean, where this factor strongly influences the prob- abilityofchoosinganentrepreneurialcareeraftercompletingstud- ies, increasingthe saidprobability by more than two times (exp(B) =2.07). discussion and implications Studentswithafamilialbackgroundinbusinessfaceauniquedilem- ma when choosing their career route. Their selection is more com- plicatedandsetsthemapartfromtheirpeersduetothepossibility oftakingoverthefamilybusiness.Previousresearchhasexamined the psychological, emotional, and societal components of this pro- fession choice dilemma. Our study adds to a better understanding ofthebroadercareerchoiceintentionperspectivebyexaminingthe impactofregionalculturalissues.Thepresentedworkmaybeseen in part as exploratory, because there are few studies that link the culturalissuesoftheMediterraneanregiontothe careerchoicein- tentions of young people, particularly when focusing on a specific setofstudentswithabackgroundinfamilyenterprises. The countries under investigation are fundamentally and ex- tremely different in terms of their economic circumstances and political systems. Some nations were far from western democracy- ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [241] based societies at some point in the distant past. Young students mightanticipatedifferentjobandprofessionaldevelopmentoppor- tunities in such circumstances. These circumstances have changed or are continuing to change quickly over the past few decades. However,severalnationsoperatestablemarketeconomies.Despite spanningsuchawiderangeofEuropeaneconomies,oursubstantial regression results imply that it may be possible to generalise the findingsinotherpartsoftheglobe.Table4comparesourmodelre- sultsfromthetwosetofcountriestheresearchobservedfordebate andimplications. There are severalimportant findings which can be derived from the table 4. Interestingly and somehow disappointingly, is the fact thataccordingtotheanalysisofhypothesis h3,whichwasrejected in the both groups, the inclusion of entrepreneurship in curricula doesnothavemuchimpactonentrepreneurialdecisionsinthestud- iedareas.Similarly,thelevelofperceivedcentralisationofasociety (hypothesis h7)seemsnottohaveanysignificantmeaningforthe decisionofanentrepreneurialpath. Ontheotherhand,forthewholestudiedsample,twohypotheses areconfirmedforthebothsub-samples.Thesewereexpected:(i)the importanceoftheentrepreneurialattitude(hypothesis h4)and(ii) thelevelofsubjectivenorms(hypothesish8),whichwereconfirmed withanoppositelogic.Forbothhypotheses,wecanfindconsistent support in previous research. Another study found that a positive entrepreneurial attitude increases (hypothesis h4) the chances of choosing an entrepreneurial career (Gubik 2021). Additionally, an- otherstudyfoundthatahigherpersonalsociallevelpredictedlower career indecision and greater career decision-making self-efficacy, suggesting that individuals with higher subjective norms are more confidentintheircareerdecisions(Muzikaetal.2019). There are four pairs of hypotheses confirmed only for the Eu- ropeanMediterraneancountriesandrejectedforthoseoutsideEu- rope.First,istheperceptionofentrepreneurshipsupportintheuni- versity environment (hypothesis h2), which can lead to the inter- pretation that universities of non-European Mediterranean coun- tries do have several challenges in securing the more supportive volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [242] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal table4 HypothesesConfirmationforBothSetsofCountries Hypothesys () () h Themoreastudentperceivessupportforentrepreneurshipin theuniversityenvironment,themorelikelytheyaretochoose anentrepreneurialcareerrightaftertheirstudies. No Yes– h Themoreentrepreneuriallyrichthecurriculum,themore likelystudentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerrightaf- tertheirstudies. No No h Thehigherthelevelofentrepreneurialattitude,themore likelystudentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerrightaf- tertheirstudies. Yes Yes h Thehigherthelevelofself-assessedentrepreneurialskills,the morelikelystudentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareer rightaftertheirstudies. No Yes h Thehighertheinternallocusofcontrol,themorelikelystu- dentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerrightaftertheir studies. No Yes– h Thehigherthelevelofperceivedcentralizationofsociety,the morelikelystudentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareer rightaftertheirstudies. No No h Thehigherthelevelofperceivedsubjectivenorms,themore likelystudentsaretochooseanentrepreneurialcareerrightaf- tertheirstudies. Yes– Yes– h Studentswithentrepreneurialparentsaremorelikelyto chooseanentrepreneurialcareerpathcomparedtotheirpeers fromnon-entrepreneurialfamilies. No Yes notes (1)non-European,(2)European.No–nonsignificantresult,yes–signif- icantresult,yes––significant,butoppositelogicthanhypothesised.Resultsignif- icance<0.05. universityenvironmentforfuturepromotionandassistanceinthe career paths of students, which is also consistent with the recom- mendations from previous research(Turker andSelcuk 2009). Sec- ond, is the perception that self-assessed entrepreneurial skills are notlinkedtoahigherattitudetowardsentrepreneurshipinthenon- Europeancountries(hypothesish5),whichmaybeinterpretedwith alowerlevelofawarenessabouttheimportanceofentrepreneurial skills in these countries. This finding is coherent with the proposi- tion that the decision to pursue an entrepreneurial career is com- ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [243] plex and influenced by various factors, including job satisfaction, culturalvalues,andcareerstage(Blaese,Noemi,andBrigitte2021). Third, the higher level of internal locus of control (hypothesis h6) does not lead to a higher level of entrepreneurial attitudes in the non-European countries. This seems to be consistent with previ- ous pieces of research that have shown the locus of control is re- latedtootherfactorsthatinfluencecareerdecisions,suchasperson- ality traits, career orientations, and socio-economic status (Lyons, Schweitzer, and Ng 2015). Fourth, the role of entrepreneurial par- ents(h9)doesnotseemtoplayanimportantroleinnon-European countries, which is hard to explain, but is probably due to cultural differences; however, this may be consistent with the suggestion thatgrowingupinanentrepreneurialfamilycanshapeindividuals’ attitudesandaspirationstowardsentrepreneurshipasacareerpath (Costa,Caetano,andSantos2016). LimitationsoftheStudy Cross-sectional data from the guesss 2018 survey were used, as observational research at one particular point in time, providing a result. Conversely, the regional landscape of the Mediterranean is subject to vast fluctuations and societal changes that may have an impact on our survey participants. Although a longer study would better address the problem, it would also be more complex and ex- pensive. The potential selection causation bias has been mitigated byremovingstudentswhoareself-employed. PossibilitiesforFutureResearch Researchontheintendedcareerpathoffamilybusinessheirsisstill lacking.Ourfindingspointtothenecessityandsignificanceofeval- uatingtheregionalimpactfactorsandtheprofessionchoiceoffam- ilybusinessheirs.Itwouldbebeneficialtorepeatthestudyandin- corporatemorecountriesfrombothsidesoftheMediterranean,as wellasalargersamplesizeofnations.Inordertocomparewithstud- iesthataresimilartooursintermsofcareerchoiceintention,future longitudinalresearchoughttofocusonactualjobchoiceaswell. Byincorporatingadditionalenvironmentalandhumandatainto volume 16 | 2023 | number 2 [244] PredragLjubotinaandJakaVadnjal themodel,explanatorymodelswithahigherlevelofcomplexitycan beconstructed.Studyinginafieldthatoffersdiversecareeroptions outsideoffamilyenterprisesinavolatilelabourmarketataparticu- larmomentshouldbegivenmoreweightwhenevaluatingpersonal characteristics.Incomparablegeographicalandcircumstances,this mightalsoaffecttheheir’sintendedcareerchoice.Investigatingwhy variousfactorsaffecttargetgroupjobdecisionintentionispossible through qualitative research. Building a more predictive multilevel quantitative model that takes into account various geographic and cultural factors could be aided by preliminary qualitative research. The outcomes of these upcoming research projects could serve as crucialbenchmarksforpolicy,curriculum,andemployment. conclusions Ourresearchestablishesaconnectionbetweenfamilybusinesssuc- cessionaspirationsandtheculturaldimensionofdifferentcountries oftheMediterraneanregion.Thepresenceofstatisticallysignificant associationsisa promisingavenuefor improvingthe studymodels pertaining to the career choice intention of family business heirs. Morecomplexmodelsmaybeemployedinordertoprovideabetter explanationofthecorrelationbetweenvariousfactors(personal,so- cial,andenvironmental)andcareerdecisionintention,assuggested by statistically significant regression coefficients for control vari- ables and earlier research (Zellweger, Sieger, and Halter 2011). As aresult,ourstudymakesasignificantcontributiontotheliterature onfamilybusinesssuccession. Ouraccomplishmentofthestudy’sprimaryobjective,whichwas confirming the relationship between succession intention and the nation’sregionalpositionwithintheMediterranean,hasopenedthe doortoamorethoroughexaminationofthecausalrelationshipsbe- tweeneconomicconditionsandstudents’careeraspirations. Every young person must choose his/her profession, and stu- dentsarealmostcertainlyveryclosetobeginningtheirowncareers after completing their education. Students from families that own and operate businesses make up a very distinct, although increas- ingly significant, group of young people, and they have a major re- ijems CareerDecisionsintheMediterranean [245] sponsibility for the future viability of family enterprises. 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