Slov Vet Res 2023  |  Vol 60 No 3  |  155
An Insight Into Veterinary Students’ Perceptions 
on the use of 3D-Printed Bone Biomodels in 
Anatomy Learning 
Key words
veterinary anatomy education; 
3D printing;
bone biomodel;
student perspective
Alper Koçyiğit1*, Hasan Huseyin Ari2, Baris Atalay Uslu3 
1Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ondokuz Mayis 
University, 55139, Turkey, 2Department of Anatomy, Veterinary Faculty, Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University, 
Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Republic, 3Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Faculty of Veterinary 
Medicine, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, 58140, Sivas, Turkey
*Corresponding author: vhkalper@gmail.com    
Abstract: Today, conventional teaching methods are losing their effectiveness at trans-
ferring knowledge and skills, prompting the presentation of alternative strategies that 
hold more promise. One of the innovative alternative education materials in veterinary 
anatomy education is the models produced on three-dimensional (3D) printers. The 
subject of this study is 4 different bone biomodels 3D modeled and printed with refer-
ence to cadaver-derived bones. In the study, a total of 298 students were asked to evalu-
ate these biomodels in terms of their similarity to the reference bones. According to the 
survey, 75.5% of the students stated that their biomodel resembled the reference bones. 
In addition, 64.8% of these students stated that the use of biomodels can be efficient 
in learning the skeletal system. These outcomes showed that a sample from each of 
the 4 main bone types could be replicated on a 3D printer with an acceptable similarity 
ratio. Based on student opinions about these four different biomodels, we think that 3d 
printed biomodels deserve to be evaluated as an alternative in anatomy education. 
Received: 18 January 2023
Accepted: 5 July 2023
DOI 10.26873/SVR-1686-2023
UDC 636.09:614.253.4:591.4:612.75:159.953.5
Pages: 155–60
Original Research Article
Introduction 
It is commonly admitted that anatomy education is a very 
significant field in both human and veterinary medicine 
(1). The main purpose of anatomy education is to provide 
students with required basic information of the field via 
effective learning and teaching methods (2). In theoretical 
and practical anatomy classes, methods such as verbal 
expression, visual expression (e.g., slide shows, training 
videos), software containing 3D visuals, virtual reality, 
and augmented reality, are widely utilized (3-5). Besides 
the mentioned methods, educational materials such as 
cadavers are utilized in practical anatomy education to 
increase the quality of the training. Plaster, clay, or plastic 
models, and plastinates, which are acquired from cadavers, 
are also of use (6-8).
While the computer simulations or atlas pictures, which are 
used in anatomy training, appeal only to the visual attention 
of the students, plastinates, clay or plastic models, and 
cadavers attract visual attention and provide a tactile 
experience. Educational materials, which are procured from 
cadavers, provide students with the opportunity to know 
actual anatomical variations as well as get visual and tactile 
information (9). Besides the ethical concerns, supplying 
the educational materials from dead organisms is difficult 
and the amount of the material is generally inadequate. 
Furthermore, smell, texture, and students’ awareness 
about the fact that the materials are procured from dead 
organisms, cause a significant degree of motivational 
decrease in the learning process/success of the students. 
One of the innovative alternative educational materials in 
applied anatomy education is the models produced on three-
dimensional printers. Three-dimensional printers, which are 
regarded as future technology, offer various advantages in 
terms of material production by going beyond conventional 
manufacturing methods. 3D printing is defined as the 
physical output of a 3D design. It is considered different 
from the conventional production methods which are 
based on cutting, punching, and molding. These models 
156  |  Slov Vet Res 2023  |  Vol 60 No 3
are claimed to become realistic alternatives of educational 
materials in comparison with the both conventional models 
and cadavers (10-12). 
The use of 3D printers and adaptation of the 3D outputs 
in anatomy training is an up-to-date and original subject 
that is still being studied (13-15). In our study, 4 different 
biomodels were produced based on cadaver-derived bones. 
The biomodels were presented to the students for review 
along with the bones. Students were asked to compare the 
similarity of biomodels with cadaver bones. In this study, it 
was aimed to investigate the potential of biomodels as an 
alternative educational tool by using the student’s point of 
view.
Materials and methods
Reference materials of the study were obtained from the 
bone archive of Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Faculty of 
Veterinary Medicine, Anatomy Department. All stages of 
biomodel production of reference bones were carried out 
in the Biomodel Laboratory of Sivas Cumhuriyet University, 
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Andrology Department. 
The method of the study includes the stages of preparing 
reference bones, 3D modeling and processing of data 
sets, printing the biomodel on a 3D printer, and statistical 
evaluation of the models. 
Preparing samples
For the production of biomodels, equidea humerus was 
selected as the sample of long bones; equidae ossa coxae 
was selected as the sample of flat bones; an equidea 3rd 
phalanx was selected as the sample of short bones; and 
finally, an equidea 3rd cervical vertebra was selected as 
sample of irregular bones. Using these cadaver-derived 
reference bones, 3D bone biomodels were produced 
through replication.
3D modeling and processing data sets
Optical scanning method was utilized to obtain 3D volu-
metric data of each selected bone. Upon placing the ref-
erence bones on the scanning bench, datasets of 0.5mm 
precision were obtained from the bones which were 360° 
scanned continuously via a 3D scanner (Structure Sensor, 
Occipital Inc, USA). The object file format (.obj) data sets 
were transferred to the computer. The initial analysis of 
the data sets was carried out via modeling software (3D 
Builder, Microsoft Corporation) and unnecessary details 
were eliminated. Upon completing the initial analysis, the 
evaluation of the data sets was carried out via the com-
puterized 3D graphics software (ZBrush, Pixologic). Thanks 
to this software, geometrical deviations, which stem from 
the 3D scanning process, were controlled. Biomodels were 
visually compared with reference bones in terms of their 
similarities/differences. The redundant data points were 
Figure 1: Appearance of specimens with flat and short bones. a; coxae 
digital model b; coxae biomodel c; 3rd phalanx digital model d; 3rd phalanx 
biomodel
Figure 2: Appearance of specimens with long bones. a; humerus digital 
model b; humerus biomodel
Figure 3: Appearance of specimens with irregular bones. a; 3rd cervical 
vertebra digital model b; 3rd cervical vertebra biomodel
Slov Vet Res 2023  |  Vol 60 No 3  |  157
removed and a single continuous mesh was created. 3D 
models and reference bones were compared by the anato-
mist. It was checked whether the 3D printed models had im-
portant anatomical features as in the bone from which they 
were referenced. For the similarity control of the biomodels, 
8 criteria for humerus, 7 for coxae, 5 for phalanx and 5 for 
vertebra were considered. Incomplete-insufficient parts on 
the 3D models have been edited (e.g. smoothing of facies 
articularis in the phalanx model). To convert the complete 
data sets to 3D printing compatible format (gcode). The 
data sets were transferred to the rendering software (idea-
Maker 4.0.1, Raise 3D Technologies, Inc.) of the 3D printer. 
3D printing
Rendered data sets were transferred to the 3D printer 
(Raise 3D N2 Plus, Raise, USA). For the 3D printing process, 
previously tested and approved poly-lactic acid (PLA) 
filament (nGen, Colorfabb) was used (Figure 1,2,3). The 
printing parameters were selected as layer height of 0.28 
mm and printing speed of 40 mm/s.
Gathering data
The data of the study was gathered via a quantitative 
descriptive method. For this purpose, a total of 298 
students, who took the Anatomy course of Sivas Cumhuriyet 
University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, were included 
in the study without sampling. In the faculty where the 
study was carried out, anatomy course is taught as a total 
of 12 hours, 4 hours of which is theoretical lectures and 8 
hours are practical lectures. While textbooks and atlases 
are used in the theoretical part of the course, cadavers and 
plastic models are used in the practical part. The reference 
bones and biomodels were given to the participants and 
the participants were asked to examine both groups of 
materials. Following this step, a Likert scale survey, which 
measures the attitude of the students towards applied 
anatomy class and used materials, was filled by the 
participants (Appendix 1).
Evaluation of the data and statistical analysis
The data obtained from the students were analyzed using 
SPSS Statistics v.23 for Windows. The students were asked 
to choose the most suitable one among these options. For 
the positive items, the options were scored on a Likert-type 
scale (5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = undecided, 2 = dis-
agree, 1 = strongly disagree). When interpreting the arith-
metic means, it was considered that the mean values be-
tween 1.00 and 1.80 were of value to the extent of strongly 
disagree, that those between 1.81 and 2.60 were of value 
to the extent of disagreeing, that those between 2.61 and 
3.40 were of value to the extent of undecided, that those 
between 3.41 and 4.20 were of value to the extent of agree, 
and that those between 4.21 and 5.00 were of value to the 
extent of strongly agree. Proportional data were analyzed 
by using the chi-square test. The method for collecting and 
evaluating data was designed as double-blind.
Research ethics committee approval
For the study, required approvals were obtained from Sivas 
Cumhuriyet University Non-Invasive Clinical Research 
Ethics committee (Res. Number: 2018/10-20)
Results
In the study, a survey was applied to a total of 298 
participants, 108 of whom were female and 190 of whom 
were male.  In this survey,  the participants’ opinions about 
practical anatomy class, used class materials, and use of 
biomodels were gathered. When the students’ responses 
for the statements in the attitude scale were evaluated, it 
became clear that only 21.2% of the participants found the 
practical anatomy classes adequate (Table 1).
On the other hand, 49.7% of the participants stated that they 
are disturbed by the smell when they use bones in practical 
classes (Table 2). In the attitude scale, when the feedback 
given by the participants to the statements about the use 
of bio-models is examined, the rate of the participants who 
find biomodels similar to bones appears to be 75.5% (Table 
3). 
In addition to these, the rate of the participants who find the 
use of biomodels beneficial in learning the skeletal system 
is 64.8% (Table 4).
According to the feedback given for the statement, for 
which the participants were asked to rate the materials in 
the applied anatomy classes according to their efficiency 
levels, it was observed that the most efficient material after 
the bones is the biomodel (Figure 4).
Table 1: Distribution of the feedback for the statement “Practical classes 
are adequate”
n %
Strongly disagree 42 14.1
Disagree 75 25.2
Partly agree 118 39.6
Agree 53 17.8
Strongly agree 10 3.4
Total 298 100
Mean: 2.71 , Std. Deviation: 1.02.
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Discussion
The success level of veterinarians in their professional life 
depends on learning skills in many practical fields during 
their education/training. Anatomy class is the basis of the 
long training process leading to veterinary medicine (16). 
In veterinary faculties, students are first faced with the 
anatomy course. Knowledge of anatomy is acquired with 
considerable difficulty. In anatomy education, in addition to 
the quality of the theoretical courses in veterinary faculties, 
the education standards of practical classes are also tried 
to be increased and enriched to overcome the educational 
difficulties (17). The preparation of cadaver poses a variety 
of challenges, including ethical dilemmas, moral concerns, 
and complications known as the dissection experience. 
The development of students clinical skills is directly related 
to the diversity of the mentioned educational materials. 
However, obtaining these materials is significantly 
challenging in financial, ethical, legal, and cultural terms 
(18, 19). Furthermore, these bones must be processed 
with a series of chemical solutions to be able to make the 
bones available for the use of students (20). Formaldehyde 
and other chemicals, which are the components of these 
solutions, pose a significant level of threat to the health 
of both students and trainers (21). Due to the possible 
hazards of the chemicals which are used in the preparation 
of practice materials, the use of cadavers is restricted by 
legal regulations (22). It was determined that only 21.2% of 
the students find the applied anatomy lessons sufficient 
in this study when the opinions of the participants to the 
statements were evaluated on the attitude scale. However, 
encountering cadavers and bones in the anatomy class 
causes concerns with the students. Furthermore, this 
situation leads some students to avoid or to skip practical 
classes (23, 24). This outcome is not confusing, because 
the reason for preferring veterinary faculty is undoubtedly 
the love of animals and the desire to help them for many 
students.
Table 2: Distribution of Participants’ Feedback for the Statements about Bone Use (%)
Statements Strongly Disagree Disagree Partly Agree Agree Strongly Agree Mean Std. Deviation
Disturbed by the smell 
of bone. 11.1 18.1 21.1 26.2 23.5 3.32 1.31
Disturbed by the 
texture of bone. 24.2 33.2 25.2 9.1 8.4 2.44 1.19
Disturbed by bones’ 
belonging to a dead 
animal.
45.6 30.2 12.8 6.0 5.4 1.95 1.14
Table 3: Distribution of Participants’ Feedback for the Statements about Biomodel Use (%)
Statements Strongly Disagree Disagree Partly Agree Agree Strongly Agree Mean Std. Deviation
Can distinguish the 
species on biomodels. 3.4 7.0 23.2 45.3 20.8 3.73 0.97
Biomodels resemble 
the bones. 3.7 2.3 18.1 46.6 28.9 3.94 0.94
Table 4: Distribution of Participants’ Feedback to the Statement “Utilizing 
biomodels in learning skeletal system is efficient”
n %
Strongly disagree 21 7,0
Disagree 20 6.7
Partly agree 63 21.1
Agree 89 29.9
Strongly agree 104 34.9
Total 298 100
Mean: 3.79 , Std. Deviation: 1.19. Figure 4: Distribution of the average of utility rating of educational materials 
according to student attitudes (1: Useless – 5: Very Useful)
Slov Vet Res 2023  |  Vol 60 No 3  |  159
While anatomy education requires as many samples and 
varieties of bones as possible, it is also under pressure 
of perspectives and regulations which prioritize animal 
welfare. Many anatomy trainers still believe that the ideal 
form of anatomy education can be provided only through 
classic cadaver-bone samples which are prepared via 
methods that have been practiced for longer than a 
century. However, the search for an alternative method 
to animal use for educational purposes has become a 
rising perspective (25, 26). Alternative educational tools 
such as dummies and models have begun to be utilized 
in basic classes like Morphology and Andrology (4, 27). 
Until recently, the inadequate details of these models 
were a major problem for this field. Biomodels present a 
novel option for advancing the field of veterinary anatomy 
education. In this study, the ratio of participants, who 
perceive the biomodels successful in terms of resembling 
the reference bones, appears to be 75.5%. In addition, the 
ability to recognize animal species from bone samples 
has been demonstrated with high success (79.5%) by the 
students participating in this study.  This showed us that 
the replication of the reference bones was achieved at a 
sufficient level. The high-level resemblance of biomodels 
to reference bones can contribute to the motivation and 
learning success of students. On the other hand, considering 
that 49.7% of the participants are disturbed by the smell 
while using bones in practical classes, the advantage of 
utilizing biomodel stands out even further. Kucukaslan 
et. al. reported that the students are particularly hesitant 
in touching pig, cat, and dog cadavers (28). The fact that 
the biomodels are similar to the ones and not taken from 
live animals increases the motivation of students to learn 
by touching. In another study stated the idea that animal 
use in biomedical studies is essential (29). This idea is 
supported by the results of another study, which claims 
that the most effective learning material is bone. In that 
study, 28.4% of the participants claimed that personal notes 
such as sketches are the best learning tools for anatomy 
class, and 23.7% of them stated that they found the use of 
textbooks useful, while 14.4% of the participants regarded 
the anatomy atlas as the best option. Moreover, the ratio 
of the participants who found plastic models efficient was 
only 5.4%. In this study, biomodels were interestingly found 
to be more effective than textbooks and anatomy atlas, and 
biomodels were stated as the second most useful tool after 
bone. This outcome stems from the utilization of innovative 
materials and technologies. Participants adopting such an 
attitude supports the literature perspective which states 
that the transfer of knowledge through biomodels will help 
in clinic practice (1, 17).
Thanks to the 3D printers; production costs will be 
reduced, and it will be possible to provide each student 
with an individual biomodel. In addition to the mentioned 
advantages of biomodels, it must also be remembered that 
biomodels can also be utilized in other classes such as 
Pathology, Surgery, Radiology, and Reproduction. However, 
the utilization of biomodels in anatomy training also has 
some limitations and disadvantages. The experience 
gained from dissection practice and necropsy training 
cannot be substituted adequately by these biomodels (30). 
The creation of biomodel collections for a variety of animal 
species within veterinary science will require a significant 
amount of time. The inability to model small structures 
(bones of the middle ear) and to maintain color harmony 
are the main limitations. However, studies on 3D modeling 
and printing of these structures continue (31). It is predicted 
that developments will be achieved in this field parallel 
to the developments in imaging and image processing 
technologies. 
Conclusion 
As a result, in our current environment, in which science 
and technology are developing rapidly, the transfer of 
knowledge and skills via traditional teaching methods is 
also losing its validity and plausible alternative strategies are 
put forward. The use of biomodels should be considered as 
an alternative that can increase the efficiency of the training 
process in veterinary medicine. Furthermore, the use of 
biomodels in practical classes can be of help in relieving 
the anxiety and discomfort of students. 
In this study, it has been shown that biomodel replicas 
from 4 different cadaver bones can be produced with an 
innovative method, each with its own anatomical criteria. 
Moreover, it was concluded that the students deemed 
these biomodels remarkably alike to their references and 
approved of their implementation. We think that diversifying 
education with alternative learning tools will benefit all 
stakeholders of veterinary medicine, especially students. 
Acknowledgements
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.
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Vpogled v mnenje študentov veterine o uporabi 3D-tiskanih bioloških 
modelov kosti pri učenju anatomije
A. Koçyiğit, H. H. Ari, B. A. Uslu 
Izvleček: Danes običajne metode poučevanja izgubljajo svojo učinkovitost pri prenosu znanja in spretnosti, zato bi 
bilo potrebno spodbujati alternativne, bolj obetavne strategije. Eno od inovativnih alternativnih učnih gradiv pri pouku 
veterinarske anatomije so modeli, izdelani na tridimenzionalnih (3D) tiskalnikih. Predmet te študije so štirje različni 
biološki modeli kosti, pripravljeni s 3D modeliranjem in tiskanjem, osnovani na kosteh, pridobljenih iz trupel. V študiji je 
bilo skupaj 298 študentov naprošenih, da ocenijo te biološke modele glede na njihovo podobnost s pravimi kostmi. 75,5 
% študentov je navedlo, da je njihov biološki model podoben referenčnim kostem. Poleg tega je 64,8 % teh študentov 
izjavilo, da je uporaba bioloških modelov lahko učinkovita pri učenju skeletnega sistema. Ti rezultati so pokazali, da je 
mogoče vsakega od 4 glavnih tipov kosti kopirati na 3D-tiskalniku s sprejemljivim razmerjem podobnosti. Na podlagi 
mnenj študentov o teh štirih različnih bioloških modelih menimo, da bi 3D-tiskani biološki modeli lahko bili vrednoteni kot 
alternativni pripomoček pri izobraževalnem procesu anatomije.
Ključne besede: poučevanje anatomije v veterini; 3D tiskanje; biološki model kosti; perspektiva študentov