26 Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, ISSN 1318-2269  Kinesiologia Slovenica, 14, 3, 26–32 (2008)
POVZETEK
Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti razlike v enajstih testih, ki jih 
uporabljamo za ugotavljanje antropoloških značilnosti, 
enega testa, s katerim ugotavljamo fiziološke značilnosti ter 
štiri teste, s katerimi ugotavljamo eksplozivno moč mladih 
alpskih smučarjev. V raziskavi je sodelovalo šestnajst mladih 
hrvaških alpskih smučarjev. V eni tekmovalni sezoni smo 
izvedli tri meritve (na začetku sezone, med sezono in ob 
koncu sezone). Značilne razlike v antropoloških značilnostih 
so bile zaznane v telesni višini (p=0.002), skapularni 
(p=0.009) in abdominalni kožni gubi (0.002) ter v bikristalni 
širini (p=0.001) in širini bikondilarnega femurja (p=0.029), 
obsegu stegna (p=0.009) in nadlahti (p=0.002), pa tudi v 
telesni teži (p=0.001). Značilne razlike so bile zaznane tudi 
v testu sonožnih poskokov v petnajstih sekundah (p=0.05), 
s katerimi smo ugotavljali eksplozivno moč. Med vsemi 
g iba l n i m i sp osobnost m i je pr i a lpskem smuč a nju ek sploz iv na 
moč razumljena kot tista sposobnost, ki je najbolj povezana z 
uspešnostjo. Glede na dobljene rezultate bi lahko rekli, da so 
rezultati sonožnih poskokov v petnajstih sekundah posledica 
prilagajanja telesa treningu. Kljub nenehni rasti otrok, ki ves 
čas vpliva na rezultate trenažnega procesa, so se uporabljeni 
te st i i z k a z a l i kot najb oljši na č i n u got av lja nja t renut ne ga st a nja 
eksplozivne moči pri mladih alpskih smučarjih.
Ključne besede: alpsko smučanje, šolarji, antropološke 
značilnosti, eksplozivna moč 
ABSTR ACT
The aim of this investigation was to evaluate differences in the 
eleven tests used to determine anthropological characteristics, 
the one test used to determine physiological characteristics 
and the four tests used to evaluate explosive strength of young 
alpine skiers. Sixteen Croatian male alpine skiers participated 
in the investigation. Measurements were performed three 
times during one competitive season (at the beginning, 
du r i ng , a nd a fter t he end of t he se a son). Sig n i fic a nt d i fferenc e s 
in anthropological characteristics that occurred between the 
three measurements were observed for body height (p=0.002), 
scapular (p=0.009) and abdominal skinfolds (p=0.002), 
bicristal (p=0.001) and bicondilar femur widths (p=0.029), 
femoral (p=0.009) and upper arm girths (p=0.002) and 
body weight (p=0.001). Furthermore, significant differences 
were observed for the continuous jump with bent legs for 
15 seconds (p=0.05) (used to evaluate explosive strength). 
Among the motor abilities, explosive strength is known as 
most important success-related parameter in alpine skiing. 
According to the obtained results, it can be concluded that 
results in the continuous jump with bent legs for 15 seconds 
are the consequence of body adaptation to training. Despite 
c h i ld ren’s c on st a nt g row t h, w h ic h c ont i nuou sly i n fluenc e s t he 
re su lt s of t he t r a i n i ng pro c e s s , t he a fore -ment ione d te st se em s 
to be the best for evaluating current fitness levels in terms of 
explosive strength in young alpine skiers. 
Key words: alpine skiing, school children, anthropo-
logical characteristics, explosive strength
Faculty of Kinesiology University of Zagreb, Zagreb, 
Croatia
*Corresponding author:
Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb 
Horvaćanski zavoj 15, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Tel.: +385 13 658 666
Fax:+385 13 634 146
E-mail: vigrov@kif.hr
DIFFERENCES IN SOME 
ANTHROPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
OF YOUNG ALPINE SKIERS RECORDED 
DURING ONE COMPETITIVE SEASON 
RAZLIKE V NEKATERIH 
ANTROPOLOŠKIH ZNAČILNOSTIH 
MLADIH ALPSKIH SMUČARJEV SKOZI 
ENO TEKMOV ALNO SEZONO
Vjekoslav Cigrovski* 
Bojan Matković 
Dario Novak

Anthropological changes in young alpine skiers 27 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 14, 3, 26–32 (2008)
INTRODUCTION
The involvement of children from early ages in training and sport competitions on national and 
international levels raises interest in and the need for continuous monitoring of the impact that 
training has on young children and adolescents. This influence on younger age groups, in com-
parison to the adult population, is largely unknown, as children are in the process of physiological 
growth and development. Moreover, children have specific anthropological characteristics that 
contribute to success in different sports and lead to their further development into top level 
athletes. During children’s growth, the influence of anthropological characteristics changes as 
well as their contribution to sport success; it is of utmost importance to continue monitoring 
and prevent possible negative influence on psycho-physical health (Naughton, Farpour-Lambert, 
Carison, Bradney & Van Praagh, 2000). This is only one of the reasons why it is important to 
understand the specifics of pediatric sports physiology (Matković, 1990; Rowland, 1996; Arm-
strong & Welsman, 2000; Malina, Bouchard & Oder, 2004). The aim of this investigation was 
to measure differences in specific anthropological characteristics and physiological and motor 
abilities in young alpine skiers during one competitive season.
METHODS 
The investigation included 16 young male alpine skiers with a mean age of 13.94±2.01 years. They 
were 163.60±11.45 cm tall and weighted 57.47±15.71 kg. Participants in this investigation are 
members of Croatian ski clubs, continuously involved in training and alpine ski competitions. 
The frequencies of competitive season training for young alpine skiers are given in Table 1. 
Table 1: Summary of the frequencies during one alpine skiing competitive season
Hours of skiing 
trainings
Hours of fitness 
trainings
Number of races
Number of rest 
days
Frequencies 531 255 16 50
Measurements of anthropological and physiological characteristics and explosive strength 
were taken three times during the 2005/2006 competitive season, i.e. at the beginning of the 
alpine ski season, during the season and after the end of the season. The first measurement, 
performed before the preparation for the new competitive season (in May), gave insight into 
the level of training, of the chosen anthropological and physiological characteristics and of 
explosive strength. The second testing took place just before the season start (in November), 
after months of preparation, and gave insight into level of training after the preparative period. 
Finally, the third testing was done at the end of the season, and its function was to determine 
the influence of training on anthropological measurements of young alpine skiers (in March). 
The investigation included 11 tests to determine anthropological characteristics (body height 
and body weight, scapular skin fold, upper arm skin fold, abdominal skin fold, bicondilar femur 
width, biacromial width, bicristal width, femoral girth, upper arm girth, lower leg girth), one test 
for physiological characteristic (maximal oxygen uptake) and four tests to determine explosive 
strength (squat jump, counter movement jump, continuous jump with bent legs in 15 seconds, 
continuous jump with bent legs in 45 seconds). The anthropological characteristics used for the 
purposes of this investigation were determined according to the International Biological Program 

28 Anthropological changes in young alpine skiers Kinesiologia Slovenica, 14, 3, 26–32 (2008) 
(Mišigoj-Duraković, Matković & Medved, 1995). Maximal oxygen uptake was measured directly 
(COSMED), during a continuous progressive test on a treadmill. All four tests for explosive 
strength were done on a Kistler platform, connected to a computer. The performed jumps were 
analyzed with the Quattro Jump program. For the statistical analysis, ANOVA and T-test were 
used in the statistical package “SPSS for Windows”. The level of significance was p≤0.05. 
R ESULTS
The changes of anthropological characteristics within the three measurements are given in Table 
2.
Table 2:  Results of variance analysis of the anthropological characteristics
Variables Mean 1 Mean 2 Mean 3 SD F test p
WGH 161.1 163.4 166.3 11.9 7. 52 0.002
SCS 7.17 7.9 8 8.2 1.32 5.56 0.009
SCT 9.69 10.21 10.74 2.25 1.97 0.16 
ASC 7. 6 6 9.61 9.56 2.38 8.25 0.002
BFW 9.15 9.21 9.47 0.81 4.03 0.029
BAW 35.17 35.8 36.41 3.45 1.38 0.27 
BCW 24.83 25.95 26.71 1.88 9.6 0.001
FG 50.93 52.34 53.37 6 5.62 0.009
UAG 25.71 26.55 27. 47 4.06 7.9 4 0.002
LLG 33.5 33.86 34.47 4.12 2.17 0.13 
BW 53.73 57.12 60.49 16.1 8.45 0.001
Legend: body height (WGH), scapular skin fold (SCS), upper arm skin fold (SCT), abdominal skin fold (ASC), bicondilar 
femur width (BFW), biacromial width (BAW), bicristal width (BCW), femoral girth (FG), upper arm girth (UAG), lower 
leg girth (LLG), body weight (BW).
Statistically significant changes during a year of continuous training were observed in the 
anthropological characteristics of body height (p=0.002, Table 2), scapular skin fold (p=0.009), 
abdominal skin fold (p=0.002), bicondilar femur width (p=0.029), bicristal width (p=0.001), 
femoral girth (p=0.009), upper arm girth (p=0.002) and body weight (p=0.001). All the results of 
anthropological characteristics showed an increasing trend through the duration of the season, 
mostly reaching a peak at the end of the season (Table 2). In order to further differentiate between 
the measurements in which the significant changes occurred, a T-test was performed; the results 
are given in Table 3. 

Anthropological changes in young alpine skiers 29 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 14, 3, 26–32 (2008)
Table 3: Results of T-test for dependant samples for anthropological characteristics
Variables t 1-2 t 2-3 T 1-3 p 1-2 p 2-3 p 1-3
WGH -3.88 -2.07 -2.93 0.001 0.57 0.01
SCS -3.18 -0.62 -3.02 0.006 0.55 0.009
ASC -3.36 .09 -3.41 0.04 0.93 0.004
BFW -.50 -2.20 -2.61 0.62 0.045 0.021
BCW -2.17 -1.66 -4.04 0.046 0.12 0.002
FG -3.86 -1.46 -3.86 0.002 0.17 0.002
UAG -3.72 -2.02 -3.14 0.002 0.06 0.007
BW -5.00 -1.96 -3.11 0.000 0.070 0.008
Legend: Body height (WGH), Scapular skin fold (SCS), Abdominal skin fold (ASC), Bicondilar femur width (BFW), 
Bicristal width (BCW), Femoral girth (FG), Upper arm girth (UAG), Body weight (BW).
Table 3 gives the results of T-test for differences in anthropological characteristics that occurred 
between first and second measurement (t 1-2), between second and third (t 2-3), and finally 
between first and third measurements (t 1-3). Table 4 gives the results of changes in tested physi-
ological characteristics during one competitive year.
Table 4: Variance analysis result for test used to measure physiological characteristics
Variable Mean 1 Mean 2 Mean 3 SD F test p
VO
2
 max 2.90 3.25 2.93 1.04 0.98 0.40
Legend: VO
2 
max – Maximal oxygen uptake 
The results are not statistically significant (p=0.4, Table 4). Changes in tested motor abilities are 
shown in Table 5. 
Table 5: Variance analysis results for tests used to measure explosive strength
Variables Mean 1 Mean 2 Mean 3 SD F test p
SJ 33.5 34.31 36.55 6.43 1.45 0.25
CMJ 31.59 33.03 34.94 5.12 1.82 0.18
CJ15S 28.41 30.39 32.87 6.16 3.40 0.05
CJ45S 24.94 25.33 29.47 5.43 2.17 0.14
Legend: Squat Jump (SJ), Counter Movement Jump (CMJ), Continuous Jump with bent legs (CJ15S), Continuous Jump 
with bent legs (CJ45S)
The results of the variance for tested explosive strength were statistically significant only in the 
test of a continuous jump with bent legs for 15 seconds (p=0.05, Table 5), while changes in other 
tests of explosive strength did not differ significantly. With respect to first measurement at the 
beginning of the study, the results obtained for the explosive strength had an increasing trend 
as the competitive season progressed (Table 5). A T-test was further performed for statistically 
significant test in order to determine the timing of the occurrence of significant changes.

30 Anthropological changes in young alpine skiers Kinesiologia Slovenica, 14, 3, 26–32 (2008) 
Table 6: T-test results for dependant variables in the test of explosive strength 
Variable t 1-2 t 2-3 t 1-3 p 1-2 p 2-3 p 1-3
CJ15S -1.72 -0.96 -2.81 0.11 0.35 0.02
Legend: CJ15S – Continuous Jump with bent legs 
It is evident that statistically significant changes in the results of the test used to determine 
explosive strength occurred between the first and third measurement (p=0.02, Table 6). 
DISCUSSION
Growth can best be comprehended as a process in which a person changes during a time frame 
according to chosen anthropological characteristics. The best predictors of biological maturation 
are anthropological characteristics growth and body weight; these were used for the purposes of 
this investigation. When figures of the speed of growth for boys aged 11 to 14 are taken into ac-
count, there are no statistically significant changes detected between the general population and 
participants of this investigation (Rowland, 1996, according to Tanner, Whitehouse & Takaishi). 
The mean growth of 4.79 cm detected in our participants during one competitive season is in 
concordance with the expected linear growth for boys of the same age group. Furthermore, 
the observed increases in body weight by 3.13 kg during this investigation are according to 
the estimation for boys of the same age. When the anthropological characteristics body height 
and body weight of our participants are compared to those characteristics of boy alpine skiers 
of the same age in the USA (Klika & Malina, 1997), it is evident that the boys of this study are 
9.8 cm smaller and 6.3 kg lighter. Measured differences in skin folds which were less than 1 
cm are difficult to observe in light of other anthropological characteristics. It seems that skin 
folds change in their own time, without following the joint pattern of other anthropological 
characteristics (Matković, 1990). Of all the skin folds measured, only the abdominal skin fold 
is under the external influence and can be used to reflect the central fat content. As a result, it 
can be expected to be the largest at the first measurement and then to decrease between further 
measurements, as the training process intensifies. 
Our results do not follow the previously mentioned pattern while the greatest result was detected 
after preparations for the competitive season, i.e. just before the start of the season. This can 
probably be explained by the lack of aerobic training during this period, which was also observed 
by Axtella and his coworkers (1997). The observed growth of acromial, bicristal and bicondilar 
femur widths is expected and follows the general linear growth pattern for the boys of that 
age (Armstrong & Welsman, 2000). Growth trends were unsurprisingly observed for the three 
measured girths (upper arm, upper and lower leg); this can be attributed to the extensive training 
process, which exerts a positive effect on the musculature. The mean duration of an alpine ski 
run is approximately one minute in technical disciplines and only about two minutes in speed 
disciplines. Nevertheless, for success in alpine skiing, one must also work on aerobic capacities 
in order to improve one’s wellbeing in a relatively hypoxic environment due to the higher altitude 
in which the training and competitions takes place, as well as to speed up the recovery process 
after using the anaerobic power needed during alpine ski races (Bosco, 1997, Hartman, Mader, 
Niessen, Spitzenpfeil & Lehnen, 2005). 

Anthropological changes in young alpine skiers 31 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 14, 3, 26–32 (2008)
Our results show that maximal levels of aerobic capacities of 3.25 L/min. were achieved just before 
the competitive season start, while LeMura and his coworkers detected higher levels of aerobic 
capacities (4.03 L/min.) for alpine skiers aged 16.7 years. According to Rowland, the highest 
velocity of absolute VO2 max growth (0.412 L/min.) for boys is expected around puberty, and 
occurs at the point of maximal growth (around 14.3 years). Moreover, the growth of VO2 max is 
in positive correlation with skeletal maturation and body weight, and the previously mentioned 
positive correlation is even more pronounced in child athletes with greater muscle proportion. If 
we take into account the age of boys from our investigation, who are 2.8 years younger than boys 
from LeMura’s investigation, and the expected VO2 max growth of 1.15 L/min. per year, it could 
be expected that the boys in this study would have even better developed aerobic capacity. When 
the results of VO2 max (3.03 L/min.) for the participants in our investigation are compared to 
older alpine skiers with a mean age of 15.93 years (3.86 L/min.), from the investigation performed 
by Matković and coworkers in 1994, it is evident that results in our investigation are lower by 
0.83 L/min. Yet again, when expected yearly growth of VO2 max of 0.412 L/min. (according to 
Rowland, 1996) is accounted for, then the expected results for our participants reaching the age 
of 15-16 years would be 3.44 L/min., which is still 0.42 L/min. lower. 
Previous investigations showed that the development of explosive strength through different high 
and long jumps has a positive impact on alpine ski achievement (Reid & Johnson, 1997; Žvan & 
Lešnik, 2000). In this investigation, the only statistically significant changes were determined in 
the continuous jump test with bent legs for 15 seconds. This can probably be attributed to the rela-
tive psychological immaturity of our participants, leading to lack of motivation for other, more 
demanding tests such as continuous vertical jumps in 45 seconds. The importance of explosive 
strength is evident throughout the whole alpine ski race, starting from the beginning, when 
the skier bursts through the starting gate. It remains to be determined how the anthropological 
characteristics influence success in alpine ski races, and if there is a correlation with specific 
characteristics and future successful alpine skiers. The presumption is that growth of investigated 
anthropological characteristics through the senior categories will be similar to values of top 
level alpine skiers (Neumayr, Hoertnagl, Pfister, Koller, Eibl & Raas, 2003), while there was a 
high positive correlation between analyzed anthropological characteristics and success in alpine 
skiing (Hartman, Mader, Niessen, Spitzenpfeil & Lehnen, 2005). 
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