31 2591-2259 / This is an open access article under the CC-BY-SA license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Mar, Š., Kristl, N., Murko, E., Buzeti, J., Kovač, P. (2025). Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach. Central European Public Administration Review, 23(2), pp. 31–61 DOI: 10.17573/cepar.2025.2.02 1.01 Original scientific article Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach Špela Mar University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Public Administration, Slovenia spela.mar@fu.uni-lj.si https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1698-4273 Nina Kristl University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Public Administration, Slovenia nina.kristl@fu.uni-lj.si https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1297-3796 Eva Murko University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Public Administration, Slovenia eva.murko@fu.uni-lj.si https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2868-3726 Jernej Buzeti University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Public Administration, Slovenia jernej.buzeti@fu.uni-lj.si https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8985-8190 Polonca Kovač University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Public Administration, Slovenia polonca.kovac@fu.uni-lj.si https://orcid.org/000000277430514 Received: 20. 7. 2025 Revised: 25. 9. 2025 Accepted: 8. 10. 2025 Published: 11. 11. 2025 ABSTRACT Purpose: This article examines the development of the legal competenc- es of public officials within the Slovenian public administration who use the Administrative Consultation Platform (ACP) when conducting proce- dures under the General Administrative Procedure Act (GAPA). The ACP is an open-access legal clinic that serves as a supplementary source for Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 32 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač interpreting procedural rules. To this end, a conceptual framework de- lineating legal competences for public officials was developed to assess how the use of the ACP affects the development of their acquired legal competences for the purposes of conducting administrative procedures. Based on this framework, a structural model was created to enable em- pirical testing of the impact of public officials’ affinity for the ACP and the frequency of its use on the development of their technical-legal and entrepreneurial-relational competences. Design/methodology/approach: The theoretical component employs normative, doctrinal, and comparative research methods to study legal competence models in the existing literature. The empirical component includes statistical analysis of data collected using a questionnaire meas- uring the technical-legal and entrepreneurial-relational competences of public officials who use the ACP, combined with an axiological-deonto- logical evaluation of the results. Structural equation modelling was used to verify how affinity for the ACP and the frequency of its use when con- ducting administrative procedures affect the development of their legal competences. Findings: The empirical study conducted in spring 2025 involved 112 pub- lic officials who conducted administrative procedures in administrative bodies and used the ACP between 2023 and 2025. The results indicate that the use of the ACP contributed significantly to the development of public officials’ legal competences, particularly relational competences, such as the ability to communicate effectively and respectfully with par- ties involved in the administrative procedure, and entrepreneurial compe- tences, especially the ability to uphold core ethical principles (e.g., integ- rity) and proactively seek solutions that balance the public interest with parties’ rights. However, they developed technical-legal competences— such as legal reasoning for resolving procedural issues, understanding of the GAPA, and data protection regulation—to a lesser, though still not negligible, degree. Academic contribution to the field: The article focuses on relatively under-explored aspects of public officials’ legal competences. The con- ceptual framework represents an original contribution, complementing existing research on legal competences in a narrower context, while in a broader context it can be categorised as dealing with the subjects of ad- ministrative law and public administration. The empirical study advances scientific understanding of the impact of public officials’ affinity for the ACP and the frequency of its use on the development of their legal com- petences, providing key feedback for ACP stakeholders. Research/practical/social implications: The conceptual framework of le- gal competences serves as the foundation for further scholarly examina- tion of the legal competences possessed by public officials and functions as a baseline for the systematic upgrading of the ACP to continue foster- ing the development of public officials’ legal competences while they use it. From a societal perspective, this article contributes to raising aware- ness of the critical importance of cultivating legal competences and of the effective utilisation of the ACP as an instrument for more participatory and problem-solving-oriented administrative decision-making processes. Originality/significance/value: The article offers an original contribution by (1) establishing a conceptual framework that advances the study of le- gal competences among public officials who use the ACP when conduct- ing administrative procedures, and (2) demonstrating the pivotal role of Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 33 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach the ACP as a repository of accumulated collective knowledge, which aids public officials in developing their legal competences and facilitates the networking of stakeholders engaged in addressing administrative law challenges. The findings provide guidelines for enhancing the effective- ness of public officials and for fulfilling the objectives and principles of Good Governance in modern public administration. Keywords: public officials, legal competences, Administrative Consultation Platform, legal clinic, administrative procedural law Nadgradnja pravnih kompetenc javnih uslužbencev prek Upravne svetovalnice: konceptualni in empirični pristop POVZETEK Namen: članek preučuje razvoj pravnih kompetenc uradnih oseb v sloven- ski javni upravi, ki pri vodenju postopkov po Zakonu o splošnem uprav- nem postopku (ZUP) uporabljajo Upravno svetovalnico (US). US je odpr- todostopna pravna klinika, ki je dopolnilni vir za razlago procesnih pravil. V ta namen je bil razvit konceptualni okvir pravnih kompetenc uradnih oseb, s katerim se ocenjuje, kako uporaba US vpliva na razvoj njihovih pri- dobljenih pravnih kompetenc za potrebe vodenja upravnih postopkov. Na podlagi tega okvirja je bil oblikovan strukturni model, ki omogoča empi- rično preverjanje vpliva naklonjenosti uradnih osebdo US in pogostosti njene uporabe na razvoj njihovih tehnično-pravnih ter podjetniško-odno- snih kompetenc. Zasnova/metodologija/pristop: teoretični del uporablja normativne, doktrinarne in primerjalne raziskovalne metode za proučevanje modelov pravnih kompetenc v literaturi. Empirični del vključuje statistično analizo podatkov, zbranih z vprašalnikom za merjenje tehnično-pravnih in podje- tniško-odnosnih kompetenc uradnih oseb, ki uporabljajo US, v kombinaciji z aksiološko-deontološko oceno rezultatov. Za preverjanje, kako naklo- njenost US in pogostost njene uporabe pri vodenju upravnih postopkov vplivata na razvoj njihovih pravnih kompetenc, je bilo uporabljeno mode- liranje strukturnih enačb. Ugotovitve: empirična raziskava, izvedena spomladi 2025, je zajela 112 uradnih oseb, ki so v obdobju 2023–2025 vodili upravne postopke v uprav- nih organih in uporabljali US. Rezultati kažejo, da je uporaba US pomemb- no pripomogla k razvoju pravnih kompetenc uradnih oseb, zlasti odnosnih kompetenc, kot so zmožnost učinkovitega in spoštljivega komuniciranja s strankami v postopku, ter podjetniških kompetenc, predvsem zmožnosti spoštovanja temeljnih etičnih načel (na primer integritete) in proaktiv- nega iskanja rešitev ob upoštevanju ravnotžja med javnim interesom in pravicami strank. Tehnično-pravne kompetence – kot so sposobnost prav- nega argumentiranja, rešitev procesnih problemov, razumevanje ZUP in predpisov o varstvu podatkov – so se razvijale v manjši, toda kljub temu ne zanemarljivi meri. Akademski prispevek k področju: članek se osredotoča na razmeroma premalo raziskane vidike pravnih kompetenc uradnih oseb. Konceptual- ni okvir je izviren prispevek, ki dopolnjuje obstoječe raziskave o pravnih kompetencah v ožjem kontekstu, v širšem pa ga je mogoče uvrstiti med tematike upravnega prava in javne uprave. Empirična raziskava poglablja Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 34 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač znanstveno razumevanje vpliva naklonjenosti do US in pogostosti njene uporabe na razvoj pravnih kompetenc uradnih oseb ter zagotavlja ključno povratno informacijo deležnikom US. Raziskovalne/praktične/družbene implikacije: konceptualni okvir prav- nih kompetenc je temelj za nadaljnje znanstveno proučevanje pravnih kompetenc uradnih oseb in izhodišče za sistematično nadgrajevanje US, da bo tudi v prihodnje spodbujala razvoj pravnih kompetenc uporabnikov. Z družbenega vidika članek pripomore k dvigu zavedanja o ključnem po- menu razvoja pravnih kompetenc in učinkovite uporabe US kot orodja za bolj participativne in k reševanju problemov usmerjene upravne postopke. Izvirnost/pomembnost/vrednost: članek ponuja izviren prispevek z (1.) vzpostavitvijo konceptualnega okvira, ki pripomore k preučevanju pravnih kompetenc uradnih oseb, ki pri vodenju upravnih postopkov uporabljajo US, ter (2.) prikazom osrednje vloge US kot vira akumuliranega kolektiv- nega znanja, ki uradnim osebam pomaga razvijati pravne kompetence in olajšuje medsebojno povezovanje deležnikov na področju upravnoprav- nih dilem. Ugotovitve ponujajo smernice za krepitev delovanja uradnih oseb ter za uresničevanja ciljev in načel dobrega upravljanja v sodobni javni upravi. Ključne besede: javni uslužbenci, pravne kompetence, Upravna svetovalnica, pravna klinika, upravnoprocesno pravo JEL: K40, J24, M53, H83 1 Introduction In contemporary society, administrative procedures constitute a cornerstone of public officials’ work with clients within administrative authorities, given that administrative relationships regulate relations between governing bod- ies and individual citizens (Galetta and Ziller, 2024). Pursuant to the General Administrative Procedure Act (GAPA; Official Gazette of the Republic of Slo- venia, No. 80/99, 1 October 1999, as amended), administrative bodies in Slo- venia address several million administrative matters annually. Accordingly, it is imperative that public officials who conduct these procedures are profes- sionally trained (Kovač, 2024; Kovač and Jerovšek, 2024) and possess well-de- veloped relevant legal and other competences (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022; Carrel, 2019). Public officials acquire said legal competences primarily dur- ing education in accredited academic programmes (Kovač and Stare, 2014), and further refine them through continuous professional development, in- cluding access to and use of the Administrative Consultation Platform (ACP) (Kovač et al., 2023). The ACP is a joint initiative of the Faculty of Public Administration (FPA UL) and the Ministry of Public Administration (MPA), specifically designed to pro- vide principled interpretations of issues arising in administrative procedural law and administrative practice, particularly concerning the application of the GAPA. Established in 2009 as a research project addressing complex adminis- trative procedure-related challenges encountered in administrative practice Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 35 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach (Kovač and Stare, 2014), the ACP experienced partial suspension in 2014 and was reinstated in 2022 in response to substantial demand, with new inquiries accepted since spring 2023 (Kovač et al., 2023). Following its overhaul, the ACP is defined as a research and pedagogical project under the governance of the FPA UL and the MPA, supervised by mentors from the faculty and officials from administrative bodies. It provides principled explanations of dilemmas concerning the application of the GAPA in individual situations. The project interprets the provisions of sector-specific regulations and the GAPA with due consideration of the fundamental principles of public administration. The ACP gathers and addresses dilemmas in the implementation of the GAPA across various administrative authorities and fields. Since 2009, the ACP has made available over 1,200 documented cases, with approximately 120 views and 300 daily user interactions recorded in the 2023–2025 period. Access to the platform’s comprehensive repository – comprising published questions and answers, alongside the facility to submit new queries – is provided free of charge to users. Three-quarters of ACP users are public officials who conduct administrative procedures across various administrative domains (e.g., for- eigners, taxation, construction, social affairs, data protection). In this context, the question arises regarding the nature of the legal competences possessed by public officials conducting administrative procedures, and the extent to which their affinity for and frequency of use of the affect the development of their legal competences. The purpose of this study is to examine how the use of the ACP affects the development of legal competences among public officials conducting admin- istrative procedures within Slovenian public administration, while also under- standing how the perceived performance and effort expectancy of the ACP, social influence, and facilitating conditions impact the frequency of ACP use. The objectives of the paper are: (1) to develop a conceptual framework of the legal competences of public officials conducting administrative procedures; (2) to investigate the acquired legal competences of public officials as ACP users; and (3) to analyse the extent to which public officials’ affinity for and frequency of use of the ACP contribute to the development of their legal competences. The following research question was formulated: How does the use of the ACP affect the acquisition and development of legal compe- tences among public officials conducting administrative procedures within the Slovenian public administration? In line with the research question, the following hypotheses are posited: H1: The acceptance of the ACP (measured through performance expectan- cy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions) among public officials influences the frequency of ACP use in the conduct of administrative procedures. H2: The frequency of ACP use among public officials conducting administra- tive procedures affects the development of their legal competences. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 elaborates on the concept of legal competences, the findings of studies concerning the sig- Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 36 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač nificance of legal competence development for students and legal profes- sionals (Finch and Fafinski, 2020; Isaacs et al., 2016; Hamilton, 2014; Shultz and Zedeck, 2011), and legal competence models (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022; Carrel, 2021; Carrel, 2019; Mak, 2017). To this end, normative, doctrinal, and comparative research methods were employed. Section 3 outlines the methodological design in three subsections, namely the conceptual frame- work of legal competences, data collection and sampling, and the reliability and validity of the measurement model. The results of the empirical study are presented in Section 4, followed by discussion and recommendations in Section 5, and concluding remarks in Section 6. The core contribution of this study is the developed conceptual framework of legal competences for public officials, specifically tailored for the empirical investigation of their technical- legal, entrepreneurial, and relational competences essential for conducting administrative procedures. The conceptual framework concurrently serves as the groundwork for the structural model to empirically test the influence of public officials’ affinity for the ACP and the frequency of its use on the devel- opment of these three dimensions of legal competences. This research con- stitutes a foundation for further studies and measures aimed at acquiring and fostering the appropriate legal competences among public officials. 2 Literature Review 2.1 Legal Competences of Public Officials Competences encompass all those skills, abilities, and attitudes of employees that are essential for the successful execution of work tasks in general (Schaf- far, 2021; Kruyen and Van Genugten, 2020; Arzenšek et al., 2019), including within public administration (Džinić and Manojlović, 2018), as they have an important effect on whether the established objectives are achieved (Buzeti and Stare, 2010). The study of competences using competence models, which represent an organisational framework for defining the competences, tasks, and responsibilities of employees to ensure effective work and performance evaluation subject to the strategic goals of the organisation (Mikhridinova et al., 2024), began in the latter half of the 20th century (Sommerman et al., 2025). In line with public administration reforms, various competences of public officials have been prioritised (Kruyen and Van Genugten, 2020). In traditional public administration, the competences of public officials com- prised professional knowledge and technical skills, whereas during the New Public Management era, competences highlighting the importance of effi- ciency and effectiveness in public administration came to the fore (Kruyen and Van Genugten, 2020). With the implementation of Good Governance (Kovač, 2018) and influenced by social changes, digitalisation, and artificial in- telligence, contemporary public administration has become complex (Galetta and Ziller, 2024), thereby increasingly accentuating those competences with which public officials effectively address individual and societal challenges (Vitello et al., 2021; Schneider, 2019). Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 37 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach When conducting administrative procedures, public officials must demon- strate appropriate professional qualifications, as evidenced by fulfilling the statutory requirements under Article 31 of the General Administrative Proce- dure Act (GAPA), which include: (1) employment within the competent authority (knowledge, attitudes); (2) relevant education (knowledge, skills); (3) state pro- fessional examination in administrative procedure (knowledge, skills, attitudes); (4) authorisation (knowledge, attitudes); and (5) impartiality (knowledge, at- titudes) (Kovač and Jerovšek, 2024). However, since public officials decide on the rights, obligations, or legal interests of individuals, legal entities, or other parties when conducting administrative procedures, it is of paramount impor- tance that their acquired legal competences are adequately developed. Legal competences are those that enable public officials, within the scope of legal regulations, to effect changes to their own or others’ legal status through le- gal acts within the legal system (Villa-Rosas and Spaak, 2023). Typically, these encompass legal knowledge, skills, and abilities that empower public officials to actively and responsibly participate in societal development. Public offi- cials achieve this by respecting the rule of law, exercising rights and obliga- tions, and cooperating with state authorities and other key societal actors (Korotun and Bogdanova, 2020). Existing research (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022; Finch and Fafinski, 2020; Car- rel, 2019; Gerkman and Cornett, 2016; Hamilton, 2014; Shultz and Zedeck, 2011) mostly examines the legal competences acquired by law students during their education and those further developed by practising lawyers through their professional work. However, very few studies directly address the development of legal competences among public officials after the com- pletion of their formal education, particularly at the intersection of legal and administrative domains. For example, Kovač and Stare (2014) examined the general competences of students and graduates of public administration who participated in the ACP, while the Tuning project (Krogt and Reichard, 2012) is recognised as a key initiative for public administration. There is, however, no research that focuses specifically on those already employed in public administration and their legal and other relevant competences, which is a significant research gap in the study of legal competences among pub- lic officials. Given the substantive similarities in the work of public officials when conducting administrative procedures, especially regarding the inter- pretation and application of (procedural) law, the following section employs doctrinal analysis and synthesis to examine the legal competences of law stu- dents and practising lawyers (Bedner et al., 2020; Finch and Fafinski, 2020; Gerkman and Cornett, 2016; Isaacs et al., 2016; Hamilton, 2014; Kovač and Stare, 2014; Shultz and Zedeck, 2011) alongside existing legal competence models (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022; Carrel, 2021; Carrel, 2019; Mak, 2017). These studies provide the basis for developing a conceptual framework of le- gal competences tailored to public officials using the ACP and for the further empirical examination of their legal competences. Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 38 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač 2.2 Legal Competences and Legal Competence Models According to analyses by various authors (Bedner et al., 2020; Finch and Fa- finski, 2020; Gerkman and Cornett, 2016; Isaacs et al., 2016; Hamilton, 2014; Kovač and Stare, 2014; Shultz and Zedeck, 2011), law students must develop appropriate competences during their studies that then form the basis for further enhancement and deepening throughout their professional careers, enabling them to be fully competent in their respective fields. Shultz and Zedeck (2011), in collaboration with alumni, students, professors, clients, and judges, identified 26 of the most important legal competences required during law studies and legal practice. These competences – e.g., analysis and reasoning, creativity, problem solving, practical judgment, legal research, writing, speaking, listening, organising and managing, negotiation skills, networking and business development, and stress management – are crucial in practice, as they contribute to employees’ work performance. Similarly, Hamilton (2014), drawing from a range of sources (Consulting Group – BTI, 2013; Survey of Newly Licensed Lawyers – NCBE, 2012; Association of Corporate Counsel – ACC, 2009), concluded that students aspiring to work as lawyers, especially in client-facing roles, should possess well-developed technical-legal competences (e.g., knowledge of doctrinal law, legal analysis, written and oral communication) as well as other competences (e.g., integrity, honesty, good judgment, problem solving, work ethic, dedication to client ser- vice, responsiveness to clients, seeking feedback). These competences should be acquired during their studies to such a degree that graduates already meet employer expectations upon entering the labour market, and they are then further developed during professional practice. However, Gerkman and Cor- nett (2016) found that law graduates often do not adequately develop certain legal competences (e.g., integrity, work ethic, resilience) which employers re- gard as essential and expect young lawyers to demonstrate in professional settings. To address this, they developed within the Whole Lawyer conceptual framework a set of the most important legal competences categorised for the short term as professional competencies (professionalism, emotional and interpersonal intelligence, communication) and characteristics, and for the longer term or throughout a legal career as legal skills (transactional practice, litigation practice, legal thinking and application, workload management) and professional competencies (professional development, workload manage- ment, and collaboration with others). Law graduates are expected to master several categories of legal compe- tences, such as sources of law (e.g., understanding legislation, locating and applying legislation and case law), academic legal skills (e.g., writing, refer- encing/avoiding plagiarism, answering problem questions), and practical le- gal skills (e.g., presentation skills, mooting, and negotiation skills) (Finch and Fafinski, 2020). Similarly, Bedner et al. (2020) categorised the legal compe- tences and associated legal skills of law graduates – who are expected to be- come lawyers, judges, or public officials – into two groups. Group 1, general skills (e.g., critical thinking, juridical analytical skills) and primary legal skills Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 39 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach (e.g., case analysis, legal reasoning), provide law graduates with the founda- tion for the development of legal thinking. Whereas Group 2, secondary le- gal skills (e.g., legal writing, constructing legal arguments, legal drafting, and contract drafting), equip them with the ability to apply acquired knowledge in concrete legal practices. The importance of developing legal competences among law students has also been emphasised in the Tuning pilot project, aimed at harmonising edu- cational programmes in Europe for the field of public administration follow- ing the implementation of the Bologna process (Krogt and Reichard, 2012). Slovenia participated in the TuCAHEA task group within this project (Isaacs et al., 2016). Within this context, law students and graduates are expected to demonstrate, in addition to their general legal knowledge (e.g., regula- tory and legal governance of social relations; legal and state development of the society; drafting and implementation of legislation), the legal knowledge of societal norms, legal forms of organisations, state functions, and specific legal fields (e.g., administrative law, civil law), alongside appropriately devel- oped legal competences. The TuCAHEA project used the input from academ- ics, employers, students, and graduates to classify 30 general competences and 20 subject-specific competences according to the importance of develop- ing the respective competences during law studies. Among the most impor- tant general competences were the ability to apply knowledge in practice, autonomous learning, and the use of logic and critical thinking to solve prob- lems. The most important elements among subject-specific competences were knowledge of current norms, statutes, and regulations as well as other sources of law, knowledge of and ability to apply national and international instruments to protect and promote human rights, skills to draw up legal documents and the like. Following the Tuning project, Kovač and Stare (2014) examined the general competences of postgraduate public administration students at the Faculty of Public Administration in Ljubljana participating in the ACP. They found that the ACP contributed to students’ development of the ability to apply knowl- edge in practical situations, deepen knowledge and understanding of the subject area and profession, demonstrate determination and perseverance in tasks and responsibilities, among other competences. According to them, the ACP is pivotal in developing these student competences, although they also highlighted the need to boost ties with employers and expand cooperation with various administrative bodies – a measure introduced during the ACP overhaul in 2022 (Kovač et al., 2023), although the results of this were not yet measured by the time of the present study. For the purposes of the systematic study of the legal competences of stu- dents and legal professionals, a number of authors have developed various legal competence models, notably the T-shaped Lawyer (Carrel, 2021; Carrel, 2019; Mak, 2017), the Delta Lawyer Competency Model (Carrel, 2019), and the Foundational Competences Model (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022). Using any of these models, organisations – including administrative bodies – can analyse Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 40 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač the level of development of legal competences acquired by law students and practitioners in their client-facing work (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022). This ap- proach is also applicable to graduates of law-related programmes, such as public administration, since this field is inherently bound to act in line with legal rules and principles due to its authoritative intervention into individuals’ legal status (Stare and Pečarič, 2021). According to the T-shaped Lawyer model (Carrel, 2021; Carrel, 2019; Mak, 2017), law students and legal professionals – including lawyers, judges, and academics – adapt to societal changes, digitalisation, and globalisation by ac- quiring appropriate legal knowledge alongside capabilities such as data ana- lytics, technology use, and project management. This model delineates three distinct but overlapping lawyer profiles: 1) the lawyer-statesman, a traditional lawyer who emphasises the rule of law and justice, acting for the public good with moral integrity, sound judgment, and the ability to apply broad legal knowledge in practice; 2) the rational legal professional reflects the new public management influence, prioritising economic values (e.g., efficiency, effec- tiveness, transparency); this profile specializes in legal fields (e.g., commercial law, criminal law) while also mastering other disciplines (e.g., management, psychology) and is able to adapt to an organisation’s goals and ethical frame- works; and 3) the t-shaped lawyer epitomises the modern 21st-century lawyer who responds to social changes, possesses relevant legal knowledge, is client- focused, demonstrates highly developed social and relational competences (e.g., empathy), interdisciplinary competences (e.g., sustainability, social jus- tice), is technologically proficient, and acts in accordance with personal ethi- cal standards (Mak, 2017). These profiles primarily describe lawyers, judges, and legal scholars, as law students are still developing these characteristics. However, Carrel (2019) critiqued the model as being deficient for insuffi- ciently promoting the development of traditional legal competences among law students and professionals within organisations. She proposed an en- hancement through the Delta Model of Lawyer Competence (Delta Model), according to which graduates and lawyers systematically develop their legal competences when performing client-facing work and while effectively solv- ing legal problems. The Delta Model exists in multiple iterations, simplified and adapted over time in response to societal changes. This article summa- rises the original triangular version, which categorises legal competences as follows: legal knowledge and skills (legal analysis, legal judgment, legal re- search) enabling lawyers to understand client’s problems; personal effective- ness skills (PES) (e.g., emotional intelligence, relationship management, com- munication); and process, data and technology (technology and social media, data analytics, data security), covering the business and operational aspects of legal service delivery. Consistent with the Delta Model, Hamilton and Bilionis (2022) developed the Foundational Competences Model aimed at enhancing law students’ legal com- petences for academic success and lawyers’ competences in delivering client services and career advancement. Their model also depicts legal competenc- Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 41 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach es as a triangle divided into three categories. At the core are foundational legal competences (responsible conduct and trust-building in client dealings), which influence the growth of other competences (e.g., social responsibility). The triangle’s base includes traditional technical competencies – those empha- sized by law schools and expected by employers and clients. On the left are client-centred relational skills and problem-solving competences, fostering cli- ent focus, while the right side emphasizes ownership of professional develop- ment (initiative-taking) of essential competences, emphasising continuous pro- fessional growth. Existing legal competence models are not fully adequate to identify the nec- essary legal competences among public officials participating in the ACP, as they primarily target the educational phase or perspectives of lawyers, em- ployers, and clients, and are developed within academic and professional mi- lieus. Due to the absence of directed research in this domain and given the substantial role overlap between lawyers and officials, it was necessary to develop an adapted conceptual framework that would consider the specific legal competences of public officials whose work focuses on conducting ad- ministrative procedures. 3 Methodological Outline of the Theoretical Legal Competences Model and Its Empirical Verification 3.1 Designing a Conceptual Framework of Public Officials’ Legal Competences The conceptual framework of legal competences for public officials devel- oped here is based on the three-dimensional structure of the Foundational Competences Model (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022), which itself was based on the Delta Model (Carrel, 2019), comprising the technical-legal, entrepreneurial, and relational dimensions. It encompasses a set of specific legal competenc- es that can be empirically examined by taking a comprehensive view of the professional, ethical, and socially responsible conduct of legal practitioners. Another foundational approach in the conceptual framework is derived from the TuCAHEA project under the Tuning initiative (Isaacs et al., 2016), which systematically defines general competences and subject-specific competences. This approach is employed due to its recognition and established use in im- plementing Bologna Process higher education programmes within the field of public administration. Additionally, it has been utilised by other authors to study student competences (cf. Kovač and Stare, 2014), and for its content as it covers a broad range of legal competences relevant to the ACP. The Foun- dational Competences Model and the Tuning/TuCAHEA framework together serve as the essential groundwork for the conceptual framework, since the former synthesises existing empirical studies in the field of law, while the lat- ter specifies the particularities of legal competences within legal and public administration education. Although originally developed to enhance higher education in law and public administration, they are adapted in the conceptu- Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 42 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač al framework to define the legal competences of public officials that are criti- cal for the effective discharge of their administrative duties, such as conduct- ing administrative procedures, which substantively and functionally lie at the intersection of law and public administration. Therefore, it is vital for public officials to develop these competences through lifelong learning. Within the conceptual framework, competences irrelevant to conducting administrative procedures (e.g., ability to innovate, teamwork/collaboration, conscientious- ness/attention to detail, grit/resilience) are excluded, whereas others (e.g., use of necessary technology for information retrieval in juridical practice and work ethic) are adjusted in accordance with the requirements of Article 31 of the General Administrative Procedure Act (GAPA). Table 1 illustrates the conceptual framework of legal competences for public officials, structured across three dimensions and competences, where sub- ject-specific competences are contained within the 1) technical-legal dimen- sion, and general competences form parts of the 2) entrepreneurial and 3) relational dimensions. The conceptual framework of legal competences for public officials present- ed in Table 1 provides a structured and comparable overview of diverse re- search underpinning, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the complexity of public officials’ work. Based on this framework, propositions were developed for the empirical study of legal competences (for example, the legal competence is understanding of administrative procedures, and the corresponding proposition to investigate is to understand the GAPA and sec- tor-specific procedures). Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 43 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach Table 1: Conceptual framework of legal competences for public officials Legal Competences of Public Officials Competence model Technical-legal dimension Entrepreneurial dimension Relational dimension Tuning/ TuCAHEA Subject-specific competences: • Knowledge of current norms, statutes, regulations and other sources of law. • Capacity to apply a legal rule to a particular legal case. • Understanding of administrative procedures. • Skills to draw up legal documents. • Ability to understand professionally and explain legal norms in the process of their application. • Ability to produce effective written or oral legal deci- sions and advice. • Capacity to identify the legal interests of the parties. • Capacity to use the technology necessary for informa- tion searches in juridical practice. • Ability to apply knowledge in practice. • Ability to use logic and critical thinking for solving problems. • Knowledge of the professional field. General competences: • Ability to model, de- sign and forecast. General competences: • Ability to learn. • Ability to communicate in offi- cial, state, and foreign languag- es. • Ability to prevent and resolve conflicts. Foundational Competences Model • Knowledge of doctrinal law in the basic subject areas. • Legal analysis. • Legal research. • Written/oral communication in the legal context. • Legal judgment . • Knowledge of the law-of-lawyering, responsibilities to clients and the legal system. • Work ethic. • Organisation and management of legal work. • An entrepreneurial mindset to serve clients. • Superior client focus, respon- siveness to the client. • Exceptional understanding of the client’s context/business. • Client-tailored communication. • Creative problem solving/ good professional judgment synthe- sising all the competences. Source: Based on Hamilton and Bilionis (2022); Tuning TUCAHEA (2012-2016) Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 44 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač 3.2 Data Collection and Sampling for the Empirical Analysis through an Online Survey In order to investigate the legal competences acquired through the use of the ACP by public officials who conduct administrative procedures in Slovenian public administration, and to understand the extent to which their attitude toward and frequency of ACP use contribute to the development of their legal competences, we employed a self-designed survey questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed on the basis of our conceptual framework of legal competences, as presented in Section 3.1. Both the questionnaire and framework draw upon the Foundational Competences Model (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022) and the Tuning/TuCAHEA approach (Isaac et al., 2016). At the same time, they account for the specific intersection of law, public adminis- tration, and the ACP, while deliberately excluding formal educational aspects. Instead, the focus is placed on career-long training and adaptation to the spe- cific professional demands faced by public officials responsible for conduct- ing administrative procedures. The questionnaire was structured into several sections. The first part focused on measuring legal competences, followed by items assessing respondents’ attitudes and dispositions toward the use of the ACP. In addition, demograph- ic data were collected to enable an analysis of the state and development of individual (and group) legal competences against reference benchmarks across multiple indicators. The questionnaire comprised 32 items, organised into several thematic sections. The first section measured technical-legal competences (7 items), including understanding of the GAPA and sector- specific procedures, knowledge of administrative case law on procedural rules, analytical thinking when solving administrative problems, legal reason- ing when solving procedural problems, application of general rules to spe- cific cases, and awareness of the fact that the processing of personal data is regulated by law and that digital content is protected by copyright law. The second section, entrepreneurial dimension (3 items), assessed adherence to fundamental ethical principles (integrity, impartiality, confidentiality) when performing duties or conducting administrative procedures, the accuracy in conducting administrative procedures, and proactive solution-seeking while balancing the public interest and the rights of the parties. The third section, relational competences (5 items), evaluated the effectiveness and respectful- ness of communication with participants in the administrative procedure and with parties, a parties-centred focus, recognition of parties’ legal interests in individual cases, and the ability to learn. For the purposes of data collection, the questionnaire was transformed into an online survey using the open-source application 1KA (One Click Survey; www.1ka.si). Data were collected between March and April 2025. The target population consisted of 226 public officials employed in Slovenian public ad- ministration who conduct administrative procedures and who, between 2023 and 2025, had submitted at least one question to the ACP and received an an- swer as active users of the platform. Respondents participated on a voluntary Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 45 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach basis through self-selection, employing a non-probability sampling approach. Out of the 226 invited public officials, 112 completed the survey in full, yield- ing a 49.6% response rate, which is sufficient to allow extrapolation of the results and support valid conclusions. To uphold the integrity of the research process, special attention was devoted to ensuring the anonymity of the re- spondents’ data. The collected demographic indicators show that 74% of respondents were women, with approximately 57% from Generation X (born between 1965 and 1980), with around 17% older and the remainder younger. This distribution broadly reflects the composition of employees in the Slovenian public adminis- tration (Kovač and Stare, 2014). Age distribution also aligns with national data: in 2023 only 8% of central administration employees were aged 18–34, while 29% were aged 55 or older (OECD, 2025). Taken together, these comparisons support the representativeness of our sample and uphold the legitimacy of the inferences. In line with formal entry requirements, the vast majority of respondents hold a university degree, with 21% possessing a postgraduate qualification. Among them, 37% are law graduates, while 35% hold a degree from the Faculty of Public Administration, forming a relatively homogeneous group whose legal competences were, to a large extent, acquired through for- mal education prior to employment. This provides a solid basis for assessing which competences have subsequently been developed through the use of the ACP. Despite this common background, respondents are currently distrib- uted across a variety of administrative domains: nearly 30% across multiple policy areas, about 19% in environment, construction, and agriculture, 17% in inspection services, 13% in internal affairs, and 6% in social affairs. Further on, to assess the extent to which public officials’ attitudes towards and frequency of use of the ACP contribute to the development of their legal competences, the questionnaire incorporated the Unified Theory of Accept- ance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) developed by Venkatesh et al. (2003). The UTAUT synthesises insights from eight earlier technology acceptance models and identifies four core determinants of technology adoption: per- formance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions. These constructs have consistently demonstrated strong explana- tory power for predicting both behavioural intention and actual system use, accounting for up to 70% of variance in intention and around 50% in use (Ven- katesh et al., 2003). In this study, each construct was operationalised with four items measuring respondents’ perceptions of the ACP’s usefulness, ease of use, organisational and peer influence, and the availability of institutional support. Additionally, one item assessed the frequency of ACP use to browse existing cases, with response categories ranging from “daily” to “never”. The use of the UTAUT was particularly well suited to this research context for two reasons. First, the ACP represents a digital tool, available to public officials from the Slovenian public administration, for which adoption and consistent use are not guaranteed despite the potential for gaining legal competency. And secondly, the UTAUT has been successfully applied in com- Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 46 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač parable contexts where public officials’ or employees’ acceptance of various e-government tools was examined, thereby providing a validated lens to measure attitudes and usage behaviour (Salah et al., 2025; Zeebaree et al., 2022). These studies confirm the UTAUT’s robustness and transferability to public administration settings, reinforcing its suitability for examining how ACP acceptance and usage contribute to the development of legal compe- tences among Slovenian public officials. All items in the questionnaire were formulated as statements. Respondents expressed their agreement using a 5-point Likert scale: 1 – Strongly disagree, 2 – Disagree, 3 – Neutral, 4 – Agree, 5 – Strongly agree, with the option to se- lect “I do not have enough information”. For competences, a separate 5-point scale was used to indicate the extent of competence development as a result of ACP usage (not at all, slightly, moderately, considerably, fully developed). The Likert scaling method is a widely recognised approach for measuring re- sponses, and is also widespread in public administration research (Croasmun and Ostrom, 2011). 3.3 Measurement Model Reliability and Validity Data analysis involved both descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Summary statistics such as means and standard deviations were used to pro- vide an overview of the variables. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test hypothesised relationships among latent constructs. Descrip- tive analyses were performed in IBM SPSS 29, and SEM was conducted using IBM SPSS AMOS 29.0 (Arbuckle, 2021). Prior to evaluating the measurement model, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted specifically on the items measuring legal competences, as this scale was newly developed for the purposes of this study and had not been previously validated. The EFA indicated that legal competences are best represented by two un- derlying factors. The analysis revealed that the theoretically proposed dimen- sions of entrepreneurial and relational competences, did not emerge as distinct factors. Instead, the items intended initially for these two dimensions were grouped into one coherent factor. This factor reflects a broader competence related to professional responsibility and interpersonal conduct within admin- istrative procedures. Considering the content of these items (e.g., respect for ethical principles, accuracy in procedural actions, respectful communication, balancing public and individual interests), this factor was labelled entrepre- neurial-relational competences. The second factor included items measuring legal reasoning and procedural expertise, such as understanding procedural law, applying general rules to specific cases, and analytical reasoning; hence, this factor was labelled technical-legal competences. Two items, to reason legally when solving procedural problems and to focus on the parties, cross loaded on both factors, suggesting that these competences are not exclusive- ly tied to the dimensions mentioned above but instead reflect an integration of both. Consequently, these two items were excluded from further analysis. Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 47 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach Following the EFA, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to test the fit of the proposed (theoretical) model and evaluate its reliability and va- lidity. The model fit indices suggest that the model provides an acceptable representation of the observed data – the chi-square statistic was statistically significant (χ² = 646.71, df = 335, p < .001). However, the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ²/df = 1.93) was below the recommended threshold of 3, indicating a good fit between the model and the observed data. Incremental fit indices further supported the adequacy of the model (CFI = .867, IFI = .870, TLI = .838), since the values are close to or exceed the conventional cutoff of .85 for acceptable fit (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Although slightly above the ideal threshold of .08, the RMSEA (.092) remains within the range of reasonable error of approximation. The hypothesis of close fit could not be confirmed (PCLOSE = .000). Parsimony-adjusted indices indicated a reasonably efficient model given its complexity (PNFI = .630, PCFI = .715). To evaluate the reliability and validity of the constructs used in the study, we calculated the Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average vari- ance extracted (AVE) for each construct. As shown in Table 3, all constructs demonstrated good internal consistency, with Cronbach’s α values ranging from 0.772 to 0.937, and CR values exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.70 (Hair et al., 2010). Table 2: Reliability and validity of the measurement model M SD Cronbach’s α CR AVE 1 2 3 4 5 1 Performance expectancy 4.36 .64 .857 .878 .646 - 2 Effort expectancy 4.41 .66 .929 .933 .779 .608 - 3 Social influence 3.19 .95 .899 .902 .701 .442 .372 - 4 Facilitating conditions 4.20 .62 .772 .793 .570 .561 .599 .290 - 5 Technical-legal competences 3.88 .58 .883 .859 .605 .396 .305 .241 .279 - 6 Entrepreneurial- relational legal competences 4.11 .72 .937 .942 .645 .506 .279 .201 .344 .729 Note. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; α = Cronbach’s Alpha; CR = Composite Reliability; AVE = Average Variance Extracted. The lower triangle presents correlations among latent factors. Source: Own (2025) The AVE values are above the 0.50 threshold for all constructs, indicating convergent validity. Discriminant validity was assessed using the Fornell and Larcker (1981) criterion, which compares the square root of each construct’s AVE with its correlations to other constructs. The square root of the AVE for each construct (represented on the diagonal) was greater than its correla- tions with other constructs. Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 48 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač 4 Results of the Empirical Study on the Legal Competences of Public Officials Related to the ACP The results of the study indicate that the respondents generally agree that using the ACP has contributed to the development of key legal competences, such as understanding procedural rules and the protection of personal data. The use of the ACP has positively impacted the development of competences related to the application of rules and analytical thinking in legal tasks. Ethical principles, task precision, and proactive problem solving were strongly impact- ed by the use of the ACP. ACP use also helped to develop competences from the relational dimension, including effective communication with participants and focusing on client needs. Further, regarding the UTAUT part, the survey re- vealed a high agreement on items measuring performance expectancy which suggests that the respondents believe the ACP improves task efficiency and correctness, and is useful in task performance. The respondents reported that the ACP is easy to use, with a significant percentage (89.8%) reporting that they were able to quickly learn how to use it. The high ratings for ease of use and understanding of the tool point to a user-friendly experience. The low av- erage agreement on items measuring social influence indicates that co-work- ers play a relatively minor role in users’ decisions to use the ACP. The respond- ents have the necessary material resources and knowledge to use the ACP, but seem to lack proper internal support when facing difficulties, although they receive support from ACP administrator when needed. A total of 59.8% of the respondents are regular users of the ACP, using it at least once a month. Table 3: Descriptive statistics for items M SD % Performance expectancy PE1 The ACP is useful for performing tasks. 4.61 .607 97.2% PE2 Using the ACP enables me to complete tasks faster. 4.22 .777 80.6% PE3 Using the ACP allows me to perform tasks more accurately. 4.38 .733 88.9% PE4 By using the ACP, I have improved my task performance abilities. 4.28 .807 83.3% Effort expectancy EE1 The ACP is easy to use. 4.36 .767 89.8% EE2 Using the ACP is understandable. 4.46 .676 91.7% EE3 It is not difficult to become proficient in using the ACP. 4.42 .750 88.0% EE4 I quickly learn how to use the ACP. 4.42 .725 89.8% Social influence SI1 My colleagues are of the opinion that I should use the ACP when conducting administrative procedures. 3.27 1.065 44.3% SI2 My colleagues expect me to use the ACP when conducting administrative procedures. 2.89 1.081 29.2% Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 49 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach SI3 My superiors expect me to use the ACP when conducting administrative procedures. 2.93 1.173 33.0% SI4 My superiors are in favour of me using the ACP. 3.65 1.015 55.7% Facilitating conditions FC1 I have all necessary equipment and resources to use the ACP. 4.42 .688 94.3% FC2 I know how to use the content of the ACP effectively. 4.30 .733 87.7% FC3 If I encounter problems using the ACP, I can turn to a colleague at work for help. 3.32 1.143 49.1% FC4 If I encounter problems using the ACP, I can contact the ACP administrator at the FPA UL. 3.88 .825 67.0% Frequency of use FREQ Frequency of using the ACP for browsing existing cases. 3.80 .890 59.8% Technical-legal dimension OTPK1 To understand the GAPA and sector-specific procedures.  3.92 .590 85.6% OTPK2 To be familiar with administrative case law on procedural rules. 3.67 .679 65.8% OTPK3 To think analytically when solving administrative problems.  3.87 .788 75.0% OTPK4 To reason legally when solving procedural problems.  3.88 .871 81.3% OTPK5 To apply general legal rules to specific cases.  3.96 .709 80.4% OTPK6 To be aware that the processing of personal data is regulated by law. 4.14 .994 80.4% OTPK7 To be aware that digital content is protected by copyright law.  3.99 .704 72.3% Entrepreneurial dimension PM1 To respect fundamental ethical principles (integrity, impartiality, confidentiality) when performing duties or conducting administrative procedures. 4.13 .969 83.9% PM2 To perform actions accurately when conducting administrative procedures. 3.84 .954 91.1% PM3 To proactively seek solutions while balancing the public interest and the rights of the parties. 4.17 .889 79.5% Relational dimension OD1 To communicate effectively with the parties involved in the administrative procedure. 4.26 .720 73.2% OD2 To communicate respectfully with the parties involved. 4.12 .836 78.6% OD3 To focus on the parties involved. 3.96 .750 83.0% OD4 Identify the legal interests of the parties in individual cases. 4.00 .783 77.5% OD5 Ability to learn. 4.22 .744 87.4% Note. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; % = Proportion of respondents who selected “agree” or “completely agree” on UTAUT items, proportion of those who reported using the ACP regularly (at least monthly), and proportion of those who indicated that ACP use had a “significant” or “very significant” impact on their development of legal competences. Source: Own (2025) Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 50 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač The use of the ACP was associated with substantial improvements in techni- cal-legal and entrepreneurial-relational competences among public officials responsible for administrative procedures. Specifically, the most pronounced gain in the technical-legal competences concerned legal reasoning for resolving procedural problems, where the mean score increased from 3.47 to 4.07. Before using the ACP, 47.9% of public officials reported this competence as developed to a large extent or fully; after the ACP, this share rose to 87.7%. Understanding of the GAPA and sector-specific regulations also improved, with the mean rising from 3.59 to 3.97. Although more than half of public officials (54.8%) already reported this competence as largely or fully developed, the 87.5% figure after using the ACP indicates a significant improvement. Application of general rules to indi- vidual cases strengthened as well (M = 4.05), with 83.6% reporting substan- tial or complete development, compared to 58.9% at baseline. Awareness of data-protection regulation was already very high before ACP (M = 4.21; 79.5% largely or fully developed, including 42.5% fully developed), yet still improved for 86.3% of public officials. Awareness that digital content is protected by copyright increased from a mean of 3.74 to 3.95, with 57.5% reporting high competence before using the ACP and 76.8% afterwards. Analytical thinking improved from 3.45 to 3.85, with the proportion reporting strong compe- tence rising from 50.7% to 75.3%. Knowledge of administrative case law was comparatively the weakest competence, however, the mean rose from 3.23 to 3.71, and the share with high competence increased from 42.5% to 68.0%. Under entrepreneurial competences, accuracy in conducting administrative procedures reached the highest overall level, rising from 3.99 to 4.32. While 74.0% already reported strong competence before using the ACP, almost all officials (94.5%) improved further. Ethical conduct and confidentiality started at a high level (M = 4.27; 86.3% reporting strong competence) and improved for 87.7% of officials. Proactivity in finding solutions was initially less devel- oped (M = 3.73; 54.8% at baseline), but rose to 4.05, with four in five respond- ents (80.9%) reporting a significant improvement. Using the ACP also lead to an improvement in relational competences, where- by recognition of parties’ legal interests specifically improved from 3.79 to 4.11, with the share of officials reporting high competence increasing from 63.0% to 86.1%. Effective communication with participants, initially rated at 3.85, rose to 4.03, with improvements reported by 79.5% of respondents. Cli- ent orientation, already developed in 78.1% of respondents, was further im- proved to 89.0%. Respectful communication began at an especially high level (M = 4.38; 83.6% largely or fully developed), so overall change was limited, although 87.7% still reported some improvement, and more than half (52.1%) reported full development. The ability to learn was already present in 80.8% of officials and was further enhanced in nearly all cases (93.2%). Overall, the findings confirm that ACP use makes a significant contribution to legal competence development among public officials. The strongest devel- opment was observed in five key areas: accuracy in conducting procedures, Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 51 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach ability to learn, legal reasoning in addressing procedural issues, application of general rules to specific cases, and proactive problem solving. Effective com- munication with participants also exceeded the threshold of strong compe- tence development. These results highlight the ACP as not only a tool for sup- porting legal expertise, but also as a mechanism that strengthens the broader professional competences that are crucial for quality public service delivery. Furthermore, the hypothesised relationships among UTAUT constructs, the frequency of using the ACP, and the perceived development of legal com- petences as a result of ACP use were tested with structural equation model- ling (see Figure 1). The model assessed the acceptance of the ACP measured through predictive power of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions on the frequency of use (H1), and subsequently, the effect of frequency of use on the perceived development of legal competences (H2). Figure 1: The structural model Performance expectancy Frequency of use R 2 = 0.200 Entrepreneurial and relational competences R 2 = 0.027 c Technical-legal competences R 2 = 0.054 d .35* -.03 .09 .23* .17 .11 Effort expectancy Social influence Facilitating conditions Note. * = p < 0.05. Source: Own (2025) The model explained 20% of the variance in usage frequency, 5.4% in techni- cal-legal competences, and 2.7% in entrepreneurial-relational competences, suggesting an overall weak explanatory power. While the statistical explana- tory power of the model is modest, the results still provide meaningful in- sights. They show that the most important factor driving public officials to use the ACP regularly is their belief that it is useful for their work. In other words, if public officials clearly see practical benefits, they are more moti- vated to integrate the ACP into their daily procedures. More frequent use, in turn, is associated with stronger development of technical-legal compe- tences, while the effects on broader entrepreneurial-relational competences are weaker. This pattern suggests that the ACP is most effective as a tool for strengthening core technical-legal competences, but its potential to support Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 52 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač entrepreneurial-relational competences development may depend on addi- tional organisational or contextual factors. 5 Discussion and Recommendations In modern public administration, conducting administrative procedures un- der the General Administrative Procedure Act (GAPA) requires public officials to not only be professionally trained (Kovač and Jerovšek, 2024; Džinić, 2018), but to also possess appropriately developed competences (Sommerman et al., 2025; Kruyen and Van Genugten, 2020; Schneider, 2019). Among these, le- gal competences are of central importance, as they demonstrate the officials’ professional competence in their work (Schaffar, 2021). Public administration, grounded in the doctrine of Good Governance, is a vital part of contemporary society, contributing to its development and address- ing social and individual challenges. Within this framework and the concept of Good Administration, public officials hold a key role in contemporary and complex public administration (Galetta and Ziller, 2024), where conducting administrative procedures is a core task (Pečarič and Stare, 2021). Public of- ficials may conduct administrative procedures if they fulfil formal education and other requirements under Article 31 of the GAPA (Kovač and Jerovšek, 2024). However, effective and professional conduct of administrative proce- dures requires them to also possess a variety of skills and abilities, which in turn need to be continuously further developed. This guarantees professional administrative services and contributes to the stable and sound functioning of public administration (Vitello et al., 2021; Arzenšek et al., 2019). Adminis- trative procedures increasingly serve as a critical mechanism in this regard in modern society where the role of authority in administrative relations (Galetta and Ziller, 2024) is defined by procedural law and relevant problem-solving- oriented conduct of administrative procedures. Due to the rapidly changing environment, substantive law and classical work organisation no longer meet the needs of participative public governance (Kovač, 2018). As the complexity of administrative procedures grows, so does the impor- tance of appropriate competences for the public officials conducting these procedures. According to various authors (Villa-Rosas and Spaak, 2023; Ko- rotun and Bogdanova, 2020), public officials who conduct procedures and decide on the rights, obligations, and legal benefits of parties are expected to have acquired and properly developed legal competences. These compe- tences extend beyond administrative-legal expertise to others such as legal analysis, written and oral communication, and legal judgment, gained through legal and public administration studies (Finch and Fafinski, 2020; Isaac et al., 2016; Kovač and Stare, 2014). They continue to develop these competences on the job and through use of the ACP. The ACP, as a pedagogical and re- search project of the FPA UL and the MPA, serves as a knowledge repository, providing stakeholders with generic and frequently usable expert responses to concrete administrative legal dilemmas in line with the proper application of the GAPA and the Decree on Administrative Operations (Official Gazette Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 53 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach of the Republic of Slovenia [Uradni list RS], Nos. 9/18, 14/20, 167/20, 172/21, 68/22, 89/22, 135/22, 77/23, and 24/24) as well as other regulations. The ACP facilitates networking among diverse stakeholders, with a key role played by academic staff from the FPA UL, the MPA, and experts from administrative bodies as it enables users (such as parties, citizens, companies, NGOs, and civil servants) to identify practical administrative law issues, contributing to their improved functioning and, consequently, societal benefit (Novak et al., 2025; Kovač, 2024). Numerous authors (Bedner et al., 2020; Hamilton, 2014; Shultz and Zedeck, 2011) emphasise that lawyers and public officials must build up their legal competences as this enhances their work efficiency. Others (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022; Carrel, 2021; Carrel, 2019; Mak, 2017), who examined legal competences through competency models, argue that such individuals are therefore more competent in their work. In this context, it can be concluded that legal competences are crucial specifically for the work of public officials. However, a review of existing research on legal competences shows that such studies are nearly non-existent, with only one exception (cf. Kovač and Stare, 2014). Thus, for the empirical part of the study of ACP use and the develop- ment of legal competences among public officials, it was necessary to design a conceptual framework of legal competences. This framework served as the basis for a structural model based on the (UTAUT), which was then used in the study to examine how public officials’ attitudes toward the ACP and the frequency of its use influence the development of their technical-legal and entrepreneurial-relational competences. The results of the study, as presented in Figure 1 and obtained from 112 pub- lic officials between 2023 and 2025, indicate that performance expectancy has a statistically significant positive effect on the frequency of ACP use (β = 0.349, p = .012). Respondents who perceive the ACP as useful tend to use it more often. In contrast, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions do not appear to significantly impact the frequency of ACP use (p > .05). Therefore, H1 is partially accepted. It can thus be assumed that supervi- sors and colleagues did not significantly influence respondents’ frequency of ACP use, nor did they expect its use in the conduct of administrative proce- dures. However, the respondents confirmed that they perceived ACP as use- ful in their work, which gave rise to the possible conclusion that they used it voluntarily when conducting administrative procedures. Additionally, facili- tating conditions (e.g., availability of equipment, access to resources, or the capacity to use the ACP) did not affect usage frequency; when encountering problems with the ACP, respondents typically contacted the ACP administra- tor at the FPA UL. The results also show that the frequency of use significantly predicted tech- nical-legal competences (β = 0.232, p = .023). Regular use of the ACP was associated with greater self-reported development of technical-legal com- petences. The effect on entrepreneurial-relational competences was posi- tive but marginally non-significant (β = 0.165, p = .094). Consequently, H2 is Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 54 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač accepted. It was hypothesised that the development and enhancement of legal competences through ACP use is indirectly influenced by performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions, as mediated by frequency of use. Specifically, it was assumed that better ac- ceptance of the ACP leads to more frequent use, which in turn supports the development and enhancement of legal competences. The findings suggest that only performance expectancy has a statistically significant positive effect on the frequency of ACP use. Furthermore, frequency of use positively influ- ences the development of technical-legal competences, but not the entre- preneurial-relational legal competences. Although public officials developed entrepreneurial and relational competencies most strongly through the use of the ACP, these advances cannot be explained by ACP acceptance. The de- velopment of entrepreneurial and relational competencies appears to be in- fluenced by factors outside the scope of the current model. Descriptive statistics (Table 3) indicate that the use of ACP contributed most strongly to the development of relational competences, particularly the abil- ity to communicate effectively and respectfully with the parties involved in the administrative procedure. Additionally, public officials reported improve- ment in entrepreneurial competences, especially in their ability to uphold core ethical principles (such as integrity, impartiality, and confidentiality) and to proactively seek solutions that balance the public interest with the rights of the parties. These competences help improve the public officials’ dialogue with the parties involved in administrative procedures, enabling the establishment of relevant facts and the harmonisation of interests among all stakeholders. In this way, both public officials and participants are proac- tively involved throughout the entire administrative process. Similarly, the development of entrepreneurial and relational competences is emphasised by several authors (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022; Finch and Fafinski, 2020; Car- rel, 2021; Carrel, 2019; Shultz and Zedeck, 2011) who identify these as essen- tial for legal professionals working with clients, as understanding, empathy, and more effective communication aid in resolving legal issues and building trustworthy client relationships. The technical-legal competences (e.g. legal reasoning for resolving procedural problems, understanding of the GAPA and sector-specific procedures, application of general rules to individual cases) were developed to a lesser extent as a result of ACP use; however, the extent was in no way negligible. This suggests that public officials already possess adequate legal knowledge (i.e., familiarity with fundamental principles of the GAPA) and understand general elements and structures of administrative procedural law, which they apply to solving concrete administrative procedur- al problems in practice. Several authors (Bedner et al., 2020; Isaac et al., 2016; Hamilton, 2014) stress that it is crucial for students to acquire technical-legal competences (e.g., knowledge of doctrinal law, legal analysis, legislation com- prehension, knowledge of current norms, statutes, and regulations) during their studies, as these form the foundation for their professional work. It is noteworthy that Gerkman and Cornett (2016) found that some students and employees may not have adequately developed legal competences, which could affect the quality and results of their work (Mak, 2017). Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 55 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach This article thus answers the research question, confirming that ACP use in- fluences the acquisition and development of technical-legal, entrepreneurial, and relational competences among public officials. The results offer relevant insights, demonstrating that the ACP is a crucial resource supporting officials in advancing their legal competences and thereby facilitating more effective resolution of administrative-legal dilemmas. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations and suggestions for future research: This study has several important theoretical and practical implications. The central theoretical implications are the conceptual frame- work of legal competences of public officials and the structural model, which advance the theory of public officials’ legal competences. From a practical perspective, they open possibilities for various studies on legal competences subject to the factors posited by the UTAUT across different ACP users (e.g., students and the parties involved). The findings indicate that the ACP plays a dual role: it aids in resolving administrative-legal dilemmas and enables more participatory and problem-solving-oriented administrative decision-making. Although our study offers useful insights, certain limitations should be ac- knowledged. First, since previous authors (Hamilton and Bilionis, 2022; Carrel, 2021; Bedner et al., 2020; Finch and Fafinski, 2020; Isaac et al., 2016; Hamil- ton, 2014, etc.) investigated the legal competences of law students and law- yers, the legal competences of public officials in our conceptual framework and structural model were interpreted subjectively. Second, the conceptual framework and structural model were only empirically tested on a specific sample of ACP users – public officials conducting administrative procedures – but not on other ACP users (e.g., the parties involved, students, and other members of the public), preventing us from drawing direct generalisations about the results. Third, the results are interpretatively adapted to existing studies on public officials’ legal competences, and since legal competences are socially and individually conditioned they may change over time, limiting the long-term relevance of the conceptual framework and structural model. A number of improvements are proposed based on this work, including the future broadening of research on the impact of ACP use on the development of legal competences among other ACP users. Employing mixed methods in the broadened study would provide data that would broaden the results and aid their comparative analysis as well as the critical evaluation of ACP’s role in legal competence development. Furthermore, it would be advantageous to upgrade the ACP with artificial intelligence tools and a tutorial (educational video) about its use and about the impact on users’ legal competence devel- opment. Generally, this would help ACP users better understand the foun- dational principles and rights laid down by administrative procedural law, especially as administrative procedures become increasingly complex. Ad- ditionally, it would be appropriate to introduce ACP’s usefulness to law and public administration students, who are still developing legal competences during their studies, as well as to newly employed public officials who do not yet meet all professional requirements under Article 31 of the GAPA (e.g., Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 56 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač those who have not yet passed the professional examination in the adminis- trative procedure). Organising training on ACP use for public officials wishing to advance their legal knowledge and strengthen their existing legal compe- tences would also be beneficial. 6 Conclusion In modern public administration, public officials must possess adequately developed legal competences to address complex societal challenges and conduct administrative procedures effectively. Administrative procedures in Slovenian public administration represent a critical legal interface between the parties involved; therefore, it is essential that public officials master their technical and entrepreneurial-relational legal competences as well as con- tinuously develop them in their work. The ACP, a joint pedagogical-research project of the FPA UL and the MPA, plays a significant role in this context, and supports the development of administrative law and equality before the law through interpretative application of GAPA principles. It represents a syner- gistic form of collaborative governance and serves as a tool for public offi- cials to develop their legal competences, thereby fostering participatory and problem-solving-oriented administrative decision-making and contributing to sustainable societal development. The central contributions of this article are the development of a conceptual framework of legal competences and a structural model. Using these, a study conducted in spring 2025 with public officials from Slovenian administrative bodies showed that, by using the ACP between 2023 and 2025, public officials developed their entrepreneurial and relational competences to a significant extent, and to some extent their technical-legal competences, too. It was also found that both the positive attitude of public officials toward the ACP and the frequency of its use contribute to the development of all three groups of legal competences. This in turn indicates that public officials recognise the importance of the ACP, perceiving it as a quick-to-learn and easy-to-use tool as well as beneficial in their work or in conducting administrative procedures. The importance of developing legal competences using the ACP should con- tinue to be highlighted, for example, by expanding research on the influence of ACP use on the development of legal competences among its other us- ers (e.g., students, the parties involved, and other members of the public), demonstrating ACP’s utility through organised training of students and public officials, and introducing innovations (e.g., AI tools) to the ACP. By develop- ing legal competences more effectively, public officials resolve administrative procedures more efficiently, which is crucial in practice for all the parties in- volved and, in a broader sense, for achieving the goals and principles of mod- ern public administration. Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 57 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach Bibliography Administrative Consultation (2025). Official webpage. 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Sustainability, 14(9), 5370, pp. 1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095370 Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 60 Špela Mar, Nina Kristl, Eva Murko, Jernej Buzeti, Polonca Kovač Appendix 1: Questionnaire Competence pillar Legal Competences To what extent did you have this competence developed before using the ACP? To what extent, in your opinion, is this competence developed today due to the use of the ACP? 1 – None 2 - Low 3 – Moderate 4 – Much 5 – Completely 1 – None 2 – Low 3 – Moderate 4 – Much 5 – Completely Technical-legal competences To understand the GAPA and sector-specific procedures.  To be familiar with administrative case law on procedural rules.  To think analytically when solving administrative problems.  To reason legally when solving procedural problems.  To apply general legal rules to specific cases.  To be aware that the processing of personal data is regulated by law. To be aware that digital content is protected by copyright law.  Entrepreneurial competences To respect fundamental ethical principles (integrity, impar- tiality, confidentiality) when performing duties or conducting administrative procedures.  To perform actions accurately when conducting administra- tive procedures. To proactively seek solutions while balancing the public inter- est and the rights of the parties. Relational competences To communicate effectively with participants in the adminis- trative procedure. To communicate respectfully with parties. To communicate respectfully with parties. Identify the legal interests of the parties in individual cases. Ability to learn. Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 23, No. 2/2025 61 Advancing the Legal Competences of Public Officials through the Administrative Consultation Platform: A Conceptual and Empirical Approach Appendix 2: Structural (UTAUT) Model Performance expectancy Frequency of use R 2 = 0.200 Entrepreneurial and relational competences R 2 = 0.027 c Technical-legal competences R 2 = 0.054 d .35* -.03 .09 .23* .17 .11 Effort expectancy Social influence Facilitating conditions