ACTA NEOPHILOLOGICA JERNEJA PETRIC 41. 1-2 (2008) Ljubljana THE FIRST TRANSLATIONS OF HARLEM RENAISSANCE POETRY IN SLOVENIA NATASA INTIHAR KLANCAR SLOVENE REACTIONS TO WILLIAM FAULKNER ' S WRITING NINA BOSTIC THE DISPUTE BETWEEN JONATHAN FRANZEN AND OPRAH WINFREY ANITA GUMILAR PROSAAUFLOSUNG DER WILLEHALM - TRILOGIE: GEWALT IM RELIGIOSEN KONTEXT MIRA MILADINOVIC ZALAZNIK WER WAR IGOR YON PERCHA? VESNA KONDRIC HORVAT TRANSKULTURALITAT DER "SCHWEIZER" AUTORIN ILMA RAKUSA TADEJA DERMASTJA GODEFROI DE BOUILLON MARTIN GERM LA GRAVURE TRIOMPHE DE LA MORT DE JANEZ VAJKARD VALYASOR BOSTJAN MARKO TURK LA PREMIERE TRADUCTION SLAVE DE MOLIERE ET LA NAISSANCE DU THEATRE SLOVENE MITA GUSTINCIC PAHOR RESPONSES TO AUGUST STRINDBERG'S MISS JULIE IN SLOVENIA ACTA NEOPHILOLOGICA JERNEJA PETRIC 41. 1-2 (2008) Ljubljana THE FIRST TRANSLATIONS OF HARLEM RENAISSANCE POETRY IN SLOVENIA .... .. ......... 3 NATASA INTIHAR KLANCAR SLOVENE REACTIONS TO WILLIAM FAULKNER'S WRITING ........................................... 13 NINABQSTIC_. THE DISPUTE BETWEEN JONATHAN FRANZEN AND OPRAH WINFREY ........................... 25 ANITA GUMILAR PROSAAUFLOSUNG DER WILLEHALM - TRILOGIE: GEWALT IM RELIGIOSEN KONTEXT .... 33 MIRA MILADINOVIC ZALAZNIK WER WAR IGOR VON PERCHA?..................................................................................... 45 VESNA KONDRIC HORVAT TRANSKULTURALITAT DER "SCHWEIZER" AUTORIN ILMA RAK USA .............................. 57 TADEJA DERMASTJA GODEFROI DE BOUILLON ... . .............. ...... .... .. .. . .................... ................................... .. . . 65 MARTIN GERM LA GRAVURE TRIOMPHE DE LA MORT DE JANEZ VAJKARD VALVASOR ........................... 73 BOSTJAN MARKO TURK LA PREMIERE TRADUCTION SLAVE DE MOLIERE ET LA NAISSANCE DU THEATRE SLOVENE.................................................................................................................... 81 MITA GUSTINCIC PAHOR RESPONSES TO AUGUST STRINDBERG' S MISS JULIE IN SLOVENIA ....... .. ... .... ... ... . ... ....... 87 ACTA NEOPHILOLOGICA University of Ljubljana - Univerza v Ljubljani Slovenia - Slovenija Editor (Urednik): Associate Editor (Pomocnik urednika): Editorial Board - Members (Uredniski odbor - clani): Advisory Committee (Svet revije): MirkoJurak Igor Maver SLOISSN 0567-784 Anton Janko, Jemeja Petric Miba Pintaric Franciska Trobevsek - Drobnak Sonja Basic (Zagreb), Henry R. Cooper, Jr. (Bloomington, Ind.), Renzo Crivelli (Trieste), Kajetan Gantar (Ljubljana), Karl Heinz Goller (Regensburg), Meta Grosman (Ljubljana), Angelika Hribar (Ljubljana), Branka Kalenic Ramsak (Ljubljana), Mirko Krizman (Maribor), Franz Kuna (Klagenfurt), Tom Lofar (Montreal), Mira Miladinovic -Zalaznik (Ljubljana), Tom M. S. Priestley (Edmonton, Alb.), Janez Stanonik (Ljubljana), Neva Slibar (Ljubljana), Atilij Rakar (Ljubljana), Wolfgang Zach (Innsbruck). Acta Neophilologica is published once yearly (as a double number) by the Faculty of Arts, Znanstveni institut Filozofske fakultete (The Scientific Institute of the Faculty of Arts), University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, with the support of Ministry of Science, Schooling and Sport of the Republic of Slovenia. The review is primarily oriented in promoting scholarly articles on English and American literature, on other literatures written in English as well as on German and Romance literatures. The Editorial Board also welcomes scholarly articles in related areas (as e.g. cross-cultural studies, ethnic studies, comparative literature, linguistics). All articles are refereedheforebeing accepted or rejected. Manuscripts will notbe returned unless they are_commissioned. Computed-printed copies must be double-spaced and new paragraphs should be printed with an indention. Articles must have an accompanying abstract. References should be worked into the text as far as possible, and end-notes kept to a minimum. Literature used must be prepared in the alphabetical order of authors. The views expressed in articles should in no way be construed as reflecting the views of the publisher. Ar- ticles submitted for consideration should be sent in two computed-printed copies (double spaced), with an abstract of no more than 60 words (in English) and together with a diskette. Articles should be of no more than 5,000 words, and book reviews of 1,000 words. For format and style authors should follow the MLA Handbook (fifth ed., 2003). Authors who wish to have their articles published in the next issue of AN should send their manuscripts to the editor no later than 31 May each year. Articles and suggestions for exchange journals and books for reviews should be sent to Mirko Jurak, Depart- ment of English, Filozofska fakulteta, Askerceva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. © Acta Neophilologica. All rights reserved. Printed by the Birografika, BORI, d.o.o., Ljubljana, Slovenia. UDK 821.111(73=414/45).09-l" 192":81 '255.4=163.6 THE FIRST TRANSLATIONS OF HARLEM RENAISSANCE POETRY IN SLOVENIA Jerneja Petric Abstract From the present-day perspective Harlem Renaissance poetry represents an epoch-making contribution by America's black authors to the mainstream literature. However, in the post World War 1 era black authors struggled for recognition in their homeland. The publication of a German anthology Afrika singt in the late 1920s agitated Europe as well as the German-speaking authors in Slovenia. Mile Klopcic, a representative of the poetry of Social Realism, translated a handful of Har- lemRenaissance poems into Slovene using, except-in two cases, the German anthology-as a source text. His translations are formally accomplished but fail to reproduce the cultural significance of the Hadem Renaissance poetry. In the aftermath of the Civil War millions of former black slaves migrated to the North of the United States in search of work and a better life. As Steinberg notes it came toa drastic change in the white people's perception of the black at the beginning of the 20th century due to "the labor shortages that resulted from the cutoff of immigration [that] provided blacks with their first real opportunity to be hired in northern industry" (Steinberg 202). Their leaving by the hundreds of thousands triggered a wave of eco- nomic panic in the South as well as forced the Northern employers to lower the racial barriers. "The First World War thus marked the beginning of a black exodus from the South that would continue for over half a century" (203). This exchange of the agricul- tural environment for the industrial resulted in the proletarization of American blacks. Steiner has rightly observed that "a caste system evolved in industry that designated certain jobs as 'negro jobs', and relegated black workers to the lowest paying, and not infrequently back-breaking or dangerous jobs" (Steiner 206). Against this backdrop of a society that was organized on racial principles there evolved, in the 1920s, a black literary movement in New York's Harlem. At the time it was known as Negro poets, nowadays we know it as the Harlem Renaissance. It can be regarded as the black authors' response to the general feeling of alienation and isolation as well as disappointment with the philistine American society. Diggins has observed that lingering stereotypical images of the good-natured "Sambo" and "Uncle Tom" - such as perpetuated in the popular film "The Birth of a Nation" - propelled a number of 3 black poets toward the "lyrical left" such as propagated in the 1920s by John Reed and Max Eastman (123, 131). Mottram agrees by saying that "Negro poetry was the most significant proletarian poetry of the interwar years, more intelligent and less politically hidebound than the New Masses dogmatists, if less politically defined towards action in its complexities" (Mottram in Bradbury and Palmer, 235). Last but not least, Soto calls attention to The New Negro Anthology of 1925 where its editor Locke "together with W.E.B. DuBois, Jessie Redmon Faucet, James Weldon Johnson, and a handful of additional critics, cemented the notion that an avant-garde of accomplished artists might pave the way for a broad program of social uplift" (919). Literary historians have placed the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s, the time of the Jazz Age, spanning across the decade until the onset of the Depression with some belated reverberations in the 1930s. Now that more than seven decades have lapsed since its upsurge, the time is right to look at who brought it to the attention of Slovene reading audience, and, when they did so, how. In the 1920s Slovenia, at the time a part of the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Slovenes and Croats, took no heed of the Harlem Renaissance whatsoever. The country had been historically linked with the German-speaking world as a part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Consequently, few people could speak and/or write English. Translations from American literature-were rare~· Stanonik cites the following authors whose individual works were published in Slovene before 1920: Bret Harte, Mark Twain, Washington Irving, Edgar A. Poe, Upton Sinclair and James F. Cooper. Translations of American juvenile literature dominated the 1920s. The first black author to be translated into Slovene was Harriet Beecher Stowe whose Uncle Tom's Cabin was translated twice - in Celovec (nowadays Klagenfurt, Austria) as Stric Tomaz ali zivljenje zamorcev v Ameriki (1853) and in Ljubljana (Stric Tomova koca ali zivljenje zamor- cov v robnih drzavah severne Amerike, 1853) (Stanonik 69-70; Jurak 1960:118). Both translations are classified as juvenile literature. At this stage in the history the attitude of Slovenians toward the black race can only be described as naive. There had been no Negroes around which blurred the people's perception of negritude; black people were considered exotic, unearthly, and alien. It is interesting that the Slovene word for "Negro" bears no reference to black skin. According to Snoj (846) the word "zamorec" denotes a person who lives behind the sea, i.e. far, far away. The word, common in the 19th century is still in use but has, over time, acquired a negative connotation similar to "nigger". The neutral term in modern use is "crnec" (black man). Between the two world wars, Slovenia opened up to contemporary European literary movements though it was still lagging behind. In the decade following the Armistice, Slovenian literature experienced a flowering of Expressionism (at the time already extinct in its land of origin, Germany) and Futurism. After 1930, however, social realism, a modest offspring of the concurrent Russian socialist realism, began to take over. Its basic demand being faithful in portrayal of real life, it took nourishment from traditional realism and naturalism, albeit on a new basis stressing mostly man's social aspects over his psychological setup. Social realism embraced a deterministic view of human existence placing social determinants above the biological ones allowing for, 4 at the same time, man's predisposition to goodness, happiness and justice. The most important characteristic of social realism was a historical view of man's social existence - clearly an adaptation from Marxism. Given that man belongs to a certain class and that class struggle determines his happiness, class struggle will end with the triumph of the proletariat which can be achieved through step-by-step changes. Social realism thus concentrated on the fate of 'little people' - peasants and laborers, their misfortunes and their inclination toward happiness (Kos 281). When Sinclair Lewis received the 1930 Nobel Prize for literature for his realistic novels of American middle class life Slovene authors for the first time showed a lively interest in contemporary American literature. In the spring of 1932 Slovene American author Louis Adamic visited his homeland after nineteen years of absence. Having moderately succeeded as a writer in the United States with his books Dynamite (1931) and Laughing in the Jungle (1932), he was enthusiastically greeted by the Slovene intelligentsia who felt honored to enjoy the company of "a great American author".' He, in turn, used the opportunity to put the Slovene translators on the right track by alerting them to the newest developments in American literature including black poetry. In this atmosphere of heightened social sensitivity the Slovene author Mile Klopcic (1905-1984) first introduced Harlem renaissance poets to Slovene readers. There could hardly have been a more appropriate person to do it: born in L'Hopital, France as the son of a Slovene emigrant miner and growing up in poor, working-class environment, · g-enettcally-ptedisposed him to social realism. Klopcic whose poetry began to appear in print in the 1920s turned to social realism around 1930, becoming one of its leading harbingers in Slovenia. The most frequent motifs of his poetry include suffering, the daily struggle of a poor laborer as well as class struggle. His poetic style is clear and precise using relatively few figures of speech preferring traditional well-structured stan- zas, regular meter and end-rhyme. His particular strength lies in the ability to observe the tiniest detail. When and how did Klopcic chance upon the Harlem Renaissance? In an interview in 19772 he said he had taken an interest in Negro poetry in the 1930s. Although he had been in touch with the Slovene American socialist author Ivan Molek,3 Klopcic said he had had no access to the original Harlem Renaissance poetry then. It was presumably due to his lack of fluency in English that he turned to German anthologies instead, particularly the epoch-making Afrika singt (published in 1929 by Anna Nussbaum). The prewar climate of uncertainty and intimidation sharpened the senses of the European reader who, for the first time, was able to share a black person's feelings of frustration, despair, longing and hope. The book is said to have been the first European attempt to translate black American poetry into German. In her introduction, the editor Anna Nussbaum refers to the anthology as "eine geschlossene Auslese Afro-amerikanischer Lyrik in deutscher Sprache" (a 'unified' selection of African American lyrical poetry in the German language) (Nuss- 1 Adamic reached the status of celebrity only after his return to the States with the publication of The Native's Return (1934). 2 Interview with the author of this article conducted on February 10, 1977. 3 Molek (1882-1962) was poet, prose writer, dramatist, journalist. He emigrated in 1900, lived in Penn- sylvania, Chicago, New York and California. 5 baum 8). Her assessment places the value of this poetry on racial consciousness and the connection with Africa, citing Alain Locke who proclaimed the poet's roots to be the quintessential poetic motive (9). According to Nussbaum, the sole purpose of the anthology was a "Beitrag zur Wahrheit" (a contribution to the truth) (Ibid.). Given that the editor must select, Nussbaum concentrated on the lyrics that rever- berate with the rhythm of spirituals, blues and jazz. According to her, the selection was not intended to please those who find cheap pleasure in syncopation but rather to prove that such "music" results from the musical nature of a black person (10). As already mentioned, Slovene authors of the 1930s tilted towards the German cultural sphere. When Nussbaum's anthology stirred the German-speaking countries, Slovene author Mile Klopcic was among the first to listen in to the novelty. Adamic's visit was the right occasion for telling him about his translations from the Harlem Renaissance poetry stimulated by the publication ofNussbaum's anthology. Adamic immediately ordered some anthologies of Negro poetry from the United States for Klopcic to use. In the summer of 1932, Fran Albreht, the editor of a literary magazine the Ljubijan- ski zvon (The Ljubljana Bell)4 decided to publish a special (American) issue of the magazine to include poetry, short fiction and nonfiction. Mile Klopcic who was among the main participants was responsible for the poetry section. He selected the poems he hadtranslated himself, and wrote a short introduction "Iz lirike frncev" (From the Lyrics of the Negro). There he mentioned the persistence and the persuasive power of black poets and prose writers in their attempt to assert themselves against the mainstream white majority. In his general assessment of the Harlem Renaissance poetry Klopcic says that it expresses a yearning for the African homeland and hatred for the white man. That, according to Klopcic, is rapidly giving way to the black people's "wish, plea and demand" ( 431) for both races to become brothers; Klopcic substantiates his idea by quoting Langston Hughes' line "Tudi mi smo Amerika" (We, too, are America) (Ibid.). Interestingly though, KlopCic no longer interprets the black man's bitterness as derived from black inequality but he takes a more universal approach instead by saying it is an expression of modern man's sense of despair. It must have been difficult for Klopcic to make a balanced and fair assessment of the Harlem Renaissance poetry at a time when so little was known about American literature in Slovenia. In his introduction he recalls the critical response following the publication of Sterling Brown's collection Southern Road but it is doubtful if he ever read any of the articles that he mentions. I believe his chief sources of information were the Slovene American press, particularly the Prosveta (the Enlightenment), edited by John Molek, and Adamic. In his introduction that precedes the handful of translated poems, in part based on Nussbaum's "Biographischer Anhang" (Biographical supplement, 157-170) Klopcic briefly introduces the poets providing the basic biographical as well as bibliographical data. Speaking of Langston Hughes, he comments in brief on his poetic craftsmanship by evoking his blues poems as modeled after Negro folk songs. In the case of Claude McKay, KlopCic finds his travels to Europe and the Soviet Union the most notable. In the 4 Ljubljanski zvon, vol.,7-8 (1932), 431-437. 6 conclusion Klopcic confesses his translations are largely based on the German transla- tions without having had the opportunity to compare them with the original poems. The readers are kindly advised to consider them "free recreations" (Klopcic 431). Klopcic's selection includes the following poems: James Weldon Johnson, "Stvarjenje. Crnska pridiga" (The Creation); Countee Cullen, "Crnec govori crnki" (Brown Boy to Brown Girl); Langston Hughes, "Nasa defola" (Our Land) and "Novo dekle v kabaretu" (The New Cabaret Girl); Sterling Brown, "Maumee Ruth"; Claude McKay, "Trudni delavec" (The Tired Worker). It should be pointed out that slightly less than two decades after their first pub- lication by the Ljubljanski zvon, Klopcic published an anthology of his translations from world poetry Divji grm (The Wild Bush, 1952) subtitled "Prevodi in prepesnitve" (Translations and re-creations). Part Three of the book contained English, American (i.e. Harlem Renaissance) and German poems. KlopCic reprinted most of the poems from the Ljubljanski zvon, however, he left out Johnson's sermon "The Creation" replacing it with yet another poem by Langston Hughes, "Tudi jaz" (I, Too). Some of the 1932 poems were slightly changed by the translator. The modifications were carried out to improve the aesthetic effect. The above mentioned poems can be found in various sections of Afrika singt. The first sec;.tion "Die neue Heimat" (The New Homeland) contains two poems by Langston Hughes: ''Auch ich singe Amerika (I, Too, 42) and "Unser Land" (Our Land, 45). Section "Arbeit" (Work) includes Claude McKay's "Der miide Arbeiter" (The Tired Worker, 56). Hughes' "Das neue Kabarettmadel" (The New Cabaret Girl, 100) can be found in the section "Harlem, and Countee Cullen's "Brauner Junge zu braunem Madchen" (Brown,Boy to Brown Girl, 118) in the section "Liebe" (Love). On p.145 of Afrika singt a quotation from Langston Hughes explains the fundamental nature of the blues songs contained in the book as a kind of Negro folk songs that, unlike the spirituals, possess a certain poetic form. The poet calls attention to the sadness of tone that characterizes the blues, however, when the blues are sung people tend to laugh (Hughes in Nussbaum, 145). In an afterword, Hermann Kesser attempts to define from the European cultural perspective what he calls the "Blues-Lebensgefiihl". He portrays it as a musical circle consisting of the awareness of a ruined life, the slavery, the impossibility to change things on the one hand, and the joy of being and the never ending Negro temperament on the other. The resulting music based on primitive prehistoric work rhythms is presented as "rauschaft" (ecstatic), however there is this dull and monotonous sound that is repeated as a refrain; the Negro verses, so Kesser, cast a shadow behind them. Kesser further notes that the whites dance to this magically exotic music: however, it is time "in unsere Tanze etwas Echtes zu mischen" (to mix something truthful into our dances, 144). Keeping in mind Beaugrande's thesis that "[t]he basis of the act of translation is not the original text but rather the representation of the text that is eventually generated in the translator's mind" as well as that most errors in translation occur due to "inaccurate reading" and not "inaccurate writing" (Beaugrande in Diaz-Diocaretz 18) my attention will focus on the translators' ability or inability to preserve the cultural significance 7 of the source texts in their translations. It is not the purpose of this paper to analyze in detail the translators' solutions for special structures, themes, imagery, point of view, mode and tone, language and the elements of prosody. I will rather look at the transla- tors' solutions to overcome the cultural gap. The question that poses itself is: Were the translators aware of a larger historical picture or were they missing it? The dilemma concerning Mile Klopcic's translations of the above-mentioned poems is that they were translations of translations with just two exceptions: Johnson's "The Creation" and Brown's "Maumee Ruth." Klopcic's source text was not the original American poem but its German translation. This means that in line with Jakobson's definition (Jakobson in Diaz-Diocaretz 20) the poems' English language was interpreted in the light of the German language first and that, in turn, in the light of the Slovene language. Both German and Slovene translators were motivated by their world vision, they were guided by their cultural and ideological presuppositions. The German transla- tors (Anna Siemsen, Anna Nussbaum and Josef Luitpold) had to solve the difficulties of language (particularly the length of words and the use of black vernacular), syntax, rhythm and style. In the process of writing (interpreting) they frequently resorted to reduction or even omission and only now and then to expansion. On a general level, the same applies to Klopcic's translations. Let us look at some of the translators' solutions in the case of Langston Hughes' "The New Cabaret Girl". Tne poem is a blues song written in the black vernacular. The male speaker intro- duces a new cabaret girl who also gets the chance to speak. Their words are alive and sinewy, his are further rough and rude. The poem consists of six four-line stanzas with every second line rhyming. Given the brevity of lines ( dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter) the end rhyme heightens the emotional effect of the speaker's words and so does the refrain "If her daddy ain't white/Would be a surprise"(3,4), "If her daddy ain't fay/Would be a surprise" (15-16). The speaker's words reveal the brutal reality of black life: a young mulatto girl, probably the illicit offspring of some white delinquent has caught the speaker's eye because he too is black and can relate to her suffering. Being black the girl can do little except prostitute herself to make a living. The translation of black vernacular used by Hughes as textual strategy and as such indispensible to the meaning seemed to be the most problematic to the translators Anna Siemsen and, subsequently, Mile KlopCic. There is no parallel language in German or Slovene. Siemsen introduced some dialectal expressions (Ichfragt sie heut Nacht, Made!, Miidelchen, mit Augen wies Meer) that lack the social function of the Negro speech. The first line "that little yaller gal" (1) was translated as "Ein Madelchen gelb". Here the translator's mediation between the source text and the target reader failed completely as she neglected the cultural significance of the word "yaller" (meaning yellow) denoting a person of light brown complexion, a mulatto. Siemsen further replaced the specific Negro cultural context with the German in lines 5 and 6 by substituting "Schnaps" for "gin and "Likor" for "corn". In the source text the male speaker's approach to the girl can be described as a mixture of anger aimed at the philistine society that forced the girl to seek a morally questionable profession, and his human concern and pity. However, the line "That crazy little yaller gal" (13) melts down to sentimental pity ("Du armes, kleines Madel" [You poor little girl]) in Siemsen's poem. 8 The Slovene translator followed Siemsen's example closely except in the first stanza where he inverted the lines:. "Ein Madelchen gelb,/ Mit Augen wies Meer" (1-2) was translated as "Z ocmi kakor morje/ z rumeno poltjo ... " (With eyes like seal with yellow skin). The cultural significance of "yaller" is not only lost in the Slovene poem, the syntagm "rumena polt" (yellow skin) is misleading as it suggests a person of Asian origin. What is more, the black cultural context is neutralized ("gin/Schnaps" becomes "zganje" and "corn/Likar" turns into "liker") and sentimental pity becomes the dominant emotion. Unlike Siemsen the Slovene translator bowed to the unwritten rule of the time to use standard literary language only. Countee Cullen's poem "Brown Boy to Brown Girl" was translated to German by Josef Luitpold, and Klopcic translated from Luitpold. This Italian sonnet dedicated to Cullen's first wife Yolande, the daughter OF W.E.B. Du Bois, posed a number of formal problems. The translators' attempts to solve them had a devastating effect on the meaning of the German and Slovene versions. In Cullen's text the speaker's first line introduces a six-line argument meant to convince the beloved of the truth of the speaker's proposition, a set of certainties (him holding her hand, her hair shining in the setting sun, him breaking the invisible line between the two of them) which the speaker then contrasts with the great unknown - the uncertainty concerning his personal free- dom. The translators resorted to romantic cliches that completely eroded the meaning. Whereas the source text contains a series of powerful images in the sestet - telling of attme "long before this pain" in "a land of scarlet suns" before the hurricane fell upon them, both translations present the two lovers who have become entangled in the web of love sighing (German) and suffering (Slovene) under foreign skies on a foreign soil. Hughes' tangled syntax obviously presented a major obstacle to both translators. Although Klopcic searched for some other solutions than Luitpold (he may have com- pared the: German translation with the original) his and Luitpold's poems fell short of the meaning of the source text. Claude McKay's "The Tired Worker" bears the theme of social protest: a tired black worker is looking forward to the evening and night as the only time to rest his "tired hands and aching feet" (9). The speaker uses very emotional language to address his innermost being urging it to whisper softly as the afternoon slowly drifts into evening. He is turning inwards while his aching body anticipates peace and rest. Although Mc Kay never uses the word "black" in his poem it is evident that the speaker is a Negro. His tiredness is extreme, slave like. At the end of the day he will only be capable of a "leaden sigh" (7), his day was "wretched" (8), his whole being is weary- "my veins, my brain, my life" (13). Both translators, Luitpold followed by Klopcic, evidently puzzled over the poem's form. Whereas Luitpold concentrated on preserving the Shakespearean sonnet form, Klopcic tried to create an Italian sonnet but failed in terms of the rhyme scheme. The translations thus present a tired speaker at the end of the day but the con- notation of blackness is lost. Langston Hughes' "Our Land" has an ironic subtitle - "Poem for a decorative panel" - unobserved by either translator, Luitpold and Klopcic. The source text tells about an America that is ugly, brutal, insensitive to the plight of a black man. Images of ugly reality are contrasted with dreamlike sensory imagery intended to present the physical world as it should be: full of sunshine, fragrant waters, chattering birds and green 9 landscape. The translators worked hard to hold on to the evocative power of Hughes' imagery, however their poems nevertheless fall short of the poetic excellence of the source text. The translators employed more straightforward, less passionate language. Whereas the source text abounds in repetitions, exclamations, the use of sound effects, especially long vowels and diphthongs, alliteration and assonance, most of that is sadly missing in the German and the Slovene poem. Hughes' is a blues song, melancholic in tone, sung slowly and passionately, using a unique rhythm. The translators' misrepre- sentation of "where the twilight/ is a soft bandanna handkerchief'(5) as "Rosengold- Gewand"/ "fametna halja v rdecem in zlatem" (red-and-gold velvet frock) eliminates a powerful symbol of negritude. The same goes for the idea of movement, of going away when hard times become unbearable, so characteristic of blues songs, expressed in the final stanza: "O sweet away!/ Ah, my beloved one, away" (16,17). Luitpold omitted the above lines, as did KlopCic. The translations of Langston Hughes' "I, too" appeared in Nussbaum's anthology as well as the anthology Divji grm. This beautiful free verse poem with the theme of black struggle resonates with the elements of African American oral tradition and blues. The poem is an expression of immense racial pride of the speaker who is a black man. The introductory line "I, too sing America" steps up to "I am the darker brother" only to confront the ironic "They send me to eat in the kitchen" (1-3). But the black speaker laughs while getting ready for his big day when no one will dare send him away when guests come. The speaker of the poem juxtaposes two wotlds, the bleak present and the brilliant future by using standard English this time, the speaker's language being terse, clipped, factual. The dominant idea of the poem is the speaker's pent-up anger and racial pride. Nussbaum's and KlopCic's translations can be considered worthy representations of the source text although both translators took liberties to reverse some lines, join them - or even change the first one into the poem's title (Nussbaum's solution not followed by Klopcic). Apart from the above there were relatively few shifts in either translation and the meaning of the poem is as clear in the translations as it is in the source text owing to the relative simplicity of the vocabulary, syntax and free verse form. The last two poems are, translation-wise, easier to evaluate than the above since there is no German intermediary between the source text and its Slovene translation. Klopcic recalled how Louis Adamic first read and then interpreted Sterling Brown's ballad "Maumee Ruth" to him and how he, Klopcic, later on ploughed through the task of "translating" prose into verse. Sterling used standard English with an occasional vernacular expression ("gal", "snow" for "cocaine", "peach" for "woman"). The uni- dentified black speaker presents his brutal, unsentimental verdict at the time of Maumee Ruth's death and burial. The poor black woman died forgotten by her own children who got lost in the cruel jungle of America. The poem is a reminder to the insensitive, racist America of what the system does to its black people. KlopCic was careful to hold on to the rhythm and the rhyme of the source poem as well as the repetitions: "Might as well bury her I And bury her deep. /Might as well put her Where she can sleep" ("Pa jo pokopljimo, /pokopljimo globoko v zemljo./ Pa jo v grob spustimo, /kjer spala ho mirno"). There are two Slovene versions of the poem; the second one, published in the 1952 anthology was modified by Klopcic - mostly insignificant shifts like the removal of accents and a rewriting of the third stanza to 10 secure a regular metrical pattern. Klopcic's poem is a faithful enough representation of Brown's poem in Slovene. With its simple syntax and few figures of speech, the poem was relatively easy to translate. James Weldon Johnson's "The Creation" was also translated directly from Eng- lish. As was the case with the above poem, the intermediary Louis Adamic. With the exception of a few misrepresentations such as "Dolgeas mi je" (I'm bored) instead of Johnson's "I'm lonely", as well as minor shifts such as changing the punctuation, joining two lines into one and simplifying, Klopcic adhered to the source text rather faithfully selecting his words carefully, choosing poetic expressions and marking the accent to make his language sound more formal. Under the circumstances, Klopcic performed well, his version of Johnson's poem capturing the meaning and the spirit of the Negro creation myth. CONCLUSION At the beginning of the 20th century in Slovenia literary translation was struggling to be recognized as art. The translators were encouraged to strive towards an artistic recreation of the source text rather than a simple transmission from a foreign language to Slovene (Menart 1975). In the late 1920s Mile Klopcic joined in the enthusiastic reception of the Harlem Renaissance poets in the- Germaii~speaking couiifries. The . poems published in the anthology Afrika singt addressed him as a human being and as a poet. Unable to resist the temptation, he translated a handful of poems into Slovene thereby disregarding one of the basic rules of translation, i.e. that a translation should always be performed from the original (source) text. Moreover, as a translator he should possess the knowledge of the literary-historical circumstances within which the Harlem · Renaissance poems were placed. We have every reason to believe Klopcic's knowledge of the English language and cultural significance of the Harlem Renaissance poetry was insufficient. Whereas the translation should balance the translator's own literary tradition and culture with those of the source text, the former overcame the latter in his transla- tions. Translating from German, Klopcic was aware of the insurmountable culture gap. The poems he was about to translate were removed from the specific cultural context of the Negro movement in post World War 1 New York to an utterly different cultural context of the late 1920s Slovenia by way of another wholly different context of the postwar Germany. Therefore he set himself the goal to produce translations that would be intelligible on the level of competence - to the Slovene reader, his primary goal being to create esthetic effect. His translations need therefore be judged in the context of their time and external circumstances. Their quality falls short of the poetic excellence of the Harlem Renaissance and in a number of cases his translation changed the meaning of the poem, which leads us to conclude that the historical value of Klopcic's translations exceeds their literary quality. University of Ljubljana, Slovenia 11 WORKS CITED Brown, Sterling. "Maumee Ruth". Countee Cullen, Carolling Dusk: An Anthology of Verse by Black Poets of the Twenties. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1927: 138. Cullen, Countee. "Brown Boy to Brown Girl". The Collected Writings of Countee Cullen, Voice of the Harlem Renaissance. New York: Doubleday, 1991. Diaz-Diocaretz, Myriam. Translating Poetic Discourse. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Johns Benjamins Publishing Company, 1985. Diggins, John Patrick. The Rise and Fall of the American Left. New York, London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1992. Hughes, Langston. "I, To". http:/www.poemhunter.com/poiem/i-too/ __ . "Our Land". The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes. Ed. Arnold Rampersad. New York; Vintage, 1995: 32-3. __ . "The New Cabaret Girl". The Collected Works of Langston Hughes. Vol. 1. The Poems 1921- 1940. Ed. Arnold Rampersad. U of Missouri Press, 2001: 84. Johnson, James Weldon. "The Creation. A Negro Sermon". http://www.bartleby.com/269/41.html Jurak, Mirko. "Stric Tom v slovenskih prevodih", Nasi razgledi 9 (5.3.1960):118. Klopcic, Mile. Divji grm. Prevodi in prepesnitve. Ljubljana. Slovenski knjifoi zavod, 1952. __ . "Iz lirike crncev", Ljubljanski zvon 7-8 (1932), 431. __ . "Na8a defola". Divji grm. Prevodi in prepesnitve. Ljubljana: Slovenski knjifoi zavod, 1952: 95. __ . "Tudijaz". D,ivji grm. Prevodi in prepesnitve. Ljubljana: Slovenski knjifoi zavod, 1952, 98. __ . "StYarjenje". Ljnbljanski zvon 7-8 (1932), 432-4. --· "Crnec govori crnki". Ljubljanski zvon 7-8 (1932), 434. __ . "Trudni delavec". Ljubljanski zvon 7-8 (1932), 434-5. __ ."Novo dekle v kabaretu". Ljubljanski zvon 7-8 (1932), 435-6. __ . "Maumee Ruth". Ljubljanski zvon 7-8 (1932), 436. Kos, Janko. Pregled slovenskega slovstva. Ljubljana: DZS, 1987: 276-346. Luitpold, Josef. ,,Unser Land". Afrika singt. Ed. Anna Nussbaum. Wien und Leipzig: F.G. Speidel'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung: 45. __ .,,Brauner Junge zu Braunem Madchen". Afrika singt. Ed. Anna Nussbaum. Wien und Leipzig: F.G. Speide'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung:118. Mottram, Eric. ,,The Hostile Environment and the Survival Artist: A Note on the Twenties". The American Novel in the Nineteen-Twenties. Eds. Malcolm Bradbury and David Palmer. London: Edward Arnold, 1971. 233-262. Nussbaum, Anna, ed. Afrika singt. Eine Auslese neuer Afro-amerikanischer Lyrik. Wien und Leipzig: F.G. Speidel'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1929. Nussbaum, Anna. ,,Auch ich singe Amerika". Afrika singt. Ed. Anna Nussbaum. Wien und Leipzig: F.G. Speidel'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung: 42 Siemsen, Anna. ,,Das neue Kabarettmadel". Afrika singt. Ed. Anna Nussbaum. Wien und Leipzig: F.G. Speidel'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1929: 100. Snoj, Marko. Slovenski etimoloski slovar. Ljubljana: Modrijan, 2003. Soto, Michael. "Harlem Renaissance". The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Multiethnic American Lit- erature. Vol.2. Ed. Emannuel S. Nelson. Westport, Connecticut, London: Greenwood Press, 2005: 918-923. Stanonik, Janez. "Amerisko-slovenski odnosi. Kulturni odnosi". Enciklopedija Slovenije I, A-Ca. Ed. Dusan Voglar et al. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1987. 69-73. Steinberg, Stephen. The Ethnic Myth. Race, Ethnicity and Class in America. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989. 12 UDK 821.111(73).09 Faulkner W.:82.09(497.4) SLOVENE REACTIONS TO WILLIAM FAULKNER'S WRITING Natafo Intihar Klancar Abstract The article deals with Slovene reactions to William Faulkner's writing: a lot of critical attention was given to the author twice, namely after he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1949 and after his death in 1962. The articles and reviews published in Slovene magazines and newspapers focused on themes, characterization, style and structure of his novels. Thus the Slovene reading public got the chance to get to know one of the greatest novelists of 20th century, his troubled, decaying, socially, racially,-religiously and ·historically challenged-American-South-and through it ~themselves andtheir attitude toward the world and its problems. Faulkner also had a strong influence on some of the Slovene writers of 1950s and 1960s: they adopted his themes and writing techniques, namely a cyclic structure of the novel and stream-of-consciousness technique, thus forging the new Slovene modernist fiction that started to emerge from the late 1960s onwards. It should be mentioned right at the beginning that Faulkner's attitude toward critics and their reviews was rather unconventional and unorthodox, for the author did neither recognize nor read them, the consequence being he did not want to and could not take their comments into consideration when working on his novels. Gwynn and Blotner's Faulkner in the University- Class Conferences at the University of Virginia 1957-1958 combines a series of interviews with Faulkner at the time when he was a lecturing professor at the above-mentioned university and at the same time offers an insight into the author's thoughts on various subjects. Let us take a closer look at an excerpt focusing on his view regarding the critics' influence on him: There's nothing anybody can tell me I don't know about it, and the critic, nor I either, can improve it any by that time and the only way to improve it is to write one that will be better next time, and so I'm at that and I prob- ably just don't have time to read the critics. (60) Furthermore: I don't read [them]. I'm too busy[ ... ] I'm sure it would be valuable, but the writer, if he's as busy as I am and has got as much that he needs to say as I have and knows he never will live long enough to say it all, he ain't got time 13 to read what anybody else says about his work because he already knows what it is-it ain't good enough, that's why he's writing another. (90) Faulkner does not stop there but goes on to confess: "I don't read the critics. I don't know any literary people" (Gwynn, Blotner 1959: 65). It might be true that Faulkner did not spend (much or any of) his time dealing with critical responses but it should be pointed out that these same literary circles did spend quite some time analyzing his works, both in his native country and in Slovenia where numerous articles and reviews can be found in magazines and newspapers, concentrating on themes, characterization, style and structure of his writing, as discussed in the article. Most of these written records appeared no sooner than after 1950 (it was in the same period that Slovene writ- ers adopted Faulkner's themes and writing techniques), when Faulkner - as the fourth American, following in the footsteps of Sinclair Lewis, Eugene O'Neill and Pearl Buck - was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. It is this honorable event that the critic Vlado Habjan looks at in his article "Nekaj misli o sodobni ameriski knjifovnosti" (Some Thoughts on Contemporary American Literature) published in the newspaper Primorski dnevnik. Habjan calls the readers' at- tention to the fact that the younger generation of American writers cannot measure up to the acknowledged and respected literary creators, such as William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Scott Fitzgerald and (before them) Walt Whitman, Theodore Dreiser and Sinclair Lewis, who all reachedtheir glory _abroad first, :whernas 11at_ive lit~rnry rec;gg11i~ tion came later. Habjan thinks: "The most problematic among them all, the melancholic and pessimistic Southerner William Faulkner right [now] received the highest award a novelist in the Western world can win" (Habjan 1951: 4). Habjan puts into perspective the authors of the so-called "Lost Generation" with the ones blossoming in the 1950s, he concludes that the former enjoy the fruits of their labor, "while the young authors still have to strive for success with critics and publish- ers to acquire at least a basic understanding of their problems and their way of writ- ing" (Habjan 1951: 4). The article moves on to introduce a few young authors, whom ''American criticism according to its usual practice diminishes their quality and calls them "The New Lost Generation" (Habjan 1951: 4), but at the same time optimistically wonders which one of them is to become the new Steinbeck, Dreiser or Faulkner, sug- gesting John Dos Passos, Erskin Caldwell, John Steinbeck, Truman Capote and Eudora Welty as the possible candidates. The older generation of writers has been living in the spotlight and enjoying their fame, whereas the younger generation of novelists will have to face the hardships of getting there and direct all their efforts toward becoming recognized and famous. The newspaper Slovenski porocevalec published Janez Gradisnik's article "Nov roman Williama Faulknerja" (William Faulkner's New Novel) that also deals with the fact that Faulkner earned recognition as a talented author by foreign literary critics first, the American critical response following later. Gradisnik believes the reason for this lies in the duality of understanding and perceiving Faulkner's work. The Americans saw parallels between his complicated, bloody and painful stories and the decline and decay of the American South, while Europe "in this same world of passion, violence, corruption, malice, hatred and killing" (Gradi8nik 1951: 4) noticed a new dimension and 14 found something new - something which reacts to the changes of the modern world and is the consequence of today's way ofliving or is the real exhibition of "the decomposed, worn out man of the twentieth century" (Gradisnik 1951: 4). In her article "Pisateljska pot Williama Faulknerja" (William Faulkner's Literary Path) Marta Gliha summarizes the critics' opinion "that after Edgar Allan Poe Ameri- can South has not had a writer of such a profound insight about its social conditions and touching human destinies" (Gliha 1951/1952: 172). Both authors share the love of "horror, anxiety, feelings of life that lead people to despair, violence and crime" (Gliha 1951/1952: 172). Then the article touches upon another aspect of Faulkner, namely his composition and style. "[T]he power of fantasy, the vivacity of character description and narrative congestion" (Gliha 1951/1952: 174) are prominent in his early works, whereas later on he experimented with form: the composition is fragmented, the style becomes exotic, even bombastic, full of rhetoric and countless repetitions. The length and complexity of sentences pose a great problem for the reader whose reading ability and understanding of the text is threatened. Anton Ocvirk's article "William Faulkner in njegov roman Krik in bes" (William Faulkner and his novel The Sound and the Fury) was published in the fortnightly review for intellectuals Nasi razgledi and- as the title suggests - focuses on the above-mentioned novel. The critic enumerates the main characteristics of the novel, namely the difficul- ties of style, the complexity of events and their distorted chronology where past and present go hand ih hand. Otvirk also spends time dealing with the characters who reveal themselves to the reading public only step by step, their personalities coming forth only eventually and through close reading. He is rather poetic in saying that: "everything in the novel is as if it were enchanted and moves [ ... ] in a sort of foggy atmosphere, filled with horror and concealed pain" (Ocvirk 1952: 22). The readers can get a full insight into the work as a whole only after they have finished reading the novel, i. e. after all the thoughts, ideas and images that caused anxiety, uneasiness and agitation throughout the reading process have been settled down and have found a logical explanation. As for the presentation of characters, Ocvirk emphasizes the characterization of literary persons in general and argues that Faulkner's approach is direct, natural and concrete, his characters are shown in all their complexity which gives a feeling of disorder and confusion and as such disables the reader to read quickly and without any burdens. Therefore Faulkner's writing appears "confused and artificial, [even] pathological" (Oc- virk 1952: 22) to all who are used to the conventional way of story-telling and narrating, having the expectations concerning unity and coherence of plot and characters. The author states that not only characterization can cause reading problems, there is also the specific literary technique used by Faulkner and based on the contemporary guidelines of realists and surrealists of the 19th and 20th century. Ocvirk describes the development of the modern novel form and dwells on Marcel Proust as a pioneer and the most typical representative. The critic states that the modern novel gives prominence to inner will and intentions, to memories and thoughts that stay hidden until they are triggered off by the right stimulus and/or motive and then cause a man to react. One of the main Faulkner's priorities when writing, similarly to Marcel Proust, James Joyce and John Dos Passos, is his wish to penetrate deep into human conscious- ness and to find out all the mysteries that pervade the man's inner side and prevent 15 them from a simple and logical insight and explanation. Internal monologue as a new narrative technique developed as a consequence of new tendencies to illustrate the inner workings of the human mind at work, to record the internal or emotional thoughts or feelings of an individual, to show the man's inner side in all its complexity, to show the fights and processes that go on there. Ocvirk believes that it is one of Faulkner's main ideas to represent through the use of this literary technique the characters' conscious- ness, his subconscious and conflicts between them, thus creating a living and breathing mechanism that pushes people into certain (re)action(s). Further on Ocvirk expresses his opinion that the majority ofFaulkner's characters are common, simple people who follow their instincts primarily. Dark forces raging in their subconscious cannot be controled, they occupy their "owners" to the maximum and bring them to crime: "They all stand on the verge of grand, peaceful life as genuine outcasts - lonely but proud and rebellious" (Ocvirk 1952: 22, 23). They differ from Proust's and Joyce's heroes not only by the exceptionality and intensity of their experi- ences but also (and mostly) by the high level of consistency and tension through which they constantly express themselves. The critic suggests that the heroes are haunted by their ideas and as a consequence their actions are highly dependent on them. These ideas are hidden deep in their subconscious and represent the essence and center of their being, weaved into the past which follows them closely. For Proust the past is something that yet needs to be searched for and found, whereas for Faulkner it is "the living force that penetrates directly into the subconscious and influences it" (Ocvirk 1952: 23). Supporting this view, the hero's monologues in- tensify and enumerate, giving Faulkner the ability to build tension. Ocvirk is very clear in this thoughts that it would be inaccurate and inadequate to see Faulkner's heroes and their actions through the struggle between consciousness and subconscious only, the critic points out that a wider perspective should be taken where the hero's needs, wishes, distresses, problems, discomforts, misfortunes, dilemmas, delusions and mistakes should be seen also as a consequence of conflicts with environment and society. I share Ocvirk' s opinion that the hero cannot and should not be seen as an individuum only, but should be put in social perspective where his actions, reactions and living in general should be observed. It is this wider dimension that can give us a better understanding of both, Faulkner's works and his characters and can thus enable us to get closer to understand- ing this great writer and the message he was trying to convey. Similar themes also haunt Herbert Griin in his article "Zapiski o Faulknerju" (Notes on Faulkner), where he admits that Faulkner's difficult novels should be read many times in order to grasp their meaning fully. The characteristics of modern novel contribute largely to the complexity of Faulkner's writing, which Griin deals with in detail. His article focuses on both, Hemingway and Faulkner, the latter being introduced to the Slovene reading public no sooner than at the beginning of the 1950s. The critic draws the attention to the fact that in modern American novel "it is about evil passions, here people pursue and kill each other, they hate and love each other with biblical, basic drive [where the core ofFaulkner's heroes is made up of] bootleggers, racial and religious fanatics, unreasonable lovers, criminals, and the like" (Griin 1953: 50, 51). Griin - similarly to Ocvirk above - spends some time dealing with Faulkner's narrative technique. He is of the opinion that it is: "a jungle [where] images, events, 16 conflicts, memories, feelings, thoughts, stories are accumulated in a hard-to-follow and pathless arrangement" (Griin 1953: 51). He mentions Faulkner's typical use of moving the narrative into the past through the mechanism of memory where the thread of the narrative is lost and clung to another, whereas at the end this thick and at first glance unconnected ball of thread is untwined and it gets its meaning, individual threads are untied, ended, wiped out, destroyed or lost. The complicated narrative technique is also in the focus ofKajetan Kovic's article "Moderni avtorji v izdajah Cankarjeve zalozbe" (Modern Authors in the Cankarjeva zalozba Publishing Company Editions) published in a magazine mainly intended for librarians Knjiga. American authors Faulkner and Hemingway are put to the foreground, the former through his novel Light in August where two intertwining stories are presented and based on the chronology and sequence of events by which the author manages to create a dramatic effect of showing the dark secrets of life in the South, "trapped between deeply rooted passions of racial and religious fanaticism" (Kovic 1955: 540). The linear flow ofFaulkner's narrative is disrupted, his novel abundant in contents and structurally complex. Kovic shares a wide critical consensus in his thinking that the world cannot be understood on the basis of external factors and circumstances only, but mainly and mostly through "an internal atmosphere of human beings who move in dark circles of faith" (Kovic 1955: 541). It is precisely the apparent racial prejudice and unsolved passions that drag from one generation to another and eventually seal Joe's fate. There is Christmas who is internally shaken, unstable, insecure, his thoughts blurred, and there is Lena who is full of living power and energy that help her overcome all her difficulties. Kovic states that by using such different characters Faulkner demonstrates the dual quality of living and existing in the American South: on the one hand he offers an ethically charged accusation of negative, uncontroled human passions and deeply rooted: prejudice, on the other he leaves a ray of light by keeping faith in human existence and survival. All the above-mentioned characteristics "help promote the artistic power of his novel which belongs to one of the summits of contemporary world literature" (Kovic 1955: 542). The meaning of Faulkner's work and modern novel in general is touched upon by Kajetan Kovic in his "Leposlovna bilanca 1945-1970" (Literary Re- view 1945-1970) published in the regional newspaper Veeer. The author comments on the works of Faulkner, Dos Passos, Hemingway, Joyce, Wolfe and others. He sees and recognizes the great power of these novels on Slovene reading public whose horizons widened. Moreover, a brand new and different world opened to the readers with the help of high-quality translations. Faulkner serves as the main topic also in a contribution by Stanko Klinar. The article "Faulkner in pisateljevanje" (Faulkner and Writing) was published in the fortnightly Nasi razgledi and is in fact a summary of the famous interview given by Faulkner to Jean Stein in 1956 for The Paris Review. It deals with various subjects, for example with Faulkner's contempt for journalists who keep asking personal questions and with Faulkner' s attitude toward art. According to him, the artist "is above the critic - for the artist is writing something which will move the critic. The critic - on the contrary- is writing something which will move everybody but the artist" (Klinar 1956: 421). Faulkner's writing belongs to the area of psychological novels, a detailed discussion of the subject is given in Klinar's article "Psiholoski roman 1900-1950" (Psychological Novel 1900-1950) published in 17 Nasi razgledi. Klinar emphasizes the authors' (Faulkner included) orientation toward the heroes' inner world, their memories, experiences, feelings and imagination. Faulkner's power lies in the fact that through his heroes he reveals the secrets of the world to the readers. The third article on Faulkner by Klinar was published in Nasi razgledi under the title "Nekaj misli o Williamu Faulknerju" (Some Thoughts on William Faulkner). In it the author writes about the Slovene reading public and their enthusiasm growing over the translation ofFaulkner's Light in August (Svetloba v avgustu). The novel arouses the feelings of frustration based on fragmented, non-chronological forms and techniques used but nevertheless the reader can - using all the information from the novel - feel a certain connection, unity and coherence in the end. Faulkner and his literary achievement are again put under thorough inspection in articles by Rapa Suklje. Her article simply entitled "William Faulkner" and published in Nasi razgledi examines the lively critical response to Faulkner that only happened twice in the States: first after the author was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature and second after his death. Suklje offers a summary of Faulkner's biography and novels. She also mentions his writer-in-residence position at the University of Virginia where he participated actively in question-and-answer sessions which are collected and pub- lished in Faulkner in the University - Class Conferences at the University of Virginia 1957-1958. The critic thinks that Faulkner is neither a powerful orator nor a profound thinker, but it is the power of his written work directly connected with digging through nlimari subconscious that makes him unique and special. According to Suklje practically all Faulkner's writing is based on trying to discover and understand family relations in the American South through different generations, the dynamics being built on the black-white relationship, especially miscegenation when "white owners' blood mixed with their black slaves' to such an extent that the whites and the blacks are often actu- ally brothers; and this is the special, quiet tragedy of his imaginary Yoknapatawpha" (Suklje 1962: 275). Suklje also discusses the hero's need to fill the aching void left by the incompe- tence to stick to religious beliefs based on puritanism, which Faulkner does by clinging to nature and to virtues characteristic of Christianity. A few of them are mentioned by the critic: love, compassion and self-sacrifice. A sum of all can clearly be seen through Faulkner' s writing about the South, the emblems and dilemmas of which are confronted directly, openly and without prejudice. Suklje claims that ifFaulkner's Jefferson stands for the whole South, than the South represents the whole world and it is "through their mistakes and delusions that the writer's faith is shown -faith in man who is 'reparable' and therefore worth being shown his deformed face in a mirror" (Suklje 1962: 275). In the same year Janka Kos wrote a long preface to the Slovene translation of Light in August. In it he sees Faulkner as an important author writing in the stream-of- consciousness technique (along with James Joyce and Virginia Woolf), he has praise for his writing techniques used in the novels The Sound and the Fury and As I Lay Dying, namely internal monologue, indirect internal monologue, soliloquy and an omniscient narrator. Kos states that in Light in August direct inner monologue was substituted by indirect inner monologue that pervades the narrative. According to Kos "the authors' attitude towards physical material is not only objectively refreshing or just impartial [ ... ] it is actively involved or even participating" (Kos 1962, 10), thus making these passages 18 subjective in nature. A traditional approach to narration is rejected, time and place in Faulkner' s novel represent a frame inside which everything is included. A detailed account of the novel's themes and characters follows, Kos states that Light in August is "a combination of opposites, tensions and thrusts, everything in it is in constant movement and plotting" (Kos 1962, 19-20). Joe Christmas and people who suffer like him could only be saved through understanding based on forgiveness and love. He points out that all Faulkner's thinking is set in belief that man's salvation lies in closeness with society. Racial dilemmas that pervade the main character's life (and the narrative as such) serve as "a fa\:ade [ ... ]that in itself is only a curtain[ ... ] behind which real human conflicts can be found" (Kos 1962, 37). Women's principle is introduced through Lena whose calm posture, strength and patience help her in life. She does not give up and she resembles mother nature. Kos believes that Faulkner presents both, female and male principles in the novel, the author's attitude is "conservative and even patriarchal" (Kos 1962, 41). Society plays an important role in an individual's life for peace, life energy and forgiveness of sins can be found in it, a person's destiny is shaped with the help of this very same society. Kos ends his preface by establishing that Faulkner manages to answer some basic questions of human existence in Light in August. As already mentioned, Faulkner's presentation of the American South is based on the intertwining of time entities where past and present collide, mix and together constitute a significant part of heroes' lives and of the Southern society in general. The structural combining of events from the past with those from the present enables Faulkner to shift the time frame constantly between the two and to surpass the linear and chronological sequence of events. Mirko Jurak, who wrote two articles on Faulkner and his work (in 1979 and in 1985), in his article "Tragika modernega cloveka v romanu Williama Faulknerja Krik in bes" (The Tragedy of Modern Man in William Faulkner's Novel The Sound and the Fury) examines the subject in detail, saying that for Faulkner "there is almost not a simple, linear time period, but there is - for his narrative so typi- cal - retreat into the past about which he talks from either past or present perspective and from it highlights both, future and present" (Jurak 2001: 57). It is precisely for these reasons that the present is multilayered and closely connected to and intertwined with the past, Faulkner's characters being a product of a society of a certain period. Dilemmas, anxieties, wishes and needs of Quentin Compson, for example, are typical of a young male born in Jefferson in the American South around 1890. His problems arise from childhood experience, from his parents' attitude toward him, from racially and socially divided Southern society and from its attitude toward traditional values. It can be noticed that Quentin is an individuum but still - his story is only a part of a much bigger and more universal story that could be applied and understood widely; as a modern man's fate. It is in a similar way that Ike Mccaslin from "The Bear" denies his past and the cruel heritage from his ancestors. The action is deeply rooted in the society he grew up in (elderly parents, boy's spiritual leader and father Sam Fathers) and in his ancestors' doings known to him from tales (grandfather manhandling his own mulatto daughter and treating her like sexual property). Jurak states that both of the above-mentioned stories serve as an example of a wider and more universal problem which arouses considerable interest among the reading public. 19 As already seen, a critical response to Faulkner in Slovenia did not come before 1950s, the same was true for translations of his novels. Another interesting feature is that many interviews with Faulkner were also translated into Slovene and appeared in the foremost Slovene newspapers and magazines. They described Faulkner's techniques and creative process as a whole, thus shaping the Slovene writers' literary opinions and efforts. And indeed, quite a few major Slovene authors adopted at least some Faulknerian literary methods. The first Slovene author to show the influence of these methods was Prezihov Voranc (1893-1950), the foremost representative of Slovene social realism. His major topics of interest were the hardships of peasant and proletarian families in his native Carinthia (Koroska). His attitude towards the subject is critical and intertwined with all its social and economic peculiarities, all set in a certain historical frame. One of the key instruments is played by the war (the Great War), parallels with Faulkner's Civil War can clearly be seen. Carinthia - in the same way as the American South in Faulkner - represents the background against which the struggles of a simple man are set, the characteristics of the specific region, its people, their way ofliving, acting and speaking is of utmost importance for it exercises a strong influence on the heroes. Voranc's novels Pozganica (1939), Doberdob (1940) and Jamnica (1945), which bear highly symbolic geographical names practically untranslatable into English, rep- resent a complex social and historical entity of life in Carinthia between the two wars. All the novels are told by numerous narrators who "carry the events where the com- munity's destiny is decided upon and where this destiny is a part of historical process" (Kos 1991: 399). The cyclic structure of the narrative can clearly be seen in Doberdob, a collective war novel where military life behind the front is depicted rather stoically, because Voranc avoids the discussion of battlefields as epic places. In his article entitled "Faulknerian Literary Techniques in Contemporary Slovene Fiction" Igor Maver noted parallels between Doberdob and The Sound and the Fury for both the authors "did not develop the situation by incorporating it into a simple linear plot; [they] circled round and round it, looking at it from different poins of view, allowing new depth and meaning to be revealed with each new episode" (Maver 1993: 169). Jamnica deals with the curse of the land and represents tragic life-stories of people belonging to all spheres of society. It is set between 1920 and 1935 - at the time of the economic crisis. The author sends a clear message that money dehumanizes people and makes them morally, socially and generically crippled. A comparison with materialistic Jason (and a part of society that shares his opinions) from The Sound and the Fury is obvious. Voranc and Faulkner both share the view that materially-striven individuals end up morally and ethically destroyed by forces such as violence, brutality, alienation, self-deceit, obsession, imprudence. Literary style that appears in Jamnica is similar to Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury, both being characterized by clear, straightforward style that rests on personal (mainly love) destinies of the heroes. The heroes of the two novels are characterized by an untamable, violent, instinctive (sexual) world that forces them to speak with gestures and deeds rather than words. These people are the people of the region that have been isolated and socially self-contained for centuries. They are caught in the society surrounding 20 them, their destinies are written and determined by their own personal, biological and psychological attributes and qualities. The influence of environment and society with its expectations regarding the roles people play should not be overlooked as well. The second wave of Faulkner's influence on Slovene literature started in the late fifties with Ciril Kosmac (1910-1980). His novel Balada o trobenti in oblaku (The Bal- lad about the Trumpet and the Cloud, 1957) thematically still belongs to the sphere of social realism, although Kosmac uses associative, memory and stream-of-consciousness technique, typical of Faulkner, Virginia Woolf and Marcel Proust. In his morally-charged text Kosmac disapproves of violence and has praise for struggle and sacrifice for oth- ers. Various stories are interwoven (about a lonely struggle of a determined old man and his brave wife, about a weak man, and about the strength and weakness of literary creation) and different times and places introduced. It is narrated in a typical humor- ous style and filled with reflections, grotesque, fantastic and audio-visual elements. But - as Igor Maver believes - "despite the introduction of formal and stylistic innova- tions, [Kosmac's writing] still cannot be considered the true beginning of modernism in Slovenia" (Maver 1993: 170). Lojze KovaCic (1928-2004) represents modern psychologistic Slovene fiction which subjectivizes dreams, visions, symbols, generally the entire inner psychological world of Man. Events are described in first person - in the same way as the young man experiences them: directly and with all the details and abilities of memory. There are plain facts, everyday reality is presented - such as seen by the hero in his conscious- ness, i., e. with memory laps and jumps, dreams, visions and presumptions. Stream- of-consciousness technique is used (compare Faulkner), it is realistic, matter-of-fact, his prose is autobiographical, it could be said that it is a declaration, an opinion and a monologue about one's own self. Reality is presented in its purest form, language is genuine and real, descriptions prevail, dialogues are scarce. It feels as if the hero's internal monologue moves from matter-of-fact descriptions to poetics. It is these very characteristics that link together the novel Deeek in smrt (The Boy and Death, 1968) with modernism. Still more significant is Dominik Smole (1929-1992) in his psychological cyclic novel Crni dnevi in beli dan (Black Days and Broad Daylight, 1958), which shows the adoption of several Faulknerian techniques. Apart from the cyclic narrative structure, which ensures that almost identical and only slightly modified stories reappear on vari- ous levels, there is also the 'mad' narrator, the 'prompter' of the protagonists who now and then intervenes »in the [protagonists'] action and reduces them to puppets, further soliloquy, cinematic montage, involuntary memory, limited omniscient narration, etc.« (Maver 1993: 170). Inner states of individuals are presented and the novel is based on the main characters' consciousness. Thus everyday dull life is shown through an unnamed painter and professor of painting, through unsuccessful actress Maru8a and through the little whisperer. The novel can aesthetically and stylistically be described as Faulknerian. The final consideration ofFaulkner's influence on Slovene literature shows a strong and somewhat delayed influence of Faulknerian literary techniques on the novels of Rudi Seligo in the late sixties (1935-2004). He deals with an individual's destiny, their intimate experience and universal existential, moral and erotic problems that surpass the 21 limits of time. Seligo uses his novels and short stories to describe young people, work- ers and employees, whose problems are shown through the hero's consciousness and through perception of the world around her. Triptih Agate Schwarzkobler (The Tryptych of Agatha Schwarzkobler, 1968) is written in a consistent reistic manner where Agata's moves and deeds are followed as if by video camera. In conclusion it can be said that the literary influence of William Faulkner in Slovenia was quite significant. The lively critical response in Slovenia as discussed in the article - both, about author's life and about his work have proven an inexhaustible subject matter that has captivated the readers' imagination. In such a way also Slovene readers could get to know one of the greatest novelists of the 20th century and at the same time form an opinion about the author, his heroes, about the American South of the past and of the present and, last but not least, about themselves and about the world they live in. Slovene authors of the 1950s and 1960s partly followed Faulkner regarding his subject matter and themes as well as writing technique and style: cyclic structures and stream-of-consciousness technique were adopted in their work, the latter being particularly decisive in forging the new Slovene modernist fiction that had started to emerge from the late 1960s onwards. These authors introduced heroes who depend on the society's demands and expectations, who are in constant battle with themselves and the environment, much the same as in Faulkner's writing. Ljubljana, Slovenia WORKS CITED Gliha, Marta. "Pisateljska pot Williama Faulknerja." Beseda I (st. 4) 1951/1952: 172-4. Gradisnik, Janez. "Nov roman Williama Faulknerja." Slovenski porocevalec XII (st. 268) 15. 11. 1951: 4. Griin, Herbert. "Zapiski o Faulknerju." Beseda II (st. 1) 1953: 46-53. Gwynn, Frederick Landis in Joseph L. Blotner. Faulkner in the University- Class Conferences at the University of Virginia 1957-1958. Charlottesville: The U of Virginia Press, 1959. Habjan, Vlado. "Nekaj misli o sodobni ameriski knjifovnosti." Primorski dnevnik VII (st. 213) 09. 09. 1951: 4. Jurak, Mirko. "Tragika modernega cloveka v romanu Williama Faulknerja Krik in bes." Ameriska proza: od realizma do postmodernizma. Ur. Mirko Jurak, Jerneja Petric. Ljubljana: Znanstveni institut Filozofske fakultete, 2001. 53-60. __ . "Spremna beseda o avtorju." W. Faulkner. Absolom, Absolom! Ljubljana: CZ, 1979. 379- 395. __ . "Spremna beseda o avtorju." W. Faulkner. Krik in bes. Ljubljana: CZ, 1985. 329-342 Klinar, Stanko. "Faulkner in pisateljevanje." Nasi razgledi V (st. 17) 08. 09. 1956: 421. __ . "Nekaj misli o Williamu Faulknerju." Nasi razgledi V (st. 12) 23. 06. 1956: 304. __ . "Psiholoski roman 1900-1950." Nasi razgledi V (st. 21) 10. 11. 1956: 510. Kos, Janko. Knjizevnost - ucbenik literarne zgodovine in teorije. Maribor: Zalozba Obzorja Maribor, 1991. __ . "William Faulkner: Svetloba v avgustu." V: Faulkner, William. Svetloba v avgustu. Prevod Mira Mihelic. Ljubljana: CZ, zbirka Sto romanov, 1966. 5-42. 22 Kovic, Kajetan. "Leposlovna bilanca 1945-1970." Veeer XXVII (st. 276) 26. 11. 1970: 25. __ . "Moderni avtorji v izdajah Cankarjeve zalozbe." Knjiga III (st. 10) 1955: 536-42. Maver, Igor. "The Usage of Faulknerian Literary Techniques in Contemporary Slovene Fiction." Faulkner, His Contemporaries, and His Posterity. Ur. Waldemar Zacharasiewicz. Tiibingen: A. Francke Verlag Tiibingen, 1993. 167-73. Ocvirk, Anton. "William Faulkner in njegov roman Krik in bes." Nasi razgledi I (st. 18) 31. 10. 1952: 22-3. Suklje, Rapa. "William Faulkner." Nasi razgledi XI (st. 14) 28. 07. 1962: 275. Note: All the translations from Slovene sources were done by the author of this article. The article is partly based on the author's Ph.D. thesis, supervised by Professor Igor Maver. 23 24 Abstract UDK 821.111(73).09 Franzen J.:929 Winfrey O.G. THE DISPUTE BETWEEN JONATHAN FRANZEN AND OPRAH WINFREY Nina Bostic Following the publication of Jonathan Franzen's The Corrections in September 2001, the novel was selected by Oprah's Book Club. Afterwards, Franzen commented negatively on the club's previ- ous selections, upon which the invitation was withdrawn. The objective of this paper is to investigate the reasons behind Franzen's negative response, the proceeding media fall-out and the effects of the Winfrey - Franzen dispute. In an attempt "to get the whole country reading again," Oprah Winfrey established Oprah's Book Club (hereafter OBC) in 1996 and proved that a great number of people were prepared to interact with literary texts which would then serve as the basis for a guided discussion in a book club. When she decided to use the medium of television in order to expose her relatively low-educated audience to high literature, Winfrey defied the typical highbrow-lowbrow divide and proved that it was not just accessible to the highly educated elite but also to the uncultured and the marginalized and that, therefore, culture was no longer "something created by the few for the few" (Levine 1988:252). On her show, Winfrey stressed that "literature is powerful", that "it has the ability to change people, to change people's thoughts" and that "books expand your vision of yourself and your world" (qtd. in Farr 2005:52). In this way, every month for the next six years, Winfrey recommended a book for the audience to read and invited them to send a writ- ten response in order to be selected to attend the OBC show i.e. dinner with the author at which that particular book would be discussed. She always gave clear instructions as to how the books should be read i.e. not in terms of their literary value but as material providing help and advice in challenging everyday-life situations. Reading as promoted by OBC thus focuses on identification with events and characters, followed by a dis- cussion about these which Farr calls the 'oprafication of books' (ibid.) Consequently, in OBC, books were regarded as a self-help device and a means to achieve an internal change of self rather than being evaluated in accordance to the standards of literary criticism, which is the main reason why the academia held a negative view towards the club throughout its existence in the original form. In her book Reading with Oprah: The Book Club That Changed America, Rooney suggests that it is possible that such reading 25 could result in the misinterpretation of a novel (Rooney 2005), which could be one of the reasons why Jonathan Franzen opposed his appearance on the show. Since the majority of Winfrey's audiences have always been women, most of the recommended books were intended for female readers. Winfrey realised that it was mostly women who were victims of discrimination, harassment and violence and selected books which talked about these realities. In this manner she, for example, recommended The Book Of Ruth by Jane Hamilton, in which the protagonist is a mentally challenged but kind-hearted Ruth, who survives mental abuse by her mother and physical abuse by her husband, or White Oleander by Janet Fitch where the main character is faced with a mother who refuses to take care of her own daughter. These two novels are typical selections of the OBC as far as content is concerned. On September 24, 2001 Winfrey announced on her show that the next book of the month was going to be Jonathan Franzen's new novel, The Corrections. If we consider some of OBC's previous selections and the introduction to the novel, which is still found on OBC's website it is clear that the novel was chosen because it talks about a modern dysfunctional all-American family. The Lambert family, who live in the Midwest are father Alfred, mother Enid and their children Gary, Chipper and Denise who have all moved to the East coast. At first glance this family is like any other, but readers follow its metamorphosis from the 1960s to the end of the 1990s as this suburban nuclear fam- ily gradually disintegrates, which is evident in the father's Parkinson disease and the children who try hard to socially, psychologically and geographically detach from their Midwestern roots. The novel is an account of cultural history through the configuration of social class identity (Green 2005: 105). At its most basic level, The Corrections is a novel comprised of six related novellas with a prologue and an epilogue and incor- porates everything that is modern-day America - from politics, literary criticism as an undergraduate subject at university to clinical depression, from the ambivalent attitude to death penalty to third world exploitation, from illegal and legal drugs to pressure that comes from conforming to a particular sexual identity, from the pointless want of material goods and terrible pain that could only be caused by members of immediate family. While the first and the fourth chapter deal with the stories of Alfred and Enid, the last chapter entitled "The Corrections" brings all the family together and solves the family conflict described in all of the previous chapters. "The Corrections" shows that the future of the Lambert family is optimistic. The Corrections is, therefore, a portrayal of the American modern-day society and deals with family relationships and the effects these have on the family members' lives. It is, for this reason, not at all surprising that the novel made the OBC's list as it would provide a great basis material for a discussion over dinner where Franzen's Midwestern roots would surely feature at the core of the discussion as, before Winfrey withdrew the invitation, the author and the OBC film crew went to St. Louis, a suburb in Missouri where Franzen grew up to film a short introduction to the show. The latter was later described in Franzen's essay "Meet Me in St. Louis" (Franzen 2002). Jonathan Franzen was born on August 17, 1959 in Chicago, Illinois but grew up in St. Louis, a suburb in the state of Missouri. He was educated at Swarthmore College and received a Fulbright Scholarship in the early 1980s to study at a Berlin university. To date, The Corrections is his most successful novel for which he was awarded the 2001 National Book Award for Fiction and the 2002 James Tait Black Memorial Prize 26 for fiction. He is also the author of The Twenty-Seventh City (1988), Strong Motion (1992), How to Be Alone (2002) and The Discomfort Zone (2006). In the essay entitled "Perchance to Dream: In the Age oflmages, a Reason to Write Novels" published in the Harper's magazine in April 1996, Franzen expressed concerns about the fact that at this day of age Americans know more Hollywood stars than writers as he wrote: "Exactly how much less novels now matter to the American mainstream than they did when Catch-22 was published is anybody's guess. Certainly, there are a few American milieus today in which having read the latest work of Joyce Carol Oates or Richard Ford is more valuable, as social currency, than having caught the latest John Travolta movie or knowing how to navigate the web" (Franzen 1996: 38). In that same year the American talk show host Oprah Winfrey started her Oprah's Book Club hoping to give a novel a more meaningful spot in the American mainstream culture. Hence, at that time both Franzen and Winfrey were concerned about the Americans' lack of interest in literature. From Franzen's article and the fact that Joyce Carol Oates's novel We Were the Mulvaneys even made the OBC book of the month it could be expected that Franzen' s attitude towards OBC selecting his novel would be positive, which at the beginning it was, as he told the People magazine that after Winfrey called him to tell him how much she had loved the book and invited him to the show he immediately called his girlfriend in California because he was so excited (Schidehette 2001: 83). Considering that The Twenty-Seventh City and Strong Motions published before The Corrections, sold only around 50 OOO copies and that Winfrefs recommendation would in all probability boost the book sales, his excitement was justified. Nevertheless, only weeks after agreeing to appear.on the show, Franzen, in the middle of a sixteen-city book tour, began to make rather dubious remarks pertaining to his OBC status telling David Weich who conducted the interview with Franzen on October 4, 2001 in a bookshop in Oregon, "The problem in this case is some of Oprah's picks. She's picked some good books, but she's picked enoughBchmaltzy, one-dimensional ones that I cringe, myself ... " (qtd. in Rooney 2005: 39). Later, in an interview with Jeff Baker for Portland Oregon, Franzen said that not only the OBC logo made him feel uncomfortable, but that "[the novel] does as much for [Winfrey] as it does for us" and when the journalist asked him to explain further he said, "Well, it was already on the best-seller list and the reviews were pretty much all in. What this means for us is that she's bumped the sales up to another level and gotten the book into Wal-Mart and Costco and places like that. It means a lot more money for me and my publisher" (40). Indeed, according to The New York Times, Winfrey's selection encouraged Franzen's publisher Farrar, Straus and Giroux, to print an additional 500 OOO copies, which brought the author $1.5 million (41). However, Franzen's arguably most regrettable statement was yet to come. After having been prompted to explain what his selection means, in turn, for Winfrey, he replied only that, "It gets that book and that kind of book into the hands of people who might like it" (ibid.). The journalist then asked him what he meant by "that kind of book" and in doing so Franzen stated that his selection for OBC "heightens this sense of split I feel. I feel like I'm solidly in the high-art literary tradition, but I like to read entertaining books and this maybe helps bridge that gap, but it also heightens these feelings of being misunderstood" (ibid.). In doing so, Franzen put a gap between him as representative of highbrow culture and Winfrey as middlebrow. In another interview he expressed 27 concerns about not having enough male readers as he said, "It has been a source of pain that there are interesting male novelists out there - and I'll just leave myself out of the statement for the moment- who don't find an audience because they don't find a female audience because it is - I mean, so much of reading is sustained in this country, I think, by the fact that women read, while men are off golfing or watching football on TV or, you know, playing with their flight simulator or whatever" ( 42) from which it is clear that Franzen was looking for a male audience and that he might have thought that being an Oprah's pick would dissuade the male readers from picking up his novel, which is clearly visible from his statement, "Now I'm actually at the point with this book where I worry- I'm sorry that it's - I had some hope of actually reaching a male audience and I've heard more than one reader in signing lines now in bookstores say, 'You know if I hadn't heard you, I would've been put off by the fact that it is an Oprah pick. I figure those books are for women, and I never touch them.' Those are male reader speakers. So I'm a little confused by the whole thing right now" (43). Considering the fact that a lot of the books that Winfrey had recommended were indeed intended for female readers as demonstrated above, Franzen's fears may have been justified. Not only did Franzen make negative comments about the kind of books OBC selected, but he also criticised the production of Winfrey's show saying, "I've done the sort of bogus thing where they follow you around with a camera and you try to look natural. And I've done a two-hour interview, which will be boiled down to three minutes or so. But, no, the show with - which I've never seen until they sent me a tape - the little coffee klatch and theffthe full audience stuff that has not happened. Won't happen till November" ( 44 ), thereby criticis- ing not only the show but also its audience. For Philadelphia Inquirer he said that the book would be difficult for Oprah's Show viewers and thus implied that typical viewers ofWinfrey's show were less intelligent (Schindehette 2001: 84). Franzen was also very critical of the OBC logo which was to appear on the cover of the novel as he said that he was an independent writer and saw the book as his creation and did not want a logo of corporate ownership on it, especially because it was not just a sticker but part of the cover and, therefore, impossible to take off. Indeed, Franzen had always been critical of the consumer society and his view on corporate ownership was the result of this as expressed in his essay collection How To Be Alone (Franzen 2002). As a result ofFranzen's continuing negative comments about OBC, on 22 October 2001 Publishers Weekly published Winfrey's statement withdrawing Franzen's invitation to the OBC show (Rooney 2005: 46), however, she has never taken The Corrections off her recommended books list, which to this day remains on her website. After Winfrey withdrew the invitation, the media turned the Winfrey - Franzen dispute into a tabloid-like scandal rather than understanding it as an opportunity for a discussion about the role of culture and literary authorities in the modern world and the relationship between the high- middle- and lowbrow culture. Critics were either on the side of Franzen or Winfrey avoiding any argumentative criticism. Washington Post journalist Jonathan Yardley, for example, expressed his deep indignation for Franzen and writers who are bothered by the fact that the wrong people might read their books (Yardley 2001). A Chicago Tribune columnist Mary Schmich focused on Franzen's appearance which, in her opinion, corresponds to that of a highly educated individual, "Maybe you've even run across Franzen' s official photo during his burst of fame. He's a 28 handsome guy. He looks as ifhe might show up in one of those high-art fashion ads that wants you to believe that the brooding, cleft-chinned model is a Harvard grad student because who else would wear such earnest glasses and not have time to shave?" ( qtd. in Rooney 2005: 53). These responses from the media even deepened the high-, middle- and lowbrow divide. Only a few critics managed to see the dispute as the consequence of the changing relationship between the three cultural categories, and the fact that mid- dlebrow culture has penetrated highbrow culture, making the later today only available in small, highly specialized journals, thereby pushing it to the fringe of the academic world (Levine 1990). The editor of the Harper's magazine Lewis Lapham wrote that Franzen was too much like a literary genius of the 1920s who in today's world do not have the same effect on people as they did in the past and that more financial capital does not necessarily result in less cultural capital1 anymore (Kirkpatrick 2001). After the media created such a scandal, Franzen apologised on October 23, 2001, blaming the media for deepening the high-, middle- and lowbrow divide and said that he continues "to be grateful to Oprah for her love of The Corrections" ( qtd. in Rooney 2005: 47). In a telephone interview that he gave Kirkpatrick for The New York Times Franzen said that he failed to realise that "you can't talk to reporters you don'tknow the same way you talk to family and friends - you really only learn by burning your hand on the stove" (ibid.). After the dispute he had obviously also changed his mind about what kind of readers he would like to have as he said that he did not have any preconcep- tions about what kind of reader made a good reader for his work and that anybody who enjoyedthe book was a friend of his. He also began defending Winfrey's contributions to the American literary community in the same fashion he had previously employed against OBC. His wish to heal the cultural rift was perhaps most noticeable after he had won the National Book Award as he thanked Oprah Winfrey "for her enthusiasm and advocacy" (Rooney 2005: 50). !£\Franzen responded to all the media frenzy again and again, Winfrey refused to comment, missing an opportunity for a public debate on cultural elitism and authority. Although she never specifically said that the dispute with Franzen was to blame, she announced the end of OBC in April 2002 saying that it had become continuously more difficult to find books she wished to recommend: I just want to say that this is the end of the book club as we know it. Well, yes, yes, every month for the past six years I have selected a novel and this is my last regular selection. From now on when I come across something I feel absolutely compelled to share, I will do that, but it will not be every month. The truth is, it has just become harder and harder for me to find books on a monthly basis that I really am passionate about, and I refuse - because you all have noticed that first it's a month, then it's five weeks, then it's like six weeks, then seven weeks - and so I refuse to pick a book I have not personally read. I have to read a lot of books to get something that I really passionately love, so I don't know when the next book will be (qtd. in Rooney 2005: 163). 1 The phrase 'cultural capital' was first used by Pierre Bourdieu in his book Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. 29 One possible explanation that Rooney gives in her study of the club is that Win- frey had been continuously attacked by the academia when all she wanted was "to be loved and to be considered smart" (171) or that, as The Economist once observed, "The suspicion is that, like many who have successfully clambered to wealth and influence, Ms. Winfrey now craves intellectual respectability. After all, when you have $500 mil- lion to your name, you can afford a little vanity" (1998: 76). This statement may prove true if we consider that Winfrey herself once said, "Once Maya Angelou had a party. It was a party for Tony [Morrison] after she received the Nobel Prize, and I went to it. I was surrounded by authors, and I felt like I was 11 years old. I felt like I could not even speak. At one point, somebody said, 'Oh, I'd like some more coffee,' and I got up to get it. Maya said, 'Sit down,' and I went 'No, I'll get it. It'd be a treat"' (qtd. in Rooney 2005: 172). Apart from her personal reasons, it is also possible that the show got cancelled because of low ratings and that the sales of books recommended by OBC and carrying the OBC logo were on the decrease selling 1.5 million copies in 1999 but only 700,000 in 2001 (Rooney 2005: 169). After the show was cancelled there was varied media reaction. Washington Post, for example, published an advertisement, "THANK YOU; OPRAH, for your unique and magnificent work over the past six years on behalf of books, authors and readers everywhere" and finished it by saying, "Yes indeed, thank you, Oprah, for what you've done - in particular, for enlarging the readership for African-American writers - but that wasn't exactly a GteatBooks discussion you were conducting, and it wa.s about a mile short of 'unique and magnificent"' (Yardley 2002). L.A. Times published an even more negative article entitled "Good Riddance to Oprah's Book Club, and Her Literary Amateurism" (Vincent 2002). The New York Times' reaction was more positive as it admitted that some of OBC' s selections were prime literature and that "the list has included some truly distinctive writers, like Ms Morrison, Bernhard Schlink, and, notoriously, Jonathan Franzen" ("Oprah Demures" 2002). OBC was revived on July 18 when Winfrey recommended the next title saying it would be John Steinbeck's East of Eden, which resulted in sales sky-rocketing in just twenty-four hours after the announcement and the book finishing in second place just under Harry Potter (Rooney 2005: 187). Winfrey decided to return to the classics as they are the safest choice while being aware of possible attacks on the way OBC approached them as she said, "[Steinbeck] is not like Shakespeare, or even Faulkner; it is reader-friendly. I want to lead people down this path without them thinking they're back in school. When you read something that's good and juicy and it's called literature, then you're not closed to the idea of it. ... There are some who would argue that [East of Eden] is not really a 'classic' ... and I realized that that was a conversation that would come up over and over again .. .! just want to read great books without it becoming controversial" (qtd. in Rooney 2005: 192). CONCLUSION By establishing OBC, Winfrey exposed millions of people, who would otherwise not have picked up a book, to reading. As her audiences are mostly women and because 30 her show deals with addressing everyday personal problems, she typically selected books that would provide a good basis for a discussion about these. Despite the fact that most of her selections were novels of high literary value, if we trust The New York Times Book Review as a distinguished arbiter ofliterary taste, her attitude to presenting and evaluating these novels was most often middlebrow in that it focused on the plot and identification with characters. As this could result in misinterpretation of a novel, it could well be one of the reasons behind Franzen's negative attitude towards Winfrey's invitation to her show as he publicly expressed fears of being misunderstood. Furthermore, Franzen follows the traditional discourse which sees books as a serious, classic, permanent and intellectual property and not as consumer goods, which is the case with OBC as the club traditionally puts its logo on the cover of the monthly selections. The thought of having an OBC logo printed on the covers of his book, his intellectual property, made Franzen, who has al ways been a severe critic of consumerism (as is seen from his essays and The Corrections), cringe, as the traditional discourse that he is part of, sees books as dignified objects. However, OBC turned what used to be considered sacred, and which the traditional discourse still regards as such, more accessible by promoting books as objects offering possibility for reflection, contemplation and, above all, pleasure. Although OBC followed the highbrow idea that stresses the inherent value of cul- ture as the legitimate pointer of social privilege and thus continues the logic of cultural differences, through promising access to culture to audiences that were not exposed to it when growing up, it threatened the traditional exclusivity of culture and knowledge, which had before only been accessible to members of the upper class. Considering that Franzen wrote for Harper's magazine, which is one of the publications for the highly- educated elite and known for its pure and rich writing style which is based on hierarchy and elimination, his reaction to Winfrey's invitation shows that he remains close to the ideology of highbrow culture of which he feels he is part. Although divisions between highbrow and middlebrow culture/literature are no longer as rigid as they once were and middlebrow culture has penetrated highbrow culture, making the latter today only available in small, highly specialized journals, thereby pushing it to the fringe of the academic world because postmodernism brought about the end of elitist ideas which emphasised high quality, beauty, truth and authen- ticity by bringing democratic values which appreciate multiculturalism, relevance and equality (Levine 1990), judging from his first reactions Franzen still feels that highbrow literature should also be interpreted in highbrow manner, which is not something OBC was practising. Franzen was worried that because of the way books were read and interpreted in OBC, The Corrections would be misunderstood, which is legitimate if we take into consideration the standard way in which OBC approaches book analysis. Moreover, taking into consideration that Franzen wrote about his mixed feelings about appearing in Oprah's Show in New Yorker even before the dispute (Franzen 2000) and even though he later apologized for all the negative statements he uttered saying that he was only a writer who was not used to giving interviews and who naively believed that media did not manipulate, shows that he must have believed in all that he had said and that he was not just "carried away", as he later said in his apology. Franzen is therefore not just a literary snob, which is how the media often portrayed him because he had always been 31 critical towards the consumer society and was, therefore, labelled as an elitist too soon. He is an independent writer, who refuses to be part of a large corporation like that of Oprah Winfrey. The scandal was to a large extent brought about by the media and Franzen later expressed regret about the dispute only deepening the divide between highbrow, middlebrow and lowbrow culture, which again proves that he is not an elitist, as in that case, he would have wanted the divide to get bigger. However, it is true that Franzen was never willing to accept the fact that cultural and economic capital are becoming indistinguishable and that cultural definitions are not as rigid as they used to be. Ljubljana, Slovenia/Melbourne, Australia WORKS CITED Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Massachusetts: Harvard UP, 1984. Bostic, Nina. Ameriska sodobna knjizevna produkcija in Jonathan Franzen. Magistrsko delo. Rokopis. (Unpubl. MA thesis) Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, 2008. "Dumbing Up (How Oprah Winfrey Has Influenced People to Read More Through Her Television Show)." The Economist, 17 Oct. 1998: 76. Farr Konchar, Cecilia. Reading Oprah: How Oprah's Book Club Changed the Way America Reads. Albany: State UP, 2005. Franzen, Jonathan. The Corrections. New York: Picador: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001. Franzen, Jonathan. "Perchance to Dream: In the Age of Images, a Reason to Write Novels." Harper's Magazine, April 1996: 35-54. __ .How To Be Alone. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. __ . "Meet Me in St. Louis: A Writer's Televised Homecoming." New Yorker 24&31 (2000): 70- 75. Green, Jeremy. Late Postmodernism: American Fiction at the Millennium. New York: Palgrave Mac- millan, 2005. Kirkpatrick, D.David. '"Oprah' Gaffe by Franzen Draws Ire and Sales." The New York Times, Oct 29, 2001. . Accessed: October 2007. Levine, Lawrence W. Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America. Cam- bridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard UP, 1990. "Oprah Demurs", The New York Times, April 10, 2002. . Accessed: Oc- tober 2007. Rooney, Kathleen. Reading with Oprah: The Book Club That Changed America. Fayetteville: The U of Arkansas P, 2005. Schindehette, Susan. "Novel Approach: Author Jonathan Franzen Insults Oprah-and Gets Dumped from.Her Show." People November 2001: 83-4. Vincent, Norah. "Good Riddance to Oprah's Book Club, and Her Literary Amateurism." Las Angeles Times, April 11, 2002. . Accessed: June 2007. Yardley, Jonathan. "The Story ofO, Cont'd." The Washington Post, 5 November 2001 . Accessed: June 2007. __ ."Oprah's Bookend." The Washington Post, April 15, 2002. 32 UDK 821.lll.2'04/'06.09-392 PROSAAUFLOSUNG DER WILLEHALM - TRILOGIE: GEWALT IM RELIGIOSEN KONTEXT Anita Gumilar Abstract Angesichts der Tatsache, dass das frlihneuhochdeutsche Werk eines anonymen Prosabearbeiters der urnfangreichen mittelalterlichen Willehalm-Trilogie sowohl in der friihneuhochdeutschen als auch in der gegenwiirtigen Rezeption und literarischen Forschung nur in ,,Randbemerkungen" seine Erwahnung fand, wird im vorliegenden Beitrag der Versuch unternommen, dem bisher noch unerforschten Feld von literarischer Darstellung der Gewalt im religii:isen Kontext in der Hystoria von dem wirdigen ritter sant Wilhelm_ wenigstens ei11e Abhilfe_ ZJl leisJen. Ausgehend von deram Anfang_nur- ,,skizzenhaft" entworfenen Problematik des kausalen Zusammenhangs von Religion und Gewalt wird im Beitrag die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Iiterarische Gestaltung von religii:is motivierter Gewaltauslibung in dem frnhd. Werk gelenkt, wobei die Gewaltphanomene sowie deren Funktion zur Diskussion stehen. Rund 400 Jahre nach demAusbruch des ersten Kreuzzuges1 fiihrt der anonyme Pro- sabearbeiter der mittelalterlichen Willehalm-Trilogie in der Hystoria von dem wirdigen ritter sant Willhelm, das aus denAuseinandersetzungen zwischen den Glaubensgruppen hervorgehende Gewaltphanomen in fiiihneuzeitlicher literarischer Form kodierend, die Prasenz Gottes als Beweggrund ftir die kriegerischen Zusammenst6Be2 an: [ ... ] jch will es aber lasen an stan vnd in Jhesu namen den strit mit dir an vahen, daz du nit wenest, das ich den strit hindren well; vnd da mit sprungent si an einandren vnd schreig Rennwart: ,Ihesu, in dinem Namen 1 Robert Payne beschreibt in seinem Werk Die Kreuzziige- die historiographischen Quellen berlicksichti- gend - die erste groBe Auseinandersetzung zwischen dem muslimischen Osten und dem christlichen Westen mit Hilfe einer w11hrheitsgetreuen Schilderung: ,,Fur die Menschen des mittel. Abendlandes war Jerusalem die Stadt der Traume. Hunderttausende verlieBen zwischen 1096 und 1270 n. Chr. Heimat und Familie, um den Muslimen das Land zu entreiBen, wo ihr Erloser gelebt hatte. Unter unsaglichen Milhen kampften sich die christlichen Heere von Schlachtfeld zu Schlachtfeld bis ins heilige Land will ich dir volgen vnd will dic:li got beveJc:hen vnd will _ath()~ ~_g<;:be~ sondem ihn vielmehr dauemd zum Mit- und Nachdenken iiber das Geschehen,