Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 1 The Nexus between city livability and transportation in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria *Ayobami Ademola AKANMU 1 , Kolawole Taofeek GBADAMOSI 1 and Felix Kayode OMOLE 2 1 Federal University of Technology/Department of Transport Management Technology, Akure, Nigeria 2 Federal University of Technology/Department of Urban & Regional Planning, Akure, Nigeria [Corresponding Author indicated by an asterisk *] Abstract — The livability of cities has been a matter of global concern in recent times. Importantly, the ease of mobility and accessibility in cities remained paramount factors in enhancing residents’ locational decisions and suitability. It is on this basis that this study examined the nexus between city livability and transportation in the Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. Anchored on the concept of livability, the study descriptively and inferentially analyzed the results of 1264 questionnaires administered to residents based on key livability themes. The study revealed low satisfaction with the livability key performance indicators. Similarly, the study revealed that most of the assessed transportation infrastructure facilities are in poor condition and thus hinder the ease of commuting and livability in the city. The result of the regression analysis revealed that transportation infrastructure statistically influenced the livability of the Lagos metropolis. The study recommends the need for expedited proactive measures, particularly structural improvement in transportation infrastructure, towards improving the livability of the Lagos Metropolis. Index Terms — City livability, Transportation, Livability Indicators, Lagos Metropolis I. INTRODUCTION Cities continue to be magnetic elements, attracting various categories of people, investments, and activities across nations and continents. With this, cities that provide enabling infrastructure for commerce and industrial development, health, housing, and recreation continue to witness an influx of investments and people from diverse directions who are seeking greener pastures and more comfortable living. Notably, the movement and spatial interaction of urban residents are no doubt, crucial to the effective functioning of the city (Fasina, Akanmu, Salisu & Okunubi, 2020). Also, a city as a very complex entity usually requires an efficient transportation infrastructure to make its various components of living, working, and industry function and interact seamlessly (Adesanya, 2011; Adeboyejo, 2021). It is in this regard that cities in both the developed and developing worlds are striving towards providing a series of critical services to support ease of living and livelihood. Meanwhile, UN-Habitat (2012) noted that transportation infrastructure not only promotes the competitiveness of local businesses, improves civic participation, employment, and labor productivity, but also enhances the investment climate in the city by contributing meaningfully to its attractiveness and livability. Further to this is the fact that the ultimate motive of both the global Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to enhance the livability of human settlements through the adequate provision of urban infrastructure in numerous dimensions (UN, 2015; UN, 2017). This results in the clamor for livable cities globally, which Jiriko (2014) describes as those cities that are maximally conducive for living, mobility, accessibility, working, recreating, and being eco-friendly, in addition to the possession of all the attributes of felicity. In this context, a livable city is a safe, secure, and affordable community with appropriate transportation options and housing, aside from offering supportive community features and services. Interestingly, cities in developed countries such as Melbourne, Vancouver, Vienna, London, and Amsterdam, among others, are making progress in city livability in terms of transportation infrastructure and mobility options, as evidenced by their outstanding performance in global mobility and livability rankings. Unfortunately, many African cities are lagging behind in the global livability ranking, with adverse implications for their residents, activities, investments, and visitors. Most importantly, it is disheartening to note that the Lagos Metropolis, which accounts for over 35% of Nigeria‘s Gross Domestic Products (GDP) with an estimated growth rate of 6%, is ranked among the least livable cities in the same category as Damascus, Port Moresby, Dhaka, and Algiers (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2021). The consistent inflow of people and unguided commercial activities in Lagos have occasioned several perceived challenges that affect the performance of the existing transportation infrastructure in meeting the daily mobility and accessibility needs of residents (Salisu et al., 2021). Specifically, the poor performance of transportation infrastructure has led to the experience of commuting difficulty and longer travel time on many major Lagos roads such as Ojota-Mile 12 road, Apapa-Oshodi expressway, Third Mainland Bridge, Ogba Road, Ikosi-Ketu road, Carter Bridge, Eko Bridge, Murtala Mohammed Way, Herbert Macaulay Way, Ojuelegba-Mushin, Agege Motor Road, Lagos-Abeokuta roads, and the dilapidated situations of other inner transportation facilities including pedestrian walkways and crossings, local streets, Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 2 bus sheds, etc. in the Lagos Metropolis have questioned the extent of its livability. Based on the foregoing, this study appraised the residents’ perception of the nexus between city livability and transportation in the Lagos Metropolis towards evolving mechanisms to improve its subsequent rating in the comity of global cities. To achieve this study aim, the following research questions guided the study: What are the socio-economic and travel characteristics of the residents of the Lagos Metropolis? What are the perceived livability key indicators that enhance the livability of the Lagos Metropolis? Is there any relationship between city livability and transportation? And how much of a statistical influence does transportation infrastructure have on the livability of the Lagos Metropolis? In other words, this study is novel in that it not only establishes residents' concerns about the extent to which transportation infrastructure affects their livability in terms of needs achievement, but it also establishes the key livability indicators that require urgent attention from stakeholders, particularly the government, in order to improve Lagos Metropolis' ranking among global cities. Hence, the findings of this study contribute to the frontier of knowledge by adding to the literature on transportation and city livability. II. CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINING AND LITERATURE REVIEW A. Livability Concept The concept of livability has become a general workable framework towards improving the livelihood and ease of working, especially in cities and large urban centers in recent times. This concept was viewed by Harrison et al. (2010) and Kaal (2011) to have different nomenclature that includes "sustainability", "functionality", "walkability", "standard of living," "quality of life," and "general well-being of a population." The concept, therefore, emerged in different languages for describing and planning better places to live. By implication, livability is an assessment of what a place is like to live in using criteria that include environmental quality, crime and safety, education and health provision, accessibility, and mobility, among others. The concept of a livable city, according to Amare (2014), can be traced to the ancient Greeks, who promoted the ideology of fairness and justice, and was advanced in the early 19th century with the idea of "Garden Cities of Tomorrow" that was propounded and published in 1902 by Ebenezer Howard. In the view of Gossop (2006), the idea of garden cities was a reaction to the environmental and social legacy that accompanied the industrial revolution in Europe, most especially in London, which resulted in a century of industrialization, rapid growth, and unhealthy housing conditions. The promotion of the concept extended to the United States of America in the early 1900s when New York City and other population centers dealt with industrial growth, pollution, and ill health in densely populated areas by successfully passing zoning laws to make the city more livable for their residents (Adejare, Akanmu & Ogunsesan, 2016). Livability was then defined as the ability of residents to live but not die from congestion, smog, tuberculosis, and other infections. However, Kaal (2011) states that the concept reappeared in the 1950s as a powerful linguistic tool in Vancouver, while Abad and Farahnaki (2017) observe that the concept was subsequently presented under the title of "livable streets" by Donald Appleyard in 1981 and, as such, brought livability to planners and urban designers concerning streetscapes and transportation. Livability is, therefore, a central concept for urban planning and is often used as a ranking tool that draws on diverse indicators such as public safety, social relations, maintenance of the streets, open spaces, and proximity to job opportunities to evaluate neighborhoods and cities. Considering the importance of the concept, many global organizations now make use of it for the assessment of the competitiveness of cities and other human settlements for various purposes. Hence, livability is now a concept that is widely applied by city administrators, development partners, international organizations, and investors to facilitate ease of livelihood and governance, while investors and residents equally use it to make decisions regarding the location of investments and residency. B. Brief Review of Literature Human settlements have been experiencing unprecedented urbanisation in all dimensions in recent times, leading to the rapid expansion of city boarders and functions with a correspondingly increasing number and volumes of people and freight that need to be moved across spatial nodes and links. As a result, the extensive and sporadic urbanisation, population explosion, and ageing transportation infrastructure are adversely affecting city mobility and performance. Yannis and Chaziris (2021) opined that transportation systems have faced ever-increasing challenges in recent times as a result of increasing urbanisation and the increasing demand for mobility and accessibility in the midst of inadequate and over-stressed infrastructure. However, the study of Zubala (2022) also established that transportation infrastructure development does not influence the components of the environment and city revitalization. Further to this, Akbari, Moayedfar and Khondabi (2018) observed that the increasing growth of urbanization has brought about numerous urban problems such as housing, urban transportation, environmental shortages and related pollution that Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 3 plague the cities and, ultimately, affect all aspects of urbanization, with the logical relations of urban life distorted and the overall livability reduced. According to Ahmed, El-Halafawy and Amin (2019), livability has emerged as a holistic and systemic strategy to reverse some of the 20th century urban planning techniques and also provide a means to the fulfilment of human needs and wants, as well as differentiate between human needs and luxuries in relation to the Maslow hierarchy of human needs. Accordingly, livability describes the conditions and required characteristics of neighborhoods where residents live relatively free from intrusions with a sense of belonging, including the shift in development patterns from the decline of urban centers to rapidly growing suburban areas. As a behavior-related function of the interaction between environmental and personal characteristics, livability is a suitability for human living; thus, the degree of suitability is determined by community-specific values, ease of mobility and accessibility, and local connectivity and structure in relation to dominant economic, social, and cultural activities and backgrounds. Thus, the personal feelings or the desires of the residents of a particular place and the quality of available transportation facilities are what govern the degree of livability (Salisu et al., 2021; Gbadamosi, Omole, and Akanmu, 2021). Kashef (2016) notes that livability is concerned with creative design processes that utilize elements of urban legibility (path, node, landmark, edge, and district) to enhance the aesthetics and physical characteristics of buildings, streets, and development blocks. Akanmu, Gbadamosi, and Omole (2021) opined that the transport infrastructural facilities captured under road, rail, water, air, and pipeline play pivotal roles in achieving city livability as cities throughout the world rely mainly on these transportation modal operations for efficient mobility and accessibility functions required in meeting daily human needs. Therefore, a high level of public services in housing, transportation, education, and health care is essential for livability in urban centres (Holzner & Römisch, 2021). In this context, livability becomes a multidimensional issue with professional connotation. Thus, Cramer-Greenbaum (2021) explained it as involving land use, environmental protection, enhanced mobility and accessibility, public health, and economic well-being; livability in transportation is about integrating the quality, location, and type of transportation facilities. Hence, livability is a set of flexible principles to guide transportation decision-making, including access, choice, and quality of life. Consequentially, fostering livability in transportation results in improved quality of life, creates a more efficient and accessible transportation network, promotes active lifestyles, and serves the mobility needs of all categories of users (Gbadamosi, et al., 2021; Akanmu, et al., 2021). Furthermore, livable cities emerged during the 1980s in connection with growing environmental concerns and the increasing competition among world cities to attract foreign investments and boost their economies (Kashef, 2016; Fasina et al., 2020). As a result, numerous indices and measurement tools have been developed over the last three decades to rank cities according to the amenities and opportunities afforded to their residents and visitors (Cramer-Greenbaum, 2021; Holzner & Römisch, 2021; Gbadamosi, et al., 2021). These include safety and security, crime, climate, transportation, infrastructure, healthcare, public policies and services, business environment, cost of living, recreational amenities, education, housing, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, sanitation, culture, air quality, and natural capital have been incorporated into quantitative models to compare and rank these cities (Akanmu, n.d; Akanmu et al., 2021). In addition, qualitative aspects like lifestyle, well-being, happiness, tolerance, and environmental aesthetics have also been compiled to benchmark urban livability on a global scale (Akanmu, n.d). In other words, the number of transportation options in a community is related to increased levels of livability regardless of the actual frequency of cycling and walking (Federman, 2018; Fasina et al., 2020). By incorporating livability principles into transportation plans and programs, the United Nations (2017) states that communities can maximize the efficiency of existing transportation investments while providing better access within and between activity centers. However, Harrison et al. (2010) argue that livability is a system that works as well for walking, wheeling, or taking transit in most communities. As such, it is a measure of the objective quality of life that can be referred to as suitable for human living, whether that be the quality of life, the standard of living, or the general well-being of a population in the city. Hence, the quality of life is seen in both objective terms using per capita gross domestic product and in a subjective term using self-reported life satisfaction perceptions. In this regard, the concept of livability addresses the objective conditions of infrastructure and is important for businesses and city governments because such livable cities attract good workers and businesses since business activity is the key to city development. This study, however, sees transportation infrastructure as a pivot for a livable city as all organs, activities, functions, and structures of the city have to be connected and sustained by it for cities to be functional, livable, and sustainable. In this regard, Adejare et al. (2016) opine that the concept of livability should transcend the provision and upgrade of infrastructure as well as economic and social nomenclatures, which are mostly used by scholars and researchers through socio-economic and infrastructural parameters. In the opinion of Little (2018), livability refers to the subset of sustainability objectives that directly affect community members and, by this, addresses the combination of human needs and subjective well-being with the opportunities in the built environment, reflecting the importance of the interaction between the built environment and the subjective aspect. Therefore, livability is important for businesses and city governments because livable cities attract good workers and businesses, since business activity is the key to city development as there are numerous yardsticks that have been Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 4 used in measuring cities (Akanmu, n.d). Accordingly, Timmer and Seymaar (2004) note that livability includes an array of different issues that are underpinned by a common set of guiding principles such as accessibility, equity, empowerment, and participation that give substance to the concept of livability. Therefore, the quality of life experienced by residents and visitors in a city is tied to their ability to access transportation infrastructure and other routine and non-routine engagements. Undoubtedly, the transportation system has been a major influence on the changing lifestyle and its various dimensions across socio-economic, cultural, and psychological parameters that are now driving the change in livability at an increased pace. Based on the foregoing, livability refers to an urban system that contributes to the physical, social, and mental well- being as well as the personal development of all its inhabitants and visitors, with easy mobility through transportation options. Therefore, a livable city is a city for all people that is not only attractive but worthwhile and safe for people of different ages and socio-economic characteristics. Therefore, livability is the sum of the factors such as built and natural environments, economic prosperity, social stability and equity, educational opportunity, and cultural, entertainment, and recreational opportunities that add up to a community’s quality of life. Therefore, livability is anchored on the extent and nature of cordial man-environment interactions and relations. III. MATERIAL AND METHODS A. The study Area (Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria) The study area is the Lagos metropolis, which is located in the southwestern part of Nigeria, comprising an area of 3,577 square kilometers. Lagos is bounded in the north and east by Ogun State, in the west by the Republic of Benin, and in the south by the Atlantic Ocean, and stretches for about 180 kilometers along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. Lagos is loosely classified into two main geographical areas: the "island" and the "Mainland" due to its water bodies, in which the "island" is a loose geographical term used to define the area of Lagos that is separated from the sprawl of the mainland by the channel draining the lagoon into the Atlantic Ocean that forms Lagos harbor (Badejo, 2009; George, 2015), while the "Mainland" consists of many other Local Government Areas that sum up Lagos. All modes of transportation and transportation facilities are available in the Lagos metropolitan area. However, the road, more than any other modern means of transportation, has the widest and largest network, linking up different areas of the city. Some of the prominent roads include the Ikorodu Road, Western Avenue, Marina, Third Mainland Bridge, and the Apapa-Oworonsoki express road, etc. The distinctive and functional characteristics of the transportation situation in Lagos are given by Adediran (2015), who opines that Lagos has about 1.2 million registered vehicles and an estimated 224 vehicles per kilometer of road space. According to Iyiola (2004), estimates of urban transportation demand in metropolitan Lagos in 1990 ranged from 7–10 million passenger trips per day, with road transport accounting for more than 95 percent of the total. The remaining 5% is split between rail and ferry transportation, both of which are on the decline. B. Methodology The study focuses on the residents of Lagos metropolis, who constitute the bulk of commuters and passengers. However, Lagos Metropolitan Local Government Areas had a population result of 7,937,932 people in 2006 (FGN, 2007), which is projected to be 12,849,132 in 2020 at a 3.5% growth rate. The sample size consists of 0.0001% of the total population of residents of Lagos Metropolis, which translates to 1,284 respondents who were selected from the study population, representing 0.0001% of the projected population. This is justified given the recommendation of Bruton (1985), who stated that when the population under study is below 5,000 and over 1 million, the sample size should be set at between 10% and 1% (or less). The data collected was subjected to descriptive and inferential analysis. Descriptively, the analysis includes the use of frequency tables and weighted sums to support the interpretation of organized and summarized data. The mean weighted values involved the rating of responses on the predefined scale in which the significance of each factor as well as their corresponding weighted values were ranked on a scale with varying gradations using 5 points on Likert’s scale of measurement for data in ordinal form. Also, the extent of the influence of transportation infrastructure on the residents' perception of the livability of Lagos Metropolis was tested through Analysis of Variance in the Regression Model. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Socioeconomic Characteristics of Residents This section discusses the results of analyzed data on the city's livability and transportation in Lagos metropolis, with emphasis on the main livability indicators. First, the overall results of the data analysis on the socio-economic attributes of sampled respondents in the study area (See Table I). First and foremost, Lagos metropolis is spatially delineated into six districts for this study, and respondents are made to associate with the closest spatial delineation to their area of residence. In this regard, it is observed that slightly more than one-tenth (10.3%) are within the residential zone/estate, while more than one-third (30.8%) are not living in the residential estate but within other residential neighborhoods. Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 5 However, slightly more than one-quarter (26.3%) reside in the zone of transition beyond the city perimeter, while only 5.0% reside in the Central Business District of Lagos Metropolis. In the same way, more than one-tenth (14.6%) of Lagos's population resides in the urban fringe or suburbs of the city, while the remaining 13.1% reside in settlements outside Lagos. This result shows that commuters in the Lagos metropolis reside in various residential areas and districts within and outside the spatial boundary of the metropolis, in particular, and Lagos State, in general, affirming the cosmopolitan nature of the metropolis with diverse areas of residents. Residents administered with questionnaires are found to have been residing in the metropolis for varying periods. Accordingly, Table I reveals that slightly more than one-tenth (11.7%) have been residing in the metropolis for less than 5 years, while almost one-tenth (10.4%) have been living in the area between 5 and 10 years, and close to one-third (29.0%) are between 11 and 15 years. Also, more than one-quarter (27.8%) have been residing in the Lagos metropolis for between 16 and 20 years, while the remaining 21.1% have spent more than 20 years in Lagos. From this analysis, it can be deduced that a substantial part of the respondents are no strangers to Lagos metropolis, as the majority of them have spent more than 5 years living in the study area. Hence, they are familiar with happenings in the metropolis, including issues relating to the transportation system and the extent of their ease of access. The gender classification shows that more than half (58.7%) are male, while the remaining 41.3% are female. This indicates that in a typical cosmopolitan city like Lagos, males are more frequently found in the act of mobility than female counterpart. Also, this finding is an attestation to the position of the 2006 National Population Census, which states that the male population is greater than their female counterparts in many Nigerian cities, including Lagos. Also, the analysis of data on marital status shows that the metropolis has fewer than one-third of respondents as single (28.3%), close to two-thirds (61.6%) are married, and the remaining one-tenth (10.0%) belong to other unclassified groups, including widows, widowers, and single parents. Based on this result, it can be deduced that a substantial number of respondents are married, with accompanying marital duties and responsibilities, demanding transportation infrastructure for the ease of their families' livelihoods. In addition to the marital status of respondents in the study area, the analysis of their household size revealed that less than one-quarter have less than 2 people in the household (21.4%), while more than one-quarter (27.1%) have between 2 and 4 people in the household. Also, less than one-third (27.8%) have between 5 and 7 people in their household, while the remaining 23.7% have more than 7 people under the same dwelling roof. A cursory examination of these results shows a high rate of consistency in the results on marital status; hence, it can be deduced from this analysis that most of the respondents are not single but have one or more than one person living together under the same roof or room to cater for. The age classification of respondents revealed that 2.0% is between 15 and 20 years, while more than one-tenth (14.1%) is between 21 and 30 years, and less than one-quarter (18.4%) is between 31 and 40 years. Also, slightly more than a quarter (27.9%) is between 41 and 50 years old, while less than one-quarter (19.6%) is between 51 and 60 years old, and the remaining 18.0% is more than 60 years old. Accordingly, the results of age classification revealed that a significant proportion of respondents are within the working age range in Lagos metropolis, as only 2.0% and 18.0% are at the school-going age and retirement age, respectively. Hence, they are bound to be mobile for varying socio- economic and cultural engagements that require mobility and transportation infrastructure to make a living in the metropolis. The level of education of respondents varied and ranged from absence of formal education to a higher degree of education, showing that slightly more than one-tenth (11.5%) has no formal education, and almost one-tenth (10.7%) has an adult literacy education and 10.4% has a primary level of education. However, less than one-quarter (21.8%) have a secondary level of education, while almost one-third (31.2%) have a first degree or its equivalent level of education, and the remaining 14.3% have a higher degree level of education. From this analysis, it can be deduced that there is a high level of literacy and education among the respondents because only 11.5% have no formal education. This shows that respondents are not strangers to mobility and transportation infrastructure in the metropolis, and as such, their opinions could be treated as reliable. Moreover, the results of the analysis of the employment status of respondents revealed that only 5.7% are unemployed as at the time of the survey, while more than one-tenth (19.3%) are students or apprentices, and more than one-quarter (27.5%) are in personal or self-employment. Also, slightly less than one-quarter (20.0%) are in public service employment and 22.9% are in private service employment, while the remaining 4.4% are retirees. In this regard, the results established that the majority of respondents still engage in economic activities that require a change in spatial position over a particular distance; hence, they are involved in acts of mobility and accessibility towards earning livelihoods. This underscores the rationale for the usual transiting positions of residents in the Lagos metropolis. The average monthly income of respondents’ ranges from less than $30,000 to over $180,000, as shown in the results of data analysis presented in Table I. Only 5.8% earn less than the national minimum wage of $30,000 per month, while more than one-tenth (15.3%) earns between $30,000 and $90,000, and slightly less than one-tenth (9.7%) earns between $90,001 and $120,000 per month. Also, close to one-quarter (18.8%) earns between $120,000 and $150,000, while slightly more than one-third (32.7%) earns between $150,000 and $180,000 monthly, and the remaining 17.8% earns more than $180,000 on average every month. This is an attestation to the fact that a significant proportion of residents of Lagos make more than the national minimum wage of #30,000 on a monthly basis from Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 6 varying sources of economic engagement. The income range of respondents, in particular, and residents of Lagos metropolis is a reflection of the gross domestic product of the state, which is generally considered to be the highest among other states in the country. It is interesting to note that the observed religious affiliation and practices of respondents in Lagos metropolis have no adverse influence on mobility and accessibility quest considering the results presented in Table I. In this regard, nearly half (46.4%) of respondents engage in and practice the Islamic religion, while slightly less than half equally practice Christianity. In addition, it is equally observed that those practicing traditional religion account for 9.1%, while the remaining 3.6% engage in other unclassified religions. With this, it can be deduced from the results of the analysis that there is an absence of religious dichotomy in access to transportation infrastructure and mobility options in the metropolis; hence, the existence of respondents practicing and engaging in varying religious practices and beliefs. This is typical of all cosmopolitan and global cities, in which Lagos is usually considered and assessed. The respondents have different spatial locations where their workplaces are located in the metropolis, as shown in the results of the analyzed data, where 18.5% are within the residential zone and slightly less than one-quarter (24.1%) are in the adjoining neighborhood. Also, more than one-tenth (12.3%) have their workplaces located in the zone of transition, while slightly less than one-third (28.9%) have them in the Central Business District of Lagos. Also, slightly less than one-tenth have their workplace on the urban fringe, while the remaining 6.5% have unclassified locations as their workplace. Importantly, this analysis established the fact that Lagos remained the center of socio-economic excellence in the country because all areas and zones in Lagos are economically viable for various categories of socio- economic undertakings. An investigation into the modal classification of vehicle ownership by respondents in Lagos metropolis revealed that more than half (58.0%) have no personal vehicle. Further to this is the fact that 1.4% have a bicycle, while those with a tricycle account for less than one-tenth (7.4%). In addition, almost one-tenth (11.6%) has a motorcycle, while more than one-tenth (15.3%) has a car, and the remaining 6.2% has a bus. Based on the results of this analysis, it can be deduced that large numbers of respondents are captive transit riders and, as such, mostly depend on the public transportation system for their various categories of intra-urban trips in the study area. Essentially, it is noticeable that ownership of bicycles as a crucial component of active transportation means least attests to the dwindling fortunes of this means of transportation in the city. Table I: Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents Period of staying in the area Period of staying in the area Spatial delineation Frequency Percentage Range of Period Frequency Percentage Within residential zone/estate 130 10.3 Less than 5 years 148 11.7 Within other residential neighborhoods 389 30.8 Between 5 and 10 years 132 10.4 Zone of transition 333 26.3 Between 11 and 15 years 367 29.0 City’s CBD 63 5.0 Between 16 and 20 years 351 27.8 Urban fringe/Lagos suburbs 184 14.6 More than 20 years 266 21.0 Outside Lagos 165 13.1 Total 1264 100.0 Total 1264 100.0 Gender Classification Marital Status Classification Frequency Percentage Status Frequency Percentage Male 742 58.7 Single 358 28.3 Female 522 41.3 Married 779 61.6 Total 1264 100.0 Others 127 10.0 Household Size Total 1264 100.0 Range Frequency Percentage Age Classification Less than 2 persons 270 21.4 Range of age Frequency Percentage 2-4 persons 343 27.1 Between 15 and 20 years 25 2.0 5-7 persons 352 27.8 Between 21 and 30 years 178 14.1 More than 7 persons 299 23.7 Between 31 and 40 years 232 18.4 Total 1264 100.0 Between 41 and 50 years 353 27.9 Level of Educational Attainment Between 51 and 60 years 248 19.6 Level Frequency Percentage More than 60 years 228 18.0 No formal education 145 11.5 Total 1264 100.0 Adult literacy 135 10.7 Employment Status Primary school 132 10.4 Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 7 Nature of employment Frequency Percentage Secondary school 276 21.8 Unemployed 74 5.9 First Degree/equivalent 395 31.2 Students 244 19.3 Higher degree 181 14.3 Personal/self-employment 247 27.5 Total 1264 100.0 Public service 253 20.0 Average Monthly Income Private employment 290 22.9 Range of income Frequency Percentage Retiree 56 4,4 Less than #30,000 73 5.8 Total 1264 100.0 #30,000 - #90,000 193 15.3 Religion Affiliation #90,001 - #120,000 122 9.7 Nature of religion Frequency Percentage #120,001 - #150,000 238 18.8 Islamic 587 46.4 #150,001 - #180,000 413 32.7 Christianity 517 40.9 Above #180,000 227 17.8 Traditional 115 9.1 Total 1264 100.0 Others 45 3.6 Spatial Location of Work Places Total 1264 100.0 Spatial locations Frequency Percentage Vehicle Ownership Within residential zone 234 18.5 Classification Frequency Percentage Adjoining neighborhood 305 24.1 None 733 58.0 Zone of transition 156 12.3 Bicycle 18 1.4 Lagos CBD 365 28.9 Tricycle 94 7.4 Urban fringe 122 9.7 Motorcycle 146 11.6 Others 0 0.0 Car 194 15.3 Total 1264 100.0 Bus 79 6.2 Total 1264 100.0 Source: Authors’ Field survey, June 2021 B. Transportation and City Livability Indicators The extent of performance of city livability indicators vis-à-vis mobility-related needs of respondents was assessed using ten (10) livability indicators that comprise Urban Utilities and Facilities, Urban Services, Land Use, housing, social security and safety, environment, ease of accessibility and mobility, resilience, gender equality and poverty, with eighty- one (81) sub-indicators were assessed on 5 points. Likert’s scale, which has gradations, comprises Very Low (VL =1), Low (L =2), Fair (F =3), High (H =4), and Very High (VH =5). The index for each variable was arrived at by dividing the Summation of Weight Value (SWV) by the total number of responses accordingly. According to Fasina et al. (2020) and Salisu et al. (2022), the SWV for each of the variables was obtained through the addition of the product of the number of responses to each aspect and the respective weight value attached to each rating. This is expressed mathematically as thus: SWV = Where: SWV = Summation of Weight Value, = number of respondents to rating Y the weight assigned a value ( = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5). Therefore, the higher the RMI, the higher the level of effectiveness for the variable under consideration is and this is expressed quantitatively as; RMI = = WM The details of the analysis are presented. However, it produces a weighted sum estimated to be 214.9996/81 = 2.5595 as a benchmark (Relative Index Mean) and a basis for comparisons of each Mean Index value (MIV) of the sub- indicators (see Table II). Concerning the sub-indicators of urban utilities and facilities, it is observed from the analysis that access to public elementary and secondary schools (4.2909) and access to public medical facilities (4.1171) are the most significant sub-indicators of city livability in the study area, with transportation infrastructure significantly influencing access to them. In addition, access to telecommunication facilities and services (3.2199), availability of visual interest (2.7816), connectivity, and connectedness of streets (2.5939) are also acknowledged by respondents among the sub-indicators of urban utilities and facilities having positive impacts on their livelihood in the city. In contrast, the results equally revealed the displeasure of respondents to sub-indicators that include access of pedestrians to sidewalk facilities (2.4494), sidewalk attraction to use (2.3343), emergency facilities and services (2.3456), access of pedestrians/commuters to first and last-mile travel (1.9369), walking permeability (1.6893), availability and adequate buffer zone facilities (1.6646). Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 8 The above results importantly acknowledged the necessity of transportation infrastructure for the efficient performance of city livability indicators as well as poor attention being accorded to other components of urban utilities and facilities, which are salient ingredients of city livability. For instance, pedestrians and pedestrianization-related attributes as well as their ancillary components, which are major ingredients for ensuring seamless commuting for pedestrians, are not adequately provided. Therefore, the results show the near absence of pedestrian aiding facilities, including handrails, protective guards, and elevated platforms, that are capable of guaranteeing the safe use of walkways in the highly motorized Lagos metropolis. Similarly, intermittent breaks or a lack of continuity in available sidewalk facilities appear to be an additional burden to pedestrians, while the results justify the need to make sidewalks and walkways appealing to use, and their design and construction should produce visual interest to attract users. However, there is a need to extend the focus on first and last-mile travel of respondents considering the poor rating of this component in intracity trip making. Also, the poor assessment of intermediate entry and exit, as well as the inadequacy (where exit) of a buffer zone for the sidewalk, required shifting attention to make them ensure ease of commuting and livelihood-city livability. Concerning urban services, it is observed from the results of the analysis that access to recreation and entertainment centers and services (3.8418), access to public parks (3.7152), access to shopping malls and supermarkets (3.6187), and access to public waste management facilities and services (3.2555) are the most significant sub-indicators being impacted by transportation infrastructure. However, the results of access to fire-fighting services and access to the public library (1.2634) showed poor attention and, possibly, their low attraction to respondents in their daily socio-economic engagements. There are nine (9) sub-indicators of land use that were assessed by respondents in Lagos metropolis, of which only five (5) show a greater positive influence on the ease of commuting and livelihood by having a MIV that is significantly greater than the RIV. Specifically, neighborhood pattern (3.6788), attractor destination (3.6566), development of essential services (3.5799), availability and accessibility of deterrent land uses (3.4589) and urban infrastructure maintenance (2.7856) revealed and established highly intensive land uses that characterized Lagos metropolis and the existing transportation infrastructure, providing an expected link to facilitate both mobility and accessibility in the metropolis. However, the results of the remaining sub-indicators that comprise the establishment of social services (2.1820), development of greenery (1.7816), availability of open space uses (1.4976), and ease of accessibility to recreation activities (2.710) showed their low level of impact on transportation infrastructure in the study area. Accordingly, the results showed that residential districts are characterized by established neighborhood patterns, attractor destinations for grocery, restaurants, and retail outlets; availability of deterrent land uses such as schools, offices, and shopping centers; and the development of essential services, which include stores, warehouses, and shopping centers, among others, which are undoubtedly predominant attributes of land use in the Lagos metropolis. Invariably, the nature of land use and its intensity in the city are associated with peculiar industrial and commercial activities domiciled in Lagos. Concerning housing, five (5) indicators were assessed, of which only three (3) have a mean index value that is conspicuously higher than the benchmark value. As a result, housing options/types (4.0744), housing development (3.9805), and housing densities (3.9225) show a positive influence on the ease of urban commuting and livelihood vis-à- vis the existing transportation infrastructure in Lagos metropolis. As a result, the existence of varying housing options by occupancy, materials, and methods of construction, design, and several floors is no doubt noticed in the study area. Also, housing development by the government (Federal Government of Nigeria and Lagos State Government) and private developers, as well as individuals, is a recurrent activity in Lagos to bridge housing demand and the housing needs of over 20 million residents of the state, in which metropolitan Lagos remains spatially prime for housing construction and development. In addition, there are varying housing densities for various income groups in Lagos, especially in the metropolitan area. There is a series of mixed-income housing in all housing densities in the Lagos metropolis, with the exception of the government reservation areas in Ikeja, Magodo, and a host of others, which are predominantly for high-income members of society. However, another housing density mix is usually found adjoining such GRAs in the country. Meanwhile, there is a slight variation in the MIV sub-indicators that include neighborhood beautification and aesthetics (2.1748), while the results of the analysis show housing affordability in Lagos metropolis is in serious doubt considering the MIV of 1.2880 estimated. Arising from this result, it can be deduced that respondents are usually under immense pressure on housing prices and housing rents, considering the lowest mean index value of this sub-indicator. Hence, housing affordability in the Lagos metropolis is a major issue of concern considering transportation infrastructure and the ease of livelihood of respondents in the study area. This unequivocally denotes the existence of housing stress, which is a minus to the livability status and ranking of the city. The importance of social security and safety to residents, respondents, communities, and commuters in intra-urban trips is enormous as they would want to reach their destinations safely and with their possessions secured. Based on the foregoing, respondents assessed eleven (11) sub-indicators of social security and safety concerning transportation infrastructure, ease of commuting, and livelihood. However, only six (6) of the sub-indicators assessed have a MIV exceeding the benchmark. As a result, the development of street security facilities, including the installations of Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) (3.6733), social protection (3.5385), the development of risky/crime hotspots (3.3244), enforcement of pedestrian safety regulations (3.0680), development of traffic safety measures (3.2603), and availability of street lighting (3.0680) have a mean index value that is slightly more than the benchmark. However, these values still showed the need for intensified efforts to boost and improve safety and security in the Lagos metropolis while at the Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 9 same time attesting to the positive attention that security and safety are receiving from appropriate authorities not only in the metropolis but across the state. In addition, the results of other sub-indicators, which comprise adequate traffic calming (2.4438), presence of street furniture for seating and bollards (1.4367), presence of shade and rain cover (1.2793), crime-free street (1.7073), and funding and resources devoted to pedestrian planning (1.5831) show their poor contribution to ease of commuting and livelihood in the study area. While the result shows the existence of first aid and emergency services (accident and rescue) as acknowledged by respondents, the performance of other sub- indications portrays the high degree of vulnerability of respondents to crime and insecurity during the use of transportation systems and infrastructure for intra-city trips. Concerning the environment, the results of analyzed data on eight (8) sub-indicators revealed that only six (6) sub- indicators have a fair assessment from respondents. Increased water pollution and obstruction (3.8125), increased air pollution (3.8022), increased street noise pollution (3.5498), and environmental degradation such as floods (2.7848) are five sub-indicators with fair assessment that still indicate the need for government and other stakeholders to improve the environment for ease of commuting and livelihood. Water pollution and obstructions to spatial development and disposal of waste and refuse are common issues receiving the attention of the Lagos State Government in the last two decades, while air pollution is due to the concentration of industrial activities and production processes in the Lagos metropolis. Lagos is host to over 65% of industrial establishments and processes in the country and cannot be fully separated from air and noise pollution. Also, the high rate of motorization and automobile dependency in Lagos metropolis, like industrial production, calls for a renewed approach to minimize counterproductive externalities and make the city more comfortable and habitable for residents. Other sub-indicators such as the development of stationary images for beautification (1.8323) and increased green spaces (1.2184) have a MIV that is less than the estimated benchmark. However, specific statues identified as having been erected at designated locations throughout the metropolis include the three (3) wise men near Alausa, Gani Fawehinmi statue, MKO Abiola statue at Ojota, and Obafemi Awolowo statue at Ikeja, among others. The remaining sub-indicators, however, are ranked below the estimated benchmarks. In this category are the development of greenery (1.7816), the availability of open space uses (1.4976), the establishment of social services (2.1820), and the ease of accessibility to recreational activities or tourist attractions along the route (2.5110). As a result of this analysis, the ease of accessibility to recreational activities and the establishment of social services show slightly better performance than the remaining sub-indicators, with MIV slightly below the benchmark. In contrast, the result established the need for intensification of efforts and actions for the development of greenery and open space uses, among others, in the metropolis. Significantly, ten (10) sub-indicators of ease of accessibility and mobility were assessed, and the results revealed the importance of transportation in ease of urban commuting, livability, and livelihood, as two (2) of the sub-indicators ranked first and second in the whole analysis and with the highest MIVs. Precisely, five (5) sub-indicators of modal choice/transportation options are among the leading sub-indicators that have MIV exceeding that of the benchmark. Notably, the shift to ridesharing/ride-hailing services has the highest MIV of 4.5879, denoting the importance placed on it by respondents, while access and use of another road modal split consisting of buses, taxis, and cabs, etc. is ranked second among all the sub-indicators with a value of 4.3932. Thus, having a MIV exceeding 4.0 is highly significant in this study as a result of the fact that such a value confirms the great extent to which the existing transportation infrastructure and transportation options have on city livability and ease of commuting. As such, existing transportation infrastructure is positively influencing the shift to ridesharing/raid hailing services and the use of road modal shift more than others. In addition, the subtitle for physical movement and access to city deliveries and urban logistics, which have MIV of 3.8426 and 3.5799, are ranked tenth and sixteenth, reflecting good and favorable complimentary by existing transportation infrastructure, while access to traffic information (3.0783), ranked thirty-first, shows the positive influence of available sources of traffic information in the metropolis and, as such, contributes to the ease of urban commuting and the livelihood of respondents. In contrast, the remaining sub-indicators of ease of accessibility and mobility showed poor performance and the need to bridge the gap in their provision and management in the city. The results of the analysis in this regard revealed poor performance of dedicated bicycle lane/path (1.1835), ease of commuting (1.2017), affordability of modal fare (1.4525), and adequacy of carrying capacity of modal choice (1.2350). Resilience has now become the vanguard of sustainability and livability in recent times due to the adverse impacts of climate change and other anthropogenic occurrences. In this respect, respondents assessed eight (8) sub-indicators of resilience in which only the proneness of the city to floods, ocean surge and other coastal consequences (3.2832) and quick response to transportation-induced disasters (2.7555), while the results of the remaining sub-indicators revealed the need to urgently evolve a mechanism to improve the resilience of the Lagos metropolis. Specifically, there are dismal results for ease of passage during a downpour (1.1329), emergency services accessibility (1.4612), rescue and first aid during an emergency (1.3845), social integration program (1.6203), access to emergency relief packages during a disaster (1.2650), and availability of social support facilities (1.1250). Hence, the need to improve the mechanism for the resilience of Lagos metropolis, especially with the global and national recognized implications of climate change and variability on human settlements and livelihoods. The implications of these results are enormous and varied, considering the poor results of the assessment of city livability indicators in Lagos metropolis. The findings revealed that the lack of a dedicated bicycle lane/path in the Lagos metropolis, as well as the existence of transportation stress being experienced by respondents prior and during intra- Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 10 city trips, are denoted by unease commuting, affordability of modal fare (pricing), high demand volume/adequacy of carrying capacity considering the metropolis's over 7 million daily commuters, and erratic responsiveness of respondents' preferred modal choice. The assessment equally attested to restricted access and use of rail, water, and air modal choice by respondents. From the above summation, it can be deduced that only thirty-eight (38) sub- indicators across the main indicators exceed the benchmark of the whole analysis. Therefore, tactical and strategic planning and efforts have to be intensified to improve the performance and contributions of transportation options in the Lagos metropolis to ensure ease of commuting and improve the livability of the city. Table II: Respondents’ Assessment of City Livability Indicators in Lagos metropolis Indicators Sub-indicators VL L F H VH TWV MIV RIM Rk Urban Utilities and Facilities Walking permeability 7 26 222 1112 4275 5753 1.6893 214.9996/84 =2.5595 54 Pedestrian aiding facility 834 410 102 764 0 2110 1.6693 55 Connectivity and connection of street 497 302 309 1628 530 3266 2.5839 38 Sidewalk attraction to use 485 382 771 1324 0 2962 2.3434 45 Access to public water facilities 353 1596 147 256 0 2352 1.8608 43 Availability of visual interest 393 460 216 1592 855 3516 2.7816 48 Access of pedestrians to the sidewalk 715 20 153 928 1280 3096 2.4494 36 Response to emergency 124 1636 501 284 420 2965 2.3457 42 Access of pedestrians to first and last-mile travel 714 362 312 1060 0 2448 1.9367 47 Access to public medical facilities 3 0 600 2816 1875 5204 4.1171 4 Access to public elementary and secondary schools 22 220 702 860 3415 5219 4.1290 35 Availability and adequate buffer zone 827 350 363 564 0 2104 1.6646 56 Access to telecommunication facilities/services 159 470 690 1796 955 4070 3.2199 30 Urban Services Access to recreation and entertainment centers 48 14 747 3012 1035 4856 3.8418 12 Access to public parks 73 210 528 2660 1225 4649 3.7152 14 Access to shopping malls and supermarkets 255 222 309 748 3040 4574 3.6187 18 Access to fire-fighting services 734 522 165 740 145 2306 1.8244 50 Access to the public library 931 666 0 0 0 1597 1.2634 67 Access to public waste management facilities 361 296 198 720 2545 4120 3.2595 29 Access to public postal services 678 486 774 340 0 2278 1.8022 51 Land use Attractor destinations(grocery, restaurant, retail,) 47 276 1056 1568 1675 4622 3.6566 17 Neighborhood pattern 41 272 1038 1624 1340 4650 3.6788 15 Availability and accessibility to deterrent land uses(schools, offices, shopping 230 78 216 3068 780 4372 3.4589 23 Development of essential services (stores, shopping centers,) 145 216 408 2476 1280 4525 3.5799 19 Development of 734 552 204 672 90 2252 1.7816 52 Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 11 greenery(parks, public spaces, front garden,) Availability of open space uses (playground, sports pitch) 865 500 216 292 20 1893 1.4976 59 Establishment of social services (education, health, shopping, service industries, etc.) 616 482 135 1140 385 2758 2.1820 44 Urban infrastructure maintenance/management 443 224 543 1316 995 3221 2.7856 34 Ease of accessibility to recreational activities/tourist attractions along the route(parks, theaters, cinema,) 213 766 1431 764 0 3174 2.511 46 Housing Housing development 59 84 477 2436 1975 5031 3.9805 8 Housing options (types) 102 38 282 2068 2660 5150 4.0744 5 Housing density (low, medium, and high) 117 42 336 2428 2035 4958 3.9225 9 Housing affordability 1013 370 57 188 0 1628 1.2880 64 neighborhood beautification and aesthetics 641 288 288 1532 0 2749 2.1748 45 Social security and Safety Presence of street furniture(seating, bollards) 1002 198 108 508 0 1816 1.4367 62 Presence of shade and rain cover, trees, or canopy 1062 228 75 252 0 1617 1.2793 65 Development of risky/crime hotspots 179 376 417 2240 990 4202 3.3244 26 Availability of street lighting 164 284 1242 2176 0 3866 3.0585 33 Crime free street 896 256 108 488 410 2158 1.7073 53 Enforcement of pedestrians safety regulations 401 266 315 916 1980 3878 3.0680 32 Development of street security facilities (e.g. CCTV) 87 338 333 2400 1485 4643 3.6733 16 Funding and resources are devoted to pedestrian planning 863 406 180 552 0 2001 1.5831 58 Adequate traffic calming elements per 60m interval 590 230 495 784 990 3089 2.4438 40 Development of traffic safety measures (e.g. calming) 442 104 825 1980 0 4121 3.2603 28 Social security 92 48 777 3556 0 4473 3.5388 22 Environment Increase air pollution (emission) in the street 341 0 138 232 4095 4806 3.8022 14 Increase noise pollution in the street 78 162 807 2690 480 4487 3.5498 21 Increase water pollution and obstruction 261 134 225 424 3775 4819 3.8125 13 Promotion of environmental degradation e.g. erosion, flood, etc. 508 222 525 340 1925 3520 2.7848 35 Development of public spaces to gather 78 176 942 3136 0 4332 3.4272 24 Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 12 Increase green spaces 1024 444 54 0 0 1540 1.2184 70 Accessible buildings (with elevators, staircase) 77 40 585 2712 1470 4880 3.8639 10 Development of stationary image for beautification 679 538 525 524 50 2316 1.8323 49 Ease of accessibility and mobility Dedicated bicycle lanes 1044 428 0 24 0 1496 1.1835 73 Access to traffic information 346 40 483 6634 370 3891 3.0783 31 Access to city deliveries/urban logistics 233 160 396 1436 2300 4525 3.5799 19 Substitute to physical movements 31 20 669 3392 734 4857 3.8426 11 Shift to ridesharing/ride- hailing services 29 0 312 792 4665 5798 4.5870 1 Ease of commuting (day and night) 1060 348 27 84 0 1519 1.2017 72 Affordability of Modal fare 1070 2 117 492 155 1836 1.4525 61 Adequacy of carrying capacity of modal choice (e.g. bus, taxi, rail, ferry, etc.) 973 576 9 0 0 1561 1.2350 68 Demand responsiveness of modal choice 105 260 27 84 0 1525 1.2065 71 Access and use of road modal split (bus, taxi, cab, etc.) 105 0 42 1276 4130 5553 4.3932 2 Access and use of rail modal split (trains and light rail) 875 498 0 240 490 2085 1.6495 55 Access and use of water modal split (ferry) 874 268 57 540 774 2357 1.8647 48 Access and use of air modal split (air shuttle) 1211 34 6 136 0 1387 1.0973 79 Access and use of public transit (BRT) 133 212 264 2792 1195 4596 3.6361 18 Resilience Quick response to transportation induced disaster 273 628 717 1300 565 3483 2.7555 37 Prone to flood, ocean surge, etc. 125 536 498 2136 855 4150 3.2832 27 Ease of passage during a downpour 1175 76 69 112 0 1432 1.1329 75 Emergency services accessibility 1061 30 99 472 185 1847 1.4612 60 Rescue and first aid during an emergency 1004 184 330 232 0 1750 1.3845 64 Social integration programme 960 116 201 496 275 2048 1.6203 57 Access to the emergency relief package 1121 82 96 200 100 1599 1.2650 66 Availability of social support facilities 1043 130 153 340 100 1766 1.3972 63 Gender Equality Preferential access to mobility options by women 1178 76 72 94 0 1422 1.1250 77 Safe and comfortable facilities for women and physically challenged 1142 142 63 120 0 1467 1.1606 77 Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 13 Equal mobility accessibility for all users 181 392 297 2288 1080 4238 3.3528 25 Poverty Stable source of income 373 842 375 1084 360 3036 2.4019 41 Access to public health services/facilities 4 50 453 3132 1505 5144 4.0696 6 Access to public water supply 1152 68 12 240 70 1542 1.2199 69 The proportion of income spent on transportation 20 98 375 3096 1480 5069 4.0103 7 Access to conventional public transportation 950 134 276 464 195 2019 1.5973 58 Access to subsidy and price incentives 373 842 375 1084 360 3036 2.4019 41 Source: Authors’ Field Work, June 2021 C. Hypothesis Testing (Influence of Transport Infrastructure on City Livability) In a bid to understand whether or not transportation infrastructure statistically influences the livability of Lagos metropolis, further investigations were conducted using Multiple Regression Analysis to explain the significance outcome of the relationship between transportation and city livability. The city livability of Lagos metropolis (which is the dependent variable) was measured using the aggregated mean value of urban utilities and facilities (UUF), urban services attributes (USA), land use attributes (LUA), housing quality attributes (HQA), social security and safety attributes (SSS), environment and climate resilience (ECS), ease of mobility and accessibility (EMS), resilience and disaster preparedness (RDP), gender equality and social cohesion (GEC), and poverty attributes (POA), which were initially measured as categorical nominal variables ranging from very low, low, and very high, which were considered moderate and fit for multiple regression analysis. Meanwhile, the independent variables are also known as the predictor variables (transportation infrastructure), which include 38 variables that were grouped under road/highway infrastructure attributes (HIA), rail infrastructure attributes (RIA), air infrastructure attributes (AIA), water infrastructure attributes (WIA) and pipeline infrastructure attributes (PIA). It is important to note that the independent variables were also dichotomized into binary digits, similar to the dependent variables. For data analysis, with this data transformation, the dichotomized analysis, which is an extension of multiple regression, was used for data analysis. The result presented (see Table III) shows the "R" value representing the multiple regression correlation coefficients, which measured the quality of the prediction of the independent variable "city livability index" as 0.695, indicating a good level of prediction. The R square (R 2 ) value represents the coefficient of determination, which measures the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that can be explained by the independent variables, and shows 0.483. This means that the independent variables were able to explain 48.5% of the variability of the dependent variable (city livability). Meanwhile, the adjusted R square (Adj. R2), which revealed 47%, shows the model accuracy of prediction. Table III: Model summary of the multiple regression Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .695 a .483 .467 .11550 The F-ratio in the ANOVA (see Table IV), which tests for the overall significance of the regression model as a good fit for the regressed data, reveals F38,1225 = 30.091 and reaches significance with a p-value of 0.000. While comparing the ANOVA results, the findings show that the observed and calculated p-value is less than the table p-value of 0.05 (p 0.005). Hence, the decision to accept the H1 (alternative hypothesis) and reject the h0 (null hypothesis). This implies that the transportation infrastructure statistically influenced the city's livability in the Lagos Metropolis. Table IV: Results of the Analysis of Variance Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 15.255 38 .401 30.091 .000 b Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 14 Residual 16.343 1225 .013 Total 31.599 1263 The results of the unstandardized coefficient (β), which indicates how much the dependent variables vary with an independent variable when all other independent variables are held constant (see Table V), the coefficient table shows that for each increase in the independent variables, there is a decrease in the dependent variable (city livability) (unstandardized coefficient value). Hence, the general form of the equation to predict city livability (dependent variable) from independent variables (transportation infrastructure) is predicted as; CLI: 2.386 + (0.011*X1) + (0.007*X2)- (0.019*X3)+ (0.000*X4)+ (0.005*X5)- (0.031*X6)+ (0.006*X7)+ (0.011*X8)+ (0.015*X9)+ (0.017*X10)+ (0.013*X11)- (0.011*X12)- (0.012*X13)+ (0.005*X14)+ (0.015*X15)+ (0.007*X16)- (0.010*X17)+ (0.007*X18)- (0.001*X19)- (0.008*X20)+ (0.006*X21)+ (0.021*X22)+ (0.009*X23)- (0.008*X24)+ (0.016*X25)+ (0.010*X26)- (0.021*X27)- (0.023*X28)+ (0.003*X29)+ (0.006*X30)- (0.004*X31)+ (0.019*X32)- (0.010*X33)- (0.018*X34)+ (0.011*X35)+ (0.011*X36)- (0.035*X37)+ (0.034*X38). The results of the statistical significance of each unstandardized (or standardized) coefficient were equal contributions to the model were also established. With this, the results are presented in Table V. Through the t-value and corresponding p-value, we shows that 22 variables out of the 38 predictor variables are statistically significantly different from 0 (zero). Thus, the 22 variables best contributed significantly to the model prediction. As such, the twenty-two (22) predictor variables that contribute significantly to the model include availability and condition of local street with drainage (t-=2.111,p=0.035), access road to rail terminal (t=-5.583), p=0.000), condition of distributor and collector road (t=-7.061, p=0.000), condition of rail station (t=3.039, p=0.002), condition of bus stop with passenger shed (t=4.401, p=002), condition of bus stop without passenger shed (t=3.702, p=0.000), condition of underlying public pipes (t=-2.569, p=0.10), condition of layby (t=-2.447, p=0.15), condition of pedestrian crossing (t=3.675, p=0.000), condition of parking facility at rail station (t=3.568, p=0.000), condition of public transportation information (t=-12.556, p=0.011), condition of rail signal (t= 2.053, p=0.040), condition of pedestrian bridge (t=3.905, p=0.000), condition of walkway (t=2.337, p=0.20), condition of road/ferry terminal linkage (t=2.028, p=0.043), condition of ferry route (t=- 5.556, p=0.000), condition of ferry terminal/jetty (t=-5.983, t=0.000), condition of boarding and alighting aid facilities (t=2.058, p=0.40), condition of airport terminal (t=-4.454, t=0.000),condition of domestic water pipes (t=2.722, p=0.007), condition of gas supply mains (t=-6.036, t=0.000) and condition of sewerage pipe connection (t=8.641, p=0.000). Table V: Unstandardized and standardized coefficients Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardize d Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 2.386 .044 53.750 .000 availability and condition of the local street with drainage .011 .005 .056 2.111 .035 availability and condition of the local street without drainage .007 .005 .040 1.372 .170 availability and condition of the access road to the rail terminal -.019 .003 -.138 -5.583 .000 availability and condition of the parking facility at the domestic airport .000 .004 .004 .112 .911 availability and condition of street light .005 .004 .042 1.310 .190 availability and condition of the local street(distributor and collector) -.031 .004 -.260 -7.061 .000 availability and condition of road marking .006 .004 .047 1.415 .157 availability and condition of cyclist path .011 .008 .030 1.335 .182 availability and condition of rail station .015 .005 .087 3.039 .002 availability and condition of a bus stop with passenger shed .017 .004 .162 4.401 .000 availability and condition of a bus stop without passenger shed .013 .004 .111 3.702 .000 Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 15 availability and condition of underlying public pipes -.011 .004 -.076 -2.569 .010 availability and condition of the layby -.012 .005 -.081 -2.447 .015 availability and condition of route information .005 .003 .042 1.600 .110 availability and condition of pedestrian crossing .015 .004 .100 3.675 .000 availability and condition of the parking facility at the rail station .007 .002 .087 3.568 .000 availability and condition of public transportation information -.010 .004 -.079 -2.556 .011 availability and condition of rail signal .009 .004 .087 2.053 .040 availability and condition of the arterial and sub-arterial road -.001 .004 -.010 -.337 .736 availability and condition of rail track -.008 .005 -.056 -1.718 .086 availability and condition of a dedicated lane .006 .004 .048 1.354 .176 availability and condition of the pedestrian bridge .021 .005 .178 3.905 .000 availability and condition of the walkway .009 .004 .087 2.337 .020 availability and condition of the rail terminal -.008 .008 -.086 -1.060 .289 availability and condition of the parking facility at the ferry terminal .016 .014 .120 1.172 .241 availability and condition of road/ferry terminal linkage .010 .005 .102 2.028 .043 availability and condition of the ferry route -.021 .004 -.197 -5.556 .000 Waiting facilities at ferry/jetty -.023 .004 -.227 -5.983 .000 Rest room facilities at jetty/ferry terminal .003 .004 .025 .822 .411 facilities for specialized person at jetty/ferry terminal .006 .003 .049 1.710 .087 availability and condition of ground access to airport -.004 .006 -.038 -.615 .538 boarding and alighting aid facilities .019 .009 .198 2.058 .040 walking aid for specialized persons -.010 .014 -.075 -.704 .481 restroom facilities at the airport terminal -.018 .004 -.192 -4.454 .000 availability and condition of traffic signal .011 .006 .090 1.830 .068 domestic public water pipes .011 .004 .068 2.722 .007 public gas supply mains -.035 .006 -.194 -6.036 .000 sewerage pipe connection .034 .004 .299 8.641 .000 V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The increasing urbanization, spatial development, and expansion of cities no doubt contribute to global concern for the sustainability and livability of human settlements. Also, it is not a fallacy that cities are in a constant state of unprecedented change due to transportation infrastructure and other pull factors, which lead to an immense attraction of people and investments. Expectedly, the demand for transportation and urban infrastructure provision has equally been increasing alongside an increase in wealth and a change in lifestyle, with influence and implications on the extent of ease of living and livelihood in cities. It is on this basis that the livability of Lagos has been a matter of concern to all stakeholders, despite several past and present efforts to make the city competitive in all ramifications among global cities. However, the consistent inflow of people and investments into Lagos and the several perceived challenges underscore the need for appraisal of her livability vis-à-vis established indicators. Functionally, better transportation and accessibility options imply access to higher levels of livability in all their ramifications and ease of living for residents, while the presence of alternative transportation infrastructure and mobility options that allow individuals to choose a mode of transportation was found to be a positive stimulus for increasing the livability of a community and cities. It is based on the foregoing that the study appraised the livability of Lagos metropolis from the perception of residents/respondents with emphasis on livability indicators and ancillary transportation infrastructure. As a result, the study established the existence of a sharp gap in the livability parameters in the Lagos metropolis and a high rate of respondents' dissatisfaction with available transportation infrastructure despite the huge potential to make the city more livable for residents. Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 16 As such, the study concluded that many proactive steps and efforts are still required to improve residents' satisfaction with the city's livability and improve mobility, especially the ancillary transportation infrastructure that guarantees accessibility and travel options in Lagos metropolis. There is a need for operational and structural improvement of existing sidewalks to attract pedestrians' use and improve access to them, while also discouraging existing and further encroachment by intruders. Also, the improvement, provision, and rehabilitation of sidewalks in neighborhoods and streets should be of the utmost priority to statutory organs of the government. In addition, pedestrian aiding facilities, sidewalk continuity, sidewalk attraction to use, walking permeability, visual interest, footway accessibility, first and last mile, and travel facilities, among others, required the intervention of the government to make them more attractive to use and accessible to pedestrians. The ongoing intersection and junction improvement programme in Lagos has to be intensified and expanded in coverage to enhance traffic flow and improve the livability of the city for residents by ensuring ease of flow and urban commuting. With the notion that traffic generation is a function of land use, there is a need for sustenance and improvement in the land use structure of the city to support shared-riding with the expected transportation infrastructure to provide the required link capable of facilitating accessibility and also integrating pedestrian flow into junction improvement in the city. Moreover, sustainable measures to activate affordable housing and minimize housing stress have to be evolved to mitigate the already tense situation which is adversely affecting the livability of the city and, at the same time, possibly contributing to the dismal rating and ranking of Lagos in the global index. Likewise, boosting social security and safety is indispensable to enhance the confidence and sense of safety of residents. To achieve this, existing social security and safety measures have to be intensified, while lapses or shortcomings observed in the aids and emergency services, street furniture for seating and bollards, shade, and rain cover, among others, to have a crime-free society should be adequately rectified. Moreover, the recurrent environmental issues such as water pollution, obstruction to spatial development, disposal of waste and refuse, and air pollution in various forms deserve urgent attention and intervention to improve environmental quality and serenity. Towards this, the erection of statutory images and increasing green space become indispensable in improving residents' perception of the livability of Lagos. Therefore, redesigning the spatial form and accessibility of Lagos is necessary to accommodate means of movement such as cycling and pedestrianization. Hence, having a dedicated bicycle path, guaranteeing ease of commuting, affordable modal choice, improved carrying capacity, demand responsiveness, access and use of rail and water modal transit, as well as air modal split, is not essential to widen ridership and modal options. With the resilience of Lagos being questioned due to poor passage and inaccessibility during a downpour, emergency services' inaccessibility, weak rescue and first aid during emergencies, absence of social integration programmes, poor access to emergency relief packages during a disaster, and weak social support, reversal of the aforementioned attributes and sub-indicators of city livability is essential not only to improve the resilience of Lagos but to also improve its sustainability and livability for the residents in all ramifications. 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Nairobi: UN-HABITAT. Yannis, G. & Chaziris, A. (2021). Transport System and Infrastructure. XXV International Conference Living and Walking in Cities - New scenarios for safe mobility in urban areas (LWC 2021), 9-10 September 2021, Brescia, Italy/ Transportation Research Procedia 60 (2022) 6–11. Zubala, T. (2022). Effect of transport infrastructure development on selected components of the environment of inner ‑city river valley and the possibility of its revitalization (Lublin, Poland). Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, p. 44862–44873. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022- 18964-y ACKNOWLEDGMENT Sincere appreciation goes to the authors, especially Professor K.T Gbadamosi and Professor F.K Omole, for their support and contributions towards the successful completion of this study. AUTHORS Ayobami Ademola AKANMU is a doctoral student in the Department of Logistics and Transport Technology at the Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. His research focuses on transportation infrastructure planning; urban transport management; city livability and sustainability; urban planning; and land use management. Akanmu is a registered town planner, a chartered member of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport, and a full member of the Chartered Institute of Transport Administration of Nigeria. (ademolakanmu@gmail.com/*http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9264-5863/+2348035773367). Kolawole Taofeek GBADAMOSI is a professor of transport management in the Department of Logistics and Transport Technology at the Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. He has vast experience in transportation policy, accident analysis, and traffic management, with many decades of lecturing, researching, and supervising theses and dissertations. He is a fellow of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport. (ktgbadamosi@futa.edu.ng/+2348055438849). Logistics, supply chain, sustainability and global challenges Vol. 13, Iss. 1, December 2022, 1-18 doi: 10.2478/jlst-2023-0001 18 Felix Kayode OMOLE is a professor of Urban and Regional Planning at the Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. He is a registered town planner and a fellow of the Nigerian Institute of Town Planners, and has vast experience in transportation and urban planning with decades of lecturing, research in transport planning, and also the supervision of theses and dissertations. (fkomole@futa.edu.ng/+2348034539896). Manuscript received by 2 nd November 2021. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of this article. Povezanost med življenjskim okoljem in prometom v mestu Lagos v Nigeriji Izvleček – Življenska primernost mest je v zadnjem času predmet svetovne zaskrbljenosti. Pomembno je, da sta enostavnost mobilnosti in dostopnost v mestih še vedno najpomembnejša dejavnika pri odločanju prebivalcev o izbiri lokacije in njeni ustreznosti. Na podlagi tega je ta študija preučila povezavo med življenjsko primernostjo mesta in prometom v metropoli Lagos v Nigeriji. Študija je temeljila na konceptu življenjske primernosti, zato je opisno in sklepno analizirala rezultate 1264 vprašalnikov, ki so bili razdeljeni prebivalcem na podlagi ključnih tem o življenjski primernosti. Študija je pokazala nizko zadovoljstvo s ključnimi kazalniki uspešnosti na področju življenjske primernosti. Podobno je študija pokazala, da je večina ocenjenih objektov prometne infrastrukture v slabem stanju in tako ovira lažje potovanje na delo in prijetno življenje v mestu. Rezultat regresijske analize je pokazal, da prometna infrastruktura statistično vpliva na življenjsko primernost metropole Lagos. Študija priporoča potrebo po hitrih proaktivnih ukrepih, zlasti strukturnih izboljšavah prometne infrastrukture, za izboljšanje življenjske primernosti metropole Lagos. Ključne besede - živahnost mesta, promet, kazalniki živahnosti, metropola Lagos