ISSN 2463-9281 Izzivi prihodnosti Challenges of the Future Letnik 5, številka 1, februar 2020 Volume 5, Issue 1, Februar 2020 Fakulteta za organizacijske študije Faculty of organisation studies ISSN 2463-9281 Izid publikacije je finančno podprla ARRS iz naslova razpisa za sofinanciranje domačih znanstvenih periodičnih publikacij. The journal is subsidised by the Slovenian Research Agency. GLAVNI IN ODGOVORNI UREDNIK I EDITOR IN CHIEF A N N M A R I E G O R E N C Z O R A N V , UREDNIŠKI ODBOR I EDITORIAL BOARD Boris Bukovec, Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto, Slovenia Alois Paulin, Technical University Vienna, Austria Juraj Marusiak, Slovak Academy of Science, Slovakia Mario Ianniello, Udine University, Italy Anisoara Popa, Danubius University, Romania Raluca Viman-Miller, University of North Georgia, Georgia, USA Anna Kolomycew, Rzeszow University, Poland Jurgita Mikolaityte, Siauliai University, Lithuania Patricia Kaplanova, Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto, Slovenia Laura Davidel, Univeristy of Lorraine, France Ana Zeleznik, Ljubljana University, Slovenia Marko Vulic, Information Technology School - ITS ComTrade, Serbia Vita Jukneviciene, Siauliai University, Lithuania Mitja Durnik, Ljubljana University, Slovenia Anca-Olga Andronic - Spiru Haret University, Romunija Razvan-Lucian Andronic - Spiru Haret University, Romunija Naslov uredništva / Editorial address: Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu Ulica talcev 3 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija © COPYRIGHT FAKULTETA ZA ORGANIZACIJSKE ŠTUDIJE V NOVEM MESTU. FACULTY OF ORGANISATION STUDIES. VSE PRAVICE ZADRŽANE. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 1 FROM EFFICIENT TO PROJECT TEAMS Tomaž Aljaž EFFECTIVE 17 TWO VIEWS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Milan Katuninec 36 VZROKI, ZNAMENJA, POSLEDICE TER OBVLADOVANJE STRESA NA DELOVNEM MESTU Simon E. Pantar, Bojan Gorenc Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 1-16. Članek / Article DOI: 10.37886/ip.2020.001 From Efficient to Effective Project Teams Tomaž Aljaž* Faculty of Industrial Engineering Novo mesto, Šegova ul.112, SI-8000, Novo mesto, Slovenia tomaz.alj az@gmail.com Abstract: Purpose and Originality: The purpose of the study is to analyse the throughput of projects in project portfolios that share common resources. The study is focused on demonstrating drawbacks of traditional practices of managing project portfolio, while on the other hand showing sequential improvement steps how to significantly improve project portfolio throughputs. Notably, this study presents the benefits by changing policies and rules on how project tasks are planned, queued, and scheduled in such an environment. Method: The analysis was carried out using a quantitative approach that involves use of simulator, which was capable of recreating conditions similar to the conditions in a controlled project environment. In the simulation we provided the means to control different policies and rules how project work is managed, especially staggering of project tasks and addressing human behaviour such as Multitasking, Student Syndrome, Parkinson Law, which are necessary for the systematic evaluation. In particular, we looked into the Theory of Constraints applications for project management and how we can apply it in a project portfolio that uses shared resources to increase throughput. Results: The results shown in this study emphasizes the need for a change of traditional working policies, rules (and measurements), and even a culture within an organization when managing project portfolios with shared resources. The simulations demonstrate that staggering the release of work into the system reduces workload on most critical resources and increases predictability of project deliverables and throughput. Moreover, introducing the Theory of Constraints methodology in project portfolio, also addressing human behaviour additionally improved the performance of the portfolio - system. Society: We strongly believe that this analysis will help to understand the benefits of managing project portfolios differently, compared to a traditional approach that focuses on a system (organization) and not at an individual level. Moreover, significant increase of the project portfolio throughput is expected and, as a consequence improved competitiveness of organizations on the market. Limitations / further research: We suggest further research using Theory of Constraints tools and applications in Agile / Dev(Sec)Ops environment. Keywords: managing project portfolio, project management, theory of constraints, critical chain project management, team performance. 1 Introduction Organizations consider project management to be the competitive advantage of the future. In recent years, IT projects have proven to have a significant impact on improving the business processes and better customer services, thus enabling organizations to become more competitive in the global market. However, there is significant space for improvement. The * Korespondencni avtor / Correspondence author Prejeto: 21. oktober 2019; revidirano 13. november 2019; sprejeto: 4. december 2019. / Received: 21st October 2019; revised: 13th November 2019; accepted: 4th December 2019. 1 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 1-16. Članek / Article Standish Group Chaos Study report (Standish Group, 2015) defined that project success is limited to the triple constraint, which has been the standard for the Project Management Institute for a number of years - schedule, budget, and scope. Using the triple constraint, the Standish Group evaluated projects as successful, challenged, or failed. Successful means that the project met all three of the triple constraints: schedule, budget, and scope; challenged that the project would have met two out of three constraints (e.g., delivered on-time and on-budget but not with the desired scope); and failed means that project was abandoned before it was completed, or completed but not used. The results of this study, shown in Table 1 shows that in 2015 only 29% of software development projects were completed on-time, on-budget, and on-scope. Moreover, 19% of projects have been abandoned before they were completed, and 52% of the projects spent more budget, scope or time compared to their original evaluation. Table 1. Standish Group Chaos Study revealing success rate of IT projects from 2011 to 2015 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Successful 29% 27% 31% 28% 29% Challenged 49% 56% 50% 55% 52% Failed 22% 17% 19% 17% 19% To deal with this situation, we have examined several approaches how projects are traditionally managed. As the primary improvement approach in this paper, we will use the methodology that was introduced by Eliyahu M. Goldratt (Goldratt, 2018), called the Theory of Constraints (TOC). TOC assumes that any system or organization can be seen as a network of interdependent elements or processes. These systems are analogous to chains or chain nets. Similar to a chain, the throughput of the system is limited by the weakest link - the constraint. This means that only improvements, which are made on constraint (weakest link), will result in significant improvements in a system. On the other hand, any improvements in all other places of the system will result in higher costs (i.e., investment) without any or very slight detectable improvement result. In order to address this, TOC enables organizations to find (few) constraints, exploit them, and subordinate other parts of the organization to that constraint to obtain the most of the existing system. To achieve this, TOC changes management mindset from optimization of individual organization units or departments to system-wide approach by focusing on a throughput of a system (local efficiency vs global efficiency). TOC's key processes are focused on removing barriers that prevent each part of the system from working together as an integrated whole. 2 Theoretical framework In this chapter, we will describe the main topics, from the project execution point of view, that affect the performance and effectiveness of project teams, thus throughput of project(s). Additionally, we will show effects of unappropriated management of Work-In-Progress (WIP) and devastating effect of focusing on efficiency of resources instead of focusing on effectiveness of the system. Moreover, we will also demonstrate negative consequences of 2 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 1-16. human behaviour and Murphy's Law (i.e., "Anything that can go wrong will go wrong)" in traditionally managed project portfolios with shared resources. Robinson & Richards (2010, p. 3) shows examples of human behaviour such as student effect and Parkinson's law. Student effect addresses a situation when there is more than suffient time to complete a task, but employees (aka human resources) let time pass before any serious effort is put into its completion (i.e., "Why do it today, if you can leave it for tomorrow"). On the other hand, Parkinson's law addresses situation where human resources usually take as much time as it is defined to complete a task, regardless of whether they finish it early (i.e., work expands the time that is available for a task). In the end, we propose TOC application for managing projects, called Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM) that was described by Millhiser & Szmerekovsky (2008). WIP refers to a component of a company's inventory that is partially completed. In IT environment, this means unfinished tasks. Ronen & Pass (2007, p. 147) stress that the main evils of high WIP are reduced performance of the organization, long response times, reduction of throughput, high operating expenses, diminished quality, diminished response to market and technology changes, and so forth. As we can see from Figure 1, WIP in a system plays an important role in project(s) throughput. The goal is to have the right amount of WIP. E oj w > (/) 0 0 TO ra c ra E o it b 3 o št b ^ S > t/) ra LLI Most Traditional ganizations. None. Too Much! The amount of Work-in-Progress in the system. Figure 1. Bathtub approach by Holt, et al, 2014, EM 530 Lecture materials, Washington State University When organizations are facing low throughput of projects, Aljaž (2014, p. 2) recommends reducing WIP by freezing or canceling at least 20% of already approved project activities. This provides an opportunity that resources can prioritize remaining tasks (projects) and to begin completing them. As throughput will start to improve, there will be less unproductive work needed - e.g., such as writing reports why some project activities are late. This way we gain additional available time of resources to work on project tasks. The first positive effects we will see in a short amount of time, typically in a few months. 3 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 1-16. Moreover, resource utilization has deep impact of the performance of the organization. In order to understand this impact, Kingman's formula (1961, p. 902) gives an approximation of the waiting time of the parts for a single process based on its utilization and variance. This equation (or more precisely approximation) shows two factors that influence delivery time and queue length. One important factor is utilization. The higher the utilization is, the longer is the queue. Eventually, the queue will approach to infinity as utilization approaches 100. In order to understand the impact of resource utilization, we have used an example of five interdependent human resources that work in a process. All of them are utilized at 90%, which means that every task will take approximately 90/10= 9 x longer than initially planned. A simple task of one workday by every resource with 90% utilization (may) at the end take 9 days x 5 = 45 days, as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Resource utilization example following the Kingmann's Formula The next improvements are focusing on the reduction of multitasking. Russ & Crews (2014, p. 139) defines multitasking as activity when human resources try to perform two or more tasks simultaneously, switching from one task to another, or perform two or more tasks in rapid succession. Simple exercise, shown in Figure 3, gives a good indication on throughput in a multitask environment - the question being should we execute as shown in the first row or second row? M U L T I T A S K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Or M 1 U 2 L 3 T 4 I 5 T 6 A 7 S 8 K 9 Figure 3. Effect of multitasking. Available from: http://bit.do/ePmau. Russ & Crews (2014, p. 151) research study showed at the individual level that up to 30% of (working) time could be wasted while switching between tasks. If we extrapolate these results to the organization level, the results are even higher as described in their research study. The main negative effects are related to unsynchronized priorities by human resources working on those tasks and high WIP for managers who are managing them - i.e., lack of management focus. Unsynchronized priorities show that human resources or teams instead of working together on the same streams in tandem to complete it, each person or team is focused on 4 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 1-16. Članek / Article different streams, and these streams (usually) do not overlap. Also, managers are flooded with too many active streams and projects at the same time that need support, thus providing nonoptimal support for human resources / teams that need their support and proactivity. As such, we will follow the guideless described by Holt et al. (2014) and stagger projects by project portfolio priority. Clearly, top-ranked will have all available resources and will be able to move quite quickly. Other lower-ranked projects throughput will be accordingly to resource conflicts between all approved projects. If there are fewer resource conflicts, the throughput of the projects will increase, even doubled if there are no conflicts. This will work until the number of projects will saturate the system, having more and more resource conflicts between projects, thus resulting in decline throughput of projects. By adding additional projects in a system, it will even more drastically reduce throughput until resource conflicts will be so high that the project throughput will almost stop, and human resources will suffer from this chaotic environment (remember utilization issue and Kingman's formula). As a way forward to improve throughput of the project portfolio, we will first introduce a policy, which will approve the new project / tasks based on highest business / customer value and availability / utilization of critical resources. In organizations where cost accounting is the primary tool for approving projects, there is a need to do detailed estimations of needed work to get the most detailed estimates and the most detailed associated costs. Due to the complexity of this activity, this is usually completed by the most experienced and critical resource. However, Agile Upgrade (2019) indicates that estimates are almost always wrong. Therefore, our most experienced and critical resources spend a lot of effort and time on unproductive work. Aljaž (2014, p.3) demonstrated that using simplified task estimation and associated cost calculations increase the availability of critical resources and additionally improve throughput of the system. Therefore, we will need to change policy on how estimates are conducted and used, including associated project approval process, if needed. We will use simplified solution for workload estimates that will increase availability of critical resources. Usman et al. (2017 p. 643) showed different approaches to how estimations could be conducted in Agile software development environment. Ronen & Pass (2007, p. 85) describe powerful and robust TOC solutions that are intended to manage the flow of work through a (development) process rather than managing the capacity of resources is called Drum-Buffer-Rope (DBR). It is designed to protect against general cause variation that cannot be removed from the system and specific special cause variation (e.g., Murphy). As basis for its work, it uses the first three steps out of five focusing steps defined by TOC, which is to (1) identify the system constraint, (2) decide how to exploit the system constraint, and (3) subordinate everything else to the above decisions. The basic principle of DBR is shown in Figure 4. 5 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 1-16. Članek / Article Figure 4. Basic principles of Drum Buffer Rope (DBR) by Holt, et all, 2014, EM 530 Lecture materials, Washington State University As we can see, resource C is the weakest link - the constraint of the system. Therefore, we need to control the pace of new tasks based on the pace that resource C can handle. Moreover, resource C has also a buffer to protect itself against variability and a Murphy of execution done on the first two resources, resource A and resource B, respectively. With the DBR approach, we can identify that some of the resources will be part of the time idle, due to the rope process of the DBR - not releasing more tasks as the constraint (i.e., Drum) is able to handle. That approach is contradictory to a well established work policy, where human resources need to work, for example, 8 hours per day, 40h per week - if there is no work available, managers are required to find it. Change of organization working policy, associated measurements, and cultural changes need to be addressed in order to fully throttle throughput that can be achieved using the DBR approach. In order to address management of project portfolio with shared resources, Millhiser (2008, p. 1) showed the DBR-like approach for project management and called it the Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM). It should be noted that CCPM is not only project management methodology but also protects against Murphy and addresses human resources behavior such as student effect and Parkinson's law. Moreover, CCPM does not change the logic of the project tasks, it just reduces duration of task for 50% and returning 50% of removed task duration (safety) to the strategic place in project - project buffer (i.e., variation of task execution can be better managed on central place as on individual tasks). Before: 85% Estimate Completion Distribution After: 50% Estif Cpmpletioi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Buffer / xA^x^yxx........ Due Date Due Date Before CCPM scheduling After CCPM scheduling Figure 5. Example of CCPM scheduling by Holt, et all, 2014, EM 530 Lecture materials, Washington State University Figure 5 shows that each project has its own tasks buffer (safety) and all tasks are estimated with an 85% confidence level. Adding additional protection at the end of the project (buffer) 6 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 1-16. Članek / Article to protect due date will not produce the desired results - remember student syndrome and Parkinson's law. With 50% reduction of task duration and returning 50% of removed safety in the project buffer results in 25% reduction of project duration. Figure 6 shows an example of a project plan before and after CCPM scheduling using cc-(M)Pulse tool (Spherical Angle, 2005). Figure 6. Simple project before and after applying CCPM scheduling When we introduce CCPM for managing project portfolio, we also need to modify certain working policies, rules, measurements, and culture within organizations. Primarily, we need to change company policy that resources are not any more accountable for their estimates. This is in contradiction with traditional management practice where we hold resources accountable for their estimates. Additionally, buffers that are part of CCPM scheduling approach represent cumulative safety of project tasks. Resources that are working on project tasks need to accept and understand that buffer is available for anyone on any project task. As soon as project team accepts this approach and the trust is established, the throughput of project portfolio will increase significantly - providing clear working priorities and focus. 3 Method In the paper we are using a quantitative approach that involves the use of simulation technologies (simulator), complemented with other testing methods such as analysis of international literature, observations, and personal experience. Reasons to use simulation technology resides in a fact that it is challenging to analyze the same project with different parameters and approaches, as we are not able to provide the same project conditions even if the scope is the same. There are too many excuses and reasons for differences, too much variability in task execution and every issue is different. It is much better to use a simulator to analyze one or more projects many times with different parameters and monitor the results. The analysis we carried out using in simulation environment, which was capable of recreating conditions similar to the conditions in a controlled project environment. The simulation environment represents a managed environment that will provide the means to control the separate parameters, such as Multitasking, Student Syndrome, Parkinson's Law, which are necessary for the systematic 7 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 1-16. Članek / Article evaluation of their influence on project execution with different approaches. For the evaluation, we used the PmSim simulation tool (Elyakim, 1998), as shown in Figure 7, that is used in Project management academic and research work at Washington State University ETM program. It enables comparative analysis of the results collected in this study. The simulated environment consists of three identical projects with the same resources. For each resource, initial task duration is defined as 22 days, with skewed distribution and confidence level at 90%, as recommended by Holt et al. (2014). Figure 7. Project portfolio environment with three projects in simulation environment The initial analysis we carried out with a more complex configuration environment that included additional projects and more resources. However, we found that increasing the number of projects and resources does not give any additional information about the throughput of the project portfolio environment that would justify the increased complexity and the scale of the simulation. For each simulation iteration, we have completed 1,000 simulations of Project portfolio environment with three projects, which provides us with a sufficiently stable network condition for the analysis. We used the skewed distribution to simulate the behavior of the task execution by each resource in a project. The skewed distribution was used because of its similarity with the actual distribution of task execution, and because it is also often used in the literature as indicated in Holt, et al., (2014), which makes it easier to compare results. 4 Results and Discussion Figure 8 provides an example of a project portfolio with three projects that share the same resources (NB. Each resource is marked with different color). All three projects were approved for execution on the same day. Planned duration of all projects was 154 working days. We can see that the planned finished duration of all projects is unrealistic. This is immediately visible on the first simulation days, as the first resource would not be able to 8 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article work on three projects simultaneously. As simulation is continuing, multitasking, student syndrome, and Parkinson's law comes into effect and results in a situation that no one from (top) management in a company would accept - the finished date of projects would be too long. Figure 8: Results of project portfolio execution This devastating effect is visible in Figure 8, where none of projects would be completed in planned duration. Moreover, expected duration to complete project has increased from 154 to 421 days, with 90% probability - almost 3 times longer than planned, as shown in Distribution of project completion time and probability to be finished on planned Figure 9. Figure 9. Distribution of project completion time and probability to be finished on planned duration To improve the situation, we will use the first step of the five focusing steps of TOC -identify system constraints. In our simulation model, we can identify resource that is a system 9 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article constraint at the project portfolio level. Next, following the second step out of the five focusing steps, we will need to decide how to exploit systems constraint - constraint resource needs to have clear task priorities on which the person needs to focus on. As result, we will improve its effectiveness by reducing time wasted on multitasking, especially jumping from one project to the other. We should gain at least 20% of throughput, as described in previous section. Finally, following the third step out of the five focusing steps, we need to subordinate all other resources to this decision. This is called staggering, as shown in Figure 10. 024 68101316 192225 28 31 34 37 4Û 43 46 49 52 S5 58 61 «4 67 70 73 7« 73 8285 88 91 94 97 101 105109 113 117 121125 129133 137141 14514S 153157 141165 169173177 181 185 189193 197201 2J5209213217221225 229233 237241 24524 9 253257261265269273277 281285 28 Figure 10. Planned project portfolio with staggering & task priorities for critical resource With staggering on the project portfolio, as shown in Figure 11, we have project portfolio execution slightly improved. --—-t -* ^^^^^ . fj r t n— i— i i 1—1—^ r. -f Figure 11. Results of project portfolio execution with staggering Moreover, Figure 12 shows that the first project has increased the probability to 24% that it would be finished at the predicted duration; realistically it would take about 201 days - almost 10 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article 30% longer than planned. The remaining two projects face negative effects of Project 1, having quite a bit of multitasking due to prolongation of the first project tasks and unclear working priorities, thus predicting its finish in 310 days and 378 days, respectively. Figure 12. Distribution of project completion time and probability to be on defined time with staggering As we have identified above, only with staggering based on constraint resource, would not provide the desired results. We need to address interdependency of tasks between projects, which are executed by constraint resources. As the next improvement step, we will use a well-proven solution of TOC related to project management - CCPM, as described in the previous section. We will reduce project tasks by 50%, and we will return 50% of this reduction (safety) as a buffer. The results are better than in the previous example, the first project is predicted to be completed in 117 days, the second project in 165 days, and the third project in 219 days with a 90% probability, as shown in Figure 13. Figure 13. Results of project portfolio execution using CCPM 11 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. On the other hand, as shown in Figure 14, the initial estimation of project durations (project end date) was not satisfactory. The first project would be finished by the planned date with an 83% probability, the second project with a 34% probability, and the third project with only a 25% probability, respectively. Projects Summary Project: [ÂH ZI Type: | Completion 3 50 100 150 200 250 300 Completion (days) Figure 14. Distribution of project completion time using CCPM An analysis of Figure 13 shows that approach is not taking account variability and uncertainty of task execution of constraint resources within a project and especially between projects. We need to recall that all task duration is reduced by 50%, and in the case of constraint resource, any deviation of the above-planned task duration has direct impact on the subsequent tasks done by constraint resource, within a project or on task on another project. This gives us good indication that we need to add buffer (safety) at constraint resource, called drum buffer, on a portfolio level. Figure 15 shows a modified project portfolio plan, where we place the drum buffer in place. We placed the drum buffer after the last task in a project which the constraint resource was assigned and before the individual's first task on the subsequent project. 02 4 68)0 1Î16 19 22252531 34 37 4 0 J3 4649 5Z65S8 61 64 67 T0-73 76T9 SZ85 85 91 9197 101105109 113117 121 125 129 133 137141145149 153157161 156 169173177 181135189193 197201 20520921321722122522923323724124524 9 2 Figure 15. Results of project portfolio execution using CCPM, with 100% drum buffer 12 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article In our example, we have an estimated 100% drum buffer, as proposed by Holt et al, 2014) to protect against variability of task execution and Murphy, as shown in Figure 16. These results with additional improvement on project portfolio throughput - the first project completed in 115 days, second in 202 days, and the third project completed in 254 days. Moreover, initial estimation of the project durations (project end-date) is now significantly improved. In particular, the first project would be finished by the planned date with a 90% probability, the second with an 83% probability, and the third with a 70% probability, respectively. Projects Summary Project: [^¡1 3 Type: | Completion I H Projectl □ Project2 D Project3 [9 p 1 m l ÈOïJ P l~|~l Median Ùm [P] Planned ri \ Êf 3 \ p]> s ÎOïJ A < H L* / A \ J V \ \ Close M ^ i *-! h 1 i 1 t 1 r~ ^ 50 100 150 200 250 300 Completion (days) Figure 16. Distribution of project completion time using CCPM, with 100% drum buffer 5 Conclusion For organizations to remain competitive on the market and react to market changes, they need to deliver its products, solutions, services much faster and more reliable than before, which are usually organized as projects or portfolios of projects. The success of the projects is traditionally measured using a triple constraint - time, budget and scope. As studies have shown, there is considerable room for improvement on how we are managing the projects and especially portfolio of projects. The main question arises - how can we improve management of portfolio of projects in order not to jeopardize time, budget, and scope and to have predictable results and throughput. This paper presents a common-sense approach supported by the Theory of Constraints (TOC) tools and applications on how to manage portfolio of projects. This approach is, in many cases, contradictory to existing way of managing portfolio of projects with shared resources, where most of the projects flow as best as they can throughout the system. Change of existing-working policies, rules (and measurements), and even culture within organization is required. Managing the load towards the (critical) resources and having clear priorities enables increase in the performance of the project portfolio - system, thus leaving behind individual effectiveness. Simulations demonstrate that staggering the release of work into the 13 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article system reduces workload on most critical resources and increase predictability of project deliverables. Moreover, introducing TOC application for project management, called Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM), in project portfolio additionally improves the throughput of the portfolio - system, without compromising approved duration, scope, and budget. Finally, in this paper, we have presented that a different way of working could produce meaningful results, especially if addressed correctly - towards a system constraint. It was found that TOC can help to reach this goal to build highly efficient project team, with existing resources and without changes, how project tasks are executed. 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American Psychological Association. (2006). Multitasking: Switching costs. Research in Action. March 2006. http://www.apa.org/research/action/multitask.aspx 6. Ronen, B., Pass, S. (2007). Focused Operations Management: Achieving More with Existing Resources, Wiley, 1 edition 7. Spherical Angle, Inc., (2005). The Looking Glass Suite cc-(M)Pulse. https://sourceforge.net/proj ects/cc-mpulse/ 8. Zupančič, D., Buchmeister, B., Aljaž, T. (2017). Reducing the time of task execution with existing resources - comparison of approaches. International journal of simulation modelling 9. Elyakim Management System. 1998. PmSim Version 2.03 (unreleased version) 10. Goldratt, E., M., Cox, J. (2018). The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement, Routledge; 3rd edition, November 2018 11. Holt, J., Aljaž, T., Johnson, R., Holt, S., Furback, R., Button, S. (2014). EM 530 Lecture materials, Washington State University 2014 12. Usman, M., Borstler, J. Petersen. K. (2017). An E®ort Estimation Taxonomy for Agile Software Development. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering Vol. 27, No. 4 (2017) 641-674 DOI: 10.1142/S0218194017500243 14 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article 13. Millhiser, W., P., Szmerekovsky, J. (2008). Teaching Critical Chain Project management: An academic debate, open research questions, numerical examples and counterarguments. 14. Russ, M., Crews, D. E. (2014). A Survey of Multitasking Behaviors in Organizations, Doi: 10.5296/ijhrs.v4i1.5155 15. The Standish Group. (2015). Chaos manifesto 2015. http://www.infoq.com/articles/standish-chaos-2015 (Retrieved 6th of October 2019) 16. Robinson, H., Richards, R. (2010). Critical Chain Project Management: Motivation & overview. IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings. 1 - 10. 10.1109/AER0.2010.5446879. *** Tomaž Aljaž (Ph.D.), has more than 22 years of professional experience in managing IT projects focusing to improve performance of project team, establishing and maintaining optimal use of resources and reducing operating risks. Prior experiences are related to R&D environment working as Resource, Project and Product manager, as well as Solution manager. He has published many articles on information technology and telecommunication area, resource management, project management and process improvements. He holds Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Faculty of Electrotechnical Engineering and Computer Science Maribor, Slovenia and finish courses related to Constraint Management, Risk management and Six sigma at Washington State University, USA, respectively. Dr. Aljaž has taught at graduate and post graduate level more than 11 years topic related to performance improvements of organizations, project management, information technology and telecommunication. In 2018 and 2019, dr. Aljaž, received Certified Scrum Master and Certified product Owner Certificate, while in in 2014 received Jonah certificate, recognized by Theory Of Constraints International Certification Organization (TOCICO). Povzetek: Od efektivnih do učinkovitih projektnih ekip Raziskovalno vprašanje (RV): Proučujemo, kako lahko izboljšamo učinkovitost ekip in posameznikov, ki delajo na projektih ter posledično izboljšamo pretok projektov v projektnem portfelju z drugačnim načinom vodenja le-teh. Namen in izvirnost: Namen študije je analizirati pretok projektov v projektnem portfelju, ki si delijo vire. Študija je osredotočena na prikaz pomanjkljivosti tradicionalnih praks upravljanja projektnega portfelja in prikaz postopnih rešitev za njihovo odpravo. Posebej prikažemo prednosti spremembe politike in pravil planiranja ter odobravanja projektnih nalog, še posebej v okolju portfelja projektov. Metoda: V študiji je bil uporabljen kvantitativni pristop, ki vključuje uporabo simulacijskih tehnologij (simulatorja) v okolju portfelja projektov. S pomočjo simulatorja smo lahko upravljali različne parametre pravil in politike dela znotraj portfelja. Prav tako smo s simulatorjem sistematično analizirali vpliv človeškega obnašanja pri izvedbi nalog in iskali rešitev s pomočjo Teorije omejitev, s poudarkom na večopravilnosti, študentskem sindromom in Parkinsonovim zakonom. Rezultati: Rezultati prikazani v tej raziskavi kažejo na potrebo po spremembi tradicionalnih metod vodenja projektov v okolju z deljenimi viri. Še posebej se to nanaša na politiko in pravila dela in celo na spremembe kulture znotraj organizacij. Simulacije prikazujejo, da se izboljša pretok projektov, če začnemo selektivno odobravati in razporejati projekte glede na zasedenost kritičnega vira. S tem zmanjšamo količino njegovih vzporednih aktivnosti, ga razbremenimo in omogočimo njegovo fokusirano delo na najpomembnejših nalogah portfelja projektov. Z vpeljavo metodologije Teorija omejitev smo prikazali še dodatne izboljšave pretoka projektov in zanesljivost dogovorjenih časovnih, finančnih in vsebinskih okvirjev. Družba: Trdno verjamemo, da bo analiza pomagala razumeti, da imajo tradicionalni pristopi vodenja projektov omejitve in da lahko s spremembo načina vodenja, pravil in meril dela 16 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article dosežemo bistveno boljše rezultate. Poudarek dajemo na rezultate sistema in ne na individualni ravni - lokalna učinkovitost naprav globalni učinkovitosti. Omejitve/nadaljnje raziskovanje: Raziskava se bo v prihodnje osredotočala na uporabo orodij in aplikacij Teorija omejitev v agilnih okoljih s področja informacijske tehnologije. Ključne besede: upravljanje portfelja projektov, projektno vodenje, teorija omejitev, projektno vodenje s kritično verigo, učinkovitost. Copyright (c) Tomaž ALJAŽ Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. 70 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article DOI: 10.37886/ip.2020.002 Two Views of the French Revolution1 Milan Katuninec* Trnava University in Trnava, Faculty of Arts, Department of Political Science, Hornopotocna 23, 917 01 Trnava, Slovakia mkatunin@truni.sk Abstract: Purpose and originality: The purpose of this study is to highlight the potential risks for democracy in Europe by focusing on the views of two prominent political theorists and politicians relating to one of the most dramatic turning points in modern European history. Method: In the study historical, comparative and analytical research method is used. I also tried to combine chronological and thematic approaches. Results: From the experience of the French Revolution, two basic types of modern political outlook have been developed: progressive and conservative. Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville are also included in these basic types. Despite several distinct views and different attitudes to the French Revolution, Burke and Tocqueville agreed in their analyses of some of the causes of this Revolution. Some of their views are unacceptable from the perspective of today's democratic society. But Burke still appeals to us especially by emphasizing the responsibility of our generation for future generations and Tocqueville can motivate us especially by the fact that he was a strong proponent of liberty and he staked his life on liberty. Based on the political and historical examination of the views of these two prominent political theorists and politicians, we can point out that the democratic order can be legitimate only when the basic principles and values of democracy are balanced and mutually respect their limits. The tension between the principles of freedom and equality must be counterbalanced by the principles of solidarity and justice. The effort to exaggerate one of these principles and to subordinate the others to it interrupts and endangers the overall goal. Society: The results should raise awareness about the risks that threaten democracy. The study also points out that there is a narrow link between political freedom and responsibility. Limitations/ further research: Research will continue to focus on the views of other major political theorists who have influenced political thought in Europe since the French Revolution, which will require wider teamwork at the international level. Keywords: Edmund Burke, Alexis de Tocqueville, French Revolution, Europe, democracy, liberty, politics. 1 This study is a part of the output for the VEGA Project No. 1/ 0131/18 * Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author Prejeto: 30. januar 2020; revidirano 12. februar 2020; sprejeto: 14. februar 2020. / Received: 30th January 2020; revised: 12th February 2020; accepted: 14th February 2020. 71 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article 1 Introduction The French Revolution was one of the turning points in modern European history, which contributed to accelerating political, social, economic and cultural change in France, and opened up new horizons and possibilities also for other European nations. The revolution has shown that the old certainties are standing on fragile legs, and that people are quite easily addressed by new attractive topics and expectations. Revolution, which became a symbol of hope for positive changes in Europe, was not a result of cool deliberation nor carefully mapped out strategy, but rather a result of a combination of circumstances. Still, many intellectuals of the era expected it to break out, since the state of chaos in governing the country alongside the establishment of a republic in the America (between 1776 and 1789 thirteen British colonies emerged as an independent nation The United States of America) encouraged masses of people in France to seek freedom. Society harboured growing resentment towards royal absolutism and the Enlightenment belief in social progress through the rule of the people spread throughout France. Revolution established the main principles of democracy: "liberty, equality, fraternity". The concept of universal hope for all emphasised by the French Revolution ignited a flare of hope that spread throughout Europe carrying optimistic prospects for the future of Europe, which, at first sight, gained a cosmopolitan nature. However, the reality of political life at the dawn of the new era that was born with the French Revolution has shown how easily even the most humane ideas can degenerate into revolutionary tribunals, violence and bloodshed and it clearly suggested that democratization of the society would not be a peaceful steady movement and aroused concerns that when handled irresponsibly, freedom might turn into the worst gift humanity ever received. From the experience of the French Revolution, two basic types of modern political outlook have been developed: progressive and conservative. Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville are also included in these basic types. The purpose of this study is to highlight the potential risks for democracy in Europe by focusing on the views of these two prominent political theorists and politicians related to one of the most dramatic turning points in modern European history. 2 Theoretical framework This study seeks to contribute, through the knowledge of our recent past, to the development of critical thinking in the coming generation, which is growing in a complicated world of huge possibilities as well as threats. The sources in my research are predominantly books, studies and articles. Based on the sources, I will try to point out the important views of two prominent political theorists and politicians. The political and historical focusing of works by Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville clearly confirms that they differ on many topics. 72 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. However, both of them, from different positions, touch on very serious issues that are also addressed by our generation. 3 Method In the study comparative, historical and analytical research methods are used. I also tried to combine chronological and thematic approaches. The primary sources of the study are published works of Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville and their parliamentary speeches. My research is not just based on personal interpretations, I also compare the views of some historians and political scientists dealing with these two personalities. In the topic of the comparison of Burke's and Tocquevile's views of the French Revolution, the historian deals not only with historical heuristics but also must work with sources and literature of related scientific disciplines. The comparative historical research method is considered to be an important method for addressing such questions as major societal changes. The use of this method provides the reader with some important information about the causes and impacts of the French Revolution, as well as Burke's and Tocqueville's theoretical views and political attitudes related to this important historical event. The comparative, historical and analytical method made it possible to examine some of Burke's and Tocqueville's views also in terms of their importance to the present day. 4 Results 4.1 Edmund Burke - an advocate of moral traditionalism One of the first political thinkers and politicians voicing fierce opposition to the French Revolution was Edmund Burke (1730 - 1797). Burke was an advocate of moral traditionalism, which could be also studied in comparison to the moral rationalism advocated by JeanJacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant. Referring to the tradition, Burke emphasized the importance of preserving civil peace and freedom, and political or institutional changes being made in accordance with the common interest of citizens. Burke was very cautious of rational optimism and individualism promoted by the Enlightenment. He considered human beings rather irrational creatures who needed to be restrained by organized society. According to him, "History consists, for the greater part, of the miseries brought upon the world by pride, ambition, avarice, revenge, lust, sedition, hypocrisy, ungoverned zeal, and all the train of disorderly appetites, which shake the public...". And in these vices Burke sees the main causes of various "storms" (Burke in Howard, 1834?, p. 74). Burke is often seen as the father of modern conservatism and of the Anglo-American conservative tradition, but as shown in the David Bromwich's biography (2014) of the first 73 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. three decades of Burke's professional life, Burke, for whom principles of politics were merely those of morality enlarged, is placed in the public mind somewhat too simply. Bromwich introduces Burke to the reader in a more liberal position. Burke was not only a thinker but also a politician, and many of his views need to be examined in this relationship. He served for many years in the House of Commons, as a member of the Whig party. Burke had to take a personal stand on many important topics. He backed the Americans in their campaign for freedom from British taxation and took different attitudes towards the American and French revolutions. He "supported Catholic freedom and a freer trade with Ireland, in spite of his constituents' ire. He wanted more liberal laws on the punishment of debtors. He even pushed to curb the slave trade in 1780, a quarter of a century before it was abolished" (The Economist, 2014). The fact that Burke was a severe critic of slavery is proven by his speech to the House of Commons in May 1789. In this speech he describes slavery as "the most shameful trade that ever the hardened heart of man could bear" (Burke in The Parliamentary history of England, 1816, p. 70). Burke realized that political practice can never be aimed at relentlessly pursuing political ideals. His attitude is important from the perspective of the relationship between politics and ethics. He pointed out that politicians can be negatively affected by the fact that they receive salaries for performing their functions. This could lead to the fact that the primary motivation in politics could become personal selfish interests which would negatively affect political ethics. Burke openly stressed also that among the most influential politicians should not belong merely those who can afford a political career just because of their economic background. Society played an important role in Burke's ideas. He believed that "society is indeed a contract", in which no generation should be arrogant and think only of themselves. "Subordinate contracts for objects of mere occasional interest may be dissolved at pleasure -but the state ought not to be considered as nothing better than a partnership agreement in the trade of pepper and coffee, callico or tobacco, or some other such low concern, to be taken up for a little temporary interest, and to be dissolved by the fancy of the parties. It is to be looked on with other reverence; because it is not a partnership in things subservient only to the gross animal existence of a temporary and perishable nature. It is a partnership in all science; a partnership in all art; a partnership in every virtue, and in all perfection. As the ends of such a partnership cannot be obtained in many generations, it becomes a partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born" (Burke, 1999a, p. 96). As already mentioned, religion has played a very important role in Burke's theoretical views as well as in his political attitudes. He considered religion as a source of morality, all goods and satisfactions. In his view, religion was the basis of civil society. Burke valued it as an important factor in political stability and society's progress. He presented Christianity "as a 74 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. source of the distinctive civilisation of Europe". Burke made this move "by emphasising how intertwined Christianity had become with the European social order" (Harris, 2012, p. 100). According to Ian Harris, Burke "emphasised the social benefit of Christianity, rather than its truth, ... he developed a correlation between revealed religion and society, and at the same time particularised it, by suggesting that specific religions suited specific societies" (p. 103). For Europe, Burke "pleaded for the recognition of all European religions because they were prescriptive and useful in controlling chaos (from below)" (Heer, 1966, pp. 378- 379). The danger of such chaos and the absence of religion can also be seen in Burke's view of the French Revolution, which is the "most famous object of his entity". Burke presented Christianity "as a source of the distinctive civilisation of Europe" (Harris, 2012, p. 100). Born in Ireland to a Protestant father and Catholic mother, Burke advocated the freedom of Catholics and supported the emancipation of Irish Catholics. The sensitivity to Catholic concerns, however, did not prevent him from presenting himself as a forceful defender of the English Revolution and he called the events of 1688 "happy and glorious revolution". The bloodless Revolution took place during the reign of King James II, who was the last Catholic monarch to reign over the three British kingdoms. He was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII. Some of his political activities and his religion led to anti-Catholic riots in England and Scotland. When king's second wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to their son James Francis Edward, there was a growing concern of the possible Catholic succession of monarch. Just months after the birth of his son, the Glorious Revolution replaced the reigning king with the joint monarchy of his Protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William of Orange. "Although bloodshed in England was limited, the revolution was only secured in Ireland and Scotland by force and with much loss of life." This is noted by historian Edward Vallance (2017), who also points out that "the events of 1688 constituted a foreign invasion of England by another European power, the Dutch Republic". The revolutionary settlement, however, "established the supremacy of parliament over the crown, setting Britain on the path towards constitutional monarchs and parliamentary democracy". French writer and historian André Maurois (1937) argues that "it was indeed a piece of good fortune for England that she could thus achieve the greatest alteration in her history, the transition from despotism to constitutional monarchy, without an unbridgeable gulf being made between Englishmen of opposing views" (p. 340). The "glorious revolution" can be regarded as a "glorious compromise" between the new bourgeoisie and the old feudal institutions, as it resulted in the restoration of the constitutional monarchy in the Protestant line. A measure of granting comparative freedom of worship was passed in 1689, but, as Maurois notes, "Catholics and dissenters were still excluded from the public office" (p. 347). In 1701, under the reign of William of Orange, the English Parliament passed the Act of Settlement, according to which anyone who became a Roman Catholic, or who married one, became disqualified to inherit the throne. 75 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article 4.2 Restorative rather than revolutionary model According to Burke, the English Revolution broke out because people's normative expectations were rooted in traditions. He claimed that the destitution of the king was an act of enforcing the shared norms regarding the legitimate exercise of political power. "Revolution was made to preserve our ancient, indisputable laws and liberties, and that ancient constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty" (Burke, 1999a, p. 31). In Burke's works, the English legal theory and defence of the English common law tradition played an important role. He therefore rejected contemptuously abstract rights that would not be based on specific laws and legal practice. He represented the tradition binding English attitudes as follows: "The very idea of the fabrication of a new government is enough to fill us with disgust and horror. We wished at the period of the Revolution, and do now wish, to derive all we possess as an inheritance from our forefathers" (Burke, 1999a, p. 31; Haller, 2001, p. 3). However, Burke idealized "his own disreputable revolutionary political ancestors, who had violently wrested parliamentary power from the king" (Hart, 1997: 20). Historian Leslie Mitchell (in Burke, 1999a, p. xix) points out that Edmund Burke preferred restorative rather than revolutionary model. This could be also seen when he appealed to the British virtues of continuity, tradition, rank and property. When he considered it important, he also openly criticized the King George III (1738 - 1820), who strengthened the powers of government through an "authoritarian turn", which, according to Burke, had discreetly strengthened the Crown's powers and personal advantages over the common good. Burke also discussed the concept of prejudice. Those prejudices that he denominates as old or legitimate are based on reason and they function as a survival aid. Prejudice which originates in the past contains "the wisdom of the ages" and, in his view, "we cherish them to a very considerable degree, and, to take more shame on ourselves, we cherish them because they are prejudices; and the longer they have lasted, and the more generally they have prevailed, the more we cherish them.......Prejudice is of ready application in the emergency; it previously engages the mind in a steady course of wisdom and virtue, and does not leave the man hesitating in the moment of decision, sceptical, puzzled, and unresolved. Prejudice renders a man's virtue his habit; and not a series of unconnected acts" (1999a, p. 87). Markus Haller (2001) referring to Russell Hardin points out "the Burkean assumption according to which the antiquity of social rules must be among the conditions for the approval of social rules is mistaken. It is incompatible with the requirement that social rules can only be morally justified if it is also prudent to comply with them. And it cannot be defended on the grounds that the antiquity of social rules explains people's attachment to them. In order to avoid the objections against moral traditionalism one might want to give up this problematic assumption and embrace moral conventionalism. Such a change of view is not devoid of ideological consequences, however: moral conventionalism supports philosophical liberalism rather than philosophical conservatism" (p. 16). 76 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Those who knew Burke best, have seen the violence of the language already in some parts of the Reflections on the Revolutions in France (published in November 1790), and therefore they assumed that Burke was mainly driven by personal visibility and considered Reflection only a kind of "personal manifesto" or "political pamphlet". Despite various criticisms, Burke's work was an immediate best-seller. "Within six months it had sold nineteen thousand copies. By September 1791 it had gone through eleven editions" (Mitchell, in Burke, 1999a, p. vii). And it can be counted among the most significant contributions in the field of international theory. In his Reflection Burke (1999a) writes: "When I see the spirit of liberty in action, I see a strong principle at work; and this, for a while, is all I can possibly know of it. The wild gas, the fixed air, is plainly broke loose: but we ought to suspend our judgment until the first effervescence is a little subsided, till the liquor is cleared, and until we see something deeper than the agitation of a troubled and frothy surface. I must be tolerably sure, before I venture publicly to congratulate men upon a blessing, that they have really received one. Flattery corrupts both the receiver and the giver; and adulation is not of more service to the people than to kings. I should, therefore, suspend my congratulations on the new liberty of France until I was informed how it had been combined with government; with public force; with the discipline and obedience of armies; with the collection of an effective and well-distributed revenue, with morality and religion; with the solidity of property; with peace and order; with civil and social manners. All these (in their way) are good things, too; and without them liberty is not a benefit whilst it lasts, and is not likely to continue long" (p. 8). His doubts over the French Revolution, expressed three years before the executions of the Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette and the Reign of Terror that followed, "sprang from his belief that democracy in France would not give rise to stability. This caution ripened into a conviction that the organs of the revolutionary state would become subjected by degrees to the pressures of mob rule and military dictatorship" (O'Gorman, 2004, p. 127). According to Frank O'Gorman, Burke's purpose in publishing his Reflections on the Revolution in France was to confirm his fellow countryman "in their belief in the aristocratic, hereditary nature of the British constitution and to demonstrate its incompatibility with the revolutionary principles of France" (p. 127). In relation to the French Revolution Burke saw the dangers of mob rule, fearing that the Revolution's fervour was destroying the French society and thus he appealed to the British virtues of continuity, tradition, rank and property. "In the French Assemblies, lawyers and men of letters had drawn up abstract declarations, enumerated the Rights of Man, and paraphrased Rousseau's Social Contract" (Maurois, 1937, p. 394). On this issue Burke took the following opinion: "No moral questions are ever abstract questions, because things are right and wrong, morally speaking, only by their relation or connection with other things"(Parkin, 1956, p. 104). Burke was convinced that the French Revolution "was destroying the structure built up through the centuries by the monarchy, and sought to rebuild another solely with the materials provided by Reason. But essentially the English intelligence was, as it still is, based on a historic sense. Burke kept repeating, in 77 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. countless forms, that man is incapable of living on his slender capital of reason, and that the individual must ask some credit of acquired wisdom from the funded reserves accumulated through the ages by countless generations of men" (Maurois, 1937, p. 394). According to Irish novelist and historian Seamus Deane (2004) "Burke successfully provided an ideology of tradition for the new imperial power when it faced its most critical challenge; he defined the British system as the alternative to revolutionary doctrine and violence, but was consistent enough to find that it was at best difficult to reconcile it with colonial or imperial violence" (pp. 22 - 23). In the defence of incrementalism Burke actually stressed the importance of Common Law. As pointed by Markus Haller (2001, p. 7), for Burke incrementalism implies that "one advantage is as little as possible sacrificed to another". It proceeds by "a slow but well-sustained progress, the effect of each step is watched; the good or ill success of the first, gives light to us in the second; and so, from light to light, we are conducted with safety through the whole series" (Burke, 1999a, p. 170). Incremental improvements of the social and economic conditions under which people live should be a reaction to the perceived shortcomings of actual laws, yet never an attempt to approximate or even to bring about an abstract political ideal of a good society. Thus, as Burke (pp. 157-158) writes, "a disposition to preserve, and an ability to improve, taken together, would be my standard of a statesman. Everything else is vulgar in the conception, perilous in the execution". In the activities of the revolutionary French National Assembly, Burke saw an instance of opportunistic political change destroying civil peace: "When men are encouraged to go into a certain mode of life by the existing laws, and protected in that mode as in a lawful occupation - when they have accommodated all their ideas and all their habits to it - when the law had long made their adherence to its rules a ground of reputation, and their departure from them a ground of disgrace and even of penalty - I am sure it is unjust in legislature, by an arbitrary act, to offer a sudden violence to their minds and their feelings; forcibly to degrade them from their state and condition, and to stigmatize with shame and infamy that character, and those customs, which before had been made the measure of their happiness and honour. If to this be added an expulsion from their habitations, and a confiscation of all their goods, I am not sagacious enough to discover how this despotic sport, made of the feelings, consciences, prejudices, and properties of men, can be discriminated from the rankest tyranny" ((Burke, 1999a, pp. 156-157; Haller, 2001, p. 6). When the French Republic declared war against Britain in 1793, Burke advocated a vigorous and uncompromising strategy that would "destroy the republic and restore the ancient régime" (Lock, 2012, p. 25). In his Letters of a Regicide Peace, written between 1795 and 1797, Burke (1999b) talks about war "with a system... with an armed doctrine... It has, by its essence, a faction of opinion, and of interest, and of enthusiasm, in every country" (p. 76). According to Friedrich Heer (1966), Burke "knew that it was an armed doctrine, and that the crusade would 78 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article necessarily be of long duration. But he was unable to take the next step and to free himself from the great heresy of all European reactionaries; that ideas can be fought against with arms" (p. 379). 4.3 Alexis de Tocqueville - an essential thinker in understanding our world French political scientist and historian Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) is often considered to be "classical liberal" or "liberal conservative" and, along with the English historian and politician Lord Acton (1834-1902), he is also called the "essential liberal of the nineteenth-century"(Smith, 2013, p. 2). Like Burke, Tocqueville also had experience with practical politics serving as a deputy in the French assembly and for a short period (from 3 June to 31 October 1849) he held the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. He started out his political activities with dreams of a great political career "but ended up with a more realistic and perhaps also disillusioned view of what he could accomplish" (Swedberg, 2009, pp. 215 -216). Tocqueville (retired from political life after Louis Napoléon Bonaparte's 2 December 1851 coup d'état) was frustrated by the political development in France as well as in Europe, which is also mentioned in his correspondence with English lawyer Nassau William Senior from March 1852: "We see over the whole continent so general and so irresistible a reaction against democracy, and even against liberty, that I cannot believe that it will stop short on our side of Channel..." (Simpson, 1872, p. 26). Like Burke, Tocqueville also dealt with the issue of slavery influenced in particular by extensive correspondence and direct conversation with several American friends. He did not think "slavery could be destroyed in the states, but he hated and reviled it". Probably the best known is his Testimony against slavery published in 1855. It is "cogent and brief; noteworthy, however, is it moving beyond emancipation itself to a statement of support for equal civil liberties for all" (Mancini, 2006, pp. 61 - 62). Although with poor health and disappointed by the political developments in France, Tocqueville began to study the history of modern France. He dealt with the issue of the French Revolution much later than Burke. The first volume of The Old Regime and the French Revolution was published in 1856. (Tocqueville's research on the French Revolution and modern French history was unfinished because of his death in 1859). He analyzed and investigated the forces that caused the French Revolution and his work is based on many archival materials. Seamus Deane (2004) writes that while Burke was "a new man who re-envisioned the aristocratic world", Tocqueville was "an aristocrat who envisioned the New World" (pp. 22-23). About Burke's views of the French Revolution, Tocqueville wrote that his "genius was illuminated by the hatred with which the Revolution inspired him from its birth". According to Tocqueville (2017), the English "taught by their own history and enlightened by the long practice of political freedom, perceived dimly, as through a thick veil, the approaching spectre 79 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. of a great revolution; but they were unable to distinguish its real shape, and the influence it was so soon to exercise upon the destinies of the world and upon their own was unforeseen" (p. 2). Tocqueville (1856) says that the object of the French Revolution was not only to change an ancient form of government, but "it designed to abolish the old form of society". Therefore, it had to attack at once every established authority, "to destroy acknowledged influences; to efface traditions; to substitute new manners and usages for the old ones; in a word, to sweep out of men's minds all the notions which had hitherto commanded respect and obedience." (pp. 21 - 22). Tocqueville cites Edmund Burke's words: "This is the first time that men have so barbarously torn their country to pieces." He also admits that nothing was more astonishing "than the extraordinary ease with which the Constituent Assembly destroyed at a single stroke all the ancient French provinces, many of which were older than the monarchy. ... No doubt it appeared like tearing in pieces living bodies, ....". According to Tocqueville however, "...in fact, the provinces that were thus dismembered were only corpses" (p. 98). Unlike Burke, Tocqueville "did not contrast the emergent modern society with a venerable and traditional order that must, by every rhetorical resource avail-able, be rendered sacrosanct and timeless. On the contrary, he claimed that the centralized administrative state had concealed its operations behind an increasingly venal facade of traditional codes. His famous disagreement with Burke's analysis of the Revolution is rooted in this" (Deane, 2004, p. 3). Tocqueville considered the French Revolution as a social and political revolution. "It did not tend to perpetuate or consolidate disorder, to "methodize anarchy" (as one of its leading opponents remarked), but rather to augment the power and the rights of public authority. It was not calculated to change the character of our civilization, as others imagined, or to arrest its progress, or even to alter, essentially, any of the fundamental laws upon which our Western societies rest." He saw the main purpose of the Revolution in the abolition of political institutions which during several centuries had been in force among the greater part of the European nations, "and which are usually known as the feudal system; in order to substitute therefore a social and political organization marked by more uniformity and more simplicity, and resting on the basis of the equality of all ranks" (Tocqueville, 1856, p 25). Tocqueville claims that Edmund Burke does not realize that the real object of the Revolution is to abolish the models of the old common law of Europe, "he does not perceive that that, and nothing else, is the gist of the movement" (p. 37). According to Jean-Baptiste Noe (2018), Tocqueville "enrolled in the French liberal school for which the Revolution was more a continuity than a rupture... In his studies, especially in The Old Regime and the Revolution, Tocqueville developed a reflection essentially based on law. This serves to demonstrate the transition from the aristocratic to the democratic age. But his analysis seems to stop in 1789. He never evokes terror or revolutionary 80 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article dynamics, as if this aspect of the Revolution did not interest him" Noé, however, also points out that Tocqueville extended revolutionary violence well beyond the period of terror that ran in the period of the French Revolution. "On the one hand, he thinks of revolution as the recognition of law and the person, on the other hand he shows the dangers of egalitarianism in the erasure of the person and the non-respect of natural rights. This makes this author an essential thinker in understanding and thinking about our world". In relation to the question of whether Tocqueville should be seen as a conservative or liberal, it should be emphasized again that the terms conservative and liberal were coined in the early decade of the nineteenth century "to take account of the polarization of opinion resulting from the French Revolution" (Lakoff, 1998, p. 439). John Lukacs (1982) points out that this aristocrat and "perhaps the greatest of political thinkers and historical writers of the nineteenth century" cannot be simply categorized: "Even though the term 'conservative' poses a certain difficulty (it was not applied to politics until after Napoleon, and certainly not in Burke's lifetime), what separates Tocqueville from Burke and from his own contemporary conservatives may be summed up under three headings: religion, monarchy, liberty". 4.4 Strong proponent of liberty The first study of modern public democracy is Tocqueville's Democracy in America. (The first volume of the monumental work De la démocratie en Amérique was published in 1835 and the second one in 1840). Tocqueville (1990) saw the United States as a model of freedom and equality. In the introduction of this work he states that "the gradual development of principle of equality is therefore a providential fact. It has all the chief characteristics of such a fact: it is universal, it is lasting, it constantly eludes all human interference, and all events as well as all men contribute to its progress ... There is greater equality of condition in Christian countries at the present day than there has been at any previous time, in any part of the world, so that the magnitude of what already has been done prevents us from foreseeing what is yet to be accomplished" (pp. 6-7). Tocqueville strongly believed that democracy was inevitable and in the coming of democracy he saw the "hand of God." In relation to this, Francis Fukuyama (2000) claims, that the categorical historical determinism implied in his introduction "makes Tocqueville sound a bit like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels." He asserts that "there are a number of reasons for thinking that Tocqueville's full understanding of democracy's inevitability goes beyond the simple assertion that it is the work of God...". At the same time he notes that Tocqueville "is clearly no simple partisan of democracy" (pp. 1112). According to John Lukacs (1982), "Tocqueville's view of democratic evolution was clear, but he was fully aware of its complex nature. The main element of its complexity was the relationship of its component, and often contradictory, elements of equality and liberty. His concentration on this subject would alone justify the recognition of Tocqueville as a latter-day Aristotle; yet Tocqueville, even more than his famous predecessor Montesquieu, knew that 81 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. modern mass democracy is not comparable to the democracy of the Athenian city-state, that it is a new historical phenomenon. Tocqueville's political thinking was realistic and existential, not abstract and theoretical". For many conservative thinkers religion and democracy were incompatible. Lukacs considers Burke "a partial exception". Tocqueville (1856) also realized that the French Revolution "in its operation and its aspect resembled a religious one. It had every peculiar and a characteristic feature of a religious movement; by preaching and by propaganda" (p. 25). In democracy, however, he did not see the threat against religion. Also Lukacs sees him on the opposite side to those for whom this incompatibility was their "fundamental article of belief." According to Tocqueville (2003), in the eighteenth century Christianity had lost a large portion of its power all over Europe, but the scenes that took place in France during the revolution were without precedent. "Ardent efforts were made to eradicate from men's souls the faith that was in them, and leave them empty. ... Absolute infidelity, than which nothing is more repugnant to man's natural instincts, or produces more discomfort of soul, appeared attractive to the masses." Respect for religion, however, gradually returned after the revolution, "and infidelity disappeared or lay hidden in the general dread of revolution" (pp. 182-187). Lukacs (1982) tries to point out that Tocqueville, "who regretted the end of the French Bourbon monarchy but who also saw that in the history of peoples continuity plays as much, if not greater, a role than does change, did not think that during the eighteenth century the divine right of kings mattered very much, whereas the conservatives believed that the democratic revolutions constituted a break with the entire order of the providential universe. Most important, the conservatives' criticism of the principle of equality was often combined with their criticism of the principle of liberty; this was very different from the convictions of Tocqueville who, throughout his life, regarded liberty—and by no means in an abstract sense—as the most precious possession of persons and of peoples". Tocqueville (1840) saw democracy as an equation that balanced liberty and equality, at the same time being aware of the dangers, such as the fact that when "social conditions are equal, every man is apt to live apart, centred in himself and forgetful of the public" (p. 272). He considered the conflict between equality and liberty and between democratic freedom and tyrannical democracy to be the greatest weakness of democracy. Tocqueville was a strong proponent of liberty and he staked his life on liberty. He does not consider himself a revolutionary nor a conservative and he honestly confesses that liberty is his "foremost passion". In The Old Regime and the Revolution, Tocqueville (1856) writes: "Nor do I believe that a true love for liberty can ever be inspired by the sight of the material advantages it procures, for they are not always clearly visible. It is very true that, in the long run, liberty always yields to those who know how to preserve it comfort, independence, and often wealth; but there are times when it disturbs these blessings for a while, and there are times when their 82 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. immediate enjoyment can only be secured by a despotism. Those who only value liberty for their sake have never preserved it long. It is the intrinsic attractions of freedom, its own peculiar charm—quite independently of its incidental benefits—which have seized so strong a hold on the great champions of liberty throughout history; they loved it because they loved the pleasure of being able to speak, to act, to breathe unrestrained, under the sole government of God and the laws" (p. 204). Tocqueville did not assert that democratic nations are secure from revolutions, which, even after the experience with the French Revolution, can provoke scepticism and pessimism about progress and human nature. For these reasons, he was concerned with institutions that could preserve freedom and equality harmoniously, prevent the exploitation of power, and motivate an individual not only in social, but also in political responsibility. He drew the electorate's attention to the peril of confusing freedom with equality and he anticipated potential problems arising from relying solely on general and equal elections that "elevate to positions of power" incompetents and the ruthlessly ambitious who are without refinement, originality, dignity, or care for public affairs. He expressed his fear that elections could lead to a non-liberal form of democracy, or even to something worse, and for this reason it was necessary "that they [elections] be bound in the much more complex institutional framework of a liberal order" (Krsková, 2006, pp. 61-66). However, he was confident that in democracy it can easily be discerned a state of polity, "which, when combined with the principle of equality, would render society more stationary than it has ever been in our western part of the world" (Tocqueville, 1840, p. 257). According to some opinions, Charles Alexis de Tocqueville initiated the French branch of "sceptical liberalism". He expressed his concerns over the potential increasing conflicts among the liberals themselves, prioritizing the mob, and the destructive force of the so called democratic revolution. He believed that democracy as defined in politics is compatible with economic liberalism, but at the same time he realized that it would not be easy to ensure that people participate in governing the state; and yet a greater challenge would be providing them with the experience necessary and skills they lacked and needed in order to rule well. Tocqueville saw yet another major weakness of democracy in the fact that public office is not very attractive for talented individuals and he pointed out the correlation between the worth of political representatives and the insufficient education of the electorate. In addition, the quality of governance is restricted by short electoral periods after which officials were usually replaced. This hinders the effectiveness of capable officials, who otherwise should not be restricted in the performance of their duties by party politics. Tocqueville also mentioned the danger of democratic regimes being possibly inclined to corruption. Politicians often yearn to ensure their continued electoral success in democracy, therefore there is a great deal of room for buying of electoral votes of various political groups, which leads to an increase in public expenditures (Frevel, 2004, p. 51). One can easily agree with Fukuyama (2000) that 83 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. Tocqueville's theory "anticipated almost all of the other theories of modernization and political evolution that would follow him" (p. 17). Despite the risks that seem inherent in democracy, Alexis de Tocqueville believed that democracy would sooner or later come to Europe. But at the same time he realized that to make democracy a true democracy of values, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the role of human freedom in the development of a full and responsible human life. 5 Discussion The main purpose of this study is to highlight the potential risks for democracy in Europe by focusing on the views of two prominent political theorists and politicians related to one of the most dramatic turning points in modern European history. From the experience of the French Revolution, two basic types of modern political outlook have been developed: progressive and conservative. The results of the study support the view that Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville can be included in these basic types. In the research, we also had to take into account the fact that both were politically active and their published works could, to a certain extent, also be politically motivated. The results of the study support hypothesis that several differences in Burke's and Tocquevile's view of the French Revolution were influenced, among other things, by the fact that, unlike Burke, Toqueville dealt with the issue of the French Revolution much later and his work is based on many archival materials. The comparison of Burke's and Tocquevile's view of the French Revolution has shown that Burke ("a new man who re-envisioned the aristocratic world") can be seen as a representative of conservative political thinking and Tocqueville ("an aristocrat who envisioned the New World") as a representative of progressive political thinking. Despite several distinct views and different attitudes to the French Revolution, however, both agreed in their analyzes of some of the causes of this Revolution. In the context of the discussion of the results of the study, it should also be pointed out that Burke did not reject social and political changes, which is basically confirmed by his own words: "A state without the means of some change, is without the means of its own conservation." He is praised not only by conservatives but often also by liberals. However, because of his negative attitude to the French Revolution, he is known in particular as the founder of traditional conservatism. Considering the results obtained in this study, we can support the hypothesis that Edmund Burke, as a conservative, supported the view that people as imperfect beings are selfish, and therefore institutions and values that have stood the test of centuries must not be victims of extreme revolutionary changes. Burke still appeals to us especially by emphasizing the 84 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article responsibility of our generation for future generations. Tocqueville is known by the statement: "When the past no longer illuminates the future, the spirit walks in darkness". He agreed that the French Revolution resulted in a cruel confrontation with the Ancien Régime. Unlike Burke, however, he saw many positive impulses in the French Revolution. He can motivate us especially by the fact that he was a strong proponent of liberty and he staked his life on liberty. For Tocqueville, liberty is an important revolutionary legacy, but at the same time he fears that liberty is fragile and requires responsibility. 6 Conclusion As far as the French revolution is concerned, no matter how critical our judgement, one must admit that it is nowadays associated with the victory of thoughts which altered the very groundwork of the social order in Europe; moreover, it marks the beginnings of a modern society of citizens, which never was, and never will be, gained by a simple, peaceful and straightforward course. The French revolution was motivated and shaped by several distinct ideas, but it also had a significant influence on motivating and shaping several distinct ideas. This revolution has become a major impetus for moving away from the traditional European monarchy towards extending civil rights and strengthening parliamentarism. The revolution destroyed feudal relationships and class privileges based on estates and thus it laid the foundation for equality before the law and for a newborn national unity of the society. The concept of democracy seen as an egalitarian government of the people gradually spread to the political sphere of other countries where it rivalled the traditional authoritarian political systems; this view of democracy stated that every citizen would benefit from the law equally and no special privilege acquired by birth or office would determine their rights and duties. However, due to several well-known negative events the French Revolution also provoked scepticism about progress and human nature. From the experience of this Revolution, two basic types of modern political outlook have been developed: progressive and conservative. Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville are also included in these basic types. Despite several different attitudes to the French Revolution, Burke and Tocqueville agreed in their analyses of some of the causes of this Revolution. In their work we can also find words about the importance of knowing history as well as our responsibility for future generations. Based on the political and historical examination of the views of these two prominent political theorists and politicians, we can point that the democratic order can be legitimate only when the basic principles and values of democracy are balanced and mutually respect their limits. The tension between the principles of freedom and equality must be counterbalanced by the principles of solidarity and rule of law. The effort to exaggerate one of these principles and to subordinate the others to it interrupts and endangers the overall goal. 85 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Research limitations are mainly related to the fact that it is quite difficult to explore all the important archive sources related to Burke and Tocqueville. Research will continue to focus on finding answers to important questions related to comparing Burke's and Tocqueville's theoretical works, and will look at a deeper analysis of their political attitudes and views such as Tocqueville's critique of socialism. It will also focus on the views of other major political theorists who have influenced political thought in Europe since the French Revolution, which will require wider teamwork at the international level. References 1. Burke, E. (1798). The beauties of the late Right Hon. Edmund Burke, selected from the writings, &c. of that extraordinary man, ... To which is prefixed, a sketch of the life, with some original anecdotes of Mr. Burke. In two volumes. London: J. W. Myers. Retrieved from http://name.umdl.umich.edu/004795912.0001.001 2. Burke, E. (1834). The works of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke (1). London: Holdsworth and Ball. 3. Burke, E. (1999a). Reflections on the Revolution in France. New York: Oxford University Press. 4. Burke, E. (1999b). Letters of a Regicide Peace. Indianapolis: Liberty Press. 5. Bromwich, D. (2014). The Intellectual Life of Edmund Burke: From the Sublime and Beautiful to American Independence. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 6. Craiutu, A., & Jennings, J. (Eds.). (2009). Tocqueville Reloaded on America after 1840: Letters and Other Writings. New York: Cambridge University Press. 7. Deane, S. (2004). Burke and Tocqueville: New Worlds, New Beings. boundary 2 31(1), 1-23. Retrieved from https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/54259. 8. Frevel, B. (2004). Demokratie, Entwicklung - Gestaltung - Problematiesierung. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag fur Sozialwissenschaften. 9. Fukuyama, F. (2000). The March of Equality. Journal of Democracy, 11(1), 11 - 17. 10. Haller, M. (2001). Edmund Burke's Moral Traditionalism. Swiss Political Science Review 7(3), 1-19. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/j.1662-6370.2001.tb00320.x 11. Hart, J. (1997, December). Edmund Burke and the English Revolution. Modern Age (pp. 11 -20). Retrieved from http://www.mmisi.org/ma/39_01/hart.pdf 12. Harris, I. (2012). Burke and Religion. In D. Dwan & C. J. Insole (Eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Edmund Burke. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (pp. 92 - 103). 13. Heer, F. (1966). The Intellectual History of Europe. Cleveland - New York: The World Publishing Company. 14. Howard, A (Ed.) (1834?) The Beauties of Burke. Consisting of Selections from His Works. London: T. Davison. 15. Krskova, A. (2006). Mame k demokracii upinaf nadej alebo sa jej bat'?. In M. Katuninec & T. Zalesak (Eds.). Rub a lice demokracie. Trnava: Filozoficka fakulta Trnavskej univerzity v Trnave (pp. 56 - 66). 86 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article 16. Lakoff, S. (1998). Tocqueville, Burke, and the Origins of Liberal Conservatism. In The Review of Politics 60 (3), 435-464. 17. Lock, F. P. (2012). Burke's life. In D. Dwan & C. J. Insole (Eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Edmund Burke. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (pp. 15 - 26). 18. Lukacs, J. (1982). Alexis de Tocqueville: A Historical Appreciation. In L. P. Liggio (Ed.) Literature of Liberty 5 (1). Retrieved from https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/liggio-literature-of-liberty-spring-1982-vol-5-no-1/simple#lf0353-17_1982v1_head_005 19. Mancini, M. (2006). Alexis de Tocqueville and American Intellectuals: From His Times to Ours. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 20. Maurois, A. (1937). A History of England. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd. 21. Noe, JB. (2018, November 6). A reading of the French Revolution by Alexis de Tocqueville: continuity between the old and new regime. State Language University. Moscow. Retrieved from http://www .j bnoe.fr/IMG/pdf/tocqueville_et_la_revolution_en.pdf 22. O'Gorman, F. (1973). Edmund Burke: His Political Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 23. O'Gorman, F. (2004). Edmund Burke: His Political Philosophy. In Geraint P. (Ed.) Political Thinkers (2). London: Routledge. 24. Parkin, C. (1956). The Moral Basis of Burke's Political Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 25. SIMPSON, M. C. M (1872). Correspondence & conversations of Alexis de Tocqueville with Nassau William Senior from 1834-1859 (2). London: Henry S. King & Co. 26. SMITH, G. H. (2013). Lord Acton and the History of Liberty (2). Retrieved from http://www.libertarianism.org/publications/essays/lord-acton-history-liberty-part-2 27. Swedberg, R. (2009). Tocqueville's Political Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 28. The early thinking of Edmund Burke. Freedom fighter. (2014, July 3). The Economist. Retrieved from https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2014/07/03/freedom-fighter. 29. The Parliamentary history of England: from the earliest period to the year 1803. (1816). The Parliamentary Debates: Official Reports 28 (8 May 1789 - 15 March 1791), London: Printed by T.C. Hansard. 30. Tocqueville, A. (1848). Gale of Revolution in the Air. Retrieved from 31. http://www.speeches-usa.com/Transcripts/alexis_deTocqueville-gale.html 32. Tocqueville, A. (1856). The Old Regime and the Revolution. New York: Harper & Brothers. 33. Tocqueville, A. (2003). Stary rezim a revoluce. Praha: Academia. 34. Tocqueville, A. (1990). Democracy in America (1). New York: Vintage Classics. 35. Tocqueville, A. (2000). Demokracie v Americe, Praha: Academia. 36. Tocqueville, A. (2000). Democracy in America. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 37. Tocqueville, A. (2017). The State of Society in France Before the Revolution of 1789. In The Project Gutenberg eBook. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/files/54187/54187-h/54187-h.htm 38. Usherwood, S. (1981). The Black Must Be Discharged - The Abolitionists' Debt to Lord Mansfield. In History Today 31(3). 39. Vallance, E. (2011, February 17) The Glorious Revolution. In History BBC. Retrieved from 40. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/glorious_revolution_01.shtml 87 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article *** Milan Katuninec is Professor of History at the Department of Political Science in Trnava University in Trnava. He has numerous publications and he is a chief researcher and scientific co-worker in several research projects focused on Contemporary Slovak and European history, democracy, extremism, totalitarian ideologies and movements, social policy and relationship between ethics and politics. Povzetek: Dva pogleda na francosko revolucijo Namen in izvirnost: Namen te študije je osvetliti potencialna tveganja za demokracijo v Evropi z osredotočanjem na stališča dveh vidnih političnih teoretikov in politikov, ki se nanašata na eno najbolj dramatičnih prelomnic v sodobni evropski zgodovini. Metoda: V študiji se uporablja zgodovinska, primerjalna in analitična raziskovalna metoda. Poskusil sem tudi kombinirati kronološki in tematski pristop. Rezultati: Iz izkušenj francoske revolucije sta bili razviti dve osnovni vrsti sodobnega političnega pogleda: progresivni in konzervativni. V ti osnovni vrsti sta vključena tudi Edmund Burke in Alexis de Tocqueville. Kljub več izrazitim stališčem in različnim odnosom do francoske revolucije, sta se Burke in Tocqueville v svojih analizah nekaterih vzrokov za to revolucijo strinjala. Nekateri njihovi pogledi so z vidika današnje demokratične družbe nesprejemljivi. Toda Burke nas še vedno privlači, zlasti če poudarja odgovornost naše generacije do prihodnjih generacij in Tocqueville nas lahko motivira predvsem s tem, da je bil močan zagovornik svobode in je svoje življenje postavljal na svobodo. Na podlagi političnega in zgodovinskega pregleda stališč teh dveh vidnih političnih teoretikov in politikov lahko izpostavimo, da je demokratični red lahko legitimen le, če so osnovna načela in vrednote demokracije uravnotežene in vzajemno spoštujejo njihove meje. Napetost med načeloma svobode in enakosti mora biti uravnotežena z načeli solidarnosti in pravičnosti. Prizadevanje, da bi z eno od teh načel pretiravali in si drugo podredili, prekine in ogrozi splošni cilj. Družba: Rezultati bi morali ozaveščati tveganja, ki ogrožajo demokracijo. Študija tudi poudarja, da obstaja med politično svobodo in odgovornostjo ozka povezava. Omejitve / nadaljnje raziskave: Raziskave se bodo še naprej osredotočale na stališča drugih pomembnih političnih teoretikov, ki so od francoske revolucije vplivali na politično misel v Evropi, kar bo zahtevalo širše timsko delo na mednarodni ravni. Ključne besede: Edmund Burke, Alexis de Tocqueville, francoska revolucija, Evropa, demokracija, svoboda, politika. Copyright (c) Milan KATUNINEC Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. 35 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article DOI: 10.37886/ip.2020.003 Vzroki, znamenja, posledice ter obvladovanje stresa na delovnem mestu Simon E. Pantar * Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu, Novi trg 5, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija simone_pantar@yahoo.com Bojan Gorenc Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu, Novi trg 5, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija bojan.gorenc2@gmail.com Povzetek: Raziskovalno vprašanje (RV): Kateri so najpogostejši vzroki nastanka stresa na delovnem mestu? Kakšna so najpogostejša znamenja stresa? Kakšne so najpogostejše posledice stresa? Kako lahko obvladujemo stres? Namen: Namen članka je proučiti članke na temo vzrokov, znamenj, posledic ter obvladovanja stresa na delovnem mestu, ločeno za EU, ZDA in Slovenijo, ter preveriti in povzeti raziskave za različne ravni: individualno, skupinsko, vodstveno in organizacijsko raven. Namen članka je kratka predstavitev rezultatov in pregled skupnih značilnosti navedenih regij. Cilj članka je ugotoviti in predstaviti razlike oz. skupne poglede na temo vzrokov, znamenj in posledic ter obvladovanja stresa na delovnem mestu med EU, ZDA in Slovenijo. Metoda: V raziskavi je bil uporabljen integrativni pregled znanstvene in strokovne literature s področja menedžmenta delovnega stresa. Preko različnih baz (Google Scholar, dLIB) smo na podlagi ključnih besed povezanih s stresom, zdravjem oz. dobrim počutjem na delovnem mestu, poiskali primerne članke. V raziskovalno nalogo smo vključili članke mlajše od 10 let s faktorjem vpliva višjim od 1,5. za članke povezane z raziskavami za EU in ZDA. Za raziskave v Sloveniji je bil pogoj, da je bil članek objavljen v indeksiranih revijah. Pregledali smo 57 člankov. V končni pregled je bilo vključenih 19 člankov, ki so ustrezali pogojem. Podatki so bili obdelani s tematsko kvalitativno analizo. Rezultati: Najpogostejši vzrok za nastanek stresa so prekomerna delovna obremenjenost in slabi medsebojni odnosi v organizaciji, kar se zelo pogosto izkazuje v izgorelosti zaposlenih, upadanju produktivnosti, povečanju bolniških odsotnosti, povečanju delovnih nesreč ter zatekanje k zlorabi alkohola, tobaka in drog. Pri obvladovanju stresa so najbolj pogosti primarni proaktivni ukrepi, ki vključujejo redno telesno aktivnost in zdrav življenjski slog, omogočanje visoke stopnje avtonomije pri delu, razni izobraževalni in wellness programi ter socialna podpora in vzpodbujanje zdravih odnosov med zaposlenimi v organizaciji. Organizacija: Rezultati raziskave vodilnemu menedžmentu in srednjemu menedžmentu nakazujejo aktivnosti menedžmenta delovnega stresa v raziskovanih regijah ter ponujajo vpogled v aktivnosti, pristope in metode, ki dosegajo dobre rezultate. Družba: Z izvajanjem proaktivnih ukrepov pri obvladovanju delovnega stresa v organizacijah preprečujemo negativne učinke prekomerne izpostavljenosti stresu na delovnem mestu in s tem pozitivno vplivamo na zadovoljstvo pri delu, zvišujemo učinkovitost delovnih mest in preprečujemo nastanek s stresom poveznih bolezenskih obolenj, ki dokazano zmanjšujejo storilnost in povečujejo stroške zdravstvene blagajne. Originalnost: Raziskava daje neposredno primerjavo vzrokov, posledic in ukrepov pri nastanku stresa na delovnem mestu treh raziskovanih regij, ki ponujajo premih obstoječih paradigem ter podlago za oblikovanje in dopolnitev obstoječih pristopov pri obvladovanju delovnega stresa. Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author Prejeto: 10. januar 2020; revidirano 26. februar 2020; sprejeto: 3. marec 2020. / Received: 10th January 2020; revised: 26th February 2020; accepted: 3rd March 2020. 36 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Omejitve/nadaljnje raziskovanje: Primerjava menedžmenta delovnega stresa je bila izvedena v treh regijah (ZDA, EU in Slovenija). Za širši in celovitejši vpogled na problematiko stresa, bi bilo priporočljivo raziskavo razširiti še na območje Azije (Kitajska, Južna Koreja, Japonska) Ključne besede: stres, delovni stres, preventivno obvladovanje stresa, izgorelost, posledice stresa, zdrav življenjski slog, ugodno počutje. 1 Uvod V sodobnem času smo čedalje bolj izpostavljeni izjemnim situacijam, zaradi česar si skoraj ne moremo več predstavljati življenja brez stresa, saj nas spremlja na vsakem koraku. Lahko rečemo, da je stres nespecifični odgovor na različne zunanje in notranje dejavnike, ki ogrožajo normalno delovanje oz. notranje ravnovesje človeškega organizma. Kratkotrajen in blag stres ni škodljiv, lahko je celo koristen. Ko govorimo o dolgotrajnem ali zelo intenzivnem stresu, pa je vpliv škodljiv in lahko pripelje do različnih posledic. (Kerčmar, 2017, str. 1) Najuspešnejši so tisti, ki se naučijo obvladovati življenje s čim manj stresa ter čim več optimizma in ustvarjalnosti. Ljudje, ki obvladujejo stres, so srečnejši in zaslužijo več. (Brečko, 2018, str. 1) Namen članka je proučiti članke na temo vzrokov, znamenj in posledic ter obvladovanja stresa na delovnem mestu, ločeno za EU, ZDA in Slovenijo, ter preveriti in povzeti raziskave za različne ravni: individualno, skupinsko, vodstveno in organizacijsko raven. Namen članka je kratka predstavitev rezultatov in pregled skupnih značilnosti navedenih regij. Cilj članka je ugotoviti in predstaviti razlike oz. skupne poglede na temo vzrokov, znamenj in posledic ter obvladovanja stresa na delovnem mestu med EU, ZDA in Slovenijo. 2rr v • 1 1 v Teoretična izhodišča Življenje se odvija veliko hitreje kot kdaj koli prej - predvsem naraščajo podatki, znanje in izumi. Zato potrebujemo drugačnega človeka; takega, ki bo sposoben živeti v svetu, ki se neprestano spreminja in ki bo vzgojen tako, da se bo počutil dobro tudi, ko se bo položaj spreminjal. Družba, ki bo oblikovala take ljudi bo preživela; družbe, ki tega ne bodo zmogle, pa ne. (Maslow v Kvas, Sima & Kaučič, 2009, str.7) Danes se posamezniki in organizacije soočajo z vedno bolj kompleksnim in dinamičnim okoljem. Spremembe se dogajajo na praktično vseh področjih. Kot odziv na spremembe v okolju se nenehno pojavljajo spremembe na civilizacijski, organizacijski in osebni ravni (Bukovec, Ovsenik & Markič, 2009, str. 19). Spremembe so postale stalnica. Ne morejo se jim izogniti niti organizacije. 37 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Da bi uspešno obvladali stresne situacije moramo na samem začetku opredeliti kaj pojmujemo pod besedo »stres« in ugotoviti kaj ga povzroča, da bi lahko ugotavljali posledice izpostavljenosti stresu (Sutherland & Cooper, 2000, str. 44). Vire stresa v delovnem okolju lahko po Sutherland in Cooperju razdelimo na šest kategorij: • stres, ki izhaja iz dela (delovne obremenitve, dolgotrajen delavnik, izmensko delo, fizično delovno okolje), • stres, ki izhaja iz vloge odgovornosti (dvoumnost vloge, stopnja odgovornosti za druge, konfliktnost vlog), • stres, ki izhaja iz odnosov na delovnem mestu, • stres, ki izhaja iz kariernega odnosa, • stres, ki izhaja iz organizacijske strukture, klime, kulture, • delo in družina kot stresor. Stres je definiran kot sindrom, ki vključuje nespecifično reakcijo organizma na doživljaj iz okolja. Če prilagodimo pojem, da ustreza shemi delovnega okolja, lahko definiramo stres kot opaženo porušeno ravnotežje med zahtevami delovnega mesta ter posameznikovimi zmožnostmi, da jih izvede, ko so pomembne tudi posledice neuspeha. Stres je generičen pojem, ki se nanaša na začasni prilagoditveni proces. Izgorelost pa je končna stopnja, ko odpovedo prilagoditveni procesi. Izgorelost vodi v razvoj negativnih stališč in vedenja do dela in organizacije, v razvoj čustvene napetosti, utrujenosti, izčrpanosti, medtem, ko se to pri stresu ne pojavi nujno (Bilban, 2009, str. 21). Ukrepi za preprečevanje neželenih učinkov stresa v delovnem okolju se delijo na primarne, sekundarne in terciarne (Tetrick & Winslow, 2015, str. 5): • primarni ukrepi so proaktivni in preventivno usmerjeni, osredotočeni na preprečevanje neželenih pojavov (uporaba v sistemskih pristopih v organizacijah), • sekundarni ukrepi se ukvarjajo z odpravo dejavnikov tveganja za nastanek stresa pri posameznikih ali skupini, • terciarni ukrepi se osredotočajo na posameznike ali skupine, ki se soočajo s stiskami ki so posledica dolgotrajnih negativnih učinkov delovanja stresa. Dobro počutje in zdravje zaposlenih je pomembno za delodajalce, njihove družine in njihove organizacije. Intervencije v stresnem menedžmentu težijo k temu, da so ameliorativne in se pogosto osredotočajo na vzpostavitev porušenega stanja, ki ga je povzročilo delovno okolje (Tetrick & Winslow, 2015, str. 1). 3 Metoda V raziskavi je bil uporabljen integrativni pregled znanstvene in strokovne literature s področja menedžmenta delovnega stresa. Značilnost izbrane metode temelji na zbiranju, pregledovanju in analiziranju obstoječe literature. Na podlagi analize smo nato pripravili celostni pregled in nadaljnje raziskave z zaključkom ugotovitev. Pregledali smo 57 člankov, uvrščenih v raziskovalno nalogo, ki so ustrezali pogojem, je bilo 19. 38 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Pri predpostavki, da obstaja literatura na temo Menedžment delovnega stresa smo najprej, po različnih bazah (dLIB, Google Učenjak), poiskali članke s primernimi naslovi. Iskanje člankov oz. literature je potekalo po ključnih besedah navedenih v tabeli 1. Preverili smo ali povzetki vključujejo elemente za vključitev v našo raziskavo. Zbrali smo samo literaturo, ki je bila povezana z menedžmentom delovnega stresa, ločeno za EU, ZDA in Slovenijo. V raziskavo nismo vključili člankov, ki niso vključevali povezave na 'delovni' stres (npr. stres doma brez povezave na delo). Upoštevali smo samo članke mlajše od 10 let ter te, ki so bili objavljeni v revijah s faktorjem vpliva višjim od 1,5 za članke povezane z raziskavami za EU in ZDA. Za raziskave v Sloveniji je bil pogoj, da je bil članek objavljen v indeksiranih revijah. V raziskavi smo upoštevali članke, ki se nanašajo na delovno populacijo za različno velika podjetja (majhna - do 200 zaposlenih in velika - nad 200 zaposlenih). Upoštevali smo mešane metode, kvantitativne in kvalitativne študije za EU in ZDA oz. tudi pregledne članke za Slovenijo. Vseskozi je potekalo je tudi posvetovanje med raziskovalcema glede morebitnih nejasnosti za končno vključevanje literature v pregled literature. Pregled literature je temeljil na konceptualni strukturi, pri kateri smo na posamezni, skupinski, vodstveni in organizacijski ravni križno preverili raziskave menedžmenta delovnega stresa. Sledili so zaključki posameznih raziskav in medsebojna primerjava z zaključnimi ugotovitvami. Tabela 1. Ključne besede za iskanje literature oz. člankov 1. Ključne besede za iskanje literature EU in ZDA 2. Ključne besede za iskanje literature v Sloveniji "work" + "stress" + "management" "work" + "stress" + "management"+"usa" "work" + "wellbeing" + "management" "work" + "stress management" + "skills" "work" + "stress management" + "competencies" (competences) "employee engagement" + "stress" "employee engagement" + "management" "health" + "stress" + "management". "delo" + "stres" + "menedžment" "delo" + "dobro počutje" + "menedžment" "delo" + " obvladovanje stresa " + "spretnosti" "delo" + "obvladovanje stresa" + "kompetence" "angažiranost zaposlenih" + "stres" " angažiranost zaposlenih " + "menedžment" "zdravje" + "stres" + "menedžment" 39 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article 4 Rezultati 4.1 Menedžment delovnega stresa 4.1.1 Literatura V tabeli 2 je navedena literatura, ki smo jo našli oz. uporabili pri naši raziskavi. Tabela 2. Literatura menedžmenta delovnega stresa Avtor, leto prve objave, naslov članka, revija Faktor vpliva Literatura oz. članki katerih raziskave se nanašajo na EU • Litchfield, P., Cooper, C., Hancock, C., & Watt, P. (2016). Work and Wellbeing in the 21st Century, International Journal of Environmental research and public health. 2,468 • Limm, H., Gündel, H., Heinmüller, M., Marten-Mittag, B., Nater, U. M., Siegrist, J., & Angerer, P. (2011). Stress management interventions in the workplace improve stress reactivity: a randomised controlled trial. Occupational and environmental medicine, 68(2), 126-133. 2,376 • Bhui, K. S., Dinos, S., Stansfeld, S. A., & White, P. D. (2012). A synthesis of the evidence for managing stress at work: a review of the reviews reporting on anxiety, depression, and absenteeism. Journal of environmental and public health, 2012. 2,468 • Moura, D., Orgambídez-Ramos, A., & Gonçalves, G. (2014), Role Stress and Work Engagement as Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Results From Portugal, Europe's journal of psychology. 1,63 • Bailey, C., Madden, A., Alfes, K., & Fletcher, L. (2017). The meaning, antecedents and outcomes of employee engagement: A narrative synthesis. International Journal of Management Reviews, 19(1), 31-53. 7,6 • Schaufeli, W., & Salanova, M. (2011). Work engagement: On how to better catch a slippery concept. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(1), 39-46. 2,3 Literatura oz. članki katerih raziskave se nanašajo na ZDA • Quick, J., & Henderson, D. (2016). Occupational stress: Preventing suffering, enhancing 2,468 wellbeing. International journal of environmental research and public health, 13(5), 459. • Grawitch, M. J., Ballard, D. W., & Erb, K. R. (2015). To be or not to be (stressed): The critical role of 1,875 a psychologically healthy workplace in effective stress management. Stress and Health, 31(4), 264273. • Tetrick, L. E., & Winslow, C. J. (2015). Workplace stress management interventions and health 7,179 promotion. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav., 2(1), 583-603. • Calderwood, C., & Ackerman, P. L. (2016). The Relative Salience of Daily and Enduring Influences 1,875 on Off-Job Reactions to Work Stress. Stress and Health, 32(5), 587-596. • Hoert, J., Herd, A. M., & Hambrick, M. (2018). The role of leadership support for health promotion 2,636 in employee wellness program participation, perceived job stress, and health behaviors. American Journal of Health Promotion, 32(4), 1054-1061. Literatura oz. članki katerih raziskave se nanašajo na Slovenijo • Kožuh, P., & Arzenšek, A. (2011). Medosebni odnosi in vsebina dela kot dejavnika stresa pri srednjem managementu. Management (18544223), 6(2). • Dernovšek Hafner, N. (2012). Stres pri srednjem menedžmentu. Delo in varnost, 57(5), 17-19. • Zaviršek Mikolič, S. (2013). Stres na delovnem mestu. Delo in varnost, 58(2), 32. • Podjed, K. (2014). Obvladovanje stresa med službenim časom. Delo in varnost, 59(5), 40-42. • Mikša, M. (2015). Vloga telesne aktivnosti pri obvladovanju stresa. Delo+ varnost: revija za varstvo pri delu in varstvo pred požarom, 60(1), 33-36. • Jeriček Klanšček, H., & Bajt, M. (2015). Stres, depresija, izgorelost: Kako se» spopasti z njimi «. Delo in varnost, 60(6), 27-33. • Rožman, M., Grinkevich, A., & Tominc, P. (2019). Occupational Stress, Symptoms of Burnout in the Workplace and Work Satisfaction of the Age-diverse Employees. Organizacija, 52(1). Retrieved from http://organizacija.fov.uni-mb.si/index.php/organizacija/article/view/930 V raziskavi smo upoštevali tudi kategorizacijo raziskave glede na ravni IGLO - posameznik (ang. Individual), skupina (ang. Group), vodja (ang. Leader) in organizacija (ang. Organization) (glej tabelo 3). Tabela 3. Vizualni pregled kategorizacije 40 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article I - Individualna raven (osebne lastnosti, vedenje...) G - Skupinska raven (družbena podpora, medosebni odnosi med zaposlenimi, timsko delo, značilnosti, učinkovitost..) L - Raven vodja (značilnosti vodenja in družbene interakcije, stil vodenja...) O - Organizacijska raven (avtonomija, kompenzacije, družbena podpora, letni razgovori, ocenjevanje.) V poglavjih z rezultati in razpravo smo dopolnili naše ugotovitve oziroma rezultate raziskave in primerjali ključne ugotovitve med posameznimi območji raziskave (EU, ZDA, Slovenija). V razpravo smo vključili svoje mnenje. 4.1.2 Rezultati raziskav za EU V tabeli 4 smo zapisali kratke povzetke ugotovitev raziskav za EU. Tabela 4. Ključne ugotovitve literature menedžmenta delovnega stresa za EU Literatura (naslov, avtor, letnica) Raven IGLO / velikost podjetja Ključne ugotovitve Litchfield, P., Cooper, C., Hancock, C., & Watt, P. (2016). Work and Wellbeing in the 21st Century, International Journal of Environmental research and public health. »nadaljevanje« Limm, H., Gündel, H., Heinmüller, M., MartenMittag, B., Nater, U. M., Siegrist, J., & Angerer, P. (2011). Stress management interventions in the workplace improve stress reactivity: a randomised controlled trial. Occupational and environmental medicine, 68(2), 126-133. Bhui, K. S., Dinos, S., Stansfeld, S. A., & White, P. D. (2012). A synthesis of the evidence for managing stress at work: a review of the reviews reporting on anxiety, depression, and absenteeism Journal of environmental and public health, 2012. Ravni: I, G, L, O / Glavni viri stresa pri delu izhajajo iz: zahtev, nadzora, podpore, odnosov, vloge in vse velikosti sprememb. Odsotnost dela je tudi škodljivo oz. negativno vplivata na zdravje ljudi s podjetij povečano stopnjo duševnih in telesnih težav. Raziskave kažejo, da lahko elektronska pošta in drugi socialni mediji dejansko obremenjujejo ljudi in tudi posegajo v njihovo privatno življenje, kar negativno vpliva, ne samo na zdravje delavcev in njihovih družin, ampak tudi na spodkopavanje produktivnega dela. Dokazani in prikazani so koristi pristopa »Workwell model« tako na organizacijski, kot tudi na ravni posameznega zaposlenega. Oblikovanje dela je ključnega pomena pri določanju psihološke reakcije ljudi na to, kar počnejo, in s tem na zadovoljstvo, ki ga dobivajo, njihovo motivacijo in uspešnost. Način upravljanja z ljudmi močno vpliva na njihovo počutje. Dobro počutje organizacije in dobro počutje njenih delavcev sta neločljivo povezana. Bolj, ko gremo »dlje« v 21. stoletju, bolj bo pomembno dobro počutje na delovnem mestu in delodajalci bodo igrali čedalje pomembnejšo vlogo pri določanju stanja delavca. Raziskave so pokazale, da za dobro počutje delavcev najbolje poskrbijo oz. zagotavljajo v državah severne Evrope in ta načela prevzemajo tudi v ostalih državah Evropske unije. Raven: I in V raziskavi dolgoročnih učinkov obvladovanja stresa na psihološke in biološke reakcije predvsem L / večja na delovni stres je sodelovalo 174 zaposlenih v nižjem ali srednjem vodstvu. Teste so podjetja. nato ponovili na 154 zaposlenih, eno leto kasneje. Za oceno zdravstvenega vedenja so poizvedovali o telesni aktivnosti, predvsem športu, spanju in obsegu pasu. Pri raziskavi so merili krvni tlak in ostale reakcije na stres (indeks biološkega stresa (kortizol, amilaza), duševno zdravje (depresija, tesnoba) in delovni stres (ERI)). Za vzdrževanje zdravja je potrebno ravnovesje med naporom, ki se zahteva od delavca in nagrado za delo te osebe. Na delavce prav tako zelo vpliva pomanjkanje spoštovanja in pravičnosti (zlasti od nadrejenih), poklicne priložnosti in varnost zaposlitve. Najpogostejše metode upravljanja stresa so: kognitivni trening vedenjskih veščin, meditacija, sprostitev, globoko dihanje, vadba, vodenje dnevnika, upravljanje časa in postavljanje ciljev. Pristopi oz. metode so se izkazale za izvedljive na delovnem mestu. Bile so tudi dobro sprejete, povzročile pa so tudi pozitivno vedenje in fiziološke učinke. Učinki so bili le zmerni, zdravstvene učinke pa bi bilo potrebno še dokazati z nadaljnjimi študijami. Raziskava potrjuje, da mora biti izboljšanje delovnih pogojev glavni cilj na poti za preprečevanje delovnega stresa. Čeprav je to pogosto težko preprečiti je potrebno vztrajati. Raven: predvsem Psihosocialni stresorji na delovnem mestu so vzrok za tesnobo in depresivne bolezni, I, L, O / različno samomore in motnje v družini. Raziskava je vključevala skupno 23 sistematičnih velika podjetja pregledov, ki je vključevalo 499 primarnih študij. Programi za telesno aktivnost so pokazali zmanjšanje odsotnosti in absentizem. Kognitivno-vedenjski programi izboljšajo duševno zdravje posameznikov in povzročajo večje učinke na individualni ravni v primerjavi z drugimi metodami. Stres pri delu lahko privede tudi do telesne bolezni, psihične stiske in bolezni ter odsotnosti zaradi bolezni. Stres, depresija ali tesnoba predstavljajo 46% izgubljenih dni zaradi bolezni in ' v" odsotnosti, povezane z delom. Psihosocialni stresi na d< »senadaljuj e« preobremenjenost pri delu, nizka stopnja odločanja, nizka socialna podpora, visoke psihološke zahteve, neravnovesje med nagrajevanjem in naporom pri delu 41 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Literatura (naslov, avtor, letnica) Raven IGLO / Ključne ugotovitve velikost podjetja in velika negotovost zaposlitve, so vključeni kot vzroki za tesnobo in depresivne bolezni, povezane s stresom. Sodelovanje v organizacijskih wellness programih dokazujejo zmanjšanje odsotnosti in povečanje zadovoljstva na delovnem mestu. To so bili edini metaanalitični pregledi organizacijskih intervencij in rezultatov na ravni org.. Moura, D., Orgambidez-Ramos, A., & Gonjalves, G. (2014), Role Stress and Work Engagement as Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Results From Portugal, Europe's journal of psychology Bailey, C., Madden, A., Alfes, K., & Fletcher, L. (2017). The meaning, antecedents and outcomes of employee engagement: A narrative synthesis. International Journal of Management Reviews, 19(1), 31-53. Raven: I / različno Predstavljena je študija, ki preučuje vlogo stresa in delovno udejstvovanje, kot velika podjetja predhodnika zadovoljstva z delovnim mestom. Izvedena je bila študija z uporabo spletnih vprašalnikov. Vzorec je vključeval 312 delavcev. Analize so pokazale, da je zadovoljstvo z delom povezano s konfliktom vlog in delovnim angažmajem. Rezultati podpirajo model JDR (Job Demands-Resources) pri čemer pozitivni rezultati, kot je zadovoljstvo z delovnim mestom, napovedujejo motivacijski proces in želje po zaposlitvi. Na praktični ravni model JDR zagotavlja okvir za razumevanje motivirajočih delovnih mest, angažiranih in zadovoljnih zaposlenih. Model Job Demands-Resources (JDR) je teoretični okvir, ki poskuša združiti dve dokaj neodvisni raziskovanji: raziskovanje stresa in motivacijskega raziskovanja. Več raziskav je razkrilo, da zahteve po delu povzročajo visok delovni pritisk, čustvene potrebe in stres v vlogah, lahko privedejo do izčrpanosti, prenehanja zaposlitve, nizkega zadovoljstva z delom in slabšega zdravja, medtem ko sredstva za zaposlitev, kot je socialna podpora, povratne informacije o uspešnosti in samostojnost lahko spodbudijo motivacijski proces, kar vodi k učenju na delovnem mestu, zadovoljstvu z delom, delovnem angažmaju in organizacijski zavezanosti. Angažiranje zaposlenih se je izkazalo kot eden od načinov za organizacije za merjenje njihove naložbe v človeški kapital. Zavzetost je opredeljena kot motivacijski in pozitiven konstrukt, povezan z delom, za katerega je značilna živahnost, predanost in absorpcija. Za živahnost je značilna visoka raven energije, ki se kaže pri delu in predanost z visokimi stopnjami pomena za delo. Navdušenje in izzivi se nanašajo na delo, ki ga opravljajo, medtem ko se absorpcija nanaša na popolno zbranost in srečo v službi. Delovno angažiranje pomaga posameznikom, da se učinkovito spopadejo s stresnim delom. Sodelovanje zaposlenih vodi tako do individualnih kot tudi organizacijskih uspehov. Raziskava v članku je potrdila, da se angažiranost delavcev zmanjša s povečanjem stresa. Opazili so pozitivno in pomembno povezavo med delovnim udejstvovanjem in zadovoljstvom. Rezultat je skladen z drugimi raziskavami, ki so pokazale pozitiven odnos med angažiranostjo in zadovoljstvom z delovnim mestom ter negativni odnos med stresom in dvoumno vlogo. Model JDR zagotavlja okvir za razumevanje zaposlenih in angažiranje na delovnih mestih. Ta okvir se lahko koristno uporabi pri oblikovanju strategije, ki se ukvarja z zaposlenimi in je koristno za izboljšanje kakovosti storitev, hkrati pa povečuje dobro počutje in zadovoljstvo zaposlenih pri delu. Raven: I, G, L , O Članek se v največji meri posveča vplivu angažiranosti zaposlenih na ostale faktorje. / različne velikosti V grobem lahko rečemo, da članek želi preveriti trditev ali lahko visoka stopnja podjetij angažiranosti izboljša organizacijsko uspešnost in dobro počutje posameznikov. Zagotovo je angažiranje postalo eden najpomembnejših konceptov na področju upravljanja v zadnjih letih. Številne študije prikazujejo, kako lahko višja raven angažiranosti privede do organizacijske donosnosti in konkurenčnosti. Veliko raziskav potrjuje, da angažiranost pozitivno vpliva na stanje duha in usmerjenost v delovne naloge, ki se kaže v energičnosti in predanosti zaposlenih. Angažiranost je izrazit in edinstven konstrukt, sestavljen iz kognitivnih, čustvenih in vedenjskih komponent. Angažiranost je moč obravnavati tudi na nivoju skupine in ne samo na ravni posameznika. Spodbujanje angažiranosti zaposlenih posledično prinaša pozitivne rezultate, kot sta visoka stopnja dobrega počutja in uspešnosti. Posamezniki, ki doživljajo pozitivna čustva, izkoristijo širši razpon vedenjskih odzivov in je večja verjetnost, da bodo uspešni. Bolj pozitivne oblike vodenja povzročajo višjo stopnjo angažiranosti zaposlenih. Negativno vodenje z nasilnim nadzorom pa privede do nižje stopnje angažiranosti. Prav tako sodelovanje na individualni ravni privede do boljšega sodelovanja in angažiranosti skupine. Večina študij je pokazala pozitivno povezavo med angažiranostjo in različnimi rezultati uspešnosti, kot so uspešnost tima, zvestobo strank in kakovost oskrbe. Izkazalo se je, da je angažiranost delovne enote pozitivno povezano s klimo za storitve, kar je posledično vplivalo na uspešnost zaposlenih in zvestobo strank. Ugotovljena je povezava med angažiranostjo in splošnim zdravjem. Pri višji stopnji angažiranosti so pričakovani tudi boljši zdra >>se nadaljuje« nižji angažiranosti pričakovano slabše zdravstveno med nižjo stopnjo udejstvovanja in višjim stresom ter izgorelostjo. Odkrite so bile 42 »nadaljevanje« Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 36-64. Članek I Article Literatura (naslov, avtor, letnica) Raven IGLO / Ključne ugotovitve velikost podjetja povezave med angažiranostjo in življenjskim zadovoljstvom. Številne posamezne študije so pokazale pozitivno povezavo med angažiranostjo in delovno sposobnostjo, pozitivnim afektom in dnevnim okrevanjem. Rezultati študij so pokazali, da je bila angažiranost najbolj povezana z zadovoljstvom z delom in organizacijsko zavzetostjo. Obstaja korelacija med angažiranostjo in stresom / izgorelostjo. Schaufeli, W., & Salanova, M. (2011). Work engagement: On how to better catch a slippery concept. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(1), 3946. Raven: I, G / Članek se bolj osredotoča na angažiranost posameznih delavcev in del. skupin, prav tako različno velika pa opozarja na drugo plat mogočih posledic, izgorelost. Delo je sestavljeno iz več nalog. podjetja Zaposleni se bodo med opravljanjem nekaterih nalog morda počutili bolj angažirane kot za druge. Še bolj je to odvisno od tega ali so za to omogočeni ustrezni pogoji: delovna obremenitev, nadzor, nagrade, skupnost, pravičnost in vrednote. Izgorelost se odraža kot nezmožnost (izčrpanost) in tudi nepripravljenost (umik) za opravljanje dela. Pomembna ugotovitev je, da je razmerje med zadovoljstvom in uspešnostjo močnejše, če se oba ocenjujeta na kolektivni ravni. Kolektivno delovno udejstvovanje je več kot vsota posameznega delovnega udejstvovanja. Pod določenimi pogoji lahko delovno udejstvovanje povzroči izgorevanje. Študije so pokazale, da lahko pomanjkanje vzajemnosti sčasoma vodi do izgorelosti. Kadar zaposleni vlagajo veliko truda in osebnih sredstev v svoje delo in ne dobijo ustrezne rezultate (npr. cenjenost, možnost za učenje in razvoj,...), lahko zato tudi izgorijo. V tem primeru je njihovo ravnovesje med dajanjem in prevzemanjem neuravnoteženo in lahko povzroči izgorelost. 4.1.3 Rezultati raziskav za ZDA V tabeli 5 smo zapisali kratke povzetke ugotovitev raziskav za ZDA. Tabela 5. Ključne ugotovitve literature menedžmenta delovnega stresa za ZDA Literatura (naslov, avtor, letnica) Raven IGLO / velikost podjetja Ključne ugotovitve Quick, J., & Henderson, D. (2016). Occupational stress: Preventing suffering, enhancing wellbeing. International journal of environmental research and public health, 13(5), 459. Ravni: I, G, L, O I različno velika podjetja. Delovni stres je neizogiben in včasih celo potreben element delovnega okolja, vendar pa ni zaželeno, da se izkazuje v organizacijskih disfunkcijah ali pa v medicinskih, psiholoških ali vedenjskih stiskah. V članku so na kratko pregledani vzroki, ki povzročajo tveganje za zdravje in so povezani z stresom na delovnem mestu. V nadaljevanju se članek osredotoča na uporabo preventivnega obvladovanja stresa, ki izhaja iz preventivne medicine in skrbi za javno zdravje, pri čemer se želi doseči pozitivne učnike stresa na posameznika in hkrati odpravljati s tem povezane stiske. V članku je poudarjeno, da sta na prvem mestu organizacijska zaščita in preprečevanje pojavov, ki vodijo v stres v delovnem okolju. Ukrepe je potrebno zaradi razlik posameznikov prilagajati za vsakega posebej. Zaradi tega se prehaja od preprečevanja stresa k izboljšanju dobrega počutja z vpeljavo pozitivne psihologije, ki širi teorijo o preventivnem obvladovanju stresa (TPSM - Theory of preventive stress management). Ukrepi, ki se nanašajo na organizacijsko zaščito, preventivo in dobro počutje posameznika dvigujejo splošno javno zdravje v delovnem okolju. Poleg tega imajo lahko pozitivne psihološke veščine za obvladovanje poklicnega stresa tudi pozitivne učinke v domačem okolju._ Grawitch, M. J., Ballard, D. W., & Erb, K. R. (2015). To be or not to be (stressed): The critical role of a psychologically healthy workplace in effective stress management. Stress and Health, 31(4), 264-273. Ravni: I, G, L, O / Članek razloži, kako se lahko ključne prakse, ki se nanašajo na psihološko zdravo različno velika delovno mesto, uporabijo za razvoj celovitega pristopa k obvladovanju stresa v podjetja. sodobnih organizacijah. Konkretno opisuje načine, kako vključiti, prepoznati in uravnotežiti poklicno in zasebno življenje, zdravje in varnost, ter kako se lahko prakse za rast in razvoj uporabijo za pomoč pri zmanjševanju delovnega stresa in proaktivnem obvladovanju naporov. Avtorji ugotavljajo, da čeprav si številne organizacije prizadevajo za vzpostavitev pozitivnega okolja za delo in dobro počutje, imajo velike težave pri tem kje se lotiti problema. Trenutno številni pristopi obvladovanja stresa poudarjajo individualni pristop na ravni posameznika, ki se izvajajo skupaj z obstoječimi organizacijskimi praksami. Predlagajo da se preko širše perspektive omogoči boljše razumevanje procesa stresa, kar ima za posledico zmožnost uporabe širšega nabora sprememb organizacijskih procesov. Združitev znanja oziroma dobrih praks za ustvarjanje psihološko zdravih delovnih m »se nadaljuje« obvladovanje stresa ter okvir iskanja in zadovoljevanja lasti _ - personal resource allocation framework) predstavlja celovit okvir za pristop k 43 »nadaljevanje« Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 36-64. Literatura (naslov, Raven IGLO / Ključne ugotovitve avtor, letnica) velikost podjetja obvladovanju stresa na delovnem mestu, ki ga je mogoče prilagoditi edinstvenim potrebam različnih organizacij, oddelkov znotraj organizacij in zaposlenim. S sprejetjem te širše perspektive se organizacije lahko bolj strateško lotevajo stresa zaposlenih, kar ima za posledico učinkovitejše obvladovanje stresa ter močan vpliv na rezultate povezane s stresom. Tetrick, L. E., & Winslow, C. J. (2015). Workplace stress management interventions and health promotion. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav., 2(1), 583-603. Calderwood, C., & Ackerman, P. L. (2016). The Relative Salience of Daily and Enduring Influences on Off-Job Reactions to Work Stress. Stress and Health, 32(5), 587-596. Ravni: I, G, L, O / Zdravje in dobro počutje zaposlenih sta pomembna tako za zaposlene, njihove družine različno velika kot tudi njihove organizacije. V članku je pregledana literatura o obvladovanju stresa na podjetja. delovnem mestu ter ukrepih, ki večinoma temeljijo na tem, da se znižujejo zahteve delovnega mesta, ki povzročajo stres. V članku je obdelana tematika zdravja na delovnem mestu ter wellnes programi s perspektive primarnih, sekundarnih in terciarnih ukrepov, kot tudi okvirja, ki ga opredeljuje JD-R model (job demand-resources). Primarni ukrepi so proaktivni in preventivno usmerjeni, osredotočeni na preprečevanje neželenih pojavov in kot taki uporabljeni v sistemskih pristopih v organizacijah, medtem ko se terciarni ukrepi osredotočajo na posameznike in skupine, ki se soočajo s stiskami in že potrebujejo pomoč pri okrevanju od simptomov povezanih s stresom. Sekundarni ukrepi so pogosto osredotočeni na odstranitev dejavnikov tveganja za nastanek stresa pri posameznikih ali skupini posameznikov. Ukrepi za obvladovanje stresa težijo k izboljševanju in se pogosto osredotočajo na obnavljanje virov oz. sredstev ali dobrin, ki jih je delovno okolje izčrpalo, kjer se promocija zdravja na delovnem mestu in wellness programi usmerj ajo v preventivno delovanj e, izbolj šanju osebnih in delovnih virov za vse zaposlene. Zdi se, da obstaja trend vključevanja obvladovanja stresa kot sestavni del wellness programov na delovnem mestu. Čeprav so na ravni organizacije še vedno razmeroma redki je vse več dokazov, da so organizacijski ukrepi zlasti v kombinaciji s posegi na individualni ravni lahko zelo učinkoviti pri promociji pozitivnega in zdravega delovnega okolja. Ravni: I / Delovni stres je pomemben dejavnik zdravja in dobrega počutja zaposlenih. Delovna Raziskava se zdravstvena skupnost je zavedajoč se, da je lahko eden od dejavnikov teh odnosov nanaša na prisotnost negativnega odziva na delo, za katero trdijo, da vključuje nenehne misli, specifično usmerjene v delo (kognitivni odziv), stalno negativno razpoloženje, ki izvira iz dela skupino (afektivni odziv) in spremembe vedenja izven delovnega časa, kot odziv na delovne zaposlenih v dejavnike (vedenjski odziv). Veliko teorij delovnega stresa temelji na spoznanjih, da zdravstvu. bodo zaposleni reagirali na vsakodnevne stresorje pri delu tudi izven delovnega časa in da ima ta negativni odziv (off-job reactivity; OJR) posledice na zdravje, dobro počutje in uspešnost zaposlenih. V vseh teh teorijah trdijo, da ima za rezultat OJR negativne fizične in psihološke posledice, ki preprečujejo, da bi si zaposleni odpočili od dela. Teorija afektivnih dogodkov (AET - affective events theory) predstavlja obetaven pristop k vodenju raziskave deležnikov dnevnih z delom povezanih stresorjev in značilnostih povezanih z OJR. Osnovno načelo tega modela je, da afektivni odzivi vplivajo na vedenje in odnos do dela. Pri obravnavi predhodnikov teh odzivov, kjer sta oba dejavnika iz okolja, kot npr. vsakodnevni delovni dogodki in dojemanje delovnega okolja, notranji oz. endogeni faktorji prestavljajo ključni vpliv na napoved afektivnih odzivov. V članku so avtorji raziskali relativne prispevke vsakodnevnih stresorjev pri delu, afektivne lastnosti in subjektivne zaznave stresa na negativne odzive izven delovnega časa. Razmerja med temi dejavniki so bila ocenjena v študiji bolnišničnih sester (n = 75), ki so z izpolnitvijo vprašalnikov dale podlago za samoocenitev vsakodnevne stresnosti dela in reakcije izven delovnega časa za dobo štirih delovnih dni. Rezultati večih večnivojskih analiz so pokazali, da je model glavnih vplivov najbolje opisal podatke, ko je napovedoval kognitivni, afektivni in vedenjski odziv na vsakodnevne stresorje pri delu, ter afektivne lastnosti in subjektivne percepcije stresa povezane z delom. Niz večnivojskih prevladujočih analiz je pokazal, da je subjektivno zaznavanje stresa na delovnem mestu prevladovalo pri napovedovanju vedenjskih odzivov, medtem ko so imele pri napovedi afektivnih odzivov prevladujoč vpliv negativne lastnosti. Hoert, J., Herd, A. M., & Ravni: I, L, O / Hambrick, M. (2018). različno velika The role of leadership podjetja. support for health promotion in employee wellness program participation, perceived job stress, and health Namen članka je raziskati odnos med podporo vodilnih za promocijo krepitve zdravja in stresom na delovnem mestu, uporaba wellness programov in zdravstvenih navad. Študija se je izvedla med zaposlenimi v štirih različnih organizacijah (banka, zasebna univerza, veleprodajni dobavitelj, ter javna univerza) na jug—~J" zd « št—ii_ udeležencev v študiji (n=618). Rezultati študije v različnih >>se nadalju.je« da zaposleni zaznavajo, da je organizacijska vodstvena podpora za promocijo zdravja tesno povezana z vključenostjo v promocijske zdravstvene programe in pozitivnimi zdravstvenimi navadami zaposlenih. Zaposleni, ki so poročali o višjih ravneh vodstvene 44 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Literatura (naslov, avtor, letnica) Raven IGLO / Ključne ugotovitve velikost podjetja behaviors. American Journal of Health Promotion, 32(4), 10541061. podpore za promocijo zdravja so poročali tudi o višji udeležbi v wellness programih, nižjih stopnjah stresa pri delu in višjih stopnjah pozitivnih zdravstvenih navad. Rezultati raziskovalne analize, ki preučujejo organizacijske razlike navajajo, da ima lahko pri manjših organizacijah in pri tistih organizacijah z manj razvitimi promocijskimi programi, vodstvena podpora za promocijo zdravja manjši vpliv na zdravstvene navade zaposlenih. Rezultati tudi nakazujejo, da bi bilo potrebno izvesti nadaljnje raziskave za ugotovitev mehanizmov s katerimi vodilni v organizacijah pri promociji zdravja vplivajo na angažiranost zaposlenih v teh programih, stres pri delu, zdravstvene navade, pa tudi produktivnost, ter druga pomembna vedenja in odnos pri delu. 4.1.4 Rezultati raziskav za Slovenijo V tabeli 6 smo zapisali kratke povzetke ugotovitev raziskav za Slovenijo. Tabela 6. Ključne ugotovitve literature menedžmenta delovnega stresa za Slovenijo Literatura (naslov, Raven IGLO / Ključne ugotovitve avtor, letnica) velikost podjetja Kožuh, P., & Arzenšek, A. (2011). Medosebni odnosi in vsebina dela kot dejavnika stresa pri srednjem managementu. Management (18544223), 6(2). Raven: I, G, L, O I različno velika podjetja Poglavitno doživljanje stresa je povezano z ogroženostjo človekove samopodobe, spoštovanja ali bojaznijo zaradi izgube socialne varnosti. Nagnjenost k stresu je zlasti pogosta pri ljudeh z veliko delovno vnemo, stalno napetostjo in nestrpnostjo ter pri ljudeh, ki delajo pod nenehnim pritiskom. Stres pri delu nastaja zaradi čezmernih obremenitev, nezadovoljstva z delom, povečane odgovornosti, tekmovalnosti, občutka neustreznosti in slabih medosebnih odnosov. Managerji so ena izmed stresno najbolj izpostavljenih poklicnih skupin. V vrh najbolj ogroženih poklicnih skupin sodijo managerji, sledijo jim tehnični strokovnjaki, arhitekti, dijaki in študenti. Stres na delovnem mestu, ki traja dalj časa, privede do izčrpanja energije za delovanje in je tako eden najpomembnejših povzročiteljev izgorelosti. Pomemben dejavnik stresa je delovni položaj, ki je povezan s prenasičenostjo z delom. Posebej izpostavljena so vodilna delovna mesta - managerji pogosto delajo dlje, veliko telefonirajo, sprejemajo številne obiske in prisostvujejo velikemu številu sestankov. Ukvarjajo se z organizacijskimi spremembami, s prestrukturiranjem, prevzemi podjetij in se, ne nazadnje, borijo z globalno gospodarsko krizo. V managerjevem delovnem okolju se pojavlja nejasnost vlog, kadar se manager znajde v primežu različnih pritiskov nadrejenih in podrejenih, sodelavcev in strank. Pri srednjem managementu je možnost za razvoj konfliktov večja, večja je tudi nagnjenost k stresu in z njim povezanimi posledicami. Managerji potrebujejo dosežke, slavo, prepoznavnost, in s tem se začne tekmovalni boj, ki je prav tako pogost vzrok stresa. Pri managrejih je velik problem konkurenca, rivalstvo, ki povečuje napetost. Slabi medsebojni odnosi so v delovnem okolju pomemben vir stresa. Organizacijska kultura in klima lahko vplivata na dobro ali slabo počutje zaposlenih in na učinkovitost delovanja organizacije. Organizacijski stres je zaradi obsežnosti lahko izrazitejši od stresa posameznih zaposlenih, saj izvira iz stresnega stanja velikega števila zaposlenih. Organizacijski stres je zato treba reševati dvoslojno, in sicer na ravni vsakega posameznega sodelavca in tudi na ravni celotne organizacije. V povprečju najbolj stresogeno delujejo stresorji, ki so vezani na odnose s sodelavci in drugimi managerji (na primer slabi odnosi v organizaciji, pomanjkanje prijateljskega vzdušja med sodelavci, pomanjkanje podpore drugih managerjev, slaba komunikacija, premalo povratnih informacij...). Takoj na drugem mestu so stresorji, vezani na delo managerja (na primer vsiljen ritem dela, obremenjenost, prehiter tempo, organizacija dela, uvajanje novih programov). Rezultati raziskave v Sloveniji: Izračuni artmetičnih sredin glavnih sklopov spremenljivk kažejo, da na srednje managerje, udeležene v raziskavi, v povprečju najbolj stresogeno delujejo stresorji, ki so vezani na delo managerja. Iz tega sklopa so bili z najvišjimi ocenami ocenjeni: občutek preobremenjenosti, posredovanje med glavnim vodstvom in delavci, ocenjevanje storilnosti, površnost podrejenih pri delu. Na drugem mestu so stresorji, vezani na odnose s sodelavci in vodstvom podjetja. V tem sklopu so bile kot najbolj stresogeno »se nadaljuje« »nadaljevanje« ocenjene postavke pomanjkanje medsebojnega sodelovanja oziroma spodbujanja sodelavcev, medosebni konflikti in kritike vodstva podjetja glede strokovnosti dela. Sledijo stresorji, vezani na organizacijsko kulturo in klimo. V tem sklopu so sodelujoči najbolj stresogeno ocenili: slog vodenja, organizacijo dela v podjetju, avtoriteto vrhnjega managementa ter slabo motiviranost zaposlenih za delo. V povprečju so najmanj stresogeno ocenili delovne razmere._ 45 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Literatura (naslov, avtor, letnica) Raven IGLO / velikost podjetja Ključne ugotovitve Vloga organizacije pri upravljanju stresa je v prepoznavanju simptomov stresa pri zaposlenih in načrtnem preprečevanju nastanka dejavnikov, ki lahko povzročijo stresna stanja zaposlenih. V okviru razvoja veščin za upravljanje stresa je zelo priporočljivo, da v organizaciji potekajo redna izobraževanja in usposabljanja zlasti vodilnih in vodstvenih sodelavcev, da bi le-ti znali prepoznati, zmanjšati in preprečevati oblike škodljivega stresa. Pozitivna organizacijska klima in občutek povezanosti med zaposlenimi se pozitivno povezujeta z vrsto ukrepov za obvladovanje stresa, med katere prištevamo na primer brezplačen wellness, dostop do telovadnic, skrb za zdravo prehrano in organiziranje programov usposabljanja, ki pomagajo zaposlenim pri soočanju s stresom. Seveda pa se začne spoprijemanje s stresom najprej pri vsakem posamezniku. Redna športna dejavnost in hobiji, ki nas sproščajo, bistveno prispevajo k ohranjanju, krepitvi in varovanju zdravja ter povečujejo delovno storilnost. V raziskavi ugotavljajo, da je najpogostejši način obvladovanja stresa na ravni posameznika vzdrževanje psihične in fizične kondicije. Izpostavili so predvsem hobije na prostem, kot so golf, vrtnarjenje, lov in ribolov. Sodeč po rezultatih raziskave lahko sklenemo, da so organizacije enako odgovorne za ustvarjanje ugodnih medosebnih odnosov med zaposlenimi kot za samo vsebino delovnih nalog. Za izboljšanje delovne klime je smiselno povečati povezovanje znotraj kolektivov, podpirati vzajemno sodelovanje ter spodbujati vrhnji management, da zaposlenim dopusti več avtonomije pri odločanju o njihovem delu. Vodilni managerji naj bi bili torej enako pozorni in usposobljeni za to, da znajo ustvarjati ugodno delovno vzdušje in povezanost vseh zaposlenih kot za optimalno delegiranje delovnih nalog._ Dernovšek Hafner, N. (2012). Stres pri srednjem menedžmentu. Delo in varnost, 57(5), 17-19. Raven: I, L / različno velika podjetja Stres na delovnem mestu lahko prizadene kogarkoli in kjerkoli. Pojavi se lahko v vsakem sektorju in organizacijah vseh velikosti. Vpliva na zdravje in varnost posameznikov, pa tudi na zdravje organizacij in nacionalnih gospodarstev. Psihološki simptomi stresa na delovnem mestu se kažejo kot razdražljivost, nezadovoljstvo z delom, zaskrbljenost, pomanjkanje energije in navdušenja, občutek ujetosti, spremembe v vedenju in drugo. Negativne posledice delovanja stresa na delovnem mestu so slabo zdravje in počutje zaposlenih, pojav duševnih in telesnih obolenj, zmanjšana produktivnost zaradi povečanega absentizma, prezentizma in fluktuacije, konflikti med menedžmentom in zaposlenimi ter težavno usklajevanje zasebnega in poklicnega življenja. Delovne zahteve so psihološki stresorji, ki so prisotni v vsakem delovnem okolju, kot npr: 1. kako hitro in kako »trdo« je treba delati za realizacijo določene naloge, 2. ali je za izpolnitev nalog dovolj časa, 3. količina dela, ki ga je treba opraviti, 4. koliko dela je treba opraviti pod velikim časovnim pritiskom, 4. stopnja koncentracije, ki je zahtevana za izpolnitev določene naloge, 5. prisotnost konfliktnih zahtev, 6. kolikokrat pride do prekinitve ali upočasnitve dela, ker smo soodvisni od dela drugih. Pomembne odločitve v zvezi z delom so lahko: možnost načrtovanja dela, razporeditev in kontrola delovnega časa - fleksibilen delovni čas, načrtovanje odmorov, ureditev delovnega okolja, izbira sodelavcev. Pomembna naloga srednjega menedžmenta je tudi, da skrbi za dobre odnose med sodelavci, razrešuje konflikte in spodbuja timsko delo. Tako se pogosto znajde v t. i. »sendvič poziciji«: razpet med odgovornostjo za izvajanje odločitev nadrejenih na eni strani in skrbjo za dobro počutje in zastopanje interesov svojih zaposlenih na drugi strani. Psihološki pritiski, stres na delovnem mestu in možnosti za pojav s stresom povezanih bolezni se povečujejo, ko imamo pri delu opraviti z visokimi delovnimi zahtevami in nizko možnostjo odločanja. Odgovor na vprašanje, kako pri visokih psihičnih zahtevah na delovnem mestu zmanjšati utrujenost in preprečiti izčrpanost, je: z visoko stopnjo avtonomije oziroma možnostjo odločanja. Za večanje notranje motivacije za delo pa je pomembno, da je v delovnem okolju prisotna velika stopnja socialne podpore. Prioriteta menedžmenta bi morala biti, da znotraj organizacijske enote spodbuja potencial podpornega sistema med sodelavci in skrbi za podporni sistem v razmerju menedžment-delavec._ Zaviršek Mikolič, S. (2013). Stres na delovnem mestu. Delo in varnost, 58(2), 32. Raven: I / različno Stres je reakcija na dražljaj iz okolja, ki zmoti naše fizično in/ali psihično stanje. Stresni velika p0djetja dogodek povzroči porast hormonov v telesu (adrenalin, kortizol), ki izzovejo določene reakcije. Ločimo med kratkotrajnim, ki je pozitiven, in dolgotrajnim stresom, ki lahko negativno deluje na naše zdravje. Znaki pozitivnega stresa so: visoka motiviranost in pozitivna vznemirjenost, ustvarjalnost, učinkovitost, uspešnost, odločnost, sposobnost jasnega in racionalnega razmišljanja. Kronični stres zaradi svoje dolgotrajnosti vpliva na naše zdravje in moti naše vsakodnevno delovanje ter lahko vodi v bolezen. Med dolgotrajne negativne posledice stresa lahko sodijo nepojasnjen glavobol, nespečnost, težave s koncentracijo, razdražljivost, izguba želje po spolnosti, vrtoglavica, težave z želodcem, sindrom razdražljivega črevesja, povišan krvni pritisk, motnje hranjenja, _bolečine v vratu in križu, kronična utrujenost, zmanjšana imunska odpornost. Ločimo 3 »se nadaljuje« »nadaljevanje« glavne skupine povzročiteljev stresa: • stresorji ozadja - hrup na delovnem mestu, vsiljen ritem dela, vsakodnevno hitenje na poti v službo, pomanjkanje materialnih dobrin, neustrezne stanovanjske razmere; • osebni stresorji - bolezen, smrt, izguba ali menjava delovnega mesta, konfliktne situacije na delovnem mestu in v zasebnem okolju, razveza, upokojitev; • stresorji okolja - potresi, poplave, cunamiji, letalske nesreče, požari, na katere ne moremo vplivati. Stres v delovnem okolju je najpogostejši in ga povzročajo prevelike zahteve in izpostavljenost dejavnikom stresa. Naj naštejem le nekaj od njih: 46 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Literatura (naslov, Raven IGLO / Ključne ugotovitve avtor, letnica) velikost podjetja nerazumevanje z nadrejenim, sodelavci ali podrejenimi, premalo časa, da bi dokončali delovne naloge, za opravljeno delo ne dobimo pričakovanega priznanja, nimamo možnosti pritožb, prevelika odgovornost, služba ni zanesljiva, predsodki glede vaših let, rase, spola, neugodne delovne razmere ... Posebne oblike stresa pa predstavlja poniževanje, nadlegovanje, grožnje in podobno. Kaj lahko naredimo sami? Najprej moramo prepoznati dejavnike stresa in naše reakcije na stres. Nato se v delovnem okolju čim bolje organizirajmo, da zmanjšamo stopnjo stresa. Naloge razvrstimo po pomembnosti in se najprej lotimo najtežjih opravil, zastavimo si jasne cilje, spremembe gledamo s pozitivnega stališča, težave sprejmimo kot izziv in ne grožnjo, zavračajmo nerealne zahteve sodelavcev oziroma nadrejenih, privoščimo si redni dopust, sami se nagradimo za dobro opravljeno delo, razmišljajmo pozitivno (osredotočite se na svoje prednosti in ne slabosti; v vsaki stvari skušajte najti nekaj dobrega) in znebimo se negativnega razmišljanja (ne obremenjujte se z dogodki, na katere ne morete vplivati, saj jih ne morete spremeniti). Vzemimo si čas zase (pojdimo na sprehod v naravo, preberimo zanimivo knjigo, poslušajmo sproščajočo glasbo, telovadimo in se družimo s tistimi, ki nas imajo radi). Če ne zmoremo sami, poiščimo strokovno pomoč v lekarni ali pri zdravniku. V lekarni svetujemo poleg vseh omenjenih vedenjskih tehnik tudi različna prehranska dopolnila ali zdravila brez recepta, ki vsebujejo baldrijan, pasijonko, hmelj, rožni koren, mlečne beljakovine in tudi čaje, kot npr. meliso in poprovo meto; lahko pa tudi antioksidante in matični mleček._ Imamo zlati trojček upravljanja s stresom. Zlati trojček so naš um, naše telo in dih. Z njihovo pomočjo lahko dosegamo dva ključna cilja: trenutno sprostitev in dolgoročno notranjo umirjenost. Dih, telo in um so tesno povezani. Ko smo razburjeni, se nam temu skladno spremeni dihanje (rečemo »kar pihal je od jeze«), tudi naše telo, mišice, so napeti. Če pa na primer, nekaj časa izvajamo dihalne tehnike, se umirita tudi dih in telo. Niso vse tehnike primerne za uporabo med službenim časom. Meditacija je čudovita tehnika z globokimi učinki, a zanjo potrebujemo čas in mir. Med bolj znane pristope umirjanja s pomočjo uma spadajo pozitivne samopotrditve, humor, kognitivno restrukturiranje, vizualizacija, metode »praznjenja glave« (npr. STOP tehnika), zmanjševanje ciljev oziroma pričakovanj, AAABC tehnika, da se s čim zamotimo... Ljudje, ki razmišljajo pozitivno, živijo dlje, imajo manjša tveganja za razvoj srčno žilnih bolezni, so bolj odporni na prehlad, redkeje zbolijo za depresijo, itd. Gibanje, zdrava prehrana in druženje s pozitivnimi ljudmi, pomembno prispevajo, da smo bolj pozitivni. Izvajajmo tehnike za pozitivno razmišljanje. Dihalne tehnike so tako priljubljene zato, ker ljudje hitro začutimo pozitivne učinke, kot so bolj sproščeno telo, umiritev misli in sprostitev dihanja. Obstaja vrsta dihalnih tehnik. Ena najboljših tehnika upravljanja s stresom, ki jo lahko uporabljamo v službi, je abdominalno dihanje oz. dihanje s trebušno prepono. Vsi poznamo dobrodejnost sprostitve, ki jo občutimo po dolgotrajnem intenzivnem športnem ukvarjanju. Zleknemo se v naslonjač, in uživamo, saj je telo prijetno sproščeno, um prazen in dih umirjen. Tehnik, ki nam preko telesa pomagajo sprostiti se, je precej. Med njimi so različne športne aktivnosti, sprehodi, vrtnarjenje, joga, razgibavanje, Shultz-ev avtogeni trening, masaže, pilates, čiščenje kleti, Alexander tehnika itd. V službi moramo biti bolj praktični. Koristno je že, da npr. vsakih 45 minut vstanemo od računalnika ali delovnega stroja, in si vzamemo kratek premor. Izkoristimo ga lahko za to, da se malce sprehodimo, pretegnemo, sprostimo oči, stresemo mišice in podobno. Po možnosti naredimo kako vajo za področje, kjer imamo morda že težave. Najboljši rezultat da kombinacija različnih tehnik. Izberimo take, ki so nam najbolj blizu. Različne tehnike dihanja, gibanja ali razmišljanja nam pomagajo do trenutne sprostitve. Ko preokvirjamo svoje misli, nam odleže, a pomembneje je, da nam to lahko prinese dolgoročno notranjo umirjenost. Raziskave nesporno dokazujejo številne koristi tehnik sproščanja._ Delovno okolje je pogosto izvor stresa, ki se lahko kaže v obliki simptomov duševnih motenj. S tega vidika predstavlja fizična aktivnost dober način borbe proti stresorjem na delovnem mestu in prispeva k bolj zdravemu delovnemu okolju. Najboljši način blokiranja reakcije na stres je redna telesna aktivnost. Delovno mesto z visokimi zahtevami in nizko možnostjo odločanja je povezano z intenzivnim doživljanjem napetosti. Možnost odločanja je nizka. Delavci na teh delovnih mestih so najbolj izpostavljeni boleznim, povezanim s stresom. Utrujenost, anksioznost, depresija in obolevnost so pogost pojav. Stres na delovnem mestu se lahko razlaga z modelom, kjer so na eni strani zahteve in na drugi strani posameznikove sposobnosti za obvladovanje le-teh. Med zahteve sodijo lastnosti dela: previsoka pričakovanja, nizka kontrola, slaba »se nadaljuje« »nadaljevanje« socialna podpora, nizka možnost odločanja, negotovost zaposlitve ter nesorazmerje delo-plača. Delo oziroma delovno okolje sta potencialna izvora stresa. Fizikalne značilnosti, kot so osvetljenost, hrup, vibracije, izpostavljenost določenim kemičnim in biološkim snovem lahko privedejo do zvišanja stresa. Organizacija dela in izmensko delo vplivata na ritem budnosti in spanja, stopnjo metabolizma, raven sladkorja v krvi, mentalno učinkovitost, delovno motivacijo ter družinsko in socialno življenje. Opredelitev stresa izhaja, da ima razmerje med dojemanjem zahtev in oceno sposobnosti za izpolnjevanje le-teh ključno vlogo pri doživljanju stresa. Stres ima številne učinke na organizem. Vplivi zunanjih dejavnikov lahko povzročijo trajnejše bolezni in ne samo _kratkotrajnega nelagodja. Stres ali reakcija na stres sta eden najpomembnejših 47 Podjed, K. (2014). Raven: I / različno Obvladovanje stresa med velika podjetja službenim časom. Delo in varnost, 59(5), 40-42. Mikša, M. (2015). Vloga Raven: I / različno telesne aktivnosti pri velika podjetja obvladovanju stresa. Delo+ varnost: revija za varstvo pri delu in varstvo pred požarom, 60(1), 33-36. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Literatura (naslov, avtor, letnica) Raven IGLO / velikost podjetja Ključne ugotovitve povzročiteljev obolenj srca in ožilja, ki so vodilni vzrok smrtnosti v razvitem svetu. Najboljši način blokiranja reakcije na stres je redna telesna aktivnost. Ko gre za stres, povzročen v delovnem okolju, se je kot najučinkovitejša intervencija pokazala kognitivno-bihavioralna terapija. Redna telesna aktivnost privede do zmanjšanja odsotnosti z dela. Redna telesna aktivnosti ima pozitiven vpliv na mentalno zdravje in emocionalno stanje. Učinki stresa se lahko zmanjšajo z redno telesno aktivnostjo._ Jeriček Klanšček, H., & Bajt, M. (2015). Stres, depresija, izgorelost: Kako se» spopasti z njimi «. Delo in varnost, 60(6), 27-33. Raven: I / različno Ljudje se na doživljanje stresa odzivamo različno. Tipični znaki in simptomi, ki se velika podjetja pojavljajo pri večini, so npr. pospešeno bitje srca, hitro dihanje, povišan krvni tlak, napete mišice, mrzle dlani in stopala, povečana budnost, vznemirjen želodec, občutek strahu ali ogroženosti, nespečnost, občutek nemoči, tesnobe, žalosti, negativne misli, razbijanje srca, razdražljivost, umikanje v samoto - torej ne gre samo za telesne znake. raziskave kažejo, da ljudje, ki doživljajo negativni stres, posledice stresa pogosto lajšajo z begom v tveganja vedenja, npr. uživajo več alkohola, tobaka, se nezdravo prehranjujejo, se manj gibajo. Ni vsak stres slab oziroma negativen. Za normalno življenje je nekaj stresa nujno potrebnega. Tako lahko npr. pod vplivom kratkotrajnega, blagega stresa delamo bolje, sploh če gre za stres ob obvladljivih izzivih. Tovrstni stres pomembno vpliva na razvoj posameznika (učenje, napredek, prilagajanje spreminjajočemu se okolju). Po drugi strani negativne, dlje časa trajajoče, premočne, preveč številčne ali preveč zgoščene stresne situacije onemogočajo produktivno, učinkovito delo ter imajo škodljiv vpliv na več področij posameznikovega delovanja. Znaki in simptomi izgorelosti se pri posamezniku podobno kot pri stresu kažejo na čustveni, telesni, vedenjski, motivacijski ravni ter na področju mišljenja. Čustveni znaki so npr. depresivno razpoloženje, jokavost, čustvena izčrpanost, povečana napetost, razdražljivost, občutki tesnobe, izguba smisla za humor. Miselni znaki so brezup, izguba upanja, občutki nemoči in krivde, nizko samospoštovanje, nezmožnost koncentracije, pozabljivost; telesni znaki pa se kažejo kot glavoboli, slabosti, omotičnosti, bolečine v mišicah, motnje spanja, kronična utrujenost. Vedenjski znaki izgorelosti so: hiperaktivnost, impulzivnost, povečano uživanje kofeina, tobaka, alkohola in prepovedanih substanc, opustitev športnih aktivnosti, kompulzivno pritoževanje, površnost pri delu, pogosti prepiri s sodelavci. Na delovnem mestu se izgorelost kaže kot zmanjšana učinkovitost, nizka delovna storilnost in minimalna produktivnost, fluktuacija, povečana bolniška odsotnost, absentizem, povečano število nesreč. Načini spoprijemanja s stresom, ki veljajo za bolj uspešne, so: 1. Prepoznavanje stresnih simptomov (pospešen utrip srca, potenje dlani, tresenje ...), prepoznavanje različnih vrst stresa (pozitivni, negativni), zavedanje, da ni življenja brez težav in da je tudi negativni stres lahko koristen. 2. Sprememba okolja in njegovih zahtev: Menjava okolja (začasna - sprememba okolja, razbremenitev, stalna - menjava prebivališča, službe itn., ki nam povzroča stres). Umik iz okolja, ki nam povzroča stres, kadar rešitev ni mogoča. 3. Sprememba sposobnosti spoprijemanja in podpora že pridobljenim sposobnostim spoprijemanja. 4. Upoštevanje svojih zmožnosti, zavedati se, kaj lahko spremenimo in česa ne moremo (s stvarmi, ki jih ne moremo spremeniti, se ne obremenjujmo). 5. Osredotočenje na varovalne dejavnike (opredeliti, kaj nas pri spodbuja oz. v čem smo dobri). Pomembno je, da se naučimo različnih strategij spoprijemanja na različnih ravneh delovanja: • Telesna raven: sproščanje mišične napetosti z različnimi fizičnimi dejavnostmi, ki vplivajo direktno na stresne odzive: različne tehnike sproščanja, trebušno dihanje, telovadba, ples masažne tehnike, risanje, poslušanje glasbe, druge sproščujoče dejavnosti, zmerna fizična aktivnost. • Miselna raven: spreminjanje misli, stališč, prepričanj in samogovorov, ki se nanašajo na stresne dogodke: menjavanje negativnih misli z nevtralnimi/pozitivnimi (pri tem upoštevamo, da ima tudi pretirano pozitivno razmišljanje lahko svoje pasti), učenje dobrega počutja (izogibamo se perfekcionizmu), samopoučevanje - narekujemo si navodila za izvedbo naloge, učenje reševanja težav po korakih in praktičnih tehnik (oblikovanje stališč in strategije, kako se problema lotiti, razmišljanje po korakih, ki jih je _treba izvršiti, da bi problem obvladali oz. prišli do rešitve), aktivno_ »se nadaljuje« »nadaljevanje« spoprijemanje (aktivno pristopimo k problemu in ga poskušamo odstraniti ali vplivati nanj, tako da preprečimo njegove posledice - vključuje spodbudo k neposredni akciji, povečanje napora in poskuse spoprijemanja v stopnjah), humor. Raven čustev in vedenja: samokontrola vedenja (izražanje občutkov vljudno in odločno, ne agresivno ali pasivno), asertivnost (odločno zastopanje svojih interesov, zahtevati, kar nam pripada), trening socialnih veščin (sporazumevanje v različnih okoljih, z različnimi ljudmi, v različnih okoliščinah, dogovori/kompromisi/prilagajanje), izgrajevanje mreže prijateljev (socialna opora), načrtovanje in boljša organizacija delovnega in prostega časa (npr. skrb za mirno delovno okolje, delo po etapah oz. prioritetah, zagotoviti si čas brez motenj, kadar imamo bolj zahtevne miselne naloge, uvedemo »uradne ure« za pogovore po telefonu in odgovore po elektronski pošti)._ 48 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article Literatura (naslov, avtor, letnica) Raven IGLO / velikost podjetja Ključne ugotovitve Rožman, M., Grinkevich, A., & Tominc, P. (2019). Occupational Stress, Symptoms of Burnout in the Workplace and Work Satisfaction of the Age-diverse Employees. Organizacija, 52(1). Raven: I, G, L, O I različno velika podjetja Starostno raznoliki zaposleni se soočajo z različnimi vrstami poklicnega stresa in različnimi simptomi izgorelosti pri opravljanju svojega dela. Vloge starosti pri oblikovanju delovnih mest in samega dela na delovnem mestu ne smemo zanemariti. V članku so raziskane starostne razlike poklicnega stresa in simptomi izgorelosti zaposlenih ter analiza vpliva poklicnega stresa, simptomov izgorelosti in starosti na zadovoljstvo zaposlenih pri delu. Prispevek temelji na raziskavi, ki vključuje anketo zaposlenih v dveh starostnih skupinah (mlajši od 50 let in starejši zaposleni med 50 in 65 let). Rezultati kažejo, da obstajajo statistično pomembne razlike pri poklicnem stresu in simptomih izgorelosti na delovnem mestu med starejšimi in mlajšimi zaposlenimi. V povprečju so mlajši zaposleni zaznali višje ravni poklicnega stresa in izgorelosti v primerjavi s starejšo skupino. Rezultati tudi kažejo, da imajo poklicni stres, vedenjski in čustveni simptomi izgorelosti, kot tudi starost pomemben vpliv na zadovoljstvo zaposlenih. Demografija svetovne delovne sile se spreminja (staranje prebivalstva), kar prinaša nova raziskovalna vprašanja. Vse pomembnejše postaja vprašanje kako zagotoviti. Da bi ljudje ostali zadovoljni pri svojem delu v različnih življenjskih fazah. Kvaliteta dela ima zelo velik vpliv na zaposlene, ker veliko časa preživimo na delu._ 4.2 Skupni rezultati V nadaljevanju smo za posamezne ravni združili zaključke ugotovitev za EU (Tabela 7), ZDA (Tabela 8) in Slovenijo (Tabela 9). Tabela 7. Ključne ugotovitve glede na ravni v EU I - Individualna raven (osebne lastnosti, vedenje...) G - Skupinska raven (družbena podpora, medosebni odnosi med zaposlenimi, timsko delo, značilnosti, učinkovitost...) L - Raven vodja (značilnosti vodenja in družbene interakcije, stil vodenja.) O - Organizacijska raven (avtonomija, kompenzacije, družbena podpora, letni razgovori, ocenjevanje.) Vzroki za nastanek stresa: Glavni viri stresa pri delu izhajajo iz: zahtev, nadzora, podpore, odnosov, vloge in sprememb. Na delavce negativno zelo vpliva tudi pomanjkanje spoštovanja in pravičnosti (zlasti od nadrejenih). Obstaja korelacija med angažiranostjo in stresom -> manjša angažiranost pomeni večji stres in možnost za izgorelost. Obvladovanje stresa: Najpogostejše metode upravljanja stresa so: kognitivni trening vedenjskih veščin, meditacija, sprostitev, globoko dihanje, telesna vadba, wellness programi, vodenje dnevnika, upravljanje časa in postavljanje ciljev. V veliko podjetjih je vpeljan tudi model JDR (Job Demands-Resources), programi angažiranja zaposlenih. Ugotovljena je namreč povezava med Obvladovanje stresa: Spodbujanje angažiranosti zaposlenih prinaša pozitivne rezultate, kot sta visoka stopnja dobrega počutja in uspešnosti. Sodelovanje na individualni ravni privede do boljšega sodelovanja in angažiranosti skupine. Sodelovanje, medsebojna podpora sodelavcev in dobri odnosi med zaposlenimi vodijo tako do individualnih kot tudi organizacijskih uspehov. Kolektivno delovno udej stvovanj e je več kot vsota posameznega delovnega udejstvovanja. Pomembna je tudi agilnost Vzroki za nastanek stresa: Negativno vodenje, nepovezanost z zaposlenimi in nasilni nadzor negativno vpliva na angažiranje zaposlenih in posledično na večji stres zaposlenih. Obvladovanje stresa: Bolj pozitivne oblike vodenja povzročajo višjo stopnjo angažiranosti zaposlenih in manjši stres. Način upravljanja z ljudmi močno vpliva na njihovo počutje: spoštljiv in odgovoren (upravljanje čustev in integriteta), upravljanje in Obvladovanje stresa: Koristi pristopa »Workwell model«. Sodelovanje v organizacijskih wellness programih povezano z zmanjšanjem odsotnosti in večjim zadovoljstvom z delovnim mestom. Vse več organizacij išče zaposlene, ki prevzemajo pobudo in se kreativno odzivajo na izzive dela, kajti angažiranost postane tako na individualni kot na organizacijski ravni. Zaposleni so posledično bolj zadovoljni s svojim delom, predani in učinkoviti pri delu. »se nadaljuje« »nadaljevanje« angažiranostjo in splošnim zdravjem. Delovno angažiranje pomaga posameznikom, da se učinkovito spopadejo s stresnim delom. Številne posamezne študije so pokazale pozitivno povezavo med angažiranostjo in delovno sposobnostjo, pozitivnim afektom, zadovoljstvom z delom in dnevnim okrevanjem. Za motivacijo je pomembno nagrajevanje delavcev za opravljeno delo. Pomembno je zadovoljstvo delavca z skupin, za katere so značilne: samoorganizacija, iteracija, osredotočenost na stranke, izmenjava znanja, sodelovanje in medsebojno zaupanje. komuniciranje obstoječega in prihodnjega dela, upravljanje posameznika znotraj ekipe, obvladovanje težkih situacij. 49 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article O - Organizacijska raven (avtonomija, kompenzacije, družbena podpora, letni razgovori, ocenjevanje...) delovnim mestom, poklicne priložnosti in varnost zaposlitve. Jasno opredeljena informacija o pričakovanjih, povezanih z vlogo. Dvoumna pričakovanja o vlogah (subjektivna) so povezana z večjo napetostjo in manjšim zadovoljstvom z delovnim mestom, kot jasna pričakovanja glede vlog. Prav tako so pomembni dobri odnosi s sodelavci in vodstvom ter dobra komunikacija z vodjo in razvoj strategije za preprečevanje neusklajenosti. Upoštevanje individualnih lastnosti (spretnosti, identiteta naloge, pomen naloge, avtonomija, povratne informacije) za njihovo motivacijo in uspešnost. Za zmanjšanje stresa je pomembna tudi telesna aktivnost in urejena oz. zdrava prehrana ter na splošno zdrav življenjski slog. Znamenja in posledice: Povečana stopnja duševnih (depresija, tesnoba, motnje spanja) in telesnih težav (visok krvni tlak, bolečine v želodcu, znojenje, izčrpanost), ki se kaže kot nezmožnost in tudi nepripravljenost za opravljanje dela, nizko zadovoljstvo z delom. Vse skupaj vodi v še slabše zdravstveno stanje, izgorelost. Posledica je odsotnost z dela in celo prenehanje zaposlitve. Zelo pogost je primer samomorov in motnje v družini. Po raziskavah je kar v 46 % primerih za odsotnost z dela vzrok stres, kar predstavlja daleč največji delež. I - Individualna raven (osebne lastnosti, G - Skupinska raven L - Raven vodja vedenje.) (družbena podpora, (značilnosti vodenja in medosebni odnosi med družbene interakcije, stil zaposlenimi, timsko delo, vodenja.) značilnosti, učinkovitost.) Tabela 8. Ključne ugotovitve glede na ravni v ZDA I - Individualna raven (osebne lastnosti, G - Skupinska raven L - Raven vodja O - Organizacijska raven vedenje...) (družbena podpora, (značilnosti vodenja in (avtonomija, kompenzacije, medosebni odnosi med družbene interakcije, stil družbena podpora, letni zaposlenimi, timsko delo, vodenja.) razgovori, ocenjevanje.) značilnosti, učinkovitost.) Vzroki za nastanek stresa: Širok nabor različnih poklicnih in delovnih stresorjev kot so: karierne Vzroki za nastanek stresa: Konflikt vlog pri timskem delu, delovna obremenitev, Obvladovanje stresa: Organizacijski voditelji dodeljujejo proračun, Obvladovanje stresa: Združitev znanj oziroma dobrih praks za ustvarjanje zahteve, socialna varnost, delovna obremenitev, delovni pogoji (hrup, temperatura, svetloba), oblika delovnega dvoumnost nalog Obvladovanje stresa: politiko in vplivajo na osredotočenost organizacije s svojo vizijo, psihološko zdravih delovnih mest, ravni intervencij za obvladovanje stresa ter okvir 50 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article I - Individualna raven (osebne lastnosti, vedenje...) G - Skupinska raven (družbena podpora, medosebni odnosi med zaposlenimi, timsko delo, značilnosti, učinkovitost..) L - Raven vodja (značilnosti vodenja in družbene interakcije, stil vodenja...) O - Organizacijska raven (avtonomija, kompenzacije, družbena podpora, letni razgovori, ocenjevanje.) mesta, medsebojni odnosi, socialna gostota, način vodenja, skupinski pritiski. Pomembni so tudi odnosi delo-družina, ki predstavljajo tudi eno od glavnih tveganj za nastanek stresa na delovnem mestu. Reagiranje na vsakodnevne stresorje pri delu kot tudi izven delovnega časa povzroči negativni odziv (off-job reactivity; OJR) in ima posledice na zdravje, dobro počutje in uspešnost zaposlenih. Obvladovanje stresa: Preventivno obvladovanje stresa se izvaja s tremi sklopi ukrepov: primarni, sekundarni, terciarni. Primarni se osredotočajo na preprečevanje nastanka stresa z upravljanjem osebnih zaznav stresa posameznika, izbolj šanju osebnega delovnega mesta oziroma okolja, ter vzdrževanjem ravnovesja med delom in zasebnim življenjem. Med glavne tehnike se uvrščata ustrezni pozitivni medsebojni odnosi in dobra socialna podpora. Sekundarni ukrepi so usmerjeni v odzivanje in pomoč posamezniku pri uravnavanju negativne energije povzročene s stresom, uravnavanjem čustev in telesne pripravljenosti. Terciarni ukrepi so usmerjeni v terapije in svetovanje za vzpostavitev zdravja in normalnega delovanja posameznikom, ki jim je bilo to ravnovesje ob stresnih dejavnikih porušeno. Znamenja in posledice: Ob premočni oz. predolgi izpostavljenosti stresnim dejavnikom se lahko začnejo pojavljati stiske oz. nezdrave posledice v 3 oblikah: -zdravstvene stiske (nastanek srčno-žilnih obolenj, nastanek rakavih obolenj, muskulatorne tegobe in s tem povezane bolečine in omejitve), ki lahko vodijo v dolge odsotnosti z dela. »nadaljevanje« esnoba, depresivnost, izgorelost, ki se kaže kot čustvena izčrpanost, cinizem in pomanjkanje osebnih dosežkov) - vedenjske stiske (zloraba alkohola, tobaka in drog, ki vodijo v nastanek agresije, nasilja in industrijskih nesreč) Vse pojavne oblike skupaj negativno vplivajo na delovno prisotnost, produktivnost, delovne nesreče in s tem povezane poškodbe in celo smrti na del. mestu, kot tudi na rast stroškov zdravstva. Vpeljava pozitivne psihologije, socialna podpora, strpnost, državljanske vrline (civic virtue). Vpeljava pozitivnih psiholoških ukrepov (PPI -positive psychology interventions) na primarni, sekundarni in terciarni ravni na individualni kot organizacijski ravni (podporna socialna omrežja, podpora nadrejenih, podpora sodelavcev, avtonomija pri delu, vzgojno izobraževalni programi). nalogami, strateškim planiranjem in cilji, ter določajo obseg in podporo wellness programom. Strateško in organizacijsko voditelji služijo kot obraz organizacije in igrajo veliko vlogo pri oblikovanju celotne kulture organizacije, vključno s tem, kako ta kultura poudarja dobro počutje v organizaciji. Promocija zdravja vodilnih kadrov v organizaciji in višja raven vodstvene podpore za promocijo zdravja, je neposredno povezana z višjo udeležbo zaposlenih v wellness programih, nižjih stopnjah stresa pri delu in višjih stopnjah pozitivnih zdravstvenih navad. Rezultati raziskovalne analize, ki preučujejo organizacijske razlike nakazujejo, da ima lahko pri manjših organizacijah in pri tistih organizacijah z manj razvitimi promocij skimi programi, vodstvena podpora za promocijo zdravja manjši vpliv na zdravstvene navade zaposlenih. iskanja in zadovoljevanja lastnih virov (PRA framework - personal resource allocation framework) kot celovit okvir za pristop k obvladovanju stresa na delovnem mestu, ki ga je mogoče prilagoditi edinstvenim potrebam različnih organizacij, oddelkov znotraj organizacij in zaposlenim. S sprejetjem te širše perspektive se organizacije lahko bolj strateško lotevajo stresa zaposlenih, kar ima za posledico učinkovitejše obvladovanje stresa ter močan vpliv na rezultate povezane s stresom. Organizacijski ukrepi težijo k temu, da spadajo v primarno skupino ukrepov, ter ciljajo na dolgoročne uspehe. Tabela 9. Ključne ugotovitve glede na ravni v Sloveniji 51 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article I - Individualna raven (osebne lastnosti, vedenje...) G - Skupinska raven L - Raven vodja O - Organizacijska (družbena podpora, (značilnosti vodenja in raven (avtonomija, medosebni odnosi med družbene interakcije, kompenzacije, zaposlenimi, timsko stil vodenja.) družbena podpora, delo, značilnosti, letni razgovori, učinkovitost...) ocenjevanje.) Vzroki za nastanek stresa: Stres na delovnem mestu se lahko razlaga z modelom, kjer so na eni strani visoke zahteve in na drugi strani posameznikove sposobnosti za obvladovanje le-teh. Opredelitev stresa izhaja, da ima razmerje med dojemanjem zahtev in oceno sposobnosti za izpolnjevanje le-teh ključno vlogo pri doživljanju stresa. Ločimo 3 glavne skupine povzročiteljev stresa: • stresorji ozadja - izpostavljenost določenim kemičnim in biološkim snovem, osvetljenost, vibracije in hrup na delovnem mestu, vsiljen ritem dela, vsakodnevno hitenje na poti v službo; • osebni stresorji - izguba ali menjava delovnega mesta, konfliktne situacije na delovnem mestu, upokojitev; • stresorji okolja - na katere ne moremo vplivati. Stres v delovnem okolju je najpogostejši in ga povzročajo preobremenitev, prevelike zahteve oz. previsoka pričakovanja in nizka možnost odločanja, ' ' . ' ' 'i socialna podpora, negotovost »nadalj evanje« ivljenost dejavnikom stresa, kot so: nerazumevanje z nadrejenim, sodelavci ali podrejenimi, premalo časa, da bi dokončali delovne naloge, za opravljeno delo ne dobimo pričakovanega priznanja oz. nesorazmerje delo-plača, nimamo možnosti pritožb, prevelika odgovornost, služba ni zanesljiva, neugodne delovne razmere. Posebne oblike stresa pa predstavlja poniževanje, nadlegovanje, grožnje in podobno. Obvladovanje stresa: Najprej moramo prepoznati dejavnike stresa in naše reakcije na stres. Nato se v delovnem okolju čim bolje organizirajmo, da zmanjšamo stopnjo stresa. Naloge razvrstimo po pomembnosti in se najprej lotimo najtežjih opravil, zastavimo si jasne cilje, spremembe gledamo s pozitivnega stališča, težave sprejmimo kot izziv in ne grožnjo, zavračajmo nerealne zahteve sodelavcev oziroma nadrejenih, privoščimo si redni dopust, sami se nagradimo za dobro opravljeno delo, razmišljajmo pozitivno (osredotočite se na svoje prednosti in ne slabosti; v vsaki stvari skušajte najti nekaj dobrega) in znebimo se negativnega razmišljanja (ne obremenjujte se z dogodki, na katere ne morete vplivati, saj jih ne morete spremeniti). Pomembne odločitve v zvezi z delom so lahko tudi: možnost načrtovanja dela, razporeditev in kontrola delovnega časa - fleksibilen delovni čas, načrtovanje odmorov, ureditev delovnega okolja, izbira sodelavcev. Pomembna je tudi naloga srednjega menedžmenta, da skrbi za dobre odnose med sodelavci, razrešuje konflikte in spodbuja timsko delo. Načini spoprijemanja s stresom, ki veljajo za bolj uspešne, so: 1. Prepoznavanje stresnih simptomov; 2. Sprememba okolja in njegovih zahtev; 3. Sprememba sposobnosti spoprijemanja in podpora; 4. Upoštevanje svojih zmožnosti; 5. Osredotočenje na varovalne dejavnike. Obstajajo različne strategije spoprijemanja na različnih ravneh delovanja: 1.Telesna raven: V raziskavi ugotavljajo, da je najpogostejši način obvladovanja stresa na ravni posameznika vzdrževanje psihične in fizične kondicije. Redna športna dejavnost in hobiji, ki nas sproščajo, bistveno prispevajo k ohranjanju, krepitvi in varovanju zdravja ter povečujejo delovno storilnost. Izpostavili so predvsem hobije na prostem, kot so golf, Obvladovanje stresa: Za izboljšanje delovne klime je smiselno povečati povezovanje znotraj kolektivov, podpirati vzajemno sodelovanje ter spodbujati vrhnji management, da zaposlenim dopusti več avtonomije pri odločanju o njihovem delu. Vodilni managerji naj bi bili torej enako pozorni in usposobljeni za to, da znajo ustvarjati ugodno delovno vzdušje in povezanost vseh zaposlenih kot za optimalno delegiranje delovnih nalog. Vzroki za nastanek stresa: V vrh najbolj ogroženih poklicnih skupin, zaradi stresa, sodijo managerji -managerji pogosto delajo dlje, veliko telefonirajo, sprejemajo številne obiske in prisostvujejo velikemu številu sestankov. Ukvarjajo se z organizacijskimi spremembami, s prestrukturiranjem, prevzemi podjetij in se, ne nazadnje, borijo z globalno gospodarsko krizo. V managerjevem delovnem okolju se pojavlja nejasnost vlog, kadar se manager znajde v primežu različnih pritiskov nadrejenih in podrejenih, sodelavcev in strank. Pri managerj ih je velik problem konkurenca, rivalstvo, ki povečuje napetost. Poglavitno doživljanje stresa je povezano z ogroženostjo človekove samopodobe, spoštovanja ali bojaznijo zaradi izgube socialne varnosti. Stres pri delu nastaja zaradi čezmernih obremenitev, nezadovoljstva z delom, povečane odgovornosti, tekmovalnosti, občutka neustreznosti in slabih medosebnih odnosov. Pomemben vir stresa so tudi slabi medsebojni odnosi v delovnem okolju. Nagnjenost k stresu je zlasti pogosta pri ljudeh z veliko delovno vnemo, stalno napetostjo in nestrpnostjo ter pri ljudeh, ki delajo pod nenehnim pritiskom. Raziskava v Sloveniji prikazuje, da v povprečju najbolj stresogeno delujejo stresorji, ki so vezani na odnose s sodelavci in drugimi managerji (na Vzroki za nastanek stresa: Organizacijski stres je zaradi obsežnosti lahko izrazitejši od stresa posameznih zaposlenih, saj izvira iz stresnega stanja velikega števila zaposlenih. Raziskava v Sloveniji je pokazala, da najbolj stresogeno vplivajo: slog vodenja, organizacijo dela v podjetju, avtoriteto vrhnjega managementa ter slabo motiviranost zaposlenih za delo. Obvladovanje stresa: Primerno je, da se delovna organizacija v primeru prisotnega stresa na delovnem mestu osredotoči na zdravje, učenje in produktivnost. Ti trije dejavniki so tesno povezani; med njimi je treba doseči harmonijo, da se lahko medsebojno krepijo. Organizacijska kultura in klima lahko vplivata na dobro ali slabo počutje zaposlenih in na učinkovitost delovanja organizacije. Organizacijski stres je potrebno reševati dvoslojno, in sicer na ravni vsakega posameznega sodelavca in tudi na ravni celotne organizacije. V okviru razvoja veščin za upravljanje stresa je zelo priporočljivo, da v organizaciji potekajo redna izobraževanja in usposabljanja zlasti vodilnih in vodstvenih sodelavcev, da bi le-ti znali prepoznati, vrtnarjenje, lov in ribolov. Ostale metode: sprehod, sproščanje mišične napetosti z različnimi fizičnimi dejavnostmi, ki vplivajo direktno na stresne odzive: različne tehnike sproščanja, trebušno dihanje, telovadba, ples masažne tehnike, risanje, poslušanje primer slabi odnosi v organizaciji, pomanjkanje prijatelj skega vzdušja med sodelavci, zmanj šati in preprečevati oblike škodljivega stresa. Pozitivna 52 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article I - Individualna raven (osebne lastnosti, vedenje...) G - Skupinska raven L - Raven vodja O - Organizacijska (družbena podpora, (značilnosti vodenja in raven (avtonomija, medosebni odnosi med družbene interakcije, kompenzacije, zaposlenimi, timsko stil vodenja.) družbena podpora, delo, značilnosti, letni razgovori, učinkovitost.) ocenjevanje.) glasbe, vrtnarjenje, joga, razgibavanje, Shultz-ev avtogeni trening, masaže, pilates, čiščenje kleti, Alexander tehnika, druge sproščujoče dejavnosti. 2.Raven misli: Med bolj znane pristope umirjanja s pomočjo uma spadajo pozitivne samopotrditve oz. tehnike za pozitivno razmišljanje, meditacija, humor, kognitivno restrukturiranje, vizualizacija, metode »praznjenja glave« (npr. STOP tehnika), zmanjševanje ciljev oziroma pričakovanj, AAABC tehnika, da se s čim zamotimo, spreminjanje misli, stališč, prepričanj in samogovorov, ki se nanašajo na stresne dogodke: menjavanje negativnih misli z nevtralnimi/pozitivnimi (pri tem upoštevamo, da ima tudi pretirano pozitivno razmišljanje lahko svoje pasti), učenje dobrega počutja (izogibamo se perfekcionizmu), samopoučevanje - narekujemo si navodila za izvedbo naloge, učenje reševanja težav po korakih in praktičnih tehnik (oblikovanje stališč in strategije, kako se problema lotiti, razmišljanje po korakih, ki jih je treba izvršiti, da bi problem obvladali oz. prišli do rešitve), aktivno spoprijemanje (aktivno pristopimo k problemu in ga poskušamo odstraniti ali vplivati nanj, tako da preprečimo njegove posledice -vključuje spodbudo k neposredni akciji, povečanje napora in poskuse spoprijemanja v stopnjah), humor. 3.Raven čustev in vedenja: samokontrola vedenja (izražanje občutkov vljudno in odločno, ne agresivno ali pasivno), asertivnost (odločno zastopanje svojih interesov, zahtevati, kar nam pripada), trening socialnih veščin (sporazumevanje v različnih okoljih, z različnimi ljudmi, v različnih okoliščinah,dogovori/kompromisi/prilagajanje), izgrajevanje mreže prijateljev (socialna opora), načrtovanje in boljša organizacija delovnega in prostega časa (npr. skrb za mirno delovno okolje, delo po etapah oz. prioritetah, zagotoviti si čas brez motenj, »nadaljevanje« htevne miselne naloge, uvedemo »uradne ure« za pogovore po telefonu in odgovore po elektronski pošti). Poznamo tudi: 4.Prehranska dopolnila ali zdravila brez recepta, ki vsebujejo baldrijan, pasijonko, hmelj, rožni koren, mlečne beljakovine in tudi čaje, kot npr. meliso in poprovo meto; lahko pa tudi antioksidante in matični mleček. 5. Sproščanje na delovnem mestu: Ena najboljših dihalnih tehnik upravljanja s stresom, ki jo lahko uporabljamo v službi, je abdominalno dihanje oz. dihanje s trebušno prepono. itd. V službi moramo biti bolj praktični. Koristno je že, da npr. vsakih 45 minut vstanemo od računalnika ali delovnega stroja, in si vzamemo kratek premor. Izkoristimo ga lahko za to, da se malce sprehodimo, pretegnemo, sprostimo oči, stresemo mišice in podobno. Ko gre za stres, povzročen v delovnem okolju, se je kot najučinkovitejša intervencija pokazala kognitivno- pomanjkanje podpore drugih managerjev, slaba komunikacija, premalo povratnih informacij...). Takoj na drugem mestu so stresorji, vezani na delo managerja (na primer vsiljen ritem dela, obremenjenost, prehiter tempo, organizacija dela, uvajanje novih programov). organizacijska klima in občutek povezanosti med zaposlenimi se pozitivno povezujeta z vrsto ukrepov za obvladovanje stresa, med katere prištevamo na primer brezplačen wellness, dostop do telovadnic, skrb za zdravo prehrano in organiziranje programov usposabljanja, ki pomagajo zaposlenim pri soočanju s stresom. »se nadaljuje« bihavioralna terapija. 6.Ostali načini sproščanja: preberimo zanimivo knjigo, poslušajmo sproščajočo glasbo, druženje s pozitivnimi ljudmi in s tistimi, ki nas imajo radi, zdrava prehrana. Če ne zmoremo sami, poiščimo strokovno pomoč v lekarni ali pri zdravniku. 53 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article I - Individualna raven (osebne lastnosti, vedenje...) G - Skupinska raven L - Raven vodja O - Organizacijska (družbena podpora, (značilnosti vodenja in raven (avtonomija, medosebni odnosi med družbene interakcije, kompenzacije, zaposlenimi, timsko stil vodenja.) družbena podpora, delo, značilnosti, letni razgovori, učinkovitost...) ocenjevanje.) Znamenja in posledice: Tipični znaki in simptomi, ki se pojavljajo pri večini, so npr. pospešeno bitje srca, hitro dihanje, povišan krvni tlak, napete mišice, mrzle dlani in stopala, povečana budnost, vznemirjen želodec, občutek strahu ali ogroženosti, nespečnost, občutek nemoči, tesnobe, žalosti, jokavost, negativne misli, razbijanje srca, razdražljivost, umikanje v samoto, utrujenost, anksioznost, depresija čustvena izčrpanost, povečana napetost, razdražljivost, brezup, izguba upanja, občutki nemoči in krivde, nizko samospoštovanje, nezmožnost koncentracije, pozabljivost; telesni znaki pa se kažejo kot glavoboli, slabosti, omotičnosti, bolečine v mišicah, motnje spanja, kronična utrujenost, izguba smisla za humor in obolevnost. Psihološki simptomi stresa na delovnem mestu se kažejo kot razdražljivost, nezadovoljstvo z delom, zaskrbljenost, pomanjkanje energije in navdušenja, občutek ujetosti, spremembe v vedenju in drugo. Negativne posledice delovanja stresa na delovnem mestu so slabo zdravje in počutje zaposlenih, pojav duševnih in telesnih obolenj, zmanjšana produktivnost zaradi povečanega absentizma, prezentizma in fluktuacije, konflikti med menedžmentom in zaposlenimi ter težavno usklajevanje zasebnega in poklicnega življenja. Med dolgotrajne negativne posledice stresa lahko sodijo nepojasnjen glavobol, nespečnost, težave s koncentracijo, razdražljivost, izguba želje po spolnosti, vrtoglavica, težave z želodcem, sindrom razdražljivega črevesja, povišan krvni pritisk, motnje hranjenja, bolečine v vratu in križu, kronična utrujenost, zmanjšana imunska odpornost. Stres ali reakcija na stres sta eden najpomembnejših povzročiteljev obolenj srca in ožilja, ki so vodilni vzrok smrtnosti v razvitem svetu. Raziskave kažejo, da ljudje, ki doživljajo negativni stres, posledice stresa pogosto lajšajo z begom v tveganja vedenja, npr. uživajo več alkohola, tobaka, se , v ■ ujejo, se manj gibajo. Negativne, »nadaljevanje« v v v ■.? dlje časa trajajoče, premočne, preveč številčne ali preveč zgoščene stresne situacije onemogočajo produktivno, učinkovito delo ter imajo škodljiv vpliv na več področij posameznikovega delovanja. Vedenjski znaki izgorelosti so: hiperaktivnost, impulzivnost, povečano uživanje kofeina, tobaka, alkohola in prepovedanih substanc, opustitev športnih aktivnosti, kompulzivno, pritoževanje, površnost pri delu, pogosti prepiri s sodelavci. Na delovnem mestu se izgorelost kaže kot »se nadaljuje« zmanjšana učinkovitost, nizka delovna storilnost in minimalna produktivnost, fluktuacija, povečana bolniška odsotnost, absentizem, povečano število nesreč. 5 Razprava 5.1 Kratek opis rezultatov za EU Vzroki za nastanek stresa: Glavni viri stresa pri delu izhajajo iz: zahtev (npr. visoka delovna obremenitev), nadzora (npr. nasilni nadzor nadrejenega), podpore (npr. majhne mera spodbude s strani vodstva), odnosov (npr. konfliktni odnosi s sodelavci), vloge (npr. nerazumevanje svoje vloge v organizaciji) in sprememb (npr. način sporočanja sprememb v organizaciji). Na 54 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article zaposlene prav tako negativno vpliva pomanjkanje spoštovanja in pravičnosti (zlasti od nadrejenih). Obstaja tudi korelacija med angažiranostjo in stresom. Če je angažiranost manjša je tudi večja verjetnost za večji stres in posledično pojava izgorelosti. Na večji stres zaposlenih prav tako vpliva negativno vodenje, nepovezanost zaposlenega z vodjo in nasilni nadzor vodstva. Obvladovanje stresa: Najpogostejše metode upravljanja stresa so: kognitivni trening vedenjskih veščin, meditacija, sprostitev, globoko dihanje, telesna vadba, vodenje dnevnika, upravljanje časa in postavljanje ciljev na individualni ravni ter wellness programi in koristi pristopi »Workwell model«, model JDR (Job Demands-Resources) in programi angažiranja zaposlenih na organizacijski ravni. Ugotovljena je povezava med angažiranostjo in splošnim zdravjem. Delovno angažiranje pomaga posameznikom, da se učinkovito spopadejo s stresnim delom. Številne posamezne študije so pokazale pozitivno povezavo med angažiranostjo in delovno sposobnostjo, pozitivnim afektom, zadovoljstvom z delom in dnevnim okrevanjem. Spodbujanje angažiranosti zaposlenih prinaša pozitivne rezultate, kot sta visoka stopnja dobrega počutja in uspešnosti. Vse več organizacij išče zaposlene, ki prevzemajo pobudo in se kreativno odzivajo na izzive dela, kajti angažiranost postane tako na individualni kot na organizacijski ravni. Pomembna je tudi: motivacija, nagrajevanje delavcev za opravljeno delo, zadovolj stvo delavca z delovnim mestom, poklicne priložnosti, varnost zaposlitve, dobri odnosi (in podpora) s sodelavci in vodstvom ter dobra komunikacija z vodjo in razvoj strategije za preprečevanje neusklajenosti, jasno opredeljena informacija o pričakovanjih, povezanih z vlogo. Dvoumna pričakovanja o vlogah (subjektivna) so povezana z večjo napetostjo in manjšim zadovoljstvom z delovnim mestom, kot jasna pričakovanja glede vlog. Upoštevanje individualnih lastnosti (spretnosti, identiteta naloge, pomen naloge, avtonomija, povratne informacije) za njihovo motivacijo in uspešnost. Bolj pozitivne oblike vodenja povzročajo višjo stopnjo angažiranosti zaposlenih in manjši stres. Način upravljanja z ljudmi močno vpliva na njihovo počutje: spoštljiv in odgovoren (upravljanje čustev in integriteta), upravljanje in komuniciranje obstoječega in prihodnjega dela, upravljanje posameznika znotraj ekipe, obvladovanje težkih situacij. Pomembna je tudi agilnost skupin, za katere so značilne: samoorganizacija, iteracija, osredotočenost na stranke, izmenjava znanja, sodelovanje in medsebojno zaupanje. Za zmanjšanje stresa je pomembna tudi telesna aktivnost in urejena oz. zdrava prehrana ter na splošno zdrav življenjski slog. Znamenja in posledice: Znamenja in posledice stresa se kažejo v povečani stopnji duševnih (depresija, tesnoba, motnje spanja) in telesnih težav (visok krvni tlak, bolečine v želodcu, znojenje, izčrpanost), ki se kaže kot nezmožnost in tudi nepripravljenost za opravljanje dela, nizko zadovoljstvo z delom. Vse skupaj vodi v še slabše zdravstveno stanje, izgorelost. Posledica je odsotnost z dela in celo prenehanje zaposlitve. Po raziskavah je kar v 46 % primerih za odsotnost z dela vzrok stres, kar predstavlja daleč največji delež. Zelo pogosto so celo primeri samomorov in motenj v družini. 55 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article 5.2 Kratek opis rezultatov za ZDA Vzroki za nastanek stresa: Vzroki za nastanek delovnega stresa je širok nabor različnih poklicnih in delovnih stresorjev kot so: karierne zahteve, socialna varnost, delovna obremenitev, delovni pogoji (hrup, temperatura, svetloba), oblika delovnega mesta, medsebojni odnosi, socialna gostota, način vodenja, skupinski pritiski. Pomembni so tudi odnosi delo-družina, ki predstavljajo tudi eno od glavnih tveganj za nastanek stresa na delovnem mestu. Reagiranje na vsakodnevne stresorje pri delu kot tudi izven delovnega časa povzroči negativni odziv (off-job reactivity; OJR) in ima posledice na zdravje, dobro počutje in uspešnost zaposlenih. Obvladovanje stresa: Preventivno obvladovanje stresa se izvaja s tremi sklopi ukrepov: primarni, sekundarni in terciarni. Primarni se osredotočajo na preprečevanje nastanka stresa z upravljanjem osebnih zaznav stresa posameznika, izboljšanju osebnega delovnega mesta oziroma okolja, ter vzdrževanjem ravnovesja med delom in zasebnim življenjem. Med glavne tehnike se uvrščata ustrezni pozitivni medsebojni odnosi in dobra socialna podpora. Sekundarni ukrepi so usmerjeni v odzivanje in pomoč posamezniku pri uravnavanju negativne energije povzročene s stresom, uravnavanjem čustev in telesne pripravljenosti. Terciarni ukrepi so usmerjeni v terapije in svetovanje za vzpostavitev zdravja in normalnega delovanja posameznikom, ki jim je bilo to ravnovesje ob stresnih dejavnikih porušeno. Vpeljava pozitivnih psiholoških ukrepov (PPI - positive psychology interventions) na primarni, sekundarni in terciarni ravni na individualni kot organizacijski ravni (podporna socialna omrežja, podpora nadrejenih, podpora sodelavcev, avtonomija pri delu, vzgojno izobraževalni programi). Promocija zdravja vodilnih kadrov v organizaciji in višja raven vodstvene podpore za promocijo zdravja, je neposredno povezana z višjo udeležbo zaposlenih v wellness programih, nižjih stopnjah stresa pri delu in višjih stopnjah pozitivnih zdravstvenih navad. Rezultati raziskovalne analize, ki preučujejo organizacijske razlike nakazujejo, da ima lahko pri manjših organizacijah in pri tistih organizacijah z manj razvitimi promocijskimi programi, vodstvena podpora za promocijo zdravja manjši vpliv na zdravstvene navade zaposlenih. Znamenja in posledice: Ob premočni oziroma predolgi izpostavljenosti stresnim dejavnikom se lahko začnejo pojavljati stiske oz. nezdrave posledice v treh oblikah: • zdravstvene stiske (nastanek srčno-žilnih obolenj, nastanek rakavih obolenj, muskulaturne tegobe in s tem povezane bolečine in omejitve), ki lahko vodijo v dolge odsotnosti z dela. • psihološke stiske (tesnoba, depresivnost, izgorelost, ki se kaže kot čustvena izčrpanost, cinizem in pomanjkanje osebnih dosežkov) • vedenjske stiske (zloraba alkohola, tobaka in drog, ki vodijo v nastanek agresije, nasilja in industrijskih nesreč) Vse pojavne oblike skupaj negativno vplivajo na delovno prisotnost, produktivnost, delovne nesreče in s tem povezane poškodbe in celo smrti na delovnem mestu, kot tudi na rast stroškov zdravstva. 5.3 Kratek opis rezultatov za Slovenijo Vzroki za nastanek stresa: Poglavitno doživljanje stresa je povezano z ogroženostjo človekove samopodobe, spoštovanja ali bojaznijo zaradi izgube socialne varnosti. Nagnjenost 56 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article k stresu je zlasti pogosta pri ljudeh z veliko delovno vnemo, stalno napetostjo in nestrpnostjo ter pri ljudeh, ki delajo pod nenehnim pritiskom. Stres pri delu nastaja zaradi čezmernih obremenitev, nezadovoljstva z delom, povečane odgovornosti, tekmovalnosti, občutka neustreznosti in slabih medosebnih odnosov. V eni od raziskav je bilo tudi ugotovljeno, da različne starostne skupine različno dojemajo stres. Povzročitelje stresa delimo v tri skupine (stresorji ozadja, osebni stresorji in stresorji okolja). Obvladovanje stresa: Na ravni posameznika je za obvladovanje stresa največkrat priporočena redna telesna telesna aktivnost, zdrava prehrana, razne tehnike sproščanja (npr. meditacija). Vloga organizacije pri upravljanju stresa je v prepoznavanju simptomov stresa pri zaposlenih in načrtnem preprečevanju nastanka dejavnikov, ki lahko povzročijo stresna stanja zaposlenih. V okviru razvoja veščin za upravljanje stresa je zelo priporočljivo, da v organizaciji potekajo redna izobraževanja in usposabljanja zlasti vodilnih in vodstvenih sodelavcev, da bi le-ti znali prepoznati, zmanjšati in preprečevati oblike škodljivega stresa. Pozitivna organizacijska klima in občutek povezanosti med zaposlenimi se pozitivno povezujeta z vrsto ukrepov za obvladovanje stresa, med katere prištevamo na primer brezplačen wellness, dostop do telovadnic, skrb za zdravo prehrano in organiziranje programov usposabljanja, ki pomagajo zaposlenim pri soočanju s stresom. Zaradi staranja prebivalstva se pojavljajo nova raziskovalna vprašanja kako zagotoviti, da bi ljudje ostali zadovoljni pri svojem delu v različnih življenjskih fazah. Pri visokih psihičnih zahtevah na delovnem mestu se zmanjša utrujenost in prepreči izčrpanost tako da, zaposlenim omogočimo visoko stopnjo avtonomije oziroma možnost odločanja. Za večanje notranje motivacije za delo pa je pomembno, da je v delovnem okolju prisotna velika stopnja socialne podpore. Prioriteta menedžmenta bi morala biti, da znotraj organizacij ske enote spodbuja potencial podpornega sistema med sodelavci in skrbi za podporni sistem v razmerju menedžment-delavec. Znamenja in posledice: Psihološki simptomi stresa na delovnem mestu se kažejo kot razdražljivost, nezadovoljstvo z delom, zaskrbljenost, pomanjkanje energije in navdušenja, občutek ujetosti, spremembe v vedenju in drugo. Negativne posledice delovanja stresa na delovnem mestu so slabo zdravje in počutje zaposlenih, pojav duševnih in telesnih obolenj, zmanjšana produktivnost zaradi povečanega absentizma, prezentizma in fluktuacije, konflikti med menedžmentom in zaposlenimi ter težavno usklajevanje zasebnega in poklicnega življenja. Izgorelost se kaže kot zmanjšana učinkovitost, nizka delovna storilnost in minimalna produktivnost, fluktuacija, povečana bolniška odsotnost, absentizem in povečano število delovnih nesreč. 5.4 Pregled skupnih značilnosti Na podlagi pridobljenih najpomembnejših zaključkov raziskav posameznih regij, EU, ZDA in Slovenije, je v nadaljevanju predstavljen grafični pregled skupnih značilnost. Na slikah 1 do 3 so v obliki Vennovih diagramov prikazane skupne značilnosti navedenih regija za vzroke nastanka stresa, obvladovanje stresa ter znamenja in posledice stresa. 57 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article EU nasilni nadzor vodstva majhna podpora nerazumevanje vloge nesporočanje sprememb pomanjkanje pravičnosti pomanjkanje angažiranosti nepovezanost zaposlenega način vodenja ZDA karierne zahteve delovni pogoji oblika delovnega mesta socialna gostota skupinski pritiski odnosi delo-družina negativni odziv (off-job reactivity) pomanjkanje spoštovanja slabi medsebojni odnosi čezmerna delovna obr. SLO ogroženost človekove samopodobe nenehni pritisk socialna varnost nezadovoljstva z delom povečane odgovornosti tekmovalnost občutek neustreznosti Slika 1. Vennov diagram vzrokov nastanka stresa za regije EU, ZDA in Slovenije 58 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article EU kognitivni trening vedenjskih veščin, globoko dihanje, vodenje dnevnika, upravljanje časa, postavljanje ciljev, »Workwell model«, model JDR, programi angažiranja, motivacija, nagrajevanje delavcev, zadovoljstvo delavca z del. mestom, poklicne priložnosti, varnost zaposlitve, dobra komunikacija, preprečevanje neusklajenosti, jasna pričkovanja, pozitivne oblike vodenja, agilnost skupin, zdrav življenjski slog dobri medsebojni odnosi ZDA meditacija tehnike sproščanja zdrava prehrana izboljšanje osebnega del. mesta vzd. ravnovesja med delom in zas. živ. uravnavanje čustev terapije svetovanje vzpostavitve zdravja vpeljava pozitivnih psih. ukrepov 1 podporna socialna omrežja socialna podpora podporni sistem med delavci avtonomija pri delu vzgojno izobraž. programi redna telesna aktivnost wellness programi načrtovano preprečevanje stresnih dej. pozitivna organizacijska klima občutek povezanosti med zaposlenimi SLO Slika 2. Vennov diagram obvladovanja stresa za regije EU, ZDA in Slovenije 59 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article EU visok krvni tlak bolečine v želodcu znojenje nezmožnost za opravljanje dela nepripravljenost za opravljanje dela samomori motnje v družini tesnoba izčrpanost ZDA srčno-žilna obolenja nastanek rakavih obolenj muskulaturne tegobe cinizem pomanjkanje osebnih dosežkov agresija in nasilje industrijske nesreče poškodbe smrti na delovnem mestu odsotnost z dela depresija izgorelost zloraba alkohola, tobaka in drog neproduktivnost delovne nesreče motnje spanja nezadovoljstvo z delom prenehanje zaposlitve SLO razdražljivost zaskrbljenost občutek ujetosti pomanjkanje energije in navdušenja spremembe v vedenju slabo zdravje in počutje zmanjšana produktivnost konflikti težavno usklajevanje zas. in pokl. življenja zmanjšana učinkovitost minimalna produktivnost povečana bolniška odsotnost Slika 3. Vennov diagram znamenj in posledic stresa za regije EU, ZDA in Slovenije 6 Zaključek Rezultate izvedene primerjave člankov ZDA, EU in Slovenije na temo vzrokov za nastanek stresa, obvladovanje stresa in posledice stresa lahko strnemo skozi prizmo predhodne predstavitve rezultatov z Vennovimi diagrami in zaključimo, da sta najpogostejša vzroka za nastanek stresa prekomerna delovna obremenjenost in slabi medsebojni odnosi v organizaciji, velik vpliv na nastanek stresa pa ima tudi način vodenja, pomanjkanje medsebojnega spoštovanja in občutek socialne varnosti. Pri obvladovanju stresa so vsem trem raziskovanim regijam najbolj skupni primarni proaktivni ukrepi kot so na individualni ravni redna telesna aktivnost in zdrav življenjski slog, na stopnji menedžmenta omogočanje visoke stopnje avtonomije pri delu ter socialna podpora, na ravni organizacije pa oblikovanje psiholoških in fizično ustreznih delovnih mest, izvajanje 60 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Maj / May 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 2, str. / pp. 65-78. Članek / Article izobraževalnih in wellness programov ter nenazadnje vzpodbujanje dobrih odnosov v organizaciji. Neuspešnost primarnih in sekundarnih ukrepov tako na individualni ravni kot ravni menedžmenta in organizacije vodi v terciarne ukrepe, ki pa so usmerjeni že na blaženje posledic prekomernega delovanja stresa na posameznika ali skupino, ki se kažejo v izgorelosti in povečani bolniški odsotnosti z dela, tesnobi, izčrpanosti, nezadovoljstvu z delom ter vodijo v neproduktivnost, povečano število delovnih nesreč in nenazadnje v zlorabo alkohola, tobaka in prepovedanih drog. Raziskava daje neposredno primerjavo vzrokov, posledic in ukrepov pri nastanku stresa na delovnem mestu treh raziskovanih regij, ki ponujajo premih obstoječih paradigem ter podlago za oblikovanje in dopolnitev obstoječih pristopov pri obvladovanju delovnega stresa. Rezultati raziskave vodilnemu menedžmentu in srednjemu menedžmentu nakazujejo aktivnosti menedžmenta delovnega stresa v raziskovanih regijah ter ponujajo vpogled v aktivnosti, pristope in metode, ki dosegajo dobre rezultate. 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Retrieved from http:IIorganizacija.fov.uni-mb.siIindex.phpIorganizacijaIarticleIviewI93G 21. Schaufeli, W., & Salanova, M. (2G11). Work engagement: On how to better catch a slippery concept. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(1), 39-46. 22. Sutherland, V., & Cooper, C. (2GGG). Strategic stress management: An organizational approach. Springer. 23. Tetrick, L. E., & Winslow, C. J. (2G15). Workplace stress management interventions and health promotion. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2(1), 583-6G3. 24. Zaviršek Mikolič, S. (2013). Stres na delovnem mestu. Delo in varnost, 58(2), 32. *** Simon E. Pantar je diplomiral na Fakulteti za elektrotehniko s področja zagotavljanja kakovosti. Zaposlen je na delovnem mestu vodje projektov. Vodi projekte v matični družbi in odvisnem podjetju v Ruski federaciji, kjer je bil pred tem zaposlen kot vodja tehnične službe. V odvisnem podjetju je odgovarjal za tehnično področje in uredil postopke na ostalih povezanih področjih. Pred tem je delal na delovnem mestu tehnologa v službi za meroslovje, kjer je uvedel mnoge postopke kalibracij na področju mase in sodeloval v mednarodnih interkomparacijah. Bil je mentor študentom in novozaposlenim ter izvajal izobraževanja sodelavcev na področju tehtanja. Za uspehe na področju inovacij, razvoja kalibracijskih metod ter mentorstva je v letu 2007 prejel nagrado občine Novo mesto na raziskovalnem področju. Prejel je tudi nagrado v sklopu projekta naj -sodelavec. 62 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Februar 2020, leto / year 5, številka / number 1, str. / pp. 17-35. Bojan Gorenc je diplomiral na Fakulteti za elektrotehniko v Ljubljani na področju močnostne elektrotehnike. Zaposlen je v lastnem podjetju na delovnem mestu direktorja, opravlja pa tudi naloge pooblaščenega inženirja. Pri vodenju podjetja si je na projektnem delu pridobil organizacijske, komunikacijske in vodstvene kompetence na različnih področjih, ki so potrebne za stabilno poslovanje podjetja; Na projektnem delu, planiranju, organiziranju materialnih in človeških virov, določanju in razporeditvi ciljev ter iskanje in oblikovanje najbolj ekonomičnih načinov za doseganje namena povezanega z določeno situacijo oziroma projektom. V dvajsetih letih delovanja v različnih podjetjih, je na področju projektnega dela kot odgovorni projektant sodeloval in ključno vplival na izdelavo pri preko 700 načrtih s področja elektrotehnike. Abstract: Causes, Symptoms, Consequences and Occupational Stress Management Research Question (RQ): What are the most common causes for occupational stress? What are the most common stress symptoms? What are the most common stress consequences? How can we manage stress? Purpose: The purpose is to study articles regarding causes, symptoms, consequences and occupational stress management separately for EU, USA and Slovenia, to review and summarize researches for different levels: individual, group, leadership and organizational level. The article should give a brief result presentation with overview on common features of these regions. The goal of this article is to identify and present differences regarding causes, symptoms, consequences and occupational stress management in EU, USA and Slovenia. Method: The research used an integrative review of scientific and professional literature in the field of occupational stress management. We searched articles trough different bases (Google Scholar, dLIB) using relevant keywords. Articles used in this research work were not older than ten years with impact factor higher than 1.5 (EU and USA articles). Article published in indexed journal was the only condition to use Slovenian article in this research. Review included 19 articles. The data were processed by thematic qualitative analysis. Results: Most common causes of stress are high-strained jobs and poor relations among employees in organization, which is often manifested in employee burnout, low productivity, increasing sick leave, work accidents, alcohol, tobacco and drug abuse. Most common stress management activities are proactive primary interventions that include regular physical activity and healthy lifestyle, high level of work autonomy, various educational and wellness programs, social support and promoting healthy work relationships among employees in organization. Organization: Results of this study imply management activities, approaches and methods that deliver good results regarding stress management to highest and middle management. Society: By taking proactive activities to manage occupational stress in organizations we counteract the negative effects of overexposure to occupational stress, thereby positively affecting job wellbeing, increase work effectivity and prevent the emergence of stress-related diseases, that evidently reduce productivity and enlarge healthcare costs. Originality: This study provides direct comparison of the causes, consequences and interventions for occupational stress management in three researched regions, offering a shift of existing paradigms and the basis for designing and complementing existing approaches to occupational stress management. Limitations/Future Research: Comparison of work stress management was carried out in three regions (USE, EU and Slovenia). For a broader and more comprehensive view of stress management it would be recommended to extend research to Asia (China, South Korea and Japan). Keywords: stress, occupational stress, management, preventive stress management, burnout, stress consequences, healthy lifestyle, wellbeing. Copyright (c) Simon E. PANTAR, Bojan GORENC Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License 63