| 35 | | 61/1 | RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES V G 2017 GEODETSKI VESTNIK | letn. / Vol. 61 | št. / No. 1 | ABSTRACT IZVLEČEK SI | EN KEY WORDS KLJUČNE BESEDE functional regions, functional urban regions, functional areas, functional urban areas, application fields, Slovenia This paper provides a literature review by fields of application of functional regions and functional areas. The application of functional regions, functional urban regions, and functional urban areas is mostly found in labour market analyses and analyses of other socio-economic aspects, in analyses of administrative, planning, and statistical regions, and in analyses of functional (urban) areas. This literature review is done separately for Slovenia and the rest of the world. funkcionalne regije, funkcionalne urbane regije, funkcionalna območja, funkcionalna urbana območja, področje uporabe, Slovenija V prispevku predstavimo pregled literature po področjih uporabe funkcionalnih regij in območij. Uporabo funkcionalnih regij, funkcionalnih urbanih regij in funkcionalnih urbanih območij zasledimo predvsem v analizah trga dela in drugih družbenogospodarski vidikov, v analizah administrativnih, planskih, statističnih regij in analizah funkcionalnih (urbanih) območij. Pregled literature izvedemo ločeno za svet in Slovenijo. DOI: 10.15292/geodetski-vestnik.2017.01.35-57 REVIEW ARTICLE Received: 15. 2. 2017 Accepted: 2. 3. 2017 UDK : 711.13:711.4:331.2:(100):(497.4) Klasifikacija prispevka po COBISS.SI: 1.02 Prispelo: 15. 2. 2017 Sprejeto: 2. 3. 2017 Samo Drobne fUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION fIELDS fUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | ABSTRACT IZVLEČEK | 36 | | 36 | | 36 | | 61/1 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN 1 FunCTional reGionS and areaS The notion of ‘region’ originates from Latin regio, meaning a landscape, territory, area, that is, a part of the Earth’s surface. A region is a delimited spatial system and an expression of an organisational unity that differentiates it from another region (Abler, Adams and Gould, 1972; Gregory et al., 2009; Klapka, Halás and Tonev, 2013; Klapka in Halás, 2016). According to Vrišer (1978), the region is a specifically defined and organised area of the Earth’s surface with an array of distinct features; the notion is also used for a certain administrative, economic, or natural spatial unit populated by a specific community. Thus the region combines specific characteristics that give it a certain degree of integration and distinctiveness that separate it from another region (Haggett, 1971; Abler, Adams and Gould, 1972). A region is distinguished by its physical characteristics (e.g. relief, climate, soil composition) or socio-economic characteristics of an area (e.g. attachment of rural areas to the city, historical political and administrative formations, economic orientation). If a region brings together the socio-economic characteristics of an area it is called a socio-economic region. According to Har- vey (2011), socio-economic regions are institutional arrangements that facilitate the functioning of various flows across space and time. Spatial sciences distinguish between formal and functional socio-economic regions (Haggett, 1971; Abler, Adams and Gould, 1972; Claval, 1998). A formal region is an area of generalization of a variable, so it is internally homogeneous (Klapka, Halás and Tonev, 2013). Formal regionalisation is carried out by combining basic spatial units (BSU) at the lower level (e.g. survey districts, sta- tistical districts, settlements, municipalities, post districts) with the aim of reducing the variance between regions (BSU groups) according to one or more variables. In contrast to formal regions, a functional region (FR) is internally heterogeneous, which is reflected in mutual complementarity and dependence of internal BSUs (ibid.). Following Ullman (1980), FR organisation is based on horizontal relations in a space in a form of spatial flows or interactions between parts (BSUs) of the region. Functional regionalisation is thus the procedure of combining BSUs into FRs with the goal of generalising the functional flows and spatial interactions addressed. FRs are thus understood as generalised patterns of flows and interactions in space. A FR is thus a system of strongly linked larger and/or smaller spatial units. Rather than dealing separately with geographical features and historical links, when addressing FRs our focus is on functional connectivity in space (Vanhove and Klaassen, 1987). Klapka, Halás and Tonev (2013) and Klapka and Halás (2016) believe that the term “functional region” was introduced into geography, and thus other spatial sciences, by Philbrick (1957), and Berry and Garrison (1958). Mutual complementarity and dependence in heterogeneous FRs are generated by an array of spa- tial interactions, such as population flows (commuting to school or work, migration, shopping or recreation), traffic and commodity flows (traffic and passenger flows by land, sea and air), financial flows, information flows (communications and newspaper circulation), gas/water/electricity flows (service connections), and similar (Vanhove and Klaassen, 1987; Alvanides, Openshaw and Duke- Williams, 2000). In the literature, functional regions and functional areas are most frequently deter- mined based on economic interactions. Berry and Garrison (1958) describe FRs as functional areas around a strong economic centre that attracts inhabitants from near and remote catchment areas. Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 37 | | 37 | | 37 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK | 61/1 | RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN They consider the FR centre as a central place from Christaller’s Central Place Theory (Christaller, 1933), whose size depends on the scope of goods and services that it offers to its inhabitants. Brown and Holmes (1971) define FRs as a combination of functionally complementing BSUs, which have more economic interactions with each other than with outside units. Vanhove and Klaassen (1987) describe FRs as reasonably functioning spatial entities composed of economically and socially connected areas. In the group of connected areas, many social and economic interac- tions, interdependence of commuting flows, flows of goods and services, communication flows, traffic flows, financial flows, etc., occur. Johansson (1998) and Karlsson and Olsson (2006) define a FR as an area characterised by a high frequency of intra-regional economic interaction, such as labour commuting and intra-regional trade in goods and services, and an area of agglomeration of activities and transport infrastructure facilitating significant mobility of people, products, and information. Van der Laan and Schalke (2001) and Farmer and Fotheringham (2011) understand a FR as a spatially continuous area in which aggregated supply and demand for various social and economic goods meet. OECD (2002) defines FR as a territorial unit resulting from the organisation of social and economic relations in that its boundaries do not reflect geographical particularities or historical events. According to OECD (ibid.), FRs are sub-divisions of territories, where the most typical concept used in defining a functional region is that of labour market analysis or analysis of areas where supply and demand are well matched. The most frequently used FR concept found in the literature is the concept of local and regional labour systems (OECD, 2002). 1 According to this concept, in a FR labour demand is proportional to job supply, and vice versa (Karlsson and Olsson, 2006). Many authors thus believe that the most impor- tant characteristic of a FR is the integrated labour market, in which intra-regional labour commuting, intra-regional job search, and search for labour demand are much more intensive than among the inter- regional counterparts; e.g. Smart (1974), Coombes, Green and Openshaw (1986), Van der Laan (1991), Casado-Díaz (2000), Andersen (2002), Van der Laan and Schalke (2001), OECD (2002), Karlsson and Olsson (2006), Cörvers, Hensen and Bongaerts (2009), Casado-Díaz and Coombes (2011), Farmer and Fotheringham (2011). That is also the reason why out of the possible population flows, commuting flows are used for delimitation of FRs. Labour commuting, particularly commuting with a daily periodicity, is the most frequent and stable regular movement of the population (Smart, 1974). Therefore, minor changes on the labour market do not significantly affect the pattern of daily flows to work and back home (Coombes, Casado-Díaz in Martínez-Bernabeu, 2012). In the literature, two terms have been established for description of FRs at the local level, based on la- bour mobility flows: local labour market areas (LLMAs) and travel-to-work areas (TTWAs). Klapka et al. (2014) believe that these two concepts are the same, stemming from the works by (Goodman, 1970; Smart, 1974; Coombes et al., 1979; Ball, 1980; Coombes and Openshaw, 1982). The literature also includes the concepts of functional urban areas (FUAs) and functional urban regions (FURs). Both concepts have been established in analyses of urban centre development, expansion of economic activities in space, analyses of social disparities in space, and inequality in the labour market, and for studying the relationships between the city and rural areas, etc. (Drobne, Konjar and 1 According to the concept of employment systems, a Fr should contain one or more local labour market areas. Local labour market areas make up regional labour market areas. Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 38 | | 38 | | 38 | | 61/1 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN Lisec, 2011). FUA is a functionally connected area of an urban centre and its catchment area. FUA is determined as an aggregation of BSUs, from which a certain percentage of working population com- mutes to work daily (Coombes et al., 1979; ESPON 1.1.1, 2004; ESPON 1.1.2, 2004; Benini, Naldi and Region, 2007; Pichler Milanović et al., 2008; OECD, 2013a; ESPON, 2014; Eurostat, 2015). According to OECD (2013a, 2013b), ESPON (2014), and Eurostat (2015), FUAs consist of BSUs from which at least 15% of working age population commutes to work. FUAs can overlap, while they do not necessarily homogeneously cover the territory in question. FURs are less adaptable formations than FUAs: FURs do not overlap, while they homogeneously cover the territory addressed. FURs are modelled, similarly to FUAs, around urban centres. These can be selected by agreement or based on quantitative criteria (population density, number of permanent residents in an urban centre area, percentage of residents both living and working in an urban centre area, percentage of population of an urban centre working in another urban centre of the same FUA, etc.). FUA and FUR centres are most frequently defined using high density areas which are the core of an urban area (Antikainen, 2005). The concept of FURs has been most widely used in France, Canada, and the Unites States (OECD, 2002). Both in North America and in most European countries and Slovenia, FUOs are defined based on the number of residents, commuting flows, number of passengers in public transport systems, number of students in higher education centres, number of companies in cities, the amount of goods carried, number of accommodation capacities, created gross value added, and administrative function of urban centres (Coombes et al., 1979; ESPON 1.1.1, 2004; ESPON 1.1.2, 2004; ÖIR, 2006; ESPON 1.4.3, 2007; Pichler Milanović et al., 2008; Drobne, Konjar and Lisec, 2010; Lisec et al., 2010; OECD, 2013a; Coombes, 2014; ESPON, 2014; Eurostat, 2015; Zavodnik Lamovšek and Drobne, 2016, 2017). Both FURs and FUAs as well as FRs can be modelled at different hierarchical levels. 2 liTera Ture revie W BY FieldS oF aPPliC aTion In the literature we find different fields of application in relation to functional regions and areas: from labour market analyses to other socio-economic aspects, analyses of functional urban areas/regions, analyses of administrative, planning, and statistical regions, analyses of statistical functional areas at the micro level (for statistical reporting), analyses of the local and regional housing market (in support of housing policy), analyses of goods market, analyses of functional region in support of transport and traffic policy, analyses in support of information and communication technology, and other services in space, to general reviews of treating functional regions/areas. In 2002, OECD published a review of treating and defining FRs, FURs, and FUAs in selected OECD countries (OECD, 2002). 2 In most of the OECD member countries analysed, FRs are modelled using the concept of local employment centres, as the name itself suggests: in Austria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland such micro regions are called “local labour market areas/ micro regions”, in Italy, Hungary, and Poland they are called “local/regional employment systems”, in Denmark and in United Kingdom they are called “commuting areas”, in Norway “economic regions”, in France “functional urban and employment areas”, and in United States and Canada they are traditionally called “metropolitan areas of labour commuting” (OECD, 2002). In the aforementioned countries, 2 A review in Slovenian was conducted by Konjar (2009) and Drobne, Konjar and Lisec (2011). Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 39 | | 39 | | 39 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK | 61/1 | RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN FRs homogeneously cover the entire state territory – except in the case of delimitation of FURs or FUAs in Canada and the United States. Larger countries, such as Canada, France, Germany, Portugal, and the United States, define FRs at various levels. Most countries delimit FRs using basic statistical or administrative units where FR borders coincide with municipal borders. An important advantage of such an approach to FR delimitation is the possibility of acquiring statistical data and indicators of FRs, which allows for an array of spatial analyses (Drobne, Konjar and Lisec, 2011). FRs are used as a basis for socio-economic analyses, structural studies of local labour markets, and assessments of regional disparities in most of these countries. In Austria, Denmark, Canada, and Switzerland, FRs are used as a framework for the implementation of policies relating to labour markets and transport. In Finland, France, Italy, Germany and United Kingdom, FRs serve as a basis for identifying areas which qualify for aid and support. In the Czech Republic, Portugal, Sweden, and the United States, FRs are not used for policy implementation. The definition and delimitation of FRs is left to state statistical offices and competent ministries responsible for employment, economy, spatial planning, and regional development. In Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Hungary, and Canada no funding is provided for the maintenance of data on FRs (OECD, 2002). Coombes, Casado-Díaz and Martínez-Bernabeu (2012) made a comparative study investigating the areas of (local) labour markets, i.e. FRs at the micro level, in 27 EU countries. In nine countries (Belgium, Estonia, Finland, France, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and United Kingdom) labour market areas are monitored officially using their own or adopted analytical procedures. In seven countries (Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Greece, Portugal, Slovenia, and Slovak Republic) such analyses, both at the local or regional level, are conducted for research purposes only. Ten countries (Austria, Bulgaria, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Spain) reported that labour market areas are neither treated nor researched. Finland, France, Italy, Germany, and United Kingdom use areas of (local) labour markets for various policy implementations (also for drawing on and allocating European funds). Germany uses local labour market areas for monitoring and improving regional economic structures, in Italy they monitor the so-called industrial regions and their development, France uses local labour market areas to show various socio-economic statistics at different levels, United Kingdom uses this kind of official areas for monitoring and directing economic development and for supporting housing policy at the local and regional level, and Finland controls and directs the delimitation of new (and harmonization of old) municipalities with FRs at the local level. The Czech Republic and Estonia, which are among the countries that do not officially monitor such functional areas at the local level, have used local labour markets in procedures of local and regional planning of public transport (ibid.). Drobne, Konjar and Lisec (2011) and Drobne (2016) believe that in Slovenia the FR concept is implemented in statistical regions, which rarely change due to the dissemination of data in time series. The first delimitation of Slovenia into statistical regions was made in the mid-1970s for the needs of regional planning and inter-municipal cooperation in various areas. Regionalisation was made based on analysing gravity areas of commuting, rides to school and higher education institutions and supply of population in 12 regional and their sub-regional centres (Vrišer, 1974, 1978; Rebec, 1983, 1984; Vrišer and Rebernik, 1993). Later, the borders of statistical regions Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 40 | | 40 | | 40 | | 61/1 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN changed many times, particularly because of the changing municipality borders. Following Slo- venia’s accession to the European Union (EU) in 2004, Slovenia’s statistical regions became part of the European NUTS 3 level, i.e. part of the level for disseminating comparable regional data at the European level. Drobne and Bogataj (2011c, 2012a, 2012b) evaluated FRs at the level of statistical regions of Slovenia. In Slovenia several studies were conducted where the authors analysed functional connections between urban and other settlements, between the city and rural areas, and the hierarchy of these connections. For Slovenia, the ESPON 1.1.1 project (2004) first delineated six FUAs, two years later the project Planet Cense (ÖIR, 2006) identified ten FUAs. Project RePUS (Pichler Milanović et al., 2008) defined 42 areas of local employment systems and 17 areas of regional employment systems. Drobne et al. (2011) and Lisec et al. (2010) modelled FUAs and FURs around urban centres of national significance, as defined in the Spatial Development Strategy of Slovenia (SPRS, 2004). Different authors used studies on functional regions when putting forward proposals for shaping admin- istrative regions (provinces) in Slovenia. Pogačnik et al. (2008, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c) evaluated develop- ment potentials and possible scenarios of FR development in Slovenia. Pogačnik, Grad and Brezovnik (2009), Pogačnik et al. (2009d, 2009e) and Pogačnik, Zavodnik Lamovšek and Drobne (2009) used the FR concept when analysing and proposing the delimitation of Slovenia into provinces. Drobne (2016) evaluated FRs in a 12-year period and highlighted the characteristic levels of FRs. The FR concept was also used by different authors to study the possible service areas. Drobne and Bogataj (2013a, 2013b, 2014, 2015) analysed supply areas for servicing the elderly population. Konjar (2009), Drobne, Konjar and Lisec (2009), Bajt (2010), Konjar, Lisec and Drobne (2010), Drobne, Konjar and Lisec (2010), and Drobne and Konjar (2011) pointed out the discrepancy between functionally and administratively defined regions in the country. Using FRs, the authors also studied the changing of functional connections of labour commuting and migrations in Slovenia. Drobne and Lavrič (2012) and Drobne (2016) analysed the changes in FR com- muting in 2000–2011, Drobne, Senekovič and Lisec (2014) analysed FR internal migrations of Slovenia and their changing in the period 2000–2010. The Spatial Development Strategy of Slovenia from 2004 (SPRS, 2004) defined 15 urban centres of national significance (also regional centres) and schematically outlined “wider urban areas”. In the opin- ion of many authors in Slovenia, the simplest case is to talk about 15 FUAs composed of urban centres of national significance and their gravity areas; see e.g. Zavodnik Lamovšek (2005), Pichler Milanović et al. (2008), Drobne et al. (2010), Lisec, Drobne and Konjar (2010), Pichler Milanović, Drobne and Konjar (2013), Zavodnik Lamovšek and Drobne (2016, 2017). In the drawing up of the new Spatial Development Strategy of Slovenia (SPRS 2050) a special emphasis is placed on FUAs and their develop- ment. Zavodnik Lamovšek and Drobne (2016, 2017) recognise FUAs mostly as an instrument for urban policy implementation, as an analytical tool for monitoring the spatial situation, and as an instrument for implementing SPRS 2050. Table 1 provides literature examples by the most frequent areas of application of functional regions and functional areas. Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 41 | | 41 | | 41 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK | 61/1 | RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN Table 1: Literature review by fields of application of functional regions and areas Field of application Examples of reference literature local and regional labour market Brown and Holmes (1971), Smart (1974), Masser and Brown (1975, 1977), Masser and Schauerwater (1978, 1980), Ball (1980), Coombes and Openshaw (1982), Coombes, Green and Openshaw (1986), Green, Coombes and Owen (1986), Tolbert and Killian (1987), Coombes, Green and Owen (1988), Green and Owen (1990), ISTAT (1991, 2005a), Killian and Tolbert (1993), Coombes (1995), ONS and Coombes (1998), Casado- Díaz (2000, 2003), Coombes (2010), Newell and Papps (2001), Van der Lann and Schalke (2001), Papps and Newell (2002), Casado-Díaz and Taltavull de la Paz (2003), Feldman et al. (2006), Flórez-Revuelta, Casado- Díaz and Martínez-Bernabeu (2006, 2008), Karlsson and Olsson (2006), Coombes and Bond (2008), Meredith et al. (2007), Patuelli (2007), Prodromídis (2007), Feng (2009), Coombes (2010), Mitchell and Stimson (2010), Fusco and Caglioni (2011), Farmer (2011), Farmer and Fortheringham (2011), Persyn and Torfs (2011), Gruchociak (2012), Landré (2012), Martínez- Bernabeu, Flórez-Revuelta and Casado-Díaz (2012), Sforzi (2012), Fukumoto, Okamoto and Ujiie (2013), Klapka, Halás and Tonev (2013), Klapka et al. (2014), Landré and Håkansson (2013), Bianchi et al. (2015), Erlebach, Tomáš and Tonev (2016), Martínez-Bernabeu and Casado-Díaz (2016) For Slovenia: Konjar (2009), Drobne, Konjar and Lisec (2009, 2010), Drobne and Bogataj (2011c), Drobne and Konjar (2011) other socio-economic aspects (also to support economic development) Slater (1975, 1976a, 1976b, 1978, 1980, 1981), Green, Coombes and Owen (1986), Noronha and Goodchild (1992), Tomaney and Ward (2000), Baum, Mitchell and Han (2008), Karlsson (2007), Karlsson and Johansson (2004, 2008), ISTAT (2005b), Karlsson et al. (2007), Karlsson, Johansson and Stough (2008), Gleeson et al. (2010), Isaksen and Onsager (2010), Smith, Craig and Coombes (2011), Van Hamme and Grasland (2011a, 2011b), Freshwater, Simms and Ward (2013, 2014), Mitchell et al. (2013) For Slovenia: Bajt (2010), Drobne and Bogataj (2011c, 2012b), Drobne and Konjar (2011), Drobne (2016) functional urban regions and functional urban areas Shimizu (1975), Coombes et al. (1979), Casado-Díaz (2003), ESPON 1.1.1 (2004), ESPON 1.1.2 (2004), Van der Werf et al. (2005), Farsund, Knut and Lysgård (2006), Robson et al. (2006), ESPON 1.4.3 (2007), Benini et al., 2007, Davoudi (2008), Hołowiecka and Szymańska (2008), Hidle et al. (2009), Sýkora and Mulíček (2009), Dessemontet, Kaufmann and Jemelin (2010), Drobne et al. (2010), Halás et al. (2010), Reggiani et al. (2010, Kauffmann (2012), OECD (2013a, 2013b), Coombes (2014), da Silva, ESPON 2014; Garcia Manzato and Santos Pereira (2014), Kraft, Halás and Vančura (2014), Manley (2014) For Slovenia: Zavodnik Lamovšek (2005), Pichler Milanović et al. (2008), Konjar (2009), Drobne et al. (2010), Lisec, Drobne and Konjar (2010), Lisec et al. (2010), Pichler Milanović, Drobne and Konjar (2013), Zavodnik Lamovšek and Drobne (2016, 2017) service areas Fischer et al., (1993), Bullen, Moon and Jones (1996), Shortt et al. (2005), Cockings (2013) For Slovenia: Drobne and Bogataj (2013a, 2013b, 2014, 2015) administrative, planning, and statistical regions Illeris (1967), Hirst and Slater (1976), Slater (1976a, 1976b, 1976c), Lackó, Enyedi and Kőszegfalvi (1978), Hemmasi (1980), Van der Laan and Schalke (2001), Andersen (2002), Hensen and Cörvers (2003), Martin (2003), Schuler, Dessemontet and Joye (2005), Schuler et al. (2007), Mitchell, Bill and Watts (2007), Nel, Krygsmany and de Jong (2008), Krygsman, De Jong and Nel (2009), Cörvers, Hensen and Bongaerts (2009), Mitchell and Stimpson (2010), Mitchell and Watts (2010), Statistics Sweden (2010), Beyhan (2011), Killer and Axhusen (2011), Killer (2014), Koo (2010, 2012), Sforzi (2012), Landré and Håkansson (2013), Martin, Cockings and Harfoot (2013), Kim, Chun and Kim (2015), Klapka et al. (2016) For Slovenia: Drobne and Bogataj (2012a), Drobne et al. (2009b), Drobne and Lakner (2016a, 2016b, 2016c) Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 42 | | 42 | | 42 | | 61/1 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN Field of application Examples of reference literature statistical functional areas at micro level Coombes et al. (1982), Openshaw and Rao (1995), Openshaw and Alvanides (1996), Cockings and Martin (2005), Ralphs and Ang (2009), Cockings et al. (2011) local and regional housing market (also to support housing policy) Jones (2002), Goetgeluk (2006), Goetgeluk and de Jong (2007), Brown and Hincks (2008), Hincks and Wong (2010), Jones, Coombes and Wong (2010, 2012), Jones et al. (2012), Hincks (2012), Jaegal (2012, 2013) regional commodities market Brown and Pitfield (1990), Poon (1997), Kohl and Brouwer (2014) 3 ConCluSionS A literature review by application fields of functional regions and functional areas is provided in this paper. In the literature, functional regions are most often treated as areas of local and regional labour markets and as an analytical tool for creating administrative, planning, and statistical regions. Recently, FRs have been used to support housing policy and monitor economic development. Functional urban regions are a special type of functional regions that are delimited around urban centres. They have been implemented, in particular, as a mechanism for a homogeneous delimitation of a country’s territory. Functional urban areas are a broader term than functional urban regions. Functional urban regions are treated mostly in older literature, while recently the concept of functional urban areas has gained ground. In the United States and EU, urban centres with their catchment areas were recognised as the key generators of economic and social development and as important spatial structures for providing the necessary critical mass of population for development and monitoring of urban and rural relationships in space. Functional urban areas have been also recognised as a tool for monitoring the spatial situation and as an instrument for (urban) policy implementation in space. literature and references Abler, R., Adams, J. S., Gould, P . (1972). Spatial Organization: the Geographer’s View of the World. London, Prentice-Hall: 587 pp. Alvanides, S., Openshaw, S., Duke-Williams, O. (2000). Designing zoning systems for flow data. In: Atkinson, P . (Ed.), Martin, D. (Ed.): GIS and GeoComputation: Innovations in GIS 7. New York: Taylor and Francis Publishing, Inc.: 115–134. Andersen, A. K. (2002). Are commuting areas relevant for the delimitation of administrative regions in Denmark? 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Avebury, Gower Publishing Company Limited, Aldershot: 398 pp. Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 50 | | 50 | | 50 | | 61/1 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN Vrišer , I. (1974). Mesta in urbano omrežje v SR Sloveniji. Značilnosti njihovega razvoja in družbeno gospodarskega pomena s posebnim ozirom na mala mesta. Geografski zbornik 14, 3: 179–337. Vrišer, I. (1978). Regionalno planiranje. Zbirka tokovi. Ljubljana, Mladinska knjiga: 356 pp. Vrišer, I., Rebernik, D. (1993). Družbenogospodarska in dejavnostna usmeritev slovenskih mest. Geografski zbornik 33: 9–40. Zavodnik Lamovšek, A. (2005). Opredelitev tipov razvojnih regij (MEGA in FUA) za Slovenijo za potrebe preveritve rezultatov projekta ESPON 1.1.1. Izdelano v okviru projekta ESPON 1.1.3. 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DOI: 10.15292/geodetski- vestnik.2017.01.35-57 Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 51 | | 51 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK | 61/1 | RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN fUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE OSNOVNE INFORMACIJE O ČLANKU: GLEJ STRAN 35 1 FunKCionalne reGiJe in oBMoČJa Izraz regija izvira iz latinske besede regio in pomeni krajino, ozemlje, predel, območje oziroma del zemeljskega površja. Regija je omejen prostorski sistem in odraz organizacijske enotnosti, po kateri se loči od drugih regij (Abler, Adams in Gould, 1972; Gregory et al., 2009; Klapka, Halás in T onev, 2013; Klapka in Halás, 2016). Po Vrišerju (1978) je regija posebej opredeljeno in organizirano prostorsko območje zemeljske površine, ki ima vrsto posebnih potez; pojem regija pa uporabljamo tudi za poimenovanje posamezne administrativ- ne, ekonomske ali naravne prostorske enote, na kateri biva neka skupnost. Regija torej združuje posebne značilnosti, ki ji dajejo določeno mero povezanosti in razločljivosti ter jo ločijo od drugih regij (Haggett, 1971; Abler, Adams in Gould, 1972). Značilnosti regije so lahko fizične (na primer relief, podnebje, sestava tal) ali družbenogospodarske značilnosti prostora (na primer navezanost podeželja na mesto, zgodovinske politične in upravne tvorbe, gospodarska usmerjenost). Če regija združuje družbenogospodarske značilnosti prostora, ji lahko rečemo družbenogospodarska regija. Po Harveyju (2011) so družbenogospodarske regije institucionalne tvorbe, s katerimi olajšamo delovanje različnih tokov v prostoru in času. V prostorskih znanostih ločimo med formalnimi in funkcionalnimi družbenogospodarskimi regijami (Haggett, 1971; Abler, Adams in Gould, 1972; Claval, 1998). Formalna regija je območje posplošitve neke spremenljivke, zato je notranje homogena (Klapka, Halás in T onev, 2013). Formalno regionalizacijo izvajamo z združevanjem osnovnih prostorskih enot (OPE) na nižjih ravneh (na primer popisnih okolišev, statističnih okolišev, naselij, občin, poštnih okolišev), s čimer se zmanjša varianca med regijami (skupinami OPE) glede na eno ali več spremenljivk. V nasprotju s formalno je funkcionalna regija (FR) notranje heterogena, kar se odrazi v vzajemnem dopolnjevanju in odvisnosti notranjih OPE (ibid.). Po Ullmanu (1980) organizira- nost FR temelji na horizontalnih odnosih v prostoru v obliki prostorskih tokov in medsebojnih odnosov (interakcij) med deli (OPE) regije. Funkcionalna regionalizacija je torej postopek združevanja OPE v FR, s katerim se posplošijo obravnavani funkcionalni tokovi in odnosi v prostoru. FR zato razumemo tudi kot posplošene vzorce tokov in odnosov v prostoru. FR je torej sistem močno povezanih večjih in/ali manjših prostorskih enot. Pri FR ne obravnavamo posebej geografskih danosti in zgodovinskih povezav, temveč se usmerjamo predvsem na funkcionalno povezanost v prostoru (Vanhove in Klaassen, 1987). Klapka, Halás in T onev (2013) ter Klapka in Halás (2016) menijo, da so izraz »funkcionalna regija« uvedli v geografijo, s tem pa tudi v preostale prostorske znanosti, Philbrick (1957) ter Berry in Garrison (1958). Vzajemna dopolnjevanje in odvisnost v heterogenih FR ustvarjata različne vrste prostorskih interakcij, kot so tokovi prebivalstva (dnevna mobilnost v šolo in na delo, stalne selitve, nakupovanje in rekreacija), prometni tokovi in tokovi dobrin (prometni in potniški tokovi po kopnem, morju in zraku), finančni Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 52 | | 52 | | 61/1 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI| EN tokovi, informacijski tokovi (komunikacije in časopisna naklada), tokovi plina/vode/elektrike (priključki na storitve) ter podobno (Vanhove in Klaassen, 1987; Alvanides, Openshaw in Duke-Williams, 2000). V literaturi so funkcionalne regije in območja najpogosteje opredeljeni glede na gospodarske interakcije. Berry in Garrison (1958) opisujeta FR kot funkcionalno območje okoli močnega gospodarskega središča, ki privlači prebivalce iz bližnjega in daljnega zaledja. Središče FR razumeta kot središčni kraj iz Christallerjeve teorije središčnih krajev (Christaller, 1933), katerega velikost je odvisna od obsega dobrin in storitev, ki jih zagotavlja prebivalcem. Brown in Holmes (1971) opredeljujeta FR kot skupek funkcionalno dopolnjujočih se OPE, med katerimi je več gospodarskih interakcij kot med njimi in enotami zunaj regije. Vanhove in Klaassen (1987) opisujeta FR kot smiselno delujočo prostorsko celoto, sestavljeno iz gospodarsko in družbeno povezanih območij. V skupini povezanih območij nastajajo številne družbene in gospodarske interakcije, medsebojni vplivi tokov delovne mobilnosti, tokov blaga in storitev, komunikacijskih tokov, prometnih tokov, finančnih tokov ipd. Johansson (1998) ter Karlsson in Olsson (2006) opredeljujejo FR kot območje z visoko frekvenco notranjih regionalnih gospodarskih interakcij, kot so delovna mobilnost ter regionalna trgovina dobrin in storitev, ter kot območje strnjene dejavnosti in prometne infrastrukture, ki omogoča veliko mobilnost ljudi, proizvodov in informacij. Van der Laan in Schalke (2001) ter Farmer in Fotheringham (2011) razumejo FR kot prostorsko zvezno območje, na katerem se srečujeta skupna ponudba in povpraševanje po najrazličnejših družbenih in gospodarskih dobrinah. OECD (2002) pa opredeljuje FR kot ozemeljsko enoto, ki pomeni skupek družbenih in gospodarskih povezav, pri čemer ni nujno, da so meje FR skladne z geografskimi ali zgodovinskimi členitvami. Po OECD (ibid.) dobimo FR s členitvijo območja države na manjše dele, pri čemer temelji funkcionalna razmejitev najpogosteje na analizi trga dela oziroma območij, kjer se ponudba in povpraševanje po delovnih mestih dobro ujemata. Najpogosteje uporabljeni koncept FR, ki ga zasledimo v strokovni literaturi, je koncept lokalnih in regionalnih zaposlitvenih sistemov (angl. local and regional labour systems; OECD, 2002). 1 Po njem naj bi v FR povpraševanju po delu ustrezala sorazmerno enako velika ponudba delovnih mest in nasprotno (Karlsson in Olsson, 2006). Številni avtorji zato menijo, da je povezani trg dela, na katerem so delovna mobilnost, iskanje zaposlitve in povpraševanje po delu znotraj regije veliko intenzivnejši kot med regi- jami, najpomembnejša značilnost FR (na primer Smart, 1974; Coombes, Green in Openshaw, 1986; Van der Laan, 1991; Casado-Díaz, 2000; Andersen, 2002; Van der Laan in Schalke, 2001; OECD, 2002; Karlsson in Olsson, 2006; Cörvers, Hensen in Bongaerts, 2009; Casado-Díaz in Coombes, 2011; Farmer in Fotheringham, 2011). T o je tudi razlog, da od vseh mogočih tokov prebivalstva uporabljamo za zamejevanje FR ravno tokove delovne mobilnosti. Delovna mobilnost, še posebej dnevna delovna mobilnost, je najmnožičnejša in najstabilnejša redna oblika tokov prebivalstva v prostoru (Smart, 1974). Zato manjše spremembe na trgu dela ne vplivajo bistveno na vzorec dnevnih tokov na delo in domov (Coombes, Casado-Díaz in Martínez-Bernabeu, 2012). V literaturi sta se za poimenovanje FR na lokalni ravni, ki temeljijo na tokovih delovne mobilnosti, uveljavila predvsem dva izraza: območja lokalnih trgov dela (angl. local labour market areas, LLMAs) in območja voženj na delo oziroma območja delovne mobilnosti (angl. travel-to-work areas, TTWAs). Klapka et al. (2014) menijo, da gre za enaka koncepta, ki izhajata iz del Goodman (1970), Smart (1974), Coombes et al. (1979), Ball (1980), Coombes in Openshaw (1982). 1 Po konceptu zaposlitvenih sistemov naj bi Fr vsebovala eno ali več območij lokalnega trga dela (angl. local labour market area). o bmočja lokalnega trga dela se naprej sestavljajo v območja regionalnega trga dela (angl. regional labour market area). Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 53 | | 53 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK | 61/1 | RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN V literaturi zasledimo še koncepta funkcionalnih urbanih območij (FUO) in funkcionalnih urbanih regij (FUR). Oba sta se uveljavila v analizah razvoja urbanih središč, širjenja gospodarskih dejavnosti v prostoru, analizah družbenih neenakosti v prostoru in neenakosti na trgu dela, za proučevanje odnosov med mestom in podeželjem itd. (Drobne, Konjar in Lisec, 2011). FUO je funkcionalno povezano območje urbanega središča in njegovega zaledja. FUO določimo kot skupek OPE, iz katerih se dnev- no vozi na delo v središče določen odstotek delovno aktivnega prebivalstva (Coombes et al., 1979; ESPON 1.1.1, 2004; ESPON 1.1.2, 2004; Benini, Naldi in Region, 2007; Pichler Milanović et al., 2008; OECD, 2013a; ESPON, 2014; Eurostat, 2015). Po OECD (2013a, 2013b), ESPON (2014) in Eurostat (2015) FUO sestavljajo OPE, iz katerih se vozi na delo vsaj 15 % delovno aktivnega pre- bivalstva. FUO se lahko prekrivajo, hkrati pa ni nujno, da homogeno pokrijejo obravnavano ozemlje. FUR so manj prilagodljive tvorbe kot FUO: FUR se ne prekrivajo, hkrati pa morajo homogeno prekriti obravnavano ozemlje. Podobno kot FUO tudi FUR modeliramo okoli urbanih središč. T a lahko izbe- remo dogovorno ali pa na podlagi kvantitativnih meril (gostote poselitve, števila prebivalcev s stalnim prebivališčem na območju urbanega središča, deleža prebivalcev, ki prebivajo in delajo na območju urbanega središča, deleža prebivalcev urbanega središča, ki delajo v drugem urbanem središču istega FUO, itd.). Najpogosteje opredelimo središče FUO in FUR z območjem goste pozidave, ki je jedro urbanega območja (Antikainen, 2005). Koncept FUR se je najmočneje uveljavil v Franciji, Kanadi in Združenih državah Amerike (OECD, 2002). Tako v Severni Ameriki kot v večini evropskih držav in Sloveniji opredeljujemo FUO na podlagi števila prebivalcev, tokov delovne mobilnosti, števila po- tnikov v sistemu javnih prevoznih sredstev, števila študentov v visokošolskih središčih, števila podjetij v mestih, količine prevoženega blaga, števila prenočitvenih zmogljivosti, ustvarjene bruto dodane vrednosti in administrativne funkcije urbanega središča (Coombes et al., 1979; ESPON 1.1.1, 2004; ESPON 1.1.2, 2004; ÖIR, 2006; ESPON 1.4.3, 2007; Pichler Milanović et al., 2008; Drobne, Konjar in Lisec, 2010; Lisec et al., 2010; OECD, 2013a; Coombes, 2014; ESPON, 2014; Eurostat, 2015; Zavodnik Lamovšek in Drobne, 2016, 2017). Tako FUR in FUO kot FR lahko modeliramo na različnih hierarhičnih ravneh. 2 PreGled liTera Ture Po PodroČJiH uPoraBe V literaturi zasledimo različna področja obravnave funkcionalnih regij in območij: od analiz trga dela ter drugih družbenogospodarskih vidikov, analiz funkcionalnih urbanih območij/regij, analiz admini- strativnih, planskih in statističnih regij, analiz statističnih funkcionalnih območjih na mikro ravni (za statistično poročanje), analiz lokalnega in regionalnega stanovanjskega trga (za podporo stanovanjski politiki), analiz trga blaga, analiz funkcionalnih regij za podporo v transportni in prometni politiki, analiz za podporo informacijsko-komunikacijski tehnologiji in drugim storitvam v prostoru do splošnih pregledov obravnave funkcionalnih regij/območij. Leta 2002 je OECD objavila pregled obravnave in opredeljevanja FR, FUR in FUO v izbranih državah OECD (OECD, 2002). 2 V večini analiziranih držav članic OECD modelirajo FR po konceptu lokalnih zaposlitvenih sistemov, kar je razvidno tudi iz samega poimenovanja: v Avstriji, na Češkem, Finskem, v Nemčiji, na Portugalskem, Švedskem in v Švici takšne mikro regije imenujejo »območja/mikroregije lokalnih trgov dela«, v Italiji, na Madžarskem in Poljskem FR imenujejo »lokalni/regionalni zaposlitveni 2 Povzetek v slovenščini so pripravili Konjar (2009) ter Drobne, Konjar in Lisec (2011). Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 54 | | 54 | | 61/1 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI| EN sistemi«, na Danskem in v Veliki Britaniji jih obravnavajo kot »območja delovne mobilnosti«, na Norve- škem kot »ekonomske regije«, v Franciji obravnavajo »funkcionalna urbana in zaposlitvena območja«, v ZDA in Kanadi pa že tradicionalno zamejujejo »metropolitanska območja delovne mobilnosti« (OECD, 2002). V navedenih državah FR homogeno pokrijejo celotno ozemlje države – razen pri zamejitvi FUR oziroma FUO v Kanadi in Združenih državah Amerike. Večje države, kot so Kanada, Francija, Nemčija, Portugalska in ZDA, opredeljujejo FR na več ravneh. Večina držav zamejuje FR na podlagi osnovnih statističnih ali administrativnih enot, kjer se meje FR ujemajo z občinskimi mejami. Pomembna prednost takšnega pristopa k razmejevanju FR je možnost, da se pridobivajo statistični podatki in kazalniki FR, kar omogoča najrazličnejše prostorske analize (Drobne, Konjar in Lisec, 2011). V večini teh držav uporabljajo FR kot podlago za družbenogospodarske analize, strukturne raziskave lokalnih trgov dela in ocenjevanje regionalnih razlik. V Avstriji, na Danskem, v Kanadi in Švici so FR okvir za izvajanje politik trga delovne sile in prometa. Na Finskem, v Franciji, Italiji, Nemčiji in V eliki Britaniji so FR podlaga za opredeljevanje ogroženih regij. FR ne uporabljajo za izvajanje politik na Češkem, Portugalskem, Švedskem in v ZDA. Opredelitev in razmejitev FR je prepuščena državnim statističnim uradom in pristojnim ministrstvom, odgovornim za področja zaposlovanja, gospodarstva, prostorskega načrtovanja in regionalnega razvoja. V Avstriji, na Češkem, Danskem, Finskem, Madžarskem in v Kanadi nimajo posebnih finančnih virov za vzdrževanje podatkov o FR (OECD, 2002). Coombes, Casado-Díaz in Martínez-Bernabeu (2012) so v 27 državah EU izvedli primerjalno študijo v zvezi z obravnavo območij (lokalnih) trgov dela, tj. FR na mikro ravni. V devetih drža- vah (Belgija, Estonija, Finska, Francija, Italija, Nemčija, Nizozemska, Švedska in Velika Britanija) spremljajo območja trgov dela uradno z lastnimi ali prevzetimi analitičnimi postopki. V sedmih državah (Ciper, Češka, Danska, Grčija, Portugalska, Slovenija in Slovaška) izvajajo tovrstne analize na lokalni in regionalni ravni zgolj v raziskovalne namene. Deset držav (Avstrija, Bolgarija, Irska, Latvija, Litva, Luksemburg, Madžarska, Poljska, Romunija in Španija) je poročalo, da območij trgov dela ne obravnavajo niti ne izvajajo tovrstnih raziskav. Finska, Francija, Italija, Nemčija in Velika Britanija uporabljajo območja (lokalnih) trgov dela za izvajanje različnih politik (tudi za črpanje in razdeljevanje evropskih sredstev). Nemčija uporablja območja lokalnih trgov dela za spremljanje in izboljševanje regionalnih gospodarskih struktur, v Italiji spremljajo tako imenovana industrijska območja in njihov razvoj, Francija uporablja območja lokalnih trgov dela za prikazovanje različnih družbenogospodarskih statistik na različnih ravneh, V elika Britanija uporablja tovrstna uradna območja za spremljanje in usmerjanje gospodarskega razvoja ter za podporo stanovanjski politiki na lokalni in regionalni ravni, Finska pa nadzoruje in usmerja zamejevanje novih (in usklajevanje starih) občin s FR na lokalni ravni. Od držav, ki tovrstnih funkcionalnih območij na lokalni ravni ne spremljajo uradno, sta Češka in Estonija rezultate raziskav lokalnih trgov dela uporabili v postopkih lokalnega in regionalnega načrtovanja javnega prevoza (ibid.) Drobne, Konjar in Lisec (2011) ter Drobne (2016) menijo, da je v Sloveniji koncept FR izveden v statističnih regijah, ki se zaradi izkazovanja podatkov v časovnih serijah zelo redko spreminjajo. Prva členitev Slovenije na statistične regije je bila izvedena v sredini sedemdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja za potrebe regionalnega načrtovanja in medobčinskega sodelovanja na različnih področjih. Regionalizacija je bila izdelana na podlagi analize gravitacijskih območij delovne mobilnosti, voženj v šolo in na fakultete Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 55 | | 55 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK | 61/1 | RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN ter oskrbe prebivalstva v dvanajstih regionalnih in njim pripadajočih subregionalnih središčih (Vrišer, 1974, 1978; Rebec, 1983, 1984; Vrišer in Rebernik, 1993). Kasneje so se meje statističnih regij večkrat spremenile, predvsem zaradi sprememb meja občin. Z vstopom Slovenije v Evropsko unijo leta 2004 pa so postale statistične regije Slovenije del evropske ravni NUTS 3, tj. del ravni regij za izkazovanje evropsko primerljivih podatkov. Drobne in Bogataj (2011c, 2012a, 2012b) sta vrednotila FR na ravni statističnih regij Slovenije. V Sloveniji je bilo izvedenih več študij, v katerih so avtorji analizirali funkcionalne povezave med mestnimi in preostalimi naselji, med mestom in podeželjem, ter hierarhijo teh povezav. V projektu ESPON 1.1.1 (2004) je bilo za Slovenijo najprej opredeljenih šest FUO, dve leti kasneje pa je bilo v projektu Planet Cense (ÖIR, 2006) prepoznanih deset FUO Slovenije. V projektu RePUS (Pichler Milanović et al., 2008) je bilo opredeljenih 42 območij lokalnih zaposlitvenih sistemov in 17 območij regionalnih zaposlitvenih sistemov. Drobne et al. (2011) in Lisec et al. (2010) so modelirali FUO in FUR okrog urbanih središč nacionalnega pomena, opredeljenih v Strategiji prostorskega razvoja Slovenije (SPRS, 2004). Študije funkcionalnih regij in območij so avtorji uporabili tudi pri podajanju predlogov za oblikovanje administrativnih regij (pokrajin) v Sloveniji. Pogačnik et al. (2008, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c) so ovrednotili razvojne potenciale in možne scenarije razvoja FR v Sloveniji. Pogačnik, Grad in Brezovnik (2009), Po- gačnik et al. (2009d, 2009e) ter Pogačnik, Zavodnik Lamovšek in Drobne (2009) pa so uporabili koncept FR v analizi in predlogu členitve Slovenije na pokrajine. Drobne (2016) je vrednotil FR v dvanajstletnem obdobju in izpostavil značilne ravni FR. Koncept FR so avtorji uporabili tudi za študijo možnosti glede storitvenih območij. Drobne in Bogataj (2013a, 2013b, 2014, 2015) sta analizirala storitvena območja oskrbe starejšega prebivalstva. Konjar (2009), Drobne, Konjar in Lisec (2009), Bajt (2010), Konjar, Lisec in Drobne (2010), Drobne, Konjar in Lisec (2010) ter Drobne in Konjar (2011) so pokazali razhajanje med funkcionalno ter administrativno opredeljenimi regijami v državi. Na podlagi FR so avtorji študirali tudi spreminjanje funkcionalnih povezav delovne mobilnosti in selitev v slovenskem prostoru. Drobne in Lavrič (2012) ter Drobne (2016) so analizirali spremembe FR delovne mobilnosti v obdobju 2000–2011, Drobne, Senekovič in Lisec (2014) so analizirali FR notranjih selitev Slovenije ter njihovo spreminjanje v obdobju 2000–2010. S Strategijo prostorskega razvoja Slovenije iz leta 2004 (SPRS, 2004) je bilo opredeljenih petnajst ur- banih središč nacionalnega pomena (tudi regionalnih središč), shematsko so bila začrtana »širša mestna območja«. Zato je po mnenju številnih avtorjev v Sloveniji najenostavneje govoriti o petnajstih FUO, sestavljenih iz urbanih središč nacionalnega pomena ter njihovih gravitacijskih območij (glej na primer Zavodnik Lamovšek, 2005; Pichler Milanović et al., 2008; Drobne et al., 2010; Lisec, Drobne in Konjar, 2010; Pichler Milanović, Drobne in Konjar, 2013; Zavodnik Lamovšek in Drobne, 2016, 2017). Pri nastajanju Strategije prostorskega razvoja Slovenije 2050 (SPRS, 2050) je poseben poudarek ravno na FUO in njihovem razvoju. Zavodnik Lamovšek in Drobne (2016, 2017) prepoznavata FUO predvsem kot instrument za izvajanje urbane politike in kot analitično orodje za spremljanje stanja v prostoru ter instrument za izvajanje SPRS 2050. Preglednica 1 prikazuje primere literature po najpogostejših področjih obravnave funkcionalnih regij in funkcionalnih območij. Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 56 | | 56 | | 61/1 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI| EN Preglednica 1: Pregled literature po področjih uporabe funkcionalnih regij in območij Področje obravnave Primeri literature Lokalni in regionalni trg dela Brown in Holmes (1971), Smart (1974), Masser in Brown (1975, 1977), Masser in Schauerwater (1978, 1980), Ball (1980), Coombes in Openshaw (1982), Coombes, Green in Openshaw (1986), Green, Coombes in Owen (1986), Tolbert in Killian (1987), Coombes, Green in Owen (1988), Green in Owen (1990), ISTAT (1991, 2005a), Killian in Tolbert (1993), Coombes (1995), ONS in Coombes (1998), Casado- Díaz (2000, 2003), Coombes (2010), Newell in Papps (2001), Van der Lann in Schalke (2001), Papps in Newell (2002), Casado-Díaz in Taltavull de la Paz (2003), Feldman et al. (2006), Flórez-Revuelta, Casado-Díaz in Martínez-Bernabeu (2006, 2008), Karlsson in Olsson (2006), Coombes in Bond (2008), Meredith et al. (2007), Patuelli (2007), Prodromídis (2007), Feng (2009), Coombes (2010), Mitchell in Stimson (2010), Fusco in Caglioni (2011), Farmer (2011), Farmer in Fortheringham (2011), Persyn in Torfs (2011), Gruchociak (2012), Landré (2012), Martínez-Bernabeu, Flórez-Revuelta in Casado-Díaz (2012), Sforzi (2012), Fukumoto, Okamoto in Ujiie (2013), Klapka, Halás in Tonev (2013), Klapka et al. (2014), Landré in Håkansson (2013), Bianchi et al. (2015), Erlebach, Tomáš in Tonev (2016), Martínez-Bernabeu in Casado-Díaz (2016); za Slovenijo: Konjar (2009), Drobne, Konjar in Lisec (2009, 2010), Drobne in Bogataj (2011c), Drobne in Konjar (2011). Drugi družbenogospodarski vidiki (tudi za podporo gospodarskemu razvoju) Slater (1975, 1976a, 1976b, 1978, 1980, 1981), Green, Coombes in Owen (1986), Noronha in Goodchild (1992), Tomaney in Ward (2000), Baum, Mitchell in Han (2008), Karlsson (2007), Karlsson in Johansson (2004, 2008), ISTAT (2005b), Karlsson et al. (2007), Karlsson, Johansson in Stough (2008), Gleeson et al. (2010), Isaksen in Onsager (2010), Smith, Craig in Coombes (2011), Van Hamme in Grasland (2011a, 2011b), Freshwater, Simms in Ward (2013, 2014), Mitchell et al. (2013); za Slovenijo: Bajt (2010), Drobne in Bogataj (2011c, 2012b), Drobne in Konjar (2011), Drobne (2016). Funkcionalne urbane regije in funkcionalna urbana območja Shimizu (1975), Coombes et al. (1979), Casado-Díaz (2003), ESPON 1.1.1 (2004), ESPON 1.1.2 (2004), Van der Werf et al. (2005), Farsund, Knut in Lysgård (2006), Robson et al. (2006), ESPON 1.4.3 (2007), Benini et al., 2007, Davoudi (2008), Hołowiecka in Szymańska (2008), Hidle et al. (2009), Sýkora in Mulíček (2009), Dessemontet, Kaufmann in Jemelin (2010), Drobne et al. (2010), Halás et al. (2010), Reggiani et al. (2010, Kauffmann (2012), OECD (2013a, 2013b), Coombes (2014), da Silva, ESPON (2014), Garcia Manzato in Santos Pereira (2014), Kraft, Halás in Vančura (2014), Manley (2014); za Slovenijo: Zavodnik Lamovšek (2005), Pichler Milanović et al. (2008), Konjar (2009), Drobne et al. (2010), Lisec, Drobne in Konjar (2010), Lisec et al. (2010), Pichler Milanović, Drobne in Konjar (2013), Zavodnik Lamovšek in Drobne (2016, 2017). Storitvena območja Fischer et al. (1993), Bullen, Moon in Jones (1996), Shortt et al. (2005), Cockings (2013); za Slovenijo: Drobne in Bogataj (2013a, 2013b, 2014, 2015). Administrativne, planske in statistične regije Illeris (1967), Hirst in Slater (1976), Slater (1976a, 1976b, 1976c), Lackó, Enyedi in Kőszegfalvi (1978), Hemmasi (1980), Van der Laan in Schalke (2001), Andersen (2002), Hensen in Cörvers (2003), Martin (2003), Schuler, Dessemontet in Joye (2005), Schuler et al. (2007), Mitchell, Bill in Watts (2007), Nel, Krygsmany in de Jong (2008), Krygsman, De Jong in Nel (2009), Cörvers, Hensen in Bongaerts (2009), Mitchell in Stimpson (2010), Mitchell in Watts (2010), Statistics Sweden (2010), Beyhan (2011), Killer in Axhusen (2011), Killer (2014), Koo (2010, 2012), Sforzi (2012), Landré in Håkansson (2013), Martin, Cockings in Harfoot (2013), Kim, Chun in Kim (2015), Klapka et al. (2016); za Slovenijo: Drobne in Bogataj (2012a), Drobne et al. (2009b), Drobne in Lakner (2016a, 2016b, 2016c). Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 | | 57 | | 57 | GEODETSKI VESTNIK | 61/1 | RECENZIRANI ČLANKI | PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES SI | EN Področje obravnave Primeri literature Statistična funkcionalna območja na mikro ravni Coombes et al. (1982), Openshaw in Rao (1995), Openshaw in Alvanides (1996), Cockings in Martin (2005), Ralphs in Ang (2009), Cockings et al. (2011). Lokalni in regionalni stanovanjski trg (tudi za podporo stanovanjski politiki) Jones (2002), Goetgeluk (2006), Goetgeluk in de Jong (2007), Brown in Hincks (2008), Hincks in Wong (2010), Jones, Coombes in Wong (2010, 2012), Jones et al. (2012), Hincks (2012), Jaegal (2012, 2013). Regionalni trg blaga Brown in Pitfield (1990), Poon (1997), Kohl in Brouwer (2014). 3 SKleP V prispevku smo izvedli pregled literature o funkcionalnih regijah in območjih po področjih uporabe. V literaturi so funkcionalne regije najpogosteje obravnavane kot območja lokalnega in regionalnega trga dela ali kot analitično orodje za oblikovanje administrativnih, planskih in statističnih regij. V novejšem času zasledimo še uporabo funkcionalnih regij za podporo stanovanjski politiki in spremljanju gospodarskega razvoja. Funkcionalne urbane regije so posebna oblika funkcionalnih regij, ki jih zamejimo okoli urbanih središče. Uveljavile so se predvsem kot mehanizem homogene členitve ozemlja države. Funkcionalna urbana območja so širši pojem kot funkcionalne urbane regije. Medtem ko zasledimo obravnavo funkcionalnih urbanih regij predvsem v starejši literaturi, pa se v novejšem času uveljavlja koncept funkcionalnih urbanih območij. V ZDA in EU so bila urbana središča z zaledjem prepoznana kot ključni nosilci gospodarskega in družbenega razvoja ter kot pomembne prostorske strukture za zagotavljanje ustrezne kritične mase prebivalstva za razvoj in spremljanje urbano-ruralnih odnosov v prostoru. Funkcionalna urbana območja so bila prepoznana tudi kot orodje za spremljanje stanja in kot instrument za izvajanje (urbane) politike v prostoru. literatura in viri: Glej literaturo na strani 42. doc. dr. Samo Drobne, univ. dipl. inž. geod. Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za gradbeništvo in geodezijo Jamova cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija e-naslov: samo.drobne@fgg.uni-lj.si Drobne S. (2017). Funkcionalne regije in območja: pregled literature po področjih uporabe. Geodetski vestnik, 61 (1): 35-57. DOI: 10.15292/geodetski- vestnik.2017.01.35-57 Samo Drobne | FUNKCIONALNE REGIJE IN OBMOČJA: PREGLED LITERATURE PO PODROČJIH UPORABE | FUNCTIONAL REGIONS AND AREAS: LITERATURE REVIEW ACCORDING TO APPLICATION FIELDS | 35-57 |