Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 16 (2024) | 111–137 | CC BY SA 4.0
Dejan Gabrovšek (ORCID: 0000-0002-4995-1814)
ZRC SAZU, Inštitut za slovenski jezik Frana Ramovša, Slovenija
dejan.gabrovsek@zrc-sazu.si
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/16.1.05
Backwards anaphora and Backwards Ellipsis
in slovEnian Multi-clausE sEntEncEs
The article discusses backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis in Slovenian multi-clause
sentences. It demonstrates their characteristics on all types of Slovenian multi-clause
sentences that allow the two phenomena. It turns out that backwards anaphora and
backwards ellipsis are rare; backwards anaphora in the role of correlative is the most
frequent, and backwards anaphora in coordination is the rarest. I have found individual
instances of backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis even in relationships where
they were not envisaged in most studies to date. Backwards anaphora and backwards
ellipsis can also have a stylistic effect. It is also possible to have more than one back-
wards anaphora or backwards ellipsis in one sentence. A semi-backwards anaphora
and semi-backwards ellipsis are also shown as a special type of a backwards anaphora
and backwards ellipsis.
Keywords: syntax, sentence, cataphora, pronoun, correlative
Članek se ukvarja z vzvratno anaforo in vzvratno elipso v slovenski večstavčni povedi.
Njune značilnosti prikazuje pri vseh tipih slovenske večstavčne povedi, ki ju v sloven-
ščini omogočajo. Izkaže se, da sta vzvratna anafora in vzvratna elipsa redki: vzvratna
anafora je najpogostejša v vlogi odnosnice, najredkejša pa v priredjih. Posamezne
primere vzvratne anafore in vzvratne elipse smo našli tudi v razmerjih, pri katerih jih
večina dosedanjih raziskav ni predvidevala. Vzvratna anafora in vzvratna elipsa imata
lahko tudi stilistični učinek. V posameznih povedih je možna tudi več kot ena vzvratna
anafora ali vzvratna elipsa. Kot poseben tip vzvratne anafore in vzvratne elipse sta
obravnavni tudi polvzvratna anafora in polvzvratna elipsa.
Ključne besede: skladnja, poved, katafora, zaimek, odnosnica
112 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 16 (2024)
1 IntroductIon
The article explores backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis in the
Slovenian multi-clause sentences,1 which are rare options2 of text building
and are also limited as regards in which relationships they occur the most
frequently, in which more rarely, in which only sporadically and in which
at least one of the two is not possible, which does not apply to “ordinary”
anaphora and ellipsis. Thus, it is sensible to explore their characteristics
and the environments in which they occur separately. I have searched for
examples in the Gigafida 2.0 corpus of written standard Slovenian, using a
CQL3 tool allowing me to find a number of examples belonging to a given
type, which has made it easier to determine what backwards anaphora and
backwards ellipsis have in common.
The aim of this article is to present and study all the types of backwards anaphora
and backwards ellipsis that occur in Slovene multi-sentence sentences.
2 shared characterIstIcs
Backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis represent a text-building procedure
where a lexical element (especially a noun or verb) or antecedent4 is first
expressed with a pronoun (backwards anaphor), example (1) or left out
1 There are also a backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis within the clause:
Njeni ginekolog bo zvezdnicoi morda spravil v zapor.
her.nom.sg gynaecologist.nom.sg aux.fut star.acc.sg might put.lpt.m.sg in jail.acc.sg
‘Heri gynaecologist might put the stari in jail.’
Ljudje naj pred Øi in med vožnjoi ne uživajo alkohola.
people.nom.sg.pl should before and during driving.ins.sg not consume.ipfv.prs3pl alcohol.gen.sg
‘People should not consume alcohol before and during driving.’
Ellipsis of part of the words is also possible:
Na voljo so eno-, dvo- in tridnevne vozovnice.
on will.acc.sg aux one- two and three-day.nom.f.pl ticket.nom.pl
‘One-, two- and three-day tickets are available.’
2 It is not possible to determine the frequency ratio between anaphora and ellipsis and backwards anaphora
and backwards ellipsis, but a corpus search shows that it is significantly easier to find anaphora and ellipsis
than backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis. The literature review also shows that anaphora and ellipsis
are discussed more frequently than backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis.
3 Corpus Query Language.
4 In this case, the term is not particularly apt as the element in question follows the backwards anaphora,
but I still use it due to established practice.
Dejan Gabrovšek , Backwards Anaphora and Backwards Ellipsis in Slovenian Multi-Clause Sentences 113
(backwards ellipsis), example (2) and only then expressed with a lexical word
(Huddleston, Pullum 2002: 1455; Huang 2006: 231; Pavlič, Stepanov 2023:
294). The procedure with backwards ellipsis and backwards anaphora is thus
the same. Backwards anaphora is also called cataphora or anticipatory anaphora
(Huddleston, Pullum 2002: 1456). Backwards ellipsis is also termed cataphor-
ic ellipsis (Vičar 2011: 96), catalipsis or anticipatory ellipsis (Huddleston,
Pullum 2002: 1456). Anaphor is a pronoun in an anaphoric role.
(1)
Če jihi še ne jemljete, je sedaj pravi čas, da
if he.gen.pl yet not take.ipfv.prs.2pl aux now right.nom.m.sg time.nom.sg that
začnete jemati [nosečniške vitamine]i.
start.pfv.prs.2pl take.ipfv.inf pregnancy.acc.m.pl vitamin.acc.pl
‘If you aren’t taking them yet, now is the right time to start taking pregnancy
vitamins.’
(2)
Naloga ni Øi in ne bo lahkai.
task.nom.sg aux.neg and not aux.fut easy.nom.f.sg
‘The task is not and will not be easy.’
In the article, I take backwards anaphora to mean any type of anaphora in
which the pronoun refers to the following word or part of the text, even though
some other linguistic theories would explain some relationships differently.
The same applies to backwards ellipsis except that there is an empty space
instead of a pronoun.
Backwards ellipsis and backwards anaphora are rarer than anaphora and
ellipsis (Beaugrande, Dressler 1992: 50; Kazanina, Phillips 2010: 373; Trnavac,
Taboada 2016: 72), even barely detectable in some types of Slovenian mul-
ti-clause sentences, though the thesis that there is no backwards anaphora or
ellipsis in certain relationships, particularly coordination (Haspelmath 2004:
35), has not been confirmed, because I also found examples of backwards
anaphora and backwards ellipsis in the coordination (sectIons 3.5 and 4.3).
The presence or possibility of backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis are
signs of approaching the subordinate pole: the inability of backwards anaphora
and backwards ellipsis is one of the criteria for coordination (Gabrovšek 2021;
Gabrovšek 2023a: 78-79), so they should not appear in typical compound
114 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 16 (2024)
sentences,5 whereas subordination and relationships close to subordination
have no such limitations, or such limitations are not as strict. As is shown
further on, this is not quite true. The possibility of backwards anaphora and
ellipsis is conditioned upon a closer connection (i.e. closer to subordination
and they often appear in subordination and less common in other relation-
ships) between clauses, which is the prerequisite for backwards anaphora and
backwards ellipsis to be grammatical and understandable. This is also linked to
a more pronounced hierarchisation of clauses, which facilitates the formation
of more complex structures, which definitely include backwards anaphora and
backwards ellipsis (Ross 1967: 121).
In subordination, backwards anaphor and backwards ellipsis can be placed
in the dependent clause.6 In the correlative role (sectIons 3.1.1 and 4.2) they are
in the main clause and are very common in this position. Only sporadically
can the backwards anaphor which is not in the correlative role be placed in the
main clause (sectIon 3.1). This means that backwards anaphor and backwards
ellipsis can occur in a hierarchically lower clause when backwards anaphor
and backwards ellipsis are not in the role of correlative, and in a hierarchically
higher clause when they are in the role of the correlative.
In hierarchically equal clauses (i.e. in coordination), backwards anaphora
and backwards ellipsis are limited to sporadic instances. This shows that there
are structural differences between subordinate and coordinate relationships
but that these boundaries are not clear-cut and that it is impossible to define
subordination or coordination only based on individual criteria. The presence
of backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis in some coordinated sentences
shows that even in these relationships, the clauses are not completely symmet-
rical; instead, there is at least a slight hierarchy between them, which allows
presence of backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis.
In principle, most cases of backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis can
be altered to create “regular” anaphora and ellipsis, often simply by switching
the order of clauses, but the reverse is not always possible: this, too, shows that
anaphora and ellipsis are prototypical, while backwards anaphora and ellipsis
5 This is an old thesis disproved as early as the 1980s (Mittwoch 1983). It would be better to say that there is no
backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis in the vast majority of coordination types; this thesis is also supported
by the fact that I have only found rare examples of backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis in coordination.
6 Because not all clauses in which backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis occur are called a dependent
clause sentence, a clause introduced by a conjunction is called a conjunctive clause.
Dejan Gabrovšek , Backwards Anaphora and Backwards Ellipsis in Slovenian Multi-Clause Sentences 115
are exceptions. This also points to at least some stylistic effect in all instances
of backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis. The only type where only
backwards anaphora is possible is added proposition (sectIon 3.3) – reversing
the order of sentences is impossible there.
Anaphora is the process of abstracting an antecedent, which is referenced
with a pronoun instead of a lexical word, and the bond between them is kept
mainly through proximity as they are normally located in the same sentence
or adjacent sentences. Ellipsis is the next step in abstraction as the antecedent
is expressed as a gap. This also applies to backwards anaphora and backwards
ellipsis, which proves why they are rarer: it is easier to create a text going
from the concrete towards abstraction (lexical word7 ➝ pronoun (anaphor) ➝
Ø) than vice versa. In backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis, a text is
created thus: Ø/pronoun (backwards anaphor) ➝ lexical word.
The condition for backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis is that at least
one of the words is repeated in both clauses of a sentence. As anaphora and
ellipsis are text-building processes, it is possible for the reference to stretch
across multiple sentences.
Instances of backwards anaphor are coindexed with i, the position of
backwards ellipsis is coindexed with the Øi symbol, and the antecedent of
backwards anaphor or backwards ellipsis is coindexed with i. The second and
third instances of backwards anaphora and backwards ellipsis in the same
example are coindexed with j and k.
3 bacKwards anaphora
This section discusses backwards anaphora. Backwards anaphora appears in a
number of multi-clause relationships but is the most common in subordination.
An anaphor is often located in the first clause of a sentence but relates to the
previous sentence; such cases should not be considered backwards anaphora.
To qualify as a backwards anaphora, it must refer only to a constituent in the
following clause or the whole following clause. Sporadically, a backwards
anaphor and its antecedent can be more than one clause apart. Considering the
above, a backwards anaphor introduces new information, i.e. a new argument
that has not yet been mentioned in the text.
7 I consider lexical words to include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
116 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 16 (2024)
As a rule, and this is especially apparent in the correlative role (sectIon 3.1.1)
and in added proposition (sectIon 3.3), a backwards anaphor announces content
with a pronoun:8 this content is thus as yet undetermined, unknown, and only
made concrete by the following clause.
3.1 bacKwards anaphora In the maIn clause
Backwards anaphora in the main clause occurs only sporadically, and some
discussions consider it impossible. We have found only one such example.
Backwards anaphora as a correlative, on the other hand, is much more common
(sectIon 3.1.1), although it also occurs in the main clause.
(3)
Pri njenii zdravnici sem izvedela, da je hčerkai
at her.loc.sg doctor.loc.sg aux.pst find out.lpt.f.sg that aux.pst daughter.nom.sg
bolezen dobila z okužbo.
disease.acc.sg get.lpt.f.sg with infection.ins.sg
‘I found out from her doctor that my daughter had contracted the disease
through an infection.’
3.1.1 bacKwards anaphora as correlatIve
A dependent clause is introduced by a pronominal correlative, which is located
in the main clause, reveals the function of the dependent clause and acts as a
bridge between the main and dependent clauses (Ross 1967: 120; Petr 1986:
531; Žele 2016; 2017; Gabrovšek, Žele 2019; Gabrovšek 2023a: 61; 2023b).
A correlative is typically located before the dependent clause, so it functions
as a backwards anaphor (Jelovšek 2024: 228).9 It can also be left out; in which
case it also functions as a backwards ellipsis (sectIon 4.2). A correlative in the
backwards anaphora role is prototypical (examples (4-6)).10 A correlative
announces the content, but the pronoun has too wide a meaning, so the dependent
clause makes it more concrete (Halliday, Hasan 1976: 56). The same applies to
8 This sentence also contains a backwards anaphor.
9 Backwards anaphora can also be found in 16th century Slovenian texts (Jelovšek 2011: 421; 2024: 138, 143).
10 A correlative in the role of an anaphor is rarer:
[Če vam je to všeč]i, potemi uživajte.
if you.dat.pl aux this.nom.n.sg like.adv then.adv enjoy.ipfv.imp.2pl
‘If you like this, then enjoy.’
Dejan Gabrovšek , Backwards Anaphora and Backwards Ellipsis in Slovenian Multi-Clause Sentences 117
a dependent clause preceding or inserted in the main clause. The position of the
main clause thus has no (major) role in the placement of the correlative; there
is a strong tendency to place it before the conjunction, i.e. before the dependent
clause. A backwards anaphor refers to the whole dependent clause. The function
of a correlative as a backwards anaphor is important because this is the only
position where backwards anaphora is common and prototypical. In all other
positions, backwards anaphora is an exception. A correlative plays the role of
backwards anaphor anytime a dependent clause is located after or nested in the
main clause, and often also where a dependent clause precedes the main clause.
(4)
Včasih naredim kaji, [kar ga malo razjezi]i.
sometimes do.pfv.prs.3sg what.acc.sg which.nom.sg.n.rel he.acc.sg little make angry.pfv.prs.3sg
‘Sometimes I do something that makes him a little angry.’
(5)
Najlepše je tui, [kjer živim]i.
beautiful.adv.sup aux here where.adv.rel live.ipfv.prs.1sg
‘The most beautiful place is where I live.’
Backwards anaphora is mandatory in attributive clauses (Petr 1986: 524).
However, the pronoun ta ‘this’ or tisti ‘that’ which stands at the beginning of
a noun phrase is usually omitted. Such cases belong to the type 4.2 Backwards
ellipsis as correlative.
(6)
Tistii ljudje, [ki so uspešni v svojem
that.nom.m.pl people.nom.pl which aux successful.nom.m.pl in your.adj.refl.loc
poklicu]i, so pogosto pod pritiskom.11
profession.loc.sg aux often under pressure.ins.sg
‘People who excel in their profession are often under pressure.’
3.2 bacKwards anaphora In dependent clause
Backwards anaphora is possible in referring to any sentence element. Among
all dependent clauses, backwards anaphora in conditional clauses stands out
11 [lemma="ta|isti|tisti"][tag="So.*"][word=","][word="ki|da"]
118 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 16 (2024)
prominently as such clauses cover most of the examples found. Backwards
anaphora in concessive clauses is also fairly common, whereas it is barely
detectable in other dependent clauses. The dependent clause must always
precede the main clause. Theoretically, it can be nested, though I have not
found any such example. This makes backwards anaphora in a dependent
clause significantly different from backwards anaphora as a correlative as the
latter is not as bound to the placement of the dependent clause in the sentence.
(7)
Če jihi še ne jemljete, je sedaj pravi čas, da
if he.gen.pl yet not take.ipfv.prs.2pl aux now right.nom.m.sg time.nom.sg that
začnete jemati [nosečniške vitamine]i.
start.pfv.prs.2pl take.ipfv.inf pregnancy.acc.m.pl vitamin.acc.pl
‘If you aren’t taking them yet, now is the right time to start taking pregnancy vitamins.’
(8)
Ker gai predsednik ni želel uporabljati,
because he.acc.sg president.nom.sg aux.pst.neg want.lpt.m.sg use.ipfv.inf
so Mehičani prodali letaloi.
aux.pst Mexican.nom.pl sell.lpt.m.pl plane.acc.sg
‘Because the president refused to use it, the Mexicans have sold their jet.’
3.2.1 bacKwards anaphora In dIrect speech
As with other dependent clauses, the antecedent here is expressed in the non-in-
itial clause, and the backwards anaphora is part of the literal quote.
(9)
Žalosti mei, pravi strokovnjakinjai, da ljudje
make sad.ipfv.prs.3sg I.acc.sg say.ipfv.prs.3sg expert.nom.f.sg that people.nom.pl
tako malo hodijo peš.
that.adv little.adv walk.ipfv.prs.3pl on foot.adv
‘It makes me sad, says the expert, that people walk so rarely.’
3.2.2 bacKwards anaphora refers to the whole clause
The demonstrative pronoun to ‘this’ in the neuter gender and singular refers to
the whole clause (Huddleston, Pullum 2002: 1458). This function of the neuter
singular to is very common in the role of anaphora and backwards anaphora.
Dejan Gabrovšek , Backwards Anaphora and Backwards Ellipsis in Slovenian Multi-Clause Sentences 119
(10)
Če bodo razmere toi dopuščale,
if aux.fut situation.nom.pl this.acc.n.sg allow.lpt.f.pl
[bom dal več priložnosti mlajšim]i.
aux.fut give.lpt.m.sg more opportunity.gen.pl young.dat.pl.cmpr
‘If the situation allows it, I’ll give more opportunities to younger players.’
3.2.3 bacKwards anaphora Is an adjectIval pronoun
The backwards anaphora is an adjectival pronoun that is part of a noun phrase.
The fact that the backwards anaphora and antecedent are different parts of
speech does not decrease the understandability of the reference.
(11)
Kljub neprijetnim značajskim lastnostim, kjer
despite disagreeable.dat.pl character.dat.pl trait.dat.pl where
vsekakor vodi njegovai pretirana samovšečnost,
definitely lead.ipfv.prs.3sg his.nom.f.sg excessive.nom.f.sg self-importance.nom.sg
direktorjui priznavajo izjemne menedžerske sposobnosti.
director.dat.sg recognize.ipfv.prs.3pl outstanding.acc.f.pl managerial.acc.f.pl skill.acc.pl
‘Despite disagreeable character traits, especially his excessive self-importance,
the director is hailed for his outstanding managerial skills.’
3.2.4 bacKwards anaphora Is an adverbIal pronoun
The adverbial pronoun tako ‘so’ refers to an adverb, example (12), or a whole
clause, example (13).
(12)
Čeprav se ne zdi takoi, je [jasno]i,
though refl.acc not seem.ipfv.prs.3sg so aux clear.adv
da brez avta ne moreš nikamor.12
that without car.gen.sg not can.ipfv.prs.2sg nowhere
‘Though it may not seem so, it’s clear that you can’t get anywhere without a car.’
12 [word="čeprav|četudi"] []{0,3}[lemma="zdeti"][]{0,3} [word="tako"] [word=","] []{0,4} [tag="R.*"]
120 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 16 (2024)
(13)
Četudi se sprva ni zdelo takoi, [so se
though refl.acc at first aux.pst.neg seem.lpt.n.sg so aux.pst refl.acc
ljudje izvrstno zabavali]i.
people.nom.pl excellently fun.lpt.m.pl
‘Though it didn’t seem so at first, people had great fun.’
3.3 bacKwards anaphora In added proposItIon
Added propositions are two-clause sentences punctuated with a colon or
semicolon (Petr 1987: 535; Žele 2013: 21). The second clause usually refers
to the last sentence element of the first clause. As a rule, a colon can be
replaced by the conjunction in sicer ‘namely, that is’, though this conversion
at least partly alters the meaning, as any conversion does. Direct speech is not
part of this type. The second clause can concretise or explain the first one or
list options according to the first clause (Petr 1987: 535; Belaj, Tanacković
Faletar 2020: 403-404). In this type, the backwards anaphora has a strong
linking role as the pronoun functioning as the backwards anaphora is the only
word joining the two clauses to form a sentence – no conjunction is possible
in this type. Backwards anaphora is mandatory in this type; reversing the
order of the clauses would be ungrammatical or at least unusual (Huddleston,
Pullum 2002: 1456).
(14)
Navijači so doživeli marsikaji: [od
fan.nom.m.pl aux.pst experience.lpt.m.pl many things.acc.pl from
proslavljanja napredovanja, napetosti zaradi preiskave
celebrating.gen.sg promotion.gen.sg tension.gen.sg because investigation.gen.sg
in zdaj še veliko razočaranje]i.13
and now yet big.acc.n.sg disappointment.acc.sg
‘The fans have experienced many a thing: celebrating the promotion, tensions
due to the investigation and now great disappointment.’
(15)
Prava težava je [nekje drugje]i: [zahteve je
real.nom.f.sg problem.nom.sg aux somewhere else demand.acc.pl aux
13 [tag="Z.*"] [word="\:"]
Dejan Gabrovšek , Backwards Anaphora and Backwards Ellipsis in Slovenian Multi-Clause Sentences 121
treba podpreti s prepričljivimi dokazi]i.
necessary support.pfv.inf with convincing.ins.m.pl evidence.ins.pl
‘The real problem lies elsewhere: demands need to be supported with real and
convincing evidence.’
3.4 bacKwards anaphora In parenthesIs
Backwards anaphora is possible, though rare, in parentheses (Vičar 2011). Very
often, backwards anaphora in parentheses behaves similarly in supplementary
clauses (sectIon 5.1), the only difference being that the role of backwards anaphora
is played by the conjunction and pronoun kar in supplementary clauses and by
the pronoun to here, with in ‘and’ playing the role of conjunction. This separation
of functions to two words also proves that kar intertwines both functions. It is
characteristic of parenthesis to disrupt the flow of speech: information is not
passed on linearly, unlike in typical coordination (where backwards anaphora
is almost non-existent for exactly this reason); instead the order is altered as
the parenthesis is inserted within a clause, turning an “ordinary” anaphora in a
compound sentence (example (16a)) into a backwards anaphora (example (16)).
Backwards anaphora mainly plays the role of additionally highlighting the content
to follow; it is an announcement. The same applies to supplementary clauses.14
In this type, backwards anaphora has a strong linking, i.e. conjunctive role.
(16)
Naposled, in [to]i je pomembna novost, [je
in the end and this.nom.n.sg aux important.nom.f.sg innovation.nom.sg aux.pst
nastal tretji red – tisti, ki dela]i.
arise.lpt.m.sg third.nom.sg order.nom.sg that.nom.m.sg which work.ipfv.prs.3sg
‘In the end, as an important innovation, a third order arose – the working order.’
(16a)
Naposled, je [nastal tretji red – tisti, ki
in the end aux.pst arise.lpt.m.sg third.nom.sg order.nom.sg that.nom.m.sg which
dela]i, in toi je pomembna novost.
work.ipfv.prs.3sg and this.nom.n.sg aux important.nom.f.sg innovation.nom.sg
‘In the end, a third order arose – the working order, which is an important innovation.’
14 A parenthesis with a backwards anaphor can be converted into a supplementary clause and vice versa,
which shows how similar these relationships are.
122 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 16 (2024)
3.5 bacKwards anaphora In coordInatIon
In coordination, backwards anaphora is possible only in highly specific, often
also stylistically marked examples: as a rule, arguments are first expressed
with a lexical word before they can be left out (ellipsis) or expressed with a
pronoun (anaphor) (Quirk 1985: 922; Orešnik 1992: 73; Haspelmath 2004:
35; Gabrovšek 2024: 78).15 Haspelmath provides the following example to
demonstrate the ungrammaticality of backwards anaphora: *Hisi wife worked/
working at the mountain, (and) the old mani tended the store (Haspelmath
2004: 35).
An analysis of the materials has shown that very rarely, backwards anaphora
does appear in coordination, usually for stylistic effect. Notably, I have not
found backwards anaphora in copulative coordination, which is the most
typical coordinate relationship, but I have found it in adversative coordina-
tion (Mittwoch 1983: 130-131) and in causal coordination. The most typical
example of backwards anaphora in coordination is the construction tega ne
vedeti, ampak ‘not know this but’, example (20).16 In this type, the first clause
announces new information, which is typically unusual, unexpected. This shows
that backwards anaphora is often subject to structural limitations: a number
of specific conditions (like pronoun ta ‘this’, verb vedeti ‘know’, conjunction
ampak ‘but’) must be met for it to appear, otherwise it is not possible.
It is worth noting that examples of backwards anaphora in coordination
are so rare that sporadic examples are only found in big corpora, which
contain more texts and thus have a higher chance of (very) rare structures
appearing. My analysis shows that backwards anaphora is indeed absent from
at least the most prototypical types of coordination, especially copulative
coordination and disjunction. Adversativeness allows sporadic instances,
probably in part because the clauses have antithetical content, and backwards
anaphora further emphasises this opposition. As backwards anaphora appears
in coordination only sporadically, I can confirm the thesis that in principle,
backwards anaphora is not possible in coordination, but this is not an absolute
rule. Example (19) is interesting because the antecedent is expressed only
15 The first clause of a compound sentence can include anaphoric pronouns, but as a rule, they relate to
the previous sentence.
16 Similar example is in sectIon 4.3.4 Announcing unexpected information.
Dejan Gabrovšek , Backwards Anaphora and Backwards Ellipsis in Slovenian Multi-Clause Sentences 123
in the dependent clause following the main clause – this also proves that a
dependent clause is part of its main clause as well as shows that backwards
anaphora and its antecedent can be located more than one clause apart without
this affecting the understandability of the sentence. Due to rarity, I cite more
examples than with other types.
(17)
Morski pes se je večkrat zagnal vanjoi, a
sea.nom.m.sg dog.nom.sg refl.acc aux.pst repeatedly chase.lpt.m.sg in she.acc.sg but
najstnicii je uspelo pobegniti.
teenager.dat.f.sg aux.pst manage.lpt.n.sg escape.pfv.inf
‘The shark snapped at her several times, but the teenager managed to escape.’
(18)
Dali so jimai dva odstotka možnosti,
give.lpt.m.pl aux.pst she.dat.du two.acc.m.du percent.acc.du chance.gen.sg
da preživita, a [čudežni deklici]i bosta
that survive.pfv.prs.2du but miracle.nom.f.du girl.nom.du aux.fut
kmalu praznovali sedmi rojstni dan.
soon celebrate.lpt.f.du seventh.acc.m.sg birth.acc.m.sg day.acc.sg
‘They gave them a two-percent chance of survival, but the miracle girls will
soon celebrate their seventh birthday.’
(19)
V celico mui prinesejo šest istih obrokov,
in cell.acc.sg he.dat.sg bring.pfv.prs.3pl six.acc same.gen.pl meal.gen.pl
paznik pa izbere, katerega bo zaporniki pojedel.
guard.nom.sg and select.pfv.prs.3sg which.rel.acc.m.sg aux.fut prisoner.nom.sg eat.lpt.m.sg
‘They bring him six same meals to his cell, and the guard selects which one
the prisoner is to eat.’
(20)
Morda tegai še ne veste, a [sem hitre jeze]i.
perhaps this.gen.n.sg yet not know.ipfv.prs.2pl but aux quick.gen.f.sg anger.gen.sg
‘Perhaps you don’t know this yet, but I’m quick to anger.’
In sporadic examples, which have a significant semantic overlap with added
proposition (sectIon 3.3), the second clause defines the pronoun located in the
first clause in more detail.
124 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 16 (2024)
(21)
V zadnjih letih je avtobusna postaja
in recent.loc.n.pl year.loc.pl aux.pst bus.nom.f.sg station.nom.sg
začela sloveti še po nečemi, in
start.lpt.f.sg be famous.ipfv.inf yet after something.loc.sg and
sicer po kriminalui.17
otherwise after crime.loc.sg
‘In recent years, the bus station has acquired a reputation of something else,
namely crime.’
3.6 bacKwards anaphora In juxtaposItIon
Backwards anaphora is possible if there is a non-initial vocative in the sentence and
a pronoun in the first clause refers to it. All examples have been found in dialogue –
this is the typical environment for vocative use. This type is very close to exophora.
(22)
Strinjam se z vamii, Anai.18
agree.ipfv.prs.1sg refl.acc with you.ins.pl Ana.nom.sg
‘I agree with you, Ana.’
3.7 bacKwards anaphora referrIng to the whole text
Particularly to attract interest in reading a whole newspaper or online article,
the title only indicates the news content with a backwards anaphora that refers
to the content of the whole article. This is an example of backwards anaphora
reaching beyond the sentence in which it is located; the pronoun to ‘this’ can
summarise the entire text that follows.19 This is also the only type of backwards
anaphora systemically reaching beyond the limits of a sentence, though such
cases are most likely possible in other types as well.
(23)
Toi po drami in pritiskih počne novinarka.
this.acc.n after drama.loc.sg and pressure.loc.pl do.ipfv.prs.3sg journalist.nom.sg
17 [tag="Zn.*"] [word=","] [word="in|to"] [word="sicer|je"] within