334
Documenta Praehistorica LI (2024)
DOI: 10.4312/dp.51.18
KLJUÈNE BESEDE – Slovenija; poznoneolitska naselbina; savska skupina lengyelske kulture; radiokar-
bonsko datiranje; analiza keramike; arheobotanika; arheozoologija
IZVLEÈEK – V prispevku so predstavljeni in obravnavani radiokarbonski datumi, analiza keramiènih 
najdb, živalskih kosti, plodov/semen in lesa (oglja) iz naselbinskih struktur savske skupine lengyelske 
kulture na najdišèu Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce v osrednji Sloveniji. Namen študije je umestiti material no 
kulturo v njen regionalni in nadregionalni kontekst, da bi izboljšali naše poznavanje poznoneolits kih 
naselbinskih struktur, kronologije, keramiènega stila in strategij preživljanja na naselbinah na ob­
moèju celotne razprostranjenosti savske skupine. Gre za prvo sintezo arheobotaniènih in arheozoo loš-
kih podatkov z najdišè iz 5. tisoèletja pr. n. št. v Sloveniji, v katero je vkljuèeno vrednotenje in primer java
rastlinskih makroostankov in živalskih kosti, ter prvo sintezo podatkov o tehnoloških in tipoloških vid-
ikih poznoneolitskega lonèarstva na naselbinah, ki so bili pridobljeni z uporabo enakega analitiènega 
pristopa. Izpostavljene so negotovosti glede kronologije razliènih variacij keramiènega stila in glede 
strategij preživljanja.
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce in nov vpogled v poselitev, kronologijo, keramični stil
ter strategije preživljanja v času poznoneolitske savske skupine v Sloveniji
KEY WORDS – Slovenia; Late Neolithic settlement; Sava group of the Lengyel Culture; radiocarbon dat-
ing; pottery analysis; archaeobotany; archaeozoology
ABSTRACT - Radiocarbon dates, analysis of ceramic finds, animal bones, fruits/seeds and wood (char-
coal) from settlement features of the Sava group of the Lengyel Culture at the site of Dolsko – Spodnje 
Škov ce in central Slovenia are presented and discussed in this paper. The aim of the study was to place 
the excavated material culture in its regional and supra-regional context in order to improve the under-
standing of Late Neolithic settlement features, chronology, pottery style(s) and subsistence strategies in 
settlements throughout the area of distribution of the Sava group. This is the first synthesis of archaeo-
botanical and archaeozoological data from the 5th millennium cal BC sites in Slovenia, including the 
evaluation and comparison of plant macro-remains and animal bones, and the first synthesis of data 
on technological and typological aspects of pottery production in the settlements obtained using the 
same analytical approach. Uncertainties regarding the chronology of different variations of a pottery 
style and subsistence strategies are emphasized.
Bine Kramberger 1,2, Borut Toškan 2, and Tjaša Tolar 2
1 Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia (ZVKDS), Centre for Preventive Archaeology (CPA), Ljubljana, SI; 
bine.kramberger@zvkds.si
2 Institute of Archaeology, ZRC SAZU, Ljubljana, SI
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight
into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s),
and subsistence strategies of the Late Neolithic
Sava group in Slovenia
335
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
Introduction 
The Late Neolithic in the south-eastern Alpine region 
has many similarities with the contemporaneous set -
tlement in the Pannonian Basin, but the sub si stence 
strategies, ceramic style(s), households and chro nolo -
gy are comparatively poorly known. This study brings
new analyses of ceramic finds, animal bones and plant
remains, as well as six radiocarbon dates from two pits
of the Sava group of the Lengyel Culture at the site of
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce in cen tral Slovenia. The sam -
ples of cattle teeth and charcoal are dated and pro vide 
a basis for discussing the un covered material cul ture
in the context of regional and supra-regional develop-
ment. The possible use of large, irregularly shaped pits
is discussed on the ba sis of the excavation results, the
distribution and composition of the finds, and com pa-
ri sons with con temporaneous and culturally related 
settlements. The technological and typological aspects 
of ceramic production were compared with those re-
ported pre vious studies and the results evaluated. We 
also eva luated new radiocarbon measurements in the 
context of 5th millennium cal BC ceramic sequences in
central Slovenia, while archaeozoological and archaeo -
botanical analyses were used to discuss sub sis tence stra-
tegies and environmental conditions in settle ments 
located in different micro-regions.
Late Neolithic in the south-eastern Alpine re gion
The material cultures of the south-eastern Alpine Late 
Neolithic and the Early Copper Age have long been re -
garded as a single chronological phase, probably be -
cause the Late Neolithic pottery here has many si mila-
ri ties with the later Lasinja Culture pottery, and be-
cause finds from both periods have often been found 
mixed together (e.g., Korošec 1956; 1960; 1964; 1965; 
1975; Pahiè 1976). The fact that the oldest settlement 
dates to the first half of the 5th millennium BC was fi-
nally recognized in the 1980s with the research car ried 
out at Moverna vas (e.g., Budja 1992; 1994; 1995) and
at Gradec near Mirna (Dular et al. 1991.84–90; 2001).
At both sites, several Neolithic and Copper Age occu pa -
tion layers were uncovered in a vertically stratified po -
sition. The earliest settlement was dated to the Late 
Neolithic, associated with the Lengyel Culture and the
following to the Early Eneolithic/Copper Age and as -
sociated with the Lasinja Culture. Both sites were ex-
cavated during research projects, the results of which 
clearly showed that lowland river terraces and the hills
were settled, with at least some of the hilltops sur-
round ed by stone walls.
In 2002, on the occasion of the newly discovered set-
tlements Èatež – Sredno polje and Dragomelj, the Sa -
va group of the Lengyel Culture was introduced as “a
cultural phenomenon that was spread in the Sava 
River basin between Kranj (NW Slovenia) and Kar­
lovac (NE Croatia)” (Guštin 2002; 2005; Gu štin, Be-
kiæ 2002). All Late Neolithic sites in the south-eastern 
Alpine region around the river Sava were included in 
the newly established group, but not the settlements 
in NE Slovenia and the Bela krajina region (Fig. 1). It 
was argued that the pottery at the Sava group sites was 
mostly made of medium-grained fabrics, rarely coated 
with coloured clay slip, and most often decorated with
impressions, the rest with appliqués and incised de co-
ration (Guštin 2005.9–12). In contrast, it was em pha -
sized that the pottery from NE Slovenia is mostly de-
corated with appliqués, and the pottery from Bela kra -
jina with incised decoration or in a combination of in -
cised decoration and impressions, and most often 
made of fine- and very fine-grained fabrics, but more 
of ten coated with a coloured clay slip. Furthermore, it
has been suggested that large pits represent traces of
pit-houses or places of residence, and based on the ra -
diocarbon measurements the settlement has been 
chronologically correlated with the Lengyel II phase in 
Transdanubia (Guštin 2005.13; Guštin et al. 2005.104).
Twenty years after the recognition of the Late Neolithic 
Sava group, possible earlier Neolithic settlements 
(from the Early or Middle Neolithic) in the area of di-
stribution of the Sava group are still unknown. Tra ces 
of above-ground, timber-framed houses are known 
only from two Late Neolithic sites in the wet lands of
Ljubljansko barje (Korošec 1964; Velušèek 2006; Ve-
lušèek et al. 2023) and large irregular pits at other 
sites are assumed to represent the remains of pit-huts 
(e.g., Ravnik, Tica 2018.39; Tomaž 2022.25–27; Turk 
et al. 2022.332). Subsistence strategies in the Late Neo-
lithic are also poorly known. Archaeobotanical and ar -
chaeozoological data are available from only a few 
Late Neolithic settlements, mostly with a small number 
of identified plant and animal remains (e.g., Culiberg 
et al. 1992; Toškan 2018; 2022; Tolar 2021.109–110; 
Hincak 2022; Kram berger et al. 2023.69–71). More-
over, the chro nology of the Late Neolithic in Slovenia is
less well established. According to one theory, the Sava
group was contemporaneous with the Lengyel II (Guš -
tin 2005) or even Lengyel I (Tomaž 2022.105) phase 
in Trans danubia, while others proposed that the sites
are younger, contemporary with the Lengyel III phase 
(Velušèek 2006; 2011), according to the Hungarian 
chro nology of Nandor Kalicz (1969; 1976) and Pal Ra -
336
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
the comparison of radiocarbon dates is also less than 
ideal, because radiocarbon dating can provide only a
limited time resolution, and because dating in Slo ve-
nia is based on long-lived material (charcoal) and on 
dates from charred organic residues on the pot tery, i.e. 
samples that have given unexpected re sults, probably 
also due to issues such as the ‘old wood effect’, the ‘ma -
rine reservoir affect’ and the ‘hard water effect’ (Mle -
kuž et al. 2013.132–133; Hlad 2015.13–14; Kram ber-
ger et al. 2023, 55–68; cf. Oross et al. 2010.392–398; 
Nowak et al. 2017.189).
Some attempts to comprehensively compare and eva-
luate the variability of the pottery at the Sava group 
sites were published in 2014 and 2020 (Kramberger 
2014; 2020). Three groups of sites could be identified 
based on the similarities and differences in ceramics 
(Sa va group Ia-b, II). However, due to the limited num -
 ber of samples from short-lived materials, it was not
possible to fully explain the pottery variability. The re-
search conducted at the Dolsko site yielded new 14C 
czky (1974), which is mainly based on Pavúk’s clas-
sification (Pavúk 2007; see also Osztás et al. 2016.197). 
The main problem for chronological research on the 
Ljub ljansko barje is the small number of piles from the 
5th millennium cal BC and the use of timber taxa (e.g., 
Alnus, Salix), which are not suitable for dating with 
the help of the Quercus/Fraxinus reference (den dro)
chronology, which has so far been established mainly 
for sites from the 3rd and 4th millennium cal BC (Fig. 
1.6,9) (Èufar et al. 2010; 2022), while in the case of 
other studies the research approaches used had their
own risks and weaknesses. One of these stu dies was a
typological analysis of ceramics and an attempt to cor-
relate them with the Lengyel Culture sites (Velušèek 
2006; 2011), while other studies drew conclusions 
based on a comparison of radiocarbon dates with the
same culture (Guštin 2005; Sraka 2012.369–370; To -
maž 2022.105). The first approach is not ideal, be-
cause the sites of the Sava group have a specific mate-
rial culture, which does not correspond entirely to the
Lengyel pottery (e.g., no painting). On the other hand, 
Fig. 1. Most important sites of the Sava group and Late Lengyel Culture in Slovenia and near Karlovac: 1 Dol- 
sko – Spodnje Škovce, 2 Drulovka near Kranj, 3 Gradišèe near Stiška vas, 4 Kamnik – Mali grad, 5 Dra gomelj, 
6 Resnikov prekop, 7 Zamedvedica near Plešivica, 8 Sv. Lovrenc, 9 Verd, 10 Ponikve near Trebnje, 11 Gra dec 
near Mirna, 12 Dolenji Leskovec, 13 Sevnica, 14 Èatež – Sredno polje, 15 Moverna vas, 16 Gradac – Graj ski 
park, 17 Pusti gradec, 18 Griblje, 19 Ozalj – Stari grad, 20 Spaha, 21 Podgorje near Pišece, 22 Stoperce, 23 Ptuj -
ski grad and Ptuj – Šolski center, 24 Andrenci, 25 Bukovnica. 
337
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
and implements from the Late Neolithic and Copper 
Age (Kramberger in preparation). These finds are not 
the subject of the following study.
Nearby, 1.62km southwest of the site, there is a con-
fluence of three major rivers. The Sava River flows 
from the northwest, the Ljubljanica River flows into it
from the southwest, and the Kamniška Bistrica from
the north (Fig. 1.1). Based on the results of ar chaeo lo -
gical excavations, both the Sava River and smaller 
streams shifted their beds throughout history until 
they were artificially regulated at the end of the 18th 
and  in the 19th centuries, partly for economic rea sons
and partly for safety reasons due to frequent flooding. 
In both excavation areas (areas 1 and 2), several paleo -
channels were found, which flowed in different pe-
riods in a northwest-southeast direction and are not
shown on the first or later military maps of the Habs-
burg Empire from the 18th and 19th centuries, each 
with a sequence of alluvial deposits, often containing 
archaeological finds from various periods (Fig. 2.3,4).
AMS dates and a rich pottery assemblage, animal re -
mains and some plant macro-remains from strati gra-
phically well-documented contexts. These data enabled 
us to conduct archaeobotanical and archaeozoological 
analyses, to analyse ceramics and to evaluate results in 
the context of the aforementioned research problems 
in Slovenian Late Neolithic Archaeo logy.
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce: excavation, Late Neo li-
thic settlement features
The archaeological site is located 5.56km southeast of 
the Late Neolithic settlement of Dragomelj (Fig. 1.5), 
at the edge of a second river terrace of Sava, which is
between 2 and 3m high. It is located close to the Mlinš-
èica stream (Figs. 1.1 and 2.1,2), and it is a known site
of the Sava group of the Lengyel Culture, Middle Cop -
 per Age, Bronze Age and Early Medieval period, docu-
mented with several short reports (Žorž Matjašiè 
2009; Žorž 2009; Žorž, Nadbath 2010). Meanwhile, a
monograph of the site is in progress, which includes 
the finds from all periods, including the stone tools 
Fig. 2. Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce. 1 Location of the excavated areas (sources: ARSO, Lidar 2014; GURS, Hi dro-
grafija 2020; GURS, REZI 2019); 2 view on Area 1 from the west during excavation, with the Sava River in the
background and Mlinšèica stream in the foreground (photo: Matija Lukiæ); 3 the area on the map of Maria 
The resa’s “First Military Survey”, 1784–1785 (source: Arcanum); 4 satellite map with paleochannels, alluvial 
de posits (blue, orange) and a large alluvial depression (green) discovered during the excavation (Google 
Maps).
338
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
4.02x1.10m were found during the rescue excavations 
in 2008, most of them in Area 1 (Fig. 3). Traces of Late 
Neolithic posts in ground structures were not dis co-
vered, although several post holes were found, all but 
one of which proved to be later based on finds and 
their stratigraphic positions.
The most interesting Late Neolithic features are two 
large pits (1 and 2), interpreted in the first pub li ca-
tions as the sunken floors of buildings, which yielded 
most of the pottery from the site. They were connected 
by a thin layer of darker soil, with a li near layout, 
interpreted as a path between houses (Figs. 3.202,75 
and 4) (Žorž Matjašiè 2009; Žorž, Nad bath 2010). 
However, this layer could also have been formed na -
turally by the erosion and deposition of material from
the northwest. This is suggested by the ground plan 
and orientation of the layer, which matches the orien-
ta tion of another layer, yel lowish-brown alluvial de-
posit (SU 21), found beneath it (Figs. 3.21 and 4). The 
latter may be as sociated with the clearly visible crop 
mark to the north of the site (Fig. 2.4), and one of the 
pa leochannels do cumented in 
the section of trial trench at the 
north-eastern edge of Area 1. The 
fragments of a single pot were 
found scattered in both large pits
(SUs 200, 148), suggesting that 
the pits were partially filled with 
the same material (Fig. 3).
Late Neolithic pits 1 and 2 were 
found below the topsoil (SUs 1, 
34) and were dug into the above 
mentioned light yel lo wish-brown 
alluvium, soft and malleable sil ty 
clay (Fig. 3.21), deposited in the
Holocene over the older allu vi-
um, the Sava gra vel (Figs. 3.45 
and 4), of either Late Ple istocene 
or Early Holocene age. The larger 
of the two features, pit 1 (SU 248
= a cut feature), measured 11x7m
in size and yielded 6282 pottery 
fragments, or almost 40% of the
total prehistoric pottery reco ver -
ed at the site. It was irregular in
shape (in plan and sections) and
ap peared as a complex of se ve ral
smaller pits filled with three
la yers (SUs 113, 148, 194 = 196), 
each con taining pottery frag-
From the shape of the Sava gravel discovered at the 
bot tom of a large depression below the uncovered for-
 mer edge of the river terrace, it can be concluded that 
the Sava River flowed close to the settlement in the 
La te Neolithic (see also Žorž, Nadbath 2010). During 
this period, a layer was deposited on the edge of a ter -
race, pro bably a buried soil, as evidenced by its con si -
stency, colour and the finds discovered (Fig. 3. 1026, 
1020,1013). In later periods the Sava and smaller wa-
tercourses deposited younger sediments along the 
edge of the Sava terrace and the river gradually moved
southwards, with this process, based on the finds, 
being most intensive in the Late Bronze Age. Finally, 
in the 19th century, the river moved to the southern 
edge of the valley and soon after the Mlinšèica stream 
was ar tificially diverted from the nearby Kamniška 
Bistrica River into the former dead arm of the Sava 
for use by wa termills and later power plants (Fig. 2.1,2; 
cf. Fig. 2.3).
Two larger Late Neolithic pits and 12 smaller Late Neo-
lithic pits ranging in size between 0.74x0.74m and 
Fig. 3. Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce. General plan of the eastern part of Area 1 
with the Late Neolithic pits and alluviums.
339
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
Ceramic finds
A total of 6923 pottery fragments 
were found in pits 1 and 2, which
places it among medium-sized 
Late Neolithic pottery as sem bla -
ges from Slovenia. More pottery 
is only known from Èa tež – Sred-
no polje (more than 57 000 frag-
ments; Tomaž 2022.34). At the 
nearby Dragomelj 4256 ceramic 
fragments were found (Turk, 
Svet lièiè 2022.36), 3612 at Po-
nikve near Trebnje (Ravnik, Tica
2018.59), 1186 in SU 128 in Sto -
perce (Kramberger et al. 2023. 
93) and at Dolenji Leskovec 5379
in the only studied pit so far 
(Hlad 2015.15; cf. Klasinc et al. 
2010; Jovanoviæ et al. 2012). At
Moverna vas and Resnikov pre -
kop many pottery fragments were also found, and 
3173 from the total assemblage at Moverna vas (To-
maž 1997.116) and 951 from Resnikov prekop were 
analysed (Tomaž, Velušèek 2005.89). At other sites, 
pot tery finds are fewer or the data on the quantity of
ceramic fragments are not available (e.g., Korošec 
1960).
After assembling the fragments, 215 typologically 
characteristic pieces of Late Neolithic ceramics from 
Dolsko were selected for publication (Kramberger in
press). The typological classification was based on 
the author’s own typology (Kramberger 2014; 2020), 
while the pottery production methods were described 
using macroscopic standards (after Horvat 1999) and 
the results are presented here for the first time. Only 
the most relevant findings are shown graphically in 
the continuation of this text, labels mentioned (e.g., 
G33, G34, G36) are from the catalogue included in the 
monographic publication of the site (Kramberger in 
press, G1–G511) and consequently do not follow each 
other sequentially. Technological macroscopic analysis 
was conducted on all Late Neolithic typologically cha-
rac teristic ce ra mic fragments (No. 215), while the per -
centages of decoration techniques are calculated ba-
sed on typologically characteristic fragments with de-
coration (No. 104).
It can be established that the Late Neolithic pottery 
contained quartz, mica and iron oxides, which are 
com mon inclusions in ceramic bodies in the region 
ments, stone tools, flakes, animal remains, burnt clay 
and charcoal. Small con centrations of charcoal (SU 
192, size 0.4x0.1m; SU 244, size 0.49x0.37m, 0.02m 
thick), possibly the remains of hearths, were also 
found (Figs. 5–6).
The pottery was fragmented and it can be observed 
that parts of individual vessels were scattered across 
layers in different stratigraphic positions (see Figs. 
5–6). Fragments of two pots (G33, G34) were found in 
two different pits excavated at the bottom of the large 
pit and in the layer above (SUs 148, 194, 196). Frag-
ments of two dishes (G11, G15), two pots (G37, G161) 
and a ladle (G58) were found in layers SU 194 and SU 
148 above it. Parts of another pot (G171) and a dish 
(G149) were discovered in layers SUs 113 and 148. In
addition to these cases, fragments of several other in-
dividual vessels were found scattered, but within the 
same layer (e.g., G13, G29, G38, G57, G77, G81), some 
uncovered up to 4.5m apart (G26, G34; Fig. 6).
Pit 2 (SU 90) was discovered to the north of pit 1. It was 
oval in ground plan, and smaller (3.5m long). Shal low 
pits were found on its bottom, and a small pit of circu-
lar ground plan, probably the only Late Neolithic post-
hole at this site, was found close to its edge. Stone fla -
kes, stone tools, fragments of burnt clay, animal re-
mains and charcoal were dis co vered in two different 
fills of the pit, as well as 627 ceramic frag ments: 170 in
SU 200/201, which covered only the deepest part of 
the pit and 457 in SU 89/90 above it (Fig. 3.89,200).
Fig. 4. Photo from the south-east on the pits 1, 2 and alluviums in the Area 
1 during excavation.
340
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
ties. In some cases, thin parallel smooth lines are no-
ticeable, indicating the use of a harder tool for surface 
treatment. 27% of the vessels were additionally coat ed 
with a coloured clay slip of red, brown, pink or yel-
lowish red colour (Fig. 7.2).
Approximately 50% of typological significant pottery 
fragments show decoration: most often applied de co-
ration (62%), followed by impressions (23%), com bi -
nations of applied decoration-impressions (8%), ap-
plied decoration-impressions-incised decoration (4%), 
and beyond. However, there are obvious differences in 
the size and frequency of the quartz grains, which are 
thought to have been added to the clay as an additive 
(sand tempering). In most cases, Late Neolithic pottery 
consisted of very fine-grained (43% – no temper) and 
fine-grained (36% – less temper) fabrics, followed by 
me dium-grained (20%) and coarse-grained fabrics 
(1%) (Fig. 7.1).
The surfaces of the vessels are matte and smooth and
they were sponged before firing to remove irre gu la ri -
Fig. 5. Pit 1 (SU 248 = a cut feature). 1 Floor plan, 2 types of the deposits, 3 section, and 4 ver tical distribution 
of pottery fragments be longing to individual vessels. Labels for the finds (e.g., G33...) are taken from the 
monographic publication of the site (Kramberger in press, G1–G511).
341
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
mic beads and a fired clay coil. The most common are 
pots (29.23%; Fig. 8.A), followed by dishes (13.51%; 
Fig. 8.F) and pedestal dishes (14.29%; Fig. 8.E). Just 
under a quarter (24.44%) are dishes or pedestal dishes 
(Fig. 8.G). Fragments of thin-walled vessels are also 
common (12.75%; Fig. 8.D), and pitchers could be re -
constructed in two cases (1.20%; Fig. 8.C). Ladles are
present in significant numbers (12.00%; Fig. 8.I), other 
types were rarer: bowls (2.44%; Fig. 8.H), a bot tle-like
vessels (0.59%; Fig. 8.B), ceramic beads (Fig. 8.G47–
G52), a vessel with an attachment for a (wooden?) grip
(Fig. 8.G57), fragments of vessels with anthro po mor-
phic/zoomorphic grips (Fig. 8.G23, G118, G117), and a 
fired clay coil (Fig. 8.G123) (altogether 7.69%; Fig. 8.J).
Vessels made of very fine and fine-grained fabrics 
(mostly dishes, pedestal dishes, pit chers, thin-walled 
impressions-incised decoration (2%) and incised 
decoration (1%) (Fig. 7.3). Four pots, two pedestals and 
a small vessel with a grip attachment were decorated 
with incisions, other vessel types were in most cases 
only decorated with appliqués and/or impressions.
The firing atmosphere was fairly standardized. Pottery 
was generally fired under incomplete oxidizing con di-
tions (93%), and a small amount in oxidizing (3%), re -
ducing (3%) or oxidizing conditions with a reducing 
atmosphere at the end (1%).
The pottery assemblage includes pots, bottle-like ves-
sel, pitchers, thin-walled vessels, pedestal dishes, di-
shes, bowls, ladles, a vessel with a grip attachment, 
ves sels with zoomorphic/anthropomorphic grip, ce ra-
Fig. 6. Pit 1 (SU 248 = a cut feature). Horizontal distribution of ceramic fragments belonging to individual 
vessels. Labels for the finds (e.g., G4...) are taken from the monographic publication of the site (Kramberger 
in press, G1–G511).
342
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
largest circumference, which is also typical for the 
pottery from Èatež – Sredno polje, near by Dragomelj 
and Resnikov prekop (Korošec 1964; Harej 1975; 
Velušèek 2006; Tomaž 2022; Turk et al. 2022). The 
de coration can be complemented with impressions on
the largest circumference and/or on the lip and with 
incisions spread over the neck and shoulder, and in 
the case of a pot from Dolenji Les kovec, extending into
the lower part of the vessel (Fig. 9.Pot, type L7, Motif). 
Pots with ellipsoidal necks were found at the sites of 
Resnikov prekop, Dolenji Les ko vec (see Jovanoviæ et
al. 2012.Tab. 5.5a, Tab. 22.22b), Mo ver na vas (phase 
2), Stoperce (SU 128) (Fig. 9.Pot, type L15/2) and 
others. Dishes and pedestal dishes with everted rims
(Fig. 8.G1, G15, G80, G150) are de co rated with ap pli-
qués (Fig. 9.Pedestal dish). In contrast, dishes with 
everted rim at Èatež – Sredno polje and Dragomelj are
often decorated with appli qués and impressions on 
the transition to the rim and/or on the lip (Tomaž 
2022; Turk et al. 2022). Dishes with 
an everted rim decorated with im -
pressions occur only occa sional ly at
other sites: two at Dolsko (Kram ber -
ger in press, finds 18 and 19), one
in the pha se 2 at Moverna vas (To -
maž 1999.Pl. 3.1), one at Podgorje 
near Pišece (Cigleneèki 1979.Fig.
3.1) and one at Ptuj Castle (To ma niè
Jev remov et al. 2006.find no. 2). 
In addition, dishes and bowls with
an inverted rim are found at Dol sko
– Spodnje Škovce (Fig. 8.G92, G87)
and Resnikov prekop, Do lenji Les -
kovec, Gradec near Mir na (phase 1),
Moverna vas (phase 2) and Sto per -
ce – SU 128, although in much smal -
ler numbers (Fig. 9.Dish). These 
vessels are mostly decorated with
small round ap pliqués on the ma xi-
mum circum fe rence. The cera mic
assemblages at these sites are com-
pleted by pit chers, smaller vessels 
with a han dle, which are also deco-
rated with a round appliqué on the 
largest circumference and often 
coated with coloured clay slip (Fig. 
9.Pit cher). 
The pottery from Drulovka near 
Kranj (Fig. 1.2; Ko rošec 1960), Po -
nikve near Trebnje (Fig. 1.10; Rav-
vessels, and some bowls) usually have a surface of a 
uniform brownish or reddish co lour, often coated with 
a colour clay slip. Most of the pottery with a significant 
amount of sand tempering (most pots and ladles) has 
no clay slip. 
The pottery from Dolsko was typologically compared 
with pottery from other Late Neolithic sites and it was 
concluded that the pottery from Resnikov prekop, Do -
lenji Leskovec, Gradec near Mirna (phase 1), Mo verna 
vas (phase 2) and Stoperce (SU 128), which are located 
in different parts of Slovenia, are the most similar 
(Kram berger in press; see also Kramberger et al. 
2023). The most chronologically relevant finds are 
pots with an everted neck of approximately the same 
length as the shoulder (Fig. 6.G33, G34, G36, G38; Fig. 
8.G170, G38). They may have handles con necting the 
neck and the shoulder, or they may be with out them 
As a rule, they were decorated with appliqués on the 
Fig. 7. Late Neolithic pottery from Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce. 1 Percentage 
of different granularity groups, 2 colour clay slip and 3 decoration tech-
niques. Percentages of granularity groups and of colour clay slip are 
cal cu lated on all Late Neolithic typologically characteristic ceramic 
fragments (No. 215), the percentages of decoration techniques on all 
ty po logically characteristic fragments with decoration (No. 104).
343
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
decorated with appliqués, which is also characteristic 
of similar dishes at Col 1 near Podgraèeno (Horvat 
2005; 2020), Ajdovska jama (Korošec 1975) and Kranj 
– pit at Trubarjev trg (Dolinar 2016), where ty pi cal
pottery of Lasinja Culture appears together with this
Lengyel type (e.g., Velušèek 2006; 2011; Kram berger
nik, Tica 2018) and phases 4 and 5 at Moverna vas 
(Fig. 1.15; Budja 1995; Tomaž 1999) was found to be 
pro nouncedly different (see Kramberger 2014; 2020; 
Kramberger et al. 2023). Pots with short necks, usually 
cylindrical, rarely everted, predominate. Dishes and 
pedestal dishes with everted rim are present, but never 
Fig. 8. Vessel shapes and their percentages within the typologically defined finds. Labels for the finds (e.g., 
G4...) are taken from the monographic publication of the site (Kramberger in press, G1–G511). Scale 1:8. 
344
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
the motif of horizontal incised lines are characteristic. 
All these motifs are also present at Ozalj – Stari grad 
(Fig. 1.19; Težak­Gregl 2001; 2005) in northern Croa -
tia and at Spaha in Koèevsko region (Fig. 1.20; Veluš-
èek 2011). Small biconical vessels with a tubular at-
tachment on the shoulder and a clay coating must also 
be mentioned as characteristic vessel type (see also 
ger 2020). Pottery from Drulovka near Kranj, Po nikve
near Trebnje and phases 4 and 5 in Moverna vas shows
a similar decoration. Round appliqués do not appear
on the largest circumference of the pots. The pots are
decorated with regular bundles of incisions, often
combined with impressions on the largest circum fe-
rence and/or lip. The zig-zag incised decoration and 
Fig. 9. Most important Late Neolithic pottery types at Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and at sites Resnikov prekop, 
Stoperce (SU 128), Moverna vas (phase 2), Dolenji Leskovec, Gradec near Mirna (phase 1) representing Sava 
group Ib (after Korošec 1964; Harej 1975; Budja 1995; Tomaž 1999; Dular et al. 1991; Hlad 2015; Kramberger 
2020; Kramberger et al. 2023). Not to scale.
345
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
plex. Apart from the question of interbreeding and/
or feralization, studies combining genetics, geometric 
morphometrics and isotopic analysis show that large 
specimens traditionally assigned to wild boar may also 
contain feral individuals or domestic pig (Evin et al. 
2015; Balasse et al. 2016; Orton et al. 2016). Due to the
high ly fragmented nature of the archaeozoological ma -
terial from Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce, no standard mea-
surement data for suines could be collected. However, 
based on the general size of the best-pre served spe ci-
mens, most have been tentatively assigned to domestic 
pig. A single fragmented lower second incisor may 
have come from a wild boar.
Most of the archaeozoological remains examined come
from Pit 1 (Tab. 1). The vertical distribution of these 
finds in the pit is clearly uneven, with over 80% of
them coming from the lowest fill SU 194 = 196 = 217.
Interestingly, about 70% of these specimens are cal-
cined, as evidenced by the predominantly white co lour 
of the exposed surfaces, often in combination with
heat-induced cracks (Krap et al. 2019.1–2). Al though 
specific sedimentological conditions (e.g., well-drain-
ed, acidic, well-aerated soils) can also favour the rapid 
degradation of whole bones and teeth into small frag-
ments (Kendall et al. 2018.12–13), and sodium salts or
carbonate-rich sediments can be responsible for white
staining (Dupras, Schultz 2013.323), none of these
factors contributed in any meaningful way to the ta-
phonomic history of the archaeozoological material 
from Pit 1 in general, and SU 194 = 196 = 217 in par ti -
cular. Having said that, a few specimens exhibit wa-
ter-related abrasion, weathering or dark brown colou-
here Fig. 14.15). They were found only at the sites of 
Ponikve near Trebnje (Fig. 1.10; Ravnik, Tica 2018.
find nos. 7,8,198,289,290,292), Drulovka (Fig. 1.2; Ko -
rošec 1960.Pl. 32: 5), phases 4 and 5 of Mo verna vas 
(Fig. 1.15; Tomaž 1999.Pl. 21: 1; Pl. 26: 2), and one in
feature II at Ptuj – Šolski center in NE Slovenia (Fig. 
1.23), where similar Late Neolithic pottery was found 
together with the Lasinja Culture ceramic forms 
(Kram berger 2020.68–70, Fig. 6: 11).
Overall, the pottery from Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce can 
be attributed to the Sava group, but with deviations 
in decoration compared to the nearby Dragomelj and 
Èatež – Sredno polje, and with sig ni ficant differences 
compared to the pottery from Drulovka, Ponikve 
near Trebnje and phases 4 and 5 at Moverna vas. The 
pottery can be assigned to Sava group Ib according 
to the proposed ter minology (Kramberger 2020; cf. 
Tomaž 2022.151–152).
Animal remains
The archaeozoological assemblage from Dolsko – 
Spodnje Škovce comprises 1645 animal remains from
the Late Neo lithic, Middle Copper Age, Late Bronze Age
and Early Mediaeval periods (Toškan in press). The 
Late Neolithic material that is the subject of this study
consists of several hundred tiny bone/tooth frag ments 
(Fig. 10), most of which were recovered by wet sieving.
Only 82 of these finds could be identified taxo no mi -
cally, with tooth fragments clearly outnumbering bo-
nes (NISPbones = 3). This is not surprising considering 
that highly fragmented diaphyseal splinters are usually 
only identified at higher taxonomic levels 
or not at all (cf. Morin et al. 2017.921–923; 
McGrath et al. 2019). Cat tle is by far the 
best represented species, with do mestic 
pig, caprines and possibly wild boar be ing 
the remaining identified taxa (Tab. 1).
Bovine remains were all attributed to do-
mestic cat tle. This is due to the size of the 
better-preserved teeth and bone fragments, 
although the metrical se para tion between 
domestic cattle and au rochs is far from 
clear (e.g., Wright, Viner­Daniels 2015). Ca -
prines are re pre sented by two partially pre -
served teeth, neither of which allows a re-
liable differentiation between sheep and
goat (cf. Payne 1985; Zeder, Pilaar 2010). 
In suines, the distinction between wild and 
domestic animals is probably the most com-
Fig. 10. Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce. A selection of highly fragmented, 
of ten calcined animal bones from Late Neolithic pit 1 (photo D. 
Valoh).
346
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
were analysed. In many cases, the charcoal fragments 
selected were from the same part (or piece) of wood, 
so there was no need to identify multiple frag ments 
from the same sample. In several cases (32 samples) 
the species or even the genus of the taxa could not be 
de termined due to poor preservation state, in these 
cases only DPW (diffuse porous wood), RPW (ring 
porous wood) or coniferous wood is indicated. Other
plant macro-remains (i.e. seeds/fruits) were rarely 
found in the sediment samples from Dolsko. They were 
found in only 11 sediment samples: mostly (four) from 
the Copper Age, two from the Middle Ages and one
from the Late Neolithic; other samples (four) were 
from unspecified contexts (Tolar in press).
In the sediments of the Late Neolithic contexts of the 
Dol sko site no macro-remains of cultivated or gathered 
plants were found. The only sample containing seed/
fruit remains from the Late Neolithic is Flot. No. 34/1-
4 (SU 194) with one non-carbonized seed of plantain 
(Plantago lanceolata) – most likely a contaminant, i.e. 
not archaeological (Tolar in press). Therefore, among 
the archaeobotanical remains from the Late Neolithic 
settlement, only charcoal remains are worth discussing 
(35 in total). The charcoal comes from different pits, 
most of them from pits 1 (28) and 2 (four). In general, 
species diversity is not high, with nine different tree 
taxa identified (Tab. 2). The identifications are do mi -
nated by oak (Quercus sp.; n = 12) and other ring-po-
rous tree taxa (RPW; n=9; i.e. oak/ash (Quercus sp./
Fra xinus sp.) or chestnut (Castanea sativa)). Conifers 
are identified in only three cases. They are probably re -
presented by fir (cf. Abies alba) and pine (cf. Pinus 
sp.). Eleven charcoal fragments were identified as dif-
fuse-porous tree taxa (DPW), among which Cornus, 
white hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and maple (Acer 
sp.) are frequently identified (Tab. 2). 
ration, the latter due to oxide staining in a water log-
ged, anaerobic environment (Stathopoulou et al. 
2019).
The high proportion of calcined teeth and bones from 
SU 194 = 196 = 217 contrasts strikingly with the almost 
com plete absence of such finds in other, similarly thick 
(Fig. 5.3) fills of the same pit (Tab. 1). This observation 
is even more remarkable as fill US 148, overlaying US 
194 = 196 = 217, contained significantly more charcoal 
(up to 40% of the volume compared to <15% in SU 
194 = 196 = 217 and <1% in the uppermost SU 113; 
Kramberger in press). No burnt/calcinated bones 
were found in any of the other features that yielded 
Late Neolithic archaeozoological material. Even un-
burned animal remains were only collected in pit 2 
and paleochannel SU 218 (Tab. 1) (Kramberger in 
press).
Plant remains
Archaeobotanical analysis at Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce 
includes plant identification of seed/fruit remains and 
charcoal fragments. A stereomicroscope with up to 50x
magnification, light microscope with up to 600x mag-
nification, the reference collection of seeds, fruits, 
wood and charcoal at the Institute of Archaeology ZRC
SAZU and specialized literature for seed/fruit and
wood identification (e.g., Berggren 1981; Schwein gru ­
ber 1990; Anderberg 1994; Gale, Cutler 2000; Cap-
pers et al. 2006) were used.
Among the archaeobotanical remains charcoal remains 
predominate. It was not always possible to identify 
them to the tree taxa level due to poor preservation. 
Charcoal was found in almost every sediment sample 
analysed (70 from all settlement phases). One to three 
randomly selected charcoal fragments per sample 
Feature SU
Bo
s t
au
ru
s
Ca
pr
in
ae
Su
s c
f. 
do
m
es
tic
us
N
on
-
id
en
tifi
ed
Taphonomic observations
Pit 1
113 4 (4) no traces of exposure to fire
148 11 (11) 1 (1) 10++ two calcined fragments
194 = 196 = 217 53 (50) 1 (1) 10 (10) 478 (6) ~70% of finds calcined
190 2 (2) 2 no traces of exposure to fire
Pit 2 200 1 3 no traces of exposure to fire
Paleochannel 218 18 no traces of exposure to fire
Tab. 1. Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce. Late Neolithic animal remains per feature. The number of tooth fragments is
given in brackets.
347
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
ing sample material was hydrolysed to CO2 with 4ml 
of 60% phosphoric acid. To remove any sulphur com-
pounds present, the CO2 sample was plac ed in a quartz 
ampoule together with CuO and Ag wool, which was 
sealed and burned at 900°C for 4 hours. The resulting 
CO2 sample was then converted to graphite with H2 at 
600°C using an iron catalyst, and finally the iron-gra-
phite mixture was pressed into a tablet in the sample 
holder for AMS dating (Grootes 2009a).
The samples were then dated by AMS. The Con ven-
tional Radiocarbon Age was calculated using the Libby 
half-life (5568 years, Stuiver, Polach 1977), and this 
was then corrected for total isotopic fractionation. At 
the Leibniz Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and
Stable Isotope Research the correction for iso to pic
fractionation was based on the 13C/12C ratio measur ed 
by AMS. These δ13C values include isotope fractio na-
tion effects that occur during graphitization and in the 
AMS device and are therefore not directly comparable 
to δ13C values measured in a CO2 mass spec trometer. 
At Beta Analytic, these were mea sur ed separately in an
IRMS (isotope ratio mass spec trometer), thus elimi-
nating fractionation effects from natural, chemical 
and AMS induced sources. The radiocarbon age of the
samples dated at Beta Analytic is rounded to the near-
est 10 years and calculated sig mas less than 30 BP are 
conservatively rounded up to 30 (Grootes 2009a; 
2009b; Hatfield 2021). 
All samples contained more than the minimum re com -
mended amount of carbon 14C for accurate age de ter-
mination. The earliest date was provided by a char coal
sample (Quercus sp./Castanea sativa) from pit 2. A 
charcoal sample from pit 1 yielded a later date, as did 
samples of enamel apatite from cattle teeth in pit 1. 
The apatite samples had δ13C values typical of CO2 
apa tite and showed very similar ages, which may sup-
port their reliability (Grootes 2009a): approx. 4500 
and 4350 cal BC (95.4% probability).
Details of existing radiocarbon dates from Dolsko are
listed in Table 3. Listed below are those from set tle-
ments associated with the most similar pottery (Sava 
group Ib) from the area of distribution of the Sa va 
group as it was initially defined (Guštin 2005). These 
radiocarbon dates are compared in the following chap -
 ter with those of the Lengyel Culture, other dates from
the Sava group in central Slovenia, dates from the sub-
sequent Early Copper Age Lasinja Culture in the same 
area, and the radiocarbon sequence from Moverna vas 
in the Bela krajina.
Results of radiocarbon dating 
Six radiocarbon dates were obtained from the Late 
Neo lithic settlement features at Dolsko – Spodnje Škov-
 ce as part of the research conducted as part of the res -
cue excavation project (see Acknowledgements). Five
samples were radiocarbon dated in 2009 in the Leib-
niz Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and Sta ble
Isotope Research in Kiel and one in the Beta Analytic 
Miami in 2021. All attempts to date collagen from ani-
mal bone were unsuccessful due to poor pre servation 
of the collagen. In four cases, animal teeth, identified 
as Bos taurus from different fills of pit 1 (SUs 194, 
196, 113, 148), from the bottom to the top, was dated. 
In addition, a charcoal sample of undetermined wood 
taxon from pit 1 (SU 194) and a charcoal sample from 
pit 2 (SU 200), identified as oak or chestnut (Quercus 
sp./Castanea sativa) were radiocarbon dated (Tab. 3). 
Charcoal samples were first examined under a micro-
scope in laboratories to remove contaminants, then 
the appropriate amount of each charcoal sample was 
chemically treated (acid/alkali/acid) (Grootes 2009b; 
Hatfield 2021).
The dating of four teeth was based on enamel apatite 
(carbon from carbonate). The secondary calcite in the
outer part of each individual tooth was removed. This
was done by mechanically crushing the sample and
dissolving it in HCl to a minimum of 28%. The remain-
Plant taxa Amount of identified charcoal fragments
Quercus sp. 12
Quercus sp./Castanea sativa 3
Fraxinus sp. 1
Fraxinus/Castanea 1
RPW 4
Cornus sp. 4
Sorbus/Cornus 1
Acer sp. 1
Carpinis betulus 4
Coniferous; cf. Abies alba 2
Coniferous; cf. Pinus sp. 1
TOTAL 35 (28 pit 1; 4 pit 2; 3 SU 86; 1 SU 76; 1 SU 218)
Tab. 2. Charcoal identifications (nos. of identified 
items) in Late Neolithic contexts at the site Dolsko –
Spodnje Škovce (sum: 35 wood-anatomical iden ti fi-
cations; items). For the results of plant macro-re-
main analyses for other periods at Dolsko – Spodnje 
Škovce site see Tolar in press.
348
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
ments in central and south-eastern Europe (e.g., Pa-
leèková 2008; Šavel, Karo 2012; Minichreiter, Mar-
koviæ 2013; Sava 2015; Barna 2017; Barna et al. 
2019; Tomaž 2022). Two such pits found in the Late 
Neolithic set tlement at Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce have 
been studied in terms of the archaeological excavation 
results, distribution of finds, technological and typo lo -
gical as pects of pottery, taxonomy of animal and plant
Comparative analysis and evaluation of results 
in a regional and supra-regional context
Large pits filled with deposits containing ceramic frag -
ments, stone implements, charcoal, animal re mains
and other finds showing evidence of human occupa-
tion have been found at various prehistoric sites and
are also characteristic of 5th millennium BC settle-
LAB 
number Site Material Context Age (BP) δ
13C (‰) PMC cor-rected*
Cal BC 
(68.3%)
Cal BC 
(95.4%)
KIA37347
Dolsko – 
Spodnje 
Škovce
Charcoal (Quercus 
sp./Castanea sativa) Pit 2, SU 200 5837±32 -26.29±0.28 48.35±0.19
4770-
4620
4788-
4608 
Beta-
591316
Dolsko – 
Spodnje 
Škovce
Charcoal (n/a) Pit 1, SU 194 5690±30 -28.9 o/oo / 4547-4458
4609-
4450 
KIA37351
Dolsko – 
Spodnje 
Škovce
Tooth (enamel 
apatite, Bos taurus) Pit 1, SU 194 5587±35 -13.36±0.23 49.88±0.22
4452-
4369
4488-
4352 
KIA37350
Dolsko – 
Spodnje 
Škovce
Tooth (enamel 
apatite, Bos taurus) Pit 1, SU 113 5602±32 -13.25±0.34 49.79±0.20
4459-
4370
4493-
4358 
KIA37346
Dolsko – 
Spodnje 
Škovce
Tooth (enamel 
apatite, Bos taurus) Pit 1, SU 148 5612±30 -11.49±0.22 49.73±0.18
4486-
4371 
4500-
4360 
KIA37349
Dolsko – 
Spodnje 
Škovce
Tooth (enamel 
apatite, Bos taurus) Pit 1, SU 196 5563±30 -14.00±0.39 50.03±0.19
4446-
4360 
4454-
4350 
Poz-72746 Gradec near Mirna Animal bone (n/a)
Phase 1, 
»below wall 
rubble« 
(assemblage 1)
5540±40 -24.00±0.5 / 4443-4345
4445-
4331
Poz-72747 Gradec near Mirna
Bone (heel bone, 
Bos taurus)
Phase 1, 
»below wall 
rubble« 
(assemblage 2)
5570±40 -21.4±0.2 / 4445-4358
4491-
4342
Poz-72751 Gradec near Mirna
Bone (mandible, 
Bos taurus)
Phase 1, »in the 
layer behind 
the wall« 
((assemblage 
3?)
5580±40 -26.1±1.2 / 4447-4363
4493-
4345
Poz-66248 Dolenji Leskovec
Charred seed 
(Cratageus sp.) Pit 3 (SU 1099) 5680±40 -25.9±0.1
/ 4546-
4454
4656-
4371
Poz-66249 Dolenji Leskovec
Charred residues 
(pot; n/a) Pit 3 (SU 1099) 5680±40 -27.8±0.1
/ 4546-
4454
4656-
4371
Poz-66250 Dolenji Leskovec Charcoal (n/a) Pit 3 (SU 1099) 5880±35 -27.0±0.2
/ 4790-
4716
4841-
4625
Beta-
339594 Stoperce Charcoal (n/a) Pit SU 128 5690±30 -25.4 o/oo /
4547-
4458
4609-
4450
Hd-24038 Resnikov prekop
Wood (Alnus 
glutinosa)
Pile with 10 
rings 5718±23 / /
4603-
4501
4673-
4459
Tab 3. List of 14C AMS dated samples from Late Neolithic features at Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and other sites 
with pottery of Sava group Ib (after Velušèek 2006; Sraka 2016; 2020; Kramberger 2014) in its distribution as 
defined (Guštin 2005; Tomaž 2022). The list does not include data affected by the possible hard water effect 
from Resnikov Prekop (Mlekuž et al. 2013). * “PMC corrected” refers to the percentage of modern (1950) 
carbon, corrected for mass fractionation by 13C measurement. Samples were calibrated using OxCal v4.4 
(Bronk Ramsey 2009) and the IntCal 20 calibration curve (Reimer et al. 2022).
349
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
tion of the archaeological record in the vicinity (Fig.
2.4). Similar phenomena can be ob served at many 
other sites in Slovenia. In the Late Neolithic set tle ment
of Dolenji Leskovec, for example, the Sa va River com-
pletely washed away a part of the settlement, which 
was surrounded by two circular palisades (Jovanoviæ 
et al. 2012.App. 7). No post holes of possible houses 
could be identified in the area surrounded by dit ches,
only a few pits of irregular ground plan. Furthermore, 
at Dragomelj it was observed that the surface of less
than half of the Late Neolithic ceramics was partial ly 
preserved, while the rest of the pottery had a com ple-
tely destroyed sur face (Turk, Svetlièiè 2005.68; 2022.
37–38). Rede positions of material are indicated by the 
finds from younger periods in the Late Neolithic pits 
and the re sults of radiocarbon dating (e.g., Turk, Svet-
lièiè 2022.168,184–185, SU 402). All these examples 
show that when interpreting large irregularly shaped 
pits and Late Neolithic settlements as a whole, we must
consider site losses related not only to destruction dur-
ing modern agriculture (e.g., Guštin et al. 2005.104; cf. 
Osztás et al. 2012.386), but also to post-depositional 
processes such as water, erosion and other sediment 
mo vements caused by natural factors.
Looking at the location of the sites where large, ir re gu -
larly shaped pits were found, it can be concluded that 
they did not occur in the lakeside settlements, like Res-
nikov prekop and Verd (Velušèek 2006; Velušèek et al.
2023). They are more widespread phenomenon of the 
Late Neolithic in the Carpathian Basin, south-eastern 
Alpine region and Northern Croatia, in regions with
dry lands with thick layers of loam. The two larger pits
at Dolsko were found on a clayey-loamy geological 
base (Fig. 4.21), which spread in a line from northwest 
to southeast over alluvial deposits of Sava gravel (Fig.
4.45; see also Fig. 3). Furthermore, it should be empha-
sized that the phenomenon of large irregularly shaped 
pits in Late Neolithic settlements represents a kind of 
change in comparison to Central European LBK set-
tlements. Linear ditches next to the long houses, which 
were dug in the LBK settlements for the extraction of
clay material (e.g., Oross 2010; Oross, Bánffy 2009; 
Hofmann 2013; Bánffy 2013.131–137; Bickle 2013. 
155–162, Fig. 7.2), were almost completely (e.g., Bar-
na 2017.83–84, Fig. 16) replaced by large pits in the 
Late Neolithic settlements.
Large-scale excavations over the last 25 years have 
uncovered many above-ground, timber-framed houses 
in Late Neolithic settlements in the Carpathian Basin, 
which required a reassessment of earlier theories. It 
re mains and radiocarbon measurements. The follow-
ing section summarizes the results of comparing this 
data with that available from settlements of the 5th 
mil lennium BC in Slovenia and neighbouring regions.
The use of large pits of irregular plan
The largest pit at Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce (pit 1) did 
not yield any architectural elements, it was irregular in 
shape and filled with different layers in which ceramic 
fragments, bones, burnt clay, stone tools, implements 
and charcoal fragments were scattered. It was ob serv -
ed that fragments of individual vessels were dis tri-
buted over an area of up to 4.5m, partly in fills in dif -
ferent stratigraphic positions. The distribution of frag -
ments of certain vessels in different fills from the bot-
tom to the top of pit 1 may to some extent be the result 
of post-depositional processes, partly it may reflect the 
accuracy of the excavation, but given the large number 
of such cases it seems likely that it is largely the result 
of the deposition process. It probably indicates that in -
dividual vessels were broken prior to deposition and 
that they came in the pit as fragments with different 
fills, together with charcoal, animal remains and stone 
implements.
The large amount and concentration of finds and two
charcoal clusters suggest that pit 1 was probably filled
by people, but some of the material may have been de-
posited naturally. This is indicated by the dis tribution 
of individual pot fragments found in pit 2 (SU 200) 
and pit 1 (SU 148). It can be assumed that a layer with 
Neolithic pottery running from northwest to southeast 
across pits 1 and 2 (Fig. 3.202,75) and con sistent with 
the direction and orientation of the alluvial sediment 
in which the two pits were dug (Figs. 3.21 and 4), is re -
lated to this post-depositional process (cf. Fig. 2.4).
The situation where parts of a single vessel are dis-
tributed in different pits is not unique. In the Early 
Cop per Age settlement at Zgornje Radvanje, parts of 
in dividual vessels were also distributed in different 
pits in several cases. One of the most significant exam-
ples is the distribution of ceramic fragments of a pot 
found in large pits 5 and 2 (Kramberger 2021.342–
343, find no. 235). Alluvium and paleochannels were 
discovered above both pits, which may indicate that 
the upper parts of the pot were deposited by water 
from feature 5 to feature 2 (Kramberger 2021.24–25, 
149,137–139, Figs. 22,23,41a­b). 
Paleochannels found during the excavations at Dolsko
with finds from different periods indicate the destruc-
350
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
site Col 1 near Podgraèeno was the first to be at tri-
buted to the Sava group (Guštin 2005.8) and the pot -
tery found there was analysed using the same analy-
tical approach. However, according to the exca vator 
the pottery is later, contemporary with the pot tery 
from SUs 43-44 in Ajdovska jama cemetery, Zgornje 
Radvanje and partly Ptuj–Šolski center (Hor vat 2005; 
2020.120–121, Fig. 75, 59–62), and a ra dio carbon 
mea surement also provided a later age (Guštin 2005.
Fig. 3; cf. Kramberger 2014; 2020; 2021).
A comparison of pottery production methods between 
the above-mentioned sites has shown that the pottery 
from Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce differs significantly 
from the definition of the Sava group (Guštin 2005.9–
12). The proportions of granularity groups, with the 
predominance of very fine (43%) and fine (36%) fab-
rics, contradict the definition in the first place, as it 
has been stated that the pottery of the Sava group was
mainly made of medium-grained fabrics (Fig. 7.1). Si -
milar proportions of granularity groups are found at 
Dolenji Leskovec, 50% of very fine-grained fabrics, 
35.71% of fine grained and 14.28% of medium grained 
fabrics (Hlad 2015.Fig. 19). At the Late Lengyel site of 
Andrenci very fine grained pottery prevails (83%), at
Stoperce – SU 128 very fine grained (42%) and fine-
grained pottery (58%) were found in similar pro por-
tions (Kramberger 2014.Fig. 27). All other sites of the 
Sava group (Tomaž, Velušèek 2005.Fig. 1; Turk, Sve­
tlièiè 2022.Fig. 46; Tomaž 2022.Fig. 42) and phases 
2, 4 and 5 of Moverna vas (Tomaž 1997.Tab. 4) yielded 
mostly medium grained pottery (see also Fig. 1).
The pottery from the Bela krajina region should have 
been coated with coloured clay slip significantly more
often than that from the Sava group and from north-
eastern Slovenia (Guštin 2005.20). However, the pot-
tery from Dolsko (27%) is more often coated with clay
slip than the pottery from phases 2 (23.9%), 4 (22%) 
and 5 (12.3%) of Moverna vas (Tomaž 1997.Tab. 7).
Very similar proportions of pottery with colour clay
slip are also found at Dolenji Leskovec near the Sava 
in Posavje (29.03%; Hlad 2015.21) and SU 128 at Sto -
perce, in Haloze, northeastern Slovenia (32%; Kram -
berger 2014.Fig. 29). Only in the pottery from Dra go-
melj (Turk, Svetlièiè 2005.68), Èatež – Sredno polje 
(To maž 2022.Fig. 45), Andrenci (3%; Kramberger 
2014.Fig. 29) and Resnikov prekop in the wetlands of 
the Ljubljansko barje (2.1%; Tomaž, Velušèek 2005.
Fig. 3) was colour clay slip rarely present (see also Fig. 
1).
became clear that large pits, previously interpreted 
as residential buildings, were temporary shelters or
features used for a variety of activities (Pávuk 2003. 
464; Raczky 2005.24; Osztás et al. 2012.385; Barna 
et al. 2019.126–128). In most settlements, large pits of 
irregular ground plan were found near houses (e.g., 
Fig. 11.A), and at Alsólnyék-Bátaszék, one of the largest 
Lengyel settlements in Transdanubia with more than 
100 houses uncovered, some large pits extended along 
the edges of buildings, and these can in all probability 
be associated with these (Bánffy et al. 2016; Osztás et
al. 2016.192–196). They were probably used to extract 
the clayey loam needed for construction, and later 
filled with household waste (Osztás et al. 2012.390, 
Fig. 12; see also Barna et al. 2019.125). In many set tle -
ments, rectangular houses and irregular large pits 
appear inside circular ditches, representing traces of 
defensive enclosures (Fig. 11.B,D), similar to those at 
Dolenji Leskovec (Fig. 1.12), where only two large pits
and three smaller ones have survived in an area of 
56x46m surrounded by ditches (Jovanoviæ et al. 
2012.App. 7). However, in many other settlements the 
remains of palisades are not found, which may mean 
that they did not exist, or may be due to the state of re -
search at individual sites. Such cases have been found
in Transdanubia as well as in the neigh bouring Cro-
atia, in the Late Neolithic settlements attributed to the
Sopot culture (Fig. 11.C). All these cases of better 
researched and preserved settlements with above-
ground, timber-framed houses and large, irregularly 
shaped pits in their vicinity show that the latter were
most likely not the remains of houses.
Pottery style(s) of the Late Neolithic Sava group
Analyses of the technological aspects of pottery pro-
duction have been conducted at several Late Neolithic 
sites in Slovenia using the same analytical approach as 
at Dolsko (Horvat 1999), but the results have not been 
compared and evaluated since the recognition of the 
Sava group (Guštin 2005). These are Resnikov prekop 
(Tomaž 1999.76–87; Tomaž, Velušèek 2005.87–99), 
Dragomelj (Turk, Svetlièiè 2005; 2022.36–39), Èatež 
– Sredno polje (Tomaž 2005.113–129; 2022.62–73) 
and Dolenji Leskovec (Hlad 2015.15–29), which were 
attributed to the Sava group of the Lengyel Culture 
(Guš tin 2005), Moverna vas in the Bela krajina re-
gion (Tomaž 1997; 1999.76–8), Stoperce in Haloze 
(Kramberger 2014.244–247; Kramberger et al. 2023) 
and Andrenci in northeastern Slovenia (Kramberger 
2014.244–247), whose material culture has been at-
tributed to the Late Lengyel Culture (Bánffy 2002; Ve -
lušèek 2006.33; Kavur 2010; Kramberger 2014). The
351
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
theory, we compared all sites with the available sta-
tistical data on decoration, and also conducted an ana-
lysis of published Late Neolithic finds from the sites of
Drulovka near Kranj (Korošec 1960.Pl. 9.1– Pl. 34.10;
see also Guštin et al. 2005.43–47), Ponikve near Treb-
nje (Ravnik, Tica 2018.finds nos. 1–810), Resnikov 
pre kop (Korošec 1964.Pls. 3–18; Harej 1975.Pls. 1–7;
According to the definition, the pottery from the Sava 
group sites is mostly decorated with impressions, the
rest with appliqués and incised decoration, which
should be different from the pottery from northeast-
ern Slovenia (predominant appliqués) and the Bela 
kra jina region (predominant incised decoration) (Guš -
tin 2005.9–12; see also Fig 1). In order to test this 
Fig. 11. Examples of above-ground rectangular houses and large pits in their vicinity at the Late Neolithic 
settlements of Lengyel and Sopot cultures. A Alsólnyék-Bátaszék (Osztás et al. 2012.Fig. 6), B Žlkovce (Pávuk 
1981), C Kruševica – Njivice (Balen, Èataj 2014), D Veszprem – Jutasi út (Regenye, Biró 2019.Fig. 1).
352
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
The analysis showed that the most common vessel 
type at Dolsko was a pot with an everted neck that is
approximately the same length as the shoulders, de co-
rated with appliqués (Fig. 6.G33, G34, G36, G38; Fig.
8.G170, G38; Fig. 13.1). A comparison of the pro por-
tions of types of pots at Late Neolithic sites in Slovenia 
(Kramberger 2014; 2020) shows that pots with a cy lin -
drical neck dominate at only three sites (Fig. 13.d) – 
these are, again, Drulovka (65%; e.g., Korošec 1960.
Pls. 11.1, 19.1, 22.1,6,9; Fig. 13.3), Ponikve near Trebnje 
(52%; e.g., Ravnik, Tica 2018.finds nos. 1,178,181; Fig. 
13.5) and phases 4 and 5 (69%) at Moverna vas (e.g., 
Tomaž 1999.Pls. 22.1–3, 24.1; Fig. 13.8). At all other 
Late Neolithic sites pots with everted necks – similar to
those at Dolsko – dominate (Fig. 13.a). At Resnikov pre -
kop pots with cylindrical neck represent 10% of all pots 
(e.g., Korošec 1964.Pl. 16.3; Harej 1975.Pl. 7.12; Fig. 
13.4), 2% at Èatež – Sredno polje (e.g., Tomaž 2022.
finds nos. 1758,1760; Fig. 13.7), and at other sites no 
pots were found which could be described as having 
cylindrical necks (Fig. 13.d).
Pots with everted necks dominate at Dolsko – Spodnje 
Škovce (90%), followed by Èatež – Sredno polje (73%; 
e.g., Tomaž 2022.finds nos. 251­253,1331), Resnikov 
prekop (76%; e.g., Korošec 1964.Pl. 5.5, Pl. 15.1. 3),
phase 2 at Moverna vas (65%; e.g., Tomaž 1999.Pl.
11.1–2, 13.1) and Dolenji Leskovec (63%; e.g., Hlad 
2015.finds nos. 16,17,19,20,23). Fragments of evert ed
neck of pots are rarely present at Drulovka (18%), Po -
nikve near Trebnje (24%) and in phases 4 and 5 at Mo -
verna vas (25%). As it can be argued from the pub li-
shed material, they all belong to pots with short necks 
(e.g., Tomaž 1999.Pl. 21.3, 23.1–2, 26.3; Korošec 
1960.Pl. 10.1, 15.7, 19.6; Ravnik, Tica 2018.finds nos. 
176–177,180,624,692), which are rare or not present 
in other sites (Fig. 13.a).
In addition to pots with everted necks, a pot with a 
long sloping neck (5%; Fig. 13.b) and a pot with a short 
ellipsoid neck (5%; Fig. 13.c) were found at Dolsko – 
Spodnje Škovce (Fig. 13.1). Pots with a long sloping 
neck are also present at Dolenji Leskovec (26%; e.g., 
Hlad 2015.finds nos. 4–6; Fig. 13.6), Èatež – Sredno 
polje (21%; e.g., Tomaž 2022.finds nos. 1329,759; Fig. 
13.7), Resnikov prekop (7%; e.g., Harej 1975.Pl. 1.1; 
Fig. 13.4), in the earliest (6%; Tomaž 1999.Pl. 10.1), 
as well as later (6%; Tomaž 1999.Pl. 21.2) Neolithic 
phases at Moverna vas (Fig. 13.8). Some pots with 
ellipsoid necks can also be found at Resnikov prekop 
(2%; Harej 1975.Pl. 6.6; Fig. 13.4), the earliest phase at 
Moverna vas (12%; e.g., Tomaž 1999.Pl. 11.3; Fig. 13.8) 
Velušèek 2006.Pls. 1–19), Dragomelj (Turk et al. 2022.
finds nos. 1–447), Late Neolithic finds from Moverna
vas (Tomaž 1999.Pls. 1–32) and Bukovnica (Šavel 
1992.Pl. 1–6) in northeastern Slovenia. It can be con -
cluded that only at the sites of Dragomelj (62% and 
9%; Turk, Svetlièiè 2022.Fig. 54) and Èatež – Sredno 
polje (68% and 13%; Tomaž 2022.Fig. 34) are impres-
sion and a combination of impressions and appliqués 
dominant as decoration techniques. At Dolsko, applied 
decoration predominates (62%; Fig. 7.3), similarly at
the Late Lengyel settlements at An drenci (80%; Kram-
berger 2014.Fig. 31) and Bukovnica (86%; Šavel 1992), 
and the Sava group site at Dolenji Leskovec (50%; Hlad 
2015.Fig. 31) (for all of these see Fig. 12).
In the earliest phase of Moverna vas (phase 2) most or -
naments on the pottery were made with a com bina-
tion of impressions and incisions (37%), followed by 
applied decoration (30%) and impressions (20%), with
the rest being decorated with incisions and other com -
binations. This was probably used to support the sta-
tement that most of the pottery at the sites in the Bela 
krajina region was decorated with incised decoration 
and a combination of incisions and im pres sions (Guš-
tin 2005.13; cf. Tomaž 1997; 1999). How ever, at Resni -
kov Prekop (Fig. 12.4) and SU 128 in Stoperce (Fig.
12.9) the proportions of pottery decorated with in ci-
sions and impressions, and with applied decoration 
and impressions, are more similar to those from phase
2 at Moverna vas (Fig. 12.8) than to those at Dragomelj 
(Fig. 12.2) and Èatež – Sredno polje (Fig. 12.7). More-
over, if we consider the sites of Drulovka (Fig. 12.3), 
Ponikve near Trebnje (Fig. 12.5) and later phases of
Moverna vas (phases 4 and 5; Fig. 12.8), we can no tice 
that the pottery found there has a very similar propor -
tion of individual de coration techniques as in phase 
2 at Moverna vas, with incisions and a combination of 
incisions and impressions significantly predominant. 
Specifically, at Drulovka 36% of the pottery is decorat -
ed with incisions and impressions, 33% with inci sions, 
20% with impressions, only 5% with applied decora -
tion and impressions, 4% with applied decoration and 
2% with other combinations. At Ponikve near Trebnje 
43% of the pottery is decorated with incisions and im-
pressions, 41% with incisions, 16% with impressions 
and not a single fragment with applied decoration. 
More over, in phases 4 and 5 of Moverna vas the pot -
 tery was decorated with the same decoration tech ni -
ques with some deviations in proportions: 69% with 
incisions and impressions, 17% with incisions, 14% 
with impressions and not a single fragment with ap-
plied decoration (for all of these see Fig. 12). 
353
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
has been suggested. On the contrary, a si mi lar techno -
logy of pottery production was spread and used in Late 
Neolithic settlements throughout the southeastern 
Alpine region and northeastern Dinaric Carst, from 
Kranj in northwestern Slovenia, Bela krajina in 
southeastern Slovenia, to Stoperce in northeastern 
Slovenia, with some variations. The presence of co-
loured clay slip varies considerably from site to site, 
which may be largely due to local conditions, the cha -
racteristics of the soils in which the pottery is found, 
and taphonomic site loss. How ever, at Dolsko – Spod -
nje Škovce (Fig. 1.1) similar con ditions could be as-
sumed as at the neighbouring settlement at Dragomelj 
(Fig. 1.5; see also Fig. 2.1), yet there is still much more 
pottery with coloured slip at Dolsko. On this basis it 
cannot be excluded that the presence of coloured slip is 
to some extent related to the cultural variations within 
the pottery style, although not in the way that has 
been proposed (Guštin 2005.13). Similar proportions 
of coloured clay slip as at Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce are
and, as fragments, at Drulovka (4%; Korošec 1965.Pl. 
20.3; Fig. 13.3) and Ponikve near Trebnje (5%; Ravnik, 
Tica 2018.find no. 625; Fig. 13.5). Much the same is 
true for pots without a neck (Fig. 13.f). They sparsely 
ap pear, in different variations, at the sites Èatež – Sred-
no polje (4%; e.g., Tomaž 2022.find no. 1732; Fig. 
13.7), phase 2 at Moverna vas (17%; e.g., Tomaž 1999.
Pl.7.1–2; Fig. 13.8), Dolenji Leskovec (11%; e.g., Hlad 
2015.Pl. 1.3; Fig. 13.6), Resnikov prekop (5%; Harej
1975.Pl. 2.6; Fig. 13.4) and Ponikve near Trebnje (10%; 
e.g., Ravnik, Tica 2018.finds nos. 197–198; Fig. 13.5).
Pots with shoulders and sloping necks (Fig. 13.e) were 
identified only at Drulovka (13%; Korošec 1960.Pl. 
10.2; Fig. 13.3) and Ponikve near Trebnje (9%; Ravnik, 
Tica 2018.finds nos. 2, 179; Fig. 13.5).
Overall, based on the results presented here, the sites
in Bela krajina do not differ from the sites in Posavje, 
Savska ravan and Ljubljansko barje, either in terms of
pottery production, decoration or ceramic forms, as
Fig. 12. Percentages of different decoration techniques in Late Neolithic settlements in Slovenia. Only sites 
with at least 50 typologically defined pottery fragments are included. 1 Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce, 2 Dragomelj, 
3 Drulovka near Kranj (Late Neolithic finds), 4 Resnikov prekop, 5 Ponikve near Trebnje, 6 Dolenji Leskovec, 7
Èa tež – Sredno polje, 8 Moverna vas (left phase 2, right phases 4 and 5), 9 Stoperce (SU 128), 10 Andrenci, 11
Bukovnica (Late Neolithic pit). The data from Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce are presented for the first time in this 
publication (Fig. 7) and are the result of the author’s analysis. Data from Èatež – Sredne polje (Tomaž 2022.
Fig. 34), Dolenji Leskovec (Hlad 2015.Fig. 31), Stoperce (SU 128) and Andrenci (Kramberger 2014.Fig. 31) are 
taken from the literature. Comprehensive analysis of finds from the Late Neolithic pile-dwelling at Resnikov 
prekop (Korošec 1964.Pls. 3–18; Harej 1975.Pls. 1–7; Velušèek 2006.Pls. 1–19), Ponikve near Trebnje (Ravnik, 
Tica 2018.finds nos. 1–810), Drulovka (Korošec 1960.Pls. 9–34), Dragomelj (Turk et al. 2022.finds nos. 
1–447), Late Neolithic finds from Bukovnica (Šavel 1992) and Moverna vas (Tomaž 1999.Pls. 1–32) were 
con ducted by the author based on the published material.
354
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
Re genye et al. 2022). The old wood effect is a common 
phenomenon (e.g., Whittle 1990; Brock et al. 2010; 
Nowak et al. 2017.189), but in the case of Slovenian 
sites it is difficult to assess its influence on the results 
of radiocarbon measurements, as tree species are ra-
rely determined prior to dating and con trol dates are 
not available. In the case of Resnikov prekop in the 
wet lands of Ljubljansko barje, the dat ing of charred re -
mains on pottery also proved problematic, with a large 
number of measurements yielding significantly older 
dates than expected (Mle kuž et al. 2013).
As collagen leached from the dentine, four radiocarbon 
measurements on apatite from samples of cattle teeth 
from Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce were introduced in the
present study. Carbonate exchange takes place be-
tween the apatite and burial environment, so pre-treat-
ment is required, but as a comparison of 155 samples 
from more than 100 sites worldwide has shown, pre-
treat ment is often inadequate (Zazzo 2014). This also 
applies to enamel, which has long been considered a
more reliable dating material than bone apatite beca-
known from the phase 2 at Moverna vas, Dolenji Les-
kovec (southeastern Slovenia), and SU 128 in Stoperce 
(north eastern Slovenia). These are the sites which to-
gether with Resnikov prekop and Gradec near Mirna 
(phase 1) yielded the most similar vessel types and or -
naments and were therefore attributed to the same va -
riation of the style – Sava group Ib (Figs. 9, 14). Ano-
ther variation of the pottery style is represented at 
Dra gomelj and Èatež – Sredno polje (Sava group Ia; 
Fig. 1.5,14) and the third at Drulovka, Ponikve near 
Trebnje, phases 4 and 5 at Moverna vas and similar 
sites (Sava group II; Fig. 1.2,10,15; Fig. 14) (for all see 
also Kramberger 2020).
Absolute chronology
As mentioned above, the absolute dating of the Late 
Neolithic in Slovenia is based on charcoal samples and
on samples of charred organic residues on the pot tery.
This is also due to the rare finds of charred seeds/
fruits, missing human graves and often poor preser-
vation of collagen in animal bones (cf. Stadler, Ruttkay 
2007; Oross et al. 2010; Ilon 2004; Bánffy et al. 2016; 
Fig. 13. Percentages of different types of pots in Late Neolithic settlements in Slovenia. Only sites with at least 
15 definable pots are included. 1 Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce, 2 Dragomelj, 3 Drulovka near Kranj, 4 Resnikov 
pre kop, 5 Ponikve near Trebnje, 6 Dolenji Leskovec, 7 Èatež – Sredno polje, 8 Moverna vas (left phase 2, right
phases 4 and 5). All data were calculated from the finds published in the publications of individual sites 
(Kramberger in press; Turk et al. 2022.finds nos. 1–447; Korošec 1960.Pls. 9–34; 1964.Pls. 3–18; Harej 1975.
Pls. 1–7; Velušèek 2006.Pls. 1–19; Ravnik, Tica 2018.finds nos. 1–810; Hlad 2015.finds nos. 1–248; Tomaž 2022.
finds nos. 1–3522; 1999.Pls. 1–32). The typological classification was based on the authors’ typology (Kram -
berger 2014; 2020).
355
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
lap, they should be treated with cau tion. They can be 
un derstood as a minimum age for the cattle, while 
both charcoal samples (from pits 1 and 2) can be taken 
as a maximum age for tree felling (Tab. 3).
Among the sites with the most similar pottery finds, 
ra diocarbon dates are available from Moverna vas, 
Dolenji Les ko vec, Resnikov prekop, Stoperce – SU 128
and Gradec near Mirna (see Tab. 3, cf. Figs. 1, 9). Of 
particular importance are the dates from Gradec near
Mirna, where samples of animal bones (Cer vus ela-
phus, Bos taurus, Sus sp. and two samples of un defin -
ed animal species) were radiocarbon dated. According 
to Marko Sraka (oral information) collagen was dat-
ed and δ13C values measured by AMS range from 
–21.05±0.5 to –28.07±02. 
A total of ten samples were measured from the multi-
period settlement of Gradec near Mirna (Dular et al. 
1991; Dular 2001), six from the occupation layers of 
the Sava group, two from the Lasinja Culture oven 
above the Late Neolithic layer and two from the highest 
settlement layer attributed to the Furchenstich horizon 
(Sraka 2020). The results of the radiocarbon dating 
indicated that the samples collected as belonging to 
the lowest settlement layer were most likely from two
different chronological phases, 
the Late Neolithic and the Lasinja 
Culture, indicating that the mate-
rial from the lowest cultural la yer
may be partially mixed. Never-
the less, three radiocarbon dates 
from this layer (Gradec phase 1) 
can be recognized as older than 
the radiocarbon measurements 
from the layer above it (Gradec 
phase 2 – Lasinja Culture), which 
is in ag re ement with published 
pottery assemblages (Dular et al.
1991; Dular 2001) (Tab. 3).
Another important group of sam-
ples was introduced from Dolenji 
Leskovec (Tab. 3; Sraka 2016). 
Three sam ples were measured, 
all from a single pit (SU 1099; 
Hlad 2015). The samples consist 
of different materials: charred 
seed, charred residues on pot tery
and a charcoal sample of un-
known plant taxon. If we com-
pare these measurements with 
use of its lower porosity, smaller sur face area, larger 
cry stallites, and lower solubility due to its lower car bo -
nate content (Hedges et al. 1995; Wood et al. 2016.). 
Mechanical grinding can significantly increase the 
amount of carbonate contamination removed in an 
acid leach compared to hand grinding, although in 
many cases not all contamination is likely to be re mov -
ed (Wood et al. 2016). Within the mid-late Ho locene, 
this level of contamination has resulted in radiocarbon 
age estimates within approximately 100 14C years of 
the true sample age, but sometimes more. A recent 
study suggests that decontamination of younger sam -
ples may be possible if higher con centrations of hy dro -
chloric acid solution are used in the che mical pretreat-
ment (Hopkins et al. 2016). Samples of modern equine 
incisors, a Roman cat tle molar, and a Palaeolithic rhi no 
molar were taken and pre treated with different acid
solutions, dated at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator 
Unit (ORAU), and compared with con trol dated dentine 
collagen from the same individuals. Such control dates 
are not available from Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce. The 
only other radiocarbon date available from pit 1 is a
charcoal sample from an unknown tree species. Con se -
quently, despite ra diocarbon dates of enamel apa tite
from different samples of cattle teeth from pit 1 over-
Fig. 14. Pottery of different variations of the Sava group of the Lengyel 
Culture. 1–4 Èatež – Sredno polje, 5–10 Resnikov prekop, 11–16 Moverna 
vas, phases 4 and 5 (after Kramberger 2020; Tomaž 1999; 2022; Korošec 
1964; Harej 1975; Velušèek 2006).
356
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
187) are almost identical. All these dates indicate that 
Dolsko and related sites of the Sava group (Ib) in cen-
tral Slovenia, Late Lengyel Culture in Transdanubia, re -
gional variation of the Lengyel set tlement in Styria 
and the MOG IIa phase in eastern Austria belong to 
the same horizon.
Two Bayesian models were then processed to compare 
the chronological sequences of the settlement at Mo-
verna vas in Bela krajina (after Sraka 2012; 2014) and 
the ceramic sequences in the area of distribution of the 
Sava group in Posavje, Ljubljansko barje, Savska ravan, 
Krška ravan and Haloze (Figs. 16–17; see also Fig. 1). 
Dates from the entire period of the 5th millennium cal 
BC time range are included, i.e. the periods of the Late 
Neolithic and the Early Copper Age (Lasinja Culture). 
The first model assumes that sites with different va ria-
tions of the Sava group pottery style were not con tem-
poraneous (see also Kramberger 2020; Fig. 15). Èatež 
– Sredno polje (Guštin 2005.Fig. 2; Tomaž 2022.135–
141) and Dragomelj (Turk, Svetlièiè 2005; Turk et al. 
2022.14–144) are representatives of the Sava group Ia, 
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce (pit 1), Resnikov prekop, Do-
lenji Leskovec (SU 1099), Stoperce (SU 128) of the Sa-
va group Ib (see Tab. 3) and Ponikve near Trebnje of 
the Sava group II (Ravnik, Tica 2018.76–78). The fi nal
phase of the sequence includes radiocarbon measure-
ments from sites where finds can be chronologically 
correlated with the Lasinja Culture. The most impor-
tant of these are samples of human bones and charred 
seeds from SUs 43 and 44 in Ajdovska jama cemetery 
(Bonsall et al. 2007; Sraka 2020), where they were 
found together with ty pologically characteristic pot-
tery (e.g., Horvat 1989; 2009; Velušèek 2006.29–30; 
Kramberger 2018.81–96; 2020; 2021) and dates of 
collagen and a charred seed from the oven at Gradec 
near Mirna (phase 2), which was found above the oc cu -
pation layer of the Sava group (Dular et al. 1991; Du-
lar 2001; Sraka 2020). Dates of charcoal samples from 
the oldest phase at Gradišèe above Dešen, 5km to the 
northeast of Dolsko (Guštin 2005.Fig. 3; Pavlin, Dular 
2007), Col 1 near Podgraèeno (Guštin 2005.Fig. 3; 
Hor vat 2005; 2020) and a radiocarbon measurement 
of charred residues from pottery from pit SU 6508 at
Obrežje (Kramberger 2022) also belong to this chro-
no logical phase (Fig. 16).
With this model (Fig. 16), the beginning of Sava group
Ia, as we know it from Èatež – Sredno polje and Dra go -
melj, is estimated to between 4779-4731 cal BC (68.3%
probability) and has a duration between 173-248 years 
(68.3% probability). This beginning and duration 
those from Dolsko, we can see that the dates of the 
charcoal from pit 1 at Dolsko and the dates of the sam -
ple of charred seed (hawthorn seed) and charred re -
mains from one of the pots at Dolenji Leskovec over -
lap, while the charcoal from the same pit at Dolenji 
Leskovec is older. This date overlaps with the mea su-
rement of a charcoal sam ple from pit 2 at Dolsko (Tab. 
3), and with charcoal samples from Èatež – Sredno 
polje, Dragomelj and the earliest phase at Moverna vas. 
Based on the above, the dates of charcoal differ from 
the dates of cattle teeth and charred seeds even when 
they come from the same settlement contexts. They 
proved to be earlier both, in the case of pit SU 1099 at 
Dolenji Leskovec and in the case of pit 1 at Dolsko, at 
least in the case of Dolenji Leskovec most likely due to 
the old wood effect. A date from the pile from Resnikov 
prekop, dates from collagen from animal bones from 
Gra dec near Mirna and a date from the charred seed 
and charred residues from Dolenji Leskovec seem to 
be reliable. In addition to these dates, the dates from 
Verd are reliable because two samples of the pile (Fra­
xinus sp.) were measured, which made it possible to 
de termine the age of a pile more precisely using the 
Wiggle matching method: 4674±42 cal BC (Velušèek et 
al. 2023). Other currently available radiocarbon dates 
from Sava group sites are from charcoal, which should 
be regarded as the maximum possible age, with some 
also from the charred remains of pottery (Moverna 
vas, Resnikov prekop).
If we compare radiocarbon dates from the settlement 
context related to the Sava group Ib, we can see that 
they overlap, except for the dates of charcoal, charred 
residues from the phase 2 of Moverna vas (Sraka 2012; 
2016; 2020) and the already mentioned problematic 
charred residues from Resnikov prekop (Mlekuž et al. 
2013), which are partly older. Comparable dates of col -
lagen from animal bones are known from the Late Len-
gyel settlement of Zalaszentbalázs – Szõlõhegyi me-
zõ, and charcoal samples from this site again prov-
ed to be earlier (Fig. 15; Bánffy 1995; Regenye et al. 
2022). Radiocarbon dates of charred remains from the 
pottery from the Late Lengyel pits at Andrenci and Bu-
kovnica, as well as those from animal bones from the 
Late Lengyel site Szombathely – metro and Szentgál-
Teleki dûlõ fall within a similar period (Fig. 15; Ilon 
2004; Regenye 2011; Kramberger 2014; Sra ka 2014). 
Finally, radiocarbon measurements of collagen from 
animal bones from Michelstetten (Stad ler, Ruttkay 
2007), and from horizons II-III at the Wildoner Schlos-
sberg in Styria (Tiefengraber 2018.Figs. 170–172,180–
357
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
group II) is estimated to start 4403-4358 cal BC (68.3%
pro bability) and lasted between 16-81 years or a me -
dian figure of 53 years (68.3% probability). The tran-
sition between Sava group II and the pottery style 
associated with human burials in Ajdovska jama (SUs 
44 and 43), the oven at Gra dec near Mir na (phase 2), 
Gradišèe near Dešen, Col 1 and Obrežje is es timated to
have been between 4353-4315 cal BC (68.3% probabi-
would probably be shorter if we had radiocarbon mea -
surements on samples of short-lived materials. Set-
tlements with the Sava group Ib pottery in Posavje, 
Ljubljansko barje and Savska ravan are dated to be-
tween 4568-4527 and 4403-4358 cal BC (68.3% proba -
bility) with the currently available set of radiocarbon 
mea surements and lasted 133-198 years (68.3% pro-
bability). The settlement of Ponikve near Trebnje (Sava
Fig. 15. Radiocarbon measurements from Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and most similar sites of the Sava group 
(Ib) and the Late Lengyel Culture in Transdanubia. Charcoal dates are highlighted. Samples were calibrated 
using OxCal v4.4 (Bronk Ramsey 2009), and calibration curve IntCal 20 (Reimer et al. 2022).
358
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
The radiocarbon dates of charcoal samples from 
Ponikve near Trebnje and charcoal samples and char -
 r ed remains on pottery from phases 4 and 5 at Mo-
verna vas overlap and the estimated time spans in the
Bayesian models are similar (cf. Figs. 16 and 17). In
both cases, the occupation associated with the Sava
group II pottery lasted for a rather short period, 
around 4400 cal BC. The calculated periods corres-
pond to the later part of the Late Lengyel phase in 
Transdanubia, the later part of the MOG IIa and earl-
ier part of the MOG IIb phases in eastern Austria (cf.
Oross et al. 2010; Osztás et al. 2016. 197–233; Re ge -
nye et al. 2022; Stadler, Ruttkay 2007). Both varia-
tions of pottery style – Sava group Ib with many simi-
larities to that of Sava group Ia and Sava group II with 
more elements in common with the pottery of the sub -
sequent Lasinja Culture (see Kramberger 2020; 2021. 
53,56–57) – were thus parallel to the Lengyel III phase, 
and researchers in western Hungary have come to si-
milar conclusions. The Late Lengyel horizon there can 
be divided into two subphases (Lengyel IIIa-b) and the 
researchers recognized that the settlements of the later 
subphase produced pottery with more elements of 
lity), and the end of Lasinja Culture at these sites is 
estimated to have been between 4212-4118 cal BC 
(68.3% pro ba bility). Further details of the calculated 
Ba yesian model are presented in Tables 4 and 5.
The median value for the beginning of the Èatež – 
Sredno polje and Dragomelj in the Bayesian chro no-
logical model presented here is 4758 cal BC. This is 
similar or slightly earlier than the age of the pile (Fra ­
xinus sp.) from Verd, which was dated using the Wig-
gle matching method: 4674±42 cal BC (Velušèek et 
al. 2023). Unfortunately, the excavations in the trial 
trench yielded only a small number of ceramic frag-
ments. In any case, from a broader perspective the 
date of the pile at Verd and the estimated beginning 
of the Sava group could correspond to the MOG Ia and
Ib phases (Stadler, Rutkay 2007). Similar dates (colla -
gen from animal bones) are known from the Lengyel II 
phase settlement of Nagykanizsa-Palin-Anyagnyerõhely 
in Transdanubia (Barna et al. 2016.319) and a com pa -
rable time range was estimated for five Lengyel fur-
nished burials at Veszprém-Jutasi út, which are sup po -
sedly later, from the Lengyel IIb phase, according to 
the typo-chronology (Regenye et al. 
2022.288–290; see also Regenye 
2007.392).
The estimated time range for the
beginning of phase 2 of Mo verna
vas is comparable, but slightly 
ear lier than those from Èatež –
Sredno polje and Drago melj (cf.
Figs. 16 and 17). This would mean
that the set tlement phase with
finds of Sava group Ib at Mover na 
vas in Bela krajina was contempo -
rary with the sites of Sava group Ia
in Posavje, or even earlier (Fig. 1.16,
14, 5). How ever, due to the lack of
ra diocarbon measurements on 
short-lived material and the un cer -
tainties associated with some dates
on charred residues on pot tery
(Mlekuž et al. 2013.Tab. 1), further 
research is needed to prove or dis -
prove this. Dates similar to those
from the Sava group Ib si tes in Po-
savje are presented from phase 3 at 
Moverna vas (Fig. 17; Sraka 2020.
App.), but so far no pottery finds 
from this settlement phase have 
been published.
Ceramic style sequence
Ranges 
with 68,3% 
probablity
Ranges 
with 95,4% 
probablity
Median
Start of Sava group Ia 4779-4731 4827-4726 4758
Sava group Ia-Ib transition 4568-4527 4598-4506 4548
Sava group Ib-II transition 4403-4358 4427-4348 4383
Sava group II – Lasinja 4353-4315 4366-4278 4332
End of Lasinja 4212-4118 4219-4004 4147
Ceramic style Samples
Duration 
with 68,3% 
probablity
Duration 
with 95,4% 
probablity
Median
Sava group Ia 24 (all charcoal) 173-248 141-304 212
Sava group Ib 
12 (3 collagen, 4 
enamel apatite, 1 
charred seed, 1 wood, 
1 charred residue, 2 
charcoal)
133-198 97-232 166
Sava group II 2 (charcoal) 16-81 0-114 53
Lasinja
26 (17 collagen, 6 
charred seeds, 1 
charred residues, 2 
charcoal)
112-229 68-341 183
Tab. 5. List of values (in cal BC) of probability distributions of the 
durations of the Late Neolithic and Early Copper Age ceramic traditions 
in the south eastern Alpine region in Slovenia, derived from the chro-
nological model in Fig. 16.
Tab. 4. List of values of probability distributions (in cal BC) of the ranges 
of transitions of ceramic sequences in the south-eastern Alpine region in 
Slo venia, derived from the chronological model in Fig. 16.
359
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
Fig. 16. Probability distributions of dates from the Late Neolithic and Early Copper Age ceramic sequence in 
southeastern Alpine region of Slovenia. In the model we estimate the dates of transition from one pottery style 
to another and no gaps. The Bayesian chronological modelling was carried out using OxCal v4.4 (Bronk Ram -
sey 2009) and the calibration curve IntCal 20 (Reimer et al. 2022).
360
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
2020) and western Transdanubia (Oross et al. 2010; 
Regenye et al. 2022). 
Archaeobotanical, archaeozoological data and
subsistence strategies in the first half and be-
ginning of the second half of the 5th millennium 
cal BC in the SE Alpine region
During the 7th and 6th millennia cal BC, agriculture 
gradually spread from southwestern Asia into near by 
regions. Farming was first introduced into Me diterra-
the Lasinja (or Balaton-Lasinja) culture (Kalicz 1991; 
Bánffy 1994; Regenye et al. 2022.281).
More significant changes in material culture, which can 
be associated with the Lasinja Culture (in Slovenian 
ter minology representing the Early Copper Age), be-
gan in Posavje around 4350 cal BC according to the 
calculated chronological model (Fig. 16). This is similar 
to Moverna vas in Bela krajina (Fig. 17 – phase 7 and 
partly 6), northeastern Slovenia (e.g., Sraka 2014; 
Fig. 17. Bayesian model of radiocarbon dates from Late Neolithic and Early Copper Age occupation layers at 
Moverna vas in Bela krajina (after Sraka 2012.Fig. 2; 2014.Fig. 3). Type of program and calibration curve 
is the same as in Fig. 16.
361
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
Very modest archaeobotanical investigations from the 
above listed sites have already been published (see 
references). This paper presents the first combined 
analysis of all of them. The oldest plant macro-re-
mains recovered and analysed to date from the 5th 
millennium cal BC sites are listed and compared 
(seeds/fruits – Tab. 6; charcoal – Tab. 7; both tables see 
below). In most cases, the macro-remains compared 
were derived from the randomly and subjectively col -
 lected sediment samples. In some cases, the wash-over
method (Kenward et al. 1980) with a minimum sieve
mesh size of 1 to 2mm was used to separate the plant
macro-remains from the sediment sample material, 
and the macro-remains were then air-dried. Recog ni -
zable plant remains were then sorted out, but the vo-
lume of each sample varied according to the size of the 
approximate sediment sample value (c. 5–20 litres). In 
Tables 6 and 7, therefore, only the total num ber of re -
cognized plant remains in an unknown volume are 
given, or only the presence/absence of plant taxa is 
marked. This methodological problem further limits 
comparisons between the sites. The context types for 
the sites compared are also given in Tables 6–7. Except 
for the pile-dwelling sites, most of the samples come 
from Neolithic secondary refuse deposits (i.e. pits). 
No large deposits of in situ preserved plant macro-
remains have yet been re covered from the 5th mill. 
cal BC sites in Slovenia.
Tables 6–7 show that seed/fruit remains from Late 
Neolithic sites in Slovenia are less abundant than char -
coal remains. Only four sites have at least one seed/
fruit remain. Two of them (Dragomelj, Verd) may con-
tain cereal remains, which could also be the remains 
of a wild plant of the Poaceae family, therefore the 
identification is uncertain. At two sites (Verd, Dol. Les -
kovec) the remains of wild edible fruits/nuts are pre-
served: Fagus sylvatica (beech), Malus sylvestris/Py ­
rus pyraster (wild apple/pear), Crataegus mo nogyna
 (hawthorn), Rubus sp. (black berry/rasp berry), Tra-
pa natans (chestnut) – which point to a possible ga-
thering economy. At three sites (Èatež, Dragomelj, 
Verd) the remains of other, nutritionally less impor-
tant plant taxa are present, which provide information 
on the environmental conditions at the sites. The seed/
fruit remains of Chenopodiaceae (goose foot), Poly-
gonum sp. (knotgrass), Veronica sp. (speedwell), Se -
taria sp. (foxtail), Solanum nigrum (black night-
 shade) found at the Èatež site confirm an anthro po-
genic, ruderal environment. The same is true for the 
remains of Stellaria sp. (chickweed) at the Dragomelj 
site. While the remains of various aquatic and marshy/
nean areas with climatic conditions similar to those in 
which it originated (de Vareilles et al. 2020), and then 
progressively further north, starting in the Balkans. 
Archaeobotanical research on Early Neolithic sites in 
the Balkans has provided highly relevant data on the 
crop choices of early farmers. For example, some of 
the oldest directly dated cereal and pulse re mains in 
Europe are from northern Greece (e.g., Va lamoti, Kot -
sakis 2007), Bulgaria (e.g., Marinova 2007; 2017), Ser -
bia (e.g., Filipoviæ 2014) and North Macedonia, i.e. 
from c. 6400–5700 cal BC, where a wide range of 
crops has been found, with five cereal spe cies and se -
veral varieties, two legumes and possibly two oil crops
(Sabanov et al. 2024). Some differences in the diver si -
ty and importance of certain crops were noted, pro ba -
bly depending on local environmental or cultural fac-
tors, i.e. early farmers adapted their crop choices.
The 5th millennium cal BC in Slovenia is characterized 
by the transition from the Neolithic to the Copper Age
(e.g., Budja 1995; Velušèek 2011; Sraka 2020). Ar cha-
eobotanical studies of Late Neolithic sites in Slovenia, 
including the site of Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce, are very 
scarce. There are several reasons for this, such as the 
limited and poor state of research, ineffective and in -
sufficient sampling for archaeobotanical ana lyses, and 
poorly preserved cultural layers. The poor state of pre-
servation of the plant macro-remains is certainly not 
the case for the pile-dwelling sites at Ljub ljansko barje 
(e.g., Culiberg 2006; Jeraj 2004; Tolar et al. 2010; 
2011; Velušèek et al. 2023), the cave cemetery site in 
Aj dovska jama (Culiberg, Šercelj 1986; Culiberg et al. 
1992; Sraka 2020) or the hilltop settlement at Gradec 
near Mirna (Dular et al. 1991; Culiberg, Šercelj 1995; 
Sraka 2020), where many macro-remains of cul tivated 
plants were found, but all of them are younger (i.e. end 
of the 5th and 4th millennium cal BC).
The published archaeobotanical data on plant re-
mains from Late Neolithic sites in Slovenia have been 
synthesized to expand the comparisons between sites
in the area. In the next part of this paper, the archaeo-
bo tanical analyses of eight 5th millennium cal BC sites 
(dated around 4700-4400 cal BC) in Slovenia, from 
which at least some plant macro-remains (mostly char-
coal) have been recovered, are presented to show the 
state-of-the-art, i.e. Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce, Èa tež – 
Sredno polje (Culiberg 2022), Stoperce (Kram berger 
et al. 2023), Dragomelj (Tolar 2022), Verd (Velušèek 
et al. 2023), Resnikov prekop (Culiberg 2006; Èufar, 
Korenèiè 2006), Dolenji Leskovec (Sraka 2016) and 
Zamedvedica near Plešivica (Turk, Vuga 1984).
362
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
vegetation and certainly also on the number of char-
coal fragments and samples taken for analysis. The 
Èatež – Sredno polje site, with the largest number of
charcoal identifications, clearly shows a relatively 
higher diversity (11 taxa) of the wood used, with a pre-
ference for beech, oak and maple – which probably 
grew in the vicinity of the settlement. In Dolsko – 
Spod nje Škovce, the oak charcoal can be interpreted in
two ways: as natural oak wood or as selected oak 
wood. Today, almost two thirds of Posavsko hribovje 
is covered by forests, and the dolomite slopes of the
Sava gorge are mainly beech (Fagus sylvatica) and 
hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) forests. Another impor-
tant factor to be taken into account is the taphonomy 
and resistance of different types of wood/charcoal, 
which could also be the rea son why oak charcoal is 
more often identified.
Archaeozoological knowledge about subsistence stra-
 tegies in the settlements of the Sava group is li mited 
(Tab. 8). This is mainly due to the lack of ma terial
caused by the poor preservation of bones in the often 
acidic sediments (e.g., Hincak 2022; Kram berger et 
al. 2023.71,108–109) and/or the relatively small scale 
of the fieldwork (e.g., Turk, Vu ga 1984; Toškan, Dirjec 
2006.Tab. 1; Velušèek et al. 2023). In Dolsko – Spodnje
Škovce, too, the small number of taxonomically iden-
tified animal remains probably does not allow a re-
liable assessment of local subsistence strategies (Davis 
1987.46; Bartosiewicz 2005.58–59), especially since 
most finds come from a single feature, i.e. pit 1. The 
lat ter circumstance pre cludes a serious analysis of 
spatial differentiation within the settlement, so that 
a comparison of local archaeozoological data with 
those from other sites is more likely to reflect (dis)
similarities in spatial use within the settlement rather 
than the degree of congruence of general subsistence 
patterns at different sites. Further difficulties arise 
from the fact that the archaeozoological material is
highly fragmented. This makes the calculation of the
Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) rather im prac -
tical, even when focusing on several dozen taxono mi-
cally identified teeth. Since it is practically impossible 
to identify the tiny enamel fragments belonging to the 
same tooth, the actual calculated value of MNI = 3 may 
be close to or significantly different from the actual 
num ber of animals represented in the pit.
Another stumbling block in the interpretation of the 
archaeozoological assemblage from Dolsko – Spodnje 
Škovce is the limited understanding of the formation 
process of the deposits in pit 1. The pit may have been 
lakeshore plant taxa, identified at the Verd pile-dwel-
ling site, such as Sparganium sp., Alnus glutinosa, 
Betula pubescens, Nuphar luteum, Mentha aquatica, 
Schoenoplectus lacustris, Potamogeton sp., Alisma 
plantago aquatica, Euphatorium can nabinum, 
Ranunculus aquatilis, Oenanthe aquatica, Najas 
marina, Epilobium hirsutum, Trapa natans and Cha -
ra sp., all attest to the existence of a water source and
a marshy/lakeshore area at the site. The remains of Ur-
tica dioica, Acer sp., Abies alba, Cor nus sanguinea, 
Api aceae and Poaceae at Verd could possibly be the re -
mains of plant taxa that do not pre fer moisture, and 
which could have been brought to the lakeshore set-
tlement by the inhabitants.
The charcoal remains preserved at all eight considered 
Late Neolithic sites (Tab. 7) indicate palaeovegetational 
conditions in the surrounding forest and possible se-
lection of wood for different purposes. At Dolsko – 
Spodnje Škovce a selection of mainly oak (Quercus 
sp.) and other RPW taxa (Castanea, Fraxinus) is
shown, although five other tree taxa were also iden ti -
fied. Èatež – Sredno polje is the site with the most nu -
merous charcoal fragments analysis among the sites
considered (Tab. 7). The result shows that the forest 
vegetation of that time was quite similar to today’s. 
In the lowland part of the wider area of the Èatež – 
Sredno polje, a floodplain oak forest still grows, in
which hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) is also common. 
In addition to oak, elm (Ulmus sp.) and ash (Fraxinus 
sp.) are common, what is shown also by the analysed 
Late Neolithic charcoal. The ele vated edges of the 
Gorjanci plain are now covered with light beech (Fa­
gus sylvatica) forest, in which hornbeam and maple 
(Acer sp.) also thrive. The pre sence of vine (Vitis vini-
fera ssp.) charcoal at the Èa tež – Sredno polje site is 
interesting, but it is not yet possible to say whether it
is from the cultivated ssp. yet (Culiberg 2022). The re-
sult of charcoal analysis outline the natural environ-
ment from which people extracted natural resources, 
especially wood. Eighteen wooden piles of alder 
(Alnus sp.) used for construction at Resnikov prekop 
and seven of alder and willow (Salix sp.) at Verd pile-
dwelling sites are of interest (Tab. 7), while mostly 
oak and ash wood is used at the younger Eneolithic 
pile-dwelling sites (Èufar et al. 2010). In general, ash
(Fraxinus sp.) charcoal has been found in five of the
seven sites considered (Tab. 7); it seems to have been,
along with oak (Quercus sp.), one of the tree taxa that
was already selected by people in the Late Neolithic, 
not just in the Eneolithic (Èufar et al. 2010). However, 
there are differences depending on the nearby forest 
363
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
scattered in different parts of the feature/site, and
so on (Chapman 2000.69–73,82–83).
Interestingly, most of the listed clues were found in Pit 
1 in Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce. The list includes large 
quan tity of deposited ceramics, especially in the basal 
la yer SU 194 = 196 = 217, the presence of fragments of 
in di vidual vessels in different parts of the pit, the fill 
SU 148 with a large amount of charcoal, the presence 
(deposition?) of the only almost complete, unburnt 
bone – a cattle mandible – at the bottom of one of the
depressions in the bottom of the pit (i.e. SU 217; Fig. 
5.2), the presence of burnt clay and possibly two char -
coal clusters (hearths?) directly above fill SU 194 = 
196 = 217, the prevalence of calcined animal teeth and
bones in SU 194 = 196 = 217, and the peculiarity that
they were almost absent from fill SU 148, which con-
tained by far the largest concentration of charcoal 
(Kramberger in press).
A pragmatic approach to the interpretation of the al- 
most exclusive occurrence of cattle in the Late Neolithic 
archaeozoological assemblage from Dolsko – Spodnje 
Škovce would focus on the considerable importance of
this animal at (roughly) contemporaneous Lengyel sites
in Lower Austria, the Carpathian Basin and the West -
ern Balkans (e.g., Bökönyi 1986.Tab. 1, 3, Fig. 2–3; 
Bartosiewicz 1995.Tab. 2; Schmitzberger 2008.227–
240; Nyerges, Biller 2015.4–6; see also Barto siewicz 
2005.57–58), as this suggests that the Late Neo lithic
community under study often placed a strong em pha -
sis on cattle herding. Of course, to confirm the hypo-
the sis the archaeozoological ma terial studied here 
formed by the extraction of clay material and later 
filled with waste, as is known from contemporary sites 
in the wider region, but it is unclear whether the pit 
was filled very quickly or much slower. Understanding 
the depositional processes associated with these fea -
tures is crucial, as large pits may contain waste from a
single building, from several households or possibly 
from the whole community; the deposits may be as -
sociated with ordinary daily activities, a spe cial event 
(e.g., a feast) or an exceptional situation (e.g., the
re mains of a burnt-down house); they may contain
pri mary or redeposited secondary waste, and so on
(Chap man 2000; Osztás et al. 2012.388–390; Kvì-
tina, Øídký 2017; Tóth et al. 2020; Orton in press).
According to John Chapman (2000.20,64), in the Bal-
kan Neo lithic the “...cultural material pro duc ed
within, or domesticated into, the house hold was
not subject to 20th century AD rules of refuse dispo-
sal but re main ed part of the household even after the 
end of its use.” In other words, not everything that was 
depo sited in pits can be considered as ‘normal’ waste, 
be cause there must have been a deliberate choice to 
dump certain materials in pits and not simply dispose 
them in backyards, along paths, between houses, etc. 
(cf. Orton in press). Such ‘special’ pits may include an 
above-average amount of dumped material, evidence 
of in situ firing, backfills with evidence of deliberate 
burning or inclusion of products of deliberate burning 
(charcoal, ash, burnt clay, lithics, vessels and organic 
remains with evidence of burning), a basal layer of spe -
cial/rare and/or mixed finds, deliberate placement of
animal bones, evidence of ritual breakage (e.g., of ves-
sels) and evidence of parts of the same vessel being
Site
N
IS
P
B.
 ta
ur
us
Ca
pr
in
ae
Su
s s
p.
C.
 fa
m
ili
ar
is
C.
 e
la
ph
us
C.
 ca
pr
eo
lu
s
A.
 a
lc
es
B.
 p
rim
ig
en
iu
s
O
th
er
 ta
xa
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce (Fig. 1.1) 511 71 2 10
Resnikov prekop (Fig. 1.6) 108 14 5 19 2 37 4 20 7
Zamedvedica (Fig. 1.7) 15 3 10 1 1
Verd (Fig. 1.9) 5 4 1
Gradec near Mirna (Fig. 1.11) 8 3 1 1 3
Čatež – Sredno polje (Fig. 1.14) 166 22 26 31 37 11 39
Spaha (Fig. 1.20) 38 15 3 10 4 1 5
Tab. 8. Species representation at Dolsko and other sites of the Sava group of the Lengyel Culture. Notes on the 
contexts considered: Dolsko – Neolithic material (Tab. 1); Resnikov prekop – complete assemblage (Toš kan, 
Dirjec 2006); Zamedvedica near Plešivica – complete assemblage (Turk, Vuga 1984); Verd – complete as sem-
blage (Velušèek et al. 2023); Gradec near Mirna – phases 1a, 1b (Toškan, unpublished data); Èatež – Sredno 
po lje – Neolithic material (Hincak 2022; unpublished data); Spaha – material from the 5th millennium cal BC
(Toškan 2011). Explanation of abbreviation: NISP – Number of Identified Specimens (Grayson 1984).
364
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
lithic archaeological record at Dolsko – Spodnje Škov-
ce. Nevertheless, several smaller and two large pits (1 
and 2), filled with material culture of the Sava group of 
the Lengyel Culture were found. Of particular interest 
is pit 1, which yielded most of the Late Neo lithic pot-
tery from the site. Based on its irregular shape, the 
distribution of parts of individual ceramic vessels in 
different fills of the pit and over large area, the large 
amount of very fragmented animal remains and the 
location of the pit on the ‘island’ of clayey alluvium, it 
may have been used for digging clay loam, which was 
used for construction activities, and in the later phase 
it was filled with waste. The same can be assumed for 
many other large pits of irregular shape at Late Neo li-
thic sites in Slovenia. Lack of rectangular timber fram-
ed houses may be due to time-dependent site losses 
due to taphonomy. 
Based on the analysis of the pottery, the definition of
the Sava group of the Lengyel Culture needs to be sup-
plemented. The sites in Bela Krajina do not differ from 
those in the Posavje, Ljubljansko barje and SU 128 in 
Stoperce (northeastern Slovenia) in terms of pottery 
production methods, decoration and ceramic forms. 
On the contrary, three variations of one pot tery style 
(Sava group Ia-b, II) can be recognized. In Posavje and 
central Slovenia all three variations of one style are 
present, the only site of the Sava group in north eastern 
Slovenia (Stoperce, SU 128) has yielded pottery of the 
Sava group Ib style, and in the Bela krajina region so 
far only settlements with pottery of Sava group Ib and 
II were found, at Moverna vas in different occupation 
layers lying in stratigraphic superposition: settlement 
phases 2 (Sava group Ib), 4 and 5 (Sava group II). 
According to the analysis, the material culture from 
pit 1 at Dolsko is attributed to the Sava group Ib and,
based on radiocarbon measurements, it can be dated
with caution to the middle and beginning of the se-
cond half of the 5th millennium cal BC. This pe riod cor -
responds to a range of radiocarbon dates from short-
lived material at other Late Neolithic sites with the 
Sava group Ib pottery in the Posavje region and Ljub-
ljansko barje, as well as dates from the Late Lengyel 
Cul ture in Transdanubia and MOG IIa phase in Austria. 
It is later than the range of radiocarbon dates from 
Dragomelj and Èatež – Sredno polje, whose pottery 
can be attributed to Sava group Ia.
The Bayesian model presented in this study included a 
number of samples of short-lived materials related to 
Sava group Ib and Lasinja Culture of the Early Copper 
would have to reflect sub si stence strategies that go be-
yond the level of a single household or even a single 
event. Given the diversity of the material dis carded in
pit 1 and the considerable differences in the com po-
sition of different fills, this option is not to be ruled out 
completely (cf. Osz tás et al. 2012.390). The hypothesis 
that cattle bre eding predominated in Late Neolithic 
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce would indeed fit well with 
the local paleoenvironment, as the site is lo cated on 
the edge of the agriculturally interesting lowlands of 
the Ljubljana Basin. On the other hand, for example, 
the nearby Res nikov prekop and Verd were located on
the shores of the lake at Ljubljansko barje, with pro ba -
bly a less fertile soils, so the dominance of game at 
these sites (pile dwellings) is not surprising (Tab. 8).
On closer examination of the available data, how ever,
the possibility seems realistic that the archaeo zoo lo-
gical assemblage from the Late Neolithic contexts at 
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce does not reflect ‘average’ sub-
sistence practices, as the process of formation of the 
de posits from pit 1 appears to be peculiar in some re -
spects. In this context, it is worth mentioning the ta-
phonomic observations already highlighted in relation 
to the fillings of this pit. Also significant is the large 
discrepancy in the quantity of pottery, charcoal and 
animal remains between pit 1 and other pits discovered 
at this site, which is obvious even taking into account 
the differences in size between them (Kramberger in 
press). To mention only the number of animal remains 
(Tabs. 1, 8), several hundred specimens were collected 
from pit 1 (size: 11x7m; depth: up to 0.7m), no more 
than four from pit 2 (size: 10x5m; depth: 0.3m with 
de epenings in the floor up to a further 0.3m) and 
none from any of the other, indeed much smaller 
and shallower pits (N = 12; dimensions of the largest 
[SU 3029/3030]: 2.35x1.1m; depth: up to 0.35m; 
Kramberger in press). Finally, the preponderance 
of cattle in the various fills of Pit 1 is a remarkable 
circumstance. In fact, the sheer size of these animals 
implies that they were routinely consumed beyond the 
level of the individual household or nuclear family 
group, suggesting communal (and thus not ‘ordinary’?) 
activity. Also worth mentioning is the possible social 
value of live animals of this domesticate as objects of 
prestige or exchange (Orton 2012.27,32; Manning et 
al. 2013a.250).
Conclusions 
Post-depositional processes related to the Sava River 
and smaller streams have shaped the found Late Neo-
365
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
The oldest currently known finds of cultivated plants 
in Slovenia are therefore much younger, dating from 
the last third of the 5th and 4th mill. cal. BC or Early 
and Middle Copper Age; e.g., form the sites: Pigl na Ja-
vorniku (Tolar unpublished), Ajdovska jama (Cu li -
berg, Šercelj 1986; Culiberg et al. 1992; Sraka 2020), 
Gradec near Mirna (2nd phase, Culiberg, Šercelj 1995;
Sraka 2020), Stoperce (other pits than SU 128, Kram-
berger et al. 2023), Zgornje Radvanje (Kramberger 
2021; Tolar 2021). Strojanova voda and Maharski 
prekop (Tolar 2018), Stare gmajne (Tolar et al. 2011), 
and Hoèevarica (Jeraj 2004). The earliest crop taxa in 
Slovenia to date are represented by three species of ce -
reals, barley (Hordeum vulgare), einkorn (Triticum 
monococcum) and emmer (Triticum di coccum), one 
pulse, i.e. pea (Pisum sativum), and two or three oil 
crops: flax (Linum usitatissimum), poppy (Papaver 
somniferum), and possibly turnip (Brassica rapa; see 
Tolar et al. 2011). The macro-remains of the listed taxa 
have all been found at the sites listed above and attest 
to the presence of the earliest cultivars in Slovenia. In 
addition to cereals grains and/or oil seeds, the remains 
of cereal or flax processings (i.e. chaff and capsulas 
remains) have been found at many of the above listed 
sites. At waterlogged sites (i.e. pile-dwellings) even 
the seeds of weeds are well preserved. All of these 
are evidences not only of the use of cultivated food 
plants (i.e. diet), but also of the cultivation practices 
(agriculture) directly at the archaeological site being 
investigated.
As far as the archaeozoological results are concerned, 
the first impression is that in the Late Neolithic in Dol-
sko – Spodnje Škovce cattle breeding played the main 
role in the supply of meat and fats. This is similar to 
other sites of the Lengyel Culture from Lower Austria 
and the Carpathian Basin (Bökönyi 1986.Tabs. 1,3, 
Figs. 2–3; Bartosiewicz 1995.Tab. 2; Schmitzberger 
2008.227–240; Nyerges, Biller 2015.4–6), as well as
most contemporaneous sites in the continental cen tral 
Balkans (Orton 2012; Manning et al. 2013a; 2013b;
Orton et al. 2016; 2021). However, it should not be for-
gotten that practically all the animal re mains examined 
here came from a single, peculiar large pit. Moreover, 
since the general trend of in creas ing importance of 
large-scale cattle breeding in the Late Neolithic Balkans 
was neither universal nor synchronous (Orton et al. 
2021 and references therein), it should not be taken 
for granted for the communities of the Lengyel Culture 
either. Hete ro geneity in subsistence strategies is evi-
dent in the continued importance of wild species in the 
ar chaeofaunas of this period, suggesting that hunting 
Age from the area of central Slovenia and Posavje. 
According to the median value, the beginning of the 
Sava group (Ia) is estimated at 4758 cal BC and its end 
at 4548 cal BC, which could correspond to Lengyel II 
phase in Transdanubia and recently published dendro-
data for the pile from Verd (Velušèek et al. 2023), but
also to the time range estimated for five Lengyel fur-
nished burials at Veszprém-Jutasi út, attributed to 
Lengyel IIb phase (Regenye et al. 2022.288–290). The 
following part of the Sava group sequence (sites with 
pottery Sava group Ib and II) in Posavje was parallel to 
the Late Lengyel sequence in Transdanubia. 
According to the chronological model presented here,
the period of settlement phase 2 at Moverna vas over -
laps with those from Èatež – Sredno polje and Dra go-
melj, or is even slightly earlier. This would mean that 
sites with pottery of Sava group Ia in cen tral Slovenia 
and Posavje, and Sava group Ib in Bela Krajina were 
contemporary. However, since the ra diocarbon dating 
at Dragomelj and Èatež – Sredno polje is based solely 
on charcoal, and at Moverna vas on charcoal and char -
red residues on the pottery, further research is ne eded
to prove or disprove this. Later chronological sequence
at Moverna vas (phases 3, 4, 5 and partly phase 6) is
comparable with the later sequence in the here pre-
sent ed Bayesian chronological model for the Sava 
group in Posavje, and the beginning of the Lasinja Cul-
ture, which was part of a wider shift in settlement and 
society, is estimated in models for both regions to be 
around 4350 cal BC, which is similar to Transdanubia.
The synthesis of the scarce archaeobotanical results, 
especially no crop macro-remains (see Tab. 6), at Slo ve -
nian Late Neolithic (5th cal BC) sites to date aims to 
outline a regional gap in the study of the earliest ag-
ricultural communities and crop diversity among the 
early farmers in present-day Slovenia. The aim is to 
provoke a discussion about whether and why the po -
tential botanical evidence for early agricultural de ci-
sion-making at the local level is being dismissed, or 
indeed does not exist. The record of prehistoric crop 
cultivation in central Europe dates back to 5500 cal BC
(e.g., Baum et al. 2016). However, the synthesis pre-
sented in this article clearly shows that there is an ur-
gent need for further revision and possible re-probing, 
which would allow us to expand the com parisons be -
tween the sites in the area and thus obtain more in for -
mation about the first farmers in Slovenia. The dis cus -
sion of cultural similarity and preferences in crop 
choice could then be developed, together with archa-
eo logical and archaeozoological evidences.
366
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
occupied by the Sava group communities, the high 
prevalence of cattle remains in Dolsko – Spodnje Škov -
ce could reflect either a strong emphasis on cattle 
herding by the local community or the holding of a 
special event in which cattle/beef played a notable role 
(e.g., a feast).
was not consistently reduced to a sporadic, seasonal 
or purely opportunistic practice (Gaastra, de Vareilles, 
Vander Linden 2022.52–57; Orton in press).
Indeed, the archaeozoological data for the sites of the 
Sava group, although sparse, reflect the non-uniform 
supra-regional picture mentioned above quite well 
(Tab. 8). The high proportion of wild fauna at Èatež – 
Sredno polje and the pile-dwellings of Zamedvedica, 
Verd and Resnikov prekop is probably influenced by 
the location of these sites on/near a large lake/river 
with a forested, game-rich background (Turk, Vuga 
1984; Toškan, Dirjec 2006; Hincak 2022; Velušèek et 
al. 2023.27–28), but may not have been independent 
of a conscious, culturally determined decision to em-
phasize hunting (cf. Bökönyi 1986; Gaastra et al. 
2022.56–57; Orton in press). The relative abundance 
of cattle remains in the 5th millennium layers at the 
hilltop settlement of Spaha (c. 60km southeast of Dol-
sko – Spodnje Škovce), on the other hand, seems to re -
flect vertical transhumance as part of an already de ve -
loped, large-scale cattle herding system. Since both 
extremes of subsistence strategy are found in the area
Anderberg A. L. 1994. Atlas of Seeds and small fruits of 
Northwest­European plant species (Sweden, Norway, 
Den mark, East Fennoscandia, and Iceland) with mor pho ­
 logical descriptions, part 4: Resedaceae-Umbelliferae. 
Swedish Museum of Natural History. Stockholm.
Balasse M., Evin A., Tornero C., +6 authors, and Bãlãºescu A.
2016. Wild, domestic and feral? Investigating the status 
of suids in the Romanian Gumelniţa (5th mil. cal BC) with 
biogeochemistry and geometric morphometrics. Journal of
Anthropological Archaeology 42: 27–36.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2016.02.002
Balen J., Èataj L. 2014. Sopotska kultura/The Sopot Culture. 
In J. Balen, T. Hršak, and R. Šošiæ Klindžiæ (eds.), Darovi 
zemlje: neolitik izmeðu Save, Drava in Dunava/Gifths of
the Earth: The Neolithic between the Sava, Drava and Da­
nube. Arheološki muzej. Filozofski fakultet. Muzej Slavonije. 
Zagreb, Osijek: 59–73.
Bánffy E. 1994. Transdanubia and Eastrern Hungary in the 
Early Copper Age. A Nyiregyhazi Josa Andras Muzeum Ev­
konyve 36: 291–295.
1995. South-west Transdanubia as a mediating area. On 
the cultural history of the Early and Middle Chalcolithic. 
Antaeus 22: 157–196.
2002. A unique southeastern vessel type from early Cal-
cholithic Transdanubia: data on the “western route”. Acta 
Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 53: 
41–60.
2013. Tracing the Beginning of Sedentary Life in the 
Carpathian Basin. The Formation of the LBK House. In D. 
Hofmann, J. Smyth (eds.), Tracking the Neolithic House 
in Europe. Sedentism, Architecture and Practice. One 
World Archaeology. Springer. New York: 117–149.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5289-8_6
Bánffy E., Osztas A., Oross K., +6 authors, and Whittle A. 
2016. The Alsonyek story: towards the history of a persistent 
place. Bericht der Romisch-Germanischen Kommission
94: 283–318.
Barna J. P. 2017. The formation of the Lengyel Culture in 
South­Western Transdanubia. Archaeolingua Series Maior 
39. Archaeolingua Alapítvány. Budapest.
Acknowledgements
Financial support for the archaeological excavation and
research was the company Energoplan d.d. (De ci sion of
the Ministry of Culture no. 62240­16/2008/2 from 06/ 
16/2008), while the company Tica Sistem d.o.o. carried 
out the exca vation. We are grateful to Bar bara Nadbath 
from ZVKDS, CPA, who provided the archaeo lo gical 
material from Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and made its
processing possible. We would also like to thank to Sa ­
mo Ohman, Marko Reš and Tamara Strmšek for draw ­
ing the finds, Matjaž Mori for providing a GIS data base
and general plan of the site, Davorin Ciglar Milosavljeviæ 
for photographing the finds and Dr Nives Kokeza for 
proofreading the text. The authors also acknow ledge 
the financial support of the Slovenian Re search and In -
novation Agency under the Research Pro gramme P6-
0064.
∴
References
367
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
Barna J. P., Tokai Z. T., Pásztor E., +5 authors, and Száraz 
C. 2016. Late Neolithic Circular Ditch Systems in Western-
Hungary. Overview on the present stage of research in Zala 
County, Hungary. In J. Kovárník (ed.), Centenary of Jaroslav 
Palliardi‘s Neolithic and Aeneolithic Relative Chronology 
(1914–2014). University of Hradec Králové. Philosophical 
Fa culty. Hradec Králové: 309−336.
Barna J. P., Serlegi G., Fullár, and Z., Bánffy E. 2019. A circu-
lar enclosure and settlement from the mid-fifth millennium 
BC at Balatonmagyarod-Hidvegpuszta. In E. Banffy, J. P. 
Bar na (eds.), Trans Lacum Pelsonem. Prahistorische For ­
schungen in Sudwestungarn (5500–500 v. Chr.) – Pre hi -
sto ric Research in South­Western Hungary (5500–500 
BC). Castellum Pannonicum Pelsonense 7. Verlag Marie 
Leidorf Publisher. Rahden/Westf.: 117–160.
Bartosiewicz L. 1995. Archeozoological studies from the 
Hahót Bassin, SW Hungary. Antaeus 22: 307–368.
2005. Plain talk: animals, environment and culture in 
the Neolithic of the Carpathian Basin and adjacent areas. 
In A. Whittle, D. Bailey (eds.), (Un)setting the Neolithic. 
Oxbow. Oxford: 51–63.
Baum T., Nendel C., Jacomet S., and Colobran M. 2016. “Slash 
and burn” or “weed and manure”? A modelling approach to
explore hypotheses of late Neolithic crop cultivation in
prealpine wetland sites. Vegetation History and Archaeo-
bo tany 25: 611–627.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-016-0583-x
Berggren G. 1981. Atlas of Seeds and small fruits of North-
west­European plant species (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, 
East Fennoscandia and Iceland) with morphological de ­
scriptions, part 3: Saliacaceae – Cruciferae. Swedish Mu-
seum of Natural History. Stockholm.
Bickle P. 2013. Of Time and a House: The Early Neolithic 
Communities of the Paris Basin and Their Domestic Ar chi -
tecture. In D. Hofmann, J. Smyth (eds.), Tracking the Neo-
lithic House in Europe. One World Archaeology. Springer. 
New York: 151–181.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-52 89-8_7
Bökönyi S. 1986. Environmental and cultural effects on 
the faunal assemblages of four large 4th mill. B. C. sites. 
Szekszárdi Béri Balogh Ádám Múzeum Évkönyve 13: 69– 
88.
Bonsall C., Horvat M., McSweeney K., Masson M., Higham T.
F. G., Pickard C., and Cook G. T. 2007. Chronological and Die -
tary Aspects of the Human Burials from Ajdovska cave, Slo-
venia. Radiocarbon 49(2): 727–740.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200042612
Brock F., Higham T., Ditchfield P., Bronk Ramsey C. 2010. 
Current Pretreatment Methods for AMS Radiocarbon Dat-
ing at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU). 
Radiocarbon 52(1): 103–112.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200045069
Bronk Ramsey C. 2009. Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon 
dates. Radiocarbon 51(1): 37–60.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200033865
Budja M. 1992. Peèatniki v slovenskih neolitskih nasel bin-
skih kontekstih. Poroèilo o raziskovanju paleolita, neolita 
in eneolita v Sloveniji 20: 95–109. 
1994. Neolithic Studies in Slovenia: An Overview. Atti del-
la Societa per la Preistoria e Protostoria della Re gione 
Friuli – Venezia Giulia 8: 7–28.
1995. Neolithic and Eneolithic settlement patterns in 
the Bela krajina Region of Slovenia. In A. Aspes (ed.), 
Symposium Settlement patterns between the Alps and 
the Black Sea 5th to 2nd millenium B.C. Atti del Siposio 
Internazionale Modelli Insediativi tra Alpi e Mar Nero dal 
5° al 2° Millenio A. C., Verona – Lazise 1992. Memore del
mu seo civico di storia naturale di Verona (IIa serie) se-
zio ne scienze dell’uomo 4 (1995). Museo civico di storia 
naturale di Verona. Verona: 119–127.
Cappers R., Bekker R. M., and Jans J. E. A. 2006. Digitale 
Za denatlas van Nederland (Digital Seed Atlas of the Ne­
therlands). Groningen Archaeological Studies 4. Barkhuis. 
Groningen.
Chapman J. 2000. Pit-digging and Structured Deposition in 
the Neolithic and Copper Age. Proceedings of the Prehisto -
ric Society 66: 61–87.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0079497 X00001778
Cigleneèki S. 1979. Podgorje pri Pišecah. Varstvo spo me-
nikov 22: 260.
Culiberg M. 2006. Rastlinski ostanki z arheološkega najdišèa 
Resnikov prekop. In Velušèek (ed.), Resnikov prekop, naj-
starejša kolišèarska naselbina na Ljubljanskem barju/the 
oldest Pile­ Dwelling Settlement in the Ljubljansko Barje. 
Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 10. Ljubljana: 129–
132. https://doi.org/10.3986/9789612545154
2022. Paleobotaniène ostaline. In A. Tomaž (ed.), Èatež­
Sredno polje. Arheologija na avtocestah Slovenije 98. Za-
vod za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. Ljubljana: 
133–135. https://www.zvkds.si/wp-content/uploads/2 
024/03/aas_98_catez_sredno_polje_s.pdf
Culiberg M., Šercelj A. 1986. Karpološke in antrakotomske 
ana lize iz Ajdovske jame pri Nemški vasi. Poroèilo o raz is -
368
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
Filipoviæ D. 2014. Southwest asian founder- and other crops 
at neolithic sites in Serbia. Bulgarian e-Journal of Archa-
eolgy 4: 195–215. https://be-ja.org/index.php/journal/artic 
le/view/be-ja-4-2-2014-195-215
Gaastra J. S., de Vareilles A., and Vander Linden M. 2022. Bo -
nes and Seeds: An Integrated Approach to Understanding 
the Spread of Farming across the Western Balkans. Environ ­
 mental Archaeology 27(1): 44–60. doi: 10.1080/14614103. 
2019.1578016
Gale R., Cutler D. 2000. Plants in Archaeology. Iden ti fi-
cation manual of artefacts of plant origin from Europa 
and the Mediterranean. Westbury Academic and Scientific 
Publishing. Kew, Otley.
Grayson D. K. 1984. Quantitative zooarchaeology: topics in
the analysis of archaeological faunas. Elsevier. Orlando. 
Grootes P. M. 2009a. Datierungsergebnisse der Proben KIA 
37337, 37346, 37349 - 37353. Unpublished report. The Leib-
niz Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and Stable Isotope 
Research. Kiel. 
2009b. Results of Radiocarbon dating of your samples: 
KIA 37315 - 37317, 37343 - 37345, 37347, 37354 - 37372.
Unpublished report. The Leibniz Laboratory for Radio met-
ric Dating and Stable Isotope Research. Kiel. 
Guštin M. 2002. Il campo militare a Èatež presso Brežice 
(Slovenia). Quaderni friuliani di archaeologia 12: 69–75. 
2005. Savska skupina lengyelske kulture. In M. Guštin 
(ed.), Prvi poljedelci, Savska skupina lengyelske kulture. 
Založba Annales (Annales Mediterranea). Koper: 7–22.
Guštin M., Bekiæ L. 2002. Autocesta Zagreb – Ljubljana, iz-
kust vo na dionici kod Brežica. Obavijesti 34(3): 60–66.
Guštin M., Tomaž A., and Kavur B. 2005. Drulovka pri Kra-
nju. In M. Guštin (ed.), Prvi poljedelci, Savska sku pina leng -
yelske kulture. Založba Annales (Annales Mediterranea). 
Koper: 37–63.
Guštin M., Tomaž A., Kavur B., Jakimovski A., Mileusniæ Z., 
Tiefengraber G., and Hincak Z. 2005. Neolitska naselbina Èa-
tež-Sredno polje. In M. Guštin (ed.), Prvi poljedelci, Savska 
skupina lengyelske kulture. Založba Annales (Annales Me-
diterranea). Koper: 101–112.
Harej Z. 1975. Kolišèe ob Resnikovem prekopu – II. Poroèilo 
o raziskovanju neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 4: 145–169.
Hatfield R. E. 2021. RE: Radiocarbon Dating Results. Un-
published report. Beta Analytic Testing Laboratory. Miami.
Hedges R., Lee-Thorpe J. A., and Tuross N. C. 1995. Is tooth 
ena mel carbonate a suitable material for radiocarbon dat-
ko vanju paleolitika, neolitika in eneolitika v Sloveniji 14: 
111–118. 
1995. Karpološke in antrakotomske analize iz pra zgo-
dovinskih višinskih naselij na Dolenjskem. Arheološki 
vestnik 46: 169–176.
Culiberg M., Horvat M., and Šercelj A. 1992. Karpološke in 
an trakotomske analize rastlinskih ostankov iz neolitske jam -
ske nekropole Ajdovska jama. Poroèilo o raziskovanju pa-
leolita, neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 20: 111–126.
Èufar K., Korenèiè T. 2006. Raziskave lesa z Resnikovega 
prekopa in radiokarbonsko datiranje/Investigations of 
Wood from Resnikov Prekop and Radiocarbon Dating. In A. 
Velušèek (ed.), Resnikov prekop, najstarejša kolišèarska 
na selbina na Ljubljanskem barju/the oldest Pile­ Dwelling 
Settlement in the Ljubljansko Barje. Opera Instituti Ar-
chaeologici Sloveniae 10. Ljubljana: 123–127.
https://doi.org/10.3986/9789612545154
Èufar K., Kromer B., Tolar T., and Velušèek A. 2010. Dating of 
4th millennium BC pile dwellings on Ljubljansko barje, Slo-
venia. Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 2031–2039.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2010.03.008
Èufar K., Merela M., Krže L., and Velušèek A. 2022. Dendro -
kronologija in absolutno datiranje kolišè na Ljubljanskem 
barju (Dendrochronology and absolute dating of pile-dwel-
lings in Ljubljansko barje). Les/Wood 71(1): 57–70.
https://doi.org/10.26614/les-wood.2022.v71n01a06
Davis S. J. M. 1987. The archaeology of animals. Routlege. 
London.
Dolinar N. 2016. Neo/eneolitska jama iz Kranja. Unpublish-
ed Diploma thesis. Department of Archaeology. Faculty of 
Arts. University of Ljubljana. Ljubljana.
Dular J. 2001. Neolitska in eneolitska višinska naselja v os-
rednji Sloveniji. Arheološki vestnik 52: 89–106. 
Dular J., Križ B., Svoljšak D., and Tecco Hvala S. 1991. Utrjena 
prazgodovinska naselja v Mirenski in Temeniški dolini. Ar-
heološki vestnik 42: 65–198.
Dupras T. L., Schultz J. J. 2013. Taphonomic Bone Staining 
and Color Changes in Forensic Contexts. In J. Pokines, S. A.
Symes (eds.), Manual of Forensic Taphonomy. CRC Press.
Roca Raton: 315–340. https://doi.org/10.1201/b15424
Evin A., L. Girdland Flink G., A. Bãlãºescu A. D., +13 au thors, 
and Dobney K. 2015. Unravelling the complexity of dome-
stication: a case study using morphometrics and ancient 
DNA analyses of archaeological pigs from Romania. Phi -
losophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 370: 
20130616. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0616
369
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
na Ljubljanskem. Opera Instituti archaeologici Sloveniae 8. 
Ljubljana: 56–64. https://doi.org/10.3986/9789612545055
Jovanoviæ A., Žižek R., and Naðander A. 2012. Poroèilo o ar -
heološkem izkopavanju na najdišèu Dolenji Leskovec – 
Za Savo 2011. Arheološke raziskave ARHOS. Unpublished 
excavation report. 
Kalicz N. 1969. Einige Probleme der Lengyel-Kultur in Un-
garn. Študijné zvìsti 17: 177–205.
1976. Neue Forchungen bezüglich der Lengyel-Kultur. 
Sborník prací Filozofické fakulty brnìnské univerzity, 
øada E, archeologicko­klasická 24­25: 51–61.
1991. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Kupferzeit im ungarischen 
Transdanubien. In J. Lichardus (ed.), Die Kupferzeit als
historische Epoche. Saarbrucker Beitrage zur Alter tums-
kunde 55(1). Dr. Rudolf Habelt GMBH. Bonn: 347–387.
Kavur B. 2010. Polomljena kolesa in pozabljene živali. Od-
sevi predmetov na razpotjih kultur. Zbornik soboškega mu -
 zeja 15: 63–75.
Kendall C., Eriksen A. M. H., Kontopoulos I., Collins M. J., and
Turner-Walker G. 2018. Diagenesis of archaeological bone 
and tooth. Palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology, pa laeo-
ecology 491: 21–37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.11.041
Kenward H. K., Hall A. R., and Jones A. K. C. 1980. A tested 
set of techniques for the extraction of plant and animal ma -
 crofossils from waterlogged archaeological deposits. Sci-
ence and Archaeology 22: 3–15.
Klasinc R., Kusetiè J., Janèar M., and Cerovski D. 2010. Po-
roèilo o zašèitnih arheoloških izkopavanjih na najdišèu 
Dolenji Leskovec – Za Savo. Arheološke raziskave Tica sis-
tem d.o.o. Unpublished excavation report. 
Korošec J. 1956. Neolitièna naselbina v Drulovki pri Kranju. 
Arheološki vestnik 7(1): 3–28.
1960. Drulovka. Zbornik Filozofske fakultete III/4. 
Univerza v Ljubljani. Ljubljana.
1964. Kulturne ostaline na kolišèu ob Resnikovem pre ko-
pu odkrite v letu 1962. Poroèilo o raziskovanju neolita 
in eneolita v Sloveniji 1: 25–46.
1965. Neo- in eneolitski elementi na Ptujskem gradu. Po-
ro èilo o raziskovanju neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 2: 
5–51.
Korošec P. 1975. Poroèilo o raziskavah v Ajdovski jami 1967. 
le ta. Poroèilo o raziskovanju neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 
4: 170–187.
ing. Radiocarbon 37: 285–290.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200030757
Hincak Z. 2022. Poroèilo o paleozoološki analizi živalskih 
ostankov. In A. Tomaž (ed.), Èatež­Sredno polje. Arheologija 
na avtocestah Slovenije 98. Zavod za varstvo kulturne de-
dišèine Slovenije. Ljubljana: 132–133. https://www.zvkds.s 
i/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/aas_98_catez_sredno_p 
olje_s.pdf
Hlad M. 2015. Dolenji Leskovec pri Krškem. Neolitski ob -
jekt 3. Unpublished Diploma thesis. Department of Archaeo-
logy. Faculty of Arts. University of Ljubljana. Ljubljana.
Hofmann D. 2013. Narrating the house. The transformation 
of longhouses in early Neolithic Europe. In A. Chadwick, C. 
Gibson (eds.), Memory, myth and long-term landscape 
inhabitation. Oxbow Books. Oxford: 32–54.
Hopkins R. J. A., Snoeck C., and Higham T. F. G. 2016. When 
Dental Enamel is Put to the Acid Test: Pretreatment Effects 
and Radiocarbon Dating. Radiocarbon 58(4): 893–904. 
https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2016.52
Horvat M. 1989. Ajdovska jama pri Nemški vasi. Razprave 
filozofske fakultete. Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete 
Ljubljana. Ljubljana.
1999. Keramika. Tehnologija keramike, tipo logija lon -
 èenine, keramièni arhiv. Razprave filozofske fa kultete. 
Znan stveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete Ljubljana. Ljub-
lja na.
2005. Col 1 pri Podgraèenem (Col 1 near Podgraèeno). 
Ti pološka opredelitev neolitskega keramiènega zbira SE
002/1/1. In M. Guštin (ed.), Prvi poljedelci, Savska sku -
 pi na lengyelske kulture. Založba Annales (Annales Me-
diterranea). Koper: 145–153.
2009. Prvi prebivalci v Posavju. In J. Peternel (ed.), Ukro-
èe na lepotica. Sava in njene zgodbe. Javni zavod za kul-
tu ro, šport, turizem in mladinske dejavnosti. Sevnica: 
25–35.
2020. Col 1 pri Podgraèenem. Arheologija na avtocestah 
Slovenije 85. Zavod za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slo ve -
nije. Ljubljana. https://www.zvkds.si/wp-content/uplo 
ads/2024/03/col_1_low.pdf
Ilon G. 2004. Szombathely õskori településtörténetének 
vázlata. Õskorunk 2. Vas Megyei Muzeumok Igazgatosaga. 
Szombathely.
Jeraj M. 2004. Paleobotaniène raziskave na kolišèu Hoèe va-
rica. Paleobotanical analyses of the Hoèevarica pile dwel-
ling. In A. Velušèek (ed.), Hoèevarica – eneolitsko kolišèe 
370
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
ledge, J. Conolly, K. Dobney, K. Manning, and S. Shennan 
(eds.), The origins and spread of domestic animals in 
Southwest Asia and Europe. Routledge. New York: 237–
252.
2013b. The origins and spread of stock-keeping: the role of 
cultural and environmental influences on early Neolithic 
animal exploitation in Europe. Antiquity 87: 1046–1059. 
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00049851
 
Marinova E. 2007. Archaeobotanical data from the early 
neolithic of Bulgaria. In S. Colledge, J. Conolly (eds.), The 
Origins and Spread of domestic plants in Southwest Asia
and Europe. Left Coast Press. Walnut Creek: 93–109.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315417615
2017. Archaeobotanical analysis of the neolithic site Bal-
garèevo, Southwestern Bulgaria. In J. Lechterbeck, E. Fi -
scher (eds.), Kontrapunkte: Festschrift für Manfred 
Rösch. Habelt. Bonn: 147–158.
McGrath K., Rowsell K., Gates St-Pierre C., +4 authors, and
Collins M. 2019. Identifying Archaeological Bone via Non-
Destructive ZooMS and the Materiality of Symbolic Expres-
sion: Examples from Iroquoian Bone Points. Scientific Re-
ports 9: 11027. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47299-x
Minichreiter C., Markoviæ Z. 2013. Beketinci Bentež. Na se ­
lja iz eneolitika, ranoga i kasnoga srednjega veka. Mono-
gra phiae Instituti Archaeologici 3. Institut za arheologiju. 
Zagreb.
Mlekuž D., Ogrinc N., Horvat M., Žibrat Gašpariè A., Gams 
Pe trišiè M., and Budja M. 2013. Pots and food: uses of pottery 
from Resnikov prekop. Documenta Praehistorica 40: 131–
146. https://doi.org/10.4312/dp.40.11
Morin E., Ready E., Boileau A., Beauval C., and Coumont 
M.-P. 2017. Problems of Identification and Quantification 
in Archaeozoological Analysis. Part I: Insights from a Blind 
Test. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 24: 
886–937. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-016-9300-4
Nowak M., Moskal-del Hoyo M., Mueller-Bieniek A., Lityñska-
Zajac M., and Kotynia K. 2017. Benefits and weakness of ra-
diocarbon dating of plant material as reflected by Neolithic 
archaeological sites from Poland, Slovakia and Hungary. 
Geochronometria 44: 188–201.
https://doi.org/10.1515/geochr-2015-0066
Nyerges É. Á., Biller A. Z. 2015. Neolithic animal hus band ry
in the Tolnai-Sárköz region on the basis of the archaeo zo-
ological finds from the Alsónyék-Bátaszék archaeological 
site. Hungarian Archaeology E­Journal. 2015 Winter: 1–7.
Oross K. 2010. Architecture of the Linearbandkeramik set -
tlement at Balatonszárszó–Kis-Erdei-dûlõ in central Trans-
Kramberger B. 2014. The Neolithic-Eneolithic sequence and 
pottery assemblages in the fifth millennium BC in north-
east ern Slovenia. Documenta Praehistorica 41: 237–282.
https://doi.org/10.4312/dp.41.13
2018. Najdbe in sledovi poselitve iz bakrene dobe pod 
gomilo v Brezju pod Brinjevo goro. Arheološki vestnik 
69: 69–133.
2020. Zur relativen und absoluten Chronologie des spä-
ten Neolithikums und frühen Äneolithikums im kon tinen-
talen Teil Sloweniens. In C. Gutjahr, G. Tiefengraber (eds.), 
Beiträge zur Kupferzeit am Rande der Südostalpen. Ak-
ten des 4. Wildoner Fachgesprächs am 16. und 17. Juni 
2016 in Wildon/Steiermark (Österreich). Materialhefte 
zur Archäologie des Südostalpenraumes 1. Hengist-Stu-
dien Band 5. ISBE-Forschungen Band 1. Verlag Marie Lei-
dorf. Rahden, Westf.: 53–89.
2021. Zgornje Radvanje. Naselbinske ostaline in kera-
miè ne najdbe. Arheologija na avtocestah Slovenije 93. 
Za vod za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. Ljubljana. 
zvkds.si/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/aas_93_zgornje_
radvanje_low.pdf
2022. 10.1 Radiokarbonske analize. In P. Mason, B. Kram-
berger (eds.), Obrežje. Prazgodovina. Arheologija na av -
to cestah Slovenije 105/1. Zavod za varstvo kulturne de-
dišèine Slovenije. Ljubljana: 114–124. https://www.zvkds.
si/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/aas_105_obrezje_splet.
pdf
in press. Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce. Veèobdobno najdišèe 
ob vzhodnem robu Ljubljanskega polja/A multi­period 
site at the eastern edge of Ljubljana Basin. Monografije 
CPA 20. Zavod za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. 
Ljubljana.
Kramberger B., Lubšina Tušek M., and Tolar T. 2023. Na sel -
bina iz poznega neolitika in zgodnje bakrene dobe v Sto-
percah/Late Neolithic and Early Copper Age settlement at
Stoperce (Haloze, NE Slovenia). Arheološki vestnik 74: 39– 
124. https://doi.org/10.3986/AV.74.02
Krap T., Ruijter J. M., Nota K., +4 authors, and Duijst W. 2019. 
Colourimetric analysis of thermally altered human bone 
samples. Scientific Re ports 9: 8923.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-45420-8
Kvìtina P., Øídký J. 2017. Neolithic settlement space: waste, 
deposition and identity. In D. Sosna, L. Brunclíková (eds.), 
Archaeologies of Waste: Encounters with the Unwanted. 
Oxbow Books. Oxford: 127–144.
Manning K., Stopp B., Colledge S., Downey S., Conolly J., Dob -
ney K., and Shennan S. 2013a. Animal exploitation in the 
early Neolithic of the Balkans and Central Europe. In S. Col-
371
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
Paleèková O. 2008. Popùvky (Brno-venkov Dist.). In Z. Èiž-
maø (ed.), Život a smrt v mladší dobé. Ústav archeologické 
pa mátkové péèe. Brno: 102–111.
Pavlin P., Dular J. 2007. Prazgodovinska višinska naselja v 
Posavskem hribovju (Prehistoric hilltop settlements in the 
Posavje Hills). Arheološki vestnik 58: 65–120.
Pavúk J. 1981. Súèasný stav štúdia lengyelskej kultúry na 
Slo vensku. Památky archeologické 72(2): 255–299.
2003. Hausgrundrisse der Lengyel-Kultur in der Slo wa kei.
In J. Eckert, U. Eisenhauer, and A. Zimmermann (eds.), Ar -
chäologische Perspektiven. Analysen und Inter preta tio -
nen im Wandel. Festschrift für Jens Lüning zum 65. Ge­
burtstag. Internationale Archäologie. Studia honoraria 
20. Verlag Marie Leidorf. Rahden, Westf.: 455–469.
2007. Zur Frage der Entstehung und Verbreitung der 
Lengyel-Kultur. In J. K. Koz³ovski, P. Raczky (eds.), The 
Lengyel, Polgar and related cultures in the Middle/Late 
Neolithic in Central Europe. The Polish Academy of Arts 
and Sciences Krakow. Eotvos Lorand University. Institute 
of Archaeological Sciences. Budapest, Krakow: 11–28.
Payne S. 1985. Morphological distinctions between man-
dibular teeth of young sheep, Ovis, and goats, Capra. Jour-
nal of Archaeological Science 12: 139–147.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403(85)90058-5
Raczky P. 1974. A Lengyeli-kultúra legkésõbbi szakaszának 
leletei a Dunántúlon (Funde der spätesten Phase der Leng-
yel-Kultur in Westungarn). Archaeologiai Értesitõ 101: 
185–210.
2005. Újkokori ház kísérleti rekonstrukciója Pol gár-Csosz-
halom településérol. Experimental reconstruction of a 
Neolithic house at the Polgár-Csoszhalom settlement. Os-
régészeti Levelek 7: 24–49.
Ravnik M., Tica G. 2018. Ponikve pri Trebnjem. Arheologija 
na avtocestah Slovenije 57. Zavod za varstvo kulturne dedi -
šèine Slovenije. Ljubljana. zvkds.si/wp-content/uploads/ 
2024/03/57_ponikve_pri_trebnjem.pdf
Regenye J. 2007. The Late Lengyel culture in Hungary as 
reflected by the excevation at Veszprem. In J. K. Koz³ovski, 
P. Raczky (eds.), The Lengyel, Polgar and related cultures
in the Middle/Late Neolithic in Central Europe. The Polish 
Academy of Arts and Sciences Krakow. Eotvos Lorand Uni-
versity. Institute of Archaeological Sciences. Budapest. Kra-
kow: 381–396.
2011. Kões agyag. Település és életmód a neolitikum–
réz kor fordulóján a Dunántúlon (Stone and clay. Set­
tlement and way of life at the Neolithic/Copper Age tran ­
sition in Transdanubia). Veszprem Megyei Muzeumi Igaz-
gatosag. Veszprem.
danubia. In D. Gheorghiu (ed.), Neolithic and Chalcolithic 
archaeology in Eurasia: building techniques and spatial 
organisation. Proceedings of the XV World Congress UISPP
(Lisbon, 4–9 September 2006). Archaeopress. Oxford: 63– 
80. 
Oross K., Marton T., Whittle A., Hedges R. E. M., and Cramp 
L. J. E. 2010. Die Siedlung der Balaton-Lasinja-Kultur in 
Balatonszarzo-Kis-erdei-dûlõ. In J. Sutekova, P. Pavuk, P. 
Ka labkova, and B. Kovar (eds.), Panta Rhei: Studies in 
Chro nology and Cultural Development of South Eastern 
and Central Europe in Earlier Prehistory Presented to 
Juraj Pavuk on the Occasion of his 75th Birthday. Studia 
Ar chaeologica et Mediaevalia 11. Comenius University Bra-
tislava. Bratislava: 381–407.
Oross K., Bánffy E. 2009. Three successive waves of Neoli-
thi sation – LBK development in Transdanubia. Documenta 
Praehistorica 36: 175–189.
https://doi.org/10.4312/dp.36.11
Orton D. 2012. Herding, Settlement, and Chronology in the 
Balkan Neolithic. European Journal of Archaeology 15(1): 
5–40. https://doi.org/10.1179/1461957112Y.0000000003
in press. False dichotomies? Balkan Neolithic hunting in 
archaeological context. In J. Mulville, A. Powell (eds.), A 
Walk on the Wild Side: Hunting in Farming Societies. 
Orton D., Bulatoviæ J., and Dimitrijeviæ I. 2021. Evidence for 
animal use in the central Balkan Neolithic across the early 
metallurgical horizon: the animal remains from Belovode 
and Ploènik in context. In M. Radivojeviæ, B. W. Roberts, M. 
Mariæ, J. Kuzmanoviæ Cvetkoviæ, and T. Rehren (eds.), The 
Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia. Evolution, Organisation and 
Consumption of Early Metal in the Balkan. Archaeopress 
Archaeology. Oxford: 585–598.
Orton D., Gaastra J., and Vander Linden M. 2016. Between 
the Danube and the deep blue sea: Zooarchaeological meta-
analysis reveals variability in the spread and development 
of Neolithic farming across the Western Balkans. Open Qua-
ternary 2: 1–26. http://doi.org/10.5334/oq.28
Osztás A., Zalai-Gaál I., and Bánffy E. 2012. Alsónyék-Báta-
szék: a new chapter in the research of Lengyel culture. Do-
cumenta Praehistorica 39: 377–396.
https://doi.org/10.4312/dp.39.27
Osztás A., Zalai-Gaál I., Bánffy E., +11 authors, and Whittle A.
2016. Coalescent community at Alsonyek: the timings and 
duration of Lengyel burials and settlement. Bericht der 
Romisch-Germanischen Kommission 94: 179–282.
Pahiè S. 1976. Selišène najdbe v zahodnih Slovenskih go ri-
cah – Andrenci, Spodnji Duplek, Spodnji Porèiæ, Vumpah. Po -
 roèilo o raziskovanju paleolita, neolita in eneolita v Slo-
veniji 5: 29–83.
372
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
ma. In C. Gutjarh, G. Tiefengraber (eds.), Beiträge zur 
Kupferzeit am Rande der Südostalpen. Akten des 4. 
Wildoner Fachgesprächs am 16. und 17. Juni 2016 in 
Wildon/Steiermark (Österreich). Materialhefte zur Ar-
chäologie des Südostalpenraumes 1. Hengist-Studien 
Band 5. ISBE-Forschungen Band 1. Verlag Marie Leidorf. 
Rahden, Westf.: 91–132.
Stadler P., Ruttkay E. 2007. Absolute chronology of the 
Moravian-Eastern-Austrian Group (MOG) of the painted 
pottery (Lengyel-culture) based on new radiocarbon dates
from Austria. In J. K. Koz³ovski, P. Raczky (eds.), The Len-
gyel, Polgar and related cultures in the Middle/Late Neo­
lithic in Central Europe. The Polish Academy of Arts and 
Sci ences Krakow. Eotvos Lorand University. Institute of Ar-
chaeological Sciences. Budapest, Krakow: 117–146.
Stathopoulou E., Phoca Cosmetatou N., Theodoropoulou T., 
Mallouchou M., Margariti E., and Psycharis V. 2019. Ori gin
of archaeological black bones within a waterlogged con text: 
A multidisciplinary approach. Palaeogeography, Pa laeocli -
matology, Palaeoecology 534: 109334.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.109334
Stuiver M., Polach H. A. 1977. Discussion Reporting of 14C 
Data. Radiocarbon 19(3): 355–363.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200003672
Šavel I. 1992. Bukovnica – rezultati terenskih raziskav v letih 
1987–1988. Poroèilo o raziskovanju paleolita, neolita in 
eneo lita v Sloveniji 20: 57–85.
Šavel I., Karo Š. 2012. Popava pri Lipovcih 1. Arheologija na
avtocestah Slovenije 30. Zavod za varstvo kulturne de dišèi -
ne Slovenije. Ljubljana. zvkds.si/wp-content/uploads/202 
4/03/30_popava_pri_lipovcih_1.pdf
Šercelj A., Culiberg M. 1984. Rastlinski ostanki iz Ajdovske 
jame pri Nemški vasi. Poroèilo o raziskovanju paleolita, 
neolita in eneolita v Sloveniji 12: 33–37.
Težak-Gregl T. 2001.The lengyel culture in Croatia. In J. Re-
genye (ed.), Sites and stones. Lengyel culture in western 
Hun gary and beyond. A review of the current research. 
Meg yei Múzeumi Igazgatóság. Vézprem: 27–35. 
2005. Ozalj-Stari grad, neolitièka naseobina (Ozalj-Stari 
grad, Neolithic settlement). In M. Guštin (ed.), Savska sku -
pina lengyelske kulture. Založba Annales (Annales Me-
diterranea). Koper: 155–162.
Tiefengraber G. 2018. Der Wildoner Schlossberg. Die Aus ­
grabungen des Landesmuseums Joanneum 1985–1988.
For schungen zur geschichtlichen Landeskunde der Steie -
mark 80. Schild von Steier. Beiheft 7/2018. Univer sal mu-
seum Joanneum. Graz.
Regenye J., Biró K. T. 2014. Veszprém, Jutasi út neolitikus 
település leletanyaga II. Kerámia, kõ (Finds from the Neo-
li thic settlement Veszprém, Jutasi street II. Ceramics and 
lithics). Laczkó Dezsõ Múzeum Közleményei 29: 7–70.
Regenye J., Oross K., Bánffy E., +5 authors, and Whittle A. 
2022. Some Balaton-Lasinja graves from Veszpré-Jutasi út 
and an outline chronology for the earlier Copper Age in 
west ern Hungary. Documenta Praehistorica 49: 280–299. 
https://doi.org/10.4312/dp.49.4
Reimer P. J., Austin W. E. N., Bard E., +37 authors, and Talamo 
S. 2020. The IntCal20 Northern Hemispheric radiocarbon 
calibration curve (0–55 kcal BP). Radiocarbon 62: 725–
757. https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2020.41
Sabanov A., Soteras R., Hajdas I., Naumov G., and Antolin F. 
2024. New research on crop diversity of the early farmers in 
southeastern Europe (ca. 6400–5700 BCE). Vegetation His -
tory and Archaeobotany 33: 63–74.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-023-00940-2
Sava V. 2015. Neolithic and Eneolithic in the Lower Mureş 
Basin. Editura Mega. Cluj, Napoca.
Schmitzberger M. 2008. Archäozoologische Untersuchungen 
an den Tierknochen aus den Rettungsgrabungen des Nieder-
österreichischen Landesmuseums in Michelstetten 1994–
1999. Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien. 
Serie A 110: 221–312.
Schweingruber F. H. 1990. Mikroskopische Holzanatomie. 
Eidgenössische Anstalt für das Forstliche Versuchswesen. 
Birmensdorf.
Sraka M. 2012. 14C calendar chronologies and cultural se-
quences in 5th millennium BC in Slovenia and neighbouring 
regions. Documenta Praehistorica 39: 349–376.
https://doi.org/10.4312/dp.39.26
2014. Bayesian modelling the 14C calendar chronologies 
of the Neolithic-Eneolithic transition. Case studies from 
Slovenia and Croatia. In W. Schier, F. Draºovean (eds.), 
The Neolithic and Eneolithic in southeast Europe. New 
approaches to dating and cultural dynamics in the 6th 
to 4th millennium BC. Prähistorische Archäologie in 
Südosteuropa 28. Verlag Marie Leidorf. Rahden, Westf.: 
369–396.
2016. Prazgodovinske kronologije in kulturna zapored-
ja. Unpublished PhD thesis. Faculty of Arts. University of 
Ljubljana. Ljubljana.
2020. Calendar chronologies and cultural dynamics in the 
5th millennium BC in Slovenia. Case studies in Bayesian 
chronological modeling of the settlements at Gradec pri 
Mir ni and Bukovnica and cave necropolis at Ajdovska ja-
373
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
2022. Èatež­Sredno polje. Arheologija na avtocestah Slo-
venije 98. Zavod za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. 
Ljubljana. zvkds.si/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/aas_ 
98_catez_sredno_polje_s.pdf
Tomaž A., Velušèek A. 2005. Resnikov prekop na Ljub ljan-
skem barju 1962 in 2002. In M. Guštin (ed.), Prvi poljedelci, 
Savska skupina lengyelske kulture. Založba Annales (An-
nales Mediterranea). Koper: 87–99.
Toškan B. 2011. Živalski ostanki. In A. Velušèek (ed.), Spaha. 
Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 22. Ljubljana: 265–
281. https://doi.org/10.3986/9789612545758
2018. Živalski ostanki. In M. Ravnik, G. Tica (ed.), Ponikve 
pri Trebnjem. Arheologija na avtocestah Slovenije 57. Za -
vod za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. Ljub lja na:
78–81. https://www.zvkds.si/wp-content/uploads/20 
24/03/57_ponikve_pri_trebnjem.pdf
2022. Živalski ostanki. In P. Turk, V. Svetlièiè, and D. Pav-
loviè (ed.), Dragomelj. Arheologija na avtocestah Slo-
venije 106. Zavod za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. 
Ljubljana: 152. zvkds.si/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/aa 
s_106_dragomelj_splet.pdf
Toškan B. in press. Arheozoološka analiza/Archa eo zoo lo-
gical analysis. In B. Kramberger (ed.), Dolsko – Spodnje 
Škovce. Veèobdobno najdišèe ob vzhodnem robu Ljub ljan-
skega polja. Monografije CPA 20. Zavod za varstvo kulturne 
dedišèine Slovenije. Ljubljana.
Toškan B., Dirjec J. 2006. Ostanki sesalske favne na Res ni-
kovem prekopu, Ljubljansko barje (Remains of mammal 
fauna at Resnikov prekop, Ljubljansko barje). In A. Velušèek 
(ed.), Resnikov prekop, najstarejša kolišèarska naselbi-
na na Ljubljanskem barju. Opera Instituti Archaeologici 
Sloveniae 10. Ljubljana: 19–86.
https://doi.org/10.3986/9789612545154
Tóth P., Malíšková J., Nývltová Fišáková M., Novotný J., Hons 
D., Èerevková A., and Kazdová E. 2010. Intra-site analýza 
sídliskového odpadu ako prameò poznania života èloveka 
v neolite (Intra-site analysis of the settlement waste as the
source of knowledge of the life in the Neolithic). In I. Che-
ben, P. Kalábková, and M. Metlièka (eds.), Otázky neolitu a
eneolitu našich krajín – 2017–2019. Archaeologica Slo va ca
Monographiae 26. Instituti Archaeologici Nitriensis Acade-
miaeScientiarum Slovacae. Nitra, Olomouc, Plzeò: 247–280.
Turk I., Vuga D. 1984. Zamedvedica pri Plešivici. Novo eneo-
litsko naselje na Ljubljanskem barju. Arheološki vestnik 35: 
76–89. 
Turk P., Svetlièiè V. 2005. Neolitska naselbina v Dragomlju. In 
M. Guštin (ed.), Prvi poljedelci, Savska skupina lengyelske 
Tolar T. 2018. Primerjava razliènih metod vzorèenja in pri-
prave arheobotaniènih vzorcev z eneolitskih kolišè Stro-
janova voda in Maharski prekop. Arheološki vestnik 69: 
461–498.
2021. Arheobotaniène analize. In B. Kramberger (ed.), 
Zgornje Radvanje: naselbinske ostaline in keramiène 
najdbe. Arheologija na avtocestah Slovenije 93. Zavod za 
varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. Ljubljana: 109–110. 
zvkds.si/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/aas_93_zgornje_
radvanje_low.pdf
2022. 6.3 Rastlinski makro ostanki. In Turk P., Svetlièiè V.,
and Pavloviè D. (eds.), Dragomelj. Arheologija na av to -
cestah Slovenije 106. Zavod za varstvo kulturne de diš èi -
ne Slovenije. Ljubljana: 146–151. zvkds.si/wp-contentupl 
oads/2024/04/aas_106_dragomelj_splet.pdf
in press. Archaeobotanical analysis. In B. Kramberger 
(ed.), Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce. Veèobdobno najdišèe ob
vzhodnem robu Ljubljanskega polja. Monografije CPA
20. Zavod za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. Ljub-
ljana.
Tolar T., S. Jacomet, A. Velušèek, and K. Èufar 2010. Recove-
ry techniques for waterlogged archaeological sediments: 
a comparison of different treatment methods for samples 
from Neolithic lake shore settlements. Vegetation History 
and Archaeobotany 19: 53–67.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-009-0221-y
2011. Plant economy at the late Neolithic lake dwelling 
site in Slovenia at the time of the Alpine Iceman. Vege ta-
tion History and Archaeobotany 20: 207–222.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-010-0280-0
Tomaniè-Jevremov M., Tomaž A., and Kavur B. 2006. Neolit -
ske in bakrenodobne najdbe s Ptujskega gradu. In A. Tomaž 
(ed.), Od Sopota do Lengyela, prispevki o kamenodobnih 
in bakrenodobnih kulturah med Savo in Donavo). Založba 
Annales (Annales Mediterranea). Koper: 175–194.
Tomaž A. 1997. Tehnološka raziskava lonèenine iz Moverne 
vasi v Beli krajini. Poroèilo o raziskovanju paleolitika, 
neolitika in eneolitika v Sloveniji 24: 113–142.
1999. Èasovna in prostorska strukturiranost neo lit ske -
ga lonèarstva: Bela krajina, Ljubljansko barje, Dinarski 
kras. Unpublished Diploma thesis. Department of Ar cha-
eology, Faculty of Arts. University of Ljubljana. Ljubljana.
2005. Èatež-Sredno polje. Analiza neolitske keramike iz
objektov 055 in 093. In M. Guštin (ed.), Savska skupina 
lengyelske kulture/First Farmers, The Sava Group of
the Lengyel Culture. Založba Annales (Annales Mediter-
ranea). Koper: 113–129.
374
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
Velušèek A., Horjak M., Tolar T., Toškan B., Merela M., and Èu -
far K. 2023. Verd – newly discovered pile-dwelling from the 
5th millennium BC in Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia. Les/Wood 
72(2): 18–36. https://doi.org/10.26614/les-wood.2023.v 
72n02a01
Whittle A. 1990. Radiocarbon dating of the Linear Pottery 
cul ture: the contribution of cereal and bone samples. An ti-
quity 64(243): 297–302.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00077917
Wood R., Duval M., Thi Mai Huong N., +5 authors, and Pi per
P. 2016. The effect of grain size on carbonate contaminant 
removal from tooth enamel: Towards an improved pretreat-
ment for radiocarbon dating. Quaternary Geochronology 
36: 174–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2016.08.010
Wright E., Viner-Daniels S. 2015. Geographical variation in
the size and shape of the European aurochs (Bos pri mi ge-
nius). Journal of Archaeological Science 54: 8–22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.11.021
Zazzo A. 2014. Bone and enamel carbonate diagenesis: a ra -
diocarbon prospective. Palaeogeography, Palaeo clima to-
logy, Palaeoecology 416: 168–178.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.05.006
Zeder M., Pilaar S. 2010. Assessing the reliability of criteria 
used to identify mandibles and mandibular teeth in sheep,
Ovis, and goats, Capra. International Journal of Archaeo-
logical Science 37: 225–242.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2009.10.002
Žorž A. 2009. Zgodnjesrednjeveški obredni prostor na 
najdišèu Spodnje Škovce (Early Medieval Sacral Area at the 
Site of Spodnje Škovce). Studia Mythologica Slavica 12: 
31–54. https://doi.org/10.3986/sms.v12i0.1662
Žorž Matjašiè A. 2009. Dolsko – naselbina Spodnje Škovce. 
Var stvo spomenikov 45: 53–57.
Žorž A., Nadbath B. 2010. Arheološke ostaline s Spodnjih 
Škovc pri Dolskem. In S. Umerzu (ed.), Iz dežele Jurija Vege.
Zbornik obèine Dol pri Ljubljani 2. Ljubljana: 341–381.
culture. Založba Annales (Annales Mediterranea). Koper: 
65–79.
2022. Neolitik. In P. Turk, V. Svetlièiè, and D. Pavloviè 
(eds.), Dragomelj. Arheologija na avtocestah 106. Zavod 
za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. Ljubljana: 29–48. 
Zavod za varstvo kulturne dedišèine Slovenije. Ljubljana.
zvkds.si/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/aas_106_drago 
melj_splet.pdf
Turk P., Svetlièiè V., and Pavloviè D. 2022. Dragomelj. Ar-
heologija na avtocestah Slovenije 106. Zavod za varstvo kul-
turne dedišèine Slovenije. Ljubljana. zvkds.si/wp-content/
uploads/2024/04/aas_106_dragomelj_splet.pdf
Valamoti S. M., Kotsakis K 2007. Transitions to agriculture in 
the Aegean: the archaeobotanical evidence. In S. Colledge, J. 
Conolly J. (ed.), The origin and spread of domestic plants 
in southwest Asia and Europe. Left Coast Press. Walnut 
Creek: 76–92.
de Vareilles A., Boubly L., Jesus A., Martin L., Rottoli M., 
Vander Linden M., and Antolin F. 2020. One sea but many 
routes to Sail: the early maritime dispersal of neolithic 
crops from Aegean to the western Mediterranean. Journal 
of Archaeolgical Science Reports 29: 102–140.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.102140
Velušèek A. 2006. Resnikov prekop – sondiranje, arheološke 
najdbe, kulturna opredelitev in èasovna uvrstitev. In A. Ve-
lušèek (ed.), Resnikov prekop, najstarejša kolišèarska na-
selbina na Ljubljanskem barju/the oldest Pile­ Dwelling 
Settlement in the Ljubljansko Barje. Opera Instituti Ar cha-
eologici Sloveniae 10. Ljubljana: 19–86.
https://doi.org/10.3986/9789612545154
2011. Spaha in kronologija osrednje- in južno sloven ske -
ga neolitika ter zgodnejšega eneolitika. In A. Veluš èek
(ed.), Spaha. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Slove niae 22.
Ljub ljana: 201–244.
https://doi.org/10.3986/978961254 5758
375
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
Si
te
Do
ls
ko
 –
 S
po
dn
je
 
Šk
ov
ce
 (F
ig
. 1
.1
)
Dr
ag
om
el
j, 
SU
 
97
1 
(F
ig
. 1
.5
)
Re
sn
ik
ov
 p
re
ko
p 
(F
ig
. 1
.6
)
Za
m
ed
ve
di
ca
 
(F
ig
. 1
.7
)
Ve
rd
 (F
ig
. 1
.9
)
Do
le
nj
i 
Le
sk
ov
ec
 (F
ig
. 
1.
12
)
Ča
te
ž –
 S
re
dn
o 
po
lje
 (F
ig
.  1
. 1
4)
St
op
er
ce
, S
U
 
12
8 
(F
ig
. 1
.2
2)
N
o.
 se
di
m
en
t s
am
pl
es
34
1
34
 w
oo
d 
sa
m
pl
es
n.
d.
2
1
70
2
Co
nt
ex
t
N
eo
lit
hi
c 
pi
ts
 1
 a
nd
 
2,
 S
U
s 8
7,
 8
7,
 2
18
N
eo
lit
hi
c 
pi
t
Pi
le
-d
w
el
lin
g
Su
rf
ac
e 
fin
ds
Pi
le
-d
w
el
lin
g
Pi
t
N
eo
lit
hi
c 
pi
ts
N
eo
lit
hi
c 
pi
t
Ag
e 
ca
l B
C 
/ 
Pl
an
t t
ax
a 
(s
ee
ds
/f
ru
its
)
Ch
ar
co
al
 a
nd
 a
pa
tit
e:
 
47
88
-4
35
0
Ch
ar
co
al
: 4
84
0-
44
56
Al
nu
s w
oo
d:
 4
67
5-
44
65
/
Tr
ap
a 
na
ta
ns
: 4
61
1-
46
30
; d
en
dr
oc
hr
.: 
46
74
±4
2
Cr
at
ae
gu
s:
 
46
56
-4
37
1
Ch
ar
co
al
: 4
95
4-
44
60
Ch
ar
co
al
: 4
60
9-
44
50
Ce
re
al
ia
1
Po
ac
ea
e 
(?
Ce
re
al
ia
)
x
St
el
la
ria
 sp
.
1
Ch
en
op
od
ia
ce
ae
x
Po
ly
go
nu
m
 sp
.
2
Po
ly
go
nu
m
 p
er
sic
ar
ia
1
Ve
ro
ni
ca
 sp
.
1
Se
ta
ria
 sp
.
2
U
rti
ca
 d
io
ic
a
2
Sp
ar
ga
ni
um
 sp
.
1
So
la
nu
m
 n
ig
ru
m
1
Be
tu
la
 p
ub
es
ce
ns
1
Ac
er
 sp
.
2
Fa
gu
s s
yl
va
tic
a 
2
M
al
us
/P
yr
us
1
Cr
at
ae
gu
s m
on
og
yn
a
2
1
Ru
bu
s s
p.
1
Co
rn
us
 sa
ng
ui
ne
a
1
Ab
ie
s a
lb
a-
ne
ed
le
s
30
Al
nu
s s
p.
5
N
up
ha
r l
ut
eu
m
2
M
en
th
a 
aq
ua
tic
a
29
Sc
ho
en
op
le
ct
us
 la
cu
st
ris
13
Po
ta
m
og
et
on
 sp
.
2
Ta
b.
 6
. 5
th
 m
il
le
n
n
iu
m
 c
al
 B
C 
La
te
 N
eo
li
th
ic
 s
it
es
 in
 S
lo
ve
n
ia
 w
it
h 
m
ac
ro
-r
em
ai
n
s 
of
 s
ee
ds
/f
ru
it
s,
 s
ta
te
-o
f-t
he
-a
rt
 (
n
.d
. –
 n
o 
da
ta
).
 Q
u
an
ti
ta
ti
ve
 p
ro
po
rt
io
n
s 
of
 
sa
m
pl
es
 a
pp
ly
 to
 a
ll 
an
al
ys
ed
 s
am
pl
es
 (
se
ed
s 
an
d 
w
oo
d 
ch
ar
co
al
).
 S
ou
rc
e 
of
 d
at
a:
 C
u
li
be
rg
 (
20
22
);
 K
ra
m
be
rg
er
 e
t a
l. 
(2
02
3)
; T
ol
ar
 (
20
22
);
 V
el
u
šè
ek
 e
t a
l. 
(2
02
3)
; 
Cu
li
be
rg
 (
20
06
);
 È
u
fa
r,
 K
or
en
èi
è 
(2
00
6)
; S
ra
ka
 (
20
16
);
 H
la
d 
(2
01
5)
 a
n
d 
u
n
pu
bl
is
he
d 
da
ta
.
376
Bine Kramberger, Borut Toškan, and Tjaša Tolar
Ta
b.
 7
. 5
th
 m
il
le
n
n
iu
m
 c
al
 B
C 
La
te
 N
eo
li
th
ic
 s
it
es
 in
 S
lo
ve
n
ia
 w
it
h 
ch
ar
co
al
 (
w
oo
d)
 r
em
ai
n
s,
 s
ta
te
-o
f-t
he
-a
rt
 (
n
.d
. –
 n
o 
da
ta
).
 Q
u
an
ti
ta
ti
ve
 p
ro
po
rt
io
n
s 
of
 s
am
pl
es
 
ap
pl
y 
to
 a
ll 
an
al
ys
ed
 s
am
pl
es
 (
se
ed
s 
an
d 
w
oo
d 
ch
ar
co
al
).
 S
ou
rc
e 
of
 d
at
a:
 T
ab
. 2
 a
n
d 
sa
m
e 
as
 in
 T
ab
. 6
.
Al
ism
a 
pl
an
ta
go
 a
qu
ati
ca
6
Eu
pa
to
riu
m
 c
an
na
bi
nu
m
7
Ra
nu
nc
ul
us
 a
qu
ati
lis
3
O
en
an
th
e 
aq
ua
tic
a
4
N
aj
as
 m
ar
in
a
3
Ep
ilo
bi
um
 h
irs
ut
um
3
Ap
ia
ce
ae
1
Tr
ap
a 
na
ta
ns
8
Ch
ar
a 
sp
.
33
Ta
b.
 6
. C
on
ti
n
u
ed
Si
te
Do
ls
ko
 –
 S
po
dn
je
 
Šk
ov
ce
 (F
ig
. 1
.1
)
Dr
ag
om
el
j, 
SU
 9
71
 (F
ig
. 
1.
5)
Re
sn
ik
ov
 
pr
ek
op
 (F
ig
. 
1.
6)
Za
m
ed
ve
di
ca
 
(F
ig
. 1
.7
)
Ve
rd
 (F
ig
. 1
.9
)
Do
le
nj
i 
Le
sk
ov
ec
 
(F
ig
. 1
.1
2)
Ča
te
ž –
 S
re
dn
o 
po
lje
 (F
ig
.  1
. 1
4)
St
op
er
ce
, S
U
 
12
8 
(F
ig
. 1
.2
2)
N
o.
 se
di
m
en
t 
sa
m
pl
es
34
1
34
 w
oo
d 
sa
m
pl
es
n.
d.
2
1
70
2
N
o.
 ID
 c
ha
rc
oa
ls
35
n.
d.
n.
d.
19
0
4
Co
nt
ex
t
N
eo
lit
hi
c 
pi
ts
 1
 a
nd
 
2,
 S
U
s 8
6,
 7
6,
 2
18
N
eo
lit
hi
c 
pi
t
Pi
le
-d
w
el
lin
g
Su
rf
ac
e 
fin
ds
Pi
le
-d
w
el
lin
g
Pi
t
N
eo
lit
hi
c 
pi
ts
N
eo
lit
hi
c 
pi
t
Ag
e 
ca
l B
C 
/ 
Pl
an
t 
ta
xa
 (c
ha
rc
oa
l)
Ch
ar
co
al
 a
nd
 
ap
ati
te
: 4
78
8-
43
50
Ch
ar
co
al
: 
48
40
-4
45
6
Al
nu
s w
oo
d:
 
46
75
-4
46
5
/
Tr
ap
a 
na
ta
ns
: 
46
11
-4
63
0;
 
de
nd
ro
ch
r.:
 
46
74
±4
2
Cr
at
ae
gu
s:
 
46
56
-4
37
1
Ch
ar
co
al
: 4
95
4-
44
60
Ch
ar
co
al
: 4
60
9-
44
50
 
Q
ue
rc
us
12
6+
10
+6
+1
1+
3+
1+
5+
7+
26
Q
ue
rc
us
/C
as
ta
ne
a
3
Ti
lia
1
Po
pu
lu
s/
Sa
lix
3 
(p
ile
s)
1+
3+
1
Ac
er
1
1 
(p
ile
s)
13
+2
+3
+2
+1
+1
+8
+4
Ca
rp
in
us
5
1+
5+
1
Fa
gu
s
1 
(p
ile
)
2+
32
+1
+4
+1
+1
+1
+6
+1
+3
+1
+1
+7
+4
+2
+4
U
lm
us
4+
4+
2+
3
Vi
tis
17
377
Dolsko – Spodnje Škovce and a new insight into the settlement, chronology, ceramic style(s), and subsistence strategies ...
Ta
b.
 7
. C
on
ti
n
u
ed
Fr
ax
in
us
1
8 
(p
ile
s)
x 
(c
ha
rc
oa
l);
 2
 
(p
ile
s)
2+
1+
4+
3
2
Fr
ax
in
us
/C
as
ta
ne
a
1
Be
tu
la
1+
1
So
rb
us
2
Co
rn
us
4
So
rb
us
/C
or
nu
s
1
Al
nu
s s
p.
18
 (p
ile
s)
4 
(p
ile
s)
Co
ry
lu
s a
ve
lla
na
x
Co
ni
fe
ro
us
3
2
DP
W
7 
(p
ile
s)
1
RP
W
4
no
t d
et
er
m
in
ed
x
x 
(c
ha
rc
oa
l)
x 
(c
ha
rc
oa
l)
x