Revija za geografijo - Journal for Geography, 4-2, 2009 
7 
New Challenges for Sustainable Rural Development in the 21
st
 Century 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
"Sustainable development is the management and conservation of the natural 
resources base, and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such 
a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs 
for present and future generations. Such sustainable development in the agriculture, 
forestry and fisheries sectors conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic 
resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically 
viable and socially acceptable" (FAO, 1988). 
 
The basis of all rural development is people. If a rural area has massive out-
migration of young people or if a large percentage of the farmers is above the age 
of 65 (as is the case in many development countries), it will be very difficult to 
initiate endogenous economic growth. 
 
Governments all over the world have focused on sustainable rural development in 
an organized way. Rural locations in particular need more economic development in 
order to match urban centric development. All the spheres of development including 
economic, social, and cultural have primarily benefited from urban locations. Even in 
case of industrial growth, urban places got the best of growth and prosperity. Many 
actions have been taken to fill this chasm between rural and urban growth. 
 
New methods have also been encouraged for farming in barren lands. Most of the 
farming land remains unused during no-crop season in underdeveloped countries. 
To improve that, cyclical production of different crops is encouraged so that land 
does not remain unused. 
 
There are also numerous agro-environment schemes launched to support the 
farmers. Income generation and equal growth are likely resultants of such 
initiatives. These initiatives are being taken not only in developing countries but also 
in developed countries.  
 
The annual IGU conferences are organised around themes which explore and 
develop the long-term research tasks of the Commission: interpretation of “rural 
sustainability”, regulation of rural sustainability, sustainability and the rural business 
enterprise, sustainability in the interaction between rural and urban systems, rural 
community dynamics and sustainability, and land use cover and change. 
 
This is a special issue of the Journal for Geography published at the occasion of the 
17
th
 Annual Colloquium of the IGU Commission on the Sustainability of Rural 
Systems entitled New Challenges for Sustainable Rural Development in the 21
st
 
Century, which took place from 13
th
 to 18
th
 July 2009 in Maribor, Slovenia. In this 
issue, experts from Australia, Brazil, Croatia, Italy, Poland and Slovenia present, 
analyse and explain the diversity of ways to improve the quality of life in rural areas 
all over the world.  
 
The human dimension includes the educational level of population, their cultural 
identity and their social structure. Human factors are not only relevant in the rural 
areas: the impact of urban lifestyle on rural areas, such as changes in leisure 
activities or food consumption of the urban majority, also needs to be considered. 

Introduction 
8 
 
In the 21
st
 century, many rural areas in the developed world are experiencing 
planning and development challenges related to complex processes of population 
change. It is our contention that the nature, direction and regional manifestations of 
these changes are strongly related to varying levels of local amenity. 
 
The findings presented by authors Neil Argent, Roy Jones and Matthew Tonts in 
the paper entitled Rural Amenity and Rural Change in Temperate Australia: 
Implications for Development and Sustainability raise important questions regarding 
the population turnarounds being experienced in some rural areas. While it is 
apparent that out-migration from metropolitan areas is part of the explanation for 
rural growth, it is part of a more complex story.  Across much of rural Australia in-
migration from metropolitan areas accounts for a relatively modest proportion of the 
new arrivals. Thus, the most significant source of in-migrants appears to be other 
rural/regional areas. This suggests that there is a need to understand high rates of 
in-migration in certain rural areas with reference to the exodus of people from other 
non-metropolitan places.  In other words, contemporary migration patterns in rural 
Australia appear to be linked as much to population redistribution as to 
counterurbanisation. For this area, authors used a range of demographic, economic 
and environmental data sources, including migration flows, to construct an amenity 
index and to develop an amenity classification of nearly 500 social catchments. In 
later phases of this project, they will be conducting more detailed and localised 
studies in high and low amenity areas to identify both the planning and the 
socioeconomic implications of recent amenity-led migration.      
  
In his paper entitled A Life Histories Approach to Gold Prospecting and Frontier 
Farming in the Brazilian Amazon, Scott William Hoefle examines the influence of 
gold rush on live frontier farmers. Gold was first discovered on the tributaries of the 
Tapajós river in the early 1960s and over the next two decades prospectors 
swarmed to the area establishing more than 300 camps and 200 dirt air strips to 
access remote creeks where gold was to be found blasting the river bank with water 
pressure equipment. The environmental impacts were degradation of river banks, 
silting of creeks and mercury pollution in the rivers. The immediate impact on 
population movements, besides attracting outsiders directly to the camps, was to 
empty the planned colonization projects being established along the 
Transamazonian (BR-230) and the Cuiabá-Santarém (BR-163) highways slowing 
down the process of settling western Pará by decades. Many present-day frontier 
farmers of western Pará come from the impoverished North-east and passed a part 
of their life as gold prospectors in the hope of becoming rich. Given the exploitive 
work relations and chaotic economic situation during the Itaituba gold rush very few 
were successful. They managed to escape the extreme poverty of their former life in 
Maranhão, the poorest state in Brazil. On the consolidated frontier of western 
Maranhão they had little land and work, most being migrant labourers, who earned 
little, had a poor diet and lived in poor housing in town and in the countryside, 
where they were poorly served by public health and educational services. However, 
their passage through gold prospecting can only be characterised as squalor. They 
arrived with no capital, continued being migrant labourers, who moved from camp 
to camp and worked too much to earn a low to medium income. Out in the bush 
they had no health or educational services and many died of malaria. As frontier 
farmers in comparison they have land, work when and how they choose, usually 
with family members. Income is low but self-provisioning furnishes a reasonably 

Revija za geografijo - Journal for Geography, 4-2, 2009 
9 
good diet and they live in simple but sound housing. Living in communities they 
muster political clout in order to be better served by basic public services. 
 
One of the major problems of farming in developed countries, including Slovenia, is 
the decreasing number of farm takeovers and farm transfers to successors. The 
number and strength of unfavourable factors are much higher than those keeping 
young people in farming. 
 
Bo tjan Kerbler discusses in his paper the succession of farms as the best example 
of intergenerational transfer of physical and human capital. The transfer of human 
capital across generations within the same family ensures its processing, while at 
the same time increasing the value of physical capital, both its actual value as well 
as the awareness of this value. To enable this, basic conditions must be fulfilled. The 
farm must be taken over by a successor, who will continue with farming, and the 
transfer of the farm to the successor must be carried out timely. In conclusion, the 
possible consequences of the continuous tendency of abandoning mountain farms in 
Slovenia are indicated and a few proposals for solving the problems of farm 
succession are put forward. Although the proposed solutions are far from being 
simple due to the complexity of the effect of factors of the socio-geographic 
structure of mountain farms, knowledge on the key factors of (non)succession of 
Slovenian farms and their interrelation is, however, essential for the development of 
appropriate measures for the preservation of farms as the basic pillars of the 
farming industry. The principle objective is to ensure the sustainable development of 
agriculture and the countryside, particularly in the mountainous areas characterised 
by unfavourable demographic trends. 
 
Croatia experienced intensive industrialisation and tertiary processes in the second 
half of the 20
th
 century. Peter Feletar's paper entitled Daily migrations as a 
Transformation Factor of Rural Area Surrounding Zagreb deals with intensive 
processes of de-agrarisation and de-ruralisation on the one hand, and with 
urbanisation and suburbanisation on the other. These processes occur in a spatially 
differentiated manner. They are most intensive around cities, especially large cities 
with a wide gravitational zone. 
 
In Zagreb, the intensive urbanization processes began in 1960s, when some 
350,000 people lived in the city. The working power for the new industrial districts, 
the largest and the oldest being the industrial district of itnjak, was drawn mainly 
from its surrounding rural area, which was characterized by a traditional agricultural 
structure.  
 
This caused intensive daily migrations to Zagreb, particularly from the distances 
within 50 km. The families of daily migrants started to move to Zagreb, and today 
the city has some 800,000 inhabitants. Intensive processes of suburbanization 
occurred in parallel in the city’s rural surrounding, and the daily migrations have 
decreased substantially.  
 
The daily migrations and their basic directions had an important impact on 
modification and organization of commuter traffic, as well as on Zagreb’s urban 
traffic and other infrastructure. 
 
According to Eva Kone nik Kotnik, education is a very important basis of 
sustainable development. In her paper, selected learning objectives of the 

Introduction 
10 
Geography syllabus for general grammar schools in Slovenia are analysed (a 
general secondary school in Slovenia is a secondary school with a general-
educational emphasis that does not provide vocational education but prepares 
students aged 15 to 19 for further education at universities). The author has 
selected the learning objectives that relate to economic Geography as a general 
geographic topic, with special emphasis on learning objectives that refer to 
agriculture, rural areas and sustainable development.  
 
The contribution presents the results of a generic comparative analysis of selected 
learning objectives in syllabi, which were issued in the period after Slovenia’s 
independence (1992, 1998 and 2008), the results of the evaluation of the learning 
objectives from the viewpoint of social needs, educational guidelines and 
geographical science, as well as the results of the evaluation from the viewpoint of 
Geography teachers in general grammar schools. Educational problems associated 
with economic Geography, sustainable development and rural areas are highlighted 
accordingly. 
 
Rural areas account for more than 80% of the territory of the European Union and 
are home to some 25% of the population. While urban people often believe rural 
areas would be just farms and forests, the reality is quite different. Rural areas in 
Europe are characterized by extremely diverse physical environments, a broad 
range of economic activities, unique social networks and century-old cultural 
traditions.  
 
Matja Klemen i and Vladimir Klemen i examine in their paper the 
contemporary problems of the Slovene countryside with a special emphasis on the 
problems of the image of the cultural landscape, which developed as a consequence 
of the rapid economic development in Slovenia. 
It is characteristic of the Slovene countryside that the relationships among individual 
land categories (woods, meadows, cultivated fields) are changing fast and that the 
remnants of the economic structure of classic agrarian society and the modern 
industrial society are intertwined. One of the characteristics of the Slovene 
countryside is also a fast decline of agrarian population. In their paper, the authors 
deal particularly with the consequences of the European market-oriented agrarian 
policy, which are applied in different ways to individual regions of Slovenia. There 
are large differences between plains and valleys, which are suitable for modern 
farming, on the one hand and mountainous and Karst regions on the other.  
 
The crumbling of land in the future will hinder also economic production in the 
agricultural economy of farms regardless of their size. This means that 
underdevelopment with disintegration of cultural landscape in some less developed 
regions will increase. Slovenia will be able to avoid the consequences of the above-
mentioned negative trends in the shaping of its cultural landscape only by using a 
suitable concept based on internationally verified theory and methodology along 
with proven application. Therefore in Slovenia, as well as in the other EU members, 
agricultural planning will have to be based on team and interdisciplinary work; 
scholars and research groups from various disciplines who deal with spatial 
development along with other responsible experts in various administrative 
functions and ministries will have to cooperate. 
 
 

Revija za geografijo - Journal for Geography, 4-2, 2009 
11 
Today’s reflections on the activation of rural areas focus mainly on issues  
of multifunctional development. Developing the sector of micro-, small and medium-
sized enterprises is seen as an effective way of improving the situation of rural 
areas and their populations, mainly by increasing household incomes or with the 
elimination of redundant labour force from the agricultural sector. At the same time, 
very little attention is paid to large businesses located in rural areas, whose 
importance for their functioning is often fundamental, especially in areas of pure 
agricultural character. 
 
Magdalena Dej' presents in her paper the diversity of large companies in the Polish 
countryside and determines the manner and scale of the chosen investments in the 
local situation in terms of both sociology and economy. The author has chosen 
companies established after 1990 in the areas which have lately been considered 
only as agricultural. The research was conducted among the local residents in the 
areas where the investments were made, and among the employees of the 
companies. 
 
There are currently over 150 companies in the Polish regions outside the 
metropolitan areas, which employ over 200 people. The research was based on 
surveys and interviews dealing with migration tendencies of residents (a company 
as a factor encouraging/discouraging migration), their educational aspirations, their 
living standards (the connection between the establishing companies and the 
availability of services, the influence on average income) and their lifestyle (derived 
models from incoming people, influence on political and consumer preferences, new 
forms of activities and pastimes). Furthermore, they relate to economic issues, such 
as the connection between large companies and local entrepreneurship (an attempt 
to answer the question whether new companies stimulate or limit local 
entrepreneurship). 
 
The research methodology enabled the assessment of the consequences of actions 
carried out by large companies in agricultural areas, where they are considered the 
major employers. They drastically change the labour perspectives of residents and 
trigger significant social and economic changes on the local or sometimes even on 
the regional scale. 
 
Zoran Stiperski and Zdenko Brai i examine the influence of economic transition 
and war (the Croatian War of Independence) on the number and spatial distribution 
of the employed and the unemployed in Banovina between 1989 and 2007. The war 
additionally engraved the restructuring of the economy characteristic for transition 
societies, which affected the industrial sector in particular. 
   
The regional differences in Croatia are the result of the past exposures to war 
operations and the different levels of acceptance of market economy elements. 
Banovina was to a great extent exposed to war operations and burdened by 
elements mostly deriving from the Real Socialist economy, which has made it an 
exceptional Croatian region with a strong drop in employment and increase of 
unemployment. 
 
Agriculture is nowadays recognized as one of the biggest pollutants due to its 
negative impact on nature, especially soil, water and biodiversity. We can also 
question the quality of food produced by intensive agriculture and its (negative) 

Introduction 
12 
impacts on human health. An effective and positive answer to the problems of 
conventional farming can be found in organic farming. 
 
Dane Podmenik and Simon Kerma have examined the conditions, problems and 
perspectives of organic farming in Slovenia with a special emphasis on the Slovene 
Istria. In comparison with the EU standards, Slovene organic farming raises above 
the average. However, the differences between individual regions as regards organic 
farming are still crucial. Another problem organic farming has to face is the 
structure of organic areas, for there are meadows which occupy 90% of all organic 
land in use. In the Slovene Istria, there are good natural conditions for the 
development of organic farming. Due to the lack of data related to organic farming 
in the Slovene Istria, the authors conducted field-work in spring 2008 and made 
some additional research in 2009. The questionnaires and interviews with organic 
farmers included various aspects, such as the characteristics of their farming 
activities, the demographic and socio-economic features, etc. The authors estimate 
that the entire hinterland of the Slovene Istria is an area with high natural and 
cultural value, with a high potential for the development of protected areas and 
environmental-friendly activities (organic farming, eco-tourism, various types of 
'green' tourism, etc.), which can also be market-oriented, and a potential for 
creating new jobs and higher added value. 
 
The Western Australian economy has always been underpinned by farming and 
mining. Over the last five years the economy has experienced phenomenal growth 
due to unprecedented global demand for resources and increasingly, agricultural 
land is being given up for mining. Over the last five years the economy has 
experienced phenomenal growth on the back of unprecedented demand for 
resources by the developing Chinese and Indian economies. The impact of renewed 
mining fervour in Western Australia has had far reaching impacts.  Changing land 
uses challenge industry and community leaders; some communities are 
overwhelmed by a new population connected with mining, bringing with it a range of 
social and economic stresses and strains that small communities, in particular, are 
struggling to cope with. 
 
Fiona M. Haslam McKenzie examines the impact of land use change focusing on 
two small rural communities, the Shire of Ravensthorpe on the Southern Coast and 
the Shire of Boddington in the Peel region of Western Australia. Both communities 
have, until recently, been dominated by agricultural activities, but with rising global 
resource prices, multi-national mining companies have moved in and established 
large mines with concomitant opportunities and adverse pressures. Drawing on in-
depth, semi-structured interviews and focus groups with local community members 
in both locations, this paper will document the socio-economic changes that have 
been experienced by the communities and the people who live in them and the 
inevitable challenges these bring. The provision of infrastructure and the 
management of people and resources in frenetic economic boom conditions have 
tested policy makers and local governance structures. These challenges will be 
discussed and the inevitable opportunities that arise from such circumstances will 
also be considered.   
 
In the Veneto central plane (Italy), historically shaped by agriculture, the 
countryside is interesting due to a particular form of urban sprawl, where cities, 
villages, single houses and industries cohabit with agriculture. This phenomenon is 
mainly analyzed as a typical urban/rural conflict, and the sprawl gets criticized as a 

Revija za geografijo - Journal for Geography, 4-2, 2009 
13 
countryside destroyer. Yet in this area farming is still more profitable than in other 
more “rural” parts of the region; it has higher quality productions, the traditional 
rural landscape is paradoxically better preserved, and agriculture spaces manage to 
create a good ecological network.   
 
Starting from these paradoxes, Viviana Ferrario proposes in the first part of her 
paper a different reading of the Veneto urban sprawl. Its “materials” (crops, hedges, 
paths, forests, single houses, public and private housing, industries, water, roads), 
mixed together apparently without order are analyzed from the point of view of their 
morphology, their relationships and their changes. Is this a rural area simply 
becoming an urban one, or is it a new, contemporary form – neither urban nor rural 
– of agricultural landscape? 
 
Besides food production, agricultural areas in Europe are nowadays acknowledged 
also for energy production (with the alternative vegetal combustible materials), 
environmental preservation, cultural heritage preservation and recreational 
activities. These functions, increasingly accepted and supported also by the 
Common Agricultural Policy, give farming areas a public role, strictly linked to the 
urban population's needs. Agricultural space is becoming a “material” of the territory 
design. The new Veneto regional plan (PTRC), which is in course of preparation, 
proposes the idea of “agropolitana”, a way to read and to re-design this region as a 
metropolis with a strong agriculture layer inside. In the second part of the paper, 
this proposal is presented and critically discussed. 
 
In the paper entitled ‘Cultural Landscape and Tourism on Historic Ranches of the 
Pantanal Wetlands of Brazil’, Ana Paula Correia de Araujo and Ana Maria de 
Souza Mello Bicalho examine the rise of eco-tourism and rural tourism as new 
complementary activities which add value to traditional stock-raising functions on 
historic ranches located in the southern part of the Pantanal Wetlands of the Mato 
Grosso do Sul state in the Central-Western region of Brazil. As opposed to other 
rural enterprises of the booming Central-West, which produce the majority of 
Brazilian export commodities, the specific environmental conditions of seasonal 
wetlands and perennial swamp of the Pantanal restrict the viable options for gaining 
access to global markets. Consequently, after 1990, when new roads were built and 
rural electrification took place, ranchers of the Pantanal have developed tourist 
activities based on the spectacular natural beauty of the wetlands as well as the 
distinct ranching culture. The ranches have modernized with amenities to attract 
domestic and foreign tourists and tourism has assumed an importance source of 
their income.  
 
The twelve papers published in this issue represent different views on how the 
development cycle begins when there is an economic, social, demographic, political, 
or environmental problem, or when someone sees a chance to improve the current 
conditions. This initiative can come from (ordinary) people living in rural areas 
(bottom-up approach) or from planners and decision makers (top-down approach). 
The most important task is to clearly identify and describe the problem or 
opportunity. Scientists can help at this stage by systematically analyzing (using 
empirical methods) the causes of current problems and opportunities. 
 
Lu ka Lorber 
Chief and responsible editor