Živana Heđbeli1, Nikola Mokrović2
WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY?
ABSTRACT
The concept of collective memory has been in use for a relatively short time. Thus, the 
purpose of this paper is to define collective memory, to determine what is the relation-
ship between archives and collective memory in the Republic of Croatia (RC) and how 
they affect each other, in order to deduce whether archives shape collective memory, 
and if so, to what extent. The paper draws on RC laws and regulations, publicly avail-
able Culture and Media Ministry strategic documents, statistical data compiled by the 
Croatian Bureau of Statistics, as well as the relevant literature and articles. These served 
as the basis for applied descriptive and empirical methods that led us to the conclusion. 
There are no archives in the RC other than state archives. These are financed from the 
state budget, while their directors and governing boards are appointed by governmen-
tal bodies. Archives in the RC are entirely dependent upon the state. Their main task, 
for which they are in many ways under-resourced and fail to fully execute, is to receive 
national archival records and take care of them. It is the task of archives to preserve and 
process archival material and make it available for use. The work of archives needs to 
be based on scientific and professional principles and methods. A history shaped by col-
lective values is not a scientific, objective history, but a generator of future conflicts, 
wars, and friction. The work of archives cannot and may not be determined by collective 
memories; on the contrary, it is archives that should shape collective memory.
KEYWORDS: Croatia, collective memory, archive, state, Homeland War
1 dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, archival adviser, The Croatian State Archives, Marulićev trg 21, 10000 Zagreb, Cro-
atia, zivana.hedbeli@gmail.com
2 Nikola Mokrović, research associate, Documenta – Center for Dealing with the Past, Human Rights House, 
Selska cesta 112c, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia, nikola.mokrovic@documenta.hr
19WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović
1.  PURPOSE
Members of the International Institute for Archival Science of Trieste and Maribor (IIAS) 
chose two topics for the 2022 conference, one of which was The role of archives in shap-
ing collective memory. The concept of collective memory has been in use for a relatively 
short time, and this paper aims to determine what is collective memory, what is the re-
lationship between archives and collective memory in the Republic of Croatia (RC) and 
how they affect each other and, if so, to what extent. On the whole, the Institute did not 
deal with this topic, and one struggles to find relevant papers in Atlanti, the Institute’s 
publication. The situation is similar when it comes to papers and articles in Croatian ar-
chival publications. To take the major Croatian journal in the field of archival studies, 
Arhivski vjesnik (Archival Gazette), there are no relevant articles in more recent issues. 
The major Croatian archival association, the Croatian Archival Society, had not yet held a 
conference on the relationship between archives and collective memory (now referring 
to the time when this article was written). The 49th symposium of Croatian archivists – 
Archives and the Homeland War, and the 4th Congress – Archives and Politics – can to a 
certain extent be linked to the topic of archives and collective memory, although papers 
presented at these two conferences rather reflect on concrete topics, such as the oper-
ations of a specific archive during the Homeland War, or the use of archival holdings for 
political purposes.
2.  METHOD
This work has drawn on RC laws and regulations, publicly available strategic documents 
of the Ministry of Culture and Media, statistical data compiled by the Croatian Bureau of 
Statistics, as well as the relevant literature and articles. These served as the basis for the 
descriptive and empirical methods in order to reach a conclusion.
The relationship between collective memory and archives cannot be addressed without 
defining these two concepts. In this paper, we have used the definitions available on-
line on frequently used web portals such as Wikipedia, or the Croatian Encyclopaedia.
What is collective memory? The English language Wikipedia defines it as follows: Col-
lective memory refers to the shared pool of memories, knowledge and information of 
a social group that is significantly associated with the group’s identity. The online edi-
tion of the Croatian Encyclopaedia does not have a single entry on the term “collective”, 
there is an entry under “collective memory”, but provided definition is a psychological 
definition of memory, i.e. memory is defined as the capacity to retain and use informa-
tion. The Croatian Language Portal likewise does not feature the concept of collective 
memory. The Portal defines a collective as a group of people gathered around a com-
mon project, job, task, promotion of an idea, that is, as people who make up an organ-
isation, working community or unit. Memory is the process of acquiring and retaining 
new information or new modes of behaviour; i.e. memory. We do find a definition of 
collective memory on Struna, the database of Croatian special-field terminology, which 
defines collective memory (as synonymous with social memory) as the political process 
of selecting, shaping, structuring, and reorganising particular details from the past in 
line with the requirements of maintaining social order. Collective memory is based on 
mechanisms by which the past is distorted, such as selective omission of, or systematic 
silence on events that do not accord with the existing social order, or, conversely, exag-
gerating, and embellishing facts. The dynamics of social memory is shaped by institu-
tions, the education system, historiography, museums, the practice of memorialisation, 
etc. Benčić’s dissertation (2015) defines collective memory (p. 39) as follows: “Collec-
tive memories are therefore memories shared by a certain group of people. Collective 
20 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović
memories are socially constructed and pertain to the ways in which a group of people 
construct their past (most often, a nation).” It also specifies that, from the point of view 
of the politics of memory, memory is the experience of a social group with power (p. 
28). Memory is always immersed in complex political and class relations that determine 
what is to be remembered (or forgotten), who should remember, and to what purpose.
What is an archive? The online edition of the Croatian Encyclopaedia defines an archive 
as a private or public collection of documents that need to be preserved, that is, an in-
stitution tasked with collecting and safekeeping archival materials (archivalia) for the 
purposes of scholarly research. In the RC, in an ideal case, the regulations on records 
management and archival management, whose principles have remained practically 
unchanged since 1945 to this day, mandate that in performing their work, as well as in 
official correspondence with natural and legal entities, governmental bodies receive 
or collect documents, that is, documentary (registry) materials. The entire documents 
must be registered in the official records of each body. Each body’s record office receives 
complete files, organises the use, processing and disposition of records and other doc-
uments, keeps records of documents, attends to the integrity and arrangement of ar-
chival material, supervises it, safeguards it, and performs tasks related to transferring 
custody of its materials to the relevant archival institution. The tasks of processing, se-
curing, and managing documents and archives are entrusted to professionally qualified 
individuals trained to perform certain tasks. Documents are kept in the record office 
until they are disposed or transferred to the relevant state archive. The relevant state 
archive is in charge of expert supervision of the records kept by the bodies. Archival ma-
terials are transferred to the relevant state archive within a deadline that typically does 
not extend beyond 30 years from their origination.
This paper is based on the relationship between archives and collective memory in the 
RC, and briefly presents information about the key event in the recent history of Croatia 
– its independence and the Homeland War.3
The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), made up of six republics, one of 
them Croatia, fell apart in the bloody wars at the end of the 20th century. New states 
emerged in its former territory, among them the RC, where the war is known as the 
Homeland War. The Homeland War was a defensive war of liberation for the independ-
ence and integrity of the RC, against the aggression of the allied Greater-Serbian forces 
– extremists from Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (especially the Republika Srpska), 
and Serbia and Montenegro. During the initial stages of the war, an important role in the 
attacks on the RC was also played by the Yugoslavian National Army (YNA), then still at 
least nominally the common armed forces of all the SFRY member-states, which was to 
be reorganised over several months into three substantially interconnected – through 
common command and supply – militaries: the Serbian Army of Krajina in Croatia, the 
Republika Srpska Army in BH, and the Yugoslavian Army in Serbia and Montenegro. After 
the Bljesak and Oluja (Flash and Storm) operations, the biggest part of the occupied ter-
ritory of the RC was liberated, while the remainder was peacefully reintegrated without 
the use of military force, with the help of the transitional international administration 
(1996-1998).
The Homeland War came at a high price. According to data available at the online edition 
of the Croatian Encyclopaedia, at least 12,500 people were killed on the Croatian side, 
3 The paper cites the most basic information. There are many articles, papers, information available on-
line, both in the languages of the former SFRY and in international languages, about the dissolution of 
the SFRY, the emergence of new states within its erstwhile territory, the war of the 1990s, the work of 
the Hague Tribunal and related topics.
21WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović
while the 1,030 whose fates are still unknown were considered missing persons. The 
wounded (33,043 people, of whom 9,816 civilians), prisoners of Serbian camps, children 
who lost their parents and veterans with lasting health issues also fall into the category 
of victims of war. On the Serbian side, there were 6,153 soldiers and civilians who were 
killed or missing. A total of 183,526 residential buildings were damaged or destroyed. 
However, neither the Croatian Homeland War Memorial Documentation Centre, as an 
archive founded by the RC, nor the various civil society organisations that took it upon 
themselves to produce a verifiable list containing names of all those who perished or 
disappeared on Croatian territory, have managed to do so even though more than thirty 
years have elapsed since the wartime hostilities first broke out.
According to statistical data (Statistical Yearbook 2011, p. 107), in 1991, Croatia had a 
population of 4,784,265, while in 2011 this number had shrunk by 346,805, to 4,437,460 
inhabitants. In 1991, 581,663 Serbs lived in Croatia, which decreased by 380,032 to 
201,631 by 2011. In 1991, there were 9,724 Montenegrins, while in 2011 there were 
4,926, a decrease of 4,798.
Due to the crimes committed within the territory of the former Yugoslavia, the United 
Nations Security Council established a judicial body, the International Criminal Tribu-
nal for the former Yugoslavia (an abbreviated form of the name) by Resolution 827 of 
25 May 1993. The tribunal was the first such institution to be established on the basis 
of Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, and its Statute is legally binding for all UN 
member-states. It began to operate on 18 November 1993 at its headquarters are in the 
Hague (the Netherlands).4
3.  RESULTS
3.1. ARCHIVES IN CROATIA
The RC adopted its first archival legislation in 1997. Archival materials are records or doc-
uments that are the products of legal or natural entities performing their tasks, which 
hold permanent significance for culture, history and other disciplines, regardless of the 
place and time they originated, the form and physical medium on which they are pre-
served. Archival holdings are the product of selecting material from registry holdings.
The legislation stipulates that archival services are provided by public institutions – the 
Croatian State Archives (CSA), local state archives, and local self-government and ad-
ministration units’ archives; while specialised and private archives can, as institutions, 
also perform certain tasks pertaining to archival services.
4 On 19 April 1996, the Croatian Parliament, the Republic’s highest legislative authority, adopted the Con-
stitutional Act on the Cooperation of the Republic of Croatia with the International Criminal Tribunal, 
which regulated the cooperation of the Republic of Croatia with the International Tribunal on serious 
violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of the former Yugoslavia since 
1991, and the fulfilment of the commitments of the Republic of Croatia pursuant to the Security Council 
resolution 827 (1993), the Statute and the Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the Tribunal. On 5 March 
1999, the Croatian State Parliament adopted the Resolution on Cooperation with the International Crim-
inal Tribunal, which states in Clause 7 that “The Croatian State Parliament denounces the politicisation 
of the operation of the International Criminal Tribunal, dismissing the imprudent public statements by 
the representative of the Court’s Prosecution regarding the military and police operations Bljesak and 
Oluja. Considering the incontrovertible legitimacy of these counter-terrorist actions on Croatia’s own 
territory, the Croatian State Parliament holds that any individual criminal acts committed in connection 
to the aforementioned are a matter solely for the Croatian judiciary.” On 14 April 2000, the Croatian State 
Parliament adopted a Declaration on Cooperation with the International Criminal Tribunal in the Hague, 
which expresses the general view that “The RC holds that all the perpetrators of war crimes committed 
within the territory of the former Yugoslavia need to be punished regardless of their nationality, mili-
tary formation or role they performed.”
22 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović
State archives: implement measures to preserve their archival holdings and look after 
their security; arrange, catalogue and publish archival materials and enable their use; 
supervise the safekeeping and selection of archival materials outside the archives, and 
determine measures to preserve them; continuously supervise the work of archives and 
other holders of archival materials outside the system of state archives; receive public 
archival materials; collect private archival materials through purchases, gifts or stor-
age; capture archival material for safekeeping and preservation, and perform restora-
tion and conservation work on archival materials; issue data, extracts from documents 
and certified transcripts at users’ requests; produce and publish finding aids for specific 
archival fonds and collections; organise lectures, courses and other forms of profession-
al training and development for personnel; organise exhibitions, lectures and other 
forms of cultural activities that promote interest in archival holdings and archival prac-
tice; cooperate with each other and with other cultural institutions, academic and relat-
ed institutions providing documentation and information services in order to improve 
archival practice and scientific production, as well as auxiliary historical and informa-
tion sciences; they also perform other tasks defined by this Law and other regulations.
State archives are established by the RC. Their operations are financed from the national 
budget. As the central and principal archive, the CSA performs archival services on the ar-
chival and registry holdings of governmental bodies, national and public institutions, and 
companies, as well as legal entities, families and individuals whose activities extended 
or extend throughout (the majority of) the RC, that is, are of significance to the RC. Local 
state archives perform archival services on the archival and registry holdings of govern-
mental bodies, legal entities with public competences and public services who perform 
their activities within one or more local self-government and administration units, and on 
material that originates within the area where the archive in question operates.
The archive is managed by its director. To be appointed as director of an archive, a person 
has to have a university degree, pass the archival certification examination, have published 
valuable scholarly or scientific papers and possess skills as professionals, workers and or-
ganisers. In exceptional cases, a person who did not take the archival certification exam can 
be appointed director, if their work so far gives ground to expect that they will successfully 
manage the archive, undertaking to pass the certification exam within two years from their 
appointment. The CSA director is appointed and discharged by the Government of the RC. 
Directors of local state archives are appointed and discharged by the Minister of Culture.
The Ministry of Culture is in charge of administrative supervision of state archives. The CSA 
is tasked with technical supervision of the work of the local state archives, and the Min-
istry of Culture with technical supervision of the CSA. Archives also have expert councils, 
whose composition is defined by each archive’s statute. The 2018 archival legislation also 
introduced supervisory boards for state archives with more than twenty employees. A 
supervisory board has five members, four of whom are appointed by the founder of the 
state archive, and one is elected by the employees pursuant to the labour laws.
According to the 2018 Statistical Yearbook, in 2017, Croatia had 19 state archives,5 which 
stored 15,763 fonds and collections, 117,268 metres of material (p. 518). There were 
9,928 users, and 495 employees worked at the archives, 318 of whom were archivists 
by profession. In 2017, the RC had a population of 4,284,889 (p. 60). The 318 profession-
al archivists employed in the state archives make up 0.0074% of Croatia’s population, 
while 9,928 users present 0.23% of the population.
5 The basic information on national archives is available at http://www.arhiv.hr/hr-hr/Arhivs-
ka-slu%C5%BEba/Arhivi-u-Hrvatskoj [website partly available in English].
23WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović
According to Statistical Report no. 1690, Culture and the Arts in 2020 (pp. 79-82), 19 Cro-
atian archives stored a total of 16,558 fonds and collections, 115,706 metres, of which 
68.86% had been processed, and 2.5% available in digital form.
Figure 1. Archival fonds and collections in 2022, Statistical Report 1690, Culture and the 
Arts in 2020, p. 79
In 2020, there were 780,103 metres of materials outside archives. In 2020, archives had 
10,141 users, and 503 employees worked there, of whom 330 were professional archivists.
Figure 2. Archival holdings outside archives in 2020, Statistical Report 1690, Culture and 
the Arts in 2020, p. 80
24 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović
The National Plan for the Development of Archival Practice for the period 2020-2025 
(p. 5) shows that the development of archival services outside the network of state ar-
chives envisaged in the 1997 Law has entirely failed to materialise.
The Ministry of Culture’s Strategic Plan for 2020-2022 (p. 60) shows that the existing spa-
tial and technical resources of the majority of archives preclude the storage of the ma-
terials that need to be received. Especially limiting is the as yet insufficiently developed 
system for receiving, processing, and using materials in digital form, while the finding 
aids data for around 50% of the materials held in archives need to be harmonised or 
filled in, which, with the resources available, can only be done over a relatively longer 
period. The majority of archives lack the storage space and/or equipment for storing 
new materials coming in to be received within the legally determined deadlines. As a 
result, the materials remain longer in inappropriate spaces outside archives where they 
are exposed to the risk of rapid decay and are unavailable to users.
3.2. ARCHIVES AND THE HOMELAND WAR
For the RC, the Homeland War was, as the 13 October 2000 Declaration by the Croatian 
State Parliament specifies, just and legitimate, a war of defence and liberation, and not 
aggression or conquest against anyone. The RC defended its territory from Greater-Ser-
bian aggression, within its internationally recognised borders. The Declaration was also 
adopted to stop the radical politicisation of the Homeland War and the worrying polar-
isation of the Croatian society, which could have had far-reaching consequences. The 
fundamental value of the Homeland War was the establishment and defence of Cro-
atia’s state sovereignty and territorial integrity, which created the conditions for the 
legal state and the rule of law, as well as the legal functioning of governmental bodies 
as the best way to continue to affirm the dignity of the Homeland War. The House of 
Representatives of the Croatian State Parliament called on all citizens, state and social 
institutions, unions, associations, and media, and mandates all RC officials and govern-
mental bodies, to adhere to these principles as a bulwark to protect the basic values and 
dignity6 of the Homeland War as a token of our common future.
On 10 December 2004, the Law on the Croatian Memorial-Documentation Centre of the 
Homeland War was adopted, establishing the CMDCHW to collect, arrange, preserve, 
keep custody of all documentation and data related to the Homeland War, as well as 
to foster scholarly and scientific research into such documentation and data, to investi-
gate the truth about the Homeland War and introduce the general public, both locally 
and globally, with the established facts. The centre was established as a public scientific 
institution – a specialised archive and a Croatian national interest. The founder of the 
Centre is the RC.
In performing its functions, the CMDCHW is responsible for collecting, consolidating, ar-
ranging and preserving all the documentation and all the data that originated during 
the Homeland War or is related to it. It collects, arranges, classifies and processes regis-
try and archival materials that originated during the Homeland War or are related to it, 
6 Regarding whether war as such can even have dignity, Puhovski, Ž. (2020.) states: “It is precisely why it 
is irresponsible to link dignity to extreme situations where options are necessarily limited (and there 
is mostly no luxury) – local talk about “the dignity of the Homeland War” is a persuasive instance of the 
dismal (and unoriginal) abuse of a great (both traditional and contemporary) value. Because dignity can 
primarily be attributed to persons (in this case, warriors), rather than a historical phenomenon, which a 
war certainly is. Especially in light of the slaughterous nature of war, which truly has nothing to do with 
dignity; a war can be waged for higher goals, it is (occasionally) possible even to act with dignity in a 
war, but its taking place is dignified only to those who simply despise human survival, believing it not to 
be merely necessary, but right to sacrifice thousands of lives for the Goal.”
25WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović
in line with the Law on Archival Holdings and Archives; performs scholarly and scientific 
processing, analysis and appraisal of data, documentation and materials related to the 
Homeland War; publishes publications and other works that are the products of its ac-
tivities; publishes registry and archival materials that originated in the Homeland War; 
issues data, excerpts from documents and certified transcripts at users’ requests, in line 
with the Law on Archival Holdings and Archives; organises scholarly and scientific lec-
tures and exhibitions, as well as scientific conferences and other modes of exploring the 
truth about the Homeland War and introducing the general public at home and abroad 
with the established facts related to the Homeland War; cooperates with archives, mu-
seums and other legal entities in order to improve its work.
Archives and other legal and natural entities that hold documentation that originated in 
the Homeland War or is related to it are obliged to hand it over to the Centre.
The Centre is managed by the Governing board, which is appointed and discharged by 
the Croatian Parliament. The Centre is led by a director, who is appointed and discharged 
by the Croatian Government. A person who meets the conditions in the Law on Archival 
Holdings and Archives can be appointed director of the Centre. The Centre has an expert 
council, whose composition, as well as the mode and procedure of electing its mem-
bers, is determined by the Centre Statute. The Centre is financed from the RC national 
budget. The CMDCHW has a Department for archival materials related to the Homeland 
War, and a Department for Scientific Research into the Homeland War.
4.  CONCLUSIONS
There are no archives in Croatia other than state ones, which are financed from the 
budget. The directors of the CSA and the CMDCHW are appointed by the highest national 
authorities, while the archives are founded by the RC, which also appoints their govern-
ing boards.
115,706 metres of materials are stored in state archives; the finding aids for some 
50% of the holdings are inadequate, while some 30% of the holdings have not been 
arranged. There are 780,103 m of materials outside archives. According to the archi-
val legislation, by 2022, practically all of the materials that originated before 1991 
should be in archives, which is impracticable, as the archives lack the human and 
material resources.
People working in state archives are an extremely negligible segment of the popula-
tion of the country – 0.0074%, while users are somewhat more numerous – 0.23%, which 
is still practically negligible. Quantitatively, the employees and users of archives do not 
represent a significant group that might impact the shaping of collective memory.
Like all governmental bodies, state archives need to protect the dignity of the Homeland 
War, while the CMDCHW has an even more difficult task – to research the truth about the 
Homeland War. The occupied territory of the RC was peacefully reintegrated between 
1996 and 1998. So far there has been no data on the proportion of the holdings, out of 
the 780 kilometres outside the archives, that pertains to the Homeland War.
It is a widely known fact that different groups of people, different countries and nations, 
have different notions of events past. Establishing the truth can be a painful and pro-
tracted process, which sometimes seems endless. Collective memory represents past 
events in line with the values, narratives and views of a certain group or community.
Looking at the archives’ tasks as determined by the archival legislation, and the defini-
tion of collective memory as a political process, sharing the values and prejudice of a 
certain group of people, shaping collective memory is not among the jobs, archives are 
26 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović
supposed to do. Indeed, scientific, and scholarly work is encouraged. However, the Sci-
entific Activity and Higher Education Act stipulates that scientific work is based, among 
other things, on fostering, and respect for, national specificities.
If we look at the Courts Act, the courts do not determine the truth, but decide in disputes, 
about rights and obligations, hand down sentences and other measures to perpetrators 
of criminal and misdemeanour offences defined by the law and other regulations. The 
role of judicial institutions in the process of shaping collective memory is extremely 
important, although in its fundamental sense contrary to it: it is based on recognising 
individual responsibility and seeing justice done on the bases of their own legal stand-
ards, rather than universal declarations. In their work, faced with a series of difficulties, 
judicial institutions have made an immeasurable contribution to shedding light on facts 
concerning the Homeland War.
Archives in the RC are entirely dependent on the state. Their main task, for which they 
are in many ways under-resourced, and thus fail to fully perform, is to receive national 
archival materials and take care of them. It is the task of archives to preserve and pro-
cess materials and enable their use. Preserving the dignity of war, researching the truth 
about it with an already determined, binding state-sanctioned view about the nature 
of the war defined by the state’s highest legislative authority, is not and cannot be the 
job of an archive, even a state one, at least not in the 21st century. The work of archives 
needs to be based on scientific and scholarly principles and methods. Scientific work 
of archives needs to be objective, systematic, logical, precise, based on reason, logic, 
critical thinking, doubt, and objective, free and independent thought. By its very nature, 
science questions and must question “sacred cows”. 
The wider goal of written history, the reason why documents and records are perma-
nently preserved, is to give an objective, accurate, and fully comprehensive picture of 
past events. A history shaped by collective values is not scientific, objective history, but 
a generator of future conflicts, wars, and tensions. The work of archives that is deter-
mined by collective values scorns the very essence of the existence of archives, and calls 
into question their relevance. Collective memory cannot and may not determine the 
work of archives; on the contrary, it is archives that should shape collective memory.
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