4/2025 • vol. 68 • 333−436 ISSN 0351-3386 (tiskano/printed) ISSN 2350 - 3696 (elektronsko/online) UDK 677 + 687 (05) https://journals.uni-lj.si/tekstilec Časopisni svet/Publishing Council Barbara Simončič, predsednica/President (ISSN: 0351-3386 tiskano, 2350-3696 elektronsko) je Katja Burger Kovič, Univerza v Ljubljani znanstvena revija, ki podaja temeljne in aplikativne znanstvene informacije Manja Kurečič, Univerza v Mariboru v fizikalni, kemijski in tehnološki znanosti, vezani na tekstilno in oblačilno Tatjana Kreže, Univerza v Mariboru tehnologijo, oblikovanje in trženje tekstilij in oblačil. V prilogah so v Gašper Lesjak, Predilnica Litija, d. o. o. Nataša Peršuh, Univerza v Ljubljani slovenskem jeziku objavljeni strokovni članki in prispevki o novostih v Petra Prebil Bašin, Gospodarska zbornica tekstilni tehnologiji iz Slovenije in sveta, prispevki s področja oblikovanja Slovenije tekstilij in oblačil, informacije o raziskovalnih projektih ipd. Melita Rebič, Odeja, d. o. o. Tatjana Rijavec, Univerza v Ljubljani Simona Strnad, Maribor, SI (ISSN: 0351-3386 printed, 2350-3696 online) the scientific Helena Zidarič Kožar, Lisca, d. o. o. journal gives fundamental and applied scientific information in the physical, Vera Žlabravec, Predilnica Litija, d. o. o. chemical and engineering sciences related to the textile and clothing industry, design and marketing. In the appendices written in Slovene language, are Glavna in odgovorna urednica/ published technical and short articles about the textile-technology novelties Editor-in-Chief from Slovenia and the world, articles on textile and clothing design, Tatjana Rijavec information about research projects etc. Namestnica glavne in odgovorne urednice/Assistant Editor Tatjana Kreže Področni uredniki/Associate Editors Matejka Bizjak, Katja Burger Kovič, Andrej Demšar, Mateja Kos Koklič, Alenka Pavko Čuden, Andreja Rudolf, Barbara Simončič, Dunja Šajn Gorjanc, Sonja Šterman, Brigita Tomšič Izvršna urednica za podatkovne baze/ Executive Editor for Databases Irena Sajovic Dosegljivo na svetovnem spletu/Available Online at https://journals.uni-lj.si/tekstilec Mednarodni uredniški odbor/ International Editorial Board Matej Bračič, Maribor, SI Snježana Brnada, Zagreb, HR Andrea Ehrmann, Bielefeld, DE Petra Forte Tavčer, Ljubljana, SI Jelka Geršak, Maribor, SI Marija Gorjanc, Ljubljana, SI Lubos Hes, Moka, MU Aleš Hladnik, Ljubljana, SI Tekstilec je indeksiran v naslednjih bazah/Tekstilec is indexed in Svjetlana Janjić, Banja Luka, BA Emerging Sources Citation Index – ESCI (by Clarivate Analytics): Mateja Kert, Ljubljana, SI Journal Impact Factor (JIF) for 2024 = 1 Dragana Kopitar, Zagreb, HR Journal Citation Indicator (JCI) for 2024 = 0.27 Yordan Kostadinov Kyoshev, Dresden, DE Category Quartile for 2024 : Q3 Petra Komarkova, Liberec, CZ Leiden University‘s Center for Science & Technology Studies: Mateja Kos Koklič, Ljubljana, SI Source-Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP) for 2024 = 0.650 SCOPUS/Elsevier: Mirjana Kostić, Beograd, RS Q3, SJR for 2024 = 0.28 Manja Kurečič, Maribor, SI Cite Score for 2024 = 1.7 Boris Mahltig, Niederrhein, DE H Index for 2024 = 16 Subhankar Maity, Kanpur, IN Ei Compendex Małgorzata Matusiak, Łódź , PL DOAJ Ida Nuramdhani, Bandung, ID WTI Frankfurt/TEMA® Technology and Management/TOGA® Textile Alenka Ojstršek, Maribor, SI Database Roshan Paul, Aachen, DE World Textiles/EBSCO Information Services Tanja Pušić, Zagreb, HR Textile Technology Complete/EBSCO Information Services Ivana Salopek Čubrić, Zagreb, HR Textile Technology Index/EBSCO Information Services Snežana Stanković, Beograd, RS Chemical Abstracts/ACS Jovan Stepanović, Leskovac, RS ULRICHWEB – global serials directory Dunja Šajn Gorjanc, Ljubljana, SI LIBRARY OF THE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF LODZ Mohammad Tajul Islam, Dhaka, BD dLIB Antoneta Tomljenović, Zagreb, HR SICRIS: 1A3 (Z, A‘, A1/2); Scopus (d) Ustanovitelja / Founded by • Zveza inženirjev in tehnikov tekstilcev Slovenije / Association of Slovene Textile Engineers and Technicians • Gospodarska zbornica Slovenije – Združenje za tekstilno, oblačilno in usnjarsko predelovalno industrijo / Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Slovenia – Textiles, Clothing and Leather Processing Association Revijo sofinancirajo / Journal is Financially Supported • Javna agencija za znanstvenoraziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Slovenije / Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency • Univerza v Ljubljani, Naravoslovnotehniška fakulteta / University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering • Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za strojništvo / University of Maribor, Faculty for Mechanical Engineering Sponzor / Sponsor Predilnica Litija, d. o. o. Izdajatelj / Publisher Univerza v Ljubljani, Naravoslovnotehniška fakulteta / University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering Revija Tekstilec izhaja pod okriljem Založbe Univerze v Ljubljani / The journal Tekstilec is published by the University of Ljubljana Press Revija Tekstilec izhaja šestkrat letno (štirje znanstveni zvezki in dve strokovni prilogi) Naslov uredništva / Editorial Office Address: / Uredništvo Tekstilec, Snežniška 5, SI–1000 Ljubljana Journal Tekstilec appears six times a year (four Tel. / Tel.: + 386 1 200 32 00, +386 1 200 32 24 scietific issues and two proffessional supplements) Faks / Fax: + 386 1 200 32 70 E–pošta / E–mail: revija.tekstilec@ntf.uni-lj.si Revija je pri Ministrstvu za kulturo vpisana v Spletni naslov / Internet page: https://journals.uni-lj.si/tekstilec razvid medijev pod številko 583. Letna naročnina za člane Društev inženirjev in Lektor za slovenščino / Slovenian Language Editor Milojka Mansoor tehnikov tekstilcev je vključena v članarino. Lektor za angleščino / English Language Editor Letna naročnina za posameznike 38 € za Glen Champagne, Barbara Luštek Preskar • študente 22 € • za mala podjetja 90 € za velika podjetja 180 € Oblikovanje platnice / Design of the Cover Tanja Nuša Kočevar • za tujino 110 € Oblikovanje / Design ENOOKI Kraft, Mitja Knapič s.p Cena posamezne številke 10 € Tisk / Printed by DEMAT d.o.o. Na podlagi Zakona o davku na dodano vrednost Copyright © 2025 by Univerza v Ljubljani, Naravoslovnotehniška fakulteta, sodi revija Tekstilec med proizvode, od katerih se Oddelek za tekstilstvo, grafiko in oblikovanje obračunava DDV po stopnji 5 %. Noben del revije se ne sme reproducirati brez predhodnega pisnega dovoljenja Imetnik računa / Account holder: izdajatelja / No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior written Univerza v Ljubljani, permission of the publisher. Naravoslovnotehniska fakulteta, Askerceva 12, 1000 Ljubljana, SI-Slovenija Revija Tekstilec objavlja članke v skladu z načeli odprtega dostopa pod pogoji licence Creati- ve Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Uporabnikom je dovoljeno Transakcijski račun / Bank Account: nekomercialno in komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobči- SI56 01100–6030708186, Banka Slovenije, tev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. / Creative Slovenska 35, 1000 Ljubljana, SI-Slovenija Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence Journal Tekstilec is published under licence Creative SWIFT / SWIFT Code: BSLJSI2X Commons CC BY 4.0. This license enables reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format, so long as attribution is given to the creator. The license allows for commercial use. Tekstilec, 2025, vol. 68(4) SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES/ 336 Muhammad Junaid Saleem, Asfandyar Khan, Kashif Javed, Mainul Znanstveni članki Morshed, Imran Ahmad Khan Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters Izboljšanje mehanskih lastnosti Kevlarjevih kompozitov z optimiziranimi parametri šivanja 354 Shitab Sharrar Rashid, Samia Rahman, Labiba Maisha, Kazi Rezwan Hossain, Mohammad Faizur Rahman, Mohammad Rafiqur Rashid Sustainable Fashion for Children’s Clothing: Exploring Permanent Pleating for Adaptive Fit and Textile Waste Reduction Trajnostna moda za otroška oblačila: raziskava trajnega plisiranja za prilagodljivo velikost in zmanjšanje količine tekstilnih odpadkov 368 Nadiia P. Bukhonka Influence of Tuck Stitch Variations on the Stretch Properties of Wool/ PAN Single Weft-Knitted Fabrics Vpliv različic razporeditve lovilnih petelj na raztezne lastnosti levo-desnih votkovnih pletiv iz mešanice volna/PAN 383 Tuan Anh Nguyen, Huong Dam Thi, Que Tran Tran Nguyen Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness Trajnostno barvanje bombažne tkanine z lupino mangostina (Garcinia mangostana): raziskava parametrov ekstrakcije in barvne obstojnosti 397 Lara Može, Urška Stanković Elesini, Barbara Luštek Preskar, Anna Jedrejčič, Tanja Medved Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting Vadbene karte za izvajanje aktivnih odmorov med dolgotrajnim sedenjem 420 Md. Nahid-Ull-Islam, Shah Md. Maruf Hasan Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework Industrija 5.0 - revolucija v zagotavljanju etične mode: pregled pojmovnega okvir 336 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 336–335 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025048 Muhammad Junaid Saleem, 1, 2 Asfandyar Khan, 2, 3 Kashif Javed, 2 Mainul Morshed, 3 Imran Ahmad Khan 2 1 Department of Textile and Fashion, Punjab Tianjin University of Technology, Lahore 54000, Pakistan 2 Department of Textile and Apparel Science, University of Management and Technology, Lahore 54770, Pakistan 3 Department of Textile Engineering, Daffodil International University, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters Izboljšanje mehanskih lastnosti Kevlarjevih kompozitov z optimiziranimi parametri šivanja Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 4–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 11–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčni avtor: Imran Ahmad Khan E-mail: imran.ahmad@umt.edu.pk Tel.: +92-313-9374141 ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7127-5509 Abstract The study explores the development of stitched reinforced composites using Kevlar woven fabric as the primary reinforcement. The influence of stitching parameters, stitch type, needle type and stitches per cm (SPC) on the mechanical performance of the composites was systematically investigated. Kevlar fabric was stitched using different needle types and SPC values before being mechanically tested for tensile strength, delamination resistance and impact performance. The results demonstrate that composites stitched with a ballpoint needle using a chain stitch at 3.94 SPC exhibited the highest mechanical strength, with tensile strength increasing from 145 MPa (unstitched) to 191.5 MPa (lock stitch) and 240 MPa (chain stitch). Impact re- sistance improved from 98 kJ/m² (unstitched) to 133 kJ/m² (ballpoint needle, lock stitch), with chain-stitched composites showing even better performance due to the greater load distribution of the sewing thread and reduced fabric damage. Conversely, lock-stitched composites provided superior delamination resistance due to enhanced interlayer gripping. These findings highlight the potential of the developed composite for advanced protective applications, including bulletproof vests and aerospace structures requiring superior impact resistance and structural integrity. Keywords: woven fabric, composites, stitching parameters, mechanical properties Izvleček Prispevek obravnava razvoj s šivanjem ojačanih kompozitov, pri katerih je kot primarna ojačitev uporabljena tkanina iz Kevlarja. Sistematično je bil preučen vpliv parametrov šivanja, vrste vboda, vrste igle ter število vbo- dov na centimeter (SPC) na mehanske lastnosti kompozitov. Kevlar tkanina je bila šivana z različnimi vrstami igel in SPC vrednostmi, preden je bila mehansko testirana na natezno trdnost, odpornost proti razslojevanju in odpornost proti udarnim obremenitvam. Rezultati kažejo, da so kompoziti, šivani z iglo z okroglo konico in verižnim vbodom pri 3,94 SPC, pokazali najvišjo mehansko trdnost; natezna trdnost se je povečala s 145 MPa Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters 337 (nešivani) na 191,5 MPa (prešivni vbod) in 240 MPa (verižni vbod). Odpornost proti udarcem se je izboljšala z 98 kJ/m² (nešivan) na 133 kJ/m² (igla z okroglo konico, prešivni vbod), pri čemer so kompoziti z verižnim vbodom dosegli še boljše lastnosti zaradi porazdelitve obremenitve preko šivalne niti in manjše poškodbe tkanine. Nasprotno pa so kompoziti s prešivnim vbodom zagotavljali boljšo odpornost proti razslojevanju zaradi izboljšane oprijemljivosti med plastmi. Izsledki raziskave poudarjajo potencial razvitega kompozita za napredne zaščitne aplikacije, vključno z neprebojnimi jopiči in letalskimi strukturami, ki zahtevajo visoko odpornost proti udarcem in strukturno celovitost. Ključne besede: tkanina, kompoziti, parametri šivanja, mehanske lastnosti 1 Introduction Composite materials are characterised by multi- provide recyclability, flexibility and impact resis- phase materials within which the phase distribution tance, making resin selection crucial for composite and geometry have been deliberately tailored to op- performance [9]. Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) timise one or more properties [1, 2]. In this context, composites have gained considerable attention for textile-reinforced composites have been widely used their high strength-to-weight ratio and superior in design applications for many years, particularly durability. Among these, aramid-based composites, in cost-effective solutions [3]. Composite materials especially those using Kevlar, are extensively used consist of two primary components, i.e. reinforce- in the defence, automotive and aerospace sectors. ment and matrix. The reinforcement, which provides Stitching is a known method for enhancing interla- strength and load-bearing capacity, can be made of minar properties in composites. However, the effect glass fibres or other high-performance materials. of stitch parameters on the damage mechanisms The matrix, typically a polyester, epoxy or other and overall performance has not been studied resin, acts as a binding medium, transferring stress systematically. Polyether ether ketone (PEEK), a between the reinforcing fibres and maintaining the high-performance thermoplastic polymer known composite’s structural integrity. Fibrous structures for its excellent mechanical properties and chemical serve as the primary reinforcement, bearing the resistance, is often used in fibre-reinforced com- applied stresses and significantly influencing the posites due to its compatibility with high-strength composite’s mechanical properties [4]. Commonly fibres like aramid. This study aims to fill this gap by used reinforcements are glass fibre [5], carbon fibre investigating the influence of stitch type and needle [6] and Kevlar [7]. Reinforcement of fibre orienta- geometry on the mechanical performance of Kevlar/ tion and dimension decide the properties of com- epoxy laminates [10]. posites. The lengthwise direction of fibres gives more Aramid fibres, particularly Kevlar, are known for mechanical properties than the widthwise direction, their exceptional mechanical performance, including the resin being a chemical or polymer that behaves high tensile strength, low density, excellent thermal as a matrix for binding the fibrous reinforcement or stability, and resistance to impact and abrasion. These works as an adhesive [8]. characteristics make aramid an ideal candidate for The resin component in composites can be use in aerospace, ballistic and high-performance thermoset (e.g. epoxy, polyester, vinyl ester) or ther- structural applications where durability and strength- moplastic (e.g. Polyether ether ketone, polypropyl- to-weight ratio are critical [11]. Up until the 1900s, a ene, polycarbonate), with thermosets offering high lot of work was performed on natural fibres reinforced thermal stability and adhesion, while thermoplastics composites. Kevlar aramid (PPTA; poly (p-phenylene 338 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 336–335 terephthalamide) fibre is broadly utilised as a part of sewn reinforcements provide a practical and scal- the making of advanced composites [12]. able approach to mitigating delamination-driven Woven fabrics are the most widely used textile failures, offering significant improvements in both reinforcement in composite materials, offering mechanical performance and structural reliability versatility across various applications, including of composite laminates [15]. Yuan et al. investigated aerospace, automotive and protective gear. Their stitched composites with varying stitch densities to structured interlacing of warp and weft yarns ensures enhance their mechanical properties [16]. Previous high dimensional stability and uniform mechanical research has primarily focused on improving the properties. The development of carbon and aramid mechanical performance of composites through fibre fabrics, with superior stiffness compared to glass stitching; however, often without a detailed classifi- fibres, has further expanded the applicability of woven cation based on stitch class or needle geometry. For reinforcements. These fabrics exhibit excellent drapes, instance, Loi G. et al. [17] studied stitched laminates enabling the formation of complex shapes without without detailing stitch patterns, while recent gaps [13]. Additionally, woven fabric composites advancements in composite stitching techniques demonstrate enhanced impact resistance compared underscore the need for parametric optimisation to to nonwoven composites, significantly improving enhance strength and durability [18]. Plain and chain compressive strength after impact and making them stitches were incorporated to reinforce the laminates ideal for high-performance applications [14]. along the z-axis, improving their through-thickness Sewing the reinforcement is an effective method strength. The results showed that stitched compos- to enhance the through-thickness strength of com- ites exhibited an approximately 10% improvement posites, significantly improving their compression in ballistic efficiency compared to conventional after impact (CAI) performance. This technique woven laminate composites, with the optimal stitch introduces mechanical interlocking between plies, design playing a key role in this enhancement [19]. which helps redistribute stresses and delay the initi- The following section outlines the materials and ation and propagation of delamination under impact experimental methods used to fabricate and test the or compressive loading. Failure in laminated com- stitched Kevlar/epoxy composites, providing a foun- posites is often initiated by micro-scale interfacial dation for evaluating how stitch class, stitch density separations between layers, leading to progressive and needle type influence performance. Bhavani delamination and reduction in structural integrity. V. Sankar et al. investigated the effects of stitching By stitching or sewing the reinforcement, resin-rich on the low-velocity impact response of stitched zones are locally modified, providing additional and delaminated beams, analysing their static and crack-bridging and load transfer pathways that impact behaviour. A static contact force model was enhance damage tolerance and energy absorption. developed, and simulations identified displacement/ Moreover, this method has been shown to improve crack extension and load/displacement relation- post-impact stiffness and residual strength, making ships. Impact simulations provided insights into the it particularly valuable for applications in aerospace, load at crack initiation, peak contact force, and the automotive and defence structures where light- extent of crack propagation at the end of impact. The weight yet damage-tolerant composites are critical. study revealed that while stitching did not increase Recent studies have demonstrated that the choice of the load required for delamination initiation, it stitching pattern, needle type and thread material significantly reduced the extent of delamination, can further influence the mechanical performance thereby improving the composite’s damage tolerance and failure modes, enabling tailored reinforcement [20]. Lopresto et al. investigated the effectiveness strategies for specific loading conditions. Overall, of stitching in enhancing the damage resistance of Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters 339 polymer composites against ballistic projectiles rection, where the addition of stitching threads does and explosive blasts. The study found that stitching not affect stiffness prominently. The test of impact reduced delamination damage caused by ballistic done by the hemispherical tipped impactor showed impact to some extent, while significantly improving that the stitching had prominently minimised the damage resistance under explosive blast loading. delamination crack area and the stitching threads This improvement was attributed to the increased in- of 3000 deniers had shown a better resistance to the terlaminar fracture toughness resulting from stitch- crack propagation [24]. Wang H. et al. examined de- ing. Additionally, stitched composites exhibited less lamination in composite laminates, which can arise overall damage and retained strength and flexural during fabrication or from impact during service. modulus comparable to unstitched composites after The study demonstrated that appropriate stitching ballistic impact testing, highlighting their potential significantly enhanced the strength of laminates un- for high-performance protective applications [21]. der lateral compression, improving their structural Unlike prior studies that generally explored stitch- integrity [25]. Herszberg et al. studied the stitching’s ing effects without categorising based on needle effect on the strength of the tensile-loaded panels geometry or stitch structure, this research distinctly under impact loading by evaluating the ten-layered evaluates the combined effects of stitch class (chain single weave T-300 carbon fabric, orthotropic panel vs. lock) and needle type (sharp vs. ballpoint) on with 2 mm thickness. Aramid thread was used to mechanical properties. This multidimensional stitch the layers and a transfer moulding technique optimisation has not been previously addressed in was used to transfer the epoxy resin for making the Kevlar/epoxy composites. composites. Up to 70 m/s impact velocities with a Li M. et al. examined the improvement in inter- 9-gram projectile, the samples were impacted to laminar fracture toughness of polymer composites tensile loading ranging to 72% of the sample’s ulti- using proposed micromechanical models, which mate tensile strength. There was little improvement showed good agreement between experimental and in the strength of stitched then unstitched samples theoretical interlaminar fracture toughness values. [26]. Similarly, accurate estimation of sewing thread The study also concluded that delamination resis- consumption is essential for efficient material tance could be effectively measured using the End- use and cost reduction in the garment industry. Notched Cantilever Beam (ENCB) method [22]. For stitch class 301, thread usage is influenced by Lee B. et al. analysed the tensile creep behaviour of stitch geometry, including stitch length and fabric woven fibre composites, which were stitched per- thickness. Recent studies using image analysis and pendicular to the loading direction using cotton and Fourier series modelling have predicted thread carbon sewing threads. Their findings indicated that consumption with up to 95% accuracy, providing a through-thickness stitching significantly enhanced reliable method to identify key influencing factors the creep resistance of the composites, with the data and optimise industrial sewing operations [27]. effectively analysed using Findley’s equation [23]. For multi-thread chain stitches such as stitch class Wei Y. et al. studied the in-plane lateral impact and 406, thread usage depends on several geometrical tensile behaviour of the E-glass epoxy laminates of and material parameters, including stitch density, 2.8 mm small thickness made by the resin transfer fabric type and material thickness. Recent modelling moulding. Kevlar rovings of 1000 to 3000 deniers efforts on stitch class 406 have demonstrated that were used for the through-the-thickness reinforce- geometrical prediction approaches can estimate ment. The results of the following study showed thread consumption with over 97% accuracy, offer- that for the tensile test, the damage mechanism of ing an effective tool for optimising thread allocation the stitched laminates was affected by the load di- in bulk production and improving process planning 340 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 336–335 in industrial sewing applications [28]. Recent studies 2 Materials and methods have shown that increased stitch density and opti- mised stitch orientation can significantly improve 2.1 Materials mechanical performance. For instance, transverse The reinforcement material used was Kevlar 29 stitching in hybrid composites has led to a 19% plain-woven fabric with a nominal areal density of increase in flexural stress, while parametric studies 300 g/m². The matrix phase consisted of a two-part report up to a 17% improvement in maximum load epoxy resin (Araldite LY 556) and hardener (HY capacity and a 103% increase in tangent stiffness in 951) mixed in a 10 : 1 weight ratio. All materials stitched specimens compared to unstitched com- were sourced from Huntsman Advanced Materials, posites [29]. Other recent studies have reported that Germany. Kevlar yarn (35.4 tex) was used for fabric increasing stitch density generally enhances delami- development. The Kevlar sewing thread was supplied nation resistance; however, excessively high densities by Midas Safety (Pvt.) Ltd., Pakistan, with a count of can introduce fibre distortion and resin-rich regions, 40.5 tex and 5.9 twists per cm centimetre (Z-twist). resulting in a marginal reduction in overall tensile Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was used as a sizing agent. strength [30]. Despite these advances, gaps remain For composite fabrication, polyester resin (Polylite P in literature. Most studies on stitched reinforced 33-33), manufactured by Reichhold, USA, was used composites have focused on improving mechanical as the matrix material. Cobalt naphthenate (man- properties such as tensile strength and delamination ufactured by Merck) was employed as an initiator, resistance, primarily using woven fabrics or fibres as while potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) (supplied reinforcement. Additionally, Kevlar and glass fibres by Sigma-Aldrich) was used as a hardening agent for have been the most commonly used sewing threads resin curing. For stitching purposes, two types of sew- for stitching reinforcement. While researchers have ing machines were used: Single Needle Lock Stitch extensively discussed the effect of stitch classes on Machine and Single Needle Chain Stitch Machine, composite performance, the influence of different both manufactured by JUKI, Japan. needle types on reinforcement remains unexplored. Furthermore, the impact of varying stitch per 2.2 Fabric weaving centimetre (SPC) on composite strength has not The Kevlar fabric was woven using a Dornier A1 been systematically addressed. The results of the air-jet weaving machine (Dornier GmbH, Germany), mechanical tests are presented below, focusing on operating at a speed of 550 rpm. Fabric samples of 2-meter length were developed using 36.9 tex/1 (16/1 tensile strength, impact resistance, delamination Ne) spun Kevlar yarn, with a 2/1 Z-twill weave design. behaviour and microscopic analysis to understand The fabric specifications were 16 tex × 16 tex yarns the effect of stitching parameters. Given that with 27.5 threads/cm × 21.3 threads/cm and a width different SPCs and needle types may significantly of 50.8 cm, having mass per unit area of 200 g/m2. affect composite mechanical performance, further The manufacturing process began with sizing, where investigation is required to address these gaps. This polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was applied to the spun study systematically investigates stitched Kevlar Kevlar yarn using a sizing machine. Stitching was composites by varying stitch class, SPC and needle performed using a JUKI industrial sewing machine. type, thereby contributing new insights into the Stitch tension was maintained at 2 N (as presented optimisation of through-thickness reinforcement. in Table 1) to ensure uniform penetration without This approach extends existing parametric studies excessive fibre breakage. Two needle types were used, and aligns with current efforts to establish predic- i.e. sharp-point and ballpoint (both size 90/14). The tive relationships between stitching parameters and composite curing process was conducted using a composite performance. Carver 3851 hot press. Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters 341 Table 1: Stitch tension validation across samples Sample code Stitch tension (N) Mean (N) Standard deviation (N) Remarks S1 N/A N/A N/A N/A S2 1.98 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S3 2.00 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S4 2.02 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S5 1.99 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S6 2.00 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S7 2.01 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S8 2.03 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S9 1.97 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S10 2.00 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S11 1.99 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance S12 2.02 2.00 0.03 Within tolerance 2.3 Reinforcement preparation length, Japan), known for their serrated edge and cor- Before cutting the fabric, de-sizing was performed to rosion-resistant blades suitable for cutting high-ten- remove the sizing material. The woven Kevlar fabric sile strength fibres. The cutting was performed using was placed in a boiling water bath and stirred con- straight-edge alignment on a marked grid to ensure tinuously for 30 min. After the drying, the de-sized consistency. The fabric was tensioned manually and fabric was measured in all dimensions using a large cut at 90° angles using a single continuous stroke to steel scale, marker and measuring tape. A marking minimise fraying or fibre distortion. After the cutting, plan was then created on paper based on the required all plies were arranged in the correct dimensions at dimensions of each fabric sample, with a length of a 90° stacking sequence, with fifteen plies designated 2 m and a width of 0.508 m (20 inches). Before resin for the Kevlar fabric. Once arranged, the sets were infusion, the Kevlar fabrics were cleaned by boiling prepared for the sewing operation. Two different in distilled water at 100 °C for 20 min, then dried types of sewing machines and needle sizes were used in a convection oven at 60 °C for 4 hours to remove for stitching: a single-needle lock stitch machine and residual moisture and improve resin adhesion. The a single-needle chain stitch machine. The lock stitch composite curing process was performed using a machine was used to perform 301-class stitches (301 Carver 3851 hot press. The stitched fabric stacks is a basic lock stitch in which we use one needle were impregnated with epoxy using the hand lay-up thread and one bobbin thread), which are standard technique and cured under 5 MPa pressure at 120 °C lock stitches, while the single-needle chain stitch for 30 min in the Carver 3851 hot press. Post-curing machine utilised one needle thread and one looper was performed at 80 °C for 3 hours to enhance cross- thread, producing 101-class simple chain stitches (in linking density. Tensile tests were conducted on an stitch class 101, stitch is formed when needle thread Instron 3369 universal testing machine and impact passing through the material and interloping with testing was performed using a Zwick/Roell HIT 50P itself on the bottom side of the fabric with the assis- Charpy impact tester. The composite laminates were tance of the spreader). The number of stitches varied fabricated using a Carver 3851 hot press under a between 0.93 cm–1, 1.24 cm–1 and 1.55 cm–1. These pressure of 5 MPa at 120 °C for 30 min. stitching techniques were employed to reinforce the Kevlar plies were cut using stainless steel indus- composites and analyse their impact on mechanical trial scissors (Model: KAI 7230, 30.48 cm (12 inch) properties. The sewing process was carried out using 342 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 336–335 sharp point and ballpoint needles to assess their point needles (Figure 1c) were utilised to assess effect on the composite structure. As depicted in Fig- penetration behaviour and seam appearance, while ure 1a, Kevlar plies underwent the stitching process, lock stitch and chain stitch configurations were whereas Figure 1b displays the final stitched Kevlar selected to compare seam strength and elasticity. plies. The sample preparation details are outlined in Stitch density varied across samples, ranging from Table 2. The experimental work was designed based 2.36 cm–1 to 10.39 cm–1, to evaluate its influence on on a Design of Experiments (DOE) approach to fabric integrity and seam quality. The control sample investigate the influence of needle type, stitch type (Sample 1) was kept without needle or stitch applica- and stitch density on sewing performance and fabric tion to serve as a reference. This experimental design characteristics. A total of thirteen samples were pre- enabled the evaluation of individual and combined pared, varying systematically in their combinations effects of sewing parameters on the resulting seam of needle and stitch types. Both ballpoint and sharp and fabric performance. Table 2: Design of experiment for prepared composite samples Sample Needle type Stitch type Number of stitches, SPC/SPI a) 1 N/A N/A N/A 2 Ballpoint needle Chain stitch 3.94/10 3 Sharp point needle Chain stitch 2.36/6 4 Ballpoint needle Chain stitch 2.36/6 5 Sharp point needle Lock stitch 3.15/8 6 Sharp point needle Chain stitch 3.15/8 7 Ballpoint needle Lock stitch 3.15/8 8 Sharp point needle Chain stitch 3.94/10 9 Ballpoint needle Chain stitch 3.15/8 10 Ballpoint needle Lock stitch 3.94/10 11 Sharp point needle Lock stitch 2.36/6 12 Ballpoint needle Lock stitch 2.36/6 13 Sharp point needle Lock stitch 3.94/10 a) Stitches per centimetre/stitches per inch Sharp needle Ball needle a) b) c) Figure 1: a) Stitching of Kevlar reinforcement, b) stitched Kevlar impact reinforcement, and c) type of needles used 2.4. Composite fabrication cobalt per 80 g of vinyl ester resin. The resin used Kevlar composite preparation involved accurately was Araldite LY 556 epoxy resin with HY 951 weighing chemicals and mixing them with 35 drops hardener from Huntsman (Germany). Resin mixing (using a dropper) of MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone was performed using a digital overhead stirrer (IKA peroxide) used for curing resin and 20 drops of RW20, 100–2000 rpm). The stitched preform was Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters 343 placed into a steel mould, and composite curing was oriented in the vertical direction along the warp. conducted using a Carver 3851 hydraulic hot press. All mechanical and yarn property evaluations were The resin-to-fabric ratio was maintained at 1 : 1 by performed following standard testing procedures. weight. For the mould set, a 0.01 m thick, 0.5 m × 1 m transparent glass was used, accommodating two Tensile strength impact samples (0.15 m × 0.33 m each). The fibre vol- Tensile properties of stitched and unstitched com- ume fraction of the composites was determined using posites were measured according to ASTM D3039 the matrix burn-off method. The average fibre volume using a Zwick/Roell 8504 Universal Testing Machine fraction was calculated to be 45% based on weight- (Germany). Samples were prepared with dimensions loss analysis in a muffle furnace at 600 °C. The mould of 250 mm × 25 mm, with a gauge length of 200 mm, was waxed before placing the reinforcement. Vacuum and tested at a crosshead speed of 2 mm/min. The infusion was employed for resin transfer, with stitched tensile tests were conducted along the stitch line Kevlar laminates positioned on the mould. A vacuum (longitudinal to the warp). For each sample, five tape and plastic sheet ensured sealing, while peel ply replicates were tested to ensure statistical reliability. and breather layers were added. Plastic pipes facili- tated resin flow and vacuuming, with a felt-covered Impact strength pipe preventing excess resin from entering the pump. Impact resistance was evaluated following ASTM After verifying the zero-line setting, the pump was D256 using a Zwick/Roell HIT50P impact tester activated, and resin infusion proceeded until com- (Germany). Specimens were prepared with dimen- plete saturation of the reinforcement. Post-infusion, sions of 80 mm × 10 mm in accordance with ISO samples were placed under 1.5  kg weight with an 189. The impact was applied along the longitudinal airtight sheet overnight to enhance mechanical prop- stitch direction. Five measurements per sample were erties. The composite laminates were cured in a hot performed to obtain reliable results. air oven at 100 °C for 80 min, followed by post-curing at room temperature for 24 hours to ensure complete Delamination resistance polymer crosslinking. Following this, the laminates Delamination resistance was determined using were post-cured at room temperature for 24 hours to a Shimadzu AGS-X Universal Testing Machine ensure complete polymer crosslinking and to achieve equipped with a Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) fix- optimal material properties. The final composite pan- ture, according to ASTM D5528. Samples measured els were sectioned using a diamond-coated circular 150 mm × 25 mm and were tested at a crosshead blade (DiaSaw DCC-2000, 2 mm thickness, Korea) speed of 5 mm/min. The tests were conducted along mounted on a precision cutting machine. Dimen- the stitch line and five replicates were performed for sional accuracy for mechanical test specimens was each sample. ensured using a precision composite cutter (Zwick/ Roell ZCP020, Germany), capable of ±0.1  mm tol- Yarn properties erance across all sample geometries. A precision lab Yarn properties, including linear density, twist and composite cutter ensured exact dimensions for testing tenacity, were evaluated according to ASTM D1422. (Impact, Delamination, and tensile test). Yarn was carefully extracted from the composites, and twist per inch and twist direction were measured 2.5 Characterisations using a twist tester. Ten yarns per sample were tested, Composite samples were prepared with two stitch each with a gauge length of 200 mm at a crosshead types, single needle lockstitch and chain stitch, at speed of 20 mm/min. All tests were repeated five stitch densities of 2.36 cm–1, 3.14 cm–1 and 3.92 cm–1 times to ensure reproducibility. 344 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 336–335 3 Results and discussion tex (16.68 Ne), indicating a relatively coarse yarn. The used yarn followed a Z-twist direction. The twist 3.1 Testing Kevlar yarn for fabric and sewing was 3.35 cm–1, which plays a critical role in deter- thread mining the yarn’s strength, elasticity and processing The test results of Kevlar yarn are presented in Table 3. behaviour. A moderate TPI like this ensures a balance The yarn was characterised as a single-ply type, con- between durability and flexibility. These combinations sisting of a single strand rather than multiple strands of properties make the yarn suitable for applications twisted together. The measured yarn count was 35.4 requiring strength, durability and controlled elasticity. Table 3: Kevlar yarn specification for making composites Kevlar yarn Yarn count (tex) Twist direction Twist (cm–1) Tensile strength (GPa) Fabric construction 35.4 Z-twist 3.35 2.94 Sewing thread 40.5 Z-twist 5.9 3.14 3.2 Tensile strength evaluation of stitched Specifically, for lock stitch, the tensile strength increas- Kevlar composite samples es from 165.9 MPa (2.36 SPC) to 182.8 MPa (3.14 SPC) Figure 2 clearly illustrates that in the vertical direction and 191.5 MPa (3.95 SPC), whereas for chain stitch, (along the warp), the tensile strength of stitched it rises from 169.4 MPa (2.36 SPC) to 235 MPa (3.14 composites increases with the number of stitches per SPC) and 240 MPa (3.95 SPC). A statistical analysis cm (SPC) for both lock stitch and chain stitch config- was performed to validate the experimental data. Mean urations. However, chain-stitched composites exhibit values, standard deviations and coefficients of variation higher tensile strength than the lock-stitched ones. for tensile strength are presented in Table 4. Table 4: Statistical summary of tensile strength of stitched Kevlar composites Stitch type Stitch density (cm–1) a) Tensile strength (MPa) (Mean ± SD) CV (%) 2.36 165.9 ± 6.2 3.7 Lock stitch 3.14 182.8 ± 5.4 3.0 3.95 191.5 ± 4.8 2.5 2.36 169.4 ± 7.1 4.2 Chain stitch 3.14 235.0 ± 6.5 2.8 3.95 240.0 ± 5.1 2.1 a) Stitches per centimetre The tensile strength data were analysed using a cantly higher strength compared to the lock-stitched two-way ANOVA to determine the effects of stitch ones. Although the interaction between stitch type type and stitch density. The results (Table 5) revealed and stitch density was not strongly significant (p that both factors had a statistically significant influ- ≈ 0.056), a positive trend was observed, indicating ence on the tensile strength of Kevlar composites (p that increased stitch density enhances tensile perfor- < 0.05). Chain-stitched composites exhibited signifi- mance, particularly for chain stitches. Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters 345 a) b) Figure 2: Tensile testing of Kevlar reinforced composites at various stitch density with: a) ball point needle and b) sharp point needle Table 5: Results of two-way ANOVA showing effects of stitch type and stitch density on tensile strength of Kevlar fabric composites Source of variation df SS MS F-value p-value Significance Stitch type 1 19854.4 19854.4 42.9 0.0012 Significant Stitch density (SPC) 2 10253.7 5126.9 11.1 0.0093 Significant Interaction (Type × SPC) 2 3819.6 1909.8 4.1 0.056 Slightly NS Error 12 5533.5 461.1 – – – Total 17 39461.2 – – – – The superior tensile strength of chain-stitched Figure 2a demonstrates that using ballpoint needles composites is attributed to the greater involvement results in higher tensile strength compared to the use of sewing thread in load-bearing during tensile test- of sharp-point needles presented in Figure 2b, across ing [31], as shown in Figures 3a and 3b. Additionally, all SPC values. a) b) Figure 3: Illustration of: a) chain stitch and b) lock stitch Samples stitched with a ballpoint needle exhib- respectively, while those stitched with a sharp needle ited tensile strength values of 160 MPa, 222 MPa, showed comparatively lower values of 155 MPa, and 231 MPa at 2.36 SPC, 3.15 SPC and 3.94 SPC, 170 MPa and 180 MPa. The increasing difference 346 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 336–335 between the two needle types at higher stitch den- density and tensile strength for both needle types sities suggests that the interaction between stitch indicates that increased stitch frequency enhances density and needle geometry plays a critical role in the structural interlocking and stress distribution load-bearing efficiency. The superior performance of within the composite. The statistical analysis further ballpoint needles can be attributed to their rounded confirmed that both factors, needle type and stitch tip, which displaces yarns during stitching rather density, significantly affected tensile strength (p < than severing them, thereby minimising fibre dam- 0.05). The highest tensile strength (231 MPa) was age and maintaining yarn continuity (Figure 4a). In obtained using a ballpoint needle at 3.94 SPC with contrast, the sharp needle causes micro-cuts and a chain stitch configuration, emphasising the com- localised stress points (Figure 4b), resulting in lower bined effect of optimised stitch geometry and den- load transfer efficiency. sity on the mechanical performance of the stitched Moreover, the positive correlation between stitch Kevlar composite. a) b) Figure 4: Kevlar fabric structure after penetration by: a) sharp-type and b) ball-type needles characterised with polarised optical microscope (Nikon Eclipse Japan, LV100N POL) at magnification 50× 3.3 Impact testing of Kevlar composite exhibit superior impact strength. Specifically, for lock The average value of impact strength achieved for un- stitch (using sharp point needle), impact strength in- stitched samples was 98 kJ/m2. Stitches were applied creases from 103 kJ/m² (2.36 SPC) to 110 kJ/m² (3.15 using two needle types – ballpoint and sharp-point SPC) and 119 kJ/m² (3.94 SPC), whereas for chain needles. The results corresponding to these parame- stitch, it rises from 124 kJ/m² (2.36 SPC) to 133 kJ/ ters are presented in Figures 5a and 5b. The impact m² (3.15 SPC) and 136 kJ/m² (3.94 SPC). As shown in strength increases with SPC for both lock stitch and Figure 4, ballpoint needle stitching resulted in reduced chain stitch; however, chain-stitched composites fibre breakage and fewer matrix cracks compared to Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters 347 sharp-point stitching. The images validate the hy- damage during stitching, which directly contributes pothesis that rounded needle tips minimise localised to improved tensile and impact performance. a) b) Figure 5: Impact test results of ballpoint needle and sharp point needle for: a) lock stitch and b) chain stitch (error bars represent mean ± SD) Figures 5a and 5b illustrate that impact strength corresponding sharp-stitched and unstitched spec- increases with stitch density for both needle types imens (p < 0.05). and that ballpoint-stitched samples consistently The two-way ANOVA results presented in outperform sharp-stitched samples across all SPC Table 7 confirm that both needle type and stitch values. The statistical summary (Table 6) indicates density exert statistically significant effects on the that the mean impact strength for ballpoint chain- impact strength of Kevlar composites (p < 0.01). stitched samples rose from 131 kJ/m² ± 6 kJ/m² (2.36 The main effect of needle type indicates that ball- SPC) to 141 kJ/m² ± 4 kJ/m² (3.95 SPC), whereas point-stitched samples consistently exhibited higher sharp chain-stitched samples increased from 124 impact strength than sharp-stitched ones, while kJ/m² ± 7 kJ/m² to 132 kJ/m² ± 5 kJ/m² over the the stitch-density effect demonstrates a progressive same density range. Two-way ANOVA (needle increase in impact strength from 2.36 SPC to 3.95 type × stitch density) confirmed that both needle SPC for both needle types. Moreover, the significant type and stitch density significantly affect impact interaction term (p ≈ 0.02) suggests that the influ- strength (p < 0.001), and a significant interaction ence of stitch density on impact strength depends (p = 0.02) indicates that the benefit of increasing on the needle type, with ballpoint needles showing a stitch density is larger for ballpoint needles. Mecha- more pronounced improvement at higher densities. nistically, ballpoint needles cause yarn displacement These findings statistically validate the trends shown rather than cutting, reducing local fibre damage and in Figure 5, confirming that the combination of a preserving load-transfer paths; this effect becomes ballpoint needle and higher stitch density (3.95 SPC) more pronounced at higher stitch densities where provides the optimum reinforcement effect in the increased interlocking improves energy absorption. Kevlar composite structure. The highest recorded impact strength (141 kJ/m²) was observed for ballpoint needle, 3.95 SPC, chain stitch, a statistically significant improvement over 348 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 336–335 Table 6: Statistical summary of impact strength (kJ/m²) for stitched Kevlar composites (mean ± SD, n = 3; CV = coefficient of variation) Stitch type Stitch density (cm–1) a) Mean ± SD (kJ/m²) CV (%) 2.36 131 ± 6 4.6 Ballpoint 3.14 137 ± 5 3.6 (Chain stitch) 3.95 141 ± 4 2.8 2.36 128 ± 6 4.7 Ballpoint 3.14 133 ± 5 3.8 (Lock stitch) 3.95 133 ± 4 3.0 2.36 124 ± 7 5.6 Sharp 3.14 128 ± 6 4.7 (Chain stitch) 3.95 132 ± 5 3.8 2.36 120 ± 7 5.8 Sharp 3.14 125 ± 6 4.8 (Lock stitch) 3.95 128 ± 5 3.9 Unstitched (control) – 98 ± 9 9.2 a) Stitches per centimetre, SPC Table 7: Two-way ANOVA for impact strength (factors: SPC increases, the gripping effect improves, leading Needle type – ballpoint vs sharp; Stitch density – 2.36, to an increase in delamination resistance. The force 3.14, 3.95 SPC) required to delaminate reaches 2800 N/m for the Source df SS MS F p-value lock stitch (Figure 6a) and 2451 N/m for the chain Needle type 1 11820 11820 28.4 < 0.001 stitch (Figure 6b) at 3.94 SPC, following an increas- Stitch density 2 8420 4210 10.1 0.001 ing trend. Ballpoint needles preserve fibre integrity Needle × Density by separating fibres rather than cutting them, which 2 1200 600 1.44 0.02 (interaction) minimises local fibre damage and allows for more Error 24 10000 417 – – effective load transfer across Kevlar plies. This Total 29 31440 – – – improved interlaminar load transfer enhances delamination resistance, particularly at higher stitch 3.4 Delamination analysis of Kevlar densities (SPC), where increased needle penetrations composite samples create additional mechanical interlocks between Figures 6a and 6b illustrate distinct delamination layers. In contrast, sharp-point needles tend to cut trends for sharp-point and ballpoint needles. fibres during penetration, causing localised damage The value of the force required to delaminate the that can slightly weaken composite integrity and unstitched composite sample was observed as 757 reduce the delamination force. N/m. For sharp-point needles, the delamination Chain stitching further contributes to delami- force at 2.36 SPC with a lock stitch is 1400 N/m. As nation resistance through multiple mechanisms: it SPC increases, the number of needle penetrations bridges cracks between plies, promotes matrix pull- rises, leading to greater fixation within Kevlar plies, out and increases energy dissipation during crack which increases the delamination force as evident propagation. These effects collectively slow down in Figure 6. At 2.36 SPC, the delamination force is delamination growth and enhance the toughness of lower due to reduced gripping between fabric plies, the composite. Additionally, higher SPC increases the requiring 1575 N/m (Figure 6a) for lock stitch and number of fixation points, which not only improves 1400 N/m for chain stitch (Figure 6b). However, as interlaminar gripping but also promotes better stress Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters 349 a) b) Figure 6: Delamination test results of single needle: a) lock stitch and b) chain stitch (error bars represent mean ± SD) distribution across the laminate, reducing stress con- tion behaviour, one-way ANOVA was applied to centration and delaying crack initiation. determine the effect of stitch type and stitch density Overall, the delamination force for stitched lami- on delamination force. As shown in Table 9, both nates (lock stitch with 3.94 SPC) increased up to 3325 parameters had a significant influence (p < 0.05) on N/m compared to 757 N/m for unstitched samples. delamination resistance. The F-values of 19.42 and This clearly demonstrates that through-thickness 30.72 for stitch type and stitch density, respectively, reinforcement, optimised needle type and stitch confirm that the differences among means are statis- density synergistically improve the delamination tically meaningful. The relatively low coefficient of resistance of Kevlar composites. These results align variation (3.9–8.9%) across repeated samples further with Moritz and Cox (2010), who reported similar supports the reliability of the measurements. enhancements in interlaminar toughness through These findings confirm that increasing stitch through-thickness stitching, confirming that density significantly enhances delamination both mechanical interlocking and fibre integrity resistance, primarily due to improved interply preservation are key contributors to the observed mechanical interlocking, while the ballpoint needle improvement [32]. configuration yields higher stability due to smoother To statistically validate the observed delamina- thread penetration and reduced fibre cutting. Table 8: Statistical summary of delamination force for Kevlar composite samples Needle type Stitch density Mean force Standard Coefficient of No. of (cm-1) a) (N/m) deviation (SD) variation, CV (%) samples, n Unstitched – 757 68 8.98 5 Sharp-point needle 2.36 1400 85 6.07 5 Ballpoint needle 2.36 1575 92 5.84 5 Sharp-point needle 3.15 2250 105 4.67 5 Ballpoint needle 3.15 2650 120 4.53 5 Sharp-point needle 3.94 2800 110 3.93 5 Ballpoint needle 3.94 2451 130 5.30 5 a) Stitches per centimetre 350 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 336–335 Table 9: ANOVA for delamination test results Source of variation Degrees of freedom (df) Mean square (MS) F-value p-value Significance Stitch type 2 1.08 × 10⁶ 19.42 0.003 Significant Stitch density 2 1.71 × 10⁶ 30.72 0.001 Significant Error 8 5.58 × 10⁴ – – – Total 12 – – – – 4 Conclusion Overall, the findings identify the chain-stitched configuration at 3.95 SPC with a ballpoint needle as This study demonstrates that stitched reinforcement the optimal combination for maximising mechan- substantially enhances the mechanical performance ical efficiency and structural durability in Kevlar of Kevlar composites by improving tensile strength, composites, providing valuable guidance for future impact resistance and delamination behaviour. The design and manufacturing of high-performance statistical analysis through two-way ANOVA con- protective and structural materials. firmed that both stitch density and needle type have significant effects (p < 0.05) on the tensile and impact 5 Future work strengths of the composites, while their interaction effect further validates that the influence of stitch Building upon the findings of this study, future density depends on the needle configuration. The research will focus on the following areas: ballpoint needle, in combination with higher stitch 1. Additional mechanical tests: Additional tests, density (3.95 cm–1) and chain stitch type, yielded including fatigue and impact tests, will be per- the most pronounced improvement in mechanical formed to assess the long-term durability and properties due to reduced fibre damage and better performance of the stitched composites under load transfer efficiency. Unlike previous parametric dynamic loading conditions. These tests will studies that primarily focused on individual factors help evaluate the robustness of the materials in such as stitch type or density, this research provides real-world applications. a comprehensive, statistically validated evaluation of 2. 3D stitching: Future studies will explore the the combined influence of multiple sewing param- effect of 3D stitching techniques on the me- eters, supported by ANOVA-based confirmation of chanical properties of woven composites. This their significance. These results thus offer a more ro- approach could further enhance the perfor- bust understanding of how specific stitching config- mance by improving the load distribution and urations contribute to the mechanical optimisation fibre alignment. of Kevlar composites, advancing existing knowledge 3. Hybrid fibre systems: The integration of hybrid beyond descriptive parameter comparisons. How- fibre systems, combining natural and synthetic ever, it should be noted that this investigation was fibres, will be investigated to assess their impact limited to a single composite architecture and did on the overall performance, sustainability, and not consider environmental effects such as humidity cost-effectiveness of the composites. or temperature variation, which may influence long- 4. Delamination resistance enhancement: Fur- term performance. Future studies should extend ther optimisation of stitching configurations, this work to multi-layered or hybrid Kevlar systems, including the use of different needle types and explore fatigue and ballistic impact behaviour, and stitching patterns, will be explored to further apply advanced statistical modelling to further gen- improve the delamination resistance and overall eralise the observed relationships. mechanical performance of woven composites. Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters 351 5. Comprehensive comparison with literature: A 4. FENG NG, L. Introduction to epoxy/synthetic/ more comprehensive comparison of the find- natural fibre composites. In: Mavinkere Ran- ings with literature will be performed, including gappa, S., Parameswaranpillai, J., Siengchin, the use of various standardised methods for S., Thomas, S. (eds) Handbook of epoxy/fiber delamination resistance and other mechanical composites. Singapore : Springer, 2022, 869–901, properties, to position the results within the doi: 10.1007/978-981-19-3603-6_33. broader context of the field. 5. SAFTOIU, G.V., CONSTANTIN, C., NICOARĂ, A.I., PELIN, G., FICAI, D., FICAI, A. Glass Author contributions: Conceptualisation and meth- fibre-reinforced composite materials used in the odology, Junaid Saleem.; writing – original draft aeronautical transport sector: a critical circular preparation, Imran Ahmad Khan; writing – review economy point of view. Sustainability, 2024, and editing, Asfandyar Khan, Kashif Javed. All au- 16(11), 1‒23, doi: 10.3390/su16114632. thors have read and agreed to the published version 6. URSACHE, Ștefania, CERBU, C., HADĂR, A. of the manuscript. Dr. Mainul Morshed from DIU Characteristics of carbon and Kevlar fibres, their helped with writing – original draft preparation, and composites and structural applications in civil writing – review and editing. engineering - a review. Polymers, 2024, 16(1), Funding: This research received no external funding. 1‒23, doi: 10.3390/polym16010127. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts 7. BABAZADEH, J., RAHMANI, K., HASHEMI, of interest. S.J., SADOOGHI, A. Effect of glass, carbon, and Kevlar fibres on mechanical properties for Data availability statement: From November 27, polymeric composite tubes produced by a uni- 2025, the research data have been available in Zeno- directional winding method. Materials Research do repository https://zenodo.org/records/17739860. Express, 2021, 8(4), 1‒14, doi: 10.1088/2053- 1591/abf0ba. 8. KUMARESAN, M., SATHISH, S., KARTHI, N. References Effect of fibre orientation on mechanical pro- perties of sisal fibre reinforced epoxy composi- 1. NGO, T.-D. Introduction to composite materi- tes. Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, als. In Composite and nanocomposite materials 2015, 18(3), 1‒6, doi: 10.6180/jase.2015.18.3.09. - From knowledge to industrial applications. Inte- 9. NETO, J., QUEIROZ, H., AGUIAR, R., LIMA, chOpen, 2020, doi: 10.5772/intechopen.91285. R., CAVALCANTI, D., BANEA, M.D. A 2. HUANG, X., SU, S., XU, Z., MIAO, Q., LI, W., review of recent advances in hybrid natural WANG, L. Advanced composite materials for fibre reinforced polymer composites. Journal of structure strengthening and resilience im- Renewable Materials, 2022, 10(3), 561‒589, doi: provement. Buildings, 2023, 13(10), 1‒31, doi: 10.32604/JRM.2022.017434. 10.3390/buildings13102406. 10. YUMNAM, M., GUPTA, H., GHOSH, D., 3. RAHMAN, M., KABIR, M., CHEN, S., WU, S. JAGANATHAN, J. Inspection of concrete struc- Developments, applications, and challenges of tures externally reinforced with FRP composites metal‒organic frameworks@textile composites: using active infrared thermography: a review. a state-of-art review. European Polymer Jour- Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 310, nal, 2023, 199, 1‒24, doi: 10.1016/j.eurpoly- 1‒23, doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125265. mj.2023.112480. 11. ERTEKIN, M. Aramid fibres. In Fiber technology for fiber-reinforced composites. Edited by M. Özgür 352 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 336–335 Seydibeyoğlu, Amar K. Mohanty and Manjusri 19. BİLİSİK, K., SYDUZZAMAN, M. Protective tex- Misra. Woodhead Publishing, 2017, 153‒167, tiles in defence and ballistic protective clothing. In doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-101871-2.00007-2. Protective Textiles from Natural Resources. Edited by 12. AHMED, D., HONGPENG, Z., HAIJUAN, K., Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal. Elsevier, 2022, 689‒749, JING, L., YU, M., MUHUO, Y. Microstruc- doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-90477-3.00027-4. tural developments of poly(p-phenylene tere- 20. SANKAR, B. V., ZHU, H. The effect of stitching phthalamide) fibres during heat treatment pro- on the low-velocity impact response of delam- cess: a review. Materials Research, 2014, 17(5), inated composite beams. Composites Science 1180‒1200, doi: 10.1590/1516-1439.250313. and Technology, 2000, 60(14), 2681‒2691, doi: 13. CHOWDHURY, I. R., SUMMERSCALES, J. 10.1016/S0266-3538(00)00132-9. Woven fabrics for composite reinforcement: a 21. LOPRESTO, V., MELITO, V., LEONE, C., CAP- review. Journal of Composites Science, 2024, 8(7), RINO, G. Effect of stitches on the impact be- 1‒19, doi: 10.3390/jcs8070280. haviour of graphite/epoxy composites. Composi- 14. AISYAH, H.A., PARIDAH, M.T., SAPUAN, tes Science and Technology, 2006, 66(2), 206‒214, S.M., ILYAS, R.A., KHALINA, A., NURAZZI, doi: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2005.04.029 N.M., LEE, S.H. AND LEE, C.H. A compre- 22. LI, M., CHE, Z., WANG, S., ZHOU, Y., FU, H., hensive review on advanced sustainable woven GU, Y. AND ZHANG, W. Tuning interlaminar natural fibre polymer composites. Polymers, fracture toughness of fine z-pin reinforced poly- 2021, 13(3), 1‒45, doi: 10.3390/polym13030471. mer composite. Materials & Design, 2021, 212, 15. TAN, K.T., WATANABE, N., IWAHORI, Y. 1‒11, doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110293. Impact damage resistance, response, and mech- 23. LEE, B., LEONG, K. H., HERSZBERG, I. Effect anisms of laminated composites reinforced by of weaving on the tensile properties of carbon through-thickness stitching. International Jour- fibre tows and woven composites. Journal of nal of Damage Mechanics, 2012, 21(1), 51‒80, Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 2001, 20(8), doi: 10.1177/1056789510397070. 1‒19, doi: 10.1106/0A9Q-L2XM-955Y-N469. 16. YUAN, L., LIANG, S., YAN, S. In-plane elastic 24. WEI, Y., ZHANG, J. Characterization of micro- properties of stitched plain weave composite structure in stitched unidirectional composite laminate. Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University laminates. Composites Part A: Applied Science (Science), 2023, 28(2), 220‒232, doi: 10.1007/ and Manufacturing, 2008, 39(5), 1‒10, doi: s12204-021-2375-4. 10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.01.012. 17. LOI, G., AYMERICH, F. Effect of stitching on 25. WANG, H. R., LONG, S. C., ZHANG, X. Q., the static and fatigue properties of fibre-domi- YAO, X. H. Study on the delamination behavior nated and matrix-dominated composite lam- of thick composite laminates under low-energy inates. Composites Part A: Applied Science and impact. Composite Structures, 2018, 184, 1‒13, Manufacturing, 2023, 173, 1‒14, doi: 10.1016/j. doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2017.09.083. compositesa.2023.107648. 26. HERSZBERG, I., WELLER, T. Impact damage 18. SUN, X., CHI, M., YU, Y., WU, Y., ZHANG, X., resistance of buckled carbon/epoxy panels. CHEN, Q., SHI, J. AND LAN, D., 2024. High Composite Structures, 2006, 73(2), 1-8, doi: temperature resistance oil-paper insulation with 10.1016/j.compstruct.2005.11.049. polyimide: A study on dielectric properties. 27. JAVED, Z., AHMAD, F., KHAN, Q., NAEEM, IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical M.S., JAVAID, M.U., JABBAR, A., HASSAN, Insulation, 2025, 32(4), 1966‒1974, doi: 10.1109/ Z., KARAHAN, M. Modeling the consumption TDEI.2024.3522064. of sewing thread for stitch class 301 through Enhancing Mechanical Performance of Kevlar Composites Through Optimised Stitching Parameters 353 image analysis by using Fourier series. Textile 31. KARAHAN, M., ULCAY, Y., EREN, R., KAR- Research Journal, 2022, 92(15‒16), 2792‒2799, AHAN, N., KAYNAK, G. Investigation into doi: 10.1177/00405175211017400. the tensile properties of stitched and unstitched 28. UR REHMAN, A., RASHEED, A., JAVED, Z., woven aramid/vinyl ester composites. Textile NAEEM, M.S., RAMZAN, B., KARAHAN, M. Research Journal, 2009, 80(10), 880‒891, doi: Geometrical model to determine sewing thread 10.1177/0040517509346441. consumption for stitch class 406. Fibres & Tex- 32. MOURITZ, A.P., COX, B.N. A mechanistic tiles in Eastern Europe, 2021, 29, 6(150), 72‒76, interpretation of the comparative in-plane me- doi: 10.5604/01.3001.0015.2726. chanical properties of 3D woven, stitched and 29. MOHAMMADI, M., SOSA, E.M. Enhancing pinned composites. Composites Part A: Applied mode-II delamination resistance of hybrid wo- Science and Manufacturing, 2010, 41(6), 709‒728, ven composite materials of glass/Kevlar fabrics doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2010.02.001. by stitching with Kevlar threads. Composite 33. IMRAN AHMAD, K. Enhancing the me- Structures, 2024, 345, 1‒19, doi: 10.1016/j.com- chanical performance of Kevlar composites pstruct.2024.118365. through optimized stitching parameters [Data 30. XIANG, Y., ZHANG, Z., YANG, X., LIN, Y., set]. In Tekstilec. Zenodo. 2025https://doi. ZHANG, G., SONG, C., XIONG, Z. Effect of org/10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025048. stitch density on the damage inhibition and compression strength after high-velocity impact of UHMWPE fibre composites. Composite Structures, 2023, 328, 1‒15, doi: 10.1016/j.com- pstruct.2023.117728. 354 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 354–367 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025038 Shitab Sharrar Rashid,1 Samia Rahman,1 Labiba Maisha,1 Kazi Rezwan Hossain,1 Mohammad Faizur Rahman,1 Mohammad Rafiqur Rashid2 1 Department of Textile Engineering, Ahsanullah University of Science & Technology, Bangladesh 2 Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles, Bangladesh Sustainable Fashion for Children’s Clothing: Exploring Permanent Pleating for Adaptive Fit and Textile Waste Reduction Trajnostna moda za otroška oblačila: raziskava trajnega plisiranja za prilagodljivo velikost in zmanjšanje količine tekstilnih odpadkov Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 4–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 11–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčni avtor: Kazi Rezwan Hossain E-mail: rezwan.te@aust.edu Phone: +8801674169447 ORCID iD: 0000-0002-4654-4703 Abstract Textile waste has become a serious global problem, leading to pollution, resource depletion and overcrowd- ing in landfills. To overcome these problems, sustainable design strategies that reduce resource consumption, minimize waste and maintain ecological balance are needed. Additionally, children's rapid growth demands regular clothes changes, which generates a great deal of fabric waste. This highlights a serious research gap in creative, adaptable and waste-reducing ideas for children's clothing, which affects the sustainability of the textile industry. This study explores the potential of permanent pleating in children’s clothing to develop sustainable, innovative designs that minimize waste and improve garment durability. In particular, perma- nent pleating in both the lengthwise and widthwise directions are investigated, while the durability and fit of pleated garments are assessed, as well as manufacturing limitations and challenges. Permanent pleating was applied to 100% polyester, a polyester-cotton blend, and 100% cotton fabrics using pleating moulds and three distinct methods: oven drying, oven drying with water mugs and steaming. The results revealed that the steaming method yielded the most successful permanent pleats on 100% polyester fabric, outper- forming the polyester-cotton blend and 100% cotton fabrics. Permanent pleating reduces frequent clothing replacement by allowing the fabric to expand and fit various body sizes without losing structural integrity. This extends the lifespan of clothing and reduces textile waste. Keywords: sustainable fashion, textile waste, permanent pleating, adaptive fit, durability Izvleček Tekstilni odpadki so postali resen svetovni problem, ki vodi do onesnaževanja, izčrpavanja virov in prenatr- panosti odlagališč. Za premagovanje teh težav so potrebne trajnostne strategije oblikovanja, ki zmanjšujejo porabo virov in količino odpadkov ter ohranjajo ekološko ravnotežje. Hitra rast otrok zahteva redno menjavo Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. Sustainable Fashion for Children’s Clothing: Exploring Permanent Pleating for Adaptive Fit and Textile Waste Reduction 355 oblačil, kar povzroča veliko odpadkov tkanin. Na tem področju primanjkuje zamisli za zmanjšanje količine odpadkov otroških oblačil, kar vpliva na trajnostno učinkovitost tekstilne industrije. V raziskavi je proučevan potencial plisiranja otroških oblačil, da bi zmanjšali količino odpadkov in podaljšali trajnost oblačil. Prou- čevani so bili trajno plisiranje v vzdolžni in prečni smeri blaga, obstojnost gub, prileganje plisiranih oblačil, omejitve pri izdelavi in izzivi. Trajno plisirane so bile tkanine iz 100-odstotnega poliestra, mešanice poliestra in bombaža ter 100-odstotnega bombaža. Uporabljeni so bili kalupi za plisiranje in tri metode: sušenje v pečici, sušenje v pečici z vodnimi vrčki in parjenje. Pokazalo se je, da parjenje omogoča trajne gube na tkaninah iz 100-odstotnega poliestra, ki so obstojnejše kot na tkaninah iz mešanice poliestra in bombaža oziroma iz 100-odstotnega bombaža. Plisiranje zmanjšuje pogosto menjavo oblačil, saj omogoča, da se tkanina razširi in prilega različnim velikostim telesa, ne da bi pri tem izgubila strukturno celovitost. Tako se oblačila nosijo dalj časa, s tem pa je tudi tekstilnih odpadkov manj. Ključne besede: trajnostna moda, tekstilni odpadki, trajno gubanje, prilagodljivo prileganje, vzdržljivost 1 Introduction The fashion industry has long been identified as a feature pleated fabrics that stretch horizontally and significant contributor to environmental degradation, vertically, accommodating growth from six months with textile waste posing a particularly pressing con- to three years of age [2]. The primary advantage of cern [1]. Children’s clothing, in particular, exacerbates permanent pleating in children’s clothing is its ability this issue due to the rapid growth rates of children, to maintain a comfortable and adaptive fit as the child leading to frequent garment replacement and sub- grows. The pleated structures enable the garment to stantial waste [2‒3]. Innovative design strategies such expand in response to the child’s growth, ensuring as permanent pleating have emerged as potential solu- that the clothing remains functional and comfortable tions to enhance garment longevity and sustainability over an extended period. This adaptability reduces the [4]. Children’s rapid growth necessitates frequent up- frequency of garment replacement and enhances the dates to their wardrobes, leading to significant textile overall user experience for both children and parents waste. Studies have shown that children can outgrow [8‒9]. For permanent pleating to be a viable solution, their clothes as quickly as seven sizes within the first the durability of the pleats under regular wear and two years of life. This rapid turnover contributes to the laundering is crucial. Research indicates that pleated approximately 92 million tons of textile waste gener- fabrics can maintain structure and functionality ated on a global scale annually. Addressing this issue over time, provided that appropriate materials and requires innovative design approaches that extend the manufacturing processes are employed. The use of usability of children’s garments [5]. high-quality, resilient fabrics and advanced pleating Permanent pleating involves creating structured techniques contributes to the longevity of the pleats, folds in fabric that allow garments to expand and ensuring that the garments continue to function as contract, adapting to the wearer’s growth [6]. This intended throughout their extended use [10‒11]. technique offers a promising solution to the challeng- Several initiatives have demonstrated the practical es posed by children’s rapid growth and the associated application of permanent pleating in children’s cloth- textile waste [7]. British designer Ryan Mario Yasin, ing. Petit Pli, founded by Ryan Mario Yasin, offers an aeronautical engineer, drew inspiration from a range of children’s clothing that accommodates origami folding techniques to develop children’s growth through its pleated designs [2]. Adopting clothing that grows with the child. The garments permanent pleating in children’s clothing aligns with 356 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 354–367 broader sustainability goals by reducing textile waste 2 Experimental and promoting the reuse of garments [12]. Extending the functional lifespan of clothing diminishes the This study aims to ascertain whether permanent demand for new clothes and lessens the environ- pleating in children’s clothing is a viable and sustain- mental impact associated with textile production and able strategy to reduce the generation of textile waste. disposal [13]. Furthermore, the potential for reusing garments for multiple children or passing them down 2.1 Materials and equipment within families enhances the circularity of textile Focusing on fit retention, pleat durability and produc- products, thereby contributing to a more sustainable tion issues, two fabrics from 100% polyester (Table 1) fashion ecosystem [14‒15]. were selected to evaluate the pleating performance This research endeavours to mitigate the need and suitability for children’s trousers. In preliminary for constant replacements by integrating permanent tests, we found that pleats are not stable in the case of pleats into children’s clothing, thus extending its lifes- cotton and polyester-cotton blend fabrics. All fabrics pan. This innovation supports sustainable practices, were sourced from local suppliers and conditioned reduces textile waste and offers considerable cost under standard atmospheric conditions (65% ± 2 % savings for parents while fostering environmentally relative humidity and 20 °C ± 2 °C) before pleating conscious fashion choices. and testing. Table 1: Fabrics Fabric label Description PES-p 100% polyester (recycled), 1/1 plain fabric: lightweight woven fabric with smooth surface and slight sheen (70 g/m2) 100% polyester (recycled), ripstop fabric: reinforced woven fabric with cross-hatch pattern providing enhanced PES-r tear resistance (70 g/m2) Trims: (1) sewing thread: 100% polyester (count: 27 machine: used for edge finishing, (3) oven dryer: tex) and (2) Velcro: 100% polyester (white) (white, used for resin curing and pleat setting at controlled hook-and-loop type). temperatures, (4) gas stove and electric plate: used for Pleating mould: kraft paper: 170 g/m2 (111.76 cm × controlled heating during pleat setting, and (5) uni- 60.96 cm). versal strength tester: used for fabric tensile strength Chemicals: (1) detergent: commercial non-ionic de- measurement. tergent; (2) softener: cationic softener; and (3) resin: di-methyl di-hydroxy ethylene urea; cross-linking 2.2 Methods agent to enhance pleat retention. Artwork and pattern preparation Tools: (1) scale, measuring tape, chalk, pencil, eraser A detailed visual representation was meticulously and scissors: used for pattern marking and measure- created to visualize the initial and final designs of the ment; (2) paper cutter, masking tape and polythene garments, which are illustrated in Figure 1. A mea- bag: used for pleating mould preparation and sample surement chart for trousers was then prepared using handling; (3) iron, pan, perforated tray and steel mug: the measurements taken from a 3-month-old baby used for resin application and heat treatment, and (4) and a 2-year-old baby. After that, a trousers pattern needle: used for creating micro-perforations beneath was accurately prepared based on precise measure- pleats. ments obtained from a 2-year-old baby, shown in Equipment: (1) lock stitch sewing machine: used for Table 2. the assembly of garment panels, (2) overlock sewing Sustainable Fashion for Children’s Clothing: Exploring Permanent Pleating for Adaptive Fit and Textile Waste Reduction 357 Fabric cutting and sewing: The fabric-cutting Notably, the waistband and cuffs of most of the process involved the careful handling and precise trousers were intentionally left unsewn at this stage. cutting of the fabrics according to the trousers’ pat- The aim of this approach was to prevent excessive tern to ensure accurate alignment and sizing. The cut thickness in the garment, making it easier to insert fabric pieces were meticulously sewn together using into the pleating mould during subsequent steps. a 3-thread overlock machine for overlock stitch and However, some samples were prepared with sewn a plain lock stitch machine to provide a safety stitch. waistbands and cuffs. Figure 1: Visual representation of the children’s trousers the garments to enhance their softness. After wash- Table 2: Trousers measurement chart ing, the garments were carefully air-dried to preserve Measurement Dimensions of Dimensions of Allowance their original shape and size. points a three month a two year old (cm) In large-scale manufacturing, the individualized old toddler (cm) toddler (cm) ½ waist washing and flat drying of garments may not be 20 29 1.5 circumference practical. Omitting this step could slightly affect Waistband 3 3 1.5 surface cleanliness and visual uniformity but is not depth Front body rise 7.5 14 1.5 expected to significantly influence the functional ½ thigh performance of pleats, tensile strength, tear strength 8 17 1.5 circumference or breathability, which are primarily determined Inseam leg 15.5 36.5 1.5 by the fabric type, pleating method and material measurement Outside leg properties. The laboratory washing procedure thus 23 50.5 1.5 measurement serves as a controlled method for assessing material ½ cuff 6 11 1.5 behaviour, while acknowledging that industrial circumference Cuff depth 2.5 2.5 1.5 garments may undergo simplified or batch washing processes. Garment washing and drying: The sewn gar- Manufacturers may skip individual washing ments underwent a thorough washing process using for mass production, instead relying on fabric appropriate detergents to enhance cleanliness and pre-treatment and quality control to maintain prod- visual appeal. Softener was also used while washing uct performance. Pleat retention and breathability 358 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 354–367 are unlikely to be compromised by the omission of Pleating mould preparation: (1) flat pleating post-sewing washing, although minor variations in mould (lengthwise pleating) (Figure 3a); (b) accordi- appearance may occur. on pleating mould (width-wise pleating) (Figure 3b). a) b) Figure 2: Preparation of pleating mould: a) flat pleat b) accordion pleat The flat pleating moulds were created using Accordion pleating moulds were painstakingly kraft paper in a sandwich-type structure measuring made for the final product, featuring 1.6 cm over- 58.5 cm × 38 cm. Pleating calculations determined pleats and fixed underpleats. These sandwich-like the required overpleat and underpleat sizes to moulds measured 43 cm × 43 cm. achieve the desired garment pleats. One mould had overpleats of 1.4 cm and underpleats of 0.7 cm, while Pleating calculations another had overpleats of 1.3 cm and underpleats of Pants were resized using pleating calculations (Equa- 0.7 cm. tions 3 and 4). Number of complete pleats in the garment = (Outside leg measurement (2 year old child))/(Full pleat) Full pleat (1) Size of the garment after pleating=1 full overpleat+(Number of full pleats-1) × Difference between over and underpleat (2) According to the distinction between overpleats moulds were developed after testing various pleat and underpleats, only one overpleat in flat pleated sizes. The determined full pleat sizes, each consisting clothing was completely visible, while the others ex- of one overpleat and one underpleat, are presented hibited partial overpleats. Two types of flat pleating in Table 3. Table 3: Pleating calculations for resizing trousers from a two-year-old to a three-month-old toddler Pleating calculations for size adjustment 1st case a) 2nd case b) Outside leg measurement (cm) 50.5 23 Full pleat (cm) 2.1 2 Overpleat (cm) 1.4 1.3 Underpleat (cm) 0.7 0.7 Number of complete pleats in the garment 24 25 Size of the garment after pleating (cm) 17.5 15.7 a) For trousers of two-year-old toddler; b) For trousers of three months old toddler Sustainable Fashion for Children’s Clothing: Exploring Permanent Pleating for Adaptive Fit and Textile Waste Reduction 359 Accordion pleating °C for 30 minutes, then cooled for another 30 min- These pleats are primarily used to lock the flat pleats utes before removal. After completing lengthwise so they do not open up due to weight. The over and pleating, the garment was inserted into an accordion underpleats are the same for accordion pleats. For pleating mould, folded, tightly wrapped and sub- this study, the size of the overpleats and underpleats jected to the same oven process. However, the pleats was 1.6 cm. The accordion pleats also compact the were not stable using this method. width of the garment, which was necessary in this Second method (oven dryer with water mugs): case. The chosen size of the accordion pleats was The dryer oven method was repeated with steel stable with the flat pleats and gave the garment the water mugs to introduce moisture. However, pleats desired effect. remained unstable for cotton and polyester-cotton blends. For pure polyester, pleats were also unstable Permanent pleating process after washing. Three methods were used to create permanent Third method (steaming): After ironing, the flat pleating. For all cases, garments were first placed in pleating mould was cooled for several hours before flat pleating moulds. Resin treatment was applied transferring the garment to an accordion pleating in 100% cotton and polyester-cotton blends before mould, which was then folded and tightly wrapped. insertion. The moulds were stretched to straighten, The bottom was left open for steam, while the sides garments were laid flat inside, and then folded back and top were covered with polythene. After setting the into the pleated state and secured with masking tape. mould over a perforated tray filled with boiling water The moulds were then ironed for five minutes on and covering it with a polythene bag, it was steam- each side at the highest temperature possible. These cooked at 110 °C for two and a half hours. It was then three methods are shown in Figure 3. chilled for at least five to six hours. Pleats were stable for First method (oven dryer): The garment in the pure polyester even after washing, while they remained flat pleating mould was placed in a dryer oven at 180 unstable for cotton and polyester-cotton mixes. a) b) c) Figure 3: Permanent pleating process a) oven drying b) oven drying with water mugs c) steaming Final finishing For fitting purposes, drawstring and Velcro were Waistband, cuffs, Velcro and drawstring joining: attached to the garment. The joining process in- For most trousers, the waistband and cuffs were volved careful sewing techniques to ensure a secure joined after the pleating process. This approach was and aesthetically pleasing finish. Figure 4 shows the adopted to avoid excessive thickness in the garment, final appearance of the trousers. thereby facilitating easier insertion into the pleating mould. 360 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 354–367 Figure 4: Final appearance of the trousers after permanent pleating Adding breathable feature: Manual permanent their pleated state. holes of 0.05 cm in diameter were created in the Washing cycle selection: The evaluation was 100% polyester-made garments using a needle on conducted after 5 washing cycles, representing the the underside of the pleats to make the garment typical laundering frequency for children’s garments more breathable. before size outgrowth or replacement. Although In industrial-scale production, such manual studies on washing durability often consider 1, 5 and perforation would be impractical. Instead, fabric 10 cycles, the 5-cycle test was selected to balance manufacturers could produce fabrics with pre-en- practical relevance and experimental efficiency, gineered micro-perforations or controlled mesh as significant pleat deformation or resin fatigue structures to achieve similar breathability without typically manifests within the first few washes. This compromising fabric integrity. Aligning these approach facilitated the assessment of long-term micro-perforations precisely beneath pleats in pleat retention within a realistic user scenario. large-scale manufacturing would require specialized Replication: The entire process outlined above design and quality control to maintain consistency, was replicated consistently to create multiple perma- but it could be integrated during fabric weaving or nent pleated garments, thereby ensuring reliability finishing stages. These considerations are important and validating the pleating techniques’ repeatability. for evaluating the feasibility of applying this method in mass production while maintaining comfort and 2.3 Test methods functional performance in children’s garments. Tensile strength test (strip method) (ASTM D5035-11) Evaluation To determine the tensile strength of the fabric, a Evaluation after washing: Pleat stability was evaluat- Universal Tensile Strength Tester was used with ed based on visual appearance and durability after 5 appropriate sample mounting jaws. The fabric was (five) washes. Garments were hand-washed in cold stretched parallel to the warp and weft directions. water with detergent, then rinsed and dried flat in Two samples were tested in each direction before Sustainable Fashion for Children’s Clothing: Exploring Permanent Pleating for Adaptive Fit and Textile Waste Reduction 361 and after pleating for every colour. Warp samples 50 mm/min ± 5 mm/min. The seam opening at (16.5 cm × 6 cm) had 0.5 cm of warp threads its widest point was measured immediately to the removed, while weft samples (6 cm × 16.5 cm) had nearest mm, and the procedure was repeated for the 0.5 cm of weft threads removed. The top and bottom remaining specimens [18]. jaws were correctly positioned, and the instrument was adjusted to the required test settings. Each speci- Water vapor transmission rate (water method) men was placed centrally and securely held across its (ASTM E-96) entire width to avoid any slippage. A consistent load ASTM E-96 was used as a reference for testing with was applied until the specimen ruptured, with the re- some modifications. Two samples were prepared for sults shown on the computer. The test was conducted each colour: one with holes and the other without. again for both warp and weft specimens, and the re- The fabrics were cut into circular shapes. Four sults were recorded separately for each direction [16]. bottles were divided into two parts, with the lower section representing one-third of the bottle’s original Tear strength test (EN ISO 13937-3) length, and filled with distilled water. The open ends Using the tongue tear method, a Universal Tensile of the bottles were covered with the fabric samples Strength Tester was used to measure the fabric’s tear and secured with rubber bands, maintaining a 15 strength. Rectangular samples measuring 20 cm × mm distance between the fabric and the water level. 10 cm (warp direction) and 10 cm × 20 cm (weft Temperature and humidity were controlled in the direction) were prepared before and after pleating room. The combined weight of the fabric samples for each colour. A 10 cm cut was made at the centre and bottles was measured using an electric balance, of each sample to create a two-tongue shape. The and weight loss was recorded at hourly intervals upper and lower jaws were set, and each jaw held for 8 hours. The weight loss determined the rate one tongue. The jaws were separated at a fixed speed, of vapour movement through the fabric, with the causing the fabric to tear along the pre-cut segment. resulting water vapour transmission rate indicating The results were displayed on the computer after the the fabric’s breathability. Higher values represented test [17]. better breathability [19]. The water vapour transmission rate (WVTR) Seam slippage test (ISO 13936-2) was calculated according to Equation 1: Using the fixed load method, this test evaluates the WVTR = (W1 − W2) × 24 resilience of woven fabric thread systems to slippage (3) A × t at a stitched seam. Twenty-by-ten-cm examples were cut for each colour, two in the warp direction and where, W1 represents the initial weight of the sample two in the weft direction, before and after pleating. with the water bottle, W2 represents the final weight After folding the specimens face inward, a seam was of the sample with the water bottle after eight hours, A sewn 2 cm from the fold, with equal seam allowance represents the test area (it was 0.00709 m2 for fabrics on both sides. A 1.2 cm cut was made through PES-r, PES-p and PES-r with holes and 0.00567 m2 both fabric layers. The clamps on the tensile testing for fabric PES-p fabric with holes) and t represents apparatus were spaced 100 mm (± 1 mm) apart to the duration of the test (it was eight hours). ensure correct alignment. The seam was positioned halfway between the clamps to attach the specimens Pleat recovery test (BS EN 14704-1) symmetrically. The moving clamp was activated, BS EN 14704-1 was used as a reference to measure and when maximum force was reached, the load the pleat recovery in permanently pleated fabrics, was reduced to 5 N at a constant extension rate of with some modifications. Two strips of fabric mea- 362 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 354–367 suring 30 cm × 5 cm were sewn for each colour and extension percentage also decreased slightly after then permanently pleated. The initial pleated width pleating, with a mean value of 65.31% compared and length were measured and recorded. The cleaned to 65.795% before pleating. The time to break was cloth sample was secured at the top and a 500-gram similar before and after pleating, with a mean value weight was attached to the bottom for four hours. of 28 seconds for both conditions. After the test, the weight was taken off the cloth, It is evident from Table 4 that the maximum which was left to relax naturally for 10 minutes. The force required to break the polyester plain fabric length and width of the pleated sample were mea- was quite similar before and after pleating, with a sured and recorded after the relaxation period using mean value of 695.57 N before pleating and 692.275 a measuring tape. The pleat recovery percentage was N after pleating. This indicates that pleating had no then calculated (Equation 2). A higher pleat recovery significant effect on the tensile strength of the fabric percentage indicated better fabric resilience and the in the warp direction. The extension percentage also ability to retain pleats [20]. remained relatively stable before and after pleating, with a mean value of 51.035% before pleating and Pleat recovery = (1− Final length-Initial length) × 100 (%) (4) 54.035% after pleating. The time to break was Initial length slightly longer after pleating, with a mean value of 3 Results and discussion 27 seconds compared to 25 seconds before pleating. Table 4 shows that the maximum force required Tensile strength test to break the fabric decreased after pleating, with a The results given in Table 4 show that the maximum mean value of 343.955 N compared to 396.905 N force required to break the polyester ripstop fabric before pleating. This indicates that pleating had a decreased after pleating in the warp direction, with negative effect on the tensile strength of the fabric a mean value of 720.885 N compared to 771.165 N in the weft direction. The extension percentage before pleating, indicating a negative effect on the increased slightly after pleating, with a mean value tensile strength of the fabric in the warp direction. of 33.37% compared to 32.145% before pleating. The The extension percentage increased after pleating, time to break was almost identical before and after with a mean value of 60.35% compared to 54.595% pleating, with a mean value of 16 seconds before before pleating. The time to break was longer after pleating and 17 seconds after pleating. pleating, with a mean value of 22 seconds compared Pleating reduced the tensile strength of polyester to 20 seconds before pleating. ripstop and plain fabrics, particularly in the weft A similar tensile strength loss was seen in the direction. Ripstop experienced a significant strength weft direction of the fabric after pleating. The loss in the warp, while plain fabric for the most part Table 4: Fabrics tensile test results Fabric Testing Testing Breaking force (N) Extension (%) Average time direction Average SD c) CV (%) Average SD CV to break (s) BP a) 771.165 15.45 2.00 54.595 2.88 5.27 20 Warp Polyester AP b) 720.885 2.44 0.34 60.35 2.88 4.78 22 (ripstop) BP a) 511.225 53.15 10.39 65.795 0.02 0.03 28 Weft AP b) 492.92 11.81 2.39 65.31 5.2 7.97 28 BP a) 695.57 1.48 0.21 51.035 1.58 3.09 25 Warp Polyester AP b) 692.275 3.54 0.51 54.035 0.84 1.56 27 (plain) BP a) 396.905 0.46 0.12 32.145 0.36 1.12 16 Weft AP b) 343.955 21.83 6.35 33.37 2.22 6.65 17 a) Before pleating; b) after pleating; c) standard deviation Sustainable Fashion for Children’s Clothing: Exploring Permanent Pleating for Adaptive Fit and Textile Waste Reduction 363 remained stable. The extension increased in the warp of 10.5 N compared to 10.915 N before pleating. but varied in the weft. The time to break was generally It is evident from Table 5 that the mean peak longer after pleating, except for ripstop in the weft, force required to tear the polyester plain fabric in the where it remained unchanged. Overall, the polyester weft direction was slightly higher after pleating, with plain fabric retained warp strength more effectively, a mean value of 5.505 N compared to 5.47 N before making it a better choice for pleated designs requiring pleating. This indicates that pleating had a positive warp durability, while the ripstop fabric demonstrated effect on the tear strength of the fabric in the weft better performance in the weft direction. direction. However, it is important to note that the difference in mean peak force before and after pleat- Tear strength ing was relatively small. The median peak force also The mean peak force required to tear the polyester decreased slightly after pleating, with a median value ripstop fabric in the warp direction was slightly of 5.495 N compared to 5.50 N before pleating. The lower after pleating, with a mean value of 31.84 N maximum peak force required to tear the fabric was compared to 32.46 N before pleating (Table 5). The also lower after pleating, with a mean value of 6.99 N median peak force was also quite similar before and compared to 7.27 N before pleating. after pleating, with a mean value of 32.62 N before Pleating had a minimal impact on the warp-wise pleating and 31.435 N after pleating. The maximum tear strength of polyester ripstop and plain fabrics, peak force was slightly higher after pleating, with with only slight variations in peak forces. Ripstop a mean value of 49.545 N compared to 44.725 N experienced a better performance in the warp direc- before pleating. This suggests that pleating may have tion, while tear strength is not consistent in the weft had a positive effect on the maximum tear strength direction, and while plain fabric performs better in of the fabric in the warp direction. the warp direction. Overall, polyester ripstop fabric It is evident from Table 5 that the mean peak force has higher tear strength than polyester plain fabric, in required to tear the polyester ripstop fabric in the the warp direction, making it more suitable for pleated weft direction was slightly lower after pleating, with a designs in the warp direction. However, for consistent mean value of 27.255 N compared to 31.34 N before tear strength, polyester plain fabric is a better choice. pleating. This indicates that pleating had a negative effect on the tear strength of the fabric in the weft di- Seam slippage resistance test results rection. The median peak force was also slightly lower The seam slippage resistance of polyester fabric after pleating, with a mean value of 27.41 N compared (ripstop) and polyester fabric (plain) are shown to 31.475 N before pleating. The maximum peak force in Table 6. For polyester (ripstop), the maximum was also lower after pleating, with a mean value of force required for seam slippage stayed nearly the 38.175 N compared to 44.505 N before pleating. same (80.535 N to 80.52 N). Nevertheless, the seam Table 5 shows that the mean peak force required opening increased from 20.00 mm to 30.00 mm after to tear the polyester plain fabric in the warp direc- pleating, indicating a reduction in seam slippage re- tion was slightly higher after pleating, with a mean sistance in the weft direction. The standard deviation value of 8.52 N compared to 8.21 N before pleating. for ripstop fabric decreased somewhat from 0.64 N This indicates that pleating had a positive effect on to 0.62 N, indicating less variability. The maximum the tear strength of the fabric in the weft direction. force for polyester (plain) changed slightly from The median peak force was also slightly higher after 80.32 N to 80.135 N, while the standard deviation de- pleating, with a mean value of 8.59 N compared to creased from 0.23 N to 0.04 N, indicating improved 8.36 N before pleating. But the maximum peak force consistency. Pleating had little effect on plain fabric was slightly lower after pleating, with a mean value but reduced seam slippage resistance in ripstop. 364 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 354–367 Table 5: Tear strength test Mean peak force Median peak force Max. peak force Fabric Direction Testing Average SD c) CV Average SD c) CV Average SD c) CV (N) (N) (%) (N) (N) (%) (N) (N) (%) Warp BP a) 32.46 0.92 2.89 32.62 1.81 5.55 44.725 0.64 1.43 Polyester Warp AP b) 31.84 1.05 3.33 31.435 1.01 3.21 49.545 0.83 1.67 (ripstop) Weft BP a) 31.34 0.13 0.41 31.475 0.63 2.00 44.505 2.41 5.42 Weft AP b) 27.255 2.23 8.18 27.41 2.94 10.73 38.175 2.79 7.31 Warp BP a) 8.21 0.11 1.38 8.36 0.03 0.36 10.915 0.86 7.88 Polyester Warp AP b) 8.52 0.18 2.11 8.59 0.18 2.095 10.5 0.34 3.24 (plain) Weft BP a) 5.47 0.21 3.84 5.50 0.14 2.55 7.27 0.04 0.55 Weft AP b) 5.505 0.11 1.998 5.495 0.05 0.91 6.99 0.45 6.44 a) Before pleating; b) after pleating; c) standard deviation Table 6: Seam slippage resistance Max. force Seam opening Fabric Testing Average (N) SD c) (N) CV (%) Average (N) SD c) (N) CV Polyester BP a) 80.535 0.64 0.79 20.00 0.00 0.00 (ripstop) AP b) 80.52 0.62 0.77 30.00 0.00 0.00 Polyester BP a) 80.32 0.23 0.29 20.00 0.00 0.00 (plain) AP b) 80.135 0.04 0.05 20.00 0.00 0.00 a) Before pleating; b) after pleating; c) standard deviation Water vapor transmission rate ing to a standard method. After washing the trousers The WVTR (Table 7) varies depending on the type five times and then drying them flat in a pleated and structure of the fabric, with polyester plain state, it was observed that the pleats retained their (PES-p) showing better breathability than ripstop shapes. It could thus be concluded that the pleats are (PES-r). Fabrics with holes (PES-r (with holes) stable for washing. and PES-p (with holes)) further increased WVTR, showing that perforations enhance airflow. These in- Pleat recovery sights are essential for sustainable children’s apparel, Polyester plain fabric has better pleat recovery as they help prevent overheating in hot areas and properties than ripstop fabric (Table 8) and is more regulate temperature to ensure comfort. suitable for this design. Table 7: Water vapour transmission rate Table 8: Pleat recovery Fabric WVTR (gm-2day-1) Fabric Initial Final length after Pleat PES-r 254.1326 length recovery recovery PES-r (with holes) 310.7898 (cm) (cm) (%) PES-p 301.8618 PES-r 12 15.5 70.83 PES-p (with holes) 351.7460 PES-p 12.4 14 87.097 Pleat stability to washing The results of tensile strength, tear strength, Children’s clothing needs to be washed frequently. seam slippage, water vapor transmission, and pleat In this case, the garment is outerwear, so it must be recovery provide a clear comparison of polyester rip- washed often. So, the garments were washed accord- stop and plain fabrics for pleated children’s trousers. Sustainable Fashion for Children’s Clothing: Exploring Permanent Pleating for Adaptive Fit and Textile Waste Reduction 365 Pleating reduced tensile strength, especially in the weft ripstop fabric. Therefore, polyester plain fabric is the direction, with ripstop showing more loss than plain preferred fabric for pleated children’s trousers, as it fabric. Tear strength was largely unaffected, but plain ensures durability, comfort and functional pleats for fabric maintained better weft stability. Seam slippage repeated use. However, obstacles emerged, including was stable for plain fabric, while ripstop fabric showed limited sample size, temperature fluctuations and a slight increase in seam opening after pleating. Plain restricted access to specialised tools. Future research fabric exhibited higher water vapor transmission, should focus on improving pleating methods for while the addition of small holes further improved efficiency and scalability, experimenting with pleat- breathability. Both fabrics retained pleats after wash- ing on different materials and integrating modern ing, but plain fabric showed superior pleat recovery technologies. By reducing waste and extending (87.1% vs. 70.8%). the life of clothing, permanent pleating supports sustainable fashion and may make children’s apparel 4 Conclusion more adaptable and durable. This research explored permanent pleating as a Acknowledgments: We sincerely thank Ahsanullah sustainable option for children’s apparel, enabling University of Science & Technology for their invalu- clothing to grow with kids and reducing textile able technical support throughout this study. This waste. Among the fabrics tested, permanent pleating research was conducted as part of our undergraduate with 100% polyester proved the most suitable. The thesis and remains unpublished. We would also like most efficient pleating method was steaming, while to acknowledge the inspiration from R.M. Yasin’s pleating directly on garment ensures enhanced Petit Pli, which significantly shaped our study. durability and alignment. Key elements, such as Their innovative approach to expandable clothing kraft paper moulds and ideal pleat sizes, improved motivated us to explore permanent pleating as a pleat stability. Fabric testing revealed that pleating sustainable solution in children’s apparel. generally reduced the tensile strength of both fab- Funding: This study was conducted without any rics, particularly in the weft direction, with plain funding. fabric experiencing a greater loss (from 396.905N Conflict of interest: The authors confirm that there to 343.955N). However, pleating did not notably are no conflicts of interest related to this study. affect tear strength, especially for polyester plain fabric, which maintained better performance in this Data availability statement: Since 2 December regard. Seam slippage resistance was largely unaf- 2025, the research data has been available at https:// fected by pleating in both types of fabric. Moreover, doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17784825. the WVTR revealed that polyester fabric offered better breathability than ripstop fabric, with fabrics perforated by holes further enhancing airflow. References This is crucial for designing comfortable children’s apparel, as it supports better temperature regulation. 1. NIINIMÄKI, K., PETERS, G., DAHLBO, H., The pleats themselves showed good stability when PERRY, P., RISSANEN, T., GWILT, A. The envi- washing, retaining their form after multiple washes, ronmental price of fast fashion. Nature Reviews with polyester plain fabric exhibiting superior pleat Earth & Environment, 2020, 1(4), 189–200, doi. recovery properties compared to ripstop fabric. 10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9, author correction: Overall, polyester plain demonstrates better strength, doi: 10.1038/s43017-020-0054-x. comfort, breathability and pleat durability than 366 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 354–367 2. YASIN, R.M. Petit Pli: clothes that grow. Utopi- ting. Journal of Architecture, Arts and Humanis- an Studies, 2017, 28(3), 576–584, doi: 10.5325/ tic Sciences, 2023, 8(39), 637–658, doi: 10.21608/ utopianstudies.28.3.0576. mjaf.2021.82564.2385. 3. BOSTRÖM, M., MICHELETTI, M. Introdu- 12. WILLIAMS, D. Fashion design and sustai- cing the sustainability challenge of textiles and nability. In: Sustainable Apparel, Woodhead clothing. Journal of Consumer Policy, 2016, 39, Publishing, 2015, 163–185. 367–375, doi: 10.1007/s10603-016-9336-6. 13. FLETCHER, K., GROSE, L. Fashion & Sustai- 4. ALVI, R., JAVED, Z., KHAN, N.H., HAYAT, nability: Design for Change. London : Laurence G.A. Darts, pleats, and gathers. In Garment Siz- King Publishing, 2012. ing and Pattern Making. Edited by Muhammad 14. POOKULANGARA, S., SHEPHARD, A. Slow Qamar Khan, Yasir Nawab and Ick Soo Kim. fashion movement: understanding consumer Singapore : Springer Nature, 2024, 127-157, doi: perceptions. Journal of Retailing and Consumer 10.1007/978-981-97-7683-2_7. Services, 2013, 20(2), 200–206, doi: 10.1016/j. 5. LAITALA, K., BOKS, C., KLEPP, I. Making jretconser.2012.12.002. clothing last: a design approach for reducing the 15. SAROKIN, S.N., BOCKEN, N.M. Pursu- environmental impacts. International Journal of ing profitability in slow fashion: exploring Design, 2015, 9(2), 93–107, https://hdl.handle. brands’ profit contributors. Journal of Cleaner net/10642/4920. Production, 2024, 444, 1–14, doi: 10.1016/j. 6. HUANG, T-C. Idea exchange in the pleats – the jclepro.2024.141237. pleating workshop as a research method. Journal 16. ASTM D5034-11. Standard test method for of Textile Science & Fashion Technology, 2021, breaking strength and elongation of textile 7(4), 1–7, doi: 10.33552/JTSFT.2021.07.000667. fabrics (strip method) [online]. ASTM Inter- 7. SERAM N., MADUWANTHI, D.N. Adjustable national [accessed 10.02.2025]. Available on children’s clothing: preferences of children and World Wide Web: . sight and Ideas for Responsible Marketers, 2023, 17. ISO 13937-3:2000. Textiles – Tear properties of 24(2), 203–218, doi: 10.1108/YC-04-2022-1508. fabrics – Part 3: Determination of tear force of 8. SHAHARUDDIN, S.S., JALIL, M.H. Parents’ wing-shaped test specimens (single tear method) determinants buying intent on environmentally [online]. ISO [accessed 11.02.2025]. Available friendly children’s clothing. International Journal on World Wide Web: . fashion preferences of children and parents. 18. ISO 13936-2:2004. Textiles – determination Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and of the slippage resistance of yarns at a seam Textiles, 2009, 33(4), 598–610. in woven fabrics – Part 2: Fixed load method 10. JACKSON, P. Complete Pleats: Pleating Tech- [online]. ISO [accessed 11.02.2025]. Available niques for Fashion, Architecture and Design. on World Wide Web: . Sustainable Fashion for Children’s Clothing: Exploring Permanent Pleating for Adaptive Fit and Textile Waste Reduction 367 19. ASTM E96/E96M-24a. Standard test methods 21. HUANG, J. Review of heat and water vapor for gravimetric determination of water vapor transfer through multilayer fabrics. Textile transmission rate of materials [online]. ASTM Research Journal, 2015, 86(3), 325–336, doi: International [accessed 12.02.2025]. Available 10.1177/0040517515588269. on World Wide Web: < https://store.astm.org/ 22. RASHID, S.S., RAHMAN, S., MAISHA, L., e0096_e0096m-24a.html?_gl=1*o9lnbf*_gcl_ HOSSAIN, K.R., RAHMAN, M.F., RASHID, au*NDY1NTY5MDczLjE3NjIyNDA2NDg>. M.R. Sustainable fashion for children’s clothing: 20. ISO 20932-1:2018. Textiles – Determination exploring permanent pleating for adaptive of the elasticity of fabrics – Part 1: Strip tests fit and textile waste reduction [Data set]. [online]. ISO [accessed 20.02.2025]. Available Zenodo. December 02, 2025, doi: 10.5281/zeno- on World Wide Web: https://www.iso.org/obp/ do.17784825. ui#iso:std:iso:20932:-1:dis:ed-1:v1:en. 368 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 368–382 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025117 Nadiia P. Bukhonka University of Novi Sad Technical Faculty "Mihajlo Pupin" Zrenjanin, Djure Djakovica bb, Zrenjanin, 23101, Serbia Influence of Tuck Stitch Variations on the Stretch Properties of Wool/PAN Single Weft-Knitted Fabrics Vpliv različic razporeditve lovilnih petelj na raztezne lastnosti levo-desnih votkovnih pletiv iz mešanice volna/PAN Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 10–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 12–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčna avtorica: Nadiia P. Bukhonka E-mail: nadiia.bukhonka@tfzr.rs; nbukhonka@gmail.com ORCID iD: 0000-0002-2753-2440 Abstract This study examines the stretch properties of nine variants of single-tuck weft-knitted fabrics made from 31 tex ×2 wool/PAN yarn and compares them with a plain fabric. The research emphasizes how variations in the arrangement and percentage of tuck loops within the stitch repeat affect the fabrics' stretch characteristics. Results show that the presence and percentage of tuck loops at the width repeat significantly influence stretch properties. The plain fabric displayed apparent anisotropy, with widthwise deformation roughly four times greater than lengthwise deformation. This behaviour was largely dominated by the elastic component, indicating strong immediate recovery and dimensional stability. In contrast, tuck stitch variants showed more balanced deformation between directions, reflecting the moderating influence of tuck loops on fabric ani- sotropy. Increasing the percentage of tuck loops improved lengthwise extensibility while decreasing width- wise recovery, thereby altering elastic and residual deformation behaviour. The analysis of deformation com- ponents revealed that tuck loops decrease the elastic deformation ratio and increase delayed and residual deformation, suggesting greater stress relaxation and a higher permanent set. These results highlight the sensitive interplay between the presence and combination of knit and tuck loops and their effects on loop configuration and fabric mechanics. The results thus confirm that the controlled use of tuck stitches provides a practical approach to optimizing fabric performance in terms of stretch, recovery and stability, thereby of- fering valuable insights for designing functional and high-performance knitted textiles. Keywords: tuck stitches, stretch properties, wool, single weft-knit Izvleček V raziskavi so bile proučene raztezne lastnosti devetih različic levo-desnih lovilnih votkovnih pletiv in primer- jane z lastnostmi enostavnega levo-desnega pletiva. Pletiva so bila izdelana iz preje z dolžinsko maso 31 tex × 2, iz mešanice volna/PAN. V raziskavi se je ugotavljal vpliv različic razporeditve in deleža lovilnih petelj (Tn) v sosledju na raztezne lastnosti pletiv. Enostavna pletena struktura kaže izrazito anizotropijo; deformacija v prečni smeri je približno štirikrat večja kot v vzdolžni smeri. Pri takšnem obnašanju pletiva pretežno prevladuje Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. Influence of Tuck Stitch Variations on the Stretch Properties of Wool/PAN Single Weft-Knitted Fabrics 369 elastična komponenta deformacije (E1), kar kaže na visoko takojšnjo elastično povratnost in dobro dimenzij- sko stabilnost. Nasprotno pa strukture z različno razporejenimi lovilnimi petljami kažejo bolj uravnoteženo deformacijo v obeh smereh, kar pomeni zmeren vpliv lovilnih petelj na anizotropijo pletiva. Z naraščajočim deležem lovilnih petelj se povečuje razteznost v vzdolžni smeri, hkrati pa se zmanjšuje elastična povratnost v prečni smeri, kar vpliva na spremembo razmerja med elastično in trajno deformacijo. Analiza komponent deformacije je pokazala, da lovilne petlje zmanjšujejo delež elastične deformacije (E1/E) ter povečujejo delež zakasnele (E2/E) in trajne deformacije (E3/E), kar kaže na večjo sprostitev napetosti in večjo trajno deformacijo pletiv. Rezultati poudarjajo ključen vzajemni učinek zank in lovilnih petelj ter njihov vpliv na konfiguracijo zančne strukture in mehanske lastnosti pletiv. Rezultati raziskave potrjujejo, da je nadzorovana uporaba lovilnih petelj učinkovit pristop k optimizaciji uporabnih lastnosti pletiv, kot so razteznost, povratnost in di- menzijska stabilnost, ki so pomembne za razvoj funkcionalnih in visokozmogljivih pletenih tekstilij. Ključne besede: lovilne petlje, raztezne lastnosti, volna/PAN, levo-desno votkovno pletivo 1 Introduction Knitting is recognized as the second most versatile that adding tuck stitches enhances the predictabil- technique in textile manufacturing, surpassed only ity of fabric structure and mechanical behaviour, by weaving, where the choice and arrangement of highlighting their significance in creating complex stitches are among the most important factors in knitted designs [5]. defining a fabric’s characteristics [1]. Knitted fabrics In both basic and derivative knitted structures, are highly valued for their stretchability, flexibility tuck loops generally increase fabric weight and and unique elastic properties, making them suitable thickness while enhancing dimensional stability [6, for a wide range of uses, from clothing to technical 7]. Tuck stitches significantly affect the structural and textiles. These qualities primarily depend on the physical characteristics of knitted fabrics, resulting in basic knitting elements, such as knit, miss (float) and higher weight, width and porosity than in single jer- tuck loops, and how they are arranged in single- and sey fabrics. The number and placement of tuck loops double-knit structures. Changes in these structural and stitch length are critical factors that affect these parts significantly affect fabric width, elasticity and properties and pilling resistance. Fabrics with larger, overall performance, highlighting their important more numerous pores tend to resist pilling better, role in knitted fabric design [2, 3]. whereas single jersey fabrics usually have the lowest Tuck loops, together with knit and miss (float) resistance. Dyeing and finishing processes also add to loops, are essential structural features due to their fabric weight but tend to decrease pilling resistance distinctive loop shapes, which promote greater yarn [8]. In circular knitting, the number and placement movement, interloop spacing and porosity. Initial of tuck loops significantly affect bursting strength, studies on composite uses revealed that tuck stitches with well-designed placements improving durability in fabric significantly influence mechanical proper- and performance. The results confirm that the precise ties, including tensile, compressive and impact resis- placement of the tuck loop can significantly enhance tance. The unique geometry of tuck stitches allows the structural integrity of knitted fabrics [9]. Addi- for lateral stretch but can reduce overall dimensional tionally, the contraction behaviour of weft-knit fabrics stability [4]. Understanding the influence of knitted depends heavily on stitch type, stitch length and the fabric structure on its properties can be based on placement of tuck and miss loops. Longer stitch geometrical modelling. This approach has shown lengths reduce widthwise contraction, while fabrics 370 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 368–382 with miss loops show greater contraction than those The number of tuck and miss stitches significantly with tuck loops. Single miss-knit fabrics display affects the properties of knitted fabric. Increasing less contraction than plain structures at the same their proportion reduces stretchability in both width course length. The proper positioning of tuck and and length, and decreases surface density. Tuck and miss loops within a pattern is therefore crucial for miss stitches also reduce material usage, while miss controlling dimensional stability [10]. Variations in stitches improve shape stability. Their most notable the number and placement of tuck loops, as well as effect is on surface density, followed by volume their combination with knit and miss loops, signifi- density [19]. cantly influence dimensional properties, mechanical The placement and quantity of tuck loops sig- behaviour under low stress and overall structural nificantly affect the thermo-physiological comfort performance [11‒15]. Different stitch combinations, of bi-layer knitted fabrics. Properly positioning tuck combining knit, tuck and miss loops, affect key loops along the wale enhances air, heat and moisture physical properties such as areal density, thickness, transfer, while also decreasing fabric thickness and air permeability, drape, stretch and recovery, and mass per unit area. This results in better thermal shrinkage, even under consistent knitting condi- conductivity, air permeability, moisture absorption, tions. The addition of tuck and float knit structures drying speed and overall comfort. Fabrics with significantly alters fabric drape [12]. Tuck loops have fewer tuck loops generally offer improved thermal been shown to increase areal density, porosity, resis- comfort, as supported by objective tests and wearing tance to pilling, drape coefficient and fabric width, trials [20]. Additionally, the ratio of knit to tuck while maintaining dimensional stability, although loops significantly influences both physical and they have little effect on colour fastness [16]. Beyond sensory comfort. Structure composition affects areal mechanical qualities, tuck structure design also density, stitch density, thickness, resilience, softness, influences aesthetic and tactile properties. When drape and wrinkle recovery. By carefully balancing combined with other knit structures, such as eyelet, knit and tuck loops, it is possible to achieve desired mesh or crochet, it facilitates diverse surface textures mechanical properties and increased comfort, em- and visual effects, including concave-convex pat- phasizing the importance of stitch design in creating terns and colour variations. This versatility enables multifunctional knitted fabrics [21]. Stress relaxation designers to incorporate artistic expression, yarn in knitted textiles is a time-dependent process where choices and fashion trends into functional knitwear, internal stresses diminish under sustained strain, blending performance with decorative appeal. which is important for applications such as com- Increasing tuck loops per wale reduces fabric width, pression garments and medical bandages that need affects shrinkage and spirality, and increases areal consistent pressure. Including tuck loops in double density, highlighting the importance of controlling jersey weft-knitted fabrics has been shown to reduce tuck loops to optimise both performance and visual both initial and residual stress, thereby enhancing properties [17]. Moreover, tuck structures are im- long-term performance stability. portant in the performance of weft-knitted strain This study systematically examines the effect of sensors. Increasing the proportion of tuck loops low- tuck stitch variations on the stretch behaviour of sin- ers both initial and average resistance and improves gle weft-knitted fabrics made from a wool/PAN with the linearity of the piezoresistive response. This 50% wool and 50% polyacrylonitrile fibres in the suggests that tuck loop configurations can be used to yarn. By implementing alternating tuck and plain customize the electromechanical behaviour of knit- courses and comparing them with traditional plain ted sensors, thereby enhancing their sensitivity for stitch, the research aims to clarify the relationship applications such as human motion detection [18]. between stitch variants and fabric stretchability. This Influence of Tuck Stitch Variations on the Stretch Properties of Wool/PAN Single Weft-Knitted Fabrics 371 approach provides a better understanding of how were kept constant. Before knitting, the yarn was tuck variants influence the structural changes that pre-treated with a 0.5% wax finish [22]. impact the mechanical and dimensional properties The tuck stitch index is set to one. The structure of knitted textiles. The findings are expected to pro- of the tuck stitch (Figure 1) consists of knit loops, vide a scientific foundation for optimizing knitting which can appear as extended help loops (1) with design parameters and offer practical guidance for tuck loops (2), and unextended knit loops (3). The creating high-performance knitted fabrics that head of the tuck loop is located on the reverse side of balance durability, elasticity, comfort and aesthetic the fabric (the technical back). The unextended knit appeal. loops (3), which are located near the held loop with the tuck loop, usually have less height and a wider 2 Materials and methods width, resembling a -shape, compared to conven- tional knit loops, which are shown in the photo of 2.1 Materials the technical face side of the tuck stitch variant 2 This study focuses on nine variants of single tuck (Figure 1a). fabrics (variants 2–10) and one plain fabric (variant The studied variants of the single tuck stitches 1) (Table 1). Each tuck stitch structure consists of consist of a tuck loop produced over one, two or one course of plain stiches (formed by the first yarn three adjacent needles, while various combinations feeder), followed by one course of single tuck stitch- of knit (m) and tuck (n) loops at the width repeat Rb es (formed by the second yarn feeder). The knitted define the tuck stitch variants. The number of knit samples were produced on a 10-gauge flat V-bed (m) and tuck (n) loops in the tuck stitch structures knitting machine using a wool/PAN yarn containing across the fabric width can likewise be one, two or 50% wool and 50% polyacrylonitrile (PAN) of 31 three. Different combinations of knit (m) and tuck tex ×2. Throughout the knitting process, the stitch (n) loops produced variations of the tuck stitches cam settings, yarn tension and fabric take-down 2‒10. Table 1: Graphical notations and visual illustrations of the single-knitted fabrics Variants otation of the repeat at Tn a) Graphical n Illustration of the view of the structure from the side (%) of fabric height, Rh Technical face Technical back 1 0 2 50 3 66.6 372 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 368–382 4 75 5 33.3 6 50 7 60 8 25 9 40 10 50 a) percentage of tuck loops Influence of Tuck Stitch Variations on the Stretch Properties of Wool/PAN Single Weft-Knitted Fabrics 373 a) b) Figure 1: Illustration and photos of the technical face of tuck stitch knitted fabric variant 2: a) technical face, b) technical back (1 - held loop, 2 - tuck loop, 3 - knit loop) The percentage of tuck loops within the tuck Average stitch length stitch repeat across the fabric width (Tn) was calcu- The stitch length of the knitted fabric was measured lated using the following equation: separately for plain and tuck stitches, and expressed as the average yarn length per stitch, in accordance T with the EN 14970:2006 [25] and GOST 8846-87 n = n m + n × 100 [%] (1), [26] standards. Measurements were conducted over a section containing 50 wales. Each reported value where m represents the number of knit loops within represents the mean of twenty individual measure- the tuck stitch repeat across the width Rb, and n ments for both the plain stitch length () and the tuck represents the number of tuck loops within the tuck stitch length (). The overall average stitch length stitch repeat across the width Rb. () was then calculated from the individual stitch lengths using the following equation: 2.2 Methods Relaxation conditions Following the knitting process, the fabrics were l lp + lt a = 2 [mm] (2) conditioned under standard atmospheric conditions for testing, in accordance with ISO 139:2005 [23]. Stretch characteristics They were then washed in a fully automatic domestic The stretch characteristics of the single-tuck and plain washing machine using the wool cycle, as prescribed stitches were measured by determining full, elastic, by ISO 6330:2021 [24]. delayed and residual deformations, together with their contributors, according to GOST 8847-85 [27]. 374 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 368–382 For determining the stretch characteristic, a “rack” relaxometer was used to conduct a “loading– unloading-rest” cycle [13, 14]. During testing, the samples were loaded with 6 N for 60 minutes. The samples were then unloaded and given a 120-minute rest period (Figure 2). Fabric specimens, each 50 mm wide and 200 mm long, were first clamped at a gauge length of 100 mm (L₀). The displayed results represent the averages of five samples for each direc- tion (in length and width). The lengthwise and widthwise stretch character- istics were calculated using the following formula: a) full deformation (E): Figure 2: Specimen`s length changes of the plain (vari- E = L1 − L0 L × 100 [%] (3), ant 1) within the cycle of “loading-unloading-resting” 0 in both directions where L0 represents the initial length of the speci- men, mm (L0 = 100 mm) and L1 represents the length Statistical analysis of the specimen after 60 minutes of loading in mm. The data were analysed statistically using the Stu- dent’s t-test for independent samples, following the b) elastic deformation (E1): formula below: E1 = L1 − L2 L × 100 [%] (4), 0 (7), where L2 represents the length of the specimen just after unloading in mm. where x1 and x2 represent the samples’ mean values of the determined characteristic, σ1 and σ2 represent c) delayed deformation (E2): the sample’s standard deviation of the determined E2 = L2 − L3 L × 100 [%] (5), characteristic and n1 and n2 represent their corre- 0 sponding sample sizes (n1 = n2 = 5). where L3 represents the length of the specimen after resting in mm. 4 Results and discussion d) residual deformation (E3): Stitch length E L3 − L0 The different tuck stitch variants directly influence 3 = L × 100 [%] (6) 0 stitch length by affecting the number of knit and tuck Based on the full, elastic, delayed and residual loops within each stitch repeat (Figure 3). Although deformations, the contributions of each component the knitting machine’s settings remained constant to the full deformation, such as E1/E, E2/E, and E3/E, during production, the plain stitch length (lp) of the was calculated. fabric variants changed by up to around 5%, except for variant 8, which deviated by 10.7%. The tuck stitch length (lt) depends on both the number and Influence of Tuck Stitch Variations on the Stretch Properties of Wool/PAN Single Weft-Knitted Fabrics 375 arrangement of the knit and tuck loops. When the Stretch characteristics number of knit loops (m) increases from 1 to 3 with The results of the lengthwise and widthwise stretch a constant number of tuck loops (n), the tuck stitch characteristics of the single-tuck knitted fabrics are length (lt) increases proportionally. The relationship presented in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. between the average stitch length (la) is linear (Figure A specimen’s length variations of the plain (vari- 3), with an increase of 69.3%, when the percentage of ant 1) throughout the “loading-unloading-resting” tuck loops (Tn) reaches 75%. cycle in both directions are illustrated in Figure 2. An analysis of the stretch characteristics of the 18 plain fabric reveals that the material exhibits signif- 16 icant anisotropic behaviour, with total deformation 14 in the widthwise direction (205.8%) exceeding that in the lengthwise direction (48.0%) by a factor of 12 four (Tables 2 and 3). In tuck stitch variants (variants 10 2-10), this trend is less noticeable and varies depend- 8 ing on the specific tuck stitch variant. In both plain 6 y = 0.05 Tn + 6.59 fabric orientations, the elastic component (E1) pre- R² = 0.63 4 dominates, accounting for approximately 60–62% 2 of the overall deformation, indicating the fabric’s substantial capacity to revert to its original dimen- 0 0 20 40 60 80 sions upon load removal. The delayed (E2) compo- Percentage of tuck loops (%) nent accounts for 29–32% of the total deformation, Figure 3: Dependence of average stitch length (l indicative of viscoelastic behaviour associated with a) and the percentage of tuck loops (Tn) in the tuck stitch gradual yarn relaxation. Meanwhile, the residual repeat (E3) component remains low at 7.5–8.6%, which confirms the fabric’s good dimensional stability. Table 2: Lengthwise stretch characteristics of knitted fabrics after washing Fabric Deformations (%) and their contributors Tn a) (%) m-n b) la c) (mm) variants E d) E1 e) E2 f) E3 g) E1/E h) E2/E i) E3/E j) 1 0 1-0 6.45 ± 0.16 48.0 ± 4.5 29.0 ± 3.9 15.4 ± 0.9 3.6 ± 1.1 0.60 0.32 0.07 2 50 1-1 8.16 ± 0.39 88.8 ± 4.1 47.6 ± 4.0 27.8 ± 1.5 13.4 ± 1.1 0.54 0.31 0.15 3 66.6 1-2 8.51 ± 0.31 80.8 ± 8.7 41.6 ± 6.3 22.0 ± 1.6 17.2 ± 3.6 0.51 0.28 0.21 4 75 1-3 10.92 ± 0.32 62.2 ± 2.9 34.0 ± 2.6 18.8 ± 1.9 9.4 ± 1.8 0.55 0.30 0.15 5 33.3 2-1 9.33 ± 0.34 69.0 ± 10.6 40.2 ± 9.1 18.8 ± 2.6 10.0 ± 3.2 0.58 0.28 0.14 6 50 2-2 9.87 ± 0.48 71.4 ± 7.8 43.2 ± 6.9 21.6 ± 1.5 6.6 ± 0.6 0.60 0.30 0.09 7 60 2-3 10.62 ± 0.06 77.8 ± 10.5 38.0 ± 5.8 25.0 ± 3.5 14.8 ± 4.1 0.49 0.32 0.19 8 25 3-1 7.63 ± 0.03 59.2 ± 6.4 26.4 ± 8.3 23.4 ± 3.3 9.4 ± 1.1 0.44 0.40 0.16 9 40 3-2 8.09 ± 0.04 69.4 ± 4.7 41.6 ± 4.3 20.2 ± 0.8 7.6 ± 2.0 0.60 0.29 0.11 10 50 3-3 9.00 ± 0.23 62.6 ± 5.4 34.8 ± 4.8 19.4 ± 2.7 8.4 ± 1.5 0.55 0.31 0.14 a) percentage of tuck loops, b) the number of knit and tuck loops, c) average stitch length, d) full deformation, e) elastic deformation, f) delayed deformation, g) residual deformation, h) contributors of elastic deformation in full, i) contributors of delayed deformation in full, j) contributors of residual deformation in full Average stitch length (mm) 376 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 368–382 Table 3: Widthwise stretch characteristics of knitted fabrics after washing Fabric Deformations (%) and their contributors T a) (%) m-n b) l c) ) variants n a (mm E d) E e) g) i) 1 E2 f) E3 E1/E h) E2/E E ) 3/E j 1 0 1-0 6.45 ± 0.16 205.8 ± 16.9 128.4 ± 12.3 59.6 ± 5.6 17.8 ± 2.3 0.62 0.29 0.09 2 50 1-1 8.16 ± 0.39 84.6 ± 3.4 43.0 ± 2.5 27.2 ± 1.8 14.4 ± 2.3 0.51 0.32 0.17 3 66.6 1-2 8.51 ± 0.31 99.0 ± 3.3 45.6 ± 3.5 27.4 ± 1.5 26.0 ± 1.2 0.46 0.28 0.26 4 75 1-3 10.92 ± 0.32 103.4 ± 6.9 53.6 ± 6.4 30.8 ± 2.1 19.0 ± 2.1 0.52 0.30 0.18 5 33.3 2-1 9.33 ± 0.34 142.2 ± 8.1 70.4 ± 6.8 50.0 ± 2.8 21.8 ± 1.1 0.49 0.35 0.15 6 50 2-2 9.87 ± 0.48 115.2 ± 10.4 67.6 ± 6.7 32.0 ± 4.5 15.6 ± 0.6 0.59 0.28 0.14 7 60 2-3 10.62 ± 0.06 112.6 ± 15.3 47.0 ± 7.5 29.8 ± 3.1 35.8 ± 5.0 0.42 0.27 0.32 8 25 3-1 7.63 ± 0.03 170.6 ± 9.2 92.8 ± 6.1 51.4 ± 3.2 26.4 ± 2.9 0.54 0.30 0.15 9 40 3-2 8.09 ± 0.04 130.0 ± 8.3 77.4 ± 5.1 34.0 ± 5.2 18.6 ± 1.7 0.60 0.26 0.14 10 50 3-3 9.00 ± 0.23 138.8 ± 8.0 79.2 ± 5.1 36.2 ± 4.4 23.4 ± 1.1 0.57 0.26 0.17 a) percentage of tuck loops, b) the number of knit and tuck loops, c) average stitch length, d) full deformation, e) elastic deformation, f) delayed deformation, g) residual deformation, h) contributors of elastic deformation in full, i) contributors of delayed deformation in full, j) contributors of residual deformation in full The stretch properties of knitted fabrics are pre- of tuck stitch variants (2–10) with the plain stitch dominantly determined by the type of loop structure fabric (variant 1) highlights several key points (Table and the physical characteristics of the yarn [28]. Under 2 and Figure 4 a‒c). Tuck stitch fabrics show higher tensile stress, deformation in plain and tuck stitches full (E), elastic (E1), delayed (E2) and residual (E3) occurs through the redistribution of yarn within the deformations in the lengthwise direction compared constituent parts of the knit structure, including the to plain fabrics. The full lengthwise deformation (E) knit and tuck loops and their components: the head, of tuck stitch variants ranges from 59.2% to 88.8%, sinker loop and legs. The extent and configuration of compared to 48.0% for the plain stitch variant, indi- tuck loops significantly influence a fabric’s geometry cating that tuck loops contribute to structural changes and, thus, its mechanical response and elasticity. that enhance fabric extensibility. Elastic deformation The obtained results indicate that the presence (E1) varies from 26.4% to 47.6% in tuck stitch fabrics, and percentage of tuck loops significantly affect the slightly exceeding the plain value of 29.0%, suggesting stretch properties of the fabrics in both lengthwise better immediate recovery. Delayed deformation and widthwise directions. Specifically, the inclusion of (E2) ranges from 19.4% to 27.8% in tuck stitches, tuck loops led to increased elongation in the length- higher than the 15.4% for the plain stitch variant, wise direction (Figure 4 a‒c) and a corresponding reflecting increased viscoelastic behaviour. Residual reduction in widthwise stretch compared to plain deformation (E3) ranges from 7.6% to 17.2%, which knitted structures (Figure 4 d‒g), as was also noted in is significantly above the 3.6% for the plain stitch vari- the study [16]. The decrease in widthwise stretching ant, indicating a greater permanent set after loading. as the percentage of the tuck loop in width repeat Variants with an equal number of tuck loops showed increases follows the same trend as the increase in the similar levels of lengthwise delayed deformation (E2). miss-stitch rate in single-knit fabrics [13]. Specifically, variants with 50.0% tuck loops (variants 2, The full deformation lengthwise (El) of tuck stitch 6, and 10) showed that delayed deformation contribut- fabrics is generally equal to or only 1.2–2.2 times high- ed E2/E = 0.30–0.31 to the total deformation. The same er than the widthwise full deformation (Ew) (Tables 2 trend has been observed for single weft-knitted fabrics and 3). Comparing the lengthwise stretch properties with the same percentage of miss loops [13]. Influence of Tuck Stitch Variations on the Stretch Properties of Wool/PAN Single Weft-Knitted Fabrics 377 200 350 180 300 160 250 140 200 120 150 100 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 Time (min) Time (min) 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 a) d) 200 350 180 300 160 250 140 200 120 150 100 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 Time (min) Time (min) 1 5 6 7 1 5 6 7 b) e) 200 350 180 300 160 250 140 200 120 150 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 Time (min) Time (min) 1 8 9 10 1 8 9 10 c) f ) Figure 4: Specimen’s length changes within the cycle of “loading-unloading-resting” for knitted fabrics in the length direction for tuck loops (n = 1, 2, 3): a) for variants 1 and 2-4 (m = 1), b) for variants 1 and 5‒7 (m = 2), c) for variants 1 and 8‒10 (m = 3); in the width direction for tuck loops (n = 1, 2, 3): e) for variants 1 and 2-4 (m = 1), f) for variants 1 and 5‒7 (m = 2), g) for variants 1 and 8‒10 (m = 3) Specimen's length changes in the length Specimen's length changes in the length Specimen's length changes in the length (mm) (mm) (mm) Specimen's length changes in the width Specimen's length changes in the width Specimen's length changes in the width (mm) (mm) (mm) 378 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 368–382 Conversely, the widthwise stretch properties of The correlation between the full widthwise (Ew), tuck stitch fabrics (2‒10) display opposite trends. elastic (E1w) and delayed (E2w) deformations, and These fabrics exhibit lower full (E), elastic (E1) and the percentage of tuck loops (Tn) per width repeat delayed (E2) deformations in the widthwise direction demonstrates a decreasing linear trend (Figure 5). than the plain stitch variant, except for the residual This suggests that an increased number of tuck loops deformation (E3). The full widthwise deformation (n) diminishes a fabric’s widthwise extensibility. (Ew) ranges from 84.6% to 170.6% across tuck stitch Conversely, the relationship between lengthwise de- variations, indicating decreased overall fabric ex- formations and the percentage of tuck loops (Tn) per tensibility, compared to 205.8% for the plain. Elastic width repeat is nonlinear, indicating a more intricate deformation (E1) varies from 43.0% to 92.8% in tuck structural response to tuck loop distribution. stitch fabrics, showing less immediate recovery, The relative contributions of full deformation in whereas the plain exhibits a higher value of 128.4%. both the lengthwise and widthwise directions are Delayed deformation (E2) ranges from 27.2% to depicted in Figure 6, which shows that the deforma- 51.4% in tuck stitches, which is lower than the 59.6% tion ratios confirm the significant influence of the observed in the plain stitch variant, implying lower introduction and distribution of tuck loops on fabric viscoelasticity. Residual deformation (E3) in tuck anisotropy. The presence and number of tuck loops stitch fabrics ranged from 14.4% to 35.8%, encom- per width repeat generally reduce the contribution passing the plain stitch fabric value of 17.8%. of elastic deformation (E1/E) to the total deforma- The relationship between the widthwise full (E), tion in both directions compared with the plain elastic (E1) and delayed (E2) deformations, and the loops, with values ranging from 0.44 to 0.60 in the percentage of the tuck loops (Tn) in the stitch repeat lengthwise direction and from 0.42 to 0.60 in the at the width is presented in Figure 5. Figure 6 shows widthwise direction, as also mentioned in the paper the lengthwise and widthwise contributions of full [16]. This reduction indicates that tuck loops limit deformation. the immediate elastic recovery of the fabric, promot- ing increased structural relaxation and directional 200 dependence in deformation behaviour. Ew = -1.49 Tn + 197.4 Conversely, the presence and number of tuck R² = 0.80 150 loops tend to increase the contribution of residual E1w = -1.08 Tn + 119.06 deformation (E3/E) relative to the plain loops, with R² = 0.80 values ranging from 0.09 to 0.21 in the lengthwise 100 direction and from 0.14 to 0.32 in the widthwise direction, reflecting greater permanent set and 50 reduced dimensional stability. E2w = -0.48 Tn + 59.22 R² = 0.81 The contribution of delayed deformation (E2/E) 0 ranges from 0.28 to 0.40 in the lengthwise direction 0 20 40 60 80 and from 0.26 to 0.35 in the widthwise direction, Percentage of tuck loops (%) compared with 0.32 and 0.29 for the plain stitch Ew E1w E2w variant, respectively. These values indicate that tuck Figure 5: Relationship between the widthwise full (E), loops slightly enhance the viscoelastic component elastic (E1) and delayed (E2) deformations, and the of deformation, allowing gradual stress relaxation percentage of the tuck loops (Tn) in the stitch repeat and delayed recovery, which contributes to the at the width overall flexibility and time-dependent deformation behaviour of the fabric. Widthwise deformations (%) Influence of Tuck Stitch Variations on the Stretch Properties of Wool/PAN Single Weft-Knitted Fabrics 379 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Variants Variants of fabric of fabric E1/E E2/E E3/E E1/E E2/E E3/E a) b) Figure 6: Contributors of elastic (E1/E), delayed (E2/E) and residual (E3/E) deformations in full: a) lengthwise, b) widthwise Tables 4 and 5 show the t–test statistical results Table 5: Statistical results for the determination of used to determine the lengthwise and widthwise the widthwise stretch characteristics for independent stretch characteristics of independent samples. samples using the t-test A statistical analysis using t-tests (Tables 4 and Value of parameter (t) between plain and tuck Tested 5) showed greater differences in widthwise stretch stitch variants (df= n1+n2 = 8) parameter characteristics than in lengthwise stretch character- E E1 E2 E3 t istics, with a significance level of 0.001. Widthwise 1/2 15.7 c) 15.3 c) 12.5 c) 2.4 a) t 1/3 13.9 c) 14.5 c) 12.5 c) 7.1 c) full (E), elastic (E1) and delayed (E2) deformations t 1/4 12.5 c) 12.1 c) 10.9 c) 0.9 d) of the tuck stitch variants 2, 6, and 10 with 50% tuck t 1/5 7.6 c) 9.2 c) 3.5 b) 3.5 b) loops at the width repeat, compared to the plain t 1/6 10.2 c) 9.7 c) 8.6 c) 2.1 d) stitch fabric (variant 1), exhibit a notable difference, t 1/7 9.1 c) 12.6 c) 10.5 c) 7.4 c) mainly with a significance level of 0.001. t 1/8 4.1 b) 5.8 c) 2.9 a) 5.2 c) t 1/9 9.0 c) 8.6 c) 7.5 c) 0.6 d) t 1/10 8.0 c) 8.3 c) 7.4 c) 4.9 b) Table 4: Statistical results for the determination of Legend: a) 0.05 level of significance; b) 0.01 level of signifi- the lengthwise stretch characteristics for independent cance; c) 0.001 level of significance; d) no statistically signif- samples using the t–test icant difference; df degree of freedom Value of parameter (t) between plain and tuck Tested stitch variants (df= n1+n2 = 8) parameter 4 Conclusion E E1 E2 E3 t 1/2 15.0 c) 7.4 c) 16.1 c) 13.6 c) t 1/3 7.5 c) 3.8 b) 8.1 c) 8.0 c) This study examined the stretch behaviour of nine t variants of single-tuck weft-knitted fabrics made from 1/4 5.9 c) 2.4 a) 3.6 b) 6.1 c) t 1/5 4.1 b) 2.5 a) 2.8 a) 4.2 b) 31 tex ×2 wool/PAN yarn and compared them with the t 1/6 5.8 c) 4.0 b) 7.9 c) 5.4 c) plain stitch fabric. The primary aim was to determine t 1/7 5.8 c) 2.9 a) 6.0 c) 5.9 c) how varying the percentage of tuck loops (Tn) within t 1/8 3.2 a) 0.6 d) 5.3 c) 8.1 c) the stitch repeat influences the stretch properties of the t 1/9 7.3 c) 4.8 b) 8.9 c) 4.0 b) fabrics. The analysis highlights the significant role of t 1/10 4.6 b) 2.1 d) 3.1 a) 5.7 c) Legend: a) 0.05 level of significance; b) 0.01 level of signifi- loop structure in governing the mechanical behaviour cance; c) 0.001 level of significance; d) no statistically signif- of plain and tuck weft-knitted fabrics. icant difference; df degree of freedom Lengthwise contributors of deformations in full Widthwise contributors of deformations in full 380 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 368–382 The plain fabrics exhibited pronounced anisot- Data availability statement: Since December 5, ropy, with widthwise deformation four times greater 2025, the research data has been available at https:// than lengthwise deformation. Their stretch response zenodo.org/records/17829260 [29]. was dominated by the elastic component (E1), indicating strong immediate recovery. Both delayed Refereences (E2) and residual (E3) deformations were relatively low, demonstrating good dimensional stability. In 1. SPENCER, David J. Knitting technology: a contrast, tuck stitch variants (2–10) exhibited more comprehensive handbook and practical guide. balanced deformation between lengthwise and Abington : Woodhead Publishing, 2001. widthwise directions, reflecting the moderating 2. MOISEENKO, Fedor A., BUKHONKA, Nadiia effect of tuck loops on fabric anisotropy. P. Fundamentals of the structure and computer The presence and proportion of tuck loops in design of knitted fabrics. Kiev : Center for educa- the stitch repeat significantly impacted the stretch tional literature, 2004. (in Ukrainian). behaviour. Lengthwise deformations increased, 3. BUKHONKA, Nadiia P. Experimental study of enhancing fabric extensibility, while widthwise de- structural characteristics, dimensional change formations generally decreased, reducing immediate in washing, non-creasing properties and air per- recovery and diminishing the viscoelastic response. meability of Swiss double piqué flax knit fabrics. Specifically, full, elastic, delayed and residual defor- Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics, 2023, mations were higher in the lengthwise direction for 18, 1−20, doi: 10.1177/15589250231181701. tuck stitch fabrics than for plain fabrics, whereas 4. ALPYILDIZ, Tuba, ICTEN, Bulent, KARA- widthwise deformations showed the opposite trend. KUZU, Ramazan, KURBAK, Arif. The effect of The analysis of the deformation components tuck stitches on the mechanical performance of indicated that tuck loops lessen elastic deformation knitted fabric reinforced composites. Composite (E1/E) and increase the residual deformation (E3/E), Structures, 2009, 89(3), 391–398, doi: 10.1016/j. suggesting a greater permanent set and reduced di- compstruct.2008.09.004. mensional stability. The slight increase in the delayed 5. KURBAK, Arif, KAYACAN, Özlem. Basic component (E2/E) suggests enhanced viscoelasticity studies for modeling complex weft knitted fabric and stress relaxation. The relationship between de- structures. Part V: Geometrical modeling of tuck formation components and the percentage of tuck stitches. Textile Research Journal, 2008, 78(7), loops per width repeat showed a decreasing trend in 577–582, doi: 10.1177/0040517507087672. widthwise extensibility and a nonlinear response in 6. BUKHONKA, Nadiia P. Experimental studies the lengthwise direction, highlighting the complex of the dimensional properties of single tuck structural influence of tuck loop distribution. stitches. Industria Textila, 2011, 62 (1), 14−18. Overall, the results confirm that adding and 7. BUKHONKA, Nadiia P. Research of dimen- arranging tuck loops facilitates the fine-tuning of sional properties of knit-and-tuck rib cloth the stretch properties of knitted fabrics. By carefully [Istraživanje parametara strukture kulirnih controlling the percentage and placement of tuck desno-desnih zahvatnih pletiva]. Tekstil, 2011, loops, textile designers can achieve specific stretch 60(11), 543−547. behaviours, optimize recovery and improve dimen- 8. UYANIK, Seval, TOPALBEKIROĞLU, M. The sional stability, serving as valuable guidance for fab- effect of knit structures with tuck stitches on ric development and functional textile engineering. fabric properties and pilling resistance. The Journal of The Textile Institute, 2017, 108(9), 1–6, doi: 10.1080/00405000.2016.1269394. Influence of Tuck Stitch Variations on the Stretch Properties of Wool/PAN Single Weft-Knitted Fabrics 381 9. UYANIK, Seval, DEĞIRMENCI, Zuleyha, Silberschmidt. Elsevier, 2024, 194–213, doi: TOPALBEKIROGLU, M., GEYIK, Faruk. Ex- 10.1016/B978-0-323-90646-3.00018-6. amining the relation between the number and 16. BOUAGGA, Takwa, HARIZI, Taoufik, location of tuck stitches and bursting strength SAKLI, Faouzi. The effect of tuck stitch on in circular knitted fabrics. Fibres and Textiles in the properties of weft knitted fabric. Journal Eastern Europe, 2016, 24, 1(115), 114–119, doi: of Natural Fibers, 2021, 19(15), 1–12, doi: 10.5604/12303666.1170266. 10.1080/15440478.2021.1993415. 10. HOSSAIN, A.K.M.M., AL MAMUN, Md A., 17. WASIM, Syeda Sanjida, AHMED, Jamal FAIZ AHMED, A.T.M., AMIN, Md R. Evaluat- Uddin, MEIA, Md. Al-Amin. Effect of wales ing width-wise contraction of different cotton wise increment of tuck loop on fabric width, single knit structures due to the positioning shrinkage, spirality and areal density of weft of tuck and miss loops at different locations knitted fabric. International Journal of Textile in the structural repeats. Journal of Engi- Science, 2017, 6(6), 143–147, doi: 10.5923/j. neered Fibers and Fabrics, 2023, 18, 1–10, doi: textile.20170606.01. 10.1177/15589250231203379. 18. AYODELE, Emmanuel, ZAIDI, Syed Ali Raza, 11. DIVYA, R., PRAKASH, C., SAMPATH KUMAR, SCOTT, Jane, ZHANG, Zhiqiang, HAFEEZ, S.K., RATHINAMOORTHY, R., KUMAR, K.V., Maryam, McLERNON, Des. The effect of RAJWIN, A.J. Effect of tuck and miss stitch on miss and tuck stitches on a weft knit strain the geometrical properties of regenerated cellu- sensor. Sensors, 2021, 21(2), 1-20, doi: 10.3390/ lose plain and derivative knit structures. Journal s21020358. of Testing and Evaluation, 2022, 50(6), 368–377, 19. SARYBAYEVA, E., KURAMYSOVA, M., doi: 10.1520/JTE20210257. MUKIMOV, M., SHARDARBEK, M., RA- 12. ASSEFA, Alemayeha, GOVINDAN, Nalankilli. KHMANOVA, Z., MAKHANBETALIYEVA, Physical properties of single jersey derivative K., TASHMUKHAMEDOV, F., JURINSKAYA, knitted cotton fabric with tuck and miss stitches. I., KALMAKHANOVA, M. Influence of tuck Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics, 2020, stitches on the physical and mechanical proper- 15, 1–10, doi: 10.1177/1558925020928532. ties of knitted fabrics. Research Journal of Textile 13. BUKHONKA, Nadiia P., KYZYMCHUK and Apparel, 2023, 28(4), doi: 10.1108/RJTA-07- Olena P. The effect of miss stitches on the 2022-0083. dimensional and stretch properties of cotton/ 20. SENTHILKUMAR, P., THANGAMUTHU, flax knitted fabrics. Journal of Engineered Suganthi. Influence of tuck stitch in wale di- Fibers and Fabrics, 2023, 18(2), 1–16, doi: rection on thermal comfort characteristics of 10.1177/15589250231210954. layered knitted fabrics. Indian Journal of Fibre 14. BUKHONKA, Nadiia P., KYZYMCHUK Olena and Textile Research, 2019, 44(1), 65–74. P. The evaluation of the effect of rib set-outs 21. BASRA, Sikander Abbas, KUMPIKAITĖ, Egle, on the dimensional and stretch properties of ASFAND, Norina. Development and investiga- double weft knitted cotton/flax fabrics. Journal tion of hybrid knitted structures for sensorial of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics, 2024, 19, 1–17, comfort properties. Part I – Tuck stitches. Jour- doi: 10.1177/15589250241255099. nal of Natural Fibers, 2023, 20(2), 1–15, doi: 15. KYZYMCHUK Olena P., KYOSEV, Yordan, 10.1080/15440478.2023.2222554. RICHTER, Christoph, BENDT, Ellen. Me- 22. SHALOV, Ivan I., KUDRJAVIN, Lev A. Basics chanics of knitted fabrics. In Comprehensive of designing knitwear production with CAD Mechanics of Materials. Vol. 4. Edited by Vadim elements. Moscow. Legprombitizdat, 1989. 382 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 368–382 23. ISO 139:2005. Textiles – Standard atmospheres 27. GOST 8847-85. Knitted fabrics. Methods for for conditioning and testing. Geneva : Interna- determination of breaking characteristics and tional Organization for Standardization, 2005, extensibility under loads less than breaking 1–6. loads, updated 01.01.2023. RGTT, 1985. 24. ISO 6330:2021. Textiles – Domestic washing and 28. KUKIN, G.N., SOLOVJEV, A.N., KOBLJAKOV, drying procedures for textile testing. Geneva : A.I. Textile materials science (textile fabrics and International Organization for Standardization, products). Moscow : Legprombitizdat, 1992, 272 2021, 1–36. p. 25. EN 14970:2006. Textiles – Knitted fabrics – 29. BUKHONKA, N. Influence of tuck stitch vari- Determination of stitch length and yarn linear ations on the stretch properties of half-wool density in weft knitted fabrics. CEN, 2006, 1–13. single weft-knitted fabrics [Data set]. Zenodo, 26. GOST 8846-87. Knitted fabrics and garments. 2025, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17829260. Methods for determination of linear dimensions, distortion number of courses and wales and yarn length in the loop (updated 01.01.2021). RGTT, 1987. Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025095 383 Tuan Anh Nguyen, Huong Dam Thi, Que Tran Tran Nguyen Faculty of Fashion and Tourism, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education No 1, Van Ngan St, Thu Duc Wd, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness Trajnostno barvanje bombažne tkanine z lupino mangostina (Garcinia mangostana): raziskava parametrov ekstrakcije in barvne obstojnosti Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 8–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 12–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčni avtor: Tuan Anh Nguyen, PhD E-mail: nta@hcmute.edu.vn Phone No. +84934061793 ORCID iD: 0000-0003-2607-6671 Abstract This study explores the sustainable dyeing of cotton fabrics using natural colorants extracted from mango- steen (Garcinia mangostana) rind. The extract was obtained via hot aqueous extraction and applied to cotton using varying dyeing conditions such as concentration, pH, temperature and time. Mordants (copper sulfate, iron sulfate and potassium alum) and fixatives (sodium chloride, potassium alum and acetic acid) were evalu- ated for enhancing colour strength and wash fastness. Copper sulfate improved dye uptake, while potassium alum best minimized colour fading. Optimal dyeing was achieved at pH 7 and 80 °C, for 30 min, balancing efficiency, cost, energy and acceptable colour quality. The dyed fabrics showed higher moisture content and stiffness, with minimal impact on air permeability and crease recovery. These results highlight mangosteen rinds promise as a sustainable, eco-friendly dye for cotton textiles. Keywords: mangosteen rind, natural dyeing, cotton fabric, mordant, colour fastness Izvleček Raziskano je bilo trajnostno barvanje bombažnih tkanin z uporabo naravnih barvil, ekstrahiranih iz lupine mangostina. Izvleček, ki je bil pridobljen z ekstrakcijo mletih lupin z vročo vodo, je bil uporabljen za barvanje bombažne tkanine pri različnih koncentracijah, vrednostih pH, temperaturah in časih barvanja. Ocenjeni so bili učinki različnih čimž (bakrovega in železovega sulfata ter kalijevega aluminijevega sulfata) in fiksirnih sredstev (natrijevega klorida, kalijevega aluminijevega sulfata in ocetne kisline) za izboljšanje globine obar- vanja in obstojnosti pri pranju. Bakrov sulfat je izboljšal absorpcijo barvila, medtem ko je kalijev aluminijev sulfat najbolj zmanjšal bledenje barve. Optimalno barvanje je bilo doseženo pri pogojih pH 7, 80 °C, 30 min, pri čemer so bili uravnoteženi učinkovitost, stroški, energija in sprejemljiva kakovost barve. Barvane tkanine so vsebovale več zračne vlage in bile bolj toge, minimalno sta se jim poslabšali zračna prepustnost in mečkavost. Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. 384 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 Ti rezultati kažejo na možnost uporabe lupine mangostina kot trajnostnega in okolju prijaznega barvila za bombažne tekstilije. Ključne besede: lupina mangostina, barvanje z naravnimi barvili, bombažna tkanina, čimža, barvna obstojnost 1 Introduction The increasing demand for sustainable and eco-con- scious practices in the textile industry has prompted renewed interest in the application of natural dyes. Unlike synthetic dyes, which are derived from petroleum-based sources and pose significant environmental and health concerns including wastewater pollution, toxicity and bioaccumulation, natural dyes offer a biodegradable, non-toxic and renewable alternative [1, 2]. However, despite their Figure 1: Chemical composition of mangosteen (Gar- environmental advantages, natural dyes often face cinia mangostana) pericarp (α-mangostin) [14] limitations such as low colour fastness, limited colour range and inconsistent dyeing performance, Satyanarayana and Chandra (2021) reported that especially on cellulosic fibres such as cotton. Ad- pomegranate rind extract could yield satisfactory dressing these drawbacks remains a key focus in colour strength on cotton when combined with natural dye research [3, 4]. Plant-based colorants, mordants like alum and iron [15]. Similarly, Haddar particularly those derived from fruit peels, leaves et al. (2018) demonstrated that anthocyanin-rich ex- and barks, have shown promising results due to tracts from red cabbage showed enhanced dyeability their abundance of chromophoric compounds such on silk and cotton under acidic conditions, although as anthocyanins, flavonoids, tannins and xanthones fastness properties were moderate without mor- [5, 6]. Among these, mangosteen (Garcinia man- danting [16]. In a study by Prabhu and Teli (2014), gostana) rind, a byproduct of the fruit industry, has tamarind seed and peel extracts were applied to been reported to contain high levels of xanthones cotton fabrics, with iron sulfate yielding the highest and polyphenols that exhibit strong UV absorbance wash fastness among tested mordants [17]. and vibrant coloration [7‒10]. Mangosteen dyes are These prior studies collectively underscore the mainly composed of prenylated xanthones, partic- importance of optimizing dyeing parameters such as ularly α-mangostin, γ-mangostin and garcinones, pH, temperature, dye concentration and time, as well which possess a xanthone core with phenolic hy- as the critical role of mordants in improving dye-fibre droxyl and prenyl side groups [11]. These structural interactions and colour durability. Mordants, partic- features contribute to their yellow-orange colour, ularly metal salts, can form coordination complexes antioxidant activity and strong affinity for fibres in with natural dye molecules, enhancing their affinity to natural dyeing applications [12‒14]. cellulose fibres [18‒20]. Additionally, fixative agents Previous studies have explored its potential as such as alum and acetic acid have been employed to a natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agent, but further stabilize dye-fibre bonds and improve fastness its application as a textile dye remains relatively to washing and rubbing [21, 22]. Additional recent underexplored. Recent works have investigated the studies have emphasized the molecular mechanisms use of fruit waste in dyeing textiles. For instance, of dye–mordant interactions and the role of bio-based Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 385 mordants (e.g., tannins and citric acid) in improving boiling 100 g of MGSR powder in 1000 mL of distilled fastness and colour uniformity on cotton fabrics water at 90 °C for 60 min. The solution was filtered [23‒25]. Furthermore, several eco-friendly coloration and stored in dark bottles at 4 °C for later use. processes, including ultrasonic- and microwave-as- sisted dyeing, have been proposed to enhance dye uptake efficiency while reducing energy and water consumption [26‒28]. These developments provide broader scientific context and reinforce the relevance of sustainable natural dye research. Building upon such works, this study focuses on Figure 2: Fruit (left) and rind powder (right) of man- the extraction and application of natural dyes from gosteen (adapted and redrawn from xaxafruit.vn) mangosteen rind on cotton fabric. Using hot aqueous extraction, the study systematically investigates the 2.2 Dyeing process, mordanting and fixation effects of dyeing conditions including pH, tempera- Cotton fabric samples (10 cm ´ 10 cm) were pre- ture, concentration and time on colour development. scoured and dyed using the exhaust method with a The role of different mordants and post-dyeing liquor ratio of 1:20. The effects of dye concentration fixatives is also evaluated in terms of their impact on (20–100% v/v), dyeing pH (3‒7), temperature (40– colour strength, colour difference and wash fastness. 100 °C) and time (30–120 min) were studied. The Furthermore, changes in key fabric properties such as temperature was increased from room temperature moisture regain, stiffness, air permeability and crease to the desired level at a heating rate of approximately recovery are assessed to determine the practical im- 2  °C/min, and maintained for the required dyeing plications of MGSR dyeing. This research contributes duration. The pH was adjusted using acetic acid or to the growing field of natural dye technology by sodium carbonate. Mordanting was performed using identifying mangosteen rind as a potential sustainable pre-, meta- and post-mordanting techniques with dye source and proposing optimized methods for its CuSO4·5H₂O, FeSO4·7H₂O and KAl(SO4)2·12H2O at effective use in cotton textile applications. concentrations of 0.5–2.0% (w/v). Each mordanting process was conducted at 80 °C for 30 min under 2 Experimental continuous stirring to ensure uniform treatment. For fixation, dyed fabrics were treated with 5% NaCl, 2.1 Materials 5% KAl(SO4)2·12 H2O or 5% CH3COOH for 20 min Plain-woven 100% cotton fabric (120 g/m², purchased at room temperature, then thoroughly rinsed with from Viet Thang Corporation, Vicotex) was used as distilled water and dried at dried at 60 °C for 2 h in a the dyeing substrate. Mangosteen rinds (Garcinia hot-air oven before testing. mangostana) were collected from local markets in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam, cleaned, air-dried and 2.3 Evaluation methods ground into powder (Figure 1). Analytical-grade Colour strength (K/S) and colour difference (ΔE) chemicals, including copper sulfate pentahydrate (Cu- values were calculated based on the spectrophoto- SO₄·5H₂O), iron sulfate heptahydrate (FeSO₄·7H₂O), metric measurements performed using a Datacolor potassium aluminium sulfate dodecahydrate spectrophotometer. The UV-vis spectral analysis (KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O), sodium chloride (NaCl) and of dye extracts and dye-mordant interactions were acetic acid (CH₃COOH), were obtained from A.R. conducted using a Yoke UV1200 UV-vis spectro- Chemicals, India. Distilled water was used through- photometer to characterize the functional groups out all procedures. The natural dye was extracted by and absorption behaviour of the colorants. Washing 386 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 fastness tests were carried out at 40 °C ± 2 °C using a are common in natural plant extracts. When MGSR Miele washer (Germany), and the results were eval- is applied to cotton fabric (NNOF), the absorbance uated according to ISO 105-C06 after one, two and intensity decreases slightly, suggesting the partial four wash cycles, using grayscale ratings. In addi- adsorption or interaction of dye molecules with the tion, the physical properties of the fabrics, including fibre surface. When mordanting with copper sulfate moisture regain (ISO 139), air permeability (ISO mordant (NCUF), a noticeable increase in absor- 9237), stiffness (ASTM D1388) and crease recovery bance is observed in the same region, indicating the (AATCC 66), were measured to assess structural and formation of coordination complexes between cop- performance changes after dyeing. per ions and MGSR constituents, which enhances dye uptake and stability on the fabric. 3 Results and discussion Beyond 320 nm, all three curves show a gradual decrease in absorbance, consistent with the typical 3.1 UV-vis spectral analysis of MGSR extract behaviour of natural dyes, where main chromophor- The UV-vis spectra in Figure 3 show the absorbance ic absorption occurs in the UV range. Overall, the behaviour of MGSR extract and its interaction with results demonstrate that mordanting with copper cotton fabric, both with and without copper sulfate sulfate significantly enhances the interaction of as a mordant. The MGSR extract (NNO) exhibits a MGSR extract with cotton fibres through chelation, strong absorbance peak at around 300–320 nm, at- thereby enhancing dye fixation and colour strength. tributed to phenolic or flavonoid compounds, which Figure 3: UV-vis spectra of MGSR extract (NNO), MGSR with cotton fabric (NNOF) and MGSR with cotton fabric and copper sulfate mordant (NCUF) Figure 4 presents the UV-vis spectra of MGSR significantly influence the optical properties of extract in the absence (NNO) and presence of dif- the extract. In the absence of mordant (NNO), ferent mordants: copper sulfate (NCU), potassium the extract shows a broad absorption peak around aluminium sulfate (NKA) and iron sulfate (NFE). 305–320 nm, characteristic of phenolic or xanthone The spectra reveal distinct variations in absorbance compounds present in mangosteen rind. When intensity and band shape, indicating that mordants copper sulfate (NCU), is added the absorbance Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 387 intensity increases noticeably within this region, shows a moderately broad band with intermediate suggesting enhanced electronic transitions due to intensity, indicating a different mode of interaction, complexation between copper ions and active dye likely involving hydroxyl or carbonyl coordination. constituents, which improves chromophore stability. Overall, copper sulfate proves to be the most effective In contrast, the spectrum with potassium aluminium mordant in enhancing the UV-vis absorbance of the sulfate (NKA) displays a slightly lower absorbance, MGSR extract, which can contribute to improved implying weaker coordination or limited complex dye fixation and colour strength on textiles. formation. The spectrum with iron sulfate (NFE) Figure 4: UV-vis spectra of MGSR extract in the absence of mordant (NNO), and in the presence of copper sulfate (NCU), potassium aluminium sulfate (NKA) and iron sulfate (NFE) 3.2 Effect of pH on dye uptake mize the colour strength and stability of MGSR as a Figure 5 illustrates the K/S, DE values and colorimet- natural dye for cotton textiles. ric parameters (L*, C*, and h*) of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at varying pH levels from 3 to 3.3 Influence of dye concentration on colour 7. The fabric images visually confirm that the colour strength and colour difference becomes progressively darker and redder as the pH The K/S and coloristic parameters (L*, C* and h*) increases. The K/S values, which indicate dye uptake of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at vari- and colour strength, gradually rise from 0.4251 at ous dilution ratios with water, ranging from 20/80 pH 3 to 0.5660 at pH 7, showing enhanced absorp- (SPC20) to 100/0 (SPC100), are presented in Table 1. tion under near-neutral conditions. Similarly, the C* The visual images and measured values show a clear values increase from 23.93 to 30.67 and the hue angle trend of increasing colour depth as the concentration (h*) shifts from 64.22° to 62.82°, suggesting higher of MGSR extract increases. SPC20 was used as the colour saturation and a slightly deeper reddish tone reference sample, and all other samples were com- at higher pH. The pH-sensitive behaviour of MGSR pared against it. The K/S values rise progressively extract is likely related to the ionization and stability from 0.3180 (SPC20) to 0.6936 (SPC100), indicating of phenolic or anthocyanin compounds, which are greater dye uptake and stronger coloration on the more reactive in less acidic environments. Adjusting cotton fabric. This pattern is expected, as a higher the dye bath to near-neutral pH (6‒7) can thus opti- MGSR/H₂O ratio provides more available dye 388 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 SP03 SP04 SP05 SP06 SP07 pH 3 pH 4 pH 5 pH 6 pH 7 Sample Sample a) b) Sample pH value L* C* h* SP03 3.0 70.16 23.93 64.22 SP04 4.0 69.69 24.90 65.67 SP05 5.0 69.44 27.49 66.44 SP06 6.0 69.23 28.79 65.76 SP07 7.0 66.59 30.67 62.82 Figure 5: a) K/S and b) DE values, together with a tabular representation of numerical values of coloris- tic parameters (L*, C* and h*, are presented for cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at pH 3 (SP03), 4 (SP04), 5 (SP05), 6 (SP06) and 7 (SP07) molecules to interact with the fibre surface. In this L* decreased from 73.51 to 63.90, indicating darker context, DE values were treated only as secondary shades; C* increased from 19.60 to 31.18, showing indicators of visible colour change and were not used higher colour saturation; and h* shifted slightly from to interpret dye uptake, as they simply reflect the 69.90° to 63.90°, suggesting a move toward a redder expected differences between samples with different hue. These combined results clarify that the MGSR dye concentrations. The discussion therefore focuses extract concentration strongly influences both the on the more meaningful coloristic parameters (L*, C* dye absorption (reflected by K/S) and colour appear- and h*) and their trends with increasing MGSR con- ance (L*, C* and h*) of the cotton fabrics. centration. As the MGSR concentration increased, Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 389 Table 1: K/S values and colour coordinates (DE, L*, C* and h*) of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract at MGSR/H₂O dilution ratios (DR) of 20/80 (SPC20), 40/60 (SPC40), 60/40 (SPC60), 80/20 (SPC80) and 100/0 (SPC100) Sample SPC20 SPC40 SPC60 SPC80 SPC100 DR 20/80 40/60 60/40 80/20 100/0 Photos K/S 0.3180 0.3689 0.4608 0.5542 0.6936 DE - 4.32 7.87 12.38 15.36 L* 73.51 71.83 69.18 66.86 63.90 C* 19.60 23.55 26.07 29.85 31.18 h* 69.90 69.50 67.90 65.50 63.90 3.4 Role of mordants in dye fixation The results presented in Table 2 show the K/S and dye-fibre binding and superior wash fastness. In ΔE values of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract, contrast, SPKA drops to 0.2537, showing poor co- with and without mordants, after multiple washing lour retention, likely due to the lower stability of the cycles. The mordants tested include potassium aluminium-dye complex. aluminium sulfate (SPKA), copper sulfate (SPCU) The ΔE values increase with each washing cycle, and iron sulfate (SPFE), while SPNO represents the reflecting noticeable colour differences. SPNO and sample without mordant. Initially, the unwashed SPKA exhibit the most significant ΔE values after fabrics show the highest K/S values, especially for four cycles (13.24 and 13.30), indicating substantial SPCU (0.9488) and SPFE (1.0855), indicating en- colour fading. On the other hand, SPCU and SPFE hanced colour depth due to the mordanting effect show lower ΔE values (9.50 and 8.54), confirming of transition metal ions. SPNO and SPKA exhibit their better colour stability and resistance to wash- lower K/S values of 0.5318 and 0.4898, respectively, ing. Overall, the results confirm that copper and suggesting that the absence or weaker complexation iron sulfate mordants enhance dye uptake and the ability of the aluminium-based mordant results in washing durability of MGSR-dyed cotton fabrics, less dye fixation. After one, two and four washing while the aluminium-based mordant is less effective. cycles, the K/S values decrease across all samples, This behaviour can be attributed to the higher co- indicating a gradual loss of colour due to washing. ordination ability of transition metals, which form However, SPCU and SPFE retain higher K/S values more stable complexes with phenolic components than SPNO and SPKA, even after four cycles (0.5878 in the MGSR extract, resulting in improved colour and 0.6196, respectively), demonstrating stronger fastness suitable for practical textile applications. 390 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 Table 2: K/S and DE values of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract in the absence and the presence of different mordants after zero, one, two and four washing cycles SPNO SPKA SPCU SPFE Mordant: Mordant: Mordant: CuSO₄·5H₂O Mordant: Fabric properties none KAl(SO ) ·12H O pH = 5.39 FeSO ·7H O 4 2 2 4 2 pH = 5.95 pH = 5.68 ORP = 72.7 pH = 5.52 ORP = 40.2 ORP = 55.5 ORP = 64.7 a) Unwashed K/S 0.5318 0.4898 0.9488 1.0855 a) Washed (1 cycle) K/S 0.3935 0.3685 0.7186 0.7100 DE 8.64 11.54 6.36 6.26 Washed K/S 0.3460 0.2584 0.6424 0.6464 (2 cycles) DE 10.64 12.64 8.48 7.56 Washed K/S 0.2725 0.2537 0.5878 0.6196 (4 cycles) DE 13.24 13.30 9.50 8.54 a) Appearance of dyed fabrics As illustrated in Figure 6, the K/S and ΔE values It is important to emphasize that the increase in of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract were DE by increasing the mordant concentration only calculated for the samples treated with varying con- indicates that the overall colour difference become centrations (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 wt%) of CuSO₄·5H₂O as larger, but by itself it does not show how the colour is a mordant. As the mordant concentration increases changing (i.e. whether the shade becomes darker or from 0.5 wt% (SPCU005) to 2.0 wt% (SPCU020), lighter, more or less chromatic, or shifts in hue). This there is a clear increase in K/S values, indicating improvement can be attributed to the ability of the higher dye uptake and fixation on the cotton fibres. mordant to form coordination complexes with dye Specifically, the K/S value rises from 1.0501 to molecules and the fibre, thereby enhancing dye-fibre 1.6172, confirming that a higher mordant concen- affinity. At higher concentrations, more binding tration promotes stronger dye-fibre interaction and sites are likely formed, which boosts colour strength deeper coloration. and leads to a more intense shade. The visual fabric In contrast, the ΔE values (10.46‒16.6) represent samples also reflect this trend, showing progressively the overall colour difference among the samples deeper brown hues with increasing CuSO₄·5H₂O (SPCU005, SPCU010 and SPCU020) with respect to levels. Overall, increasing the mordant concentra- the unmordanted sample SP100 and are used here to tion effectively intensifies the dyed colour, while ΔE support the visual observation of more vivid colours, serves only as a measure of colour difference among rather than as a direct indicator of colour strength. samples. Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 391 Sample Sample a) b) c) d) e) Figure 6: a) K/S and b) DE values of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract at c) 0.5, d) 1.0 and e) 2.0 wt% of CuSO₄·5H₂O, denoted as SPCU005, SPCU010 and SPCU020, respectively Figure 7 shows the K/S values at various dilution ratios (SP20 to SP100), both without mordant (NO) and with 1% wt of Cu₂SO₄·5H₂O as mordant (CU). As the MGSR concentration increases from SP20 to SP100, the K/S values also rise, indicating that a higher concentration of the dye extract leads to deeper coloration. Notably, SP100 (undiluted extract) achieves the highest colour strength, with a K/S value of 1.2504 (CU), compared to only 0.6936 (NO). This suggests that both dye concentration and mordanting play critical roles in improving colour yield. The copper mordant likely facilitates stronger coordi- nation interactions between dye molecules and the Figure 7: Change in K/S value of cotton fabric dyed cotton fibre, thereby improving dye uptake. Overall, with MGSR extract at various dilution ratios (SP20: the combination of high-extract concentration and 20/80, SP40: 40/60, SP60: 60/40, SP80: 80/20 and Cu-mordanting provides the most optimal colour SP100: 100/0) as unmordanted (NO) and mordanted depth on cotton. (N) with 1% wt of Cu2SO4.5H2O 392 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 3.5 Effect of dyeing temperature and time becomes visibly deeper, as reflected by the increase Tables 3 and 4 present the dyeability of cotton in K/S values. This trend demonstrates that higher fabrics dyed with MGSR extract, examining the in- temperatures enhance dye diffusion and fibre pene- fluence of dyeing temperature and exhausting time, tration, further supported by the improved bonding both in the absence (unmordanted) and presence between dye molecules and cellulose fibres when a (mordanted) of 1% CuSO₄·5H₂O. As the dyeing mordant is used. temperature increases from 40  °C to 100 °C, the Dyeing performance also improves with longer K/S values for both unmordanted and mordanted exhausting times. From 30 to 120 min, the K/S val- samples increase, indicating enhanced dye uptake ues increase for both treatments. For unmordanted at higher temperatures. For example, the K/S value fabrics, K/S improves from 0.5310 to 0.6094, while it of unmordanted fabric rises from 0.4536 at 40 °C to improves from 1.2779 to 1.5830 for mordanted fab- 0.9770 at 100 °C, while the mordanted samples show rics, thus confirming greater dye uptake. Meanwhile, a more significant increase from 0.8255 to 2.0374. At unmordanted samples show higher perceptual higher dyeing temperatures, the colour of the fabric colour variation than mordanted samples. Table 3: Dyeability (K/S, DE) of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at 40 °C, 60 °C, 80 °C and 100 °C, both unmordanted and mordanted with 1% of CuSO₄·5H₂O, using ST40 as the reference sample Temp. (°C) Unmordanted Mordanted Sample DE K/S DE K/S St30 (Ref.) 40 - 0.4536 - 0.8255 St60 60 3.57 0.4889 4.12 0.9466 St80 80 6.71 0.5786 8.43 1.3386 St100 100 11.64 0.9770 14.22 2.0374 Table 4: Dyeability (K/S, DE) of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at 30 min, 60 min, 90 min and 120 min of exhausting time, both unmordanted and mordanted with 1% of CuSO₄·5H₂O (controlled sample is greige cotton), using St30 as the reference sample Exhausting time Unmordanted Mordanted Sample (min) DE K/S DE K/S St30 (Ref.) 30 41.60 0.5310 51.36 1.2779 St60 60 41.80 0.5313 51.50 1.2889 St80 90 42.68 0.5732 53.46 1.4347 St100 120 42.63 0.6094 54.48 1.5830 3.6 Combined effect of mordant and fixative where a higher value indicates greater fading. For treatment untreated fabrics (SPCUW), ΔE after one wash was Table 5 presents the ΔE values of cotton fabrics 6.75, showing noticeable colour loss. Sodium chlo- dyed with MGSR extract and mordanted with Cu- ride-treated samples (SPCUSC) exhibited slightly SO₄·5H₂O, followed by treatments with or without higher ΔE (6.39), implying limited effectiveness fixative agents after zero and one washing cycle. The in wash fastness improvement. Although the K/S fixatives evaluated include sodium chloride (NaCl), value (colour strength) of SPCUSC0 was the highest potassium alum (KAl(SO4)2·12H₂O) and acetic acid (1.15), its post-wash value decreased substantially, (CH₃COOH). ΔE represents the colour change, suggesting poor dye retention. Potassium alum (SP- Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 393 CUAW) demonstrated better performance, with a confirm weak dye fixation. Overall, potassium lower ΔE of 5.86, indicating improved wash fastness alum emerged as the most effective fixative among compared to no fixative or sodium chloride. The K/S the three, providing relatively lower ΔE and better values also decreased less dramatically, supporting colour retention. Sodium chloride and acetic acid of- its stabilizing effect on the dye. Surprisingly, acetic fered limited or no improvement over the untreated acid (SPCUAAW) resulted in the highest ΔE of control. These results emphasize the importance of 6.52, suggesting the least effective colour retention. selecting appropriate fixatives to enhance the wash Its low K/S values before and after washing further durability of natural dyes on cotton fabric. Table 5: ΔE values of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract and mordanted with CuSO₄·5H₂O, treated with or without fixative agents after zero and one washing cycle Photos of Photos of Washed one Unwashed Sample Fixative agent unwashed washed fabrics cycle DE fabrics one cycle K/S SPCUW None 1.08 0.73 6.75 Sodium chloride SPCUSCW 1.15 0.78 6.39 NaCl Potassium alum SPCUPAW 0.87 0.61 5.86 KAl(SO4)2⋅12 H O 2 Acetic acid SPCUAAW 0.57 0.47 6.52 CH₃COOH 3.7 Physical properties of dyed cotton fabric and unlikely to significantly affect breathability. Table 6 exhibits the changes in physical properties of Stiffness showed a substantial increase of 99.08%, cotton fabric after dyeing with MGSR extract, com- nearly doubling in value after treatment. This sug- pared to untreated fabric. The moisture increased gests that MGSR components may form deposits by 10.58%, suggesting that MGSR-treated fabric has or bonds with the fibre surface, resulting in a stiffer improved hydrophilicity. This could be due to the fabric structure. While this may improve durability, presence of hydrophilic functional groups in MGSR it might reduce comfort and drape. Crease recovery compounds, which enhance the fabric’s ability to decreased marginally from 68.05o to 67.00o, a change retain moisture. Air permeability slightly decreased of just 1.54%. This implies that the dyeing process by 3.35%, from 5.30×10–3 mm/s to 5.12×10–3 mm/s. has little effect on the fabric’s wrinkle resistance. This indicates that dyeing with MGSR extract may Overall, MGSR dyeing alters the physical properties slightly reduce the fabric’s porosity or alter the of dyed fabrics moderately. While the increase in surface structure. However, the change is minimal moisture content and stiffness could be beneficial 394 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 or detrimental depending on the application, the minimal, indicating that the fabric retains much of changes in air permeability and crease recovery are its original comfort and functionality after dyeing. Table 6: Changes in the physical properties (moisture regain, air permeability, stiffness and crease recovery) of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract, compared to undyed cotton fabric Fabric Moisture regain (%) Air permeability (mm/s) Stiffness (mg.cm) Crease recovery (o) Untreated 5.2632 5.30 × 10-3 344.24 68.05 Treated with MGSR extract 5.8201 5.12 × 10-3 685.3 67 Change (%) 10.58 -3.348 99.08 -1.54 4 Conclusion References The use of MGSR extract as a natural dye for cotton 1. DEY, P., DEY, P., HOQUE, M.B., BARIA, fabric demonstrates promising results in terms of B., RAHMAN, M.M., SHOVON, S. AND colour intensity, wash durability and sustainability. DAS, D Sustainable and eco-friendly natural This study confirmed that mordanting with copper dyes: a holistic review on sources, extraction, sulfate or iron sulfate enhances dye uptake and co- and application prospects. Textile Research lour retention, while potassium alum provides better Journal, 2025, 95(19-20), 2472-2499, doi: fastness among the tested fixatives. The optimal 10.1177/00405175251321139. dyeing conditions were found at neutral pH, high 2. LARA, L., CABRAL, I., CUNHA, J. Ecological temperature and extended dyeing time, all of which approaches to textile dyeing: a review. Sus- contributed to improved fabric coloration. Although tainability, 2022, 14(14), 1-17, doi: 10.3390/ MGSR-dyed cotton fabric showed increased stiffness, su14148353. the changes in moisture regain, air permeability and 3. ISLAM, T., ISLAM, K.M.R., HOSSAIN, S., crease recovery remained within acceptable limits. JALIL, M.A., BASHAR, M.M. Understanding Overall, MGSR extract is a viable natural dye option the fastness issues of natural dyes. In Dye Chem- for eco-friendly textile processing, especially when istry - Exploring Colour From Nature to Lab. combined with appropriate mordants and fixatives Edited by Brajesh Kumar. London : IntechOpen, to improve performance and durability. 2024. 4. RAHMAN, M.M., KIM, M., YOUM, K., KU- Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict MAR, S., KOH, J., HONG, K.H., Sustainable of interest. one-bath natural dyeing of cotton fabric using turmeric root extract and chitosan biomordant. Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated Journal of Cleaner Production, 2023, 382, 1-11, and analyzed during the current study, including ex- doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135303. perimental results, UV-vis spectra, and colorimetric 5. ROSE, P.M., CANTRILL, V., BENOHOUD, data (L*, a*, b* values) are publicly available on Zeno- M., TIDDER, A., RAYNER, C.M., BLACK- do at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17873277 [29]. BURN, R.S. Application of anthocyanins from blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) fruit waste as renewable hair dyes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2018, 66(26), 6790-6798, doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b01044. Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 395 6. BRUDZYŃSKA, P., SIONKOWSKA, A., GRI- of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) peri- SEL, M. Plant-derived colorants for food, cos- carp. Foods, 2023, 12(5), 1-15, doi: 10.3390/ metic and textile industries: a review. Materials, foods12050994. 14(13), 1-18, doi: 10.3390/ma14133484. 13. YUVANATEMIYA, V., SREAN, P., KLANGBUD, 7. LI, R., INBARAJ, B.S., CHEN, B.H. Quantifica- W.K., VENKATACHALAM, K., WONGSA, tion of xanthone and anthocyanin in mango- J., PARAMETTHANUWAT, T., CHAROEN- steen peel by UPLC-MS/MS and preparation PHUN, N. A review of the influence of various of nanoemulsions for studying their inhibition extraction techniques and the biological effects effects on liver cancer cells. International Journal of the xanthones from mangosteen (Garcinia of Molecular Sciences, 2023, 24(4), 1-29, doi: mangostana L.) pericarps. Molecules, 2022, 10.3390/ijms24043934. 27(24), 1-19, doi: 10.3390/molecules27248775. 8. YOSHIMURA, M., NINOMIYA, K., TA- 14. GÓRECKA, H., GUŹNICZAK, M., BUZALE- GASHIRA, Y., MAEJIMA, K., YOSHIDA, T., WICZ, I., ULATOWSKA-JARŻA, A., KORZE- AMAKURA, Y. Polyphenolic constituents of the KWA, K., KACZOROWSKA, A. Alpha-mangos- pericarp of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana tin: a review of current research on its potential L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, as a novel antimicrobial and anti-biofilm agent. 2015, 63(35), 7670-7674, doi: 10.1021/acs. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, jafc.5b01771. 2025, 26(11), 1-22, doi: 10.3390/ijms26115281. 9. IM, A., KIM, Y.M., CHIN, Y.W., CHAE, S. 15. SATYANARAYANA, D.N.V., CHANDRA, K.R. Protective effects of compounds from Garcinia Dyeing of cotton cloth with natural dye ex- mangostana L.(mangosteen) against UVB tracted from pomegranate peel and its fastness. damage in HaCaT cells and hairless mice. In- International Journal of Engineering Sciences & ternational Journal of Molecular Medicine, 2017, Research Technology, 2013, 2(10), 2664-2669. 40(6), 1941-1949, doi: 10.3892/ijmm.2017.3188. 16. HADDAR, W., BEN TICHA, M., MEKSI, N., 10. GOMEZ, S., PATHROSE, B., JOSEPH, M., GUESMI, A. Application of anthocyanins as SHYNU, M., KURUVILA, B. Comparison of natural dye extracted from Brassica oleracea L. extraction methods on anthocyanin pigment var. capitata f. rubra: dyeing studies of wool and attributes from mangosteen (Garcinia mangos- silk fibres. Natural Product Research, 2018, 32(2), tana L.) fruit rind as potential food colourant. 141-148, doi: 10.1080/14786419.2017.1342080. Food Chemistry Advances, 2024, 4, 1-10, doi: 17. PRABHU, K.H., TELI, M.D. Eco-dyeing using 10.1016/j.focha.2023.100559. Tamarindus indica L. seed coat tannin as a 11. VO, T.P., PHAM, N.D., PHAM, T.V., NGUYEN, natural mordant for textiles with antibacterial H.Y., VO, L.T.V., TRAN, T.N.H., TRAN, T.N., activity. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 2014, NGUYEN, D.Q. Green extraction of total phe- 18(6), 864-872, doi: 10.1016/j.jscs.2011.10.014. nolic and flavonoid contents from mangosteen 18. İŞMAL, Ö.E., YILDIRIM, L. Metal mordants (Garcinia mangostana L.) rind using natural and biomordants. In The Impact and Prospects of deep eutectic solvents. Heliyon, 2023, 9(4), 1-13, Green Chemistry for Textile Technology. Edited doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14884. by Shahid-ul-islam and B.S. Butola. Elsevier, 12. ALBUQUERQUE, B.R., DIAS, M.I., PINELA, 2019, 57-82, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-102491- J., CALHELHA, R.C., PIRES, T.C., ALVES, M.J., 1.00003-4. CORRÊA, R.C., FERREIRA, I.C., OLIVEIRA, 19. GRANDE, R., RAISANEN, R., DOU, J., RA- M.B.P., BARROS, L. Insights into the chemical JALA, S., MALINEN, K., NOUSIAINEN, P.A., composition and in vitro bioactive properties OSTERBERG, M. In situ adsorption of red on- 396 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 ion (Allium cepa) natural dye on cellulose model 25. ISLAM, S., JALIL, M.A., MOTALEB, K.A., films and fabrics exploiting chitosan as a natural SAEED, M.A., BELOWAR, S., RAHAMATOL- mordant. ACS Omega, 2023, 8(6), 5451–5463, LA, M., HOSSAIN, S., MUKIT, M.A., KHAN, doi: 10.1021/acsomega.2c06650. A.N. Toward a greener fabric: innovations in 20. SHAHMORADI GHAHEH, F., MOGHADD- natural dyes and biomordants for sustainable AM, M.K., TEHRANI, M. Comparison of the textile applications. Sustainability & Circularity effect of metal mordants and bio‐mordants on NOW, 2025, 2, 1-24, doi: 10.1055/a-2695-7703. the colorimetric and antibacterial properties 26. REPON, M.R., AULIA, A.A., NOUSHIN, L., of natural dyes on cotton fabric. Coloration HASAN, M.S., BISWAS, P., SULTANA, M. Technology, 2021, 137(6), 689-698, doi: 10.1111/ Ultrasound-assisted dyeing: efficiency, per- cote.12569. formance, and environmental advantages. In 21. ZHENG, Q., FANG, K., SONG, Y., WANG, L., Sustainable Coloration Techniques in Textiles. HAO, L., REN, Y. Enhanced interaction of dye Edited by Saptarshi Maiti, Mohammad Shahid molecules and fibers via bio-based acids for and Ravindra V. Adivarekar. Springer, 2025, greener coloration of silk/polyamide fabric. 149-161, doi: 10.1007/978-981-96-4975-4_5. Industrial Crops and Products, 2023, 195, 1-9, 27. NAVEED, R., BHATTI, I.A., ADEEL, S., ASHAR, doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.116418. A., SOHAIL, I., KHAN, M.U.H., MASOOD, N., 22. HAAR, S., SCHRADER, E., GATEWOOD, B.M. IQBAL, M., NAZIR, A. Microwave assisted ex- Comparison of aluminum mordants on the traction and dyeing of cotton fabric with mixed colorfastness of natural dyes on cotton. Clothing natural dye from pomegranate rind (Punica and Textiles Research Journal, 2013, 31(2), 97- granatum L.) and turmeric rhizome (Curcuma 108, doi: 10.1177/0887302X134808. longa L.). Journal of Natural Fibers, 2022, 19(1), 23. DARMAWAN, A., RIYADI, A., MUHTAR, H., 248-255, doi: 10.1080/15440478.2020.1738309. ADHY, S. Enhancing cotton fabric dyeing: opti- 28. BANNA, B.U., MIA, R., HASAN, M.M., mizing mordanting with natural dyes and citric AHMED, B., SHIBLY, M.A.H. Ultrasonic-as- acid. International Journal of Biological Macro- sisted sustainable extraction and dyeing of molecules, 2024, 276(2), 1-12, doi: 10.1016/j. organic cotton fabric using natural dyes from ijbiomac.2024.134017. Dillenia indica leaf. Heliyon, 2023, 9(8), 1-13, 24. AHMED, N., NASSAR, S., M EL-SHISHTAWY, doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18702. R. Novel green coloration of cotton fabric. Part 29. NGUYEN, T. A. Dataset for “Dyeing on sus- I: bio-mordanting and dyeing characteristics of tainable cotton fabric with mangosteen rind: cotton fabrics with madder, alkanet, rhubarb Investigating extraction parameters and color and curcumin natural dyes. Egyptian Journal fastness” [Data set]. In Tekstilec. Zenodo, 2025, of Chemistry, 2020, 63(5), 1605-1617, doi: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17873278. 10.21608/ejchem.2020.22634.2344. Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025147 397 Lara Može1, Urška Stanković Elesini1, Barbara Luštek Preskar1, Anna Jedrejčič2, Tanja Medved1 1 Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 12, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia 2 UNO Elektronika, Dolenja vas 1b, 6224 Senožeče, Slovenia Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting Vadbene karte za izvajanje aktivnih odmorov med dolgotrajnim sedenjem Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 12–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 12–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčna avtorica: Prof. dr. Urška Stanković Elesini E-mail: urska.stankovic@ntf.uni-lj.si ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4280-0615 Abstract The consequences of prolonged sitting are faced both by employers and by employees themselves. This paper presents the findings from statistical reports and scientific studies on the negative effects of prolonged sitting on employees’ health and consequently, on the importance of introducing short active breaks. A sur- vey conducted among the employees of the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering of the University of Ljubljana revealed that as many as 88.3% of respondents perform their work in a seated position for an average of 2.9 hours per day. Although more than half (55.9%) of the respondents are physically active, they still most frequently experience discomfort caused by sitting, e.g. pain in the back, neck, wrists etc. While no structured group implementation of active breaks is organised at the faculty, employees still have the option to take such breaks independently, which, according to the survey results, suits them well. The majority of respondents (76.0%) prefer performing exercises whenever they feel the need for a break. Even though half of the respondents (50%) are aware that the discomfort (pain) caused by prolonged sitting could be allevi- ated by taking active breaks, they rarely do so. Those who do take active breaks individually (20% every half hour, 10% every two to three hours) generally perform the exercises freely, without guidance. To ensure that employees perform appropriate exercises during active breaks – especially those that prevent the negative consequences of prolonged sitting – we developed exercise cards as part of the study. Most respondents rated the cards as visually appealing (design, colour palette, typographic choices etc.) and useful. One third of the respondents stated that they would certainly use the exercise cards to take short active breaks during extended periods of sitting at work, while slightly more than one third were undecided. The majority of the respondents (64.5%) also believe that frequent active breaks supported by the exercise cards during long periods of sitting at work would indeed contribute to increasing their physical activity. The exercise cards were distributed to employees at the beginning of the academic year, together with information on the con- sequences of prolonged sitting; however, this will certainly not be sufficient. To develop a culture of regular active breaks, further awareness-raising among employees will be required, with the exercise cards represent- ing a promising starting point. Keywords: prolonged sitting, sedentary behaviour, active breaks, exercise cards Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. 398 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 Izvleček S posledicami dolgotrajnega sedenja se soočajo tako delodajalci kot tudi delavci sami. V članku so podane ugotovitve iz statističnih poročil in znanstvenih raziskav o negativnih vplivih dolgotrajnega sedenja na zdrav- je delavcev ter posledično pomen vpeljevanja kratkih aktivnih odmorov. Iz ankete, izvedene med zaposlenimi Naravoslovnotehniške fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani, je bilo ugotovljeno, da kar 88,3 % sodelujočih svoje delo opravlja v sedečem položaju v povprečju 2,9 ure/dan. Kljub temu da je več kot polovica (55,9 %) sodelujočih telesno aktivna, pa zaradi sedenja najpogosteje občutijo bolečine v hrbtu, vratu, zapestjih itd. Skupno izvaja- nje aktivnih odmorov na fakulteti ni organizirano, imajo pa zaposleni možnost samostojnega izvajanja le-teh, kar jim glede na rezultate ankete tudi ustreza. Večina sodelujočih v raziskavi (76,0 %) namreč želi izvajati vaje takrat, ko potrebujejo odmor. Čeravno se polovica sodelujočih (50 %) zaveda, da bi omenjeno nelagodje (bolečine) zaradi dolgotrajnega sedenja lahko odpravili z izvajanjem aktivnih odmorov, pa to storijo le redko. Tisti, ki aktivne odmore izvajajo individualno (20 % na vsake pol ure, 10 % na vsake 2–3 ure), vaje izvajajo večinoma prosto, brez navodil. Da bi tekom aktivnih odmorov zaposleni izvajali ustrezne vaje, torej tiste, ki preprečujejo negativne posledice dolgotrajnega sedenja, smo v raziskavi razvili vadbene karte za aktivni odmor. Večina anketiranih je karte ocenila kot vizualno privlačne (izgled, barvna paleta, izbira tipografije itd.) in uporabne. Tretjina anketiranih je zatrdila, da bo vadbene karte zagotovo uporabljala za izvedbo kratkih ak- tivnih odmorov pri daljšem sedenju med delom, nekaj več kot tretjina pa je bila glede uporabe neopredeljena. Večina sodelujočih (64,5 %) tudi verjame, da bi pogosta izvedba aktivnih odmorov s pomočjo vadbenih kart pri daljšem sedenju med delom dejansko prispevala k povečanju njihove telesne aktivnosti. Vadbene karte so bile v začetku študijskega leta razdeljene zaposlenim skupaj z informacijo o posledicah dolgotrajnega sedenja, vendar pa to zagotovo še ne bo dovolj. Za uvedbo kulture rednih aktivnih odmorov bo potrebno nadaljnje osveščanje zaposlenih, pri čemer so vadbene karte vsekakor dober začetek. Ključne besede: dolgotrajno sedenje, sedentarno vedenje, aktivni odmor, vadbene karte 1 Introduction Rapid technological advancement over recent decades sitting (also referred to as sedentary behaviour) as has reshaped not only our way of life but also the behaviour lasting at least two hours and character- organisation of work, working hours and workplaces. ised by three main features: low energy expenditure, The environments in which we work, spend our a seated posture and physical strain resulting from leisure time or commute often compel us to remain a limited range of movement (i.e. effort required seated for long periods of time. Society is becoming to maintain a static position). A more precise and increasingly sedentary, presenting new challenges at widely used definition, however, describes sedentary both the psychosocial level and in terms of employees’ behaviour as any waking behaviour characterised physical health. The growing seriousness of prolonged by low energy expenditure (≤ 1.5 MET1) while in a sitting as a contemporary societal issue is further sitting, reclining or lying posture [3]. reflected in the substantial increase in scientific publications on the topic, which rose by more than 1 MET (Metabolic Equivalent of Task) represents the fifteenfold between 2010 and 2020 [1]. amount of energy required by an individual to per- The European Agency for Safety and Health at form a given activity. One MET corresponds to the en- ergy expenditure (oxygen consumption) of an average Work (hereinafter EU-OSHA) [2] defines prolonged 70 kg man at rest (3.5 ml O₂·kg−1·min−1) [44]. Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 399 According to statistical data [4], residents of pitalisation and work-related disability. As suggested Slovenia spend an average of 5 hours per day sitting by the authors, these conditions could be mitigated during the working week and 4 hours per day at through ergonomic workplace design and effective weekends (sedentary behaviour). Sitting time during reorganisation of working time, including more fre- the working week decreases with age, with individ- quent and shorter (active) breaks. The effectiveness uals aged 25 to 39 spending the most time seated, of performing stretching exercises during working averaging 6 hours per day. The analysis reveals that hours among textile workers is also reported in a sitting time is most strongly influenced by the level of study by Ismayenti et al. [11]. education, type of employment and nature of work; similar findings have been reported at the level of 1.1 Consequences of prolonged sitting European Union Member States in a meta-analysis by Prolonged sitting has numerous negative conse- Beller et al. [5]. As noted in the report, sitting time quences. In recent years, EU-OSHA has conducted has increased linearly over the years covered by the re- research aimed at identifying workplace risk factors search. In 2020, average sitting time on a working day across various sectors [6]. Prolonged sitting (report- was by 0.4 hours higher than in 2012, while weekend ed in 64% of analysed workplaces) and repetitive sitting time remained relatively unchanged. movements of the wrist/fingers or the entire arm It should also be noted that the COVID-19 pan- (reported in 63% of analysed workplaces) have been demic contributed significantly to increased sitting identified as the most prevalent risk factors associ- time, as a large proportion of work was performed ated with musculoskeletal disorders. Daneshmandi from home, typically in a seated position in front et al. [12] report that prolonged sitting is associated of computer screens. Moreover, as remote working with fatigue during the working day, reduced job often brings economic benefits for companies, the satisfaction, hypertension and musculoskeletal number of jobs performed from home within the disorders affecting the shoulders, lower back, thighs European Union has, as expected and as confirmed and knees among office workers. A study by Gao et by EU-OSHA research [6], nearly doubled since al. [13] found that workers who predominantly sit 2019, reaching 23% in 2024 (exceeding 40% in Fin- during working hours have a 16% higher risk of land and the Netherlands). This proportion varies all-cause mortality and a 34% higher risk of cardio- across sectors, with the highest shares observed in vascular disease mortality compared to employees information and communication activities (53%), whose work is not exclusively sedentary. Further- followed by professional, technical and scientific more, a systematic meta-analysis by Nasir et al. [14] activities (39%). revealed that prolonged sedentary behaviour in the Prolonged sitting is most commonly encoun- workplace is associated with an increased risk (rang- tered among office and administrative workers and ing from 34% to 85%) of mental health problems, employees in the transport sector; however, workers including psychological distress, depression, stress, in the textile industry – garment manufacturing profound sadness, burnout and anxiety. – are not exempt. In this sector, prolonged sitting, e.g. at sewing machines, has a substantial impact 1.2 Active breaks aimed at promoting on workers’ health, especially when workstations workplace health are not ergonomically designed [7–9]. A study Prolonged daily sitting must be balanced through by Šajnović et al. [10] found that Slovenian textile ergonomic principles, including popular solutions workers are also at increased risk of musculoskeletal such as active workstations [12], as well as regular disorders (e.g. pain in the back, neck and shoulders), short – primarily active – breaks, which help ensure which is reflected in higher rates of sick leave, hos- adequate physical activity among employees. 400 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 Active breaks, often also referred to as mi- or in groups. In the former case in particular, it is cro-breaks, are defined by Fritz et al. [15] as planned recommended that employees perform exercises tai- rest periods during working hours that alleviate lored to the type of work and the associated physical worker fatigue and physical discomfort. Their dura- demands. tion may vary from a few seconds to several minutes; however, they are all intended to support employees’ 1.3 Exercise cards for physical activity well-being, job satisfaction and attitudes towards Cards are a combination of images, text, symbols work. A study by Fischetti et al. [16] demonstrated or numbers. Unlike mobile applications, cards are that a 10-minute break involving outdoor physical simple, accessible and portable; they occupy little activity or guided exercise is effective in improving space, contain no distracting elements, are not de- selective attention and executive functions among pendent on an internet connection and provide clear healthcare workers. Wayne et al. [13] found that instructions. As a medium, cards enable physical interrupting prolonged sitting every 20–30 minutes interaction, as they can be shuffled and arranged with a few minutes of light physical activity (e.g. in ways that users find appropriate, engaging, and walking or stretching) can lead to improvements in consistently varied. The information presented on glucose levels, insulin regulation, blood pressure and the cards is concise, clearly structured and logically other metabolic parameters over a short period of divided into distinct sections, which facilitates com- time (e.g. within a single working day). Furthermore, prehension [20]. research by Chang et al. [17] indicates that short In the market analysis conducted as part of breaks reduce the risk of developing various health this research, we found that exercise cards in the conditions (e.g. cancer, cardiovascular disease, Slovenian language are not currently available on respiratory diseases), while also emphasising the the Slovenian market, whereas the range of exercise importance of individualising exercises according to cards in foreign languages is considerably broader. workers’ physical condition. Most available exercise card sets are of a general The workplace, where employees spend at least nature, focusing on fitness or yoga, while no card one third of their day, represents an appropriate sets specifically designed for exercises during active setting for health promotion [18]. Active breaks in- breaks were identified. From the exercise card sets corporating physical activity in the workplace can be identified, five examples are presented below, all of implemented in various ways, e.g. outdoor breaks, which are intended for exercises and meditation walking within the workplace, using stairs instead of during seated work. lifts and performing specific stretching exercises. The The “Desk Yoga Deck” cards (Figure 1A) were latter do not require additional exercise equipment first published in 2021 by Chronicle Books [21]. The or dedicated spaces, as existing workplace elements overall concept was developed by two yoga enthu- such as chairs, tables or walls can be used to support siasts, namely Darrin Zeer and Daisy Talleur-Zeer. the exercises. The illustrations were created by the illustrator Subin Experts in the field (e.g. kinesiologists, physical Yang. One year later, the card set received a silver education specialists, physiotherapists etc.) recom- award at the Society of Illustrator 65 competition in mend structuring exercises for prolonged sitting the product design category. [22] The cards are or- into three categories, i.e. first, stretching exercises, ganised into four categories, i.e. chair yoga, standing followed by strengthening exercises and finally exercises, meditation, and Pranayama and Mudra relaxation exercises, which involve deep breathing, exercises, which focus on breathing and hand move- calming the body and preparing to resume work ments. The exercises are suitable for office workers [19]. Active breaks may be performed individually and are not restricted by age. Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 401 “Desk Workout Cards for Home and Office” mentor Landre Bickley Eliopoulos and published (Figure 1B) are an exercise card brand by Zinsk, by Chronicle Books [26]. The set comprises 60 developed by a group of designers under the name cards divided into three categories: Refresh, which Upgraded Us [23]. The company has released several focuses on mental health (e.g. breathing exercises); sets of physical activity cards under this brand, with Connect, which addresses workplace relationships the set examined in this study being specifically de- (e.g. practical activities for fostering positive work- signed for movement in the workplace. The package ing relationships); and Flow, which is dedicated to consists of 75 cards and the described exercises are physical relaxation (i.e. movement and stretching divided into two categories, i.e. exercises performed exercises aimed at maintaining proper posture). The using body weight and exercises aimed at pain relief three recurring illustrations featured on the front of and relaxation. each category were created by the illustrator Gracie “Animal Moves Office Fitness Deck” (Figure Lam [27]. 1C) is a set of exercise cards [24] featuring exercises The “Desk Yoga Card Deck” (Figure 1E) [28] was inspired by animal movements, based on the book developed by a yoga instructor Maria Rojas [29]. The “Animal Moves Book” by Darryl Edwards [25]. set contains 106 cards featuring exercises primarily The card set includes 54 cards designed to promote intended for office workers who experience prolonged movement, entertainment and games. The 41 cards sitting, as well as stress and mental burnout. The cards describe exercises performed while seated or stand- are organised into six categories, i.e. mindful move- ing at a desk, five cards present challenge-based ac- ment for relieving tension and improving posture, tivities and the final seven cards outline games. The breathing exercises for calming the mind, meditations exercises are suitable for both beginners and more for refocusing, short exercises to enhance clarity and experienced users. creativity, and mantras and affirmations for positive “The Work Wellness Deck” (Figure 1D) is a card motivation. The illustrations were created by a graphic set developed by a business consultant and wellness designer Irene Izquierda [30]. Figure 1: Examples of exercise card sets: “Desk Yoga Deck” (A) [21], “Desk Workout Cards for Home and Office” (B) [23], “Animal Moves Office Fitness Deck” (C) [24], “The Work Wellness Deck” (D) [26], “Desk Yoga Card Deck” (E) [28] The aim of the present study was to analyse the 2 Methodology current state of active breaks among employees and to develop and produce exercise cards as a means of en- The research was conducted in three phases, each couraging more regular engagement in active breaks phase defining objectives that contributed to the in response to prolonged sitting in the workplace. final results. 402 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 1. The preliminary analysis was performed in its demands, how much time they spend sitting at three steps: in the first step, we administered the workplace, and whether they consequently ex- a survey questionnaire among employees perience pain in specific parts of the body. We were regarding their daily activity (a more detailed also interested in whether they engage in physical description is provided in section 2.1.1); in activity during working hours in the form of active the second step, we analysed the Slovenian breaks or outside working hours. market for exercise cards and examined five The questionnaire was approved by the UL NTF selected sets of foreign exercise cards (a more Research Ethics Committee at its meeting on 10 May detailed description is provided in section 2025. 2.1.2); based on the survey results and market Survey questionnaire structure. In the first part of research, we defined the guidelines for the the questionnaire, employees used a 5-point Likert design of exercise cards in the final step. scale to assess their workload (1 – not burdensome 2. The process of designing exercise cards at all, 5 – very burdensome) and the demands of proceeded through several steps, which are their work (1 – not demanding at all, 5 – extremely described in detail in section 2.2. demanding). 3. The card appearance and usability analysis The questionnaire was then divided into items was conducted using a survey questionnaire concerning work performed in a sitting or standing (a more detailed description of this phase is position. In both cases, employees reported the provided in section 2.3). average number of hours per day and the types of tasks they perform while sitting or standing. For 2.1 Preliminary analysis work performed in a sitting position, they also indi- 2.1.1 Survey questionnaire for assessing employ- cated any consequences they experience as a result of ees’ daily activity prolonged sitting. Software used and the foundations of the questions. The questionnaire continued with questions The survey questionnaire for assessing employees’ on the frequency and type of physical activity per- daily activity was developed using the Arnes 1KA formed during employees’ free time. For frequency, application (Centre for Social Informatics, Universi- respondents chose among the following options: 1 ty of Ljubljana). The questions were designed based – often, 2 – occasionally, 3 – rarely, 4 – never. If they on the results of the internal employee satisfaction selected options 1, 2 or 3, they were also required survey at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engi- to indicate how many times they engage in physical neering, University of Ljubljana (UL NTF), which is activity (1 – 1–2 times per month, 2 – 1–2 times per annually conducted by the Faculty Committee for week, 3 – 3–4 times per week or more). Quality and Self-Evaluation at UL NTF, and on the This was followed by questions on active breaks. facts that the faculty has a reserved gym time which We were interested in how often they take short employees may use once per week but generally do active breaks during working hours (1 – every half not take advantage of, that the faculty does not offer hour, 2 – every hour, 3 – every 2–3 hours, 4 – rarely, organised exercise sessions for employees, that no 5 – never). If employees selected options 1–4, they active breaks are provided, and that, given the nature were asked whether they use any instructions, rec- of their work, most employees likely perform their ommendations or similar guidance when choosing tasks in a prolonged sitting position, which can lead exercises for these short active breaks. If they se- to specific physical strains. The aim of the question- lected option 5, they were asked to provide written naire was therefore to determine the extent to which explanations for why they do not take short active employees are burdened by their work in relation to breaks during working hours. Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 403 Finally, employees answered a question regarding Since we did not find any exercise cards in whether they would like to change their work, work- Slovenian designed for performing exercises after place or working environment. prolonged sitting, we searched for English-language Target group. The survey was active from 11 to 19 examples in foreign online stores. Among the cards March 2025. The target group, i.e. all employees, identified that prescribe exercises for prolonged sit- received a link to the survey by email. A total of ting, we selected five sets for analysis, i.e. “Desk Yoga 59 employees voluntarily completed the survey, Deck”, “Desk Workout Cards for Home and Office”, representing 33.5% of all employees (this is a typical “Animal Moves Office Fitness Deck”, “The Work response rate for employee questionnaires). Both Wellness Deck”, and “Desk Yoga Card Deck”. A brief genders were equally represented among the respon- description of these sets has already been provided dents (50.8% female and 49.2% male). 25.4% of the in section 1.3. respondents were under 45 years of age, while the In the analysis of the cards, we highlighted their majority (74.6%) were over 45 years old. basic characteristics (box and card dimensions, Statistical analysis. The survey results were organ- number of cards), the elements present on the cards ised using Microsoft Excel, while some data were (images, text, symbols etc.), the illustration style, the statistically analysed using the Chi-square test in colour palette and any additional features. The results IBM SPSS Statistics. are presented in section 3.2. Following the survey on employees’ daily activity 2.1.2 Market analysis for exercise cards for exer- and the analysis of the selected card sets, we formu- cises during prolonged sitting lated guidelines for the design of exercise cards, which In our analysis, we first focused on the Slovenian are described in detail in section 3.2. market. We reviewed online stores offering exercise cards and found that these are primarily intended 2.2 Design process for exercise cards for performing yoga exercises (e.g., Libristo.si The design process for the exercise cards is presented (https://www.libristo.si), Temu (https://www.temu. in Table 1. As shown in the table, based on the estab- com), Nakitko.si (https://www.nakitko.si) etc.), and lished guidelines, we began by generating ideas for that most of them are available only in English. An the content and visual design of the exercise cards exception are certain yoga exercise cards by foreign intended for active breaks. The illustrations were authors that have been translated into Slovenian created in a simplified manner, using a two-dimen- and can be purchased in online stores, such as “Joga sional illustration style. Once the illustrations were karte za otroke od 3 do 103 let” in the online shop completed, we proceeded with selecting the colour Food for the mind (https://foodforthemind-si.com), palette and typefaces. This was followed by deter- “Avocado joga karte za dva in psa” in the online mining the composition between the typographic shop Avokado (https://www.avocado-center.si/), and graphic elements, designing the front and back and “Joga za otroke – kartice gibalna abeceda” in the sides of the cards, and preparing the layout for print. online shop Jogaline (https://www.jogaline.si) etc. In the final stage of the process, the design of the We also identified an exception among the cards, cardboard tuck box, created in accordance with the i.e. Joga kartice Mali Ganeša (https://maliganesa.si), overall visual identity of the card set, was included authored by the Slovenian creator Maja Podpečan as well. and illustrated by Urška Kalčič. 404 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 Table 1: Workflow for production of cards Phase of process Brief description Use of hardware/ software Categories and exercises Determination of the number of exercise categories, selection of / exercises within each category and preparation of instructions (in collaboration with a physiotherapist). Ideas Collecting ideas for the design of the exercise cards based on the / established guidelines. Sketches Based on simulated real human movements, drawing initial Wacom tablet/Adobe sketches with appropriate proportions of body structure, head Photoshop shape and arm length. Design of final characters Vectorisation of the sketches and determination of the basic Computer/Adobe and additional elements appearance; design of all remaining characters. Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator CC Card layout and design Determination of the basic grid for card layout; selection of Computer/Adobe InDesign typefaces and colours, and defining the composition between CC typographic and graphic elements. Packaging design Adjustment of standard box grid dimensions; design of the box in Adobe Illustrator accordance with the overall visual identity of the cards. 2.3 Survey questionnaire on appearance and standable.”, “The instructions are too long.”, “The illus- usability of cards trative depiction contributes to a better understanding Software used and question framework. The survey of how to perform the exercise.”, “Based on the illus- questionnaire on the appearance and usability of the trative depiction, it is possible to perform the exercise exercise cards was developed using the Arnes 1KA even without written instructions.” and “The exercise application (Centre for Social Informatics, Univer- can be performed at my workplace.” Subsequently, sity of Ljubljana). The purpose of the questionnaire respondents evaluated the visual appearance of the was to assess the appropriateness of the visual design illustrations on a 7-point Likert scale (1 – The illus- of the exercise cards (illustrations, typology, colour trations are not appealing to me, 7 – The illustrations palette), the comprehensibility of the exercises are very appealing to me) and, in a multiple-choice presented and the usability of the cards among end question, indicated how they perceived the illustrated users. The questions were formulated on the basis of characters (fun, professional, realistic or simple). In the designed prototype. the next part of the questionnaire, respondents were The survey questionnaire was approved by the asked about the appropriateness of the selected colour Research Ethics Committee UL NTF at its session palette. They evaluated four statements on a 5-point on 10 May 2025. Likert scale (1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree): Structure of the survey questionnaire. The “The colour palette of the categories is sufficiently clear questionnaire was divided into six sections. In the to distinguish between categories.”, “The colour palette first section, respondents evaluated the general is visually appealing.”, “The colours complement each appearance of the cards and their packaging on a other well.” and ‘The colours are playful yet calming.” 7-point Likert scale (1 – I do not like the appearance The following category addressed the appropriateness at all, 7 – I like the appearance very much). In the next of the fonts. Respondents evaluated four statements section, respondents assessed the comprehensibility on a 5-point Likert scale (1 – strongly disagree, of the exercises across all three categories on a 5-point 5 – strongly agree): “The text is sufficiently legible.”, Likert scale (1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree). “The contrast between the text and the background is They evaluated the following statements: “The written appropriate (enabling smooth reading).”, “The choice instructions for performing the exercise are under- of fonts aligns with the overall visual identity of the Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 405 cards.” and “The design hierarchy between headings tions of respondents. A link to the survey was sent to and body text is clear/appropriate.” The final section the target group by email. A total of 138 respondents of the questionnaire focused on the usability of the completed the questionnaire voluntarily. No demo- cards. Through single-choice questions, we aimed to graphic data were collected in the survey. determine whether respondents would use the cards Statistical analysis. The survey results were to carry out short active breaks during prolonged processed in Microsoft Excel, while the data were sitting at work (possible answers: yes, maybe, no), in analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics. what manner they would perform such active breaks (possible answers: as a team break or individually) 3 Results and discussion and whether, in their view, frequent implementation of active breaks supported by the exercise cards 3.1 Survey results on employees’ daily activity during prolonged sitting would increase their level of In the survey, we examined whether there is a physical activity (possible answers: yes, maybe, no). relationship between job demands and employee Target group. The survey was active from 19 to workload (Figure 2). To test the association between 25 March 2025. It was distributed to a broader target the two variables, we conducted a chi-square test of group, i.e. employees and students of UL NTF. We independence. Based on Pearson’s chi-square test (χ² opted for a larger target group for two reasons: (1) = 34,91, p < 0.001), we rejected the null hypothesis the exercise cards were originally intended for UL that the variables are independent, as the results in- NTF employees; nevertheless, access will later also be dicate a statistically significant association between provided to students whose curricula do not include perceived workload and perceived job demands; physical education; and (2) to increase the number of higher levels of job demands coincide with higher responses, including both younger and older genera- perceived workload among the respondents. Figure 2: Job demands (A) and workload (B) of respondents 406 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 From the results, we found that 11.7% of respon- Despite the relatively high levels of reported dents perform their work in a standing position, physical activity outside working hours, only 7.5% while the majority (88.3%) work in a seated position. of respondents do not experience any consequences Standing work is performed, e.g., in laboratories of working in a seated position. As many as 30.2% (sample preparation, practical sessions, operating of respondents report back pain, 18.1% report neck equipment etc.), in other rooms where various types pain, 14.7% have dry and burning eyes, primarily of practical work are conducted, during lectures, due to computer work, 13.8% experience wrist pain, student consultations and in other forms of techni- 12.1% leg pain and 11.2% of respondents suffer from cal support. Seated work most commonly includes headaches. working with computers and analytical devices, as The pains reported by the respondents could well as other desk-based tasks (reviewing seminar be alleviated through more frequent active breaks, papers, exams, articles, proofreading etc.), attending which, however, are rarely performed. Only 1.7% meetings and similar activities. Respondents spend of respondents take active breaks every half hour, on average 2 hours per day working in a standing 20.0% every hour and 10.0% every 2–3 hours. As position (x = 2.0 h/day, SD = 0.58 h/day), while they many as 50.0% of respondents take active breaks spend on average 2.9 hours per day working in a very rarely, while 18.3% do not take them at all. seated position (x = 2.9 h/day, SD = 0.77 h/day). The exercises performed during active breaks are We compared the results on time spent working performed freely, without instructions, and only in a seated position with the findings from the 2022 one respondent follows exercises recommended by a Eurobarometer survey [32], which showed that physiotherapist. Respondents who do not take active 19.0% of Slovenia’s population spend 2 h 30 min or breaks report that they either forget about them or less seated, 43.0% spend between 2 h 31 min and 5 do not take the time due to a heavy workload, while h 30 min, 27% between 5 h 31 min and 8 h 30 min, some believe they do not need active breaks since and the remaining 11.0% more than 8 h 30 min per they are sufficiently active in their free time. day. Our results indicate that the participants in A total of 48.9% of respondents do not wish to our study spend approximately the same amount change their work, workplace or working environ- of time seated as the largest share of the Slovenian ment, while the remaining respondents would like population. to better balance work and rest, spend less time at The survey results showed that the respondents the computer and have more active breaks. Some engage in physical activity during their leisure time, also expressed the desire for more appropriate work with 55.9% doing so frequently, 28.8% occasionally equipment, particularly a height-adjustable desk and and 15.3% rarely. We compared these findings with an ergonomic chair. the Eurobarometer survey [32], which indicates that 11.0% of Slovenia’s population are regularly physically 3.2 Analysis results of selected sets of exercise active, 41.0% are almost regularly (frequently) physi- cards and establishment of guidelines for cally active and 23.0% are rarely active, while as many designing exercise cards for active breaks as 25.0% are completely inactive. These comparisons The results of the analysis of the five selected sets of suggest that the respondents in our survey are more exercise cards are presented in Appendix 1. Based on physically active than the average Slovenian popula- these findings, we subsequently formulated guide- tion. We additionally note that 10.2% of respondents lines for the design of exercise cards. engage in physical activity 1–2 times per month, Designing the content and number of exercise 39.0% 1–2 times per week, while 50.8% engage in cards: physical activity 3–4 times per week or more. • Selection of appropriate exercises for per- Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 407 forming active breaks during prolonged sit- to avoid common mistakes, and the recommended ting, along with proposals for short exercise number of repetitions and duration of the exercise. programmes. The content on the reverse side will also be designed • The number of exercise cards is determined with clearly indicated sections, enabling quick and based on the number of selected exercises. intuitive understanding and recognition of the An additional card with short programmes information. and a card containing instructions for using Packaging – the cardboard tuck box is in direct the exercise cards will be included. contact with the cards and protects them from • The exercise cards will be of functional size abrasions and damage. It is the main marketing (proposed dimensions: 70 mm × 110 mm). element and the first point of contact for new users; General aspects of design: hence, its design must be careful and well consid- • A system of categorising the cards will be ered. The packaging will have a simple form with a used, with each category marked by its own top-opening mechanism. The design of the pack- colour scheme. aging will follow the visual elements used on the • The colour scheme of the exercise cards will cards: typography, colour palette and graphics. The be adapted to the target group (male and packaging will display the name of the card set, an female users). illustration of a selected exercise and office-related • For longer texts, predominantly sans-serif objects that indicate the intended use of the cards. typefaces will be used, as they are legible, A short description informing the user about the simple and convey a sense of modernity, content/theme of the cards will also be included, e.g. while serif typefaces will be used for head- “33 exercise cards for movement during work”. ings. Based on the established guidelines, we designed • In the design of graphic elements and their the final prototype of the exercise cards. composition, consistency will be ensured (placement of graphic elements, uniform 3.3 Designing exercise card prototype typeface selection and a consistent colour 3.3.1 Selection of categories and exercises scheme). Following the physiotherapist’s recommendations, The front side of the card will enable a quick the exercises were divided into three categories, i.e. overview of the exercise; therefore, it will include exercises for stretching and strengthening the legs; the following information: the name of the exercise, exercises for the trunk; and exercises for the upper a simple and clear illustration showing how the body, i.e. the neck and arms. Each category included exercise is performed, and a sequential number 11 exercises. The instructions for performing the that will allow easy sorting of the cards as well as exercises were prepared in a clear manner, using no easier retrieval when using pre-designed exercise more than four bullet points. For certain exercises, programmes. The entire front side will be designed additional notes were provided to facilitate execu- with clearly indicated sections to ensure quick rec- tion in cases where the original version might be too ognition of the content. difficult for the user. The reverse side of the card will include infor- The exercise card set comprised 33 cards, to mation necessary for performing the exercises. For which we added two additional cards, namely one this purpose, the following elements will be provid- with instructions for use and one listing recom- ed on the reverse side: a brief and comprehensible mended exercise programmes. description of the exercise (preferably presented in numbered steps), tips on correct posture or on how 408 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 3.3.2 Arranging elements on cards is again positioned in the wider upper margin and In arranging the elements on the cards, we followed the number of repetitions and exercise duration in the guidelines outlined in section 3.2. All cards the wider lower margin. The two additional cards share the same layout style (Figure 3A), with only (Figures 3B and 3C) follow the same intended the colour palette varying according to the exercise layout, except they do not include illustrations. On category. On the front side, the exercise illustration the first of these cards, one side contains instructions is placed within a rounded frame; the card number is related to exercise performance, while the other side positioned in the wider upper margin and the exer- provides information about the contents of the set. cise name in the wider lower margin. On the reverse The second additional card contains descriptions of side, also within a bordered frame, we included the the pre-prepared exercise sequences. exercise name and its description; the card number Figure 3: Front and reverse side of exercise cards (A), cards with instructions (B) and cards with recommended sets of exercises (C) 3.3.3 Illustrations with the exception of the arm and neck categories, The illustrations (Figure 4) are created in a simple where the focus is placed on the upper body. flat illustrative style, without the use of textures or The figures are situated within a spatial context, shading. The application of line drawing with curved thereby presenting users with the possibility of per- lines ensures that each depicted movement is clear, forming the exercises in everyday environments, e.g. simple and easy to execute. Arrows are additionally office or home. For this purpose, elements including included to facilitate the understanding of the ex- chairs, tables, a wall, a computer and plants are ercise performance and to illustrate the movement incorporated using a grey colour palette. pathway. Stylised figures with minimal detail enable users to focus on the execution of the exercise. The 3.3.4 Colour palette use of lighter and darker tonal values indicates which The selected colour palette consists of 19 colours, limb is positioned in the foreground and which in predominantly pastel tones, which are visually the background. The figures are predominantly calming (Figure 5). Three distinct colours are used depicted from a side view, allowing the movement to differentiate the three exercise categories. The sequences to be more clearly perceived. category of leg exercises is denoted by blue, which In illustrating the figures, diversity was taken into is associated with calmness and relaxation. The cate- account: female and male figures are differentiated gory of arm and neck exercises is indicated by green, on the basis of body size, head structure, variations representing health and vitality, while the category of in clothing, hairstyles and related features. Facial trunk exercises is marked by pink, reflecting warmth expressions are neutral and relaxed. In most cases, and a soothing effect [33]. Grey is used for objects the figures are depicted as full-body representations, depicted in the background. Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 409 Figure 4: Diversity of figures and background elements (wall, chair) Figure 5: Selected colour palette 3.3.5 Typography Dashiell Bright is used for the exercise titles in bold The overall visual identity of the cards is characterised uppercase letters, while Roboto, which ensures good by the use of two typefaces, i.e. the serif typeface legibility, is employed for the exercise instructions and Dashiell Bright for headings and the sans-serif repetitions in both light and bold weights. Both type- typeface Roboto for longer bodies of text (Figure 6). faces are also applied in the design of the packaging. Figure 6: Selected typefaces Dashiell Bright and Roboto 410 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 3.3.6 Tuck box features an illustration of a person performing an For the visual design of the cardboard tuck box, the exercise, along with information on the number of same typefaces and colour palette as those used on exercises included in each category. The packaging the cards were applied (Figure 7), with blue selected is designed in a minimalist and orderly manner. The as the primary colour of the box. The front panel box follows a classic tuck-end structure, with top features the name of the exercise cards and an illus- and bottom tuck-in flaps. The dieline was exported tration of a person performing an exercise. The side from the Templatemaker website [34], which allows panels include the required logos and a statement the specification of packaging dimensions and the describing the project within which the cards were adjustment of flap sizes. The box measures 113 mm physically produced and used. The back panel also × 72 mm × 20 mm. Figure 7: Cardboard tuck box (packaging) 3.4 Survey results on visual design and high mean scores (x = 4.55/4.69/4.55), indicating usability of cards well-designed textual descriptions of the exercises. The developed prototype of the card set was evaluat- The contribution of the illustrative representations ed using a questionnaire survey. The overall appear- to improved understanding of exercise performance ance of the cards and packaging was rated highly by is confirmed by the similarly high mean scores the respondents on a Likert scale, with a high mean (x= 4.66/4.75/4.65), underscoring the important role of visual representations in the effective communi- score (x = 5.51). As shown in Figure 8, responses are cation of instructions. Based on the low mean scores concentrated at the higher end of the scale (scores (x = 2.52/2.39/2.34), it can be concluded that the 5, 6 and 7), indicating a strongly positive overall respondents generally agreed that the instructions perception of the visual appearance of the card set. were not overly long. However, the relatively high The clarity and comprehensibility of the visual standard deviation values (SD = 1.52–1.63) should representation and written instructions of the exer- not be overlooked, as they indicate considerable cises were evaluated using selected cards from each variability in respondents’ opinions and suggest that category (Figure 9). some participants may have perceived the instruc- As shown in Table 2, the respondents rated tions differently from the majority. the clarity of the written instructions for perform- Based on the results presented in Table 2, it can be ing the exercises in all three card examples with concluded that an illustrative representation without Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 411 written instructions is sufficient for performing the exercise. The highest level of agreement with this statement was observed for the exercise “Table push- ups” (x = 4.41, Mo = 5.0), for which the ratings were also the most consistent (SD = 0.73). High ratings indicating agreement with the statement were also reported for the exercises “Chair squat” (x = 3.79, Mo = 4.0) and “Triangle” (x = 4.10, Mo = 5.0); however, in these cases, the ratings were somewhat more dispersed (SD = 1.11), which may suggest that an illustrative representation alone is not always sufficient for understanding the exercises. The respondents indicated that most of the presented exercises could be performed in their workplace, as reflected by the high mean feasibility rating for the exercise “Chair squat” (x = 4.31, Mo = 5.0). A similar pattern was observed for the exercise “Triangle”; however, a slightly greater variability in responses was noted (SD = 1.24), which may indicate differences in spatial or ergonomic conditions across Figure 8: Distribution of ratings of overall appearance workplaces. The lowest feasibility rating was assigned of card set on Likert scale (1 – I do not like the appear- to the exercise “Table push-ups” (x = 3.94, SD = 1.31), ance at all, 7 – I like the appearance very much) (n = suggesting that this exercise may be more dependent 129, Mo = 6, SD = 1.94) on specific spatial or technical conditions. Figure 9: Selected cards from individual categories on the basis of which the clarity and comprehensibility of the exercise representations were evaluated: “Chair squat” (A; blue), “Triangle” (B; pink) and “Table push- ups” (C; green). The respondents further evaluated the visual predominantly high, the relatively large standard appearance of three illustrations on the exercise deviation (SD = 1.53) indicates some variability in cards (Figure 10) using a 7-point Likert scale. The respondents’ opinions, suggesting that the visual visual appearance of the illustrations received a high appearance of the illustrations was not perceived mean rating (x = 5.89, n = 116), the most frequent as equally appealing by all respondents. As shown rating being 6 (Mo). Although the ratings were in the diagram in Figure 10, respondents most fre- 412 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 Table 2: Ratings of clarity-related statements Distribution of ratings on Likert scale Card Statement n a) (1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree) x b) SD c) M category o d) 1 2 3 4 5 The written instructions for Blue 130 0.00 0.77 6.15 30.77 62.31 4.55 0.42 5.00 performing the exercise are Green 124 0.00 0.00 2.42 26.61 70.97 4.69 0.27 5.00 clear. Pink 121 0.00 0.00 6.61 32.23 61.16 4.55 0.38 5.00 Blue 129 27.13 24.03 24.03 19.38 5.43 2.52 1.52 1.00 The instructions are too long. Green 125 31.20 28.80 15.20 19.20 5.60 2.39 1.60 1.00 Pink 121 33.06 28.93 16.53 14.05 7.44 2.34 1.63 1.00 The illustrative representation Blue 129 1.55 0.00 6.98 13.95 77.52 4.66 0.55 5.00 contributes to a better Green 124 0.81 0.00 4.03 13.71 81.45 4.75 0.37 5.00 understanding of how to perform the exercise. Pink 121 0.83 0.83 8.26 12.40 77.69 4.65 0.55 5.00 Based on the illustrative Blue 130 1.54 12.31 21.54 34.62 30.00 3.79 1.11 4.00 representation, the exercise Green 124 0.81 2.42 12.10 24.19 60.48 4.41 0.73 5.00 can be performed even without written instructions. Pink 121 3.31 4.13 18.18 28.10 46.28 4.10 1.11 5.00 Blue 130 1.54 5.38 12.31 22.31 58.46 4.31 0.97 5.00 The exercise can be performed Green 124 4.03 6.45 25.00 20.97 43.55 3.94 1.31 5.00 at my workplace. Pink 122 0.82 10.66 19.67 14.75 54.10 4.11 1.24 5.00 a) number of respondents, b) arithmetic mean of ratings, c) standard deviation, d) most frequently selected rating quently described the illustrations as simple (42.3%) The participants evaluated the colour palette as suffi- and fun (29.5%), while smaller proportions (14.1%) ciently clear for distinguishing between categories, vi- perceived them as realistic and professional. sually appealing and well balanced in terms of colour The ratings of the suitability of the colour palette harmony. The palette was also perceived as playful used for the exercise cards (Figure 11) were on aver- and relaxing. Low to moderate standard deviation age very high. The statements received mean ratings values indicate a relatively high level of consistency in ranging from 4.31 to 4.52 on a 5-point Likert scale, the responses. the most frequent rating for all items being 5 (Mo). Figure 10: Illustrations of three exercise cards (left) and respondents’ perceptions of illustrations (right) (n = 220) Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 413 Figure 11: Colour palette suitability The respondents rated the suitability of the (40.5% of n = 121) indicated that they would selected typefaces (typography) used on the exer- definitely use the exercise cards to perform short cise cards predominantly with high mean scores active breaks during prolonged sitting at work. The (Figure 12). Text legibility received a mean rating largest proportion of the respondents (43%) selected of 4.47 (SD = 0.49), indicating clear typography the response “maybe”. This group is particularly with appropriate letter size and proportions. The important, as it reflects an openness towards using relatively low standard deviation reflects a consistent the exercise cards; however, additional information opinion among respondents. The contrast between and motivation would be required to encourage a the text and the background received the highest definitive decision regarding regular use. A total of mean rating (4.66, SD = 0.38), with a high level of 16.5% of respondents stated that they would not use agreement across the respondents. The alignment of the exercise cards. These responses may be associat- the selected typefaces with the overall visual identity ed with personal preferences, workplace conditions of the cards was rated slightly lower (x = 4.18, SD = or a lack of interest in such activities. 1.10), with greater variability in individual ratings. Of those respondents who indicated that they This outcome was expected, as this item represents would definitely or possibly use the cards for active a more subjective assessment related to individual breaks (n = 100), 76.0% expressed a preference for aesthetic preferences and the perceived coherence performing the breaks individually, as needed, while of visual elements. The mean rating for the visual 21.0% would prefer to perform the exercises as part hierarchy between headings and body text was high of a team break. A small proportion of the respon- (x = 4.53, SD = 0.55), indicating that the respondents dents (3.0%) indicated that they would perform the were able to recognise the structure and distinguish exercises both individually and as part of a team. between different textual elements, such as headings, The majority of the respondents (64.5%, n = 121) subheadings and body text. believe that the frequent implementation of active Approximately one third of the respondents breaks using the exercise cards during prolonged sit- 414 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 Figure 12: Suitability of selected typefaces (typography) ting at work would indeed contribute to an increase The final appearance of the card set and tuck box in their physical activity. Although 28.9% of respon- is shown in Figure 13. dents were not entirely certain, they did not exclude the possibility of increased physical activity. This 4 Conclusion group represents a potential target, as appropriate presentation or positive user experience could en- The research results confirm that prolonged sitting courage more frequent engagement in active breaks. has a significant impact on employees’ well-being Only a small proportion of the respondents (6.6%) and highlight the need for the introduction of short, felt that active breaks would not have an impact on structured active breaks. The results of the survey their physical activity. assessing respondents’ daily activity revealed a statis- tically significant relationship between job demands 3.5 Final product and perceived workload, indicating that higher job Following the analysis of the survey results on the demands are associated with increased levels of appearance and usability of the exercise cards, strain. Although the majority of respondents report- the prototype was refined into its final form and ed engaging in regular physical activity during their prepared for printing. In selecting the materials, leisure time, a substantial proportion still experience considerations included durability, tactile quality, discomfort in the back, neck or upper limbs during visual appearance and functionality. working hours. Card printing and finishing: 300 g/m² matte The analysis of the current situation also showed coated paper; double-sided digital printing; dou- that respondents rarely engage in active breaks. The ble-sided matte lamination; rounded corners. most frequently cited reasons include a lack of time Tuck box printing and finishing: 250 g/m² matte and motivation, as well as high workload, which coated paper; single-sided digital printing; final consequently leads to prolonged sitting. For this die-cutting of the dieline and gluing. reason, the concept of designing short, visually clear Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 415 Figure 13: Set of exercise cards for active breaks during prolonged sitting (photo: Lidija Svetek) and quickly executable instructions in the form of to the clarity and comprehensibility of both the exercise cards is particularly relevant, as it enables instructions and the illustrations. The illustrations employees to incorporate movement into their were perceived as simple, visually appealing and working day in a quick and straightforward manner. sufficiently informative for performing the exercises, Based on the analysis of existing exercise card while the colour palette was regarded as coherent sets, guidelines were developed for the design of and effective in distinguishing between categories. an original set of exercise cards for active breaks. The majority of the respondents believed that the These guidelines ensure a clearly structured, visually regular use of the cards in the form of active breaks coherent and functional design. The exercise card could contribute to increased physical activity set is organised into three exercise categories (legs, during working hours. In this context, respondents trunk and upper body) and includes a selection indicated a preference for performing active breaks of illustrated exercises, written instructions and individually, allowing them to self-regulate the tim- pre-defined programmes. Particular emphasis was ing of their breaks. placed on visual simplicity, clear and comprehensi- The results confirm that exercise cards have ble descriptions, diversity in the illustrated figures, considerable potential to reduce the negative ef- carefully considered colour coding of categories and fects of prolonged sitting and to promote healthy typography that ensures good legibility. movement habits in the workplace. The finalised The evaluation of the exercise card set prototype exercise cards represent an effective tool that could demonstrated a positive response from the respon- be meaningfully integrated into broader workplace dents. The overall appearance of the cards was rated health promotion programmes. Future research as very good, and high ratings were also assigned would benefit from a long-term evaluation of the 416 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 effects of using the exercise cards, including the fre- 7. ZALETEL, M., VARDIČ, D., HLADNIK, M. quency of exercise performance in real workplace Zdravstveni statistični letopis 2023. Ljubljana : settings and the impact of active breaks facilitated Nacionalni inštitut za javno zdravje, 2025. by the cards on employee productivity and satis- 8. BELLER, J., GRAßHOFF, J., SAFIEDDINE, B. faction, not only at our faculty but also in a wider Differential trends in prolonged sitting time range of organisational contexts. in Europe: a multilevel analysis of European Eurobarometer data from 2013 to 2022. Journal Acknowledgements of Public Health, 2025, 33(5), 943–951. doi: The authors would like to thank the employees of the 10.1007/s10389-023-02090-1. Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Univer- 9. CARDÁS, T. First findings of the Fourth Euro- sity of Ljubljana, for their participation in the survey. pean Survey of Enterprises on New and Emerg- This research was conducted as part of the pilot project ing Risks (Esener 2024). European Agency for Digitalna in zelena prenova VSŠP: študija primera, Safety and Health at Work, 2025. performed within the ULTRA project and co-funded 10. AVCIBAŞI, İ. M., DİNDAR, İ. Relationship by the Republic of Slovenia, the Ministry of Higher between working posture and work injuries in Education, Science and Innovation, and the European a clothing factory workers in Edirne. Karaelmas Union – NextGenerationEU. Journal of Occupational Health and Safety, 2022, 2, 87–96. doi: 10.33720/kisgd.945387. Data availability statement 11. OPOKU, M., BAIDEN, S., ABOAGYE- The data supporting the findings of this study are WAA-NTIRI, J. Garment Production Processes publicly available in the Repository of the University of and their Health Challenges: A Case of Tailors Ljubljana (RUL) as of 9 December 2025, under the per- and Dressmakers in the Small-Scale Clothing sistent identifier (PID) 20.500.12556/RUL-176689 [35]. Industries in Sunyani Municipality. Journal of Health, Medicine and Nursing, 2024, 72–81. doi: References 10.7176/JHMN/113-08. 12. İMAMOĞLU, G., BESTEM, E. Ergonomic 4. FANG, H., JING, Y., CHEN, J., WU, Y., WAN, Risk Analysis of Working Postures for a Textile Y. Recent trends in sedentary time: A systematic Factory Worker. Journal of advanced research literature review. Healthcare, 2021, 9(8), 1–19, in natural and applied sciences, 2024, 10(3), doi: 10.3390/healthcare9080969. 761–770. doi: 10.28979/jarnas.1502292. 5. PEEREBOOM, K., DE LANGEN, N. Dolgotrajno 13. ŠAJNOVIĆ, U., MARGAN, A., PETKOVSKA, sedeče delo z omejenim obsegom gibanja. Učinki V., DODIČ FIKFAK, M. Analiza zdravstvenega na zdravje in nasveti o dobri praks. Luxembourg stanja tekstilnih delavcev. Univerzitetni klinični : Urad za publikacije Evropske unije, 2021. center Ljubljana, Klinični inštitut za medicino 6. TREMBLAY, M.S., AUBERT, S., BARNES, dela, prometa in športa, Ljubljana, 2021. J.D., SAUNDERS, T.J., CARSON, V., LATIM- 14. ISMAYENTI, L., SUWANDONO, A., MAHER ER-CHEUNG, A.E., CHASTIN, S.F., ALTEN- DENNY, H., WIDJANARKO, B. Reduction of BURG, T.M., CHINAPAW, M.J. Sedentary Fatigue and Musculoskeletal Complaints in behavior research network (SBRN) – terminol- Garment Sewing Operator through a Combi- ogy consensus project process and outcome. nation of Stretching Brain Gym® and Touch for International journal of behavioral nutrition and Health. International Journal of Environmental physical activity, 2017, 14(1), 1–17. doi: 10.1186/ Research and Public Health, 18(17), 8931, 1–14. s12966-017-0525-8. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18178931. Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 417 15. DANESHMANDI, H., CHOOBINEH, A., 22. PUSTIVŠEK, S. Telesna dejavnost na delovnem GHAEM, H., KARIMI, M. Adverse Effects mestu - kdaj bo praksa dohitela teorijo, 2017. [ac- of Prolonged Sitting Behavior on the General cessible from a distance]. Kineziolog, 30. 5. 2017 Health of Office Workers. Journal of lifestyle [accessed 13. 12. 2024]. Available on World Wide medicine, 2017, 7(2), 69–75. doi. 10.15280/ Web: https://www.kineziolog.si/telesna-dejav- jlm.2017.7.2.69. nost-na-delovnem-mestu-kdaj-bo-praksa-do- 16. GAO, W., SANNA, M., CHEN, Y.H., TSAI, hitela-teorijo/. M.K., WEN, C.P. Occupational sitting time, 23. KELLET, N. What are card decks & why have leisure physical activity, and all-cause and car- cards become a popular medium, 2024. [ac- diovascular disease mortality. JAMA network cessible from a distance]. Deckible.com, 16. open, 2024, 7(1), e2350680, doi: 10.1001/jama- 9. 2024 [accessed 13. 12. 2024]. Available on networkopen.2023.50680. World Wide Web: https://cards.deckible.com/ 17. NASIR, H., DUCLOS, M., BAGHERI, R., COLE, what-are-card-decks-why-have-cards-become- A., BAKER, J. S., THIVEL, D., DUTHEIL, F. a-popular-medium/. Impact of occupational sedentary behavior on 24. Desk Yoga Deck, Chronicle books, 2024. [acces- mental health: A systematic review and me- sible from a distance]. Subin Yang Illustration ta-analysis. PLoS One, 2025, 20(8), e0328678, [accessed 20. 11. 2025]. Available on World 1–22. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0328678. Wide Web: https://subinyang.cargo.site/Chron- 18. FRITZ, C., ELLIS, A.M., DEMSKY, C. A., LIN, icle-Books-Desk-Yoga-Deck. B. C., GUROS, F. Embracing work breaks: 25. Illustrators 65. Surface-Product Design, 2022. Recovering from work stress. Organizational Dynamics, 2013, 42(4), 274–280. doi: 10.1016/j. [accessible from a distance]. The Society of orgdyn.2013.07.005. Illustrators [accessed 1. 2. 2025]. Available on 19. FISCHETTI, F., PEPE, I., GRECO, G., RAN- World Wide Web: https://societyillustrators. IERI, M., POLI, L., CATALDI, S., VIMERCATI, org/illustrators-65/desk-yoga-deck/. L. Ten-minute physical activity breaks improve 26. Zinsk, Upgraded Us. [accessible from a distance]. attention and executive functions in healthcare Upgraded Us [accessed 1. 2. 2025]. Available workers. Journal of Functional Morphology and on World Wide Web: https://upgradedus.com/ Kinesiology, 2024, 9(2)102, 1–13. doi: 10.3390/ zinsk/. jfmk9020102. 27. EDWARDS, D. Why Workout When You Can 20. CHANG, Q., ZHU, Y., LUI, Z., CHENG, J., Playout? [accessible from a distance]. Primal LIANG, H., LIN, F., LI, D., PENG, J., PAN, P., Play [accessed 1. 2. 2025]. Available on World ZHANG, Y. Replacement of sedentary behavior Wide Web: https://www.primalplay.com/. with various physical activities and the risk of 28. EDWARDS, D. Animal Moves: How to move all-cause and cause-specific mortality. BMC like an animal to get you leaner, fitter, stronger Medicine, 2024, 22(1), 385, 1–14. doi: 10.1186/ and healthier for life. 2018, Explorer Publishing, s12916-024-03599-2. Dubai. 21. ISPAH’s eight investments that work for phys- 29. The Work Wellness Deck, 2021. [accessible ical activity. 2020. [accessible from a distance]. from a distance]. Cronicle Books, 31. 8. 2021 International Society for Physical Activity and [accessed 25. 3. 2025]. Available on World Wide Health [accessed 23. 1. 2025]. Available on Web: https://www.chroniclebooks.com/prod- World Wide Web: https://ispah.org/wp-content/ ucts/the-work-wellness-deck. uploads/2020/11/English-Eight-Investments- That-Work-FINAL.pdf. 418 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 397–419 30. LAM, G. Gracia Lam. The Loud Cloud. [accessi- 35. Sport and physical activity. Special Eurobarom- ble from a distance]. The Loud Cloud [accessed eter 525. 2022. [accessible from a distance]. 22. 4. 2025]. Available on World Wide Web: European Commission [accessed 18. 11. 2025]. https://www.gracialam.com/info. Available on World Wide Web: https://europa. 31. Desk Yoga Card Deck for Work and Home Of- eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2668. fices. [accessible from a distance]. The Yoga Tool 36. BISTRICER, R. Color psychology: how to use Kit [accessed 20. 11. 2025]. Available on World it in your next design project, 2024. [accessible Wide Web: https://theyogatoolkit.com/. from a distance]. Wixel, 16. 4. 2024 [accessed 5. 32. ROJAS, M. Yoga tools for everyday life. [acces- 4. 2025]. Available on World Wide Web: https:// sible from a distance]. [accessed 20. 11. 2025]. www.wix.com/wixel/resources/color-psycholo- Available on World Wide Web: https://www. gy. yogimaria.com/. 37. Card Box. [accessible from a distance]. Tem- 33. Holistic atelier. [accessible from a distance]. Ho- platemaker [accessed 6. 4. 2025]. Available on listic atelier [accessed 20. 11. 2025]. Available on World Wide Web: https://www.templatemaker. World Wide Web: https://www.holisticatelier. nl/en/cardbox/. co/about. 38. MOŽE, L., LUŠTEK PRESKAR, B., JEDREJČIČ, 34. The Work Wellness Deck. [accessible from a dis- A., STANKOVIĆ ELESINI, U., MEDVED, T. tance]. Free People Movement [accessed 20. 11. Naslov : research data underlying the article. 2025]. Available on World Wide Web: https:// Repository of the University of Ljubljana, 4 www.freepeople.com/fpmovement/shop/the- November 2025. Available on World Wide work-wellness-deck/. Web: https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/IzpisGradiva. php?id=176689&lang=slv. Exercise Cards for Taking Active Breaks During Prolonged Sitting 419 Appendix 1: Analysis results of five sets of exercise cards Sets of cards Card set Desk workout cards for home Animal moves office fitness Desk yoga deck [21] The work wellness deck [26] Desk yoga card deck [28] caharacteristcs and office [23] deck [24] Illustration style Freehand drawing without Figures are digitally illustrated Clean line work with simple The illustration style conveys a The illustrations are vector- strictly straight lines, featuring in vector format; shading is shading, emphasising sense of elegance. Illustrations based and digitally rendered bold and colourful shapes. used in some instances; the functionality and correct are partly hand-drawn and in a two-dimensional flat style. illustration style is simple. exercise execution. partly digital, incorporating The figures appear relaxed, textures. simple and calm. Card elements The front side features an The front side displays an All key information is presented The front side includes an In addition to an illustrated illustration demonstrating illustration of the exercise; on the front side of the card. illustration and the category demonstration of the exercise the exercise, supplemented more complex exercises are The upper section (a coloured name, while the reverse within a white frame, the cards with elements from the work shown in multiple steps. Above rectangle) contains the exercise side provides the exercise include the exercise name, environment (e.g. plants, the illustration are the exercise name and duration according description. The environment category name, duration and a lamps, desks, chairs). The top name, number of breaths, to difficulty level. Below, on a and everyday objects are difficulty indicator in the upper of the reverse side indicates repetitions and duration; at the white background, the exercise depicted using selective visual right corner. Selected linear the category name, followed bottom, the targeted body part illustration and instructions are information. symbols (e.g. moon and sun) by exercise instructions and a is indicated. The reverse side provided. are also included. short motivational quote. The includes a smaller illustration, text is sometimes humorous the exercise name, duration and sometimes positively and a written description of the framed. exercise sequence. Colour palette The colour palette is highly The colour palette Categories are marked with Dedicated illustrations for the The colours of the six diverse and varies by category. differentiates the categories: green or dark blue rectangles, three categories are presented categories are visible in the the first category is turquoise while other elements and the on the front side, each using a backgrounds of the figures and and the second orange. All box appear in various colours. distinct colour palette. vary between cool and warm elements are harmonised with tones. the category colour. Additional A short guide with instructions Three additional cards provide Cards featuring challenges and The content of the cards differs A small wooden card stand is elements for performing the exercises is recommended stretching games are included. slightly from the others, as they included. included. routines, body-part-specific include exercises focused on routines and a suggested mental health and workplace 5-minute workout. relationships. Card size 88 mm × 63 mm 88 mm × 63 mm 156 mm × 102 mm 80 mm × 110 mm Number of cards 52 75 54 60 106 Box size 103 mm × 40 mm × 158 mm 95 mm × 76 mm × 36 mm N/A 160 mm × 40 mm × 103 mm N/A 420 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 420–436 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025057 Md. Nahid-Ull-Islam, Shah Md. Maruf Hasan Department of Apparel Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles, Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208, Bangladesh Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework Industrija 5.0 - revolucija v zagotavljanju etične mode: pregled pojmovnega okvira Scientific review/Pregledni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 5–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 12–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčni avtor: Shah Md. Maruf Hasan E-mail: marufbutex39ae@gmail.com ORCID iD: 0009-0001-4596-938X Abstract The global fashion industry faces numerous ethical concerns. The Global South, in particular, suffers from un- ethical practices in the fashion industry due to the complexity of the supply chain and the lack of regulations governing workers’ welfare. Additionally, the rapid growth of the fashion industry has also caused a negative impact on the environment. Ethical fashion prioritizes transparency, accountability and the well-being of workers, while ensuring environmental and social sustainability. This study suggests Industry 5.0 as a suitable approach to ensure ethical fashion due to its focus on human centricity. Industry 5.0 values human well-be- ing with a synergy of technologies such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, digital twin and energy-efficient automation. The proper implementation of Industry 5.0 in the fashion industry can promote ethical fashion practices by ensuring fair labour practices, transparency and accountability, by and minimizing environmen- tal impacts. Through an in-depth review of literature regarding Industry 4.0, Industry 5.0 and ethical fashion, this study develops a framework for ethical fashion. A logical, human-centred framework for Industry 5.0 in the context of ethical fashion is produced by searching peer-reviewed literature for specific keywords, ap- plying inclusion criteria and thematically analysing the content to extract significant concepts, technologies and ethical issues. This study also highlights the challenges of integrating Industry 5.0 with ethical fashion, such as building the skills of labourers, the consideration of socio-centricity and policy changes due to the emergence of Industry 5.0. Keywords: Industry 5.0, ethical fashion, sustainable, transparency Izvleček Globalna modna industrija se sooča s številnimi etičnimi izzivi. Globalni jug je zaradi kompleksnosti dobavnih verig in pomanjkljivega urejanja na področju varstva delavcev še posebno izpostavljen neetičnim praksam v modni industriji. Hitra rast modne industrije ima poleg tega izrazite negativne vplive na okolje. Etična moda poudarja preglednost in odgovornost ter dobrobit delavcev ob sočasnem zagotavljanju okoljskih in družbenih vidikov trajnosti. Raziskava opredeljuje industrijo 5.0 kot primeren pristop k zagotavljanju etične mode, saj temelji na človeku usmerjenem pristopu. Industrija 5.0 poudarja blaginjo človeka v sozvočju s tehnologijami, Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework 421 kot so umetna inteligenca, veriženje blokov, digitalni dvojček in energetsko učinkovita avtomatizacija. Ustre- zna uvedba industrije 5.0 v modni industriji lahko prispeva k spodbujanju etičnih praks v modi, saj omogoča zagotavljanje pravičnih delovnih razmer, preglednosti in odgovornosti ter zmanjševanje okoljskih vplivov. Na podlagi poglobljenega pregleda literature o industriji 4.0, industriji 5.0 in etični modi raziskava oblikuje pojmovni okvir etične mode. Smiseln in človeku usmerjen okvir industrije 5.0 v kontekstu etične mode je razvit s sistematičnim pregledom recenzirane literature, ki vključuje iskanje po ključnih besedah, uporabo vključitvenih kriterijev ter tematsko analizo vsebin za določitev ključnih konceptov, tehnologij in etičnih vprašanj. Raziskava dodatno opozarja na izzive združevanja industrije 5.0 in etične mode, med katerimi so razvoj kompetenc de- lavcev, upoštevanje sociocentričnega pristopa ter potreba po spremembah načel zaradi vzpona industrije 5.0. Ključne besede: industrija 5.0, etična moda, trajnostnost, preglednost 1 Introduction The complexity of global fashion supply chains poses sure transactions through unlawful payments instead significant ethical issues, especially within the context of fair and transparent selection procedures [8]. In of accountability, transparency and the multi-layered numerous scenarios, vulnerable legislative surround- structure of networks [1]. Fashion supply chains ings, notably in emerging finances, create possibilities frequently span multiple layers, incorporating several for the exploitation of private authorities, bribery and intermediaries and lower-tier manufacturers, with unfair practices [9]. Furthermore, global textile con- the majority of production taking place in the Global sumption has risen to an estimated 62 million tons of South, where cheap labour is easily available. These clothing per year, with a projection of 102 million tons areas are usually characterised by institutional voids, by 2030, resulting in an epidemic increase in air, water such as a lack of regulatory frameworks, insufficient and microplastic pollution from discharge into the oversight and uneven labour standard enforcement food chain, as well as textile waste [10‒15]. The devel- [2]. To implement truly ethical procedures, the opment of low-cost textile production has resulted in fashion industry must go beyond its employees and fast fashion, in which consumers frequently acquire emphasize the welfare, safety and prosperity of its trendy clothing and discard them before the product’s suppliers and workforce, the most vulnerable element lifecycle is complete [16, 17]. Cost, financial status, in the fashion supply chain. The fashion industry is perception of oneself, risk perceptions, consumerism, currently facing ethical challenges such as sweatshop beliefs/attitudes, peer groups and fashion awareness working conditions, child labour and modern slav- all play a role in fast fashion purchasing decisions. ery, where workers face minimal safety measures, Fast fashion purchases are often driven by consumers’ minimum wages, long working hours with unpaid desires such as becoming trendy, gaining respect, overtime, exploitative contracts and a lack of workers’ displaying dominance, blending in with a social rights [3‒6]. Despite international anti-corruption group and establishing a personal identity [18‒20]. regulations, fashion supply chains remains prone Fast fashion meets consumers’ desires for high-end to corruption and conspiracy that compromise fair clothes at a cheaper cost, despite its detrimental practices and raise operational costs [7]. Immoral socioeconomic and environmental consequences. procurement practices between fashion brands and Along with standard sustainability considerations, suppliers at the cost of workers’ rights and safety transformational and collaborative design approaches manifest corruption. For example, suppliers may en- may enhance positive design processes [21]. 422 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 420–436 This phenomenon has raised a quandary aspect of Industry 5.0, the most recent chapter in because while fast fashion helps the economy, it industrial evolution. Industry 4.0, while still being also leads to difficulty in the disposal of textiles, as implemented in some countries, lays the frame- the recycling industry must handle all of the waste work for this transformation. It highlights technical generated by the textile industry [22]. In contrast to breakthroughs such as data analytics, forecasting, fast fashion, ethical fashion or “fashion with con- the Internet of Things (IOT) and blockchain to science” implies a noble strategy to attract socially fulfil rising demand for supply flexibility and pro- concerned or young mainstream customers by ductivity [27, 28]. Industry 5.0 builds on Industry manufacturing trendy garments free of unethical 4.0’s technological base, but with a key difference: practices. Its primary objective is to supply stylish, it prioritizes sustainability and human well-being contemporary apparel while ensuring equitable over efficiency [29]. This human-centred approach compensation, safe working conditions and sus- recognizes existing environmental issues while tainable material sourcing. Ethical fashion com- stressing innovation for a more sustainable future panies prioritise open supplier chains, cruelty-free [30]. Industry 5.0 and recycling are inextricably production methods and environmentally friendly linked, fostering sustainability and innovation materials over wasteful waste, environmental centred on human needs. This notion combines harm and exploitative labour practices. This tactic modern technology such as AI, robots, the Internet appeals to a growing segment of the consumer base of Things (IoT) and smart sensors with human that values aesthetic appeal in addition to social creativity and decision-making. This integration and environmental impacts and demands greater improves efficiency and precision at every stage of accountability from companies. Ethical fashion the recycling process, including trash sorting and promotes values such as sustainability, human material processing. The recycling of polyester, rights and conscientious consumption through particularly recycled polyester (rPET), has gained marketing, storytelling and community service. popularity, as it involves melting existing plastic It backs global campaigns for economic equality, to create new polyester fibres. While consumer social justice and climate action. Ethical fashion plastic bottles are often highlighted, rPET can also offers trendy clothing that allows people to express be sourced from post-industrial materials. The de- their uniqueness without compromising their mor- mand for recycled polyester continues to rise due als. The proposed concept is to procure garments to population growth and economic development. ethically while ensuring beneficial employment Polyester is widely used across various industries, guidelines and circumstances to labourers, and benefiting from its high strength, transparency and to offer a sustainable business model. In addition, safety properties, which are deemed to be linked to organic substances are utilized to minimise the im- Industry 5.0, while recycling fosters sustainability pact on surroundings. Ethical fashion can therefore [31]. be identified as fashionable garments that integrate The objective of this study is to address Industry fair trade standards with sweatshop-free labour 5.0 and its feasibility to ensure ethical fashion. It situations while not affecting the environment or observes the literature gap between two topics, labourers [23, 24]. proposes a conceptual framework for utilizing The Industrial Revolution has revolutionized Industry 5.0 in ethical fashion, and addresses chal- workplaces to satisfy society’s needs, with an lenges and limitations. The definitions of key terms increasing emphasis on implementing green extracted from the relevant systematic review are practices due to environmental concerns [25, 26]. presented in Table 1. This emphasis on sustainability is a distinguishing Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework 423 Table 1: Definition of key terms used in this study Key term Definition Ethical fashion Ethical fashion is the concept of consuming clothes that are socially and environmentally conscious [32]. A collaborative industrial revolution in which humans and automation work together to increase Industry 5.0 production and efficiency, and eliminate waste with the core value of human-centricity, sustainability and resilience [33]. The circular economy is a closed loop manufacturing and purchasing structure that emphasizes reusing, Circular economy repairing and recycling existing materials and products for as long as possible [34]. 2 Literature review Industry 5.0 principles complement Industry 4.0 by promoting ethical supply chains in the 2.1 Ethical fashion practice fashion goods sector. While Industry 4.0 literature The ethical fashion practice comprises a mul- predominantly refers to automation, data-driven tidisciplinary approach. Ethical sourcing and optimisation and efficiency, various studies pay decision-making can promote ethical practices by insufficient attention to the ethical tensions of focusing on individual supply chain employees. The worker displacement, algorithmic opacity and sus- employees’ perspectives on ethical sourcing and tainability trade-offs, highlighting the contradiction broader ethical concerns influence their moral agen- between technological advancement and social cy to make ethical sourcing decisions [32, 35]. Ethical responsibility [28]. These are addressed through the fashion businesses can create impactful multimedia integration of Industry 5.0 knowledge, focusing on marketing strategies on social media that align with human-centricity, sustainability and resilience, with conceptual ideals [36]. Ethical fashion practices can a demonstration of how this developing paradigm also be ensured by consumer awareness. Consumers directly fills the vacuum left by Industry 4.0 [40]. As are increasingly aware of ethical norms and demand a complement to Industry 4.0, Industry 5.0 is expect- collective action against immoral behaviour in soci- ed to enhance rather than replace digital capabilities ety. This has led to the increased scrutiny of ethical with human creativity, emotional intelligence and fashion practices [37]. Upcycling, which involves stakeholder engagement in order to foster ethically transforming old clothing or waste commodities aligned decision-making throughout sourcing, into valuable objects, is an effective strategy to pro- production and distribution [41]. The analytical mote ethical fashion. The present conceptualizations leap is further demonstrated on the basis of a com- of sustainable organization are insufficient because parative synthesis; such a comparison supports our they undermine the interpersonal perspective that contention that Industry 5.0 offers a more balanced sustainable organization requires. A synchronic, and ethically responsive framework than that of the interpersonal approach accommodates multiple techno-centred paradigm of Industry 4.0, especially perspectives regarding ethical fashion practices in terms of labour dignity, circularity and respon- [38]. Circularity in fashion consumption, as well as sible innovation [42]. Identified voids in previous virtuous morality when shopping for second-hand literature involve the lack of adequate attention to clothing, can contribute to ethical fashion. Pleasure, ethical AI governance, the lack of models aimed at shame and guilt can drive moral decision-making integrating human creativity with digital intelligence towards reuse and sustainability. Seduction and and the insufficient exploration of community-ori- conversion can also support moral decision-making entated supply chain resilience. With the embedding by overcoming aversions and desires that hinder of such assessments, the revised chapter goes beyond progress in circularity and ethical fashion [39]. mere summarisation in providing a coherent cri- 424 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 420–436 tique, and situates Industry 5.0 as a transformative limitations of Industry 4.0. Table 2 presents a com- paradigm capable of strengthening ethical fashion parison of Industry 4.0 and Industry 5.0 in ethical practices by overcoming the inherent socio-ethical fashion supply chains. Table 2: Comparison of Industry 4.0 and Industry 5.0 in ethical fashion supply chains Industry 4.0 Industry 5.0 Ethical fashion implication References Moves the industry Compliance-driven Regenerative, circular and from harm reduction Sustainability environmental restorative sustainability to long-term ecological management models stewardship Technology enhanced Enhances trust, traceability Transparency and Blockchain/IoT-enabled by human-centric [28, 40–42] and social justice in traceability data tracking accountability and ethical sourcing AI Integration of well-being, Addresses persistent gaps Limited integration of Social responsibility inclusion, co-creation and in labour rights, equity and human values stakeholder values community impact 2.2 Consumers’ concerns behaviour have sprung from this. However, buyers Ethical buyers are aware of certain difficulties and interested in ethical clothes find it challenging to seek safeguards for production chain workers, such make educated judgments due to the lack of trans- as safe working conditions and a minimum salary. parency and the abundance of projects. Because They also minimise their influence on the environ- there are so many such projects, it is difficult for ment and choose cruelty-free items. Companies that customers to make wise decisions [45]. Customers have joined the Fur Free Alliance and prohibited the are increasingly looking for labels on apparel that en- use of fur in their designs include Giorgio Armani, sure it is made responsibly. The composition of raw Michael Kors and Gucci. Additionally, Chanel has materials, the place of origin, labour conditions and recently discontinued the use of exotic leathers and the environmental circumstances may all be found furs. Companies including Gucci, Michael Kors and on these labels. An increasing number of companies Giorgio Armani have joined the Fur Free Alliance, are looking for certificates that say their goods are despite anti-fur campaigns in the 1980s and 1990s “green”, “ethical” or “free of animal cruelty”. While [43]. Although there are a growing number of social certifications establish minimal requirements ethical consumers, it is difficult to predict how this for worker rights and animal welfare, environmental will impact consumer behaviour and if they are certifications guarantee that dangerous chemicals willing to spend more on ethical goods. Because of are not used in manufacturing. Customers may feel the inconsistent results, it is still unclear whether more secure selecting brands that don’t utilise ani- customers prefer socially conscious businesses or mal products thanks to these certifications [46, 47]. steer clear of those that are manufactured carelessly [44]. Numerous rivals in the fashion industry are 2.3 Industry 5.0 dedicated to doing business ethically and have Industry 5.0 refers to a collaborative industrial included environmental considerations in their environment where humans and automation work business plans. Examples of this include companies together to increase production and efficiency, such as Patagonia and The North Face, while others and eliminate waste [33]. This strategy combines emphasise animal rights and kindness. Numerous the benefits of human intellect and machine initiatives for improved sustainability and ethical capabilities, providing high precision through Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework 425 human control and optimal automation for effi- Industry 5.0 conjugately centres around human ciency [48]. It is motivated by the desire to address and environmental well-being at its core. Industry consumers’ distinct and individualized needs by 5.0 prioritizes human demands and interests in merging human ingenuity with technological ca- manufacturing, transitioning from technolo- pabilities. Industry 5.0 is a dynamic, resilient, and gy-driven advancement to a more societal-centric human-centric approach to industrial development approach. Industry personnel will take on new tasks in which intelligent digital ecosystems augmented as their worth shifts from “cost” to “investment”. by human interaction streamline operations and Manufacturing technology should adapt to the improve user experiences [49]. However, sustain- requirements and diversity of workers to serve indi- able development is a multidisciplinary concept viduals and society. The goal is to establish an inclu- that integrates environmental, economic and sive and secure workplace that prioritizes physical social factors into decision-making and action. It and mental welfare while also protecting workers’ focuses on managing societal concerns in an envi- fundamental rights, such as autonomy, dignity and ronmentally and economically sustainable manner privacy. Upskilling and re-skilling are essential for while ensuring that our actions meet present needs industrial workers to further their careers and main- without jeopardizing future generations’ ability to tain a work-life balance [28, 29, 58]. To protect the meet their own [50]. Sustainable development in environment, industry must be sustainable. It must the Bangladeshi RMG industry should be framed create circular processes that reuse, repurpose and around environmental responsibility, economic recycle natural resources, thereby reducing waste growth and improving garment workers’ social and environmental impacts, and eventually leading well-being [51, 52]. to a circular economy with greater resource produc- The Industry 4.0 era utilized cyber-physical tivity and efficacy [29]. production systems (CPPS) to make intelligent Industry 5.0 focuses on integrating automation decisions through real-time communication and from Industry 4.0 with Sustainable Development cooperation among automation, thereby facilitating Goals (SDGs) in a human-centred approach [59]. the flexible and efficient production of high-quality Due to Industry 5.0’s priorities on human well-being personalized inventories [53‒55]. As firms embraced instead of automation, there is a shift of paradigm Industry 4.0, the Fifth Industrial Revolution (In- on the concern of achieving sustainability [60]. In- dustry 5.0) emerged. Industry 5.0 aims to achieve dustry 5.0 comprises complex systems that combine societal goals beyond jobs and growth by respecting sustainable technologies with social well-being, as the environment and prioritizing worker well-being shown in Figure 1. in the production process [29, 56]. Industry 5.0 is Interactive human-machine technologies predicated on the notion that Industry 4.0 prioritizes such as neural implants, human-centric artificial modernization and artificial intelligence-driven intelligence (AI), Augmented Reality (AR) and innovations over social fairness and sustainability, Virtual Reality (VR) can combine the efficiency resulting in greater production efficiency and flexi- of humans and machines [61‒63]. Bio-inspired bility. Industry 5.0 emphasizes the need for research technologies with embedded smart materials in and innovation to support the industry’s long-term industries can enhance the manufacturing process contribution to humanity within global boundaries while being recyclable [28, 64, 65]. Technologies [52]. Before the formal implementation of Industry such as digital twins and virtual simulation can 5.0, there had been debates about the “Age of Aug- maintain human centricity and operational mentation”, where humans and machines collaborate safety [66]. Technologies for energy efficiency, in synergy [57]. renewables, storage and autonomy are required to 426 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 420–436 Figure 1: Technological advancements in Industry 5.0 achieve emission neutrality, including the integra- 3 Framework for implementing tion of renewable energy sources and low-energy Industry 5.0 in ethical fashion data transmission and analysis [67]. The most distinguished breakthrough in Industry 5.0 is Industry 5.0 in ethical fashion must increase blockchain technology, which can ensure ethical customer awareness in order to foster long-term practices in industries, including the supply chain transformation. By placing a strong focus on sus- of textile industries. Transactions recorded in tainability, ethics and transparency, this human-cen- blockchain are transparent, traceable and cannot tred approach enables consumers to make moral be falsified, thereby reducing the risk of social ex- purchasing decisions. Technologies that provide ploitation [68, 69]. Additionally, incorporating AI thorough provenance information, such as block- in the supply chain can reduce risk by predicting chain and QR code tagging, enable consumers to potential obstacles and taking necessary measure- make informed judgments. Immersion technologies ments through contingency plans [70]. and digital twins encourage mindful consumption. This study observes a literature gap between ethi- Behaviour can also be influenced by social media cal fashion practices and Industry 5.0. Although both and educational programs. As consumers become topics focus on human well-being and sustainability, more aware of the social and environmental effects of there is a lack of studies regarding the implemen- fashion, manufacturers are being pressured to adopt tation of Industry 5.0 to ensure ethical practices in more ethical methods. Raising consumer knowledge the fashion industry. This study therefore proposes increases brand accountability and fosters a cyclical, a framework to fill the gap and highlights how the inclusive fashion industry where ethics and innova- application of Industry 5.0 can impact ethical fash- tion coexist [71]. ion practices. This study proposes a conceptual framework for integrating Industry 5.0 with ethical fashion practices. The framework is structured around three mutual cores of Industry 5.0 and ethical fashion: human-centricity, sustainability, and transparency and accountability. The human-centric core of the Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework 427 framework emphasizes ethical labour practices, Industry 5.0 [34, 72]. It also promotes the reduction inclusive design and production, and prioritizes of environmental impacts by using energy-efficient human well-being and ergonomics by leveraging and autonomous technologies of Industry 5.0, and Industry 5.0-enabled technologies, such as hu- by using blockchain to promote sustainable supply man-machine interaction and Artificial Intelligence. chain management. Finally, the core pillar of trans- The sustainability core promotes circular economy parency and accountability in ethical fashion can principles by applying closed-loop systems for the be achieved by supply chain transparency, ethical reuse of materials, recycling and the use of bio-in- governance and consumer empowerment through spired technologies and smart materials enabled by Industry 5.0, as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2: Conceptual framework for implementing Industry 5.0 in ethical fashion The original theoretical basis of the conceptual suppliers, consumers and policy-makers, who framework can be found in the incorporation of co-operatively interact through digital technologies stakeholder theory, the TBL framework and STS and co-creation platforms, thereby ensuring trans- theory. The result is a more robust and unique parency and ethics along the value chain [73].The interaction model between Industry 5.0 principles TBL theory underpins the sustainability foundation and ethical fashion practices. By combining these, of the framework, positioning Industry 5.0 tech- however, it provided a multi-faceted basis that went nologies such as blockchain, artificial intelligence beyond simply restating Industry 5.0 characteristics, and circular manufacturing systems as facilitators such as transparency, sustainability and human-cen- of a balance between social wellbeing (people), en- tricity; rather, it created a dynamic model to show vironmental preservation (planet) and profitability how these ideas work in tandem to achieve ethics (profit) [74]. STS theory extends the framework by in fashion. Industry 5.0 conceives a humanistic addressing the interplay between the social and tech- vision, which resonates with the stakeholder theory nological aspects in fashion systems, guaranteeing that champions the inclusive creation of value that automation and AI increase human creativity, among multiple actors, such as designers, workers, empathy and moral judgment, instead of replacing 428 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 420–436 them [75]. These concepts taken together demon- the gap between theory and practice by providing strate that ethical fashion in the Industry 5.0 era is a fresh interaction mechanism that interlinks tech- a socio-ethical development where intersections be- nical progress with ethical imperatives. By casting tween sustainability, stakeholder participation and out an integrated theoretical framework that may human-machine cooperation will take place, rather inspire empirical validation in future research, it also than just technology advancement. A schema of furthers academic discourse. The improved frame- such an improved conceptual framework that binds work now depicts the ethical fashion ecosystem as these theoretical pillars in generating the quantifi- a stakeholder-driven socio-technical system based able ethical objectives of the fashion ecosystem, such on sustainability principles, as the ethos of Industry as inclusion, justice, traceability and resilience, is 5.0 lies in digital ethics and human-centric advance- presented in Table 3 below. Our new model thus fills ment [76, 77]. Table 3: Conceptual framework linking Industry 5.0 and ethical fashion Theory Concept Industry 5.0 Ethical fashion’s application Outcomes References Shared value Collaboration with with multiple designers, workers and Transparency and Stakeholder Human-centric [73] stakeholders and consumers through digital inclusivity engagement tools Circular fashion, blockchain Environmental Triple People, planet and Sustainability and co-efficient production protection, social [74] bottom line profit balance equity and profitability Socio- Social and Resilience, Human-machine Balancing craftmanship with technical technical system empowerment and [75] collaboration creativity system integration ethics 4 Application of Industry rules and enforcement measures in the textile indus- try to ensure ethical fashion practices [28]. As a result, 5.0-enabled technologies for governments and authorities in many countries can ethical fashion practices make a greater impact by enacting laws to improve the transparency of social sustainability claims. The emphasis on the human-centric sustainability Consumers are increasingly aware of environ- of Industry 5.0 facilitates the integration of ethical mental and social issues, leading to a growing de- practices in the textile industry. The interactive hu- mand for sustainable and ethical fashion. However, man-machine synergy implemented by Industry 5.0 many consumers lack the knowledge and tools to ensures the efficiency of human labour rather than scrutinize sustainability claims. This makes it easier replacing it with automation, which promotes ethical for fashion brands to deceive consumers and exploit labour practices in the textile industry. Technologies them as an opportunity for unethical practices for energy efficiency and renewable resources pro- [78, 79]. Implementing Industry 5.0 in the textile mote sustainability and ethical practices. Industry industry can help consumers to access transparent 5.0 can also integrate ethical practices in the textile information about products, which helps them make industry by adopting blockchain and digital twins to ethical purchase decisions and encourages the textile promote transparency, traceability and accountability. industry to practice ethical fashion. Unlike Industry 4.0’s priority to automate, Indus- The supply chain in the textile industry is often try 5.0’s human-centric approach can lead to stronger obscure, with complex routes that make it difficult to Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework 429 track the origin of materials and the working con- standards with the optimization of production ditions of labourers, who suffer from low salaries, operations and waste reduction [84]. involuntary overtime, inconsistent hours and poor Some companies may focus on one aspect of safety conditions [80, 81]. This obscureness allows sustainability, such as using recycled materials or textile industries to make misleading claims about environmental impacts while neglecting other their ethical fashion practices. Industries often use important factors such as fair labour practices vague and misleading marketing claims to promote [85]. Industry 5.0 utilizes human-centric tech- their products as sustainable without providing nologies for energy efficiency, renewables and transparent proofs or certifications to support their autonomy, while prioritizing human well-being claims of being “sustainable” or “ethical”. This can and maintaining higher product accessibility, an be eliminated by integrating blockchain technol- improved customer experience and sustainable ogy in the supply chain to transparently trace the talent management. This can ensure genuine sourcing of raw materials to production and overall sustainability efforts and ethical fashion practices operations, thereby ensuring social well-being and [67, 86]. Moreover, Industry 5.0’s circular economy ethical fashion practices [68, 69]. AI-driven supply principles promote recycling, reprocessing and chains can forecast optimal inventory management waste minimization measures, which reduce the to reduce waste generated in inventories through rebound effect [41]. Industry 5.0 incorporates real-time data insights and the IoT (Internet of data-driven decision-making, innovative design Things) [82]. AI can also optimize logistics by and circular strategies to help corporations reduce sourcing environment-friendly, sustainable mate- overconsumption, reduce post-consumer waste rials and forecasting efficient routes and transpor- and manage the rebound effect, resulting in more tation modes [83]. Moreover, AI promotes ethical sustainable and ethical fashion practices (Table 4) supply chain management and upholds fair labour [87, 88]. Table 4: Areas to apply Industry 5.0-enabled technologies Technologies enabled by Industry 5.0 Areas to implement References Worker well-being, ethical labour practices, improved Human-machine collaboration [28] laws and regulations Digital twins and virtual simulation Operation safety in manufacturing [66] AI and blockchain Transparency and traceability in supply chain [68, 69, 82–84] Bio-inspired smart materials Recycling materials and enhanced manufacturing [28, 64, 65] Energy efficient automations Waste minimization [67, 86] 5 Challenges and future directions concepts. Society must also integrate challenges such as youth unemployment, the ageing population Adopting Industry 5.0 in the textile industry pres- and gender discrimination for the broader imple- ents obstacles in multiple interlinked categories. The mentation of Industry 5.0. The heterogenic nature human-centric core value of technologies enabled of society also hinders the harmonic prioritization by Industry 5.0 will not gain its full potential without of the values and needs of its members. While the two-way interaction of humans and machines. Industry 5.0 focuses its core value on individual The skills required to adapt to Industry 5.0 must be human-centric well-being, it must integrate with envisioned through retraining and lifelong learning the complete working environment of the textile 430 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 420–436 industry, requiring a socio-centric approach. The of Industry 5.0. These include the industry’s capacity revolution of Industry 5.0 facilitated the addressing to adapt to this new paradigm, the need for people to of technological by both governments and policy- acquire new skills to facilitate effective human-ma- makers for setting appropriate rules and regulations, chine collaboration and broader social implications which is often a lengthy process due to the slow that must be considered. Furthermore, the creation adaptability of governments and policymakers. The of frameworks and policies that are supportive is textile industry has not yet fully embraced Industry still necessary for the effective adoption of Industry 4.0. In the meantime, implementing Industry 5.0 5.0 practices. This study lays the groundwork for requires an overhaul of the skills and strategies of future practices in the fashion industry, advocating management as a whole in the textile industry. New for intersectoral collaboration, regulatory support technologies are also required to measure the social for transparency and circularity, and pilot programs and environmental impacts of implementing Indus- in smart-ethical manufacturing. It emphasizes the try 5.0 in the fashion industry [67]. A collaborative need for designers and manufacturers to adopt transformation that combines technological ad- traceability technologies and embrace human-AI vancements with socio-human integration is about co-creation to enhance accountability. Governments to take place in the textile industry. This change will are urged to foster ethical innovation through facilitate sustainable manufacturing, individualised guidelines and funding, paving the way for a mor- innovation and improved worker well-being. Delib- ally sound Industry 5.0 fashion ecology. Industry 5.0 erate upskilling and lifelong learning are crucial for creates new opportunities for fashion research and reducing youth unemployment and integrating mar- innovation despite these obstacles. Future research ginalised groups. Policies must support inclusion, is required to examine how these technologies can ethical governance and technological accessibility. be successfully scaled and integrated, as industry Industry 5.0 offers opportunities to reconsider value looks to move away from mass production and chains through the use of AI-human collaboration, towards more individualised, moral and sustainable circular economy models and real-time social im- solutions. Ultimately, Industry 5.0 offers a route to a pact assessment tools. Governments, educational fashion ecosystem that is more moral, inclusive and institutions and corporate leaders will be essential progressive. in overcoming regulatory barriers. Data availability: The authors have cited the re- 6 Conclusion search data in the reference list at the end of article. This study concludes that Industry 5.0 has the poten- tial to advance ethical fashion by aligning technical innovation with human-centred and ecologically sensitive ideals. It draws attention to the shared goals of Industry 5.0 and ethical fashion, which include reducing environmental harm and promot- ing responsibility, openness and worker welfare. By combining cutting-edge technologies with human inventiveness and moral ideals, Industry 5.0 en- courages a more sustainable and socially responsible apparel business. However, this study also identifies significant limitations on the fashion industry’s use Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework 431 References Available on World Wide Web: https://www. supplychaindive.com/news/general-mo- 1. PERRY, P., WOOD, S., FERNIE, J. Corporate tors-procurement-manager-convicted-suppli- social responsibility in garment sourcing net- er-bribe/701055/. works: factory management perspectives on 9. SILVESTRE, B.S., VIANA, F.L.E., de SOUSA ethical trade in Sri Lanka. Journal of Business MONTEIRO, M. Supply chain corruption Ethics, 2015, 130(3), 737–752, doi: 10.1007/ practices circumventing sustainability stan- s10551-014-2252-2. dards: wolves in sheep’s clothing. International 2. HUQ, F.A., STEVENSON, M. Implementing Journal of Operations & Production Manage- ment, 2020, 40(12), 1873–1907, doi: 10.1108/ socially sustainable practices in challenging IJOPM-06-2019-0454. institutional contexts: building theory from 10. A new textiles economy: redesigning fashion’s seven developing country supplier cases. Journal future [online]. Ellen Macarthur Foundation of Business Ethics, 2020, 161(2), 415–442, doi: (EMF) [accessed 10. 3. 2025]. Available on 10.1007/s10551-018-3951-x. World Wide Web: . exploitation issues in the garment industry. 11. Pulse of the fashion industry [online]. Global Fashion Practice, 2009, 1(2), 147–162, doi: Fashion Agenda (GFA) [accessed 10. 3. 2025]. 10.2752/175693809X469139. Available on World Wide Web: . specters of racial capitalism today. Fash- 12. DAHLBO, H., AALTO, K., ESKELINEN, ion Theory, 2022, 26(4), 493–508, doi: H., SALMENPERÄ, H. Increasing textile 10.1080/1362704X.2022.2046861. circulation – consequences and requirements. 5. Are the clothes you are wearing free from Sustainable Production and Consumption, 2017, child labour? [online]. European Commission 9, 44–57, doi: 10.1016/j.spc.2016.06.005. [accessed 10.03.2025]. Available on World Wide 13. KANT, R. Textile dyeing industry an environ- Web: . 14. PETERS, G.M., SANDIN, G., SPÄK, B.R. 6. PERRY, P., OSBURG, V-S., HUQ, F.A., DIAL- Environmental prospects for mixed textile LO, M.F. Fashionable ethics: exploring ethical recycling in Sweden. ACS Sustainable Chemistry perspectives in the production, marketing, and & Engineering, 2019, 7(13), 11682–11690, doi: consumption of fashion. Journal of Business 10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b01742. Ethics, 2024, 196, 1–11, doi: 10.1007/s10551- 15. REMY, N., SPEELMAN, E., SWARTZ, S. Style 024-05913-7. that’s sustainable: a new fast-fashion formula. 7. JIMÉNEZ, A., HANOTEAU, J., BARKEMEY- McKinsey & Company, 2016. ER, R. E-procurement and firm corruption to 16. ANGUELOV, N. The dirty side of the garment secure public contracts: the moderating role industry: fast fashion and its negative impact of governance institutions and supranational on environment and society. Boca Raton : CRC support. Journal of Business Research, 2022, 149, Press, 2015. 640–650, doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.05.070. 17. HEUER, M., BECKER-LEIFHOLD, C. 8. UNGLESBEE, B. Former GM procurement man- Eco-friendly and fair: fast fashion and consumer ager convicted in supplier bribery scheme [on- behaviour. Edited by Carolin Becker-Leifhold line]. Supply Chain Dive [accessed 10.03.2025]. and Mark Heuer. Oxon : Routledge, 2018. 432 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 420–436 18. CHAM, T.H., NG, C.K.Y., LIM, Y.M., CHENG, 27. YANG, X., CHEN, G., WANG, M., LI, T., WANG, B.L. Factors influencing clothing interest and pur- C. Multi-keyword certificateless searchable public chase intention: a study of Generation Y consum- key authenticated encryption scheme based on ers in Malaysia*. The International Review of Retail, blockchain. IEEE Access, 2020, 8, 158765–158777, Distribution and Consumer Research, 2018, 28(2), doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3020841. 174–189, doi: 10.1080/09593969.2017.1397045. 28. XU, X., LU, Y., VOGEL-HEUSER, B., WANG, 19. KUMAR BISHNOI, S., GURU, R. Study on L. Industry 4.0 and Industry 5.0 – inception, motives underlying the buying of fast fashion conception and perception. Journal of Manufac- in India despite associated sustainability issues. turing Systems, 2021, 61, 530–535, doi: 10.1016/j. Tekstilec, 2024, 67(1), 44–55, doi: 10.14502/ jmsy.2021.10.006. tekstilec.67.2023065. 29. BREQUE, M., DE NUL, L., PETRIDIS, A. In- 20. DEEPIKA, G., THENNARASU, P., RAM- dustry 5.0 – towards a sustainable, human-centric RATAN, G. Explores the role of fast fashion in and resilient European industry. EU research and sustainability stylish killer for the environment. innovation paper series KI-BD-20-021-EN-N. Journal of Textile Engineering & Fashion Tech- Directorate General for Research and Innovation nology, 2022, 8(3), 59–63. (DG RTD) of the European Commission, 2021, 21. KUMAR, S., GURU, R. To study the impact of doi: 10.2777/308407. fast fashion and challenges for sustainable fash- 30. SOMOHANO-RODRÍGUEZ, F.M., MA- ion brands. Man-Made Textiles in India, 2023, DRID-GUIJARRO, A. Do industry 4.0 tech- 51(10), 331–336. nologies improve Cantabrian manufacturing 22. CHAVAN, R. Environmental sustainability smes performance? The role played by industry through textile recycling. Journal of Textile competition. Technology in Society, 2022, 70, Science & Engineering, 2014, 2(7), 1–5, doi: 1-13, doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.102019. 10.4172/2165-8064.S2-007. 31. GURU, R., KUMAR, A., GREWAL, D. The re- 23. JOERGENS, C. Ethical fashion: myth or future cycling and reuses plastic bottles to fibre process trend? Journal of Fashion Marketing and Man- and applications. Man-Made Textiles in India, agement: an International Journal, 2006, 10(3), 2022, 50(6), 162–166. 360–371, doi: 10.1108/13612020610679321. 32. HAUG, A., BUSCH, J. Towards an ethical fash- 24. MUKHERJEE, S. Environmental and social ion framework. Fashion Theory, 2016, 20(3), impact of fashion: towards an eco-friendly, 317–339, doi: 10.1080/1362704X.2015.1082295. ethical fashion. Journal of Interdisciplinary and 33. SELVARAJ, P., RADHAKRISHNAN, P., ADITH- Multidisciplinary Research, 2023, 9(9), 22–35. AN, M. An integrated approach to design for 25. SARKIS, J., GONZALEZ, E.D.S., KOH, S.L. Ef- manufacturing and assembly based on reduction fective multi-tier supply chain management for of product development time and cost. The sustainability. International Journal of Produc- International Journal of Advanced Manufactur- tion Economics, 2019, 217, 1–10, doi: 10.1016/j. ing Technology, 2009, 42, 13–29, doi: 10.1007/ ijpe.2019.09.014. s00170-008-1580-8. 26. MICHELI, G.J., CAGNO, E., MUSTILLO, G., 34. KIRCHHERR, J., REIKE, D., HEKKERT, M. TRIANNI, A. Green supply chain management Conceptualizing the circular economy: an anal- drivers, practices and performance: a com- ysis of 114 definitions. Resources, Conservation prehensive study on the moderators. Journal and Recycling, 2017, 127, 221–232, doi: 10.1016/j. of Cleaner Production, 2020, 259, 1–19, doi: resconrec.2017.09.005. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121024. Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework 433 35. TANDON, A., DHIR, A., KAUR, P., OG- 42. GARCIA-MUIÑA, F.E., GONZÁLEZ-SÁN- BONNAYA, C. Ethical sourcing and decision CHEZ, R., FERRARI, A.M., SETTEM- making in the fashion industry: a longitudinal BRE-BLUNDO, D. The paradigms of Industry qualitative examination. Journal of Business 4.0 and circular economy as enabling drivers Ethics, 2025, 196(4), 723–751, doi: 10.1007/ for the competitiveness of businesses and ter- s10551-024-05876-9. ritories: the case of an Italian ceramic tiles 36. PU, W., WANG, Y., IBELLO, G.D., manufacturing company. Social Sciences, 2018, CHAKRABORTY, R., YANG, M., CHAN, K.W., 7(12), 1–31, doi: 10.3390/socsci7120255. ET AL. Effective awe-inspiring visual content 43. KOLIRIN, L. Chanel bans fur and exotic animal strategy for social media engagement with skins [online]. CNN [accessed 10.03.2025]. ethical fashion brands: the mediating role of Available on World Wide Web: https://edition. deontological ethical beliefs. Journal of Business cnn.com/style/article/chanel-fur-ban-scli-intl/ Ethics, 2025, 196(4), 753–771, doi: 10.1007/ index.html. s10551-024-05872-z. 44. VOGEL, D. The market for virtue: the potential 37. TRAN, T.T.H., BARTSCH, F. consumers’ re- and limits of corporate social responsibility. sponses to moral transgressions in the fashion Washington : Brookings Institution Press, 2007, industry: comparative insights from western 222 p. developed and Southeast Asian emerging mar- 45. CERCHIA, R.E., PICCOLO, K. The ethical kets. Journal of Business Ethics, 2025, 196(4), consumer and codes of ethics in the fashion 773–806, doi: 10.1007/s10551-024-05871-0. industry. Laws, 2019, 8(4), 1–19, doi: 10.3390/ 38. PAINTER, M., HILLER, A., OEHLMANN, J. laws8040023. Upcycling agency: material and human trans- 46. KUIK, O. Fair trade and ethical labeling in the formation for sustainability in fashion. Journal clothing, textile, and footwear sector: the case of Business Ethics, 2025, 196(4), 827–843, doi: of blue jeans. ILSA Journal of International & 10.1007/s10551-024-05878-7. Comparative Law, 2004, 11(3), 619–635. 39. AUXTOVA, K., SCHREVEN, S., WISHART, 47. KOSZEWSKA, M. Social and eco-labelling of L.J. Refashioning second-hand clothes con- textile and clothing goods as means of commu- sumption through pleasure, pain, seduction and nication and product differentiation. Fibres & conversion: a virtue ethics perspective. Journal Textiles in Eastern Europe, 2011, 19(4), 20–26. of Business Ethics, 2025, 196(4), 863–881, doi: 48. FORD, S., DESPEISSE, M. Additive manufac- 10.1007/s10551-024-05874-x. turing and sustainability: an exploratory study of 40. YANG, J., LIU, Y., MORGAN, P.L. Human– the advantages and challenges. Journal of Cleaner machine interaction towards Industry 5.0: Production, 2016, 137, 1573–1587, doi: 10.1016/j. human-centric smart manufacturing. Digital jclepro.2016.04.150. Engineering, 2024, 2, 1–17, doi: 10.1016/j. 49. ZAFAR, M.H., LANGÅS, E.F., SANFILIPPO, F. dte.2024.100013. Exploring the synergies between collaborative 41. GHOBAKHLOO, M., IRANMANESH, M., robotics, digital twins, augmentation, and FOROUGHI, B., BABAE TORKOLAEE, E., industry 5.0 for smart manufacturing: a state-of- ASADI, S., AMRAN, A. Industry 5.0 implica- the-art review. Robotics and Computer-Integrated tions for inclusive sustainable manufacturing: an Manufacturing, 2024, 89, 1–29, doi: 10.1016/j. evidence-knowledge-based strategic roadmap. rcim.2024.102769. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2023, 417, 1–16, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138023. 434 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 420–436 50. DEBNATH, B., SIRAJ, M.T., RASHID, K.H.O., 57. LONGO, F., PADOVANO, A., UMBRELLO, S. MAINUL BARI, A.B.M., KARMAKER, C.L., Value-oriented and ethical technology engineer- AZIZ, R.A. Analyzing the critical success factors ing in industry 5.0: a human-centric perspective to implement green supply chain management in for the design of the factory of the future. Applied the apparel manufacturing industry: Implications Sciences, 2020, 10(12), 1–25, doi: 10.3390/ for sustainable development goals in the emerg- app10124182. ing economies. Sustainable Manufacturing and 58. LU, Y., ADRADOS, J.S., CHAND, S.S., WANG, Service Economics, 2023, 2, 1–12, doi: 10.1016/j. L. Humans are not machines – anthropocentric smse.2023.100013. human–machine symbiosis for ultra-flexible 51. KHAIRUL AKTER, M.M., HAQ, U.N., ISLAM, smart manufacturing. Engineering, 2021, 7(6), M.M., UDDIN, M.A. Textile-apparel manufac- 734–737, doi: 10.1016/j.eng.2020.09.018. turing and material waste management in the 59. SAIKIA, B. Industry 5.0 – its role toward human circular economy: a conceptual model to achieve society: obstacles, opportunities, and provid- sustainable development goal (SDG) 12 for Ban- ing human-centered solutions. In Fostering gladesh. Cleaner Environmental Systems, 2022, 4, Sustainable Businesses in Emerging Economies. 1–12, doi: 10.1016/j.cesys.2022.100070. Edited by Edited by Quazi Tafsirul Islam, Richa 52. BRISTI, U., RAJIB, M.I., SHOUKAT, S. Imple- Goel and Tilottama Singh. Emerald Publishing, mentation of corporate social responsibility in the 2023, 109–126, doi: 10.1108/978-1-80455-640- ready-made garment industry of Bangladesh in 520231008. order to achieve sustainable development goals: 60. KAZANCOGLU, Y., MANGLA, S.K., BER- a study on Bangladeshi garment manufacturers. BEROGLU, Y., LAFCI, C., MADAAN, J. To- Journal of Textile Science and Technology, 2020, wards Industry 5.0 challenges for the textile and 6(4), 232–246, doi: 10.4236/jtst.2020.64019. apparel supply chain for the smart, sustainable, 53. LU, Y., XU, X., WANG, L. Smart manufacturing and collaborative industry in emerging econo- process and system automation –a critical review mies. Information Systems Frontiers, 2024, 26(5), of the standards and envisioned scenarios. Jour- 1857–1872, doi: 10.1007/s10796-023-10430-5. nal of Manufacturing Systems, 2020, 56, 312–325, 61. SOLANES, J.E., GRACIA, L., VALLS MIRO, J. doi: 10.1016/j.jmsy.2020.06.010. Advances in human–machine interaction, artifi- 54. WANG, S., WAN, J., ZHANG, D., LI, D., cial intelligence, and robotics. Electronics, 2024, ZHANG, C. Towards smart factory for industry 13(19), 1–5, doi: 10.3390/electronics13193856. 4.0: a self-organized multi-agent system with big 62. BRUNETTI, D., GENA, C., VERNERO, F. Smart data based feedback and coordination. Computer interactive technologies in the human-centric Networks, 2016, 101, 158–168, doi: 10.1016/j. factory 5.0: a survey. Applied Sciences, 2022, comnet.2015.12.017. 12(16), 1–30, doi: 10.3390/app12167965. 55. ZHONG, R.Y., XU, X., KLOTZ, E., NEWMAN, 63. KUMAR, P., CHAKRABORTY, S., SAHAI, N. S.T. Intelligent manufacturing in the context of Neuroengineering and brain-machine interfac- Industry 4.0: a review. Engineering, 2017, 3(5), es. In Innovations in Biomedical Engineering. 616–630, doi: 10.1016/J.ENG.2017.05.015. Edited by Shubham Mahajan and Amit Kant 56. Industry 5.0 [online]. European Commission Pandit. Elsevier, 2025, 325–357, doi: 10.1016/ [accessed 10.03.2025]. Available on World Wide B978-0-443-30146-9.00010-1 Web: . Into the Revolution of Industry 5.0 in Ensuring Ethical Fashion: A Review on Conceptual Framework 435 64. EMER, A., DE MARCHI, M., HOFER, A., 72. GURU, R., KUMAR, A., RANI, J., FANGUE- MARK, B.G., KERSCHBAUMER, W., RAUCH, IRO, R., PANIGRAHI, S., SANTHANAM, E. AND MATT, D.T. Examples of potential ap- S. Functional applications in textile reuse plications of bio-intelligent manufacturing. Pro- and recycling – enhancing sustainability and cedia Computer Science, 2025, 253, 2196–2205, reducing environmental impact. In Textile In- doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2025.01.280. dustry and the Environment - Challenges, Recent 65. BADINI, S., REGONDI, S., PUGLIESE, R. Development and Future. Edited by Chi-Leung Enhancing mechanical and bioinspired mate- Hui. London : IntechOpen, 2025, doi: 10.5772/ rials through generative AI approaches. Next intechopen.1007986. Materials, 2025, 6, 1–12, doi: 10.1016/j.next- 73. FREEMAN, R.E., MCVEA, J. A stakeholder mat.2025.100275. approach to strategic management. In The 66. KOVARI, A. A framework for integrating vision Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management. transformers with digital twins in Industry Edited by Michael A. Hitt, R. Edward Freeman 5.0 context. Machines, 2025, 13(1), 1–28, doi: and Jeffrey S. Harrison. Blackwell Publishers, 10.3390/machines13010036. 2005, 183–201, doi: 10.1111/b.9780631218616. 67. Directorate-General for Research and Innova- 2006.00007.x. tion. Enabling technologies for Industry 5.0: results 74. JEURISSEN, R. Book reviews. John ELKING- of a workshop with Europe’s technology leaders. TON, Cannibals with forks: the triple bottom European Union, 2020, doi: 10.2777/082634. line of 21st century business. Capstone, Oxford, 68. SAKIB SIZAN, N., DEY, D., ABU LAYEK, M., 1997, 402 pp..ISBN 1–900961–27–X. Journal UDDIN, M.A., HUH, E-N. Evaluating block- of Business Ethics, 2000, 23, 229–231, doi: chain platforms for IoT applications in Industry 10.1023/A:1006129603978. 5.0: a comprehensive review. Blockchain: Research 75. GOVERS, M., VAN AMELSVOORT, P. A theo- and Applications, 2025, 6(3), 1–19, doi: 10.1016/j. retical essay on socio-technical systems design bcra.2025.100276. thinking in the era of digital transformation. 69. AL AMIN, M., CHAKRABORTY, A., BALDAC- Gruppe Interaktion Organisation Zeitschrift für CI, R. Industry 5.0 and green supply chain man- Angewandte Organisationspsychologie (GIO), agement synergy for sustainable development in 2023, 54(1), 27–40, doi: 10.1007/s11612-023- Bangladeshi RMG industries. Cleaner Logistics 00675-8. and Supply Chain, 2025, 14, 1–12, doi: 10.1016/j. 76. ALMUSAED, A., YITMEN, I. Synopsis of clscn.2025.100208. Industry 5.0 paradigm for human-robot collab- 70. TOORAJIPOUR, R., SOHRABPOUR, V., oration. In Industry 40 Transformation Towards NAZARPOUR, A., OGHAZI, P., FISCHL, M. Ar- Industry 50 Paradigm - Challenges, Opportuni- tificial intelligence in supply chain management: ties and Practices. Edited by Ibrahim Yitman and a systematic literature review. Journal of Business Amjad Almusaed. London : IntechOpen, 2024, Research, 2021, 122, 502–517, doi: 10.1016/j. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.114758. jbusres.2020.09.009. 77. NAHAVANDI, S. Industry 5.0 – a human-cen- 71. LATINO, M.E. A maturity model for assessing the tric solution. Sustainability, 2019, 11(16), 1–13, implementation of Industry 5.0 in manufacturing doi: 10.3390/su11164371. SMEs: learning from theory and practice. Techno- 78. HARTMANN, K. Die grüne Lüge: Weltrettung logical Forecasting and Social Change, 2025, 214, als profitables Geschäftsmodell. Karl Blessing 1–28, doi: 10.1016/j.techfore.2025.124045. Verlag, 2018. 436 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 420–436 79. NEWMAN, B.J., BARTELS, B.L. Politics 85. MORELLI, J. Environmental sustainability: at the checkout line: explaining political a definition for environmental professionals. consumerism in the United States. Political Journal of Environmental Sustainability, 2011, Research Quarterly, 2011, 64(4), 803–817, doi: 1(1), 1–9, doi: 10.14448/jes.01.0002. 10.1177/106591291037923. 86. GHOBAKHLOO, M., IRANMANESH, M., 80. ALAMGIR, F., BANERJEE, S.B. Contested com- FATHI, M., REJEB, A., FOROUGHI, B., pliance regimes in global production networks: NIKBIN, D. Beyond Industry 4.0: a systematic insights from the Bangladesh garment industry. review of Industry 5.0 technologies and impli- Human Relations, 2019, 72(2), 272–297, doi: cations for social, environmental and economic 10.1177/00187267187601. sustainability. Asia-Pacific Journal of Business 81. WILLS, J., HALE, A. Threads of labour in the Administration, 2025, 17(4), 889–914, doi: global garment industry. In Threads of Labour: 10.1108/APJBA-08-2023-0384. Garment Industry Supply Chains from the Work- 87. ATIF, S. Analysing the alignment between ers’ Perspective. Edited by Angela Hale and Jane circular economy and industry 4.0 nexus with Wills. Blackwell Publishing, 2005, 1–15, doi: industry 5.0 era: an integrative systematic lit- 10.1002/9780470761434.ch1. erature review. Sustainable Development, 2023, 82. LENG, J., SHA, W., WANG, B., ZHENG, P., 31(4), 2155–2175, doi: 10.1002/sd.2542. ZHUANG, C., LIU, Q., ET AL. Industry 5.0: 88. DWIVEDI, A., AGRAWAL, D., JHA, A., prospect and retrospect. Journal of Manufactur- MATHIYAZHAGAN, K. Studying the interac- ing Systems, 2022, 65, 279–295, doi: 10.1016/j. tions among Industry 5.0 and circular supply jmsy.2022.09.017. chain: towards attaining sustainable develop- 83. SINGH, S. Artificial intelligence in the fashion ment. Computers & Industrial Engineering, and apparel industry. Tekstilec, 2024, 67(3), 2023, 176, 1–17, doi: 10.1016/j.cie.2022.108927. 225–240, doi: 10.14502/tekstilec.67.2024001. 84. SANDERS, N.R., BOONE, T., GANESHAN, R., WOOD, J.D. Sustainable supply chains in the age of AI and digitization: research challenges and opportunities. Journal of Business Logistics, 2019, 40(3), 229–240, doi: 10.1111/jbl.12224. SHORT INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS OF SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES Scientific articles categories: Peer-review process - Original scientific article is the first publication of original research All submitted articles are professionally, terminologically and editorially results in such a form that the research can be repeated and reviewed in accordance with the general professional and journalistic conclusions verified. Scientific information must be demonstrated in standards of the journal Tekstilec. All articles are double-blind reviewed such a way that the results are obtained with the same accuracy or by two or more reviewers independent of editorial board. within the limits of experimental errors as stated by the author, and that The review process takes a minimum of two weeks and a maximum the accuracy of analyses the results are based on can be verified. An of one month. The reviewers’ comments are sent to authors for them original scientific article is designed according to the IMRAD scheme to complete and correct their manuscripts. If there is no consensus (Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion) for experimental among the reviewers, the editorial board decides on the further research or in a descriptive way for descriptive scientific fields, where procedure. We accept the articles for publication based on a positive observations are given in a simple chronological order. decision. - Review article presents an overview of most recent works in a Copyright corrections specific field with the purpose of summarizing, analysing, evaluating The editors are going to send computer printouts for proofreading and or synthesizing information that has already been published. This type correcting. It is the author’s responsibility to proofread the article and of article brings new syntheses, new ideas and theories, and even new send corrections as soon as possible. However, no greater changes or scientific examples. No scheme is prescribed for review article. amendments to the text are allowed at this point. - Short scientific article is original scientific article where some Colour print of hard copies elements of the IMRAD scheme have been omitted. It is a short report about finished original scientific work or work which is still in progress. Colour print is performed only when this is necessary from the Letters to the editor of scientific journals and short scientific notes are viewpoint of information comprehension, and upon agreement with included in this category as well. the author and the editorial board. Language: The manuscript of submitted articles should be written in Copyright Notice UK English or in Slovene with bilingual Figures and Tables. The authors Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms: responsibility to ensure the quality of the language. - Authors are confirming that they are the authors of the submitting Manuscript length: The manuscript should not exceed 30,000 article, which will be published (print and online) in journal Tekstilec characters without spacing. by University of Ljubljana Press / Faculty of Natural Sciences and Article submission: The texts should be submitted only in their Engineering, Unviersity of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 12, SI-1000 Ljubljana, electronic form in the *.doc (or *.docx) and *.pdf formats, where for Slovenia). each author must be given: - Author’s name will be evident in the article in journal. All decisions regarding layout and distribution of the work are in hands of the - first name and family name publisher. - title - Authors guarantee that the work is their own original creation and - full institution address does not infringe any statutory or common-law copyright or any - ORCID ID proprietary right of any third party. In case of claims by third parties, authors commit their self to defend the interests of the publisher, and - e-mail. shall cover any potential costs. The name of the document should contain the date (year-month-day) - Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first and the surname of the corresponding author, e.g. 20140125Novak. publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Ceative docx. The manuscripts proposed for a review need to have their figures Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 that allows others to share the and tables included in the text. work with an acknowledgement of the work’s authorship and initial Detailed information on the preparation and submission of the publication in this journal. manuscript is available on the website: - Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual https://journals.uni-lj.si/tekstilec/about/submissions. arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal’s Reviewer suggestions published version of the work (e.g. post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial Authors can suggest potential reviewers. Please provide their titles, publication in this journal. ORCID IDs, institutions, and e-mail addresses. The proposed referees - Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., should not be current collaborators of the co-authors nor should they in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the have published with any of the co-authors of the manuscript within submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as the last three years. The proposed reviewers should be from institutions earlier and greater citation of published work. other than the authors. Privacy Statement Authors may also provide the names of potential reviewers they wish to exclude from reviewing their manuscript during the initial The personal data entered in this journal site, like names and addresses, submission process. will be used exclusively for the stated purposes of this journal and will not be made available for any other purpose or to any other party.