3/2025 • vol. 68 • 207−332 ISSN 0351-3386 (tiskano/printed) ISSN 2350 - 3696 (elektronsko/online) UDK 677 + 687 (05) https://journals.uni-lj.si/tekstilec Časopisni svet/Publishing Council Barbara Simončič, predsednica/President (ISSN: 0351-3386 tiskano, 2350-3696 elektronsko) je Katja Burger Kovič, Univerza v Ljubljani znanstvena revija, ki podaja temeljne in aplikativne znanstvene informacije Manja Kurečič, Univerza v Mariboru v fizikalni, kemijski in tehnološki znanosti, vezani na tekstilno in oblačilno Tatjana Kreže, Univerza v Mariboru tehnologijo, oblikovanje in trženje tekstilij in oblačil. V prilogah so v Gašper Lesjak, Predilnica Litija, d. o. o. Nataša Peršuh, Univerza v Ljubljani slovenskem jeziku objavljeni strokovni članki in prispevki o novostih v Petra Prebil Bašin, Gospodarska zbornica tekstilni tehnologiji iz Slovenije in sveta, prispevki s področja oblikovanja Slovenije tekstilij in oblačil, informacije o raziskovalnih projektih ipd. Melita Rebič, Odeja, d. o. o. Tatjana Rijavec, Univerza v Ljubljani Simona Strnad, Maribor, SI (ISSN: 0351-3386 printed, 2350-3696 online) the scientific Helena Zidarič Kožar, Lisca, d. o. o. journal gives fundamental and applied scientific information in the physical, Vera Žlabravec, Predilnica Litija, d. o. o. chemical and engineering sciences related to the textile and clothing industry, design and marketing. In the appendices written in Slovene language, are Glavna in odgovorna urednica/ published technical and short articles about the textile-technology novelties Editor-in-Chief from Slovenia and the world, articles on textile and clothing design, Tatjana Rijavec information about research projects etc. Namestnica glavne in odgovorne urednice/Assistant Editor Tatjana Kreže Področni uredniki/Associate Editors Matejka Bizjak, Katja Burger Kovič, Andrej Demšar, Mateja Kos Koklič, Alenka Pavko Čuden, Andreja Rudolf, Barbara Simončič, Dunja Šajn Gorjanc, Sonja Šterman, Brigita Tomšič Izvršna urednica za podatkovne baze/ Executive Editor for Databases Irena Sajovic Dosegljivo na svetovnem spletu/Available Online at Mednarodni uredniški odbor/ https://journals.uni-lj.si/tekstilec International Editorial Board Matej Bračič, Maribor, SI Snježana Brnada, Zagreb, HR Andrea Ehrmann, Bielefeld, DE Petra Forte Tavčer, Ljubljana, SI Jelka Geršak, Maribor, SI Marija Gorjanc, Ljubljana, SI Lubos Hes, Moka, MU Aleš Hladnik, Ljubljana, SI Svjetlana Janjić, Banja Luka, BA Tekstilec je indeksiran v naslednjih bazah/Tekstilec is indexed in Mateja Kert, Ljubljana, SI Emerging Sources Citation Index – ESCI (by Clarivate Analytics): Dragana Kopitar, Zagreb, HR Journal Impact Factor (JIF) for 2024 = 1 Yordan Kostadinov Kyoshev, Dresden, DE Journal Citation Indicator (JCI) for 2024 = 0.27 Petra Komarkova, Liberec, CZ Category Quartile for 2024 : Q3 Mateja Kos Koklič, Ljubljana, SI Leiden University‘s Center for Science & Technology Studies: Source-Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP) for 2024 = 0.650 Mirjana Kostić, Beograd, RS SCOPUS/Elsevier: Manja Kurečič, Maribor, SI Q3, SJR for 2024 = 0.28 Boris Mahltig, Niederrhein, DE Cite Score for 2024 = 1.7 Subhankar Maity, Kanpur, IN H Index for 2024 = 16 Małgorzata Matusiak, Łódź , PL Ei Compendex Ida Nuramdhani, Bandung, ID DOAJ Alenka Ojstršek, Maribor, SI WTI Frankfurt/TEMA® Technology and Management/TOGA® Textile Database Roshan Paul, Aachen, DE World Textiles/EBSCO Information Services Tanja Pušić, Zagreb, HR Textile Technology Complete/EBSCO Information Services Ivana Salopek Čubrić, Zagreb, HR Textile Technology Index/EBSCO Information Services Snežana Stanković, Beograd, RS Chemical Abstracts/ACS Jovan Stepanović, Leskovac, RS ULRICHWEB – global serials directory Dunja Šajn Gorjanc, Ljubljana, SI LIBRARY OF THE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF LODZ Mohammad Tajul Islam, Dhaka, BD dLIB Antoneta Tomljenović, Zagreb, HR SICRIS: 1A3 (Z, A‘, A1/2); Scopus (d) Ustanovitelja / Founded by • Zveza inženirjev in tehnikov tekstilcev Slovenije / Association of Slovene Textile Engineers and Technicians • Gospodarska zbornica Slovenije – Združenje za tekstilno, oblačilno in usnjarsko predelovalno industrijo / Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Slovenia – Textiles, Clothing and Leather Processing Association Revijo sofinancirajo / Journal is Financially Supported • Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije / Slovenian Research Agency • Univerza v Ljubljani, Naravoslovnotehniška fakulteta / University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering • Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za strojništvo / University of Maribor, Faculty for Mechanical Engineering Sponzor / Sponsor Predilnica Litija, d. o. o. 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Tekstilec, 2025, vol. 68(3) SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES/ 210 Anand Choudhary, Sukhvir Singh Znanstveni članki Leveraging AI for the Recreation and Restoration of Ancient Indian Costumes and Accessories Uporaba umetne inteligence za rekonstrukcijo in restavriranje staroindijskih oblačil in modnih dodatkov 227 Vishal Trivedi, Pradeep Joshi Impulse Buying Behaviour in Apparel Retail: Exploring the Role of Store Atmosphere and Situational Factors Impulzivno potrošniško vedenje v prodaji oblačil: raziskovanje vloge vzdušja v trgovini in situacijskih dejavnikov 245 Milena Fornazarič, Mateja Gorenc Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour Vpliv modnih vplivnežev na nakupne navade generacije Z in milenijcev 265 Md. Zayedul Hasan, Rochak Rathour, Apurba Das, Ramasamy Alagirusamy, Nandan Kumar Design and Development of Comfortable Cut Protective Workwear: A review Oblikovanje in razvoj udobnih delovnih oblačil za protiurezno zaščito: pregled 291 Dhivya Sugumaran, Samuel Wesley Customization of Brassiere Underwire Design: Leveraging 3D Printing for Enhanced Pressure Distribution Individualna prilagoditev oblike oporne žice v nedrčku: uporaba 3-D tiska za izboljšano porazdelitev pritiska 302 Andrej Učakar, Sanja Jedrinović, Barbara Luštek Preskar, Urška Stanković Elesini Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms Izkušnja študentov Naravoslovnotehniške fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani pri uporabi spletnih učilnic 321 Neha Arora, Kavita Chaudhary Optimizing Fashion E-Commerce: The Impact of Quick Delivery, Sustainable Practices, and Competitive Pricing on Customer Satisfaction and Delivery Efficiency Optimizacija modnega e-trgovanja: vpliv hitre dostave, trajnostnih praks in konkurenčnih cen na zadovoljstvo strank in učinkovitost dostave 210 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 210–226 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025033 Anand Choudhary, Sukhvir Singh School of Design, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurgaon Leveraging AI for the Recreation and Restoration of Ancient Indian Costumes and Accessories Uporaba umetne inteligence za rekonstrukcijo in restavriranje staroindijskih oblačil in modnih dodatkov Scientific review/Pregledni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 3–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 10–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčni avtor: Assoc. Prof. Anand Choudhary E-mail: anand_ffad@sgtuniversity.org ORCID iD: 0009-0006-5582-9790 Abstract The restoration and recreation of ancient Indian costumes and accessories are critical for preserving the na- tion’s rich cultural and historical heritage. This review explores the transformative role of artificial intelligence (AI) in studying and interpreting primary data sources to revive traditional attire and accessories from ancient India. Primary data sources, such as textual manuscripts, sculptures, iconography and archaeological findings, offer invaluable insights into ancient fashion. Yet, their interpretation is often complex, time-consuming and prone to human error. AI, with its advanced computational capabilities, has emerged as a promising tool to analyse and reconstruct these historical artifacts with remarkable accuracy and efficiency. This paper discusses the various applications of AI, including machine learning, computer vision and natural language processing, in decoding the intricate patterns, designs and cultural elements embedded in historical data to achieve ac- curate results. For instance, AI-powered image recognition tools and computer vision algorithms can analyse sculptural depictions to extract information about garment textures, draping styles and accessories. Natural language processing algorithms can decode ancient textual data, such as ancient scriptures and inscriptions, to understand and extract references to fabrics, dyeing and weaving techniques, ornamentation methods and the symbolic meanings of costumes. Even archaeological findings and reports, including remnants of textiles and ornaments, can be studied using AI for material composition analysis and virtual reconstruction. These technologies not only enable the recreation of visual representations of ancient attire but also provide insights into the socio-cultural and historical contexts of the time. This paper also highlights the challenges associated with integrating AI into this area, such as the limited avail- ability of digitized primary data, the need for culturally sensitive algorithms and technological constraints in interpreting incomplete or degraded data. Despite these challenges, interdisciplinary approaches involving AI, history, design and archaeology hold immense potential to revolutionize the restoration of ancient Indian costumes. Despite these barriers, this study highlights the transformative potential of interdisciplinary collab- oration among AI specialists, designers, historians, and archaeologists, and how technological innovation can support the accurate recreation of ancient Indian costumes and contribute meaningfully to the conservation Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. Leveraging AI for the Recreation and Restoration of Ancient Indian Costumes and Accessories 211 and dissemination of India’s cultural heritage. The findings suggest that AI-driven methodologies can not only aid in the accurate recreation of ancient attire but also ensure the sustainable conservation of India’s cultural legacy for future generations. Keywords: ancient Indian costumes, artificial intelligence, costume restoration, cultural heritage Izvleček Restavriranje in rekonstrukcija staroindijskih oblačil ter modnih dodatkov sta ključnega pomena za ohranjanje bogate kulturne in zgodovinske dediščine naroda. Članek obravnava vlogo umetne inteligence (UI) pri preu- čevanju in interpretaciji primarnih podatkovnih virov, da bi oživili tradicionalna oblačila in dodatke iz staro- davne Indije. Primarni podatkovni viri, kot so rokopisi, skulpture, ikonografija in arheološke najdbe, ponujajo neprecenljiv vpogled v starodavno modo. Njihova interpretacija pa je pogosto zahtevna, dolgotrajna in pod- vržena človeškim napakam. UI se s svojimi naprednimi računalniškimi zmogljivostmi uveljavlja kot obetavno orodje za analizo in rekonstrukcijo zgodovinskih artefaktov z izjemno natančnostjo in učinkovitostjo. Prispevek obravnava različne uporabe UI, vključno z metodami strojnega učenja, računalniškega vida in obdelave na- ravnega jezika pri dekodiranju zapletenih vzorcev, oblikovnih zasnov in kulturnih elementov, ki so vključeni v zgodovinske podatke. S slednjim bi dosegli natančne rezultate. Orodja za prepoznavanje slik, podprta z UI, ter algoritmi računalniškega vida lahko analizirajo kiparske upodobitve in iz njih pridobijo informacije o tkaninah, npr. teksturi, slogu drapiranja, in uporabljenih modnih dodatkih. Algoritmi za obdelavo naravnega jezika omo- gočajo razčlenjevanje starodavnih besedilnih virov, kot so sveta besedila oziroma spisi in napisi, da bi prepoznali in razumeli omembe tkanin, tehnik barvanja in tkanja, načinov okraševanja ter simbolnih pomenov oblačil. Tudi arheološke najdbe in poročila, med njimi ostanki tekstilij in okraskov, je mogoče preučevati z uporabo UI za analizo materialne sestave in virtualno rekonstrukcijo. Te tehnologije pa ne omogočajo zgolj rekonstrukcije vizualnih predstav staroindijskih oblačil, temveč ponujajo tudi dragocen vpogled v družbeno-kulturni in zgodo- vinski kontekst obravnavanega obdobja. Članek prav tako izpostavlja izzive, ki so povezani z vključevanjem UI na področju, npr. omejen dostop do digitaliziranih primarnih podatkov, potreba po kulturno občutljivih algoritmih ter tehnološke omejitve pri interpretaciji nepopolnih ali poškodovanih podatkovnih virov. Kljub izzivom pa predstavljajo interdisciplinarni pristopi, ki združujejo UI, zgodovino, oblikovanje in arheologijo, izjemen potencial za preoblikovanje postopkov restavriranja staroindijskih oblačil. Raziskava poudarja pomen sodelovanja med strokovnjaki za UI, oblikovalci, zgodovinarji in arheologi ter prikazuje, kako lahko tehnološke inovacije prispevajo k natančni rekonstrukciji staroindijskih oblačil in hkrati pomembno podprejo ohranjanje ter širjenje indijske kulturne dediščine. Ugoto- vitve kažejo, da lahko metodologije, podprte z UI, ne le omogočijo verodostojno rekonstrukcijo starodavne noše, temveč tudi zagotovijo trajnostno varovanje indijske kulturne zapuščine za prihodnje generacije. Ključne besede: staroindijska oblačila, umetna inteligenca, restavriranje oblačil, kulturna dediščina 1 Introduction The vibrant history of ancient India is reflected in its India’s cultural richness and artistic excellence [2], costumes and accessories, which symbolize the coun- while studying historic costumes and textiles helps to try’s cultural richness and artistic excellence [1]. As understand cultural evolution and artistic expression Ghurye states, the symbolic and aesthetic significance in the Indian subcontinent [3]. Through the study of Indian costumes and ornaments reflects ancient and exploration of primary data sources, such as old 212 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 210–226 transcripts, manuscripts, sculptures and inscriptions, these sets of information requires a methodical we can redefine, restore and recreate the drapes of approach, precision and interdisciplinary expertise, the silhouette and details of the surface development as these sources are often fragmented and complex techniques of ancient costumes, along with the intri- to decode, and their manual interpretation can be cate designs of the accessories used during these pe- very time-consuming and prone to inaccuracies. The riods. Additionally, this study allows us to analyse the role of AI is vital to enable the more efficient and lifestyles, values and beliefs from that time, providing accurate analysis of these data. It can also play a very a valuable source of knowledge for researchers, de- important role during the restoration and recreation signers and historians. However, most of the primary of ancient Indian costumes and accessories based on data sources (manuscripts and transcripts) remain the analysed data. unexplored or underexplored with the vision of Integrating AI into the study of ancient Indian studying historical costumes and accessories [4]. Illu- costumes and accessories holds immense potential minated manuscripts are an underexplored source of for the generation of results. It is possible to re- information about historical costumes and accesso- construct historical garments with high precision, ries [5]. Some historical facts, such as sculptures and offering perfect visual representations by combining inscriptions, cannot be analysed due to degradation advanced technologies with traditional research and destruction caused either by the passage of time methods. Machine learning and computer vision or by foreign invaders [6]. At the same time, some technologies facilitate automated pattern recog- sources cannot be decoded in terms of their chronol- nition, image analysis and visual reconstruction. ogy due to the complexity of interpreting them For example, AI-powered image recognition can because of a lack of textual sources and the scarcity of extract fine details from sculptures and paintings, inscribed works upon them [7]. Therefore, recreating such as garment textures and accessory designs. and restoring the costumes and accessories of ancient Additionally, AI simulations can recreate virtual times is essential for preserving and understanding models of ancient attire, helping researchers visual- the rich cultural heritage of ancient Indian textiles, ize garments in their original context. By automating costumes and accessories for the benefit of future repetitive tasks and uncovering hidden patterns in generations. To initiate a similar effort, it is essential data, AI enhances the accuracy and efficiency of to study and explore available primary data sources restoration efforts. For instance, GAN-based sys- such as ancient manuscripts, sculptures, iconography tems have been used to recreate traditional costume and archaeological findings. Detailed descriptions of designs from historical datasets, while deep learning fabrics used, ornaments designed and clothing prac- architectures have achieved over 97% accuracy in tices are found in textual records, including Vedic recognizing Indian textile patterns. Moreover, text scriptures, inscriptions and literary works [8]. Textual mining and NLP tools are being employed to extract records, including Vedic scriptures, inscriptions and meaningful insights from Sanskrit manuscripts literary works, provide detailed descriptions of fab- and Pali scriptures. In the Indian context, projects rics, ornaments and clothing practices [9] while the such as the National Mission for Manuscripts have intricate details of garment structures, draping styles, paved the way for large-scale digitization, creating designs and materials used in accessories can be de- opportunities to apply AI models to ancient texts rived from sculptures and iconographic art as sources and iconography. However, despite the growing of visual representations [10]. Other sources include corpus of research, very few studies have focused on archaeological findings, such as remnants of textiles, using AI specifically for the systematic restoration of jewellery and dye samples, adding material evidence traditional Indian costumes and accessories through to these historical narratives. However, interpreting multi-modal primary data sources. Leveraging AI for the Recreation and Restoration of Ancient Indian Costumes and Accessories 213 This paper aims to explore the benefits of apply- and religious traditions of that era [15]. In the con- ing AI to the systematic study of the primary data text of ancient Indian costumes and accessories, AI sources required to analyse the designs and styles of offers innovative approaches to decode and revive costumes and accessories, along with patterns and these treasures that reflect the legacy of the nation’s motifs used for textile surfaces, with a collaborative artistic excellence and cultural depth. Integrating and interdisciplinary approach to restore and recre- mathematical and computational approaches can ate them by integrating advanced tools. Its purpose is provide novel insights into cultural elements such to digitally reconstruct and preserve ancient Indian as costumes and revealing patterns [1]. AI can also attire, ensuring the creation of an authentic resource assist in analysing and presenting museum artifacts, to spread the legacy of this invaluable culture. These enhancing their visual representation for various resources can be a landmark for heritage preserva- design purposes [16]. Artificial intelligence and tion, costume designers, historians, interdisciplinary machine learning are considered emerging powerful academic researchers and virtual exhibitors. tools for preserving and disseminating cultural her- itage. It can aid in the virtual restoration of tangible 2 Background and overview artifacts, such as paintings and sculptures, protecting them from environmental damage and decay [17]. Clothing and accessories serve as an intricate Existing worldwide research and methodologies communication system, enabling individuals and that leverage AI and their applications to study groups to convey their identity across various primary data sources (transcripts, manuscripts, social contexts [11]. Clothing and adornment held coinages, archaeological insights, sculptures, etc.) significant importance in ancient societies, serving are of historical relevance, and can also be used to as markers of identity, status and cultural values. recreate, restore and digitalize historical costumes They can be regarded as valuable tools for under- and accessories leveraging these tools, with a focus standing social institutions and the concepts of on the ancient Indian era. rank, gender and status [12]. In the Indian context, extensive literary evidence is available that describes 3 Exploration of primary data technology, trade, social structure, cultural identity, historical context, environment and geographical sources through artificial constraints. These shreds of evidence serve as a intelligence valuable resource, offering significant insights while connecting its threads to the use of ancient clothing, Current research on the use of AI to analyse primary including textiles, costumes, jewellery and other cultural data sources, such as manuscripts, sculptures accessories used in various scenarios of a specific and archaeological evidence, remains limited despite time and place. Traditional Indian jewellery, with a AI’s potential in this area [18]. AI can demonstrate history spanning more than 5,000 years, also reflects its emerging potential in automated pattern recogni- the influence of religion, social structures and eco- tion, visual analysis and text extraction applications nomics on personal ornamentation [13]. Historical specific to cultural studies, especially costumes and transcripts and manuscripts can be a gold mine for accessories. The integration of AI in cultural heritage studying ancient Indian culture, including costumes, research facilitates data analysis, which makes cultur- jewellery and accessories [14]. Sculptures from the al content more accessible, and opens new avenues for Paramar period, such as those found in Bhopal study in archives and museums [19]. Deep learning museums, showcase the costumes and jewellery of approaches have shown promise in pattern extraction various goddesses, offering a glimpse into the artistic and recognition in paintings and drawings, making 214 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 210–226 visual arts more accessible to wider audiences [20]. such as MobileNet, ResNet and InceptionV3, have Computer vision techniques enable automated visual been used to recognize handwritten Tamil charac- inspection of heritage structures, such as temple walls, ters in palm-leaf manuscripts [29]. An end-to-end stone pillars and sculptures [21]. Additionally, large deep learning model using MobileNet for feature multimodal models (LMM) can identify stone dete- extraction and a bidirectional gated recurrent unit rioration patterns in sculptures [22]. These tools and (BiGRU) for character recognition achieved 98.48% techniques facilitate the exploration and validation of accuracy on Tamil handwritten documents [30]. A primary data sources. deep neural network called Ithaca achieved 62% ac- curacy in text restoration and significantly improved 3.1 Textual manuscripts historians’ performance from 25% to 72% when India possesses one of the world’s largest collections used collaboratively. The system also demonstrated of manuscripts, covering diverse subjects and lan- high accuracy in geographical attribution (71%) guages [23]. Textual records, including the Vedas, and precise dating within 30 years of ground-truth Puranas, Brahmanas, epics such as the Mahabharata ranges [31]. It can assist designers in the analysis and Ramayana, as well as Buddhist and Jain liter- of ancient inscriptions to extract shapes and motifs ature, provide detailed references to the culture, engraved on them. AI also can be leveraged to social structure, costumes and accessories of ancient assemble fragments of ancient papyrus manuscripts eras [8] However, manually analysing these texts can [32]. AI and machine learning can assist in decoding be challenging due to their complexity. Recognizing unstructured knowledge embedded in cultural ar- the importance of preserving this cultural heritage, tifacts, encoding data in machine-readable systems the Indian government has initiated digital preser- and simulating the consequences of preserving or vation efforts. The National Mission for Manuscripts neglecting specific human experiences [33]. Ma- has established resource and conservation centres, chine learning approaches are reshaping the field developing a National Database of Manuscripts of ancient language study, supporting tasks such as [23]. Recent research highlights the potential of AI digitization, restoration, attribution, linguistic anal- in decoding and exploring ancient manuscripts. ysis, textual criticism, translation and decipherment Machine learning, natural language processing [34]. These advancements show that using AI to and pattern recognition techniques are applied decode and summarize old manuscripts can help to interpret ancient scripts and uncover linguistic extract and analyse specific details about the use of phenomena [24]. Intelligent character recognition costumes and accessories from ancient times. systems, enhanced by AI, address challenges in read- ing cursive characters from degraded manuscripts 3.2 Sculptures and iconography [25]. Deep learning methods, particularly generative Ancient Indian fashion can be studied through adversarial networks (GANs), have shown promise sculptures and paintings recovered from historical in restoring ancient texts, with one study reporting sites, depicting the clothing patterns, accessories and 98% validation accuracy [26]. Generative AI tech- hairstyles of different social groups [8]. Sculptures niques can facilitate intelligent research into ancient can be particularly useful in developing draping textual manuscripts through image processing, OCR skills for fashion design education, as they provide and language model-based text mining and appli- fixed mannequins with clear details for students to cations [27]. Convolutional neural networks have study and replicate [35]. In 2023, Maitra analysed been employed for optical character recognition of pictorial evidence from Jain paintings and combined Sanskrit manuscripts, demonstrating robustness to it with foreign travellers’ accounts and vernacular image quality variations [28]. Deep learning models, literature to provide insights into everyday life Leveraging AI for the Recreation and Restoration of Ancient Indian Costumes and Accessories 215 during this period from medieval western India on pottery and corrosion products on metal artifacts to reconstruct material culture, including clothing excavated from archaeological sites in South Asia and ornaments [36]. Sculptures and paintings from [39]. Excavations at Chanhu-daro reveal evidence ancient temples, caves and stupas visually document of bead-making as a craft practiced in the Indus ancient Indian fashion, as sites such as Sanchi, Valley Civilization [40]. The different types and Ajanta and Khajuraho depict elaborate clothing, styles of beads found in archaeological excavations jewellery and hairstyles. These artifacts directly across India provide insights into ancient fashion depict how costumes and accessories were worn and and adornment [41]. Archaeological excavations at their socio-cultural context. Although interpreting Harappa provide evidence of specialized crafts such these visual details is challenging, computer vision as shell working, ceramics and bead making from algorithms and AI-powered image recognition tools as early as 3300 BC [42]. Moreover, archaeological using contrast limited adaptive histogram equaliza- evidence also indicates the spread of cotton and flax tion (CLAHE) with CNN models can provide new textile production beyond the Harappan area in an- possibilities when analysing sculptures with a max- cient India [43]. Textual data have also been analysed imum accuracy of 70.66% [37]. Recent advances in through text mining techniques such as natural lan- deep learning tools use computer vision algorithms guage processing, while information extraction can to detect texture, colour and structural features in be used to extract information from archaeological ancient art and paintings, making it easier to analyse reports [44]. Archaeological excavations, findings these historical resources accurately [20, 38]. and reports across India have unearthed remnants Interpreting these visual details can be challeng- of textiles, jewellery, ad tools used in garment ing due to erosion, damage or stylistic abstraction in production. Such findings complement textual and the artifacts. However, the above-mentioned tools visual sources, providing a holistic understanding of and techniques help researchers analyse sculptures ancient clothing practices. and paintings, identify patterns and reconstruct AI and machine learning technologies can missing elements. Because these tools use computer revolutionize archaeological research by enabling vision algorithms to examine texture, colour and advanced site analysis and artifact classification [45]. structural features in ancient artifacts, when these AI has advanced in natural language processing tools and techniques are combined with expertise in (NLP) and machine learning (ML), which are great costume history and costume design, they improve at finding patterns, making predictions and organiz- the interpretation of collected data and support the ing information [46]. It analyses large amounts of desired outcomes. research data stored over the years through various survey reports, helps uncover new insights, and 3.3 Archaeological findings creates opportunities to use archived data for present Recent excavations at sites such as Mohenjo-Daro and future studies. The processing of images using and Harappa provide evidence of the intricate ML has been one of the most productive areas to date ornament styles of the Indus Valley Tradition, show- for archaeologists. The forms of images vary from casing skilled craftsmanship in creating jewellery photographs to stylized drawings of archaeological from precious materials, stones, shells and faience, objects. Typically, ML has been used to identify “ob- offering valuable insights into ancient fashion. These jects” within images and describe rock art and wall ornaments were also replicated in more accessible paintings [47]. ML can help reconstruct and restore materials such as steatite and terracotta [38]. Var- fragmented 2D and 3D artifacts by matching their ious pieces of evidence of textiles, costumes and ac- shapes, patterns and decorations, similar to solving a cessories can be found and studied from impressions jigsaw puzzle [48-50]. ML has also been employed to 216 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 210–226 reconstruct fragmented artifacts, such as ostraca, us- human preference to ensure they are both aestheti- ing Siamese neural networks for pairwise matching cally pleasing and culturally accurate. AI has proven with 96% accuracy [51]. Computational techniques useful in art restoration, successfully reconstructing are being explored for the virtual reconstruction missing parts of famous paintings and decoding an- of fragmented archaeological artifacts, including cient texts. Druzhinina highlights how it also helps textiles, to assist in the time-consuming process of us to collect data from ancient temple wall art and matching and assembling fragments, although it paintings [56]. ClothGAN uses generative adversar- has limitations because of the unique challenges of ial networks and style transfer to create new patterns archaeological textiles [52]. These studies explain and styles for historical clothing out of data collected that AI, ML and computational methods have the from historical resources [57]. An enhanced varia- potential to analyse text, identify patterns and ex- tional autoencoder method for dress style migration plore lost parts of fragmented artifacts. creates more refined synthetic images of traditional Indian styles [58]. Image inpainting can be improved 4 AI applications in the restoration by using larger datasets, deeper networks and pow- erful GPUs for faster learning. Adjusting network and recreation of ancient Indian layers and incorporating mathematical models can costumes increase accuracy. Future research may focus on developing new algorithms, drawing methods and Generative adversarial networks (GANs) have been better network designs to preserve cultural and used in clothing design to create new patterns and artistic details in restored images [17]. These re- styles inspired by traditional elements, as seen in searchers highlight that AI is transforming clothing Dunhuang clothing from ancient Chinese culture design by blending tradition with innovation. GANs [53]. GANs have been employed to digitally restore and variational autoencoders aid in reconstructing eroded temple sculptures, achieving an L1 loss and digitizing ancient fashion, ensuring historical of 0.29 after extensive training of the model for 7, accuracy. Improved datasets, deep learning models 10, 000 iterations with the objective of rebuilding and 3D visualization enhance preservation efforts. images of ancient temples as they were before being Future research will refine algorithms, strengthening damaged by several invasions and climatic changes AI’s role in safeguarding and modernizing cultural [54]. Mathematical biology techniques have been heritage. used to analyse and classify Indian costumes across different periods, revealing characteristic features 4.1 Machine learning in pattern recognition that align with traditional concepts such as prāna and Pattern recognition techniques have been applied to Yoga [55]. The AI-driven reconstruction of ancient Buddhist iconography for identifying period-specific clothing uses a generative adversarial algorithm to features, analysing sculptures and recognizing hand extract artistic elements from ancient artifacts and gestures in religious artifacts [59]. Convolutional apply them to costume reconstruction and digitiza- neural networks (CNNs) have proven effective in tion, combining tradition with innovation. A dataset identifying artistic styles, motifs, and patterns in of sculptures, coins, paintings and iconography different fields, similar to the techniques used by art is created to train AI models, capturing details of historians [60]. In historical image analysis, CNNs costumes, jewellery and accessories for historical ac- can classify art styles and organize artworks in curacy. The generated designs are then tested against chronological order without needing prior knowl- DCGAN, fashion-GAN and other GAN-based edge of art history [61]. Pranowo used CNNs to clothing design models using inception scores and recognize Javanese batik patterns, attaining 90.14% Leveraging AI for the Recreation and Restoration of Ancient Indian Costumes and Accessories 217 accuracy [62], ¸while Kuntitan applied CNNs to various ancient Indian scriptures, demonstrating classify motifs on Sukhothai ceramics, achieving improved specificity compared to generic language 86.54% accuracy with a fine-tuned VGG16 model models. NLP strategies such as topic modelling and [63]. Similarly, CNNs have demonstrated exceptional sentiment analysis have also been used to compare accuracy in recognizing Indian textile patterns, with religious scriptures, revealing shared themes and one study reaching 97.15% accuracy by combining differing perspectives across texts from Hinduism, CNN features with curvelet transforms [64]. The Islam and Christianity [69]. Text classification and integration of ML algorithms in fashion design clas- optical character recognition (OCR) are important sification facilitates automated analysis and catego- areas of natural language processing for Indian rization based on different attributes, transforming languages, particularly Sanskrit. For the text clas- the study of historical fashion. However, challenges sification of Indian language content, supervised such as data variability, interpretability and ethical learning algorithms such as Naive Bayes, Support concerns still exist [65]. Although there are some Vector Machine, Artificial Neural Network and concerns, the researchers highlight the effectiveness N-gram have shown good performance [70]. These of ML in studying historical fashion by automating studies highlight the effectiveness of NLP and AI in pattern detection and classification. CNNs can decoding, preserving and enhancing accessibility to recognize detailed surface patterns and silhouettes ancient Indian texts, contributing to the understand- in sculptures and paintings. ML algorithms classify ing and conservation of cultural heritage. traditional Indian motifs such as paisleys, florals and geometric shapes, aiding in the accurate reconstruc- 4.3 Computer vision for image analysis tion of ancient garment designs. In the early days of advanced technology involve- ment, [71] used petrography and electron micro- 4.2 Natural language processing (NLP) for probe analysis to study the materials of Indian stone text analysis sculptures. This method examined artifacts from Recent research demonstrates the significant poten- various regions and periods, such as Gandharan tial of NLP, making it an essential tool for analysing schist and Hoysala sculptures. Though limited, the ancient Indian texts. By converting manuscripts study showed the potential for further research in into digital formats, NLP models can extract rele- identifying Indian stone artifacts. These studies vant information about clothing and accessories, contribute to the growing use of computational such as descriptions of fabrics, dyeing techniques and analytical methods in this field. In a different and weaving patterns. A novel system combining approach, [72] developed a deep learning model to machine learning, image processing and NLP was automatically recognize various features of Indian proposed by [66] to convert Pali characters into monuments from images, such as architectural style, understandable formats and decode the Pali Prakrit time period and type. Their model was tested on a language, improving character recognition accuracy, dataset of over 6,000 images from 117 monuments and contributing to the preservation and study of and achieved more than 80% accuracy. Similarly, this cultural heritage. [67] developed a question-an- [73] employed DCNN for monument classification, swering model using BERT embeddings and gated attaining 92.7% accuracy on a dataset of 100 mon- recurrent unit (GRU) layers, achieving high accu- uments. racy rates on ancient Hindu scriptures, specifically Recent advancements in computer vision have the Atharv Ved, demonstrating a high accuracy rate greatly contributed to studying traditional garments of 94%. [68] introduced Vedalytics (Ved Analytics), and iconography. Researchers have trained the an approach to retrieve the rules and concepts from advanced YOLOv8 model to identify traditional 218 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 210–226 costumes from different countries. For Indian saris, have the transformative potential to digitally recre- the model achieved an impressive 99% mean average ate and restore ancient costumes, offering a unique precision [74]. In archaeology, machine learning and perspective to explore and share the rich history of computer vision are helping to discover new details costumes with future generations [82]. Recent re- about Copper Age Iberian oculated idols, revealing search highlights the expanding role of AI in virtual artistic variations and regional differences that were reconstruction and restoration by integrating data previously unnoticed [75]. Deep feature fusion from textual, visual and archaeological sources. By and content-based image retrieval systems such as leveraging AI, researchers can generate 3D models InceptionV3 and InceptionResNetV2 models are of ancient costumes and accessories, while empha- being developed to assist designers in creating new sizing ethical considerations such as data privacy, motifs inspired by traditional patterns [76]. These cultural authenticity and community involvement. tools have the potential to analyse sculptural and These 3D models offer immersive insights into how pictorial representations to identify draping styles, garments were worn and their cultural significance, garment structures and jewellery designs. AI-pow- enhancing museums and educational platforms to ered systems can be successfully deployed to recreate bring ancient Indian fashion to life. digital models of ancient Indian attire by extracting details from temple sculptures. 5 Challenges in AI-based restoration 4.4 3D modelling and virtual reconstruction efforts Virtual reconstruction is another significant appli- cation of AI in this field. AI technologies facilitate Even though AI has potential, using it to recreate the creation of 3D models using textual descriptions, and restore ancient Indian costumes, textiles and photographs, paintings and archaeological data, accessories has many challenges. The cultural providing immersive insights into historical artifacts dependencies embedded in AI technologies, pre- and costumes. [77,78]. AI has made remarkable dominantly developed in a handful of countries, can progress in generating images from text descriptions lead to incongruencies when applied globally [83]. and reference images. State-of-the-art AI tools, such The development of a culturally sensitive AI model, as DALL-E 2, can produce high-quality images from trained in regional aspects, will be required. Generic text prompts and use a reference image to guide the algorithms may fail to capture the nuances of re- process [79]. Even for 2D restoration, a framework gional variations and symbolic meanings inherent combining neural style transfer, U-Net and Partial in Indian costume analysis. It is important to design Convolution networks have been developed to repair AI systems that include the historical, cultural and damaged regions in ancient Indian murals [80]. This social backgrounds of ancient India for accurate suggests that when AI image generation technology restoration. matures in the next few years, it could become a Furthermore, general puzzle-solving algorithms, valuable tool for creating the virtual reconstructions especially those based on deep learning, have shown of artifacts in the future. AI technologies enable promising performance on artificially fragmented the virtual reconstruction of ancient costumes and natural images, However, they face some challenges accessories, offering immersive insights into cultural when used for studying archaeological textiles heritage. These technologies support the cataloguing [84]. When dealing with highly incomplete pieces, of cultural collections, the restoration of artworks a hybrid human-computer approach is often nec- and the preservation of intangible heritage [81]. De- essary. This method combines expert knowledge spite its limitations, AI-driven integration systems with computational solutions to achieve credible Leveraging AI for the Recreation and Restoration of Ancient Indian Costumes and Accessories 219 restorations, as demonstrated in the reconstruction documentation, leading to inconsistencies in meta- of Roman sculptures [85]. It shows that interpreting data, terminology and visual representation across incomplete or degraded data poses technological sources. These data gaps introduce biases and errors constraints. Artifacts that are partially damaged in model training, where the algorithm overfits to or eroded require advanced algorithms capable of dominant styles or well-preserved artifacts, while reconstructing missing elements without distorting underrepresenting regional or marginalized tradi- historical accuracy. tions. As a result, reconstructions may reflect only a narrow slice of cultural history, distorting the broad- 5.1 Limitations of AI in Interpreting cultural er narrative. In the case of rare fragmented datasets, nuance AI may generate an outcome based on statistical The application of AI in historical costume res- inference rather than historical accuracy, which can toration is accompanied by notable limitations, compromise the authenticity of the restoration [86]. particularly in addressing cultural nuance and contextual integrity. AI-generated reconstructions, 6 Conclusion when reliant solely on data-driven algorithms, are susceptible to inaccuracies that may distort the The enduring value of India’s ancient costumes and original intent of traditional attire. These models textiles, with the intricate techniques of weaving, often fail to account for the socio-cultural, religious dyeing, printing and embroidery, reflects the crafts- or ceremonial significance embedded in garments, manship of earlier generations and serves as a testa- especially when training data lacks representational ment to the diversity of India’s textile heritage [87]. diversity or is devoid of ethnographic context [83]. These studies find that collaborative efforts between These limitations lead to the oversimplified outcome AI experts, historians and designers are crucial to where complex draping techniques, symbolic textile addressing these challenges effectively when making patterns and region-specific stylistic variations are efforts to recreate and restore historical costumes often distilled into visually coherent but historically and accessories with precision. China’s digitization inaccurate representations, even if they may be aes- of Dunhuang textiles has leveraged GANs and deep thetically convincing. This result will interpret the learning to reconstruct traditional garments with cultural identity. high aesthetic fidelity [54], while European efforts in Byzantine mosaic restoration employ multimodal AI 5.2 Data gaps in training AI models systems that integrate textual, visual and archaeologi- One of the most significant obstacles in AI-assisted cal data for contextual accuracy. Even initiatives such historical costume restoration is the availability and as the restoration of Shakti sculptures from the Par- quality of primary data. Many traditional sources amara period [15] and Indus Valley ornament styles from ancient manuscripts, sculptures, paintings and [40] highlight how computer vision and deep learning textile fragments are either degraded, inaccessible tools are being applied to study the intricate designs or not digitally accessible. Additionally, cultural and motifs found in archaeological and sculptural and linguistic diversity in the same era of ancient artifacts. For instance, deep learning models such as India makes it harder to understand correctly in the CLAHE-enhanced CNNs have been used to classify case of the detailed information related to costume and extract features from Indian sculptures with over analysis. Inadequate data volume or resolution limits 70% accuracy [39], aiding in the interpretation of the robustness of training datasets, which directly garment structure and jewellery design. impacts the accuracy and reliability of AI outputs. 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Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 227–244 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025030 227 Vishal Trivedi, Pradeep Joshi Amity School of Fashion Technology, Amity University, Sector 125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India Impulse Buying Behaviour in Apparel Retail: Exploring the Role of Store Atmosphere and Situational Factors Impulzivno potrošniško vedenje v prodaji oblačil: raziskovanje vloge vzdušja v trgovini in situacijskih dejavnikov Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 3–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 4–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčni avtor: Dr. Vishal Trivedi, Assistant Professor (Garde-II) E-mail: vishal.trivedi22@gmail.com Mobile: +918006473336 ORCID iD: 0000-0001-6180-5572 Abstract This study investigates the impact of store atmosphere and situational factors on impulse buying behaviour among apparel consumers, with a particular focus on the mediating role of situational factors. A quantita- tive research approach was employed, utilising partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) to provide comprehensive insights. Data were collected through convenience sampling from 501 appar- el consumers in India. The research examines the influence of store atmospheric elements, including store ambiance, design, social factors and clothing touch, together with situational factors such as promotional offers, time availability, money availability, mood and the presence of others. The findings reveal a complex interaction between store atmosphere, situational factors and impulse buying behaviour. Specifically, store ambiance, design and key situational factors emerge as significant drivers of impulsive purchases. By incorpo- rating situational factors as mediators, this study offers a nuanced research framework tailored to the apparel retail sector. The insights gained provide valuable implications for retailers, who can strategically enhance store atmosphere and situational conditions to effectively stimulate impulse buying behaviour among ap- parel consumers. Keywords: store atmosphere, situational factors, apparel consumers, impulse buying behaviour Izvleček Članek preučuje vpliv vzdušja v trgovini in situacijskih dejavnikov na impulzivno nakupovalno vedenje kupcev oblačil, s posebnim poudarkom na posredniški vlogi situacijskih dejavnikov. Pri raziskavi smo uporabili kvantitativni pristop, za celovito analizo pa metodo delnih najmanjših kvadratov PLS-SEM. Podatki so bili zbrani s priložnostnim vzorčenjem, in sicer med 501 kupcem oblačil v Indiji. Raziskava preučuje vpliv trgovinskega vzdušja, ki vključuje ambient, oblikovanje prostora, socialne dejavnike in možnost dotikanja oblačil, skupaj s situacijskimi dejavniki, kot so promocijske ponudbe, koliko časa in denarja je na voljo, razpoloženje ter prisotnost drugih oseb. Ugotovitve razkrivajo zapleteno medsebojno delovanje med trgovinskim vzdušjem, situacijskimi dejavniki in impulzivnim Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. 228 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 227–244 nakupovalnim vedenjem. Zlasti ambient trgovine, oblikovanje in ključni situacijski dejavniki so se pokazali kot pomembni spodbujevalci impulzivnih nakupov. Z vključitvijo situacijskih dejavnikov kot posredniških spremenljivk ponuja raziskava izpopolnjen raziskovalni okvir, prilagojen maloprodajnemu sektorju oblačil. Ugotovitve imajo lahko pomembno praktično vrednost za prodajalce, ki lahko z načrtnim oblikovanjem trgovinskega vzdušja in situacijskih pogojev učinkoviteje spodbujajo impulzivno potrošniško vedenje. Ključne besede: vzdušje v trgovini, situacijski dejavniki, kupci oblačil, impulzivno potrošniško vedenje 1 Introduction In the fast-paced world of retail, where competition The concept of store atmosphere encompasses is fierce and consumer preferences evolve rapidly, the tangible and intangible elements of the retail understanding the drivers behind impulse buying environment, including store ambiance, design, behaviour is crucial for businesses to remain com- social factors and clothing touch. These atmospheric petitive and thrive. Among the multitude of factors factors exert a profound influence on consumers’ that influence consumer decision-making, two key emotions, perceptions and behaviours, thereby elements stand out: store atmosphere and situational shaping their shopping experiences and purchase factors [1]. These factors not only shape the overall decisions [5]. Moreover, situational factors, such shopping experience but also play a pivotal role in as mood, time pressure, money constraints, pro- triggering impulsive purchases, especially within motional offers and the presence of others during the apparel product category [2]. Impulse buying, shopping, play a pivotal role in triggering impulsive characterized by spontaneous and unplanned pur- buying tendencies [6,7]. Consumers’ psychological chases, holds considerable implications for retailers states and external stimuli interact dynamically with seeking to capitalize on consumers’ in-the-moment the store environment, prompting spur-of-the-mo- decisions [3]. While extensive research has delved ment purchases that may deviate from their planned into various aspects of consumer behaviour, the shopping intentions [8]. interplay between store atmosphere, situational The store atmosphere encompasses the sensory factors and impulse buying remains a nuanced and elements and overall ambiance of the retail envi- evolving area of study, especially within the apparel ronment. From the visual appeal of store displays sector [4]. Impulse buying plays a significant role in to the aroma wafting through the air, every aspect apparel shopping and holds strategic importance. of the store atmosphere contributes to the overall Impulse purchases can account for a large portion mood and atmosphere experienced by shoppers [9]. of retail sales, especially in fashion where emotional Research has shown that certain atmospheric cues, appeal and visual aesthetics heavily influence buying such as lighting, music, scent and spatial layout, can behaviour [4,5]. Retailers use visual merchandising, significantly influence consumers’ emotions, percep- strategic product placement (near checkout or tions and purchasing behavior [10]. Retailers often on home pages) and limited time offers to trigger strategically design their stores to evoke specific impulsive decisions [6]. Impulse buying is linked to emotions and enhance the overall shopping experi- emotions, mood and self-expression. Understanding ence, to drive sales and foster customer satisfaction. it helps brands tailor marketing strategies that tap In addition to store atmosphere, situational factors into consumers’ desires for instant gratification, play a crucial role in shaping impulsive buying be- novelty or even retail therapy [5, 7]. haviour [11]. These situational cues include factors Impulse Buying Behaviour in Apparel Retail: Exploring the Role of Store Atmosphere and Situational Factors 229 such as mood, time pressure, money constraints, ment contributes to impulse buying behaviour. Store promotional offers and the social presence of others. atmosphere refers to the physical and sensory ele- For instance, a shopper may be more inclined to ments of a retail environment that influence customer make impulsive purchases when feeling happy or perceptions and behaviours [14]. Store atmosphere excited, or when faced with time constraints and the plays a crucial role in shaping consumers’ emotions, fear of missing out on a deal. Similarly, the presence perceptions and behaviours, ultimately influencing of friends or peers can exert social pressure and their impulse buying behaviours, particularly in the influence individuals’ purchase decisions [12‒14]. apparel category [12, 15]. The ambiance, layout, mu- Against this backdrop, this research aims to delve sic, lighting and overall sensory experience of a store deeper into the interplay between store atmosphere, collectively contribute to its atmosphere, creating a situational factors and impulse buying behaviour in distinct environment that can either encourage or the context of apparel consumption. By examining deter impulse purchases [16‒18]. Firstly, the visual how specific atmospheric cues and situational appeal of a store, including its layout, product dis- elements influence consumers’ propensity to make plays and decor, sets the stage for consumers’ shop- impulsive purchases, this study seeks to provide ping experiences [19]. A well-designed store layout valuable insights for retailers looking to optimize can guide consumers through the space, drawing their strategies and create compelling shopping expe- their attention to specific merchandise and enticing riences. Through a comprehensive analysis utilizing them to explore further [20]. Eye-catching displays of quantitative surveys, this research aims to uncover apparel items, arranged in aesthetically pleasing con- the underlying mechanisms driving impulse buying figurations, can evoke desire and stimulate impulse behaviour and offer practical recommendations for buying more [21]. For example, strategically placed retailers to enhance their competitive edge on the mannequins showcasing trendy outfits or visually apparel market. appealing product arrangements can trigger impulse Through a quantitative method approach in- purchases by creating a sense of urgency and desire tegrating quantitative surveys, this study seeks to to emulate the displayed styles. The colour scheme capture the multifaceted dimensions of consumer in a store can elicit various emotional responses and behaviour and offer nuanced perspectives on the attract customers’ attention [22, 23]. Consumers can impact of store environment and situational factors be stimulated by colour and put in a buying frame of on impulsive buying tendencies. By shedding light mind [5]. Utilizing warm colours such as yellow and on these intricate dynamics, retailers can refine their red on the packaging, and cool and relaxing colours approaches to create immersive retail experiences such as violet or blue on the background walls of the that resonate with the evolving needs and preferenc- store can catch the customer’s attention [24]. Warm es of apparel consumers. colours in a retail outlet attract customers, whereas cool colours generate favourable responses among 1.1 Store atmosphere and impulse buying customers, affecting customer behaviour when behaviour purchasing [25]. Moreover, the use of lighting can Impulse buying is a spontaneous, unplanned decision significantly impact consumers’ perceptions and to purchase, driven more by affective reactions than behaviours within a store. Lighting influences mood cognitive deliberation. Conceptually, it involves a and ambiance, with bright, well-lit spaces often complex interplay of emotional arousal, diminished associated with positivity and energy, while dimmer self-control and situational cues. Research suggests lighting can create a more intimate and relaxed [11‒13]. that factors such as hedonic motivation, atmosphere [26]. Retailers can leverage lighting tech- instant gratification and even self-identity reinforce- niques to enhance the visual appeal of apparel items, 230 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 227–244 highlight specific areas or promotions, and evoke or express enthusiasm for clothing items can enhance desired emotions conducive to impulse buying [27]. shoppers’ emotional engagement and increase the For instance, soft, flattering lighting in fitting rooms likelihood of impulse buying [38]. On the other hand, can make shoppers feel more confident and inclined the presence of a crowd in an apparel store can also to make impulsive clothing purchases. Additionally, impact impulse buying behaviour. Research suggests the auditory elements of the store atmosphere, such that crowded environments can create a sense of as background music, contribute to the overall sen- urgency and excitement, prompting shoppers to feel sory experience and can influence consumers’ emo- a fear of missing out (FOMO) on desirable items or tional states and purchasing behaviour [28]. Upbeat limited-time promotions [39]. As a result, shoppers music with a fast tempo has been found to increase may be more inclined to make impulsive purchases arousal and excitement levels, potentially leading to to avoid regret or competition from other customers. heightened impulse-buying tendencies. Conversely, Additionally, the social influence of a crowd can lead slow-tempo music or calming melodies can create to conformity behaviour, where shoppers are influ- a more relaxed shopping environment, which may enced by the purchasing decisions of others, further deter impulsive purchases [29, 30]. Retailers can amplifying impulse buying tendencies [40‒42]. strategically select music genres and playlists to align The tactile experience of touching clothing items with their target demographic and desired shopping can play a significant role in triggering impulse atmosphere, thereby influencing consumers’ moods buying behaviour. Research has shown that tactile and propensity for impulse buying [31]. Further- sensations can evoke emotional responses and influ- more, olfactory cues, such as ambient scents, can ence consumers’ perceptions of product quality and evoke powerful emotional responses and influence desirability [43]. In apparel stores, allowing customers consumers’ perceptions of a store’s atmosphere to physically interact with garments by touching [30, 32]. Pleasant fragrances, carefully chosen to fabrics, trying on clothing items or feeling textures complement the brand image and enhance the can enhance their sensory experience and stimulate shopping experience, can evoke positive emotions impulse purchases [44]. The pleasurable sensation of and enhance consumers’ moods, thereby increasing touching soft fabrics or admiring intricate details can their receptivity to impulse purchases [33]. For ex- create a sense of immediate gratification, prompting ample, the subtle scent of fresh linen or floral notes shoppers to make impulsive buying decisions [45, 46]. can evoke feelings of freshness and luxury, creating a sensory-rich environment conducive to impulse 1.2 Situational factors and impulse buying buying in the apparel sector [34]. behaviour The interaction between salespersons and Situational factors play a crucial role in influencing shoppers can significantly influence impulse buy- impulse buying behaviour in the context of the ing behaviour in apparel stores [35]. A friendly, apparel product category. Numerous situational knowledgeable and attentive salesperson can create factors, such as promotional offers, availability of a positive shopping experience, build rapport with time, money availability, consumer mood and the customers and subtly encourage impulse purchases presence of others during shopping, can impact [36]. Salespersons who engage in suggestive selling impulse buying behaviour. Promotional offers such techniques, such as recommending complementary as discounts, sales and limited-time promotions items or highlighting limited time offers, can prompt create a sense of urgency and scarcity, prompting shoppers to make spontaneous purchases they had shoppers to make impulsive purchases [47]. When not initially planned [37]. Moreover, salespersons who consumers perceive a good deal or perceive potential provide personalized assistance, offer styling advice savings, they may feel compelled to capitalize on the Impulse Buying Behaviour in Apparel Retail: Exploring the Role of Store Atmosphere and Situational Factors 231 Table 1: Theoretical backing summary: impulse buying behaviour in apparel shopping Conceptual link Supported by Key insights Store ambiance, layout, scent, lighting and music trigger Store atmosphere: Emotional/ [30, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65] emotional responses (pleasure, arousal), influencing consumers’ Affective states psychological readiness to buy. Clothing touch: Tactile interaction with products, especially in apparel, heightens [61, 62] Impulse buying attachment and desire, leading to impulsive purchases. A well-designed atmosphere reframes the shopping context (e.g., Store atmosphere: Situational [59, 64] urgency, hedonic value), modifying situational interpretations perception like mood, time pressure and social cues. Time availability, presence of others, promotions and current Situational factors: [63, 64, 66, 73] mood have strong direct effects on unplanned purchasing Impulse buying behaviour. Store design and sensory elements shape how situational Store atmosphere: [59, 60, 62, 65] variables (e.g. perceived urgency, money availability) are Situational factors (Mediator) experienced. Positive emotional states induced by the store environment Mood as a mediator [30, 64] increase consumers’ impulsivity and willingness to indulge. Presence of promotions: Discounts and limited time offer create urgency and justify [63, 66, 73, 74] Impulse buying spontaneous purchases. The S-O-R model frames store atmosphere as stimulus (S), S-O-R model justification [58, 65, 67] emotional/cognitive state as organism (O) and impulse buying as response (R). opportunity, leading to spontaneous buying decisions, and increase impulsivity, leading consumers to make especially for apparel items they may not have initially spontaneous purchases to enhance their mood or planned to purchase [10]. Time constraints influence reward themselves [55]. Conversely, negative emo- impulse buying behaviour in apparel stores [48]. tions such as stress, sadness or boredom may also When shoppers are pressed for time or have limited trigger impulse buying as a coping mechanism or availability, they may be more inclined to make quick, to alleviate negative feelings through retail therapy impulsive purchases rather than engaging in extensive [37, 56]. The presence of friends, family members or deliberation or comparison shopping [49‒51]. In such peers during shopping can influence impulse buying situations, consumers may prioritize convenience behaviour in apparel stores. Social interactions and and immediacy, opting for impulse buys rather than peer pressure can impact consumers’ purchase deci- spending time searching for the perfect item [52, 53]. sions, as individuals may feel compelled to conform The perceived availability of money impacts to group norms or seek approval from others [57, impulse buying behaviour for apparel [53]. When 58]. Additionally, shopping with companions can consumers feel financially secure or have disposable enhance the enjoyment of the shopping experience income readily available, they may be more willing and increase the likelihood of impulse purchases to indulge in spontaneous purchases, especially if through social influence and shared experiences. they perceive the item as affordable or within their budget [11]. Conversely, financial constraints or 1.3 Summary of theoretical backing (impulse concerns about overspending may curb impulse buying behaviour for apparel) buying tendencies, as consumers prioritize financial Table 1 summarizes the theoretical contributions prudence and budgetary constraints [54]. Consumer from key studies supporting the conceptual model mood can significantly influence impulse buying linking store atmosphere, situational factors and behaviour in apparel stores. Positive emotions such impulse buying behaviour in apparel shopping. as happiness and excitement can lower inhibitions The framework draws from the S-O-R model and 232 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 227–244 emphasizes emotional and contextual mediators. including promotional offers, time, money, mood Table 1 provides an in-depth understanding of the and the presence of others, were identified and used conceptual link between store atmosphere, situation- to build the research framework. Hypotheses were al factors and impulse buying behaviour for apparel. then developed to assess impulse buying behaviour in apparel consumers. 1.4 Proposed research framework H1: There is a positive relationship between store at- The proposed research framework, as seen in Figure mosphere and impulse buying behaviour for apparel. 1: Proposed research framework, was developed H2: There is a positive relationship between store through a comprehensive literature review on store atmosphere and situational factors. atmosphere and situational variables affecting im- H3: There is a positive relationship between situation- pulse buying in apparel consumers. The study pro- al factors and impulse buying behaviour for apparel. poses that situational factors mediate the relation- H4: There is a positive relationship between store ship between store atmosphere and impulse buying. atmosphere and impulse purchasing behaviour based Elements of store atmosphere and situational factors, on situational factors as a mediator. Figure 1: Proposed research framework 2 Methodology pulse buying behaviour in apparel shopping due to its dynamic retail environment, rapid urbanization This study used a quantitative method to assess the and growing middle-class consumer base. The relationship between store atmosphere, situational Indian apparel market is characterized by a blend factors and impulse buying behaviour in apparel of traditional and modern retail formats, increasing consumers. A non-probability (convenience) sam- exposure to global fashion trends, and a strong pling technique was employed for this study. The influence of in-store environments and promotions respondents were apparel shoppers in retail stores in on consumer behaviour. Given the large and diverse India. India has heterogeneous consumers: urban/ nature of the Indian consumer market, collecting rural, income groups, cultures, etc. Convenience 501 valid responses provides a robust dataset that sampling was chosen due to its practical advantages captures variability across demographics such as in accessing a large and diverse pool of participants age, gender, income levels and shopping habits. within a limited timeframe and resource constraints. Structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used India serves as an ideal context for examining im- to analyse the associations between the variables. A Impulse Buying Behaviour in Apparel Retail: Exploring the Role of Store Atmosphere and Situational Factors 233 total of 501 valid responses were gathered, which store atmosphere. Each retail store aspect (including exceeds the minimum sample size requirements for ambience factors, design variables, social factors structural equation modelling (SEM). and clothing touch) had four items used to mea- sure the impulse purchasing behaviour of apparel 2.1 Sample size determination consumers. A Likert scale with five points ranging Sample size determination is a significant challenge from strongly disagreeing to strongly agreeing was when SEM is preferred for data analysis [58]. The utilized to assess four items evaluating ambience “10-times rule” approach is a popular minimum variables, and for design elements, social factors and sample size estimation method in SEM. Researchers clothing touch. Similarly, a total of 20 items in five have advised that a study utilizing SEM requires dimensions of situational factors were assessed. Each a sample size of 200 or that five to 10 samples per measurement of situational factors (including mood, element would be adequate [72, 75, 76]. However, money availability, time availability, promotional SEM researchers have often employed sample sizes offers and the presence of others) had four items that ranging from 300 to 400. Therefore, 490 responses were utilized to evaluate impulse buying for apparel. were targeted for this study. A total of 650 question- In addition, four items were measured using a scale naires were distributed with the aim of receiving developed and modified by [61] to assess the impact back 490 for further data analysis. A total of 550 of the mood of apparel consumers. In addition, responses were received. After data cleaning, 501 questions about money and time availability were apparel consumer responses were deemed valid for adopted from the study of [62]. Further, a scale was further data analysis. used to assess how much purchasers are influenced by others during apparel shopping. Similarly, four 2.2 Questionnaire development items related to promotional offers were considered A structured questionnaire was utilized in this study in the study [63]. to collect individual responses. The questionnaire in this study was carefully developed to improve the 2.3 Reliability and validity analysis participants’ response rate. Thus, the study makes Reliability and validity have been identified as it as simple and visually appealing as possible. To crucial elements of any quantitative research in assess the impact of apparel customers’ impulsive measuring research quality. In this study, reliability purchasing behaviour, the study’s questionnaire was was first evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha, and then split into two sections, as follows: by composite reliability (CR) and average variance Section 1: This section included multiple choice extracted (AVE). The threshold values for alpha, CR questions about impulse buying, store and AVE are 0.70 (both alpha and CR) and above, and atmospheric cues and situational factors. 0.50 and above for AVE [77‒79]. Table 2 presents all Section 2: This section included a question related variables of latent constructs that are highly reliable. to the demographic profile of apparel Furthermore, convergent validity and discriminant consumers. validity were used to evaluate the validity of the Section 1 was developed to determine if re- quantitative data [71, 77] and to verify scale validity spondents’ recent purchases were impulsive. A using the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT). The five-point Likert (strongly agree-disagree) scale that preferred value of HTMT should be less than 1 [78]. contained and modified three items was used in this Table 3 indicates the values of HTMT were between study to examine the urge to buy apparel products 0.50 to 0.82, which was acceptable for measuring impulsively. Sixteen items in four dimensions of the discriminant validity. apparel retail store were examined to evaluate the 234 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 227–244 Table 2: Factors of store atmosphere, situational fac- Table 3: Discriminant validity analysis tors and impulse buying behaviour Latent variables IMPB a) S.F. b) S.A. c) Factor Constructs CR a) AVE b) Alpha Impulse buying behaviour -- -- -- loadings Situational factors 0.53 -- -- AMB2 0.688 Store atmosphere 0.50 0.75 -- Ambiance (AMB) AMB3 0.692 0.89 0.54 0.90 a) AMB4 0.663 Impulse buying behaviour, b) Situational factors, c) Store DEG1 0.665 atmosphere DEG2 0.701 Design (DEG) 0.92 0.51 0.94 DEG3 0.748 2.4 Common method bias (CMB) DEG4 0.669 In this study, Harman’s single factor score was Social factors SOF1 0.688 0.85 0.53 0.85 employed to assess the common method bias. A (SOF) SOF2 0.687 single factor’s total variation has been suggested to TUC1 0.672 Clothing touch be less than 50%. If the number is less than 50%, TUC2 0.683 0.93 0.52 0.95 (TUC) it means that CMB has no effect on the responses TUC3 0.692 PO1 0.738 and, thus, the study’s findings. Table 4 shows that Promotional PO2 0.687 the value of total variance (16.736) is less than 50%, 0.86 0.57 0.88 offers (PO) PO3 0.737 which indicates that CMB has no effect on the data. PO4 0.689 Thus, CMB was not a problem in this investigation. AVT1 0.667 To further assess the potential impact of common Availability of AVT3 0.731 0.89 0.51 0.91 time (AVT) method bias (CMB), the marker variable technique AVT4 0.686 was applied. The correlations between the marker AVM1 0.679 variable and the main study constructs (store at- Availability of AVM2 0.713 0.94 0.53 0.96 money (AVM) AVM3 0.639 mosphere, situational factors, and impulse buying AVM4 0.736 behaviour) were all non-significant (p > 0.05). This PRO1 0.699 suggests that common method variance is unlikely Presence of PRO3 0.663 0.92 0.62 0.87 others (PO) to significantly bias the results. The marker variable PRO4 0.67 showed weak correlations with all main constructs MO1 0.782 Mood (MO) 0.90 0.52 0.89 (ranging from r = 0.04 to r = 0.06), while none were MO3 0.668 statistically significant (p > 0.05). This indicates Impulse buying IMPB1 0.692 minimal risk of common method bias in this study. behaviour for IMPB2 0.701 0.79 0.50 0.75 apparel (IMPB) IMPB3 0.683 a) Composite reliability, b) Average variance extracted Table 4: Common method bias Initial eigenvalues Extraction sums of squared loadings Component Percentage of Percentage of Total Cumulative (%) Total Cumulative (%) variance (%) variance (%) 1 9.540 16.736 16.736 9.540 16.736 16.736 2 5.007 8.785 25.521 2.5 Correlation analysis range of coefficient correlation (r) lies between -1 to To assess the correlation between latent constructs, +1. The r values between 0.36 to 0.67 are considered a the Pearson correlation test was used. The acceptable moderate association among constructs [80, 81]. The Impulse Buying Behaviour in Apparel Retail: Exploring the Role of Store Atmosphere and Situational Factors 235 values for coefficient correlation for situational factors Table 6: Descriptive analysis (demographic profile of (r = 0.52) and store atmosphere (r = 0.50) are given in respondents Table 5. There is no multicollinearity problem in the Measure Items Frequency Percentage data, as it is suitable for further SEM analysis. Male 220 43.92 Gender Female 281 56.08 Table 5: Correlation analysis 18–25 years 252 50.30 Latent constructs IMPB a) S.F. b) S.A. c) 26–35 years 154 30.73 Age Impulse buying 36–45 years 71 14.17 1.00 0.52 0.50 behaviour > 45 years 24 4.79 Situational factors 0.52 1.00 0.75 < 50.000 78 15.57 Store atmosphere 0.50 0.75 1.00 Monthly 50.000–100.000 141 28.14 family a) Impulse buying behaviour, b) Situational factors, c) 100.000–200.000 84 16.77 income Store atmosphere (INR a)) 200.00–500.000 70 13.97 > 500.000 128 25.55 Intermediate 70 13.97 3 Results and discussion Graduation 234 46.91 Education level Post-graduation 146 29.14 3.1 Demographic profile of the respondents Above post- 51 9.98 Table 6 presents the descriptive statistics of the graduation respondents’ demographic profile. Most respondents a) 1 INR = 0.0098 EUR were female (56.08%) and male (43.92%). The ma- jority (50.30%) were aged 18‒25, with 30.73% aged recommended benchmarks of 0.6 and 0.7 [68‒70]. 25‒35, 14.17% aged 35‒45 and 4.79% over 45. In The foremost factor structure revealed four con- terms of family income, 28.14% earned 487‒974 structs from store atmosphere (AMB1, SOF3, SOF4, EUR (50,000‒100,000 INR) and 25.55% earned TUC4), four factors from situational factors (AVT2, above 4,870 EUR (above 500,000 INR). About PRO2, MO2, MO4) and one factor (IMPB4) from 76% had graduation (46.91%) or post-graduation impulse buying behaviour are eliminated from the (29.14%) education levels. model as its factor loading is lower than the expected value 0.6 (see Table 2). 3.2 Structural model evaluation The outer model, or structural model, assesses path To evaluate the links between latent constructs, the coefficients to determine R² values and significance PLS-SEM method was used for this study. SEM is levels using t-statistics and p-values. R² is crucial for a combination of factor analysis and path analysis. evaluating the model. In the model (see Figure 2: SEM analysis has enabled route analytical modelling Structural model), store atmosphere is the indepen- on latent variables using the SMART-PLS tool. CFA dent variable, situational factors are mediators and is a part of the measurement model of PLS-SEM, impulse buying behaviour is the dependent variable. which assesses the outer loadings, composite reli- Thus, situational factors mediate the relationship ability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and between store atmosphere and impulse buying be- AVE. Outer loadings are the regression weights with haviour for apparel consumers. 236 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 227–244 Figure 2: Structural model It is predicted that the R² parameters will be Table 7: Analysis of coefficient of determination met with a minimum of 10% accuracy [81]. Table R² Q² b) 7 shows that 30.3% of the variance is explained Latent Variables R² adjusted by impulse buying behaviour, whereas 56.4% is Impulse buying 0.102 0.303 0.313 explained by situational factors in the model. The behaviour standard was set to 0.02 for weak, 0.13 for moderate Situational factors 0.564 0.568 0.272 and 0.26 for the strong coefficient of determination a) Coefficient of determination, b) Predictive relevance [82]. It was found that impulse buying behaviour and situational factors have a strong effect. Predic- tive relevance (Q²) was also examined along with Table 8: Analysis of goodness of fit the R² as a measure of accuracy determined through Model fit Estimated model the blindfolding procedure. A Q² value above zero SRMR 0.07 shows predictive relevance. However, in Table 7, Q² NFI 0.70 for impulse buying behaviour is 0.102, while it is 0.272 for situational factors, indicating a high degree 3.3 Hypothesis testing of predictive relevance [83]. The model’s goodness The PLS-SEM model assesses the relationships be- of fit was assessed through SRMR (standardized tween latent constructs by analysing path coefficients root mean square residual) and the normed fit index and significance levels. Table 9 presents the results (NFI). The acceptable value of SRMR must be less of path coefficients, t-statistics and p-values. The than 0.10 (J. F. Hair, Henseler, et al., 2014), while the findings reveal that store atmosphere significantly acceptable value of NFI must be close to 1 [84‒86]. influences impulse buying behaviour for apparel, Table 8 shows the value of SRMR was 0.07 and NFI contributing 25% to the direct effect on impulse was 0.7, indicating the model is a good fit. buying (see Figure 3). Further, store atmosphere has a positive and significant relationship with impulse buying behaviour as its t-statistics is 5.18 > 1.96, Impulse Buying Behaviour in Apparel Retail: Exploring the Role of Store Atmosphere and Situational Factors 237 while the p-value is 0.00, which is less than 0.05. This minant of impulsive buying for apparel. Therefore, indicates that the retail atmosphere is a crucial deter- hypothesis H1 is accepted. Table 9: Path coefficients, T-statistics, and P-values Hypothesis Path coeff., β t-statistics p-values Remarks H1: Store atmosphere ≥ Impulse buying behaviour 0.253 5.18 0.00 Significant H2: Store atmosphere ≥ Situational factors 0.751 7.03 0.00 Significant H3: Situational factors ≥ Impulse buying behaviour 0.334 4.41 0.00 Significant Figure 3: Final research framework of IMBB of apparel consumer Similarly, store atmosphere contributes 75.1% to indirect effect (β = 0.250, p < 0.001), the direct effect situational factors, while situational factors account of store atmosphere on impulse buying behaviour for 33.4% of the direct influence on impulse buying remained significant after accounting for the medi- behaviour (see Figure 3). With a t-statistic of 7.03 ator, although its strength was reduced, indicating >1.96 and a p-value of 0.00 < 0.05, store atmosphere partial mediation. To further establish the type of positively and significantly impacts situational fac- mediation, the direct effect of store atmosphere tors. Situational factors also significantly influence on impulse buying behaviour was examined both impulse buying, with a t-statistic of 4.41 >1.96 and a before and after the inclusion of situational factors p-value of 0.00 < 0.05. Thus, hypotheses H2 and H3 as a mediator. Without considering the mediator, the are accepted, confirming that both store atmosphere direct path coefficient was β = 0.430 (t = 7.860, p < and situational factors positively affect impulse buy- 0.001), indicating a strong and significant relation- ing behaviour for apparel. ship. After including situational factors, the direct On the other hand, the results presented in Table effect decreased to β = 0.280 (t = 5.120, p < 0.001), 10 show an indirect effect relationship between but remained statistically significant. This reduction the latent constructs. Thus, a partial mediation in the direct effect, while maintaining significance, exists. The path analysis assessment (0.250) found confirms the presence of partial mediation. The a significant association between store atmosphere t-statistic is greater than 1.96, while the p-value is with impulse buying behaviour based on situational significant at a 5% level, less than 0.05. Hence, hy- factors as mediators. In addition to the significant pothesis H4 is accepted. 238 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 227–244 Table 10: Specific indirect effect of situational factors Direct effect Indirect Path analysis (Hypothesis 4) Before After t-statistics p-values Remarks effect mediation mediation H4: Store atmosphere ≥ Situational factors ≥ 0.430 0.280 0.250 4.055 0.00 Significant Impulse buying behaviour 4 Conclusion 4.1 Theoretical implications This study contributes to theoretical implications by In conclusion, this study delved into the intricate empirically testing developed relationships, thereby interplay between store atmosphere, situational fac- aiding theory verification. It addresses the growing tors and impulse buying behaviour among apparel interest in impulse purchases by developing a consumers. Through a comprehensive analysis of the framework that includes factors of store atmosphere impact of atmospheric cues, such as store ambience, and situational factors affecting impulse buying design, social factors and clothing touch, as well as behaviour in apparel. The study’s findings can help situational factors, such as promotional offers, time researchers apply this conceptual framework to availability, money availability, customer mood other areas of consumer purchasing behaviour [57, and the presence of others, this research provides 58, 63, 64]. valuable insights into the drivers of impulsive pur- Second, this study shows that situational factors chasing decisions in the apparel retail environment. such as time availability, money, presence of others, The findings of this study underscore the significant promotional offers and mood mediate the relationship influence of store atmosphere and situational factors between store atmosphere and impulse buying in ap- on consumers’ impulse buying behaviour. A cap- parel consumers [61, 64]. This mediation effect, previ- tivating store ambiance, carefully crafted through ously unexplored, suggests that individuals with more visual, auditory and olfactory cues, can evoke time and money are more responsive to atmospheric positive emotions, enhance mood and stimulate cues and more likely to make impulse purchases. impulsive purchases among apparel consumers [21]. Understanding these situational factors can help tailor Additionally, situational factors such as promotional marketing tactics to target consumers’ financial situa- offers and time constraints were identified as key tions. The study’s findings enhance the understanding determinants that shape impulse buying tendencies, of how situational factors stimulate impulse buying with discounts and limited-time promotions creat- behaviour in apparel consumers [56, 62]. ing a sense of urgency and scarcity, thereby driving This study advances consumer behaviour theory impulsive purchases. Furthermore, this research by providing new insights into how store atmo- highlights the interactive nature of store atmosphere sphere and situational factors interact to influence and situational factors, emphasizing the need for impulse buying behaviour. It refines existing theo- retailers to consider both aspects in tandem to ef- retical frameworks such as S-O-R theory and deci- fectively stimulate IMBB for apparel consumers. By sion-making models by considering how contextual strategically designing store environments to evoke influences shape consumer responses in complex specific emotions, aligning promotional strategies retail environments. with consumer preferences and needs, and creating a sense of excitement and urgency, retailers can opti- 4.2 Practical implications mize their efforts to drive impulse purchases among The practical implications of these findings offer apparel consumers [49, 75]. valuable insights for retailers. By understanding the Impulse Buying Behaviour in Apparel Retail: Exploring the Role of Store Atmosphere and Situational Factors 239 connection between store atmosphere, situational in creating an immersive shopping environment that factors and impulse buying, retailers can optimize drives customer satisfaction and loyalty. their marketing, merchandising and store layouts to encourage spontaneous purchases. Additionally, Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank technology and data analytics can personalize the ASFT, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh for the sup- shopping experience with targeted promotions and port of this research paper. recommendations [66, 87, 88]. Conflict of interest: The authors hereby declare that Furthermore, the study’s results can guide store there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publi- managers in creating comfortable atmospheres that cation of this paper. encourage impulse purchases. Managers should invest in improving store ambience, including Data availability statement: The dataset contains enhancing salespeople’s attitudes, creating appeal- retailer and shopper information, including sensi- ing layouts and presenting products attractively. tive participant details that cannot be anonymized These strategies can boost impulse buying and help without compromising the integrity of the research. develop effective promotional programs targeting Therefore, the data cannot be publicly deposited. impulsive apparel buyers [48, 68, 69]. The findings However, the dataset may be made available by the also imply that managers should carefully design the corresponding author upon justified request. atmosphere of apparel retail stores and websites for highly interested customers, as they are more likely References to make impulse purchases [89, 90]. 1. KOTLER, P., & KELLER, K.L. Marketing man- 5 Limitation and future agement. 14th ed. Boston : Pearson, 2012. recommendation 2. 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In Handbook of Partial Least Squares. Edited by Vincenzo Esposito Vinzi, Wynne W. Chin, Jörg Henseler and Huiwen Wang. Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer, 2010, 655–690, doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-32827-8_29. Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025039 245 Milena Fornazarič, Mateja Gorenc Ljubljana School of Business, Tržaška cesta 42, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour Vpliv modnih vplivnežev na nakupne navade generacije Z in milenijcev Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 4–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 11–2025 Corresponding authors/Korespondenčni avtorici: Doc. dr. Milena Fornazarič E-mail: milena.fornazaric@gmail.com Tel.: +0386 41 764 673 ORCID iD: 0009-0002-7175-7687 Doc. dr. Mateja Gorenc E-mail: mateja.gorenc@vspv.si Tel.: +0386 40 558 233 ORCID iD: 0009-0000-5498-3848 Abstract In the age of social media, influencers are an important marketing tool, especially when it comes to their influ- ence on Generation Z and Millennials as they use influencer communication techniques. The article summaris- es the findings of various studies in which the authors study the influence of online influencers on purchasing behaviour when it comes to fashion products, emphasising the importance of authenticity, originality and transparency. The research also shows that an appropriate content strategy is important for the credibility of influencers, who, through thoughtful storytelling techniques, encourage favourable responses from followers and share content on social networks. In the study, we examined the influence of fashion influencers on the purchasing behaviour of Instagram users, especially when it comes to young people. Our objective was to analyse the impact of influencers, the power of their tools and how they are perceived by consumers. The aim of the research was to contribute to understanding the role of influencers in young people’s fashion purchases. Our research shows that Instagram influencers play an important role in the purchasing decisions of respond- ents who actively follow fashion content. The research results show that official profiles and user reviews have a greater impact on purchasing decisions than sponsored posts by influencers. There is also moderate scepticism regarding the accessibility of fashion influencer profiles, which is reflected in the relatively low share of those who made purchases based solely on their recommendations. Nevertheless, respondents regularly buy textiles online, mainly for practical reasons, e.g. greater choice and easier shopping. Sustainability is also important in their purchasing decisions. The results can significantly contribute to effective marketing strategies when it comes to fashion purchases. Keywords: digital marketing, influencer marketing, Instagram, fashion, Gen Z and Millennials Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. 246 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 Izvleček V času družbenih omrežij so vplivneži z uporabo različnih komunikacijskih tehnik pomembno marketinško orodje, še posebno ko gre za njihov vpliv na generacijo Z in milenijce. V članku so povzete ugotovitve različnih raziskav, v katerih avtorji proučujejo vpliv spletnih vplivnežev na nakupno vedenje, ko gre za modne izdelke, kjer avtorji poudarjajo predvsem pomen avtentičnosti, originalnosti in transparentnosti. Raziskave tudi kažejo, da je ustrezna vsebinska strategija pomembna za verodostojnost vplivnežev, ki s premišljenimi tehnikami pri- povedovanja zgodb spodbujajo ugodne odzive sledilcev in delijo vsebine na družbenih omrežjih. Z raziskavo smo želeli proučiti vpliv modnih vplivnežev na nakupno vedenje uporabnikov Instagrama, še posebno ko gre za mlajšo populacijo. Naš cilj je bil analizirati vpliv vplivnežev, moč njihovih orodij in kako jih dojemajo kupci. Namen raziskave je bil prispevati k razumevanju vloge vplivnežev pri modnih nakupih mladih. Naša raziskava kaže, da imajo Instagram vplivneži pomembno vlogo pri nakupnih odločitvah anketirancev, ki aktivno sprem- ljajo modne vsebine. Izsledki prav tako nakazujejo, da imajo uradni profili in ocene uporabnikov večji vpliv na odločitve o nakupu kot sponzorirane objave vplivnežev. Zmeren dvom se pojavi tudi glede dostopnosti profilov modnih vplivnežev, kar se odraža v relativno nizkem deležu tistih, ki so nakupe opravili zgolj na podlagi njihovih priporočil. Kljub temu anketiranci redno kupujejo tekstil preko spleta, predvsem iz praktičnih razlogov, kot sta večja izbira in lažji nakup. Trajnost je tudi pomembna pri njihovih odločitvah o nakupu. Izsledki raziskave lahko pomembno prispevajo k učinkovitim marketinškim strategijam, ko gre za nakupe modnih izdelkov. Ključne besede: digitalni marketing, vplivnostni marketing, Instagram, moda, generacija Z in milenijci 1 Introduction In an era dominated by social media, online influ- this landscape. Their effectiveness seems closely tied encers have become an important marketing tool to traits such as emotional warmth, relatability and for brands seeking to connect with their target cus- credibility [2]. The broader context of digital trans- tomers. In the time of daily connectivity, especially formation – including advancements in artificial in- among Generation Z (Gen Z) on social media, influ- telligence and the growing role of social media – has encers build their influence with brands by regularly considerably reshaped consumer decision-making posting texts, images and videos; this is especially processes [3]. Retail strategies are now influenced evident among the younger generation. by a mix of channel characteristics and consumer expectations, leading to complex omnichannel 1.1 The main area marketing approaches [4]. In this dynamic, influ- Contemporary research on consumer behaviour encer marketing thrives especially when rooted in increasingly highlights the influence of social transparency and a sense of authenticity [5]. media marketing, particularly through influencers, Influencers utilise their online presence to show- on younger demographics. A distinct group of case curated lifestyles, perspectives and talents that micro-influencers has emerged, recognised for their resonate with specific brand values, forging mutually perceived authenticity, personal engagement with beneficial relationships. This alignment promotes followers and creative talent. Their success is largely both social influence and financial opportunities. driven by the followers who use them as models in Micro-influencers – typically with follower counts shaping their brands [1]. ranging from 1,000 to 100,000 – often concentrate The rise of virtual influencers further expands on niche areas, enabling them to maintain a high Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour 247 level of trust and perceived authenticity among The impact of influencers on Gen Z is especially their audience [6]. Their strategy involves fostering pronounced. Their credibility directly shapes brand a sense of closeness and collaboration with their perception and purchase intention, with 85% of followers, blurring the line between the audience young consumers acknowledging that such influ- and influencer. encers affect their buying choices [10, 11]. Instagram In a study involving more than 12,000 participants remains the leading platform where Gen Z prefers [1], micro-influencers were found to gain traction to engage with product-related content and lifestyle on social networks by capitalising on traits such as narratives. In the highly competitive online fashion authenticity, openness and creative communication. sector, this level of influence translates into a signif- Their ability to present themselves through music, art icant advantage. and social engagement significantly enhances their Effective influencer marketing also relies on competitive edge. These influencers are most active well-crafted content strategies. High-quality sto- in sectors such as fashion, beauty, tourism, food and rytelling – using methods like brand evaluations, beverages – product categories that are inherently emotional connections, and identity-building – has expressive and sensitive to trends and pricing. The proven effective in generating favourable electronic study also reveals generational differences; while word-of-mouth (eWOM) [12]. The creative use older generations like Generation X and the so- of elements such as captions, emojis and visually called Silver Surfers often pursue financial rewards, engaging posts further boosts user engagement, younger audiences, especially Gen Z, are driven especially when used by influential personalities by a desire for recognition. Gender has a limited [13]. Studies measuring consumer response indica- role; however, financial motives are more evident in tors such as purchase intent, brand perception and entertainment-related sectors, whereas fame-driven impulse buying demonstrate tangible economic im- individuals focus on interactive areas like music and pacts, including improved visibility and consumer social exchange. In fashion and tourism, micro-in- interaction [14, 15]. fluencers exert especially strong influence and their Finally, consumer attitudes in regional markets self-branding revolves around establishing exclusivity such as Slovenia reveal a strong preference for sus- while fostering a sense of belonging. tainable and certified eco-friendly textile products. These items are perceived as more costly but also 1.2 Aim more responsible and aligned with sustainability Further research focuses on the fashion industry and values [16]. supports these insights. It confirms that micro-in- Successful influencer strategies consistently focus fluencers are often more effective than their macro on producing content that is authentic, trustworthy counterparts in driving purchase decisions due to the and tailored to the target audience. These strategies higher trust and authenticity they are perceived to often include storytelling and platform-specific ad- embody [7]. Younger generations, particularly Gen aptations. Influencers vary from celebrities to niche Z and Millennials, are especially responsive to Insta- experts, yet the common goal remains, i.e. creating gram-based marketing strategies. Studies indicate that engaging, high-quality content that resonates with women are more susceptible to impulsive purchases their community while enhancing brand visibility triggered by emotionally charged content [8]. Suc- and driving consumer behaviour. cessful Instagram strategies often include storytelling techniques that connect emotionally, highlighting the 1. 3 Research field importance of credible and knowledgeable influencers In the research, we focused on consumer purchasing who foster positive attitudes toward fashion trends [9]. behaviour, which is one of the most interesting 248 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 research areas in marketing, as it is influenced by a ual factors with which influencers influence the pur- multitude of factors that, in various combinations, chase of fashion products by Gen Z and Millennials lead the consumer to make a purchase. Consumer and above all, to interpret the obtained results and purchasing behaviour is a complex process. Many verify the hypotheses set. Moreover, based on the sciences (sociology, psychology, anthropology, research conducted, we wanted to provide recom- economics) are involved in studying consumer mendations for further research and practice. behaviour. We will focus on influencers who impact their followers with their behaviour. 2.1 Research plan Influencers are individuals who have a large reach The online questionnaire consisted exclusively of and influence on social media and can guide the closed-ended questions. This method was chosen purchasing decisions and behaviour of their followers to efficiently gather responses from Instagram with their opinions, recommendations and content. users about their behaviours and attitudes related to They usually specialise in a specific field, e.g. fashion, fashion influencers. A structured questionnaire was technology, fitness or travel, and work with brands developed, consisting of exclusively closed-ended to promote products or services. Their influence is questions (multiple choice and Likert-type scales). based on authenticity, follower engagement and the The survey instrument was constructed based on ability to create compelling content. Fashion influ- the themes identified in the literature on influencer encers have a strong impact on young people (Gen marketing and consumer behaviour. Questions Z and Millennials), as they shape fashion trends, consequently covered topics such as Instagram encourage purchasing decisions and promote certain usage habits, engagement with fashion content, per- brands through social media. Their authenticity and ceptions of influencer credibility and self-reported accessibility create a sense of trust, which is why purchasing behaviour influenced by various sources young people often imitate their style and follow their (influencers, official brand content, peer reviews). recommendations. In addition, influencers also affect Where possible, we drew on or adapted items from values such as sustainable fashion, ethical production previous studies to ensure content validity, e.g. we and individuality, which changes the way young peo- included a question with a 5-point scale asking ple perceive and consume fashion. respondents how often Instagram advertising influ- ences their attitude toward fashion products (from 2 Methods “Never” to “Almost always”), similar to the measures used in prior social media impact studies. Some In the research, we used a quantitative online sur- questions were tailored to our context (e.g. naming vey method, as we wanted to shed light on various Instagram specifically, or local examples), and the aspects that influence purchasing behaviour and overall questionnaire was reviewed by two market- provide insight into the power of influencers when ing faculty members for clarity and relevance. it comes to fashion. Our objective was to analyse the Before full deployment, the survey underwent a impact of influencers, the power of their tools and brief pre-test with a small group of five individuals how they are perceived by buyers, especially when from the target population (university students and it comes to young people. The aim of the research young professionals) to ensure that questions were was to contribute to understanding the role of clear and interpreted as intended. This feedback influencers when it comes to young people’s fashion led to minor wording adjustments. No formal pilot purchase decisions. study or scale validation (e.g. factor analysis) was We wanted to analyse the data obtained using a conducted due to time constraints and the pri- survey questionnaire on the importance of individ- marily exploratory nature of some questions – this Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour 249 is acknowledged as a limitation. However, many of Instagram advertising). These descriptive results questions were straightforward factual or prefer- are presented in a series of tables for clarity. ence items (e.g. “Do you follow fashion content on To test our hypotheses, we employed inferential Instagram? Yes/No,” or selecting which content type statistical tests. In particular, we used the chi-square influences you most), which mitigated the need for test of independence for hypotheses that involved extensive psychometric validation of scales. categorical comparisons (e.g. comparing groups of The survey was conducted via the website 1ka. respondents on whether they have made a purchase si. Respondents accessed the online survey via a web based on an influencer’s recommendation). The chi- link. Our sample consisted of everyone who uses square test is appropriate for identifying whether Instagram. It comprised several sections, namely differences in proportions between groups are Demographics (age, gender, education), Instagram statistically significant. For each relevant hypothesis, usage (frequency of use, following of fashion con- contingency tables were constructed (cross-tabu- tent), Content Influence – which types of Instagram lating, e.g. age group by following fashion content, content (sponsored influencer posts, friends’ posts, or following influencers by purchase behaviour), official brand profiles, user reviews etc.) are most and the chi-square statistic (χ²) and p-value were persuasive, Behaviour and Attitudes – including calculated. A significance level of α = 0.05 was used whether the respondent follows fashion influencers to determine statistical significance. We reported and whether they have ever purchased clothing the p-values and established whether the hypotheses based solely on an influencer’s recommendation, were supported or not. and perceptions regarding the fashion industry and sustainability. The survey was anonymous and took 2.2 Hypotheses approximately 5–7 minutes to complete. Drawing on the literature review and research objec- The sample was a non-probability sampling, i.e. tives, we formulated the following hypotheses: a convenience sampling. We accessed the sample by sharing the link to the survey on the social networks Hypothesis 1 (H1): Generation Z and Millennials Facebook and Instagram, through the online class- follow fashion content on Instagram more than older rooms of marketing and informatics students at the generations. Ljubljana School of Business, and friends/family. We This hypothesis posits a generational difference also asked social network users to forward the survey in engagement with fashion-related content on to their friends and acquaintances. The online survey Instagram. Younger users, being digital natives, are was available for 14 days. We expected approximately expected to have higher involvement in following 100 appropriate responses for analysis; however, in fashion influencers or brands on social media1. We the end, we received 185 completed questionnaires, anticipate that respondents in Gen Z/Millennial age 183 of which were completed correctly and met all ranges will report a higher rate of following fashion the conditions. content compared to older respondents (e.g. those The obtained data was then analysed with SPSS above Millennial age). and MS Excel, using various statistical methods. We first performed descriptive statistics to summarise Hypothesis 2 (H2): Instagram sponsored posts by the data (frequencies, percentages, means, standard influencers are the most likely to persuade respondents deviations) for all survey questions. This provided to buy fashion products. an overview of sample characteristics and general trends (e.g. proportion of respondents following 1 https://www.surveymonkey.com/curiosity/gen-z-social- fashion content, or average self-reported influence media-and-shopping-habits/ 250 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 This hypothesis reflects the assumption that ion content (not only specific influencer accounts). influencer advertisements (sponsored posts) have a The idea is that if a person is interested in fashion particularly strong influence on consumer buying content on Instagram – whether through influenc- decisions, perhaps more so than other content on In- ers, brand pages, or hashtags – they are immersed stagram (such as brand’s own posts or peer content). in the social media fashion culture and thus more The rationale comes from studies indicating that open to influence from any fashion-related source. sponsored influencer content can be highly effective, Essentially, being a follower of fashion content e.g. one Gen Z study found that 80% of participants creates a receptive mindset towards influencer responded very favourably to sponsored influencer suggestions. Industry surveys support this notion: material2. We therefore expect sponsored posts to users who follow brands or fashion pages on social be ranked by respondents as the content type most media are much more likely to purchase products likely to convince them to buy fashion items. promoted on these platforms5. We hypothesise that the respondents who indicate they follow fashion Hypothesis 3 (H3): The respondents who follow fash- content on Instagram will show a greater willingness ion influencers are more inclined to buy clothes based (and actual behaviour) to buy items purely due to solely on their recommendations. influencer endorsements, compared to those who do Theoretical justification for this hypothesis lies not follow fashion content. in the social influence and parasocial relationship theory: individuals who choose to follow fashion 3 Results and discussion influencers likely trust them or find their content ap- pealing, which should translate into a higher propen- A total of 183 respondents participated in the survey. sity to act on their recommendations3. Prior research The key demographic characteristics are summarised shows a strong correlation between following influ- in Table 1. The majority of respondents were female encers and being influenced by them in purchasing (approximately 78%), reflecting a gender imbalance contexts 4. We expect to find that the respondents in in our sample. In terms of age, our sample skewed our sample who follow fashion influencers have a slightly older than the primary target of Gen Z: more significantly higher rate of having made a purchase than half of respondents (56%) were over 36 years old, due to an influencer’s recommendation, compared while about one-third (31%) were between 19 and 25 to those who do not follow influencers. years old; the remainder fell between 26 and 35. This indicates that a significant portion of participants were Hypothesis 4: The respondents who follow fashion older Millennials or even Gen X, which is noteworthy content are more often willing to buy clothes simply for interpreting the results of H1 (since we have a because of influencer recommendations. substantial comparison group of older vs. younger). This hypothesis is related to H3; however, it Regarding education level, 75% of respondents extends the concept to anyone engaging with fash- reported having higher or university-level education, and only 5% had a vocational (secondary) education, meaning the sample was relatively well-educated. 2 https://wsj.westsciences.com/index.php/wsis/article/ view/317#:~:text=authenticity.%20Transparency%20 These demographics highlight a limitation, the %2872.5,of%20Generation%20Z%20in%20Indonesia sample is namely not representative of the general 3 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-023-02512- 1#:~:text=credibility%20and%20purchase%20intention%20 by,moderating%20effect%20on%20the%20relationship 4 https://wsj.westsciences.com/index.php/wsis/article/ view/317#:~:text=locations,percent%20of%20users%20 5 https://www.surveymonkey.com/curiosity/gen-z-social- preferred%20partnerships media-and-shopping-habits/ Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour 251 population of Instagram users in terms of gender provides an interesting internal comparison – since and age distribution. Instead, it over-represents we do have respondents across different age groups, women and includes a large fraction of older indi- we can observe generational differences within our viduals. This bias will be considered when discussing data, albeit within a convenience sample. the generalisability of findings. Nevertheless, it also Table 1: Demographic data Demographic data Answers Frequency Percentage Cumulative (%) (%) Female 142 78% 78 Gender Men 41 22% 100 0–18 years 0 0% 0 19–25 years 31 17% 17 Age 26–35 years 45 25% 42 36–45 years 60 33 74 46 years and older 47 26 100 Primary school 0 0 0 Secondary school 10 5 5 Education High education 35 19 25 Higher education 68 37 62 University education 70 38 100 Total 183 100 Nearly all respondents were active Instagram ions (e.g. in comments or Q&A stories), and video users, as expected by our inclusion criteria. Table tutorials or product demonstration posts. Table 3 2 shows that the vast majority of the respondents summarises the results of this question. (76%) use Instagram, and the majority of Instagram Table 3 shows the responses when the respon- users (91%) spend up to two hours per day on the dents were asked which types of content on Insta- platform. 62% of the respondents follow fashion gram most persuade them to buy. Official brand content on Instagram. About half of the respondents profiles convince the most respondents (59%). (49%) believe that Instagram advertising rarely in- Ratings and opinions of users (48%) also have a sig- fluences their attitude towards fashion products. The nificant impact on the purchase, as users often trust mean of the responses for the impact of Instagram the experiences and reviews of other consumers. advertising (AM = 2.6, SD = 0.9) shows that the Sponsored posts by influencers (15%) proved to be majority of the respondents tend to be moderately the least convincing in this survey. influenced by Instagram advertising. The results from Table 3 are somewhat striking: We specifically explored which types of Insta- official brand profiles outranked influencer posts by a gram content respondents find most convincing large margin in terms of perceived influence on pur- when it comes to making purchasing decisions for chasing. This finding runs counter to the assumption fashion products. This addresses H2. We provided in H2 that influencer-sponsored posts would domi- multiple options and allowed respondents to select nate. Instead, it appears that respondents rely more on all that apply. The content types included: sponsored direct brand communications and peer feedback. This influencer posts, posts by friends/acquaintances, could reflect a scepticism towards influencer promo- official brand profiles/posts, user reviews or opin- tions – possibly viewing them as ads – or simply that 252 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 Table 2: Using Instagram and following fashion content on Instagram Questions Answers Frequency Percentage Cumulative (%) (%) Yes 136 76 76 Do you use the social No 42 24 100 network Instagram? Total respondents 178 100 Less than 1 hour per day 63 46 46 How much time do you 1–2 hours per day 61 45 91 spend on Instagram per 3–4 hours per day 12 9 100 day? More than 5 hours per day 0 0 100 Total respondents 136 100 Yes 84 62 62 Do you follow fashion No 52 38 100 content on this platform? Total respondents 136 100 1 – Never 14 10 10 Do you think Instagram 2 – Rarely 52 39 49 advertising influences 3 – Sometimes 48 36 85 your attitude towards 4 – Often 16 12 97 fashion products? 5 – Almost always 4 3 100 Total respondents 134 100 Mean of the responses 2.6 Std. deviation 0.9 official brand pages often provide reliable information many respondents actively follow fashion influencers (e.g. product details, new arrivals) that directly facil- on Instagram and whether they imitate or take inspi- itates purchase decisions. The relatively high trust in ration from these influencers, as well as if they have user reviews (48%) aligns with global trends where ever made a purchase based solely on an influencer’s consumers trust peer experiences and reviews as recommendation. These questions help address H3 much as or even more than traditional advertising. and H4 by segmenting the sample according to their Our survey included questions to gauge how engagement level. Table 3: What types of content on Instagram convince you the most to buy? What types of content on Instagram convince you the most Frequency Valid Percentage to buy? – more possible answers (%) Sponsored influencer posts 20 130 15 Posts by friends and acquaintances 51 130 39 Official brand profiles 77 130 59 User reviews and opinions (comments, Q&A story) 62 130 48 Video tutorials and product demonstrations 39 130 30 Total respondents 130 Table 4 shows that 46% of the respondents regu- ideas and styles recommended by influencers and larly follow fashion influencers, 16% only sometimes, 25% of the respondents do not imitate them at all. while 38% do not follow fashion influencers. The The mean of the responses for the variable following largest share of the respondents (42%) rarely follow fashion influencers (AS = 2.2, SD = 0.9) shows that Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour 253 while most respondents follow influencers, they only Only 30% of the respondents have purchased clothing occasionally or rarely imitate them in fashion trends. solely on the recommendation of an online influencer. Table 4: Impact of content and influencers Questions Answers Frequency Percentage Cumulative (%) (%) Yes 61 46 46 No 51 38 84 Do you follow any fashion influencers? Sometimes 22 16 100 Total respondents 134 100 1 - Never 34 25 25 2 - Rarely 56 42 67 3 - Sometimes 33 25 92 Do you want to imitate their ideas, styles, 4 - Often 11 8 100 recommendations on fashion trends? 5 - Almost always 0 0 100 Total respondents 134 100 Mean of the responses 2.2 Std. deviation 0.9 Have you ever purchased clothes based Yes 40 30 30 exclusively on the recommendation of an No 94 70 100 online influencer? Total respondents 134 100 Table 5: The respondents’ opinions on actual image of fashion industry Questions Answers Frequency Percentage Cumulative (%) (%) 1 - I don‘t know 3 2 2 2 - Never 43 33 35 Do you think that the fashion trends 3 - Rarely 46 35 70 predicted by online influencers are 4 - Sometimes 35 27 97 important to you and affect your 5 - Often 4 3 100 purchasing behavior? 6 - Almost always 0 0 100 Total respondents 131 100 Mean of the responses 3.0 Std. deviation 0.9 1 - Yes 5 4 4 2 - Partially 75 57 61 Do you think fashion influencers portray a 3 - No 51 39 100 realistic image of the fashion industry? Total 131 100 Mean of the responses 2.4 Std. deviation 0.6 1 - Yes 1 1 1 2 - Partially 39 30 31 Do you think fashion influencers portray a 3 - No 91 69 100 realistic lifestyle? Total respondents 131 100 Mean of the responses 2.7 Std. deviation 0.5 Table 5 shows that 68% of the respondents on their Instagram profiles are not relevant to their believe that fashion trends posted by influencers shopping process. Only 4% of respondents believe 254 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 that influencers represent the real fashion industry. and additional 30% estimate that this portrayal is Most respondents (57%) estimate that the portrayal only partially realistic. of the fashion industry is only partly realistic. The Table 6, which shows how respondents assess average agreement (AS = 2.4, SD = 0.6) is closer to their attitude towards fashion, shows that 39% of the the “Partially” answer, confirming that the general respondents follow fashion, but do not necessarily opinion in the sample is reserved: most do not dress according to trends, 31% follow fashion only believe that influencers fully capture reality, but are occasionally, and 18% of respondents regularly aware that some aspects of fashion are still reflected. follow fashion and trends. The mean (AS = 2.7, SD As many as 69% of the respondents believe that = 1.0) shows that most respondents tend to follow fashion influencers do not portray a realistic lifestyle fashion moderately. Table 6: Attitude towards fashion Question Answers Frequency Percentage (%) Cumulative (%) 1 -Not interested 18 10 10 2 - I only occasionally follow fashion trends 53 31 41 3 - I follow fashion, but I don‘t dress according to 67 39 80 How would you trends rate your attitude 4 - I regularly follow fashion and trends 31 18 98 towards fashion? 5 - I am very involved in the fashion industry (e.g., 4 2 100 blogger, stylist, influencer, fashion designer) Total respondents 173 100 Mean of the responses 2.7 Std. deviation 1.0 Table 7 shows how often the respondents buy SD = 1.1) indicates that the overall level of online fashion products (textiles) online, showing that as shopping is moderate, with a standard deviation of many as 34% of the respondents buy textiles online 1.1 indicating that the habits of the respondents are frequently, 27% of them sometimes and 22% rarely relatively diverse. shop online. The mean of the responses (AS = 3.0, Table 7: Online purchasing Question Answers Frequency Percentage (%) Cumulative (%) 1 - Never 16 9 9 2 - Rarely 40 23 33 Do you buy 3 - Sometimes 47 27 60 fashion products 4 - Often 59 34 94 (textiles) online? 5 - Almost always 10 6 100 Total respondents 172 100 Mean of the responses 3.0 Std. deviation 1.1 Table 8 displays what most attracts the respon- lower prices (43%) and other benefits (discounts, dents to buying clothes online and shows that the promotions, loyalty programmes) (46%) influence largest proportion (60%) are most attracted by the the decision. Influencer recommendations (5%) are greater choice of products, with 57% also pointing by far the least common reason to buy online. out the ease of delivery and returns. Furthermore, Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour 255 Table 8: What attracts you most to online clothing shopping? What attracts you most to online clothing shopping? Frequency Valid Valid (%) Lower prices than in stores 71 167 43 Greater choice of products 100 167 60 Influencer recommendations 8 167 5 Easy delivery and returns 95 167 57 Other benefits (discounts, promotions, loyalty programs) 76 167 46 Total respondents 167 In Table 9, which shows whether the respon- sustainability aspects into account when buying dents are interested in the sustainability aspect (eco clothing. Only 6% always buy sustainable products, materials, ethical production), we can see that the while 26% do not pay attention to this aspect. majority of the respondents (68%) occasionally take Table 9: Sustainability Question Answers Frequency Percentage Cumulative (%) (%) 1 - Yes, I always buy sustainable products 11 6 6 Are you interested in 2 - Yes, I occasionally take this aspect into the sustainable aspect 117 68 74 account (eco materials, ethical 3 - No, it doesn‘t matter to me when production) when buying 44 26 100 shopping clothes? Total respondents 172 100 Mean of the responses 2.2 Std. deviation 0.5 Table 10, which presents how much the re- 200 to 400 euros, and no one exceeds spending more spondents spend on online clothing purchases per than 400 euros. month, shows that the vast majority of the respon- With the descriptive results covered, we now dents (75%) spend up to 100 euros per month on proceed to hypothesis testing, where we tie these online clothing purchases, 20% spend up to 100 to findings back to H1–H4, providing statistical evi- 200 euros, only 5% of the respondents spend from dence for confirmation or rejection. Table 10: Monthly spending on online clothing purchases Question Answers Frequency Percentage Cumulative (%) (%) < 100 euros 124 75 75 100–200 euros 33 20 95 How much do you spend per month 200–400 euros 9 5 100 buying clothes online? > 400 euros 0 0 100 Total respondents 166 100 Hypothesis 1. Generation Z and Millennials To test H1, we split respondents into two age follow fashion content more on Instagram than older groups: “younger” (Gen Z & Millennials, roughly generations. NOT CONFIRMED ages 15–35) and “older” (above 35, which in our 256 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 sample primarily corresponds to Gen X). We then the difference was statistically significant. compared the proportions of each group that The Table 11 shows that out of 173 respondents, reported following fashion content on Instagram. 130 (75.1%) provided valid answers and 43 (24.9%) However, since our sample had a skew (with 56% did not, regarding whether people younger or older over age 36), we conducted a chi-square test to see if than 46 follow fashion content on the platform. Table 11: Summary of statistical analysis characteristics Case processing summary Cases Valid Missing Total Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage (%) (%) (%) Age younger older 46 Do you follow fashion content on 130 75.1 43 24.9 173 100.0 this platform? Based on the analysis of the results (Table 12), Table 13: Chi-square test for age association and we can see that Gen Z and Millennials (aged 19 to monitoring of fashion content 45) are slightly more likely to follow fashion content Chi- Value df Asymp- Exact Exact sig. on Instagram compared to older generations (46 Square totic sig- sig. (1-sided) years and older). However, the chi-square test (Table statistics nificance 2-sided) (2-sided) 13) p = 0.269 (p > 0.05) shows that the difference is Pearson not statistically significant. Therefore, H1 cannot be chi- 1,222 a) 1 .269 confirmed. square Number of valid 130 Table 12: Age contingency table according to fashion cases content monitoring a) 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The mini- mum expected count is 8.67. Do you follow fashion Age younger older 46 content on this platform? relatively tech-savvy (since they came through social Yes No media channels), and a fair number of them do Count 69 38 19–45 years Percentage 64.5% 35.5% follow fashion content, making the gap smaller than 46 years and Count 12 11 hypothesised. In our data, 63% of the respondents older Percentage 52.2% 47.8% under 36 followed fashion content, compared to Total Count 81 49 about 55% of those aged 36 and above – a difference, respondents Percentage 62.3% 37.7% but not a dramatic one. Therefore, H1 cannot be confirmed with statistical confidence, suggesting In other words, H1 was not confirmed by our that in our sample, Gen Z/Millennial users were not data. The difference in following fashion content significantly more likely to follow fashion content on between younger and older respondents, while Instagram than the older (Gen X) users. present in raw percentages, was not statistically Here’s a bar chart visualising the percentage of reliable given our sample size and distribution. One people in each age group who follow fashion con- likely reason is the composition of our “older” group: tent on the platform (Figure 1). People aged 19–45 many older respondents in our sample might still be are more likely to follow fashion content (64.5%) Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour 257 compared to those 46 and older (52.2%). Converse- Table 14: What types of content on Instagram convince ly, a higher percentage of older users (47.8%) do you the most to buy? not follow fashion content compared to younger What types of content Frequen- Valid Percent- users (35.5%). on Instagram convince cy age you the most to buy? (%) Sponsored influencer 20 130 15 posts Posts by friends and 51 130 39 acquaintances Official brand profiles 77 130 59 User reviews and 62 130 48 opinions (comments, Q&A story) Video tutorials 39 130 30 and product demonstrations Total respondents - 130 Figure 1: Fashion content following by age group Hypothesis 2. Instagram sponsored posts by influencers are the most likely to persuade respon- dents to buy fashion products. NOT CONFIRMED This hypothesis can be evaluated by looking at the results we described in Table 3 (content types that persuade purchases). The expectation was that sponsored influencer posts would rank highest. Table 14 shows which types of content on Instagram most persuade the respondents to buy. Figure 2: Instagram content types that influence pur- Sponsored posts by influencers (15%) proved to be chasing decisions the least convincing in this survey. Official brand profiles (59%) have the most significant impact, This suggests that users trust and are most influenced indicating a high level of trust in direct, official by direct content from brands. User reviews and opin- information. Therefore, H2 cannot be confirmed. ions (comments, Q&A story) come second (around Table 14 and Figure 2 illustrate how often dif- 62), highlighting the importance of peer feedback and ferent types of Instagram content convince users to social proof in purchasing decisions. Posts by friends make a purchase. The content types are ranked by and acquaintances also have a significant impact their influence (frequency of selection) among the (around 52), showing that personal connections can respondents. Official brand profiles are the most influence consumer behaviour. Video tutorials and convincing, with the highest frequency (close to 80). product demonstrations (around 39) are moderately 258 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 persuasive, indicating that informative content helps tested H3 by cross-tabulating “Do you follow any in decision-making. Sponsored influencer posts have fashion influencers?” (Yes/No) with “Have you the least influence (about 20), suggesting a possible ever purchased clothing based exclusively on an scepticism or lower trust in paid promotions com- influencer’s recommendation?” (Yes/No). A chi- pared to other content types. square test was conducted to statistically verify this Hypothesis 3: The respondents who follow fash- association. ion influencers are more inclined to buy clothes based The Table 15 indicates that out of 173 respon- solely on their recommendations. CONFIRMED dents, 130 (75.1%) provided valid answers and 43 Hypothesis 3 deals with the relationship between (24.9%) did not regarding whether they follow any following influencers and purchase behaviour. We fashion influencers. Table 15: Summary of statistical analysis characteristics Cases Valid Missing Total Case processing summary Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage (%) (%) (%) Do you follow any fashion influencers? Have you ever purchased clothes based 130 75.1 43 24.9 173 100.0 exclusively on the recommendation of an online influencer? Based on the analysis of the results (Table 16), 6.1%). Based on the result of the chi-square test we can see that among those who regularly follow (Table 17), p = 0.001 (p > 0.05), H3 is confirmed, fashion influencers, as many as half (51.7%) have as there are statistically significant differences in already made a purchase based solely on their purchasing behaviour between different groups of recommendation. Among those who do not follow respondents. Those who follow influencers make influencers, such purchases are extremely rare (only such purchases more often; hence, we confirm H3. Table 16: Contingency table to check H3 Have you ever purchased clothes based exclusively on the recommendation of an online Cross-tabulation of responses influencer? Yes No Count 31 29 Yes Percentage 51.7% 48.3% Do you follow any fashion Count 3 46 No influencers? Percentage 6.1% 93.9% Count 5 16 Sometimes Percentage 23.8% 76.2% Total respondents Count 39 91 Percentage 30.0% 70.0% Those who follow fashion influencers indeed recommendations, compared to those who do not are far more likely to have been influenced to pur- follow influencers. This finding makes intuitive chase fashion items solely on the basis of influencer sense and aligns with theoretical expectations: if Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour 259 Table 17: Chi-square test results to check H3 Chi-square statistics Value df Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) Pearson chi-square 27.099 a) 2 < .001 Number of valid cases 130 a) 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.30. Table 18: Summary of statistical analysis characteristics Cases Valid Missing Total Case processing summary Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage (%) (%) (%) Do you follow fashion content on this platform? Have you ever purchased clothes based 130 75.1 43 24.9 173 100.0 exclusively on the recommendation of an online influencer? engagement with influencers and their subsequent buying behaviour6. The bar chart in Figure 3 visualises the relation- ship between following fashion influencers and pur- chasing clothes based on their recommendations. Among those who do follow influencers, more than a half (31 out of 60) have made a purchase based on their recommendation. The majority of those who do not follow influencers have not made such pur- chases (46 out of 49). Those who sometimes follow influencers are more likely not to purchase based on recommendations (16 vs. 5). Hypothesis 4: The respondents who follow fashion content are more often willing to buy clothes simply because of influencer recommendations. Figure 3: Purchases based on influencer recommenda- CONFIRMED tions vs. following fashion influencers Hypothesis 4 is closely related to H3; however, it broadens the scope to anyone following fashion-re- lated content (not just influencers). In practice, to test someone chooses to follow influencers, they are H4 we looked at respondents who answered “Yes” exposing themselves to persuasive content and to following fashion content on Instagram (which likely have some level of trust or admiration for the could include following brand pages, hashtags etc.), influencer, which in many cases translates into try- ing out products the influencers recommend. Our result resonates with broader research that has found 6 https://wsj.westsciences.com/index.php/wsis/article/ view/317#:~:text=locations,percent%20of%20users%20 strong positive correlations between consumers’ preferred%20partnerships 260 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 and compared their rate of purchasing based on chase of clothing on the basis of a recommendation influencer recommendations to those who answered are higher in the group that follows fashion content “No” (do not follow any fashion content). Essentially, (42%) than in those that do not follow it (10.2%). This this is another 2 × 2 comparison: follow fashion con- means that following fashion content on Instagram tent (Yes/No) vs. ever purchased due to influencer increases the likelihood that respondents will decide (Yes/No). to purchase clothing solely on the recommendation The Table 18 shows that out of 173 respondents, of an influencer. Based on the result of the chi-square 130 (75.1%) provided valid answers and 43 (24.9%) test (Table 20) p = 0.001 (p > 0.05), H4 is confirmed, did not regarding following fashion content on the as there are statistically significant differences. Those platform and purchasing clothes based on an online who follow fashion content significantly more often influencer’s recommendation. make purchases of clothing based solely on recom- Based on the analysis of the results (Table 19), mendations. H4 is confirmed. we can see that those who have already made a pur- Table 19: Contingency table for checking H4 Have you ever purchased clothes based exclusively on Cross-tabulation of responses the recommendation of an online influencer? Yes No Count 34 47 Do you follow Yes Percentage 42.0% 58.0% fashion content on this platform? Count 5 44 No Percentage 10.2% 89.8% Total respondents Count 39 91 Percentage 30.0% 70.0% Table 20: Chi-square test results to check H4 Chi-square statistics Value df Asymptotic significance Exact sig. Exact sig. (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided) Pearson chi-square 14.675 a) 1 < .001 Number of valid cases 130 a) 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 14.70. It is worth clarifying the conceptual distinction who follow fashion content encounter influencers between H3 and H4 in light of these results. H3 indirectly (e.g. via brand reposts or hashtags) and isolated the effect of explicitly following influencer still absorb their recommendations. Alternatively, it accounts, whereas H4 suggests that even following might indicate that people passionate about fashion fashion broadly (which could mean one follows brand (as evidenced by following fashion content) are sim- accounts or fashion news but not necessarily influenc- ply more open to trying new things, including those ers) is associated with being influenced by influencers. touted by influencers. Either way, H4 underscores a The confirmation of H4 implies that an interest in broader point: engagement with the fashion domain fashion content in general predisposes consumers to on Instagram, in any form, correlates with higher be receptive to influencer suggestions. Possibly, those likelihood of influencer-driven purchasing. Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour 261 relationship-building7. Our findings provide empir- ical evidence of this link in a survey setting and in a new regional context (Slovenia), thus broadening the generalisability of existing theories beyond the commonly studied markets. Secondly, our study contributes to the literature by comparing the persuasive power of different content sources on social media. The finding that official brand profiles and peer reviews were more influential than influencer posts (H2 not supported) challenges some assumptions in influencer mar- keting discourse. It suggests that, at least for the surveyed population, the credibility of information might outweigh the charisma of influencers. This insight contributes to theory by emphasising the role of content type and source credibility: it is not just who delivers a message (influencer vs. brand vs. peer) but the perceived trustworthiness of that source that affects consumer response. It echoes Figure 4: Purchases based on influencer recommenda- the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) in that tions vs. following fashion content consumers might be processing influencer promo- tions more peripherally (and perhaps sceptically), The bar chart in Figure 4 shows the relationship whereas brand information and peer opinions could between following fashion content on the platform be seen as more central cues for decision-making8. and purchasing clothes based on an influencer’s Our results invite a theoretical reconsideration of recommendation. Among those who follow fashion when influencer content crosses the line to be seen content, 42% have purchased based on an influenc- as “advertising” by consumers, potentially triggering er’s recommendation (34 out of 81). Among those persuasion knowledge and scepticism (as evidenced who do not follow, only 10.2% have done so (5 out of by moderate trust and low direct conversion rates). 49), with a strong majority not influenced. Additionally, our research offers a regional This research makes several theoretical contri- contribution by being, to our knowledge, one of butions to the study of influencer marketing and the first studies focusing on influencer impact on consumer behaviour. First, our results reinforce the fashion purchasing in Slovenia. It provides a point idea that social media influencers can indeed alter of comparison with studies from other countries. consumer purchase behaviour; however, they add For example, Erwin et al. (2023) in Indonesia found nuance to the understanding of how and when this influence occurs. The confirmation of H3 and H4 7 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-023-02512- aligns with the social influence theory and the con- 1?error=cookies_not_supported&code=a773f28f-41f0- 4ff9-bca8-6b05b52bc827#:~:text=The%20use%20of%20 cept of parasocial relationships, i.e. consumers who social%20media,moderating%20effect%20on%20the%20 engage with influencers or fashion content are more relationship 8 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-023-02512- susceptible to being influenced in their purchasing 1?error=cookies_not_supported&code=a773f28f-41f0- decisions. This supports models that link influencer 4ff9-bca8-6b05b52bc827#:~:text=The%20use%20of%20 social%20media,moderating%20effect%20on%20the%20 engagement to purchase intention via trust and relationship 262 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 245–264 an extremely high rate (85%) of Gen Z consumers 4 Conclusion acknowledging influencer impact on purchases9, whereas our Slovenian sample shows a lower rate Our research shows that Instagram influencers play (30% have purchased based on influencer recom- an important role in the purchasing decisions of re- mendation). This discrepancy might hint at cultural spondents who actively follow fashion content. Most or market differences – perhaps Slovenian consum- respondents regularly buy textiles online, confirming ers are more sceptical or have different media con- the importance of the online environment for fashion sumption patterns. By documenting this difference, shopping. The influence of Instagram content and our study contributes to the theoretical conversation influencers is significant, and purchasing behaviour on how cultural context and market maturity also depends on other factors, e.g. personal interests, influence the effectiveness of influencer marketing. perceptions of influencers’ authenticity and brand It underscores that influencer marketing theories marketing strategies. The research results show and models (mostly developed in large markets) that official profiles and user ratings have a greater should be tested in varying contexts; what holds in influence on purchasing decisions than sponsored one culture may not exactly replicate in another. posts by influencers. There is also a moderate scepti- Our findings thus encourage an expansion of theory cism regarding the availability of fashion influencer to incorporate context-dependent factors such as profiles, which is reflected in the relatively low pro- consumer scepticism, market size and prevalence of portion of those who made their purchases based alternative information channels. solely on their recommendations. Most respondents Finally, our inclusion of sustainability consider- believe that fashion influencers only partially show a ations ties our work into the theoretical discourse on realistic resemblance to the fashion industry, which ethical consumerism in the digital age. We observed indicates moderate criticism and scepticism toward that sustainability is important to our respondents, their representation. consistent with prior research in Slovenia and global Nevertheless, respondents regularly buy textiles Gen Z trends10. While we did not hypothesise directly online, mainly for practical reasons, i.e. greater about sustainability, the prominence of this theme in choice and ease of purchase. Sustainability is also both our qualitative observations and respondents’ important in their purchasing decisions. attitudes suggests theoretical integration: influencer We are aware of the limitations of the research, marketing’s impact might increasingly depend on which is a result of the unrepresentative sample, alignment with consumer values like sustainability. as it concerns students from a specific school and This contributes to emerging theories on the inter- programme, and friends on social networks, mostly section of influencer marketing and brand activism/ in a limited geographical area of Slovenia. values-driven marketing. These findings provide comprehensive insight into respondents’ behaviour and preferences in the digital environment, which is valuable for designing online marketing strategies and adapting fashion product offerings. New questions are being raised that can form the basis for new research, e.g. what are the differences between genders, are there noticeable 9 https://wsj.westsciences.com/index.php/wsis/article/ differences in the influence between those who buy view/317#:~:text=locations,percent%20of%20users%20 fashion products online and in brick-and-mortar preferred%20partnerships 10 https://www.surveymonkey.com/curiosity/gen-z-social- stores, how do different social networks affect pur- media-and-shopping-habits/ Impact of Fashion Influencers on Generation Z and Millennials Purchasing Behaviour 263 chasing behaviour, what are the differences between Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 2021, micro and regular fashion influencers etc. 15(2), 181–199, doi: 10.1108/jrim-10-2019-0161. 7. KAPOOR, K. Comparative analysis between mi- Data availability statement: From 19 November cro and macro fashion influencers of Instagram 2025, the research data are available at in India. 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Zayedul Hasan,1, 2 Rochak Rathour,1 Apurba Das,1 Ramasamy Alagirusamy,1 Nandan Kumar3 1 Department of Textile and Fibre Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Hauz Khas, 110016 New Delhi, India 2 Department of Textile Engineering, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, 1902 Tangail, Bangladesh 3 High Performance Textiles Pvt. Ltd., Panipat, Haryana, India Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review Oblikovanje in razvoj udobnih delovnih oblačil za protiurezno zaščito: pregled Scientific review/Pregledni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 3–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 10–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčni avtor: Md. Zayedul Hasan E-mail: zayedul.hasanmbstu@gmail.com ORCID iD: 0009-0002-5055-475X Abstract The challenge of developing cut-protective clothing that ensures wearer safety and comfort remains com- plex in protective textile engineering. Traditional designs often compromise comfort for mechanical protec- tion, leading to decreased wearer compliance and productivity. This review critically examines the interplay between comfort and cut resistance in the designing of protective apparel for industrial workers. Recent advancements in fibre science, yarn engineering and fabric architecture are highlighted for optimizing per- formance. This review begins by analysing the prevalence and causes of occupational cut injuries to estab- lish functional requirements for protective clothing. It then explores how fibre type, yarn configuration and fabric structure impact cut resistance and comfort. Standardized test methods for evaluating cut resistance are discussed to provide context for material performance. Additionally, the review outlines garment design strategies that incorporate ergonomic principles to enhance mobility, reduce heat stress and improve user acceptability. It concludes with an outlook on emerging technologies such as smart textiles and 3D body scanning that could revolutionize future cut-protective workwear design. Keywords: protective clothing, textile structure, clothing design, cut hazard, ergonomic comfort Izvleček Razvijanje zaščitnih oblačil proti urezninam, ki hkrati zagotavljajo varnost in udobje uporabnika, ostaja kom- pleksen izziv v načrtovanju in izdelavi zaščitnih tekstilij. Pri tradicionalno oblikovanih zaščitnih oblačilih je udobje pogosto žrtvovano v prid mehanske zaščite, to pa vodi v zmanjšano upoštevanje varnostnih ukrepov ter nižjo učinkovitost uporabnikov. Članek kritično analizira medsebojno povezavo med udobjem in odpor- nostjo proti urezu pri oblikovanju zaščitnih oblačil za industrijske delavce. Poseben poudarek je na najnovejših dosežkih na področju znanosti o vlaknih, tehnologiji prediva ter zgradbi tkanin, ki prispevajo k optimizaciji zmogljivosti oblačil. Študija se začne z analizo pogostosti in vzrokov delovnih poškodb zaradi ureza, da se določijo funkcionalne zahteve za zaščitna oblačila. Sledi raziskava vpliva vrste vlaken, konfiguracije prediva Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. 266 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 265–290 in strukture tkanin na odpornost proti urezu ter udobje. Obravnavane so standardizirane metode testiranja odpornosti proti urezu, ki omogočajo oceno zmogljivosti materialov. Prispevek opisuje tudi strategije obli- kovanja oblačil, ki vključujejo ergonomska načela za izboljšanje mobilnosti, zmanjšanje toplotnega stresa in povečanje sprejemljivosti med uporabniki. Povzetek se zaključi z vpogledom v nastajajoče tehnologije, kot so pametne tekstilije in 3D skeniranje telesa, ki bi lahko v prihodnje močno vplivale na oblikovanje delovnih oblačil za protiurezno zaščito. Ključne besede: zaščitna oblačila, struktura tekstilij, oblikovanje oblačil, nevarnost ureza, ergonomsko udobje 1 Introduction Design plays a crucial role in gaining approval from Safety in the workplace is a top priority in industries observers and potential customers for popular daily such construction, manufacturing and logistics, apparel. Humans respond to visual information, in- where employees face risks from tools, machinery cluding clothing and other everyday items. Clothing and materials. Cut-resistant workwear is essential for serves the fundamental purposes of modesty and preventing injuries, protecting workers and meeting safety, with beauty becoming increasingly important. safety standards. Although current protective cloth- The protective clothing market is shifting its focus ing offers good safety features, it often overlooks the towards emphasizing safety as its primary purpose, importance of comfort, ergonomics and ease of wear. with protective textiles being developed to safeguard This can make it difficult for workers to follow safety workers from a range of hazards. However, the per- protocols and stay productive [10]. Wearing larger formance of protective textiles may be limited by the and denser cut-protective suits can raise the energy need to meet safety standards [1, 2]. Occupational expenditure of activities by 20% [11, 12]. This can safety is a global concern, with millions of workers lead to significant stress on the body when working, facing risks in various industries. The International particularly in humid environments, resulting in Labour Organization (ILO) reports over 317 million cognitive impairment, discomfort, fatigue, reduced work-related injuries annually, leading to more operational efficiency and potential harm [13]. The than 320,000 fatalities and significant human and regulation of human body temperature relies on heat economic costs [3]. The protective gear, such as transport within the body and between the human stab-proof suits, cut-resistant aprons and gloves, is body and its environment [14, 15]. When the body’s intended to minimize the chances of injury and offer heat regulation mechanisms are overwhelmed and protection from different dangers. It is important heat accumulates, the core temperature can rise for individuals working in high-risk environments dangerously resulting in heat stress, which poses a to wear appropriate protective gear to minimize significant risk to health and performance in various the potential for harm [4‒6]. These advancements industrial settings [16]. Factors such as ambient are designed to improve the human body’s ability temperature, physical activity levels and clothing to withstand or completely avoid injuries caused choices play a crucial role in the development of heat by sharp objects and other dangerous impacts [7, stress-related illnesses [17]. Understanding these 8]. However, traditional protective options such as factors and their underlying principles is essential leather clothing, wire mesh steel, and steel gloves for assessing the risk of heat stress. The importance have faced various challenges, such as discomfort, of wearer health is increasingly recognized in the reduced flexibility and inadequate protection [9]. use of cut-resistant gear [18‒23]. To address this, Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review 267 companies must focus on developing more comfort- 2 Cut and slash incidents in the able and breathable protective workwear that can be worn in all types of weather conditions. Addition- workplaces ally, training programmes should be implemented to raise awareness about the importance of wearing Preventing cuts is vital for workplace safety. Every protective gear and the potential risks of not doing year, numerous work-related accidents occur glob- so. By prioritizing employee safety and comfort, ally that could be prevented using proper protective companies can create a safer work environment equipment. Cuts and scratches are common injuries and reduce the risk of workplace accidents [24]. The that can easily be prevented. Although statistics process of creating cut-protective workwear is based may differ, cuts and scratches are consistently listed on and tailored to the specific requirements of the as the second or third most common workplace user. These requirements are influenced by the user’s accidents. These injuries account for approximately work environment and the tasks they undertake, 30% of all industrial accidents, with hands and aiming to enhance both comfort and performance. thumbs involved in about 70% of these cases. This Cut-protective workwear is an essential part of has led to the development of protective gloves and personal protective equipment (PPE) in various sleeves [25]. Cutting hazards are prevalent in various industries such as manufacturing, construction, industries. Incidents of cuts and wounds occur at healthcare and emergency services, where workers a rate of 8.1 per 10,000 workers. Despite wearing are exposed to risks from sharp tools, machinery cut-resistant gloves, an employee at an automobile or hazardous materials. While there have been sig- production factory’s pressing workshop sustained nificant improvements in enhancing the protective a thumb injury when a stainless-steel sheet slipped features of such clothing, the importance of comfort from his grip. While workstations may vary, the risks is often overlooked. Workers are more likely to wear associated with cuts remain consistent. In industries protective gear consistently if it allows them to work where glass sheets are handled, hand and arm inju- without hindrance, discomfort or fatigue. Balancing ries are common during carrying and moving tasks. comfort and protection is a complex challenge that Forestry workers using chainsaws often require full- involves integrating material science, ergonomic de- body protection, with minimal emphasis on hand sign and user-centred innovation. Protective cloth- protection. Electronics assembly and handling also ing must meet strict safety standards for cut resistance pose cut risks to workers. Workers in food-process- while also providing breathability, flexibility and a ing plants and busy kitchen environments are at high proper fit. As the focus on worker well-being grows, risk of cut injuries due to the use of sharp equipment. there is rising demand for workwear that focuses Glass containers can crack or burst due to defects, on safety and comfort. This review aims to explore necessitating the use of cut-resistant gloves when current advancements, challenges and research gaps handling them. Textile factory operators face cutting in designing comfortable cut-protective workwear. It hazards from vibrating threads in spinning process- discusses the latest materials, design principles and es. Hockey players risk neck cuts from extremely technologies used to improve functionality and user sharp skate blades, with some opting to forego neck experience. Additionally, it sheds light on the chang- guards despite the potential for injury. Workers ing needs of industries and workers, offering insights must be aware of and take precautions against these into future directions for innovation in this field. cutting hazards to prevent injuries[26]. 268 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 265–290 2.1 Fundamental requirements of cut- flame resistance, thermal and electrical insulation protective workwear properties, heat resistance, chemical resistance, The term cut-resistant refers to a material’s ability liquid absorption and dispersion properties, and to withstand cuts, as tested by standardized meth- protection against high levels of radiation. These ods while the term cut-protective encompasses properties are integrated into a single protective gear all aspects of protection against cuts, not just cut system to ensure adequate protection and comfort in resistance. It is important to use these terms accu- different weather conditions [27]. rately when selecting safety gear to ensure realistic expectations for workplace safety. Cut-resistant 3 Material selection for cut- focuses on a material’s ability to resist cuts, while protective workwear cut-protective considers overall protection against cuts. Cut-resistant reduces the risk of cuts but does 3.1 Selection of fibre not guarantee absolute prevention, while cut-protec- Functional clothing, such as activewear, innerwear tive includes all protective features. Cut-resistant is and protective workwear, utilizes a variety of natural rated by standards such as EN 388, ANSI/ISEA 105 and synthetic fibres with distinct properties. The and ISO 13997, while cut-protective may reference choice between natural and synthetic fibre depends cut resistance as one component of protection. on the intended level of physical activity. Natural Cut-protective clothing prioritizes practical fibres are hydrophilic and suitable for low activity functionality, thermal comfort and human move- levels, while synthetic fibres are hydrophobic and ment to create a safe and comfortable micro-envi- preferred for high activity levels. Hydrophilic fibres ronment for the wearer. This clothing system acts as quickly absorb moisture due to their higher surface a barrier to protect the human body from potential energy, while hydrophobic fibres resist moisture ab- hazards. In essence, cut-protective apparel serves sorption due to their lower surface energy [28]. The three main purposes: protecting the user from cut cut-resistance functionality and comfort of clothing and slash risks, providing psychological relaxation are greatly influenced by the characteristics of the through sensual and thermal comfort, and en- chosen fibre components [29]. It is crucial to careful- abling human movement during various activities. ly choose fibre components with various anti-cutting High-performance textiles composed of fibres, capabilities for different operating conditions. Work- yarns, fabrics and composite components made from ers in conventional factories were provided with inorganic and functional organic polymers exhibit protective clothes made from cut-resistant textiles, exceptional properties and qualities. UHMWPE which mostly consisted of natural fibres and synthet- provides exceptional cut resistance but has poor ic fibres such as cotton, hemp, polyester and spandex. heat resistance, with a maximum continuous use Cut-resistant clothing composed of conventional temperature typically below 100 °C and a melting natural fibre content has poor safeguarding prop- point of around 150 °C. For applications requiring erties due to inadequate mechanical and outdoor both high cut and high heat resistance, aramid resistance, which restricts their utilization in various fibres such as Kevlar are the better choice, as they safety gear industries. However, due to their high maintain their properties at temperatures exceeding utilization rate, lightweight, versatility and low cost, 200 °C and do not melt. These fibres are commonly they are still a frequently used protective material in used in cut-protective clothing structures. Textile factory manufacturing situations [30‒32]. Natural fi- materials used in cut-protective clothing possess bres exhibit the strength and stiffness typical of most key mechanical attributes such as tensile strength, fibres, have a low specific gravity and demonstrate modulus, abrasion resistance, puncture resistance, improved elasticity and extensibility. Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review 269 When integrated into protective textiles, it im- usage [33, 34]. Conventional fibres such as cotton, proves wearer comfort and offers greater strength polyester, nylon and wool are being blended with and durability than natural fibres. Furthermore, it HPPE or aramid to develop cut-resistant materials. is affordable and incredibly cost-efficient. While High-performance fibre has progressively displaced natural fibres and synthetic fibres offer numerous conventional fibre components for cut-resistant benefits, they also possess significant drawbacks. clothes due to its superior mechanical strength, For instance, cotton fabrics exhibit limited elasticity, excellent heat retention and anti-abrasion proper- are prone to shrinking and distorting after washing, ties. Currently, aramid 1414, ultra-high molecular and lack resistance to acid. Similarly, hemp fabrics weight polyethylene fibre, p-benzoxazole polyester have a coarse texture and tend to develop burrs fibre, glass fibre, metal fibre and other high-per- when in direct contact with the body, resulting in formance fibres are commonly employed as barrier a less smooth and comfortable experience. The components in factory manufacturing workflows for truncated fibres generated during the processing and cut-protective clothing. Using physical and chemical shaping of synthetic fibres have detrimental effects techniques, some researchers have enhanced the cut- on the skin and respiratory system of personnel. In ting capability of fibres or yarns. For example, Jeffrey addition, conventional cut-resistant fibre materials CM employed a lab-scale wet spinning experimental lack effective protection and fail to meet the safety approach to generate aramid copolymer fibres used criteria for people’s work activities. To enhance the in cut prevention [35]. Table 1 provides an overview competitiveness of both natural and synthetic fibres, of the characteristics of the major high-performance it is crucial to modify and enhance their value in fibres used in cut-resistant textiles. Table 1: Overview of properties of major high-performance fibre [36]. Diameter Strain Tensile stress Modulus of Fibre Density (g/cm3) (µm) (%) (GPa) elasticity (GPa) Para aramid 13.0 3.3 1.44 3.31 94 UHMWPE 18.8 3.6 0.98 2.62 88 PBO 12.3 3.5 1.54 5.80 180 Aromatic polyester 23.5 3.3 1.41 3.20 75 Glass 5.5-9.3 5.5 2.48 4.80 85 DSM introduced Dyneema Diamond Tech- Technology offers a 200% increase in cut resistance nology in 2006 to improve its unique properties. over standard Dyneema fibre [38]. The addition of This technology combines HPPE (high-perfor- extraneous material complicates the process of fibre mance polyethylene) filled with a micro-sized, spinning. Superdrawing is essential for achieving a cut-resistant inorganic filler to create a composite significantly elevated level of alignment and crystal- material [37]. The fibre produced using Dyneema line structure, allowing for the exceptional stiffness Diamond Technology, as shown in Figure 1, has a and strength of HPPE fibre. However, the addition of distinct morphology. By incorporating an inorganic inorganic filler substantially increases the difficulty filler, this technology significantly boosts the cut of superdrawing and has a significant impact on resistance of the fibre compared to traditional HPPE spinnability. The fibre’s strength decreased by over fibre. According to DSM’s data, Dyneema Diamond 50% [39]. 270 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 265–290 tion [51]. Various fibres and their cross-sections are frequently utilized in functional clothing. Hollow fibres and fibres with varying sizes of grooves are commonly used in activewear, sportswear and clothing that is worn next to the skin to achieve fa- vourable thermal insulation characteristics. Hollow fibres have a significant trapped air volume, leading to enhanced thermal insulation properties in fabrics or garments made of these fibres. Thermolite fabrics Figure 1: Microscopic composition of a fibre utilizing with improved thermal insulation and wicking the Dyneema Diamond Technology properties are produced using hollow core fibres with twisted or convoluted surfaces [52]. The for- Indeed, the utilization of hard filler to enhance mation of irregular capillaries occurs when cotton cut resistance in thermoplastic fibre is not a novel fibres are embedded within the yarn, inhibiting fluid concept. In the 1990s, Hoechst Celanese submitted flow due to the flat, lima bean-shaped cross-section patent applications for the utilization of inorganic and ribbon-like appearance of the cotton fibre [53]. fillers or fibres to enhance the cut resistance of fibres Introducing voids in the fibre core can enhance [40‒47]. The patents explicitly describe the use of wicking and heat resistance. Welkey is a type of fibre tungsten and aluminium oxide, which resulted that has a hollow core and a body with numerous in an improvement in cut resistance of over 300% tiny pores. The thermal resistance of fibres increases according to a certain cut-testing method. The addi- due to an increased amount of air gaps inside them. tion of alumina to para-aramid fibre to increase cut The capillary action, resulting from the formation of resistance was also revealed in another patent [48]. microscopic pores in the fibre body, enables sweat to The cut resistance was increased by 15% with 0.5% be wicked away from the skin. Coolmax is a type of by weight of alumina in the fibre, without compro- polyester fibre that has been altered and improved mising tenacity. by Dupont. The fibre has a double scallop shape with four channels, providing 20% more surface area 3.1.1 Function of fibre structure compared to regular polyester fibre. This results in Fibres of different cross-sectional shapes are being improved wicking, moisture vapor permeability used in functional clothing due to their ability to and water spreading over a larger area in the fabric transfer heat, moisture and liquids through fabrics [54‒56]. Karaca et al. conducted a study comparing effectively. The inclusion of non-circular fibre pro- the thermal comfort properties of fabrics made from files increases the fibre’s shape factor. This, in turn, polyester fibres with different cross-sectional shapes. affects the capillary gaps between fibres, the spaces They observed that fabrics made from hollow fibres between yarns, the density of packing, the specific had low thermal insulation, air permeability, and surface area and, ultimately, the thermo-physiolog- water vapor permeability. On the other hand, fabrics ical properties of fabrics [49,50]. Fibres that have a made from trilobal polyester fibres had higher air higher specific surface area exhibit excellent mois- and water vapour permeability and lower thermal ture absorption and release properties. The presence conductivity compared to fabrics made from round of micro grooves on the surface of the fibre increases fibres [57]. According to Behera and Singh, the its ability to absorb liquid by capillary action. This physical properties and tactile characteristics of allows moisture to be drawn in and then spread out polyester multifilament yarn fabric were modified over the surface of the fibre, facilitating its dissipa- when the form of the filaments was changed [58]. Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review 271 Table 2: Role of fibre parameters on different attributes of clothing Performance Wearing comfort Fibre parameter Aesthetic attributes Tactile attributes attributes attributes Tensile strength, tear Strength, fineness, strength, bursting Surface texture, lustre, Stretchiness, lightness, Compression, friction, cross-sectional shape, strength, abrasion fancy effect, handle, slip-ability, reduction shear, bending rigidity maturity resistance, crease drape in clinging, prickliness resistance Varshney et al. conducted a study on the impact the central part. The core can be made of either of polyester profile on the physiological characteris- spun yarn or filament yarn in practice. However, in tics of polyester fabrics. They found that noncircular practice, the core is typically made of filament yarn, fibres increased the volume of the fabric, resulting in such as steel, glass, spandex or the monofilament of a higher mass flow rate and greater resistance to heat organic fibre-like polyester. The sheath must still be flow [59]. Wang et al. compared monofilament yarns made of staple spun yarn. Typically, a sheath com- with a circular cross-section to those with a five leaf posed of staple spun yarn adequately conceals the cross-section. They found that, at the same twist lev- core, making it difficult to perceive from the outside. el, the fibres with a five leaf cross-section formed five Wrap yarn is alternatively referred to as spin-covered beads along the length of the fibre and had a greater yarn. The process involves the continual wrapping number of capillaries in the yarn than conventional or twisting of yarn around a core yarn, which can yarns made with circular cross-section fibres. The be either a monofilament or multifilament yarn, or wicking height of five leaf yarns was found to be a staple spun yarn. Wrap spinning uses a hollow greater than that of ordinary yarns [60]. The role of spindle to make this sort of yarn [62–69]. fibre parameters is also summarized in Table 2. The core is often located in the inner layer of the yarn and gives special bulk qualities such as remark- 3.2 Selection of yarn able strength (e.g. polyester or nylon filament) or The selection of yarn is closely linked to the desired high flexibility (e.g. rubber or spandex). To eliminate characteristics of the fabric. The choice of compound fibre separation or core sliding, the sheath or yarn yarns is crucial in producing pleasant cut-protective wrap should have a solid hold on the core. It should fabric. Compound yarns are formed by intertwining also insulate the main filament from outside influ- many types of fibres or yarns, merging the advan- ences. This is especially critical if the core filament tageous characteristics of each constituent. This is elastomeric (e.g. rubber or spandex), as these fila- leads designers to produce cut-protective clothing ments can disintegrate when exposed to a variety of with higher performance characteristics, including chemicals or UV radiation. Furthermore, the wrap strength, flexibility and abrasion resistance, which that comes into touch with the user should have are critical for cut prevention, by intelligently se- comfort features including softness, flexibility and lecting the types of fibres and arranging them in the porosity. The wrap yarn can be either spun or fila- compound yarn. Compound yarn is generally pre- ment. Two wrap yarns may be used in some circum- pared by using core spun and wrap spun processes. stances, with one twisted in the opposite direction to The staple spun yarn spinning technique yields core the other, resulting in unique appearance effects and spun yarn [61]. In the spinning process, the core is an appropriate equilibrium towards unwanted yarn introduced into the roving, which is then twisted sneering. The combination of various fibre types in around the core. Over time, the primary thread compound yarns enables the attainment of desired gradually forms a protective covering that encases performance levels while simultaneously reducing 272 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 265–290 weight. Compound yarns are frequently preferred and moisture transport characteristics of fabrics. The due to their enhanced comfort and safety protection versatile nature of yarn structure allows for capillary to meet the requirements of mobility and agility in flow, which can result in lateral tension that impacts cut-protective gear for industrial or sports use. the size of capillaries as the liquid rises. The disrup- tion of the continuity, length and orientation of the 3.2.1 Influence of yarn structural properties capillaries is caused by variations in the packing The characteristics of fabrics are influenced by sev- density inside the yarn structure. The variation in eral yarn variables, such as yarn twist, yarn count, pore size, shape and orientation has an impact on yarn spinning system and yarn types. Modifications how liquid enters the structure of the yarn and, con- in any of these characteristics ultimately result in sequently, its ability to retain liquid. The role of yarn alterations to the yarn’s structure which, in turn, parameters and yarn type on the different attributes is influenced by the geometry of the fibres. The is presented in Tables 3 and 4. arrangement of fibres in yarn determines the heat Table 3: Role of yarn type on the structural and expected properties Yarn type Structural attributes Expected features - hairy surface - textured or “spun” appearance - random fibre arrangement - soft and warm hand feel Spun yarn - variability in count and diameter - greater bulkiness than combed yarn - presence of imperfections - high volume - lofty and soft texture Bulk yarn - low fibre packing density - textured appearance - hairy surface similar to spun yarn - filament core with staple fibre sheath - high stretchability Stretch yarn - enhanced comfort and fit - maximum fibre alignment - lustrous and smooth appearance - high uniformity - high sheen Filament yarn - dense filament packing - soft handle - low bulk and covering power - limited potential for intimate fibre blending - combines features of both spun and filament yarns - highly textured and voluminous appearance - high degree of fibre disorder (crimps, loops, coils) - enhanced bulk and softness - uniform yarn count and diameter - improved covering power and opacity - low fibre packing density - good elasticity and stretch Textured yarn - increased surface area and air entrapment - effective thermal insulation - moisture-wicking with low moisture retention - improved comfort and flexibility - resistance to wrinkling and creasing Ozguney et al. explored the impact of yarn fine- on various cotton textiles reported that increasing ness on the comfort qualities of garments created yarn count, twist and giving a thinner construction from it. They observed that the bending stiffness and enhances the fabric’s air permeability [71]. Ozdil compression of textiles made from increased linear and fellow researchers evaluated the influence of density yarns are greater than those made using twist number and yarn count on the performance of reduced linear density yarns [70]. An increase in rib cotton textiles. Their research reveals that when yarn coarseness improves all of the fabric’s low-stress linear density declines, so do yarn diameter and fab- mechanical properties. Raj and Sreenivasan’s studies ric thickness. These standard yields decreased heat Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review 273 Table 4: Role of yarn structural parameters on the different attributes of clothing Yarn structural Performance Wearing comfort Aesthetic attributes Tactile attributes parameter attributes attributes Tensile strength, tear strength, bursting Yarn count Surface texture, lustre Handle, drape Lightness, stretchiness strength, abrasion resistance Tensile strength, Surface texture, fancy Compression, bending Slip-ability, reduction Yarn twist crease resistance, effects rigidity in clinging abrasion resistance Abrasion resistance, Surface texture, Air permeability, Yarn hairiness Prickliness, handle pilling tendency dullness reduction in clinging Uniformity in strength, Smoothness, visual Consistent comfort, Yarn evenness Consistent handle reduced weak spots uniformity reduced irritation Moisture Balance of mechanical Colour effects, lustre Yarn blending ratio Handle, drape management, thermal properties, durability variation regulation Crease resistance, Bending rigidity, Flexibility, ease of Yarn bending rigidity Drape, form retention dimensional stability handle movement Tensile strength, Compression, surface Thermal insulation, Packing co-efficient abrasion resistance, Bulk, opacity feel reduction in clinging bursting strength insulation and thermal conductivity while increasing ing ability [80]. Wickwire et al. discovered that while water vapor permeation. As a result, textiles made slack clothing reduces the efficiency of transporting of finer yarns have a warmth sensation and reduced moisture and perspiration away from the skin, it heat absorption. Water vapor permeability and ther- may improve the wearer’s comfort, regardless of its mal absorptivity rise as the twist number of the yarns ability to wick moisture away [81]. increases, resulting in decreased thermal resistance and a cooler sensation. They also demonstrated that 3.3 Selection of woven fabric combed cotton yarn knitted textiles had greater The selection of weave patterns impacts the fabric’s thermal conductivity, thermal absorptivity and water flexibility and drape. It is crucial to acknowledge that vapor permeability than carded cotton yarn knitted the selection of weave structure is contingent upon clothing. As a result, combed yarn textiles are more the particular demands of the application. Although comfortable than carded yarn fabrics [72]. Aliouche satin weave has benefits in terms of comfort and cut and Viallier investigated the hairiness qualities of protection, different weave structures may be better yarns. They demonstrated the importance of hairy suited for situations where criteria such as durability, appearance on tactile sensations such as roughness rigidity or breathability are the main considerations on the exterior, fabric compression and handling listed in Table 5. Weaves with more aperture, such [73]. There has been various research on the wicking as plain weave or leno weave, exhibit increased characteristics of yarns and textiles as an essential flexibility and improved drape ability, thus boosting criterion [74-79]. Wicking is a need for clothing wearer comfort through unrestricted mobility. The permeability. Asayesh and Maroufi investigated satin design was selected due to its tight structure the effect of yarn rotation on the wicking ability of with fewer interlaces compared to other weaves cotton interlaced weft knitted fabric. A higher yarn such as plain or twill weave. This tightness improves twist number in such fabrics results in reduced wick- the fabric’s resistance to cuts by minimizing the 274 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 265–290 areas where a blade can penetrate. The satin weave the demands for cut resistance, composite materials produces a silky, shiny surface that feels smooth and and hybrid architectures are frequently used. Cut-re- cozy against the skin. This is especially advantageous sistant clothing employs combination cord threads for cut-protective fabric when worn close to the body that include stainless steel filaments as the core and since it reduces irritation and pain after extended other high-performance fibres as the sheath to offer periods. Cut resistance changes in fabrics depending versatility and cut protection [84]. The conventional on the cutting angle of the blade, cutting speed and protective clothing for chainsaw employees compris- the fabric surface roughness. With an increase in es trousers and chaps that typically have an exterior yarn linear density, a woven fabric’s surface rough- material made of nylon, polyester or denim, and ness and frictional resistance increase [82]. The inner inserts made of layers of ballistic nylon or amount of frictional force generated also depends on high-tenacity polyester fabric, while higher-quality the surface roughness of the fabric. Ajayi. J. O. and apparel comprises layers of aramid fabric such as Elder. H. M in their research found that the surface Kevlar® or ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene roughness and frictional resistance of a woven fabric (UHMWPE) such as Dyneema. The cut-resistant increase with an increase in the yarn’s linear density. safeguards offer minimal protection to the user and This was due to the increased yarn crown height are intended to block the chainsaw driving sprocket, which caused the mechanical interlocking of crowns preventing the cutting blade from slashing through during any movement [83]. In addition to meeting the trousers [85]. Table 5: Role of weave structure on general attributes of clothing Weave type Interlacing pattern General character - each warp yarn interlaces with each weft yarn in an - maximum number of interlacements per unit area alternate sequence (balanced or unbalanced) - no distinctive design; can use contrasting colours - tends to wrinkle the most Plain - may feel sleazy if sett is low - least absorbent among basic weaves - simple, firm and durable structure - characteristic diagonal lines (s or z twill) - fewer interlacements than plain weave - warp or weft yarns float over two or more yarns in a - wrinkles less than plain weave Twill regular progression to either to the right (z) or left (s) - strong, firm texture - enhanced tear strength - can be woven at higher setts (densities) - very few interlacements; long floats - flat, smooth, and highly lustrous surface - warp or weft yarns float over four or more yarns in a - maximum drapability Satin staggered progression, creating a smooth surface - high sett possible - prone to slippage and snagging due to long floats - luxurious appearance and feel 3.3.1 Role of fabric structural parameters fabrics, ultimately defining their comfort properties. The thermo-physiological properties of clothing are Woven fabrics are commonly used in outerwear, affected by the structural factors and general charac- active wear, workwear and athletic attire. The level teristics of fabrics. Factors such as fabric structure, of air trapped inside different fabric structures varies thickness, cover factor, aerial density, bulk density, due to differences in porosity, with knitted fabrics fabric porosity and finishing treatments affect the generally trapping more air than woven fabrics. heat and moisture management capabilities of Thermal insulation in fabrics is achieved through Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review 275 the presence of fibres, creating air pockets that re- attire for impaired employees [89]. Limeneh et al. strict air circulation and act as a barrier against heat conducted a study to examine the impact of different loss through radiation [86]. Fabric with multiple weave structures, specifically plain, twill and satin, spaces for stagnant air, such as pile or napped fabric on the comfort properties of fabrics. The researchers constructions, exhibits enhanced thermal insulation found that satin woven fabrics had the highest levels properties. However, as the bulk density of the fabric of water vapour permeability, water absorption rate increases, thermal insulation decreases, as heat can and air permeability. Twill woven fabrics ranked pass through more easily. Approximately 70% of a second in these properties, while plain woven fab- fabric’s volume consists of trapped air, with fibre rics ranked third. Nevertheless, the heat resistance making up the remaining 30%. The characteristics of of plain-woven fabrics was found to be the highest, air primarily influence the transfer of heat through while the stiffness was the lowest for satin woven textile materials. Fabrics with fibres and strands materials [90]. Tahvildar et al. examined the visual brought to the surface, such as pile or napped fabric and tactile characteristics of worsted fabrics made structures, provide enhanced thermal insulation [87, with four different weave structures (plain, twill 2/1, 88]. Differences in the amount of water carried by twill 2/2 and hopsack 2/2) and four sets of yarns pro- fabrics derive from variations in their fundamental duced using different yarn-spinning methods (solo, material structure. The arrangement of fibres in siro, single-ply ring and two-ply ring). According to yarn affects structural variances, impacting the their suggestion, the fabric’s open structure and the roughness factor (cos θ) of the yarn and the size and movement of threads within it enhanced its capacity continuity of capillaries. A haphazard distribution to recover from creases, increased flexibility and of fibres results in a greater contact angle, while a improved air and water vapour permeability. How- strong alignment of fibres leads to a lower contact ever, the fabric’s resistance to abrasion and pilling angle, facilitating faster water movement in yarns decreased. In addition, the researchers determined and textiles. Sledzinska et al. conducted a study on that the comfort and appearance characteristics the comfort attributes of work attire for employees of fabrics made from yarns spun using different with locomotor disabilities. They emphasized that spinning processes may be significantly influenced overall comfort, including the design and choice of by the level of compactness and the position of fibres materials, is crucial for handicapped individuals. within the yarn structure [91]. The impact of fabric The test results indicated that twill 2/1 S fabrics with parameters on the different attributes of clothing is a surface mass of 243 g/m2, 204 g/m2 and 175 g/m2 summarized in Table 6. were the most viable options for developing work Table 6: The role of fabric parameters on the different attributes of clothing Performance Wearing comfort Fabric parameter Aesthetic attributes Tactile attributes attributes attributes Thread density, fabric Tensile strength, tear Surface texture, lustre, Compression, friction, Stretchiness, lightness, thickness, weave type strength, bursting fancy effect, handle, shear, bending, rigidity slip-ability, reduction cover factor, bulk strength, abrasion drape in clinging, prickliness density, areal weight, resistance, resistance 276 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 265–290 4 Standard methods for cut Table 7: Performance grading of cut protection cloth- ing [93] protection performance Cut protection level Index “I” The referenced articles identify three cut test Level 1 1.2 standards, with each evaluation technique usings a Level 2 2.5 distinct testing apparatus. The specimen is placed on Level 3 5.0 the specimen holder and under the blade in all but Level 4 10.0 one of the three cases. Additionally, there are some Level 5 20.0 similarities and differences between the ASTM and ISO procedures but these two, along with the EN 4.2 ASTM F1790 (USA): Standard test method 388, have fundamentally different tools and testing for measuring cut resistance of materials methods. used in protective clothing The assessment is based on determining the force 4.1 EN 388 (Europe): Protective gloves against necessary to cut through the specimen after the mechanical risks square blade has traversed 20 mm, the current stan- The EN evaluation method determines a material’s dard test distance in either direction. During testing, cut resistance by measuring its response to the the rectangular blade moves at a constant speed of cutting action of a rotating circular blade. During 150 mm/min in a single direction [94]. As shown in testing, the specimen is placed under a load of 5 N, Figure 3, the upper section of the specimen holder which is applied to the blade with minimal tension, is designed with a curved surface having a 38 mm as illustrated in Figure 2. The rotary blade used has radius. This curvature helps prevent misalignment a diameter of 45 mm, while the sample holder is a between the sample surface and the blade. Cut resis- straight container measuring 90 mm in width and tance is calculated by analysing the relationship be- features five holes, each 5 mm wide, along its base. tween applied load and displacement, as represented To ensure the accuracy and consistency of the blade, in the load-displacement curve [95]. a standard cotton fabric is tested as a reference, both before and after the evaluation of each specimen [92]. The protective performance of the material is then quantified using the ‘I’ index, as detailed in Table 7. Figure 2: EN 388 (Europe) Coupe cut test Figure 3: ASTM F1790-05 CPPT cut test Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review 277 4.3 ISO 13997 (international): Protective clothing — Mechanical properties — Determination of resistance to cutting by sharp objects Both ASTM F1790 and ISO 13997 standards use straight blades and angled specimen holders to eval- uate cut resistance following similar testing princi- ples. The cut-testing apparatus is illustrated below. During the test, the blade moves horizontally across the specimen at a controlled speed, while the prima- ry measurement is the force required to achieve a cut [96]. This value serves as the key indicator of cut resistance, as shown in Figure 4. The standards also define different performance categories or regions, which are detailed in Table 8. Figure 4: ISO 13997 (international) TDM cut test Table 8: Different locations of ISO13997 and ASTM F1790 [97] S. no. ISO13997 ASTMF1790 1. Constant normal force The normal force is a variable that depends on the coefficient of friction of the materials. 2. Consistent blade speed Blade speed remains same. 3. Calculate cut resistance for a 20mm blade displacement. The cut resistance is determined by measuring the movement of the blade at a distance of 25 mm. 4. Installation procedure: the sample is positioned on Installation process: the sample is affixed to double-sided double-sided adhesive tape, ensuring direct contact with tape. The blade must penetrate the sample material the conductive substance. and the double phase tape to make contact with the conductive material. 5. The process for correcting blade sharpness is as follows: The process for correcting blade sharpness is as follows: the value of C is equal to 20 / I, where I represents the the value of C is equal to 25 /I, where I represents the cutting stroke on neoprene at a force of 5N. cutting stroke on neoprene at a force of 400 grams. 4.4 ISO 13998 (international): Protective block drops freely, allowing the blade to penetrate clothing - Aprons, trousers and vests the sample positioned beneath it. The blade is fixed protecting against cuts and stabs in the block so that it extends 40 mm below the caused by hand knives holder. Additionally, the centre of gravity of the Figure 5 depicts the apparatus used for impact cut block-and-blade assembly is situated 65 mm above resistance testing. In this setup, the test specimen is the blade tip. The combined mass of the block and repeatedly struck by a standard knife blade mounted blade is 1,000 grams [98]. within a guided falling block. Upon release, the 278 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 265–290 tion testing. The primary distinction lies in how the test specimen or glove is supported. In this method, the specimen is placed on a horizontal arm that terminates in a circular anvil with a central hole, through which the knife blade passes after free-fall- ing. In contrast, the ISO 13998 method positions the specimen on an inclined plastic mass. The circular anvil in this setup features a convex top surface to support the specimen and a central rectangular slot that allows the blade to penetrate during testing [99]. Figure 5: Schematic diagram of ISO13998 impact cut test 4.5 ISO 13999-3 (international): Protective clothing—gloves and arm guards designed to protect against cuts and stabs caused by hand knives—Part 3: Impact cut test for fabric, leather and other materials This evaluation standard is designed solely for test- ing and is not intended to serve as a performance specification. The testing procedure closely follows Figure 6: Schematic diagram of ISO13999-3 impact the methodology outlined in ISO 13998. Figure 6 cut test shows the apparatus used for knife impact penetra- 5 Trends regarding the growth of manufacturing processes are leading to the develop- ment of lighter, more comfortable and more durable cut-protective workwear cut-resistant garments. New fibres such as ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), The market for cut-protective workwear is ex- aramids and engineered blends provide higher cut periencing robust growth, driven by several key resistance without sacrificing dexterity or comfort. trends related to safety regulations, technological A lighter weight often provides the user with more advancements, evolving end-user demands and comfort and dexterity, while greater cut resistance sustainability initiatives. Governments and regula- offers more protection. These two factors are often tory bodies worldwide are enforcing more stringent conflicting. Less material results in a lighter weight, safety standards, especially in high-risk industries. which usually means reduced cut resistance. To This has led to the increased adoption of cut-protec- address this challenge, innovative solutions must be tive workwear to minimize workplace injuries and developed. For example, in an extreme scenario, a ensure compliance. Innovations in materials and very thin medical latex glove could offer strong cut Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review 279 resistance, providing surgeons with more protection garment systems. Functional cut-protective clothing compared to conventional latex gloves without gives the wearer access to unique features, such as cut-protective function. There is a growing demand help with monitoring and assessing possible risks for workwear that offers protection against multiple that the user may encounter, which conventional hazards such as cuts, abrasions, impacts, chemicals protective equipment could not. An integrated ap- and cold, while maintaining comfort and flexibility. proach for the development of functional protective High-visibility features are also increasingly inte- textiles is shown in Figure 7. grated to enhance safety in low-light or high-traffic environments [100]. 6 Designing of comfortable cut- protective workwear People’s daily lives cannot function without clothing, which also shapes how they view themselves. It can foster a well-being-promoting transdisciplinary functional approach. The development of pleasant and appealing goods that can benefit us in many parts of our everyday lives may be aided by good aesthetic and technological design, which is fuelled by relevant end-user research. With the addition of Figure 7: Integrated approach to functional protective intelligent features, technological advancements are textile [101] leveraged to improve the functionality of protective 6.1 Initiation of design process permeability, etc. Hearle states that in a conventional The design process entails a sequence of methodical process, the current design is altered by incorporat- stages that must be adhered to before the actual pro- ing expert opinions regarding fabric samples and/or duction of the product. Dastoor conceptualized the consumer feedback about a fabric or product [103]. process of manually designing [102]. The synthesis The incorporation of macro-mechanics, which ex- of a fabric structure involves a step-by-step process amines the relationship between fabric performance that starts with the main design goal and progresses and fabric properties, and micro-mechanics, which through many sub tasks in a top-down manner. explores the connection between fabric construction The designer selects the type of fibre for interlacing and fibre, yarn and fabric properties, has become yarns, considering factors such as cost and physical an integral component of contemporary design properties, based on the limitations of the property. procedures. Matsuo introduced the concept of The specified tensile strength of the cloth thereafter FASE (Fibre Assembly Structural Engineering) as a determines the yarn count. The precise modification method for creating textile products. FASE is a type of yarn characteristics is achieved by changing the of knowledge system that focuses on configuration, twist of the yarn, followed by adjusting the density structure and phenomenology [104]. According to of the yarn in terms of the number of ends and picks the author’s perspective, the design process should per inch. The choice of fabric weave is determined begin by acknowledging requirements and then by factors such as tearing strength, thickness, fluid proceed with the sequential steps. 280 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 265–290 6.2 Steps in designing comfortable cut- and movement. As a result, the traditional pattern protective workwear technique that relies on basic front/back/sleeve Functional clothing is primarily constructed from panels is limiting. Ergonomic clothing design shapes technological textile materials. However, it is crucial must correspond to the user’s size and posture while to combine high-tech materials with similarly cut- matching the 3D shape and function of the indi- ting-edge procedures and techniques for garment vidual’s body [107–110]. Therefore, cut-protective design and production to fully utilize the unique clothing designs are developed in 3D, for example functions that they provide. Improved cutting, on the body directly. Furthermore, cut-protective stitching and connecting techniques are required workwear would require the “zoning” of patterns, to handle and transform novel materials into per- such as using spacer fabric for thermal insulation or formance clothing systems. Each of these phases durability against impacts in the upper body region, influences the final appearance, fit, comfort and etc. To allow for the use of multiple components in functionality of a piece of clothing [106]. a block, pattern blocks are constructed in new ways. Patterns must be designed for ergonomic purposes 6.3 Measurement of body dimensions and based on body movement to provide greater mobility sizing and reach areas that experience strain during stren- The initial stage in clothing design is generally to uous activities (crotch, underarm, knee and elbow). create body measurements of the desired end users. It is essential to develop articulated knee and elbow The conventional size chart cannot be used in de- designs. Pattern formations are produced directly signing cut-protective clothing since it depends on from a three-dimensional image of a moving body, traditional anthropometry. Data provide measures responding to external properties as required. Flat- that show size but provide no information on the tening these selected 3D areas results in 2D patterns. complicated human body shape incurvature or Fabric mechanical characteristics can be considered postures. Ergonomic block creation necessitates the in the 3D pattern, and a coloured simulation of the collection of 3D anthropometric data in a variety deformation stresses and strains may be visible while of realistic poses. 3D body scanners may be used to the garment is being worn. acquire form, size and posture data from the popu- lation in both static and dynamic modes. Ergonomic 6.5 Assembly of clothing components measurements, such as range of motion, must also The process of selecting the design and dimensions be gathered and considered while developing. Hu- of each two-dimensional template that will ultimate- man motion analysis systems are used to understand ly be linked to form a 3D shell is known as pattern the changing body shape of clothing during specific engineering. After creating these designs, they must activities. be cut, constructed, and linked. They must also be linked with the methods of removing and putting 6.4 Pattern engineering back the clothing (buttons, closures and buckles), Pattern creation is a multi-step process based on a as well as any additional components that make up trial-and-error method. To obtain the proper fit and a complete garment assembly. The user’s activities, performance, the 3D-2D-3D procedure necessitates position and working environment, along with the a significant amount of tweaking, modification or qualities of the materials employed, determine pat- fitting. Cut-protective clothing should be created tern design and link it with assembly processes (sew- based on an approach that precisely reflects the ing, attachment and fusing). Multiple fabric panels shape of human beings, regardless of whether in a with various characteristics must be assembled using stable manner or an energetic form during labour advanced handling procedures. Seams that are tradi- Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review 281 tionally sewn can occasionally damage the integrity force and individual joint movement. The majority and functionality of manufactured garments. The of the elements that influence this include the shape cut-protective areas in protective clothing are shown and fit of the clothes in relation to the body structure in Figure 8. and the pressure and abrasion caused by the clothing on the human structure [115]. Providing comfort in clothing for a moving body is a difficult challenge. The number of interconnections between body sizes and shapes, physiological variances, material prop- erties, design choices, environmental challenges and activities is exponential. Clothing has a tremendous impact on worker’s comfort and performance in the workplace. In accordance with industrial protection standards, cut-protective workwear is often selected based on functionality and safety [116]. The influ- ence of cut-protective workwear on performance is dependent on the type of task, the required metab- olism rate, the surrounding environment and the protective workwear attributes [117]. The ergonomic specifications and characteristics based on the level Figure 8: Cut-protective areas in protective clothing of relevance for factory workers are as follows: (1) [111] correct fit or size; (2) decrease in heat, as well as im- proved air circulation through pattern, design and These systems are usually constructed using material selection; (3) weight reduction and removal bonded stitches, welding (high frequency, ultrasonic of work-related impediments; and (4) mobility [118]. and laser) and bonding with adhesive. A third Many protective workwear standards have been approach utilized in contoured garments for body adopted in recent years, and have helped improve contouring and support is 3D moulding. As a result the quality of cut-protective workwear and increase of these changes, new-age clothing appears cleaner, worker safety [119]. Cut-protective workwear has fits better, and is lighter in weight and less bulky. significant negative effects, while ergonomic issues often arise with increasing security needs. The main 6.6 Role of clothing design on ergonomic problem is often the additional weight on the body. wear comfort Furthermore, decreased mobility caused by garment Cut-protective clothing requires ergonomic comfort stiffness restricts flexible motion and could increase to assist the wearer throughout diverse tasks. The the risk of falling or becoming entangled in the ap- most significant characteristics of ergonomic wear paratus. For this reason, cut-protective clothing may that clothing should meet are the flexibility of mobil- worsen rather than improve safety, especially over ity, load/strain reduction and physical shape preser- time. As a result, the user may choose not to wear vation [112, 113]. These are primarily defined by the the necessary protection. Consequently, the shape fit design and pattern structure of the garment, and and material layers of cut-protective workwear need may be modified by the flexibility or stretchability of to be carefully chosen to balance protection and the material [114]. Psychological factors demand that comfort, with an emphasis on selecting the lightest the structural properties of clothing correspond to and most breathable system that provides enough the movement, degree of equality, length of mobility, thermal resistance. 282 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 265–290 7 Future directions smart textiles and adaptive materials, are making garments lighter, more flexible and more durable, and The incorporation of nanotechnology in textiles is thus directly addressing user needs for comfort and leading to the creation of fabrics that offer improved efficiency in demanding environments. The lack of cut resistance, durability and comfort. Nanoparticles universal standards and the complexity of regulatory can provide features such water repellence, stain compliance remain significant challenges, especially resistance, UV protection and antimicrobial prop- as new technologies and materials are introduced. erties, all while maintaining the fabric’s flexibility Ensuring that protective clothing meets both local and breathability. For instance, graphene and other and international safety standards is critical for ef- 2D materials are being studied for their outstanding fective protection and market acceptance. Garments mechanical and electrical properties, opening new must be tailored to specific occupational hazards, opportunities for lightweight and strong protective environmental conditions and user demographics, clothing [120]. Manufacturing advancements now including considerations for gender and body type, facilitate highly customizable cut-resistant clothing, to maximize both protection and usability. Multidis- allowing users to choose materials, garment types ciplinary collaboration among engineers, designers, and reinforcement options that suit their specific physiologists, ergonomists and end-users is vital requirements for comfort and protection. This trend for overcoming challenges in material selection, towards personalization is supported by digital garment construction and performance evaluation. technologies such as 3D printing, robotics and ad- This review highlights the importance of integrating vanced textile processing, which also facilitate quick advanced materials science, user-focused design prototyping and scalable production. Customization and regulatory awareness in the development of also extends to fit and ergonomics, focusing on next-generation cut-protective clothing. Advances creating garments that cater to various body shapes in materials, design and technology are transform- and movements to enhance comfort and reduce ing cut-protective clothing. However, realizing the fatigue during extended wear [121]. The future of full potential of these innovations requires a focused cut-protection clothing involves integrating wear- effort on standardization, user-specific solutions and able sensors that can monitor the wearer’s health cross-disciplinary collaboration. These steps will and the garment’s condition seamlessly. Embedded ensure that protective garments not only meet the sensors can monitor vital signs, detect exposure to highest safety standards but also deliver comfort, hazards and notify users of any breaches in protec- sustainability and practical value across diverse tion. Graphene-based e-textiles are being developed industries. for their flexibility, washability and potential to accommodate complex sensor arrays [122]. Funding: This work is financially supported by the National Technical Textiles Mission, Ministry of Tex- tiles, Govt. of India (Project Reference Number: IITD/ 8 Conclusion IRD/RP04561). Cut-protective clothing requires specialized design Research data: The authors have cited the research and engineering approaches distinct from conven- data in the reference list at the end of article. tional fashion apparel, due to the need for high-per- formance materials and advanced construction tech- niques that ensure both safety and comfort. Current innovations, including the use of nanotechnology, Design and Development of Comfortable Cut-Protective Workwear: A Review 283 References 8. PANNEKE, Niklas, EHRMANN, Andrea. Stab-resistant polymers – recent developments 1. HOLMER, Ingvar. Protective clothing in hot in materials and structures. Polymers, 2023, environments. Industrial Health, 2006, 44(3), 15(4), 1–22, doi: 10.3390/polym15040983. 404‒413, doi: 10.2486/indhealth.44.404. 9. 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Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 291–301 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025028 291 Dhivya Sugumaran,1 Samuel Wesley 2 1 Junior Faculty, School of Fashion Design, Footwear Design and Development Institute, Kancheepuram, 602117, India 2 Department of Fashion Technology (Apparel production), National Institute of Fashion Technology, Chennai 600113, India Customization of Brassiere Underwire Design: Leveraging 3D Printing for Enhanced Pressure Distribution Individualna prilagoditev oblike oporne žice v nedrčku: uporaba 3-D tiska za izboljšano porazdelitev pritiska Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 2–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 11–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčna avtorica: Dhivya Sugumaran E-mail: writetodhivi@gmail.com; dhivya@fddiindia.com ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1585-6907 Abstract Conventional brassiere underwires often cause discomfort due to localized pressure concentrations, leading to wearer discomfort and potential long-term health concerns. This study investigates the application of 3D printing technology for designing and fabricating customized brassiere underwires aimed at improving pres- sure distribution and structural comfort. A 3D body scan of the under-bust profile was utilized to develop a personalized underwire model, which was fabricated using fused deposition modelling (FDM) with acryloni- trile butadiene styrene (ABS) material. To evaluate performance, pressure exertion tests were conducted using force-sensitive sensors positioned at three anatomical points, Point A (base region), Point B (medial region, near the sternum) and Point C (lateral region, near the underarm), under both static and dynamic conditions. The 3D-printed underwire demonstrated significant reductions in localized pressure compared to the conventional stainless-steel underwire, achieving decreases of 36.36% at Point A, 38.10% at Point B and 35.00% at Point C under static conditions, and 24.00%, 21.74% and 22.22%, respectively, under dynamic conditions. Complemen- tary finite element analysis (FEA) was performed to simulate structural deflection under breast loads ranging from 0.5 kg to 0.8 kg. The results indicated that the maximum deflection increased from 1.48 mm to 2.37 mm, while average deflection rose from 0.80 mm to 1.28 mm, demonstrating a linear elastic behaviour consistent with the mechanical properties of ABS (Young’s modulus ≈ 2.0 GPa) compared to stainless steel (≈ 200 GPa). The deformation contour confirmed effective load distribution with minimal deflection in the constrained regions, validating structural stability. Overall, the findings establish that 3D-printed ABS underwires provide improved comfort, controlled flexibility and reliable mechanical performance, making them a viable alternative to traditional metallic underwires. This research highlights the potential of additive manufacturing in the inti- mate apparel industry, enabling mass customization, enhanced anatomical conformity and improved wearer satisfaction beyond conventional mass-produced designs. Keywords: 3D printing, brassiere, underwire, comfort, pressure distribution, FEA Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. 292 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 291–301 Izvleček Konvencionalne oporne žice (opornice) v nedrčkih pogosto povzročajo nelagodje zaradi lokaliziranih kon- centracij pritiska, kar vodi v nelagodje pri nošenju in morebitne dolgoročne zdravstvene težave uporabnice. Ta raziskava se osredinja na uporabo tehnologije 3-D tiska za oblikovanje in izdelavo prilagojenih opornic za nedrčke, katerih namen je izboljšati porazdelitev pritiska in strukturno udobje. Na podlagi 3-D skeniranega profila podprsja je bil z uporabo modeliranja taljenega nanosa (FDM) z materialom akrilonitril butadien stiren (ABS) izdelan posamezni osebi prilagojen model opornice. Učinkovitost kosti je bila ocenjena iz rezultatov testi- ranja pritiska s pomočjo senzorjev za silo, nameščenih na treh anatomskih točkah: točki A (osnovno območje), točki B (medialno območje, blizu prsnice) in točki C (lateralno območje, blizu pazduhe), in sicer v statičnih in dinamičnih razmerah. 3-D natisnjena opornica je pokazala znatno zmanjšanje lokaliziranega pritiska v pri- merjavi s konvencionalno opornico iz nerjavnega jekla, in sicer zmanjšanje za 36,36 % v točki A, 38,10 % v točki B in 35,00 % v točki C v statičnih razmerah ter 24,00 %, 21,74 % oziroma 22,22 % v dinamičnih razmerah. Za simulacijo strukturnega odklona pri obremenitvah prsi od 0,5 kg do 0,8 kg je bila uporabljena metoda končnih elementov (MKE). Pokazalo se je, da se je največji odklon povečal z 1,48 mm na 2,37 mm, povprečni odklon pa z 0,80 mm na 1,28 mm, kar kaže na linearno elastično obnašanje, ki je skladno z mehanskimi lastnostmi ABS (Youngov modul ≈ 2,0 GPa) v primerjavi z nerjavnim jeklom (≈ 200 GPa). Kontura deformacij je potrdila učinkovito porazdelitev obremenitve z minimalnim odklonom v omejenih območjih, kar je potrdilo strukturno stabilnost. Splošna ugotovitev je, da 3-D tiskane opornice ABS zagotavljajo izboljšano udobje, nadzorovano upogibljivost in zanesljivo mehansko delovanje, kar pomeni, da so primerna zamenjava za tradicionalne ko- vinske opornice. Ta raziskava poudarja primernost aditivne izdelave v proizvodnji spodnjega perila, ki omogoča množično izdelavo po meri, izboljšano anatomsko skladnost in zadovoljstvo uporabnic, ki presega običajne konfekcijsko proizvedene modele. Ključne besede: 3-D tiskanje, modrček z oporo, udobje, porazdelitev pritiska, metoda končnih elementov (MKE) 1 Introduction The evolving lifestyle and diverse needs of modern gineering principles into garment design to achieve women have profoundly influenced the design of optimal comfort, support and aesthetic appeal [1]. clothing, particularly in the domain of lingerie. With Anatomically, the female breast is a complex the increasing physical and mental demands of daily structure composed of mammary glands, adipose life, comfort has become a fundamental requirement tissues, connective tissues and blood vessels, en- for maintaining productivity, well-being and con- closed by a sensitive skin layer that contributes to fidence. Recognizing that each woman has unique femininity and physical appearance. Unlike other body characteristics and personal preferences, lin- body parts, the breasts lack direct muscular and gerie designers and manufacturers are increasingly skeletal support and instead rely on Cooper’s liga- adopting personalization and customization as key ments and superficial fascia for lift and positioning. strategies in garment development. Recent research These ligaments, however, are highly susceptible to demonstrates that the use of inverse design methods mechanical stress during physical movement, which can successfully customize bra cups, thereby sig- can lead to breast ptosis (sagging). Consequently, nificantly improving fit and user satisfaction. This the design of brassieres that provide both comfort evolution emphasizes the necessity of integrating en- and adequate support has become increasingly Customization of Brassiere Underwire Design: Leveraging 3D Printing for Enhanced Pressure Distribution 293 important. Over the years, brassieres have evolved [9]. Prolonged pressure from underwires has been from simple functional garments into highly engi- associated with mastitis and myalgia, although no neered support systems that integrate biomechanics, scientific evidence supports a causal link to breast material science and ergonomic design. A well-fitted cancer [10]. Additional discomfort often arises brassiere is crucial for minimizing breast discomfort, from shoulder strap pressure, compounding wearer preventing musculoskeletal strain and enhancing dissatisfaction [11]. posture [2]. In this context, 3D printing (additive manufac- Studies have shown that ill-fitting brassieres turing) presents a promising solution for creating can cause shoulder pain, back pain and discomfort, personalized lingerie components. This technology particularly among women with larger bust sizes enables the fabrication of complex three-dimen- [3]. Among various bra types, underwire brassieres sional objects layer by layer from digital models, play a vital role in shaping and supporting the facilitating precise customization and geometric breasts. The underwire, typically a rigid U-shaped flexibility. The fashion industry has increasingly component made of metal or plastic, is sewn into a adopted 3D printing for producing jewellery, foot- channel beneath the cups, providing lift and main- wear, accessories and garments [12–14]. Techniques taining contour. To prevent the wire from piercing such as FDM facilitate the production of textile-like the fabric, both ends are covered with plastic tips or structures suitable for wearable applications [15]. cushion caps [4]. Metallic materials, primarily steel The integration of 3D printing in lingerie design en- and nickel-titanium alloys, dominate underwire ables the creation of customized underwires tailored production due to their superior rigidity and du- to individual body contours, thereby improving fit, rability [5]. In contrast, plastic underwires, usually comfort and aesthetic harmony [16]. Prior studies made from polypropylene or PVC, account for a using 3D scanning to capture breast root contours small market share because of their lower stiffness have demonstrated the potential for developing and susceptibility to permanent deformation under personalized underwires that enhance anatomical load. However, ABS offers enhanced tensile strength, conformity and wearer comfort [17]. Moreover, thermal resistance, and dimensional stability com- several brands and researchers are advancing toward pared to other thermoplastics, making it a promising mass personalization in intimate apparel through candidate for underwire applications requiring 3D body scanning, parametric modelling and da- structural performance. ta-driven fitting algorithms [18]. Research has confirmed that underwired bras- The aim of this study was to design and fabri- sieres effectively reduce vertical breast displacement cate a customized brassiere underwire using 3D and improve breast positioning, thereby enhancing printing technology to achieve enhanced pressure support [6]. Continued advancements in underwire distribution and user comfort. A 3D body scanning materials and geometry have also improved comfort technique was employed to obtain an accurate by minimizing localized pressure points and improv- under-bust profile, which was then processed into ing ergonomic performance [7]. Nevertheless, many a digital model for additive manufacturing. The women report discomfort from underwires due to resulting ABS underwire was experimentally tested excessive stiffness and pressure concentration along to measure pressure exertion at critical points, the chest wall. Poorly fitted underwires can lead to while FEA was conducted to evaluate its structural skin irritation, inflammation and pressure-related response under different load conditions. Compar- pain [8]. Common design flaws include improper ative assessments with conventional stainless-steel curvature and arc length, which may cause the wire underwires were performed to examine comfort and to poke through the fabric or rub against the skin structural integrity. The outcomes provide valuable 294 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 291–301 insights into integrating digital design and additive sufficient flexibility. The flap portion, measuring 4 manufacturing in lingerie development for improved mm in thickness and 7 mm in width, was connected comfort, performance and personalization. to the lower edge of the cup. Its function was to dis- tribute the applied load over a broader area, thereby 2 Materials and methods reducing localized high-pressure points at the skin interface. 2.1 Acquisition of 3D body scan and The completed 3D model was digitally aligned underwire design with the scanned under-bust surface to verify The design and evaluation of the customized conformity and dimensional accuracy before pro- 3D-printed underwire began with the acquisition ceeding to fabrication. The final assembly, illustrated of the under-bust profile using a high-precision in Figure 1, shows the precise fitting of the designed 3D body scanning technique. A participant with a underwire onto the breast root curvature, confirm- brassiere size of 38C was selected for this study to ing ergonomic and structural compatibility. represent an average larger-cup size, which typically experiences higher pressure concentration under the bust. The scanning was performed using a Shining 3D EinScan Pro 2X Plus, a structured-light 3D scanner known for its high accuracy and ability to capture fine surface details. The scanner was oper- ated in handheld rapid mode, facilitating complete acquisition of the under-bust curvature without causing any discomfort to the subject. The captured three-dimensional point cloud data was processed using Geomagic Design X software to reconstruct the anatomical under-bust curve and remove scanning noise or misalignment. The processed geometry provided an accurate digital representation of the breast root contour, which served as the basis for customized underwire design. Using computer-aided design (CAD) tools, the underwire was modelled with optimized curvature and width ratios to achieve balanced support and Figure 1: 3D model of underwire fitted along the minimal localized pressure. Several iterative CAD breast root contour simulations were performed to refine the geometry, ensuring a comfortable anatomical fit and effective 2.2 3D Printing of underwire pressure dispersion. The finalized 3D model of the customized underwire The final design consisted of two main structural was fabricated using FDM, one of the most widely components: a cup portion and a flap portion. The adopted additive manufacturing techniques for cup portion, designed with a thickness of 1.5 mm polymer-based components. This process was cho- and width of 2.5 cm, followed the natural curvature sen for its cost-effectiveness, geometric versatility of the under-bust, tapering gradually toward the and ability to produce lightweight yet durable parts inner and outer breast regions. This design ensured suitable for wearable applications. The printing was a close fit along the chest wall while maintaining carried out using an Ultimaker S5 3D printer, which Customization of Brassiere Underwire Design: Leveraging 3D Printing for Enhanced Pressure Distribution 295 offers a high level of dimensional accuracy and sur- The printed underwire was subsequently evalu- face quality appropriate for fine, curved geometries ated for dimensional accuracy using digital callipers such as underwire structures. and was compared to the CAD model to confirm ABS filament was selected as the printing tolerance levels within ±0.2 mm. As illustrated in material due to its superior mechanical properties, Figure 2, the 3D-printed underwire demonstrated including high tensile strength, toughness and ther- high structural fidelity to the digital design. The mal stability. These characteristics make ABS ideal fabricated underwire was then integrated into a for producing components that require flexibility specially prepared brassiere casing for experimental under cyclic loading without permanent deforma- evaluation, as shown in Figure 3. tion. The filament diameter used was 1.75 mm, while the printer’s nozzle diameter was set to 0.4 mm. To achieve optimal strength and surface smoothness, the printing parameters were standardized as follows: printing temperature of 240°C, bed temperature of 100°C, printing speed of 50 mm/s and layer height of 0.1 mm. The infill density was maintained at 100% (solid) to ensure maximum structural integrity and consistent load-bearing performance. The underwire was printed in a horizontal orientation to enhance dimensional stability and Figure 3: Attachment of 3D printed underwire in a reduce internal stress accumulation during cooling. casing with the cup After printing, the component was allowed to cool gradually on the print bed to prevent warping or 2.3 Pressure exertion test delamination. Post-processing involved support Bra comfort is fundamentally influenced by the structure removal and light surface finishing using distribution of pressure exerted during wear, which fine-grit sandpaper to achieve a smooth and skin- can be assessed using direct or indirect evaluation safe surface texture. methods [19]. Studies have shown that integrating cushioning elements between the bra strap and the body significantly enhances pressure distribution and overall comfort [20]. To evaluate the pressure exerted by the underwire on breast tissue, a pressure exertion test was conducted using force-sensitive resistor (FSR) sensors. In this study, pressure mapping was performed fol- lowing a customized test protocol designed to capture the pressure exerted at key anatomical regions beneath the breast. Based on ergonomic relevance and previous research [21], three critical sensor locations Point A (base region), Point B (medial region, near the sternum) and Point C (lateral region, near the underarm) were selected to measure both vertical and lateral support Figure 2. 3D printed underwire component responses. These sensor locations were identified as areas prone to concentrated pressure during wear [22]. 296 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 291–301 FSR sensors were affixed to the inner surface of 2.4 Finite element analysis (FEA) the brassiere, directly below the underwire, ensuring Finite element analysis (FEA) was conducted using precise alignment with the designated anatomical the ANSYS static structural module to evaluate the points. Each participant wore both types of bras- deflection behaviour of the 3D-printed underwire sieres: one fitted with a 3D-printed ABS underwire under varying loading conditions. A fine mesh was and another with a conventional stainless-steel generated using tetrahedral solid elements to ensure underwire. The tests were conducted under con- high accuracy in predicting stress and deformation. trolled laboratory conditions to ensure consistency The underwire model was constrained at both ends in posture, fit and motion. Pressure readings were to replicate its fixed attachment points within the collected under two states: static (stationary posture) brassiere frame. and dynamic, which simulated natural body move- A pressure boundary condition was applied ments such as arm lifting, torso twisting and short along the curved surface of the underwire, corre- walking cycles. sponding to estimated breast loads in the range of The sensors were calibrated prior to testing to 0.5–0.8 kg. This load interval represents the average ensure high measurement accuracy and repeatabil- breast weight for women with larger cup sizes, ity. Pressure values were continuously recorded and typically varying from approximately 500 grams to expressed in N/cm², computed from the measured over 1 kilogram, and includes the expected range for force and sensor’s active area. The data collected a 38C cup size, as reported in previous anatomical from Points A, B and C provided a comprehensive studies [22]. The simulation was performed under representation of pressure distribution under both static loading conditions using the standard ANSYS static and dynamic conditions, enabling a direct solver to ensure stable and realistic results. comparison between the two underwire types. Material properties corresponding to ABS were assigned based on standard reference values, includ- ing its Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, to accu- rately model the material’s mechanical behaviour. The deflection of the underwire was then computed under the distributed load to quantify deformation characteristics representative of real-world wearing conditions. 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Pressure exertion test Figure 4: Sensor points A, B and C on the breasts A pressure exertion test was conducted to assess the distribution of pressure applied by the underwires The spatial locations of the sensors and their on the wearer’s body, as this parameter directly corresponding measurement points are illustrated in influences comfort and ergonomic performance. Figure 4, which provides a schematic representation Excessive localized pressure can lead to discomfort, of the under-bust region showing the placement of irritation and long-term skin issues, making it Points A, B and C. This configuration ensured con- essential to evaluate how different materials and sistent data acquisition from regions most relevant structural modifications affect pressure distribution. to underwire-induced pressure during wear. The results of the pressure exertion test, summarized in Table 1, demonstrate that the 3D-printed under- Customization of Brassiere Underwire Design: Leveraging 3D Printing for Enhanced Pressure Distribution 297 wire consistently exhibited lower pressure values in Figure 5. Pressure values increased slightly during under both static and dynamic conditions across dynamic motion due to natural variations in force all measurement points A (base region), B (medial distribution. However, the 3D-printed underwire region) and C (lateral region) compared to the demonstrated superior adaptability and stability conventional stainless-steel underwire, as depicted compared to the rigid stainless-steel design. Table 1: Pressure testing results Pressure (N/cm2) Point Static test Dynamic test 3D-printed underwire Stainless steel underwire 3D-printed underwire Stainless steel underwire A 0.28 0.44 0.38 0.50 B 0.26 0.42 0.36 0.46 C 0.26 0.40 0.35 0.45 ABS underwire, which allows it to conform more effectively to the natural body contours compared to its rigid stainless-steel counterpart. No abrupt pressure spikes were detected in the 3D-printed underwire, indicating smoother and more uniform pressure transitions. A minor increase observed at Point B during dynamic move- ment suggests that localized geometric optimization Figure 5: Stainless steel underwire in future design iterations could further improve comfort. Overall, the lower pressure values recorded The most significant reduction in pressure was for the 3D-printed underwire confirm its potential observed at Point B (medial region), indicating to reduce discomfort and irritation, particularly improved comfort and better load redistribution during prolonged wear. Furthermore, the dynamic in this area. This supports the effectiveness of the test results validate its superior performance during customized 3D-printed design in distributing force motion, reducing transient pressure peaks and more evenly across the under-bust region. These enhancing overall comfort. These outcomes demon- findings are in line with prior studies emphasizing strate the feasibility of utilizing 3D printing to devel- that softer and geometrically adaptive components op ergonomically optimized underwire designs that can enhance wear comfort by minimizing high-pres- achieve improved pressure distribution and wearer sure zones beneath the bust [19, 20]. satisfaction. A comparative analysis further revealed that the 3D-printed underwire achieved substantial pressure 3.2 Finite element analysis (FEA) reductions relative to the conventional model. Un- FEA was conducted to examine the deformation der static conditions, the reductions were 36.36% at characteristics of the 3D-printed ABS underwire Point A, 38.10% at Point B and 35.00% at Point C. under varying breast loads and to compare its per- Under dynamic conditions, pressure reductions were formance with a conventional stainless-steel under- 24.00% at Point A, 21.74% at Point B and 22.22% at wire of identical geometry. The results are presented Point C. These improvements are attributed to the in Table 2, which presents the maximum deflection enhanced flexibility and form-fitting nature of the values obtained for each load condition. 298 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 291–301 Table 2: Comparative FEA deflection results 0.8031 mm. For 0.6 kg, these values increased to 3.04 Maximum deflection (mm) × 10⁻¹⁷ mm, 1.7818 mm and 0.9637 mm, respectively. Load (kg) Stainless steel Similarly, at 0.7 kg, the minimum deflection reached ABS underwire underwire 3.54 × 10⁻¹⁷ mm, the maximum was 2.0788 mm and 0.5 1.48 0.015 the average was 1.1243 mm. Under the highest tested 0.6 1.78 0.018 load of 0.8 kg, the minimum, maximum and average 0.7 2.08 0.021 deflections were 4.05 × 10⁻¹⁷ mm, 2.3758 mm, and 0.8 2.38 0.024 1.2850 mm, respectively. A clear contrast was observed between the deformation behaviours of the two materials. The stainless-steel underwire, owing to its high stiffness (Young’s modulus ≈ 200 GPa), exhibited minimal deflection across all load cases, with a maximum of 0.024 mm at 0.8 kg. Conversely, the ABS under- wire, with a significantly lower Young’s modulus of approximately 2.0 GPa, demonstrated greater but controlled flexibility, with deflections increasing from 1.48 mm at 0.5 kg to 2.38 mm at 0.8 kg. This gradual rise in deformation with increasing load indicates a linear elastic response, consistent with Figure 6: Finite element analysis line chart showing the mechanical properties of both materials. deflection of the ABS underwire for breast weights The controlled deflection of the ABS underwire ranging from 0.5 kg to 0.8 kg plays a key role in enhancing comfort by facilitating slight structural adaptability under load. Unlike the A comparison across the four load cases shows a rigid stainless-steel wire, which confines the breast nearly linear increase in deflection with increasing in a fixed position, the ABS underwire behaves as load. The maximum deflection rose by approxi- a compliant spring, absorbing and redistributing mately 23.2% between 0.5 kg and 0.6 kg, by 16.7% the applied load through elastic deformation. This between 0.6 kg and 0.7 kg, and by 14.3% between flexibility helps minimize localized stress concentra- 0.7 kg and 0.8 kg, reflecting a gradually decreasing tions, particularly at the medial and lateral regions rate of increase. The consistent proportionality identified during the pressure exertion tests, thereby between load and deflection demonstrates that the reducing wearer discomfort. ABS underwire behaves elastically within the tested The deflection results of the ABS underwire ob- range and maintains structural integrity under tained from the finite element analysis (FEA) are illus- incremental loading conditions. trated in Figure 6, which presents a line chart showing The FEA deflection contour of the ABS under- the deflection variation along the underwire’s bottom wire, illustrated in Figure 7, shows that the maximum edge curve for breast weights ranging from 0.5 kg to deformation occurred near the central region of the 0.8 kg. The deflection values were analysed in terms underwire where the downward breast load is con- of minimum, maximum and average magnitudes centrated while the end regions, constrained within for each load case. At a 0.5 kg load, the minimum the brassiere frame, exhibited minimal deflection. deflection recorded was 2.53 × 10⁻¹⁷ mm, the maxi- This deformation pattern indicates that the under- mum value was 1.4848 mm and the average value was wire effectively distributes the applied load along its Customization of Brassiere Underwire Design: Leveraging 3D Printing for Enhanced Pressure Distribution 299 curvature, minimizing local stress concentrations values demonstrate that the structure can withstand and preventing structural instability. typical breast weights without excessive bending, Overall, the analysis confirms that the 3D-print- while the distributed deformation pattern ensures ed ABS underwire exhibits controlled deflection uniform support. These findings validate the me- behaviour under loads ranging from 0.5 kg to 0.8 kg, chanical feasibility of 3D-printed ABS underwires maintaining sufficient stiffness to support the breast as a comfortable, adaptive and structurally reliable while providing the flexibility needed to enhance alternative to traditional metallic underwires in comfort. The relatively low maximum deflection brassiere design. Figure 7: ABS underwire deflection distribution contour visualization for breasts weights of 0.5 kg to 0.8 kg 4 Conclusion the 3D-printed underwire effectively reduced local- ized pressure at critical contact points under both This study successfully demonstrated the potential static and dynamic conditions. Compared to tra- of 3D printing technology in the customization of ditional stainless-steel underwires, the 3D-printed brassiere underwires to enhance wearer comfort design achieved substantial reductions in localized and optimize pressure distribution. The primary ob- pressure at all three measured points, resulting in a jective to design a personalized underwire tailored more uniform force distribution. This improvement to an individual’s under-bust profile was achieved directly translated to enhanced wearer comfort and through 3D body scanning and digital modelling mitigated discomfort commonly associated with techniques. The fabricated underwire, produced rigid metallic underwires. using FDM with ABS material, offered a structurally The FEA results further validated the mechanical stable and ergonomically comfortable alternative to reliability of the 3D-printed underwire under vary- conventional stainless-steel underwires. ing breast load conditions. The deformation contour The pressure exertion test results confirmed that indicated that the highest deflection occurred at the 300 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 291–301 central region, where breast load concentration is Declaration of conflict of interest: The authors here- greatest, while maintaining structural stability across by declare that there are no potential conflicts of the overall geometry. This pattern confirmed the interest concerning the research, authorship and/or ability of the customized design to distribute applied publication of this article. loads efficiently without excessive deformation, Funding: The authors received no financial support aligning with the pressure test findings. for the research, authorship and/or publication of Overall, this research highlights the feasibility this article. and effectiveness of 3D-printed underwires as a viable alternative to conventional metallic designs. 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Tekstilec, 2024, 67(4), 397−411, doi: 10.14502/tekstilec.67.2024106. 302 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 302–320 | DOI: 110.14502/tekstilec.68.2025011 Andrej Učakar, 1 Sanja Jedrinović, 2 Barbara Luštek Preskar, 1 Urška Stanković Elesini 1 1 Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana 2 Centre for Use of ICT in Education, University of Ljubljana Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms Izkušnja študentov Naravoslovnotehniške fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani pri uporabi spletnih učilnic Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 1–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 11–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčna avtorica: Prof. dr. Urška Stanković Elesini E-mail: urska.stankovic@ntf.uni-lj.si ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4280-0615 Abstract The aim of the study was to determine the progress in the use of online classrooms, gather opinions on their functional use on computers or mobile devices, on user interface and its elements, work within online class- rooms, and on the advantages and disadvantages of conducting examinations in online classrooms. The re- search involved students from various study programmes, including students of textile and clothing study programmes, and focused on analysing the use of Moodle online classrooms through the system’s built-in tools and student surveys. The results indicate that the number of users of online classrooms is increasing. Students access online classrooms via computers and, increasingly, via mobile devices. The overall appear- ance of online classrooms was assessed as appropriate on both computers and mobile devices, with some comments suggesting improvements in the personalisation of the dashboard and better visual organisation. Students were satisfied with the arrangement and accessibility of control elements on both types of devic- es and praised the typography used, while expressing less satisfaction with some of the icons representing certain functions. Remarks were also made regarding the unclear labelling of some functions or commands. The information displayed on both devices was considered visible, although its retrieval on mobile devices was perceived as time-consuming. Students reported becoming familiar with the online classroom quickly and appreciated their practicality. They were satisfied with the organisation of content by chapters. A smaller number of students uses the online classroom for exchanging opinions or group work, while they still prefer email communication for interaction with lecturers. Students praised the simplicity of submitting assignments via the online environment (esp. group assignments) and the opportunity to receive feedback from assessors. They did not encounter major difficulties when taking exams within the online classroom. They found the technical implementation straightforward, the information provided in the examination (quiz) environment useful, and the appearance of the exam interface pleasant. The findings of the study indicate the need for improvements primarily in the area of the user interface and in encouraging greater use of tools that enable Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms 303 direct communication among participants within online classrooms. It is also recommended that the faculty provide targeted professional training for academic and technical staff in the advanced functionalities of Moo- dle, promote the inclusion of interactive and collaborative learning activities, establish coherent pedagogical guidelines for online course design, systematically collect and apply user feedback, and encourage the use of digitally supported forms of teaching. Keywords: engineering, natural sciences, online classroom, Moodle, digitisation, user experience Izvleček Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti napredek pri uporabi spletnih učilnic, zbrati mnenja o funkcionalni uporabi spletnih učilnic na računalnikih ali mobilnih napravah, uporabniškem vmesniku in njegovih elementih, delu v spletnih učilnicah ter o prednostih in slabostih izvajanja izpitov v spletnih učilnicah. V raziskavo so bili vključeni študenti različnih študijskih programov (tudi študenti tekstilstva), osredotočala pa se je na analizo uporabe spletnih učil- nic Moodle z uporabo vgrajenih orodij sistema ter anket med študenti. Rezultati kažejo, da število uporabnikov spletnih učilnic narašča. Do učilnic dostopajo s pomočjo računalnikov in v vedno večjem številu tudi s pomočjo mobilnih naprav. Splošni izgled učilnic je tako na računalnikih kot mobilnih napravah ocenjen kot ustrezen z nekaterimi opombami glede personalizacije nadzorne plošče in boljše preglednosti. Študenti so bili zadovoljni z razporeditvijo in dostopnostjo kontrolnikov na obeh napravah, pohvalili so uporabljeno tipografijo, manj zadovoljni pa so bili z uporabljenimi ikonami za nekatere funkcije. Podane so bile tudi opombe na nerazumljivo poimenovanje nekaterih funkcij/ukazov. Informacije na zaslonih obeh naprav so bile ocenjene kot vidne, njiho- vo iskanje na mobilnih napravah pa zamudno. Študenti so se v spletnih učilnicah hitro znašli, pohvalili pa so tudi njihovo praktičnost. Zadovoljni so bili z razporeditvijo vsebin po poglavjih. Manjše število študentov spletno učilnico uporablja za izmenjavo mnenj ali skupinsko delo, za interakcijo z učiteljem pa še vedno raje uporabljajo e-pošto. Pohvalili so enostavnost oddajanja nalog v spletno učilnico (predvsem skupinskih nalog) ter možnost povratne informacije ocenjevalcev. Večjih težav pri opravljanju izpitov v spletni učilnici niso zaznali; tehnična izvedba se jim je zdela preprosta, informacije v izpitnem okolju (kvizu) uporabne, izgled izpita pa prijeten. Ugotovitve raziskave nakazujejo nujnost izboljšav predvsem na področju uporabniškega vmesnika in večjega spodbujanja uporabe tistih orodij, ki omogočajo neposredno komunikacijo med udeleženci v spletnih učilnicah. Priporočljivo je tudi, da fakulteta izvaja ciljno usmerjeno strokovno usposabljanje za visokošolske in tehnične sodelavce na področju naprednih funkcionalnosti sistema Moodle, spodbuja vključevanje interaktivnih in sodelovalnih učnih dejavnosti, vzpostavi usklajene pedagoške smernice za spletno načrtovanje predmetov, sistematično zbira in uporablja povratne informacije uporabnikov ter spodbuja uporabo digitalno podprtih oblik poučevanja. Ključne besede: inženirstvo, naravoslovje, spletna učilnica, Moodle, digitalizacija, uporabniška izkušnja 1 Introduction The digital transformation of higher education has digital education strategies to improve the quality of reshaped the ways in which knowledge is created, teaching, expand access to knowledge and learning, communicated and evaluated, presenting universities and promote sustainable innovation in pedagogical around the world with both challenges and oppor- practices [1, 2]. Digital transformation is not just a tunities. In the European and broader international technological shift, but a comprehensive pedagogical context, higher education institutions have adopted and institutional transformation that redefines the 304 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 302–320 processes of teaching, learning and assessment. for collaborative learning, implementing formative Research emphasises that digital technologies enable knowledge assessment and providing feedback. greater flexibility, interactivity and accessibility of the Furthermore, the digital transformation in learning process; however, their effective integration education must be aligned with the development of depends on the pedagogical and digital competences digital competences among both students and edu- of educators and adequate institutional support to cators [9]. The European Commission’s Action Plan promote digital innovation [3]. for Digital Education emphasises this alignment and calls for the improvement of digital literacy, 1.1 Theoretical and conceptual foundations equal access and lifelong learning through inclusive of digital pedagogy educational ecosystems [1, 2]. Studies in recent years The development of digital education has gradually have shown that educators need dedicated time, shifted focus from the functional introduction of professional support and opportunities for collab- technologies to a more in-depth understanding orative learning to effectively integrate educational of learners’ experiences, promoting inclusion and technologies into their teaching [3]. sustainable practices. Theoretical approaches such as constructivism and self-regulated learning [4], and 1.2 User experience in digital learning models such as the Technology Acceptance Model environments (TAM) [5, 6] offer guidance for understanding how A growing body of literature explores the user individuals adopt and use educational technology. experience (UX) of teachers and learners in digital The TAM model emphasises perceived usefulness learning contexts. User experience encompasses and ease of use as key factors influencing users’ usability, engagement, satisfaction, interest and behavioural intentions – a perspective that has been perceived learning effectiveness in digital learning repeatedly confirmed in the higher education environments. Research at European universities context, including in the studies on the use of the has shown that the quality of the digital user expe- Moodle online classroom system [7]. rience depends on institutional support, intuitive Approaches based on constructivist and social interface design and the alignment of tool use with constructivist pedagogy emphasise that the integra- pedagogical goals [10]. The rapid transition to tion of educational technologies should promote au- online and blended learning during the COVID-19 tonomy, collaboration and reflection among learners pandemic has further highlighted differences in dig- [4]. These theories place the learner in the centre of ital readiness and emphasised the need for robust, the learning process as an active co-creator of knowl- user-friendly learning environments [11]. edge, which is built through interaction with peers, Moodle, as one of the most widely used online learning content and digital learning environments. learning environments in the world, has been the fo- Researchers [8] expand on this argument by empha- cus of studies examining user experience and learn- sising that the effective use of digital learning man- ing outcomes. Researchers [12] showed that patterns agement systems (LMS) requires not only technical of student engagement captured by Moodle analytics competences but also a comprehensive understanding can predict academic performance, highlighting of didactic and technological pedagogical content the potential of learning analytics for personalised knowledge (TPACK model). Their findings are based feedback and early intervention. Similarly, studies on an extensive study conducted among 640 higher on personalisation and adaptive learning paths in education teachers, which shows that LMS platforms Moodle environments [13] reveal the importance of are often used primarily as repositories for materials designing flexible, student-centred experiences that rather than comprehensive support environments respond to the diverse learners’ needs. Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms 305 Recent empirical studies have expanded the anal- tion focuses primarily on administrative functions ysis of online learning contexts beyond technologi- rather than promoting student-centred learning cal possibilities to include social and psychological [8]. The pedagogical challenge therefore lies not in dimensions. Lavidas et al. [14] examined how social technological capabilities, but in designing learning desirability influences students’ self-evaluation in experiences that encourage interaction, reflection different learning environments and showed that and authentic assessment. This is consistent with the contextual factors such as learning mode (lectures findings of North American and Western European versus laboratory exercises) shape students’ percep- universities, where the strategies for introducing tions and engagement patterns. In a related study, digital technologies increasingly emphasise the Lavidas, Petropoulou et al. [15] identified factors design of learning and the competences of educators that influence the level of teacher response in online rather than simply introducing platforms [16]. environments, highlighting authority, incentives and environment structure as determinants of digital 1.4 Institutional context and rationale for collaboration and engagement. These findings are the study important for explaining user behaviour in online In Slovenia, the University of Ljubljana (UL) has classrooms. committed to a systematic digital transition, guided by its Digital Strategy 2024–2027, which aims to 1.3 Moodle in context of digital education improve the quality of teaching, research capabilities In the broader context of educational technologies, and social engagement through the use of digital Moodle occupies a special place as an open-source technologies [17]. The Digital Strategy is aligned learning management system based on constructivist with the European vision of inclusive and sustainable pedagogy. Its modular architecture allows educators digital education. Its goal is to strengthen the quality to design learning environments that combine tools of teaching through the systematic development of for communication, collaboration and assessment digital competences among students and staff, while [4]. Moodle’s openness and flexibility have enabled ensuring equal access and innovative pedagogical its widespread institutional adoption, allowing uni- practices. The Faculty of Natural Sciences and En- versities to tailor the platform to local pedagogical gineering is part of this process, as it systematically and linguistic needs [5]. integrated Moodle into its study programmes back Comparative analyses of LMS platforms such in 2017 as part of the institutional project Digital UL as Blackboard, Canvas and Sakai consistently rank – Towards Excellence through Innovative Use of ICT Moodle among the most flexible and cost-effective [18], [19]. This integration has enabled the creation systems for higher education institutions [10]. Its of a unified and secure learning environment acces- pedagogical capabilities include asynchronous and sible to all faculty members and students, for which synchronous communication, collaboration spaces teachers and students have also been provided with (forums, wiki pages and workshops), tools for training and individual support. formative and summative assessment, and detailed Based on the university’s strategic commitment, analytics for tracking student progress [12]. Further- further development projects between 2021 and 2024 more, Moodle’s open-source ecosystem encourages within the framework of the Development Pillar of continuous community-driven innovation, which is Funding (RSF) and the ULTRA project for a sustain- consistent with institutional goals of sustainability able society have encouraged the upgrading the use and academic autonomy. of Moodle online classrooms through interactive At the same time, research warns that Moodle’s content, innovative assessment and collaborative potential remains untapped when its implementa- learning activities. These initiatives directly respond 306 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 302–320 to international evidence that effective digital trans- and 2023/2024 was conducted using built-in tools formation requires ongoing institutional support, (i.e. course usage statistics, module usage statistics, educator training and user-centred design [3, 10]. reports usage and the accessibility toolkit). In both Accordingly, this study explores the experiences cases, the Moodle version was 4.3 and the PHP of students at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and version supported was 8.2.19. Engineering in using Moodle-supported online classrooms. More specifically, it explores the per- 1.6 Student survey on use of online ception of usability, communication, collaboration classrooms and assessment within the platform to identify both 1.6.1 Instrument origin and validity the strengths and challenges of current practice. By The survey on the use of online classrooms was placing local findings within global discussions on created in the program Arnes 1Ka (Centre for Social digital pedagogy and user experience, this research Informatics, University of Ljubljana). The student contributes to the understanding of how institutional survey was adapted from the COLLES (Constructiv- strategies can transform technological infrastructure ist On-Line Learning Environment Survey) frame- into meaningful learning. work [20], which is a well-established instrument, validated internationally across higher-education 2 Methodology contexts to assess relevance, reflection, interactiv- ity, tutor support, peer support and interpretation The data on the use of online classrooms were for within Moodle environments. We maintained its research purpose collected in two ways, i.e. by using core construct structure and translated/adapted built-in tools that allow administrators to capture individual items to fit the context of the Faculty of data and with a student survey conducted at the Natural Sciences and Engineering (UL NTF). Validi- end of an academic year among the students of all ty and testing were conducted in earlier pilot phases bachelor’s and master’s degree study programmes (2019–2021), with a smaller cohort of students al- at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, ready being experienced in using Moodle. Feedback University of Ljubljana (UL NTF). from those pilots informed wording adjustments and section sequencing in the final version used for 1.5 Data collection using Moodle built-in 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 data collection. tools The UL NTF online classrooms are hosted on the 1.6.2 Structure of student survey Moodle platform managed by the Digital Centre The survey comprised 24 questions divided into UL (https://ucilnica-ntf.uni-lj.si/). Classrooms are sections, the description of which follows below. available for all courses entered into the UL NTF • After the opening address, the participating student information system (VIS). The classrooms students were asked whether they had used an are synchronised daily with the VIS system, ensur- online classroom during the academic year in ing up-to-date and automatically synchronised data. question. The students who had not used online The automatic synchronisation allows inter alia for classrooms (0.6% in the academic year 2022/2023 the automation of online classroom creation, content and 3.0% in the academic year 2023/2024) were transfer and storage, and enrolment of students and redirected to the end of the survey as they did course instructors. not have the relevant experience to complete the The collection of statistical information for ana- survey in full. lysing the usage of Moodle virtual classrooms and its • Students who had used the online classroom features to compare the academic years 2022/2023 continued the survey to the next section, where Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms 307 they were asked whether it was the first time they on the final evaluation/assessment in the online had used the online classroom. Those who did classroom (quiz/exam). We again included a six- not use the online classroom for the first time point Likert scale with different statements and ticked the number of courses they had used it enabled comments. for, after which they answered an open-ended • This was followed by closed-ended questions to question about the purpose for which they had find out whether students had been using other used it. software tools (e.g. Teams, Toom, Wbebx etc.) in • This was followed by two similar sections on addition to the online classroom. the appearance and user experience of using • In the last section, students indicated the study online classrooms on a computer or mobile programme they were attending and their gender. device (phone, tablet). In both cases, students The survey was active from 27 May–27 August indicated their agreement with the statements on 2023 in the academic year 2022/2023 and from 4 Jan- a five-point Likert scale (1 – strongly disagree, uary–28 June 2024 in the academic year 2023/2024. 2 – disagree, 3 – neither agree nor disagree, Teachers included the link to the survey in the online 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree), and optionally classroom of their course. Students completed the entered comments about the user interface of the survey on their own free will. No personal data was online classroom they accessed on a computer or collected in the survey. mobile device. • This was followed by a section on the distribution 1.6.3 Target-group refinement and representa- of content or materials in the online classroom. tiveness Students again indicated their agreement with Earlier pilot versions involved students from only the statements on a five-point Likert scale and, if a subset of programmes (mainly those with longer they wished, wrote a comment in an open-ended Moodle experience). The final two-year imple- question. mentation expanded to include all bachelor’s and • In the section that followed, students indicated master’s study programmes at UL NTF, thereby their agreement on a Likert scale with the encompassing both experienced and first-time users statements on the possibility to participate in of online classrooms. This progression was inten- the online classroom. The Likert scale was this tional – by covering the entire population, the study time a six-point scale due to the inclusion of the captures a broader spectrum of digital-competence option “we have not used the above mentioned”. levels and user experiences, which would not have Students were given the opportunity to write been observable in the initial, more homogeneous their comments in this section as well. cohorts. • Students were also asked about their opinion on The number of students completing the survey the use of the online classroom for the submis- in each academic year is shown in Figure 1. A total sion and ongoing evaluation of practical courses, of 307 students participated in the survey over two project seminars or other types of assignments. academic years, with an average of 22.7% male and Similarly as in prior sections, students first indi- 77.4% female students (Figure 1). In the academic cated their agreement with various statements on year 2023/2023, students from 10 study programmes the topic on a six-point Likert scale and were then participated in the survey, and in the following given the possibility to write their comments in year, students from 15 study programmes of both an open-ended question. bachelor’s and master’s degree study programmes • Online classrooms can also be used for exams; (NB: UL NTF runs 16 bachelor’s and master’s degree hence, we were interested in students’ opinions study programmes), 22.9% of students being from 308 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 302–320 textile and clothing study programmes. The online as text documents, image materials, videos, presen- classroom was used in the academic year 2022/2023 tations etc. by 99.4% of the students surveyed, with a slight decrease in the proportion in 2023/2024 (97.4%), Table 1: Number of activities, files uploaded to Moodle which may be due to the higher number of study classrooms and users registered with mobile devices in programmes where some teachers do not use the on- academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 line classroom, but were still included in the survey. Number of Academic year Difference activities/ (%) documents/users 2022/2023 2023/2024 Number of activities 4.903 5.413 10.40 Number of files 117.117 173.752 48.36 Word document 1.269 1.752 +38.06 PDF document 15.541 20.985 +35.03 Presentation 534 676 +26.59 Video document 2.055 2.158 +5.01 Audio file 90 88 –2.22 Pictures 32.355 54.517 +15.62 Number of users with registered 116 255 119.83 mobile devices The general trend of mobile device usage is also reflected in the study process (119.83% compared to 2022/2023) as depicted in Table 1. In the survey, students pointed out that they mainly used online classrooms to review materials Figure 1: Number of respondents, proportion of uploaded by the teacher (hence the significant in- respondents by gender and number of study pro- crease in uploaded documents to online classrooms grammes in which survey was conducted in academic in Table 2), to submit seminar papers, project assign- years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 ments, reports etc., to join groups, take quizzes and Table 2: Number of used modules in Moodle class- 1.6.4 Statistical analysis rooms in academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 Some of the results obtained from the Likert scale (ordinal data) were statistically analysed – the Academic year Difference Module Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for dependent 2022/2023 2023/2024 (%) samples and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test was used File 1446 1942 +34.30 for independent samples. Forum 1028 705 –31.42 Assignment 611 661 +8.18 Folder 337 479 +42.14 3 Results URL 377 424 +12.47 Page 292 243 –16.78 Text and media area 209 172 –17.70 1.7 Activities in online classrooms Quiz 185 144 –22.16 The data in Table 1, collected using Moodle’s built- Book 60 78 +30.00 in tools, show that the number of activities in the PDF Annotation 8 75 +837.50 Group choice 28 31 +10.71 academic year 2023/2024 increased compared to H5P 19 30 +57.89 2022/2023, particularly in the uploading files such Choice 18 20 +11.11 Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms 309 surveys, participate in forums, take ongoing tests and final exams, to read and receive messages, and to monitor information. Table 2 shows data on the usage of Moodle modules between the academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024. Table 2 shows that in the academic year 2023/2024, there was an increased use of several modules, in- dicating that teachers started using Moodle online classrooms more regularly. This is particularly evident in the increased number of uploaded files, use of URL links, folders, books, PDF annotations, group selections, H5P and other activities. We can certainly conclude that the effort invested in training and conducting numerous training sessions, online workshops and webinars is paying off, as this not only improves computer literacy among the educa- tional staff but also among all students, technicians and other external collaborators at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering. Figure 2: Proportion of students using online classroom 1.8 Student survey results in academic years for the first time and average number of courses in 2022/2023 in 2023/2024 which students used online classroom in academic years 1.8.1 Basic information on use of online 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 classrooms The results of the surveys conducted in the academic petences of teachers and significantly increased their years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 are shown below. confidence in using online classrooms. Figure 2 shows that the proportion of students In addition to online classrooms, teachers also using an online classroom for the first time increased used other software in their courses (Figure 3). They in 2023/2024, as did the average number of courses used MS Teams in a higher proportion (the use of in which students used an online classroom, namely this tool even increased by 10.2% in 2023/2024), from 4.5 classrooms/student in 2022/2023 (s = 2.04) Zoom for remote conversations (the use of this tool to 5.2 classrooms/student in 2023/2024 (s = 2.76). decreased by 25.9% in 2023/2024) and some Google The increase in the proportion of first-time users tools such as Drive, Forms etc. We attribute the use of online classrooms was expected, as teachers of of these tools to different reasons. MS Teams was courses that had not used online classrooms before used by the majority of teachers at UL NTF during also started using them. Consequently, students then the Covid era and they got used to it; hence, some of also used online classrooms for the first time. them still do not want to replace this tool with online As already mentioned in the Introduction, the classrooms. They mainly use MS Teams for upload- increased use of online classrooms resulted from the ing materials, meetings and remote consultations etc. active entry of UL NTF into two important projects They also add that uploading materials by students in 2021 and 2022, i.e. the ULTRA 2.01 project. Both to MS Teams is easier, since the teacher does not projects included training and workshops for the have to open additional functionalities for students staff, which contributed to raising the digital com- to upload files as it is the case in online classrooms 310 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 302–320 can hinder user engagement. Furthermore, students’ habits frequently mirror teachers’ own communica- tion practices – when instructors primarily respond by email or fail to model the use of forums, students perceive Moodle as an administrative rather than dialogic environment. 1.8.2 Appearance and user experience of online classrooms on computers and mobile devices (phone, tablet) As Figure 4 shows, the proportion of students using the online classroom on computers decreased in the academic year 2023/2024 compared to 2022/2023, while online classrooms were more frequently ac- cessed on mobile devices, esp. phones (the increase in the use of online classrooms on phones is also Figure 3: Use of additional software tools in online class- reflected in the data in Table 1). rooms in academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 (e.g. assignment etc.). Zoom is mostly used for online meetings and conversations; however, in the last year, it was frequently replaced by MS Teams. Google tools were widely used at UL NTF before the Covid era; nevertheless, their use has been decreasing year by year, being replaced mainly by MS Teams. Other soft- ware tools that are still used in very small proportions are Dropbox, Webex, OneDrive and WeTransfer. Although institutional strategies have promoted the integration of online communication within learning management systems, e.g. Moodle, students still prefer communicating with their instructors by email rather than through LMS forums or messaging tools. This pattern appears to be influenced not only by technological usability but also by social and Figure 4: Use of online classrooms on computers or pedagogical factors. Research shows that email is mobile devices (phone, tablet) often perceived as a more personal, direct and reliable communication channel, enabling students to receive In the academic year 2022/2023, the Centre for prompt responses while maintaining a sense of Digital University of Ljubljana (CDIUL) introduced privacy and control. Moodle-based forums are often a new interface for the online classroom, which was associated with public exposure and formality, which to enable easier access and, in particular, viewing may discourage students from posting questions vis- content on mobile device. Figures 5 and 6 show the ible to peers. In addition, the ergonomic design and results of the user experience of students who used notification settings of LMS communication tools the online classroom on computers and mobile Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms 311 devices, respectively. The scores are calculated from swered “neither agree nor disagree” to the questions the proportions of Likert scale ratings from 1 to 5. about the user experience, compared to 17.5% in In the 2022/2023 survey, 15.9% of respondents an- 2023/2024. Figure 5: User experience ratings of online classroom on computer (Likert scale: 1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree) Figure 6: User experience ratings of online classroom on mobile devices, i.e. phone, tablet (Likert scale: 1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree) Students found it easier to access the online to the online classroom on a computer and a mobile classroom on a computer than on mobile devices. device for both academic years 2022/23 (Z = –3.01, The results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test indicat- p = 0.0026, r = –0.6) and 2023/24 (Z = –2.25, ed a statistically significant difference in accessibility p = 0.0242, r = –0.5). Among the comments about the 312 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 302–320 access on computers, the main difficulty highlighted (p = 0.106). A similar trend was observed in the was the difficulty to access the online classroom on satisfaction with typography, which also decreased some browsers (e.g. Firefox), while some students slightly in 2023/2024 (by 3.92%). The Wilcoxon had difficulty accessing the online classroom on mo- rank-sum test indicated no statistically significant bile phones due to the constant reminder to redirect difference in satisfaction with the typography to the Chrome browser. used on the computer between the academic years The online classroom appearance on a computer 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 (p = 0.3792, Z = 0.8794). and on mobile devices was rated by students as The decrease in satisfaction may be due to possible adequate/appropriate. However, the results of the changes in the user interface. The evaluated non-sta- Wilcoxon signed-rank test indicated that for the tistically significant differences in both cases suggest academic year 2022/23, the difference in the online that the observed decline may reflect normal vari- classroom appearance between a computer and ability in student responses rather than a significant mobile device was statistically significant (Z = –2.89, change in their perceptions of the icons. Among the p = 0.0038, r = –0.5), while for the academic year students’ comments, there was a minor dissatisfac- 2023/24, the difference was not statistically signif- tion with the terminology used (e.g. the terms “my icant (Z = –1.65, p = 0.0972, r = –0.3). Therefore, courses” and “local courses”). we cannot claim that the users noticed a difference While students found the information to be in the appearance of the classroom on a computer quite visible and accessible on mobile screens, it was or mobile device in the academic year 2023/24. relatively time-consuming to get to, requiring a lot Comments on the online classroom appearance of “scrolling”. The dissatisfaction with the search included missing an interface more similar to the process (and also about the difficulty of opening pdf Apple experience, wanting more personalisation of files) increased in 2023/2024 (score was down by the dashboard and better transparency. 5.78%). The results of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test Students were satisfied with the layout and indicated a non-statistically significant difference in accessibility of controls, both on computers and the search process used on the mobile devices be- mobile devices. However, the results of the Wilcoxon tween the academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 signed-rank test indicated that for the academic year (p = 0.0822, Z = 1.7381). Given the small calculated 2023/24, the difference in the layout and accessibility standardised effect size (r = 0.13), it would be desir- of controls in the online classroom on a computer and able to obtain a larger sample size per group. mobile device was statistically significant (Z = –3.84, Students agreed that the user interface of online p = 0.0001, r = –0.7), while for the academic year classrooms was functional and easy to use, although 2022/23, the difference was not statistically significant a bit more for a computer than mobile devices, and (Z = –1.95, p = 0.0506, r = –0.3). Therefore, we cannot that they quickly found their way around online claim that the users noticed a difference in the layout classrooms. Despite some difficulties, they praised and accessibility of controls in the online classroom the practicality of online classrooms, as they could on a computer or mobile device in the academic year access them from anywhere, check new information 2022/23. Nevertheless, there was a comment regard- and, in some cases, receive it to their email address. ing the complex presentation of controls. Although the reported satisfaction with the 1.8.3 Content distribution in online classroom icons in the online classroom in 2023/2024 was When evaluating the arrangement of content in the slightly lower compared to 2022/2023 (a decrease online classroom, it is important to bear in mind that of 4.86%), the Wilcoxon rank-sum test showed the arrangement of content depends on the adminis- that this difference was not statistically significant trator (i.e. teacher) of the online classroom to decide Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms 313 how and in what way to arrange different content. arranging the materials more than others. Therefore, Of course, students’ assessment can also be very sub- the students’ comments in this section of the survey jective, as some students may prefer a certain way of were very varied, as indicated below. Figure 7: Content arrangement in online classroom (Likert scale: 1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree) Figure 7 shows that students were satisfied that they would like to see online classrooms in all with the meaningful separation of chapters in both courses. academic years (scores 3.93 and 3.99). They were The results of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test indi- also satisfied with the amount of material and the cated that no statistically significant differences were possibility to have all the material in one place. We found in any of the statements shown in Figure 7 be- noted that the ratings for these two statements were tween the academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 slightly lower in 2023/2024, which can be attributed (p > α; α = 0.05). The standardised effect sizes for to the fact that a number of teachers were new to all statements were small (r ≈ 0.10–0.30); therefore, using online classrooms in this academic year, and increasing the sample size per group would improve may not yet be as proficient, while some were still the likelihood of reliably detecting such small effects. using a combination of two platforms, e.g. online classroom and MS Teams. 1.8.4 Possibility to collaborate (interact with Students gave slightly lower scores for searching teacher, teaching assistant and peers) in for materials in the online classroom. Among the online classroom comments that need attention, the majority focused Students rated the cooperation options on a five- on the online classroom on mobile devices, namely point scale, where we added the sixth option “we that the presentations were not “clickable” and the have not used the above mentioned”. This also already mentioned “scrolling” search on mobile allowed us to obtain for each statement the propor- devices (often cited as a problem), which can lead tion of students who used tools to interact with the to confusion and lack of clarity as the user gets lost teacher, teaching assistant and peers. between chapters. Students also mentioned positive Table 3 shows that in both academic years, features of online classrooms, in particular that the students most frequently used the course news mon- material was in one place and did not have to be itoring via the forum or notifications uploaded/sent searched or downloaded from other platforms and by the teacher. In a much lower proportion, students 314 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 302–320 used the online classroom for group work, usually used for exchanging opinions or interacting with the for group assignment submissions, peer assessment, teacher and/or teaching assistant, e.g. via the forum, comments etc. The online classroom was the least chat or messaging. Table 3: Percentage of students who used online classroom collaboration functionalities in academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024, and average scores obtained from Likert scale assessment (1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree) Usage percentage (%) Average score (–) (Likert scale) Interaction possibility within online classroom 2022/2023 2023/2024 2022/2023 2023/2024 The online classroom allowed me to keep up to date with news in the course (e.g. via forum, notifications added to 89.1 86.1 3.88 3.68 the classroom by the teacher and/or teaching assistant). The online classroom allowed me to exchange opinions/ 62.5 54.6 3.35 2.88 ideas (e.g. via forum). The online classroom allowed me to interact with the teacher and/or teaching assistant (e.g. via forum, chat, 64.8 62.0 3.32 3.18 messages). The online classroom enabled group work with my peers (e.g. group assignment submission, forum posting, 76.6 71.3 3.48 3.17 commenting and peer assessment). From the average ratings of the interactions giv- students had not yet mastered all the collaborative en, it is generally observed that the ratings relating to functionalities offered by online classrooms, given the possibilities to participate in the online classroom that many of them were using the online classroom are on average lower for all statements given, except for the first time. for following the course news. Students’ comments The results of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test indi- indicated that they prefer using other platforms/ cated that no statistically significant differences were tools for peer-to-peer communication, while they found in any of the statements shown in Table 3 be- prefer communicating with teachers by email, as tween the academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 it is perceived to be faster. Nevertheless, students’ (p > α; α = 0.05). The standardised effect sizes for comments praised the possibility to be informed, as all statements were small (r ≈ 0.10–0.30); therefore, they received messages sent by some teachers from increasing the sample size per group would improve the online classroom to their email addresses (e.g. the likelihood of reliably detecting such small effects. notifications about assignment due dates, assign- ment submission, comments on assignments etc.), 1.8.5 Submission and ongoing evaluation of prod- consequently keeping them up to date with every- ucts of practical courses, seminars, projects thing that was happening in the course. They would or other types of assignments like to be informed from one source rather than In the case of the submission and ongoing evalua- several (e.g. higher education student information tion of students’ work, we also first determined the system – VIS, email, MS Teams, Google applications extent to which the functionality was available to etc.), which was disruptive in some courses. them. Table 4 shows that in both academic years, The scores for 2023/2024 were lower than the online classrooms were most frequently used for the previous year for all statements. We do not have an submission of assignments completed at practical exact answer as to why the scores decreased; how- courses, projects etc. In slightly lower proportions, ever, we can again assume that both teachers and students also received feedback from teachers and Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms 315 grades for the assignments submitted in online for group assignment submissions. classrooms. Online classrooms were often used also Table 4: Percentage of students who participated in submission and ongoing evaluation functionality of online classrooms in academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 Usage percentage (%) Interaction possibility within online classroom 2022/2023 2023/2024 Ongoing submission of tutorials, seminars, projects and other assignments 95.5 88.1 Teacher and/or teaching assistant reactions to submitted assignments 85.0 75.2 Group submission of assignments at practical courses, seminars, projects 82.0 78.0 Submitting assignments at practical courses, seminars, projects on forum 85.0 74.3 Monitoring grades in the online classroom and performance on required 83.5 78.0 assignments at the course Figure 8 demonstrates that the online classroom which is, according to the score, useful. Students also is a suitable place to submit the assignments com- liked the fact that they could submit assignments to pleted at practical courses, seminars, projects and the online classroom on an ongoing basis, as this elsewhere. Students also agreed that submitting made it easier for them to meet deadlines and the assignments to the online classroom is easy and that feedback from the assessors allowed them to im- group submission is useful. They also had a similar prove their products in terms of quality. opinion about the monitoring of assignment grades, Figure 8: Possibility to participate in online classroom (Likert scale: 1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree) 316 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 302–320 Similarly as in the previous case of cooperation, The results of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test indi- the scores were lower in 2023/2024 compared to the cated that no statistically significant differences were previous year. The online classroom is a place with a found in any of the statements shown in Table 4 and number of functionalities to facilitate work, and mon- Figure 8 between the academic years 2022/2023 and itor student work and progress. These functionalities 2023/2024 (p > α; α = 0.05). The standardised effect must be mastered by the teacher and brought to the sizes for all statements were small (r ≈ 0.10–0.30); attention of students, who can then build on and com- therefore, increasing the sample size per group plement their work. From the students’ comments, we would improve the likelihood of reliably detecting established that teachers often do not review or grade such small effects. the submitted assignments, and as a consequence, students do not get a response to the products they 1.8.6 Final evaluation/exam assessment in online upload to the online classroom. Due to inappropriate classrooms settings, some students failed to submit assignments The online classroom can also be used for final and some students complained about the amount of assessments – exams. This functionality, which is unnecessary information in the submission (e.g. too implemented via the Quiz plugin, was already used many unnecessary buttons, windows, steps etc.). during the Covid era, while after the return back to On the other hand, positive comments focused classrooms, teachers have mostly abandoned this on the ease and convenience of submission, while option, due to live exams, also due to the nature of students mostly received assignment grades by email the field of study, being more convenient. It is for or in person. The calendar, where submission dead- the latter reason that the proportion of students who lines are written down, and the general up-to-date participated in this part was much lower (44.5% information on submissions and submission dead- of students answered the questions in this part in lines were praised. The method of group submission 2022/2023 and 42.7% in 2023/2024). The rest had no was also highly appreciated. experience with online classroom examinations. Figure 9: Final evaluation/exam assessment in online classrooms (Likert scale: 1 – strongly disagree, 5 – strongly agree) Experience of Students at Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana in Using Online Classrooms 317 As responses in Figure 9 show, students agreed We noticed that in the academic year 2023/2024, that it is advisable to do a mock exam for the students there were fewer negative comments about the to get used to the testing environment and the options implementation of exams in the online classroom it offers (moving around the test, type of test ques- environment; however, students did have more tions, re-answer options, question information etc.). problems with the equipment (mainly cameras not The mock exam made students more confident in working, connecting via phones etc.) and with inter- approaching the real exam. ruptions of exams mostly due to browser difficulties. Students agreed that instructions uploaded by The problems with the cameras were exclusively the teacher in the form of a document or a note to students’ problems, while the problem with browsers the online classroom were useful. The instructions is a systemic problem that will have to be solved at described the exam process, the equipment required the level of the technical service. to write the exam (e.g. a good internet connection, The results of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test indi- a working camera and microphone), the rules for cated that no statistically significant differences were writing etc. found in any of the statements shown in Figure 9 be- Students mostly had no problems during the tween the academic years 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 exam, except for the Firefox browser, which caused (p > α; α = 0.05). The standardised effect sizes for some problems (interruptions, inability to access all statements were small (r ≈ 0.10–0.30); therefore, etc.) especially in the academic year 2023/2024. They increasing the sample size per group would improve agreed that the implementation was technologically the likelihood of reliably detecting such small effects. simple, the information provided by the exam envi- ronment (quiz) was useful and that the appearance 4 Conclusion of the exam itself was pleasant. However, there were a few remarks, e.g. that the names of some of the The findings of this study indicate that the digital “buttons” were not understandable or were difficult to transformation at the Faculty of Natural Sciences link to the function it provided. and Engineering has gone beyond the administra- The exam requires a combined use of the online tive integration of Moodle into course management classroom with a videoconferencing tool (e.g. MS processes and has begun to influence pedagogical Teams, Zoom). Students found this combination practices at several levels. suitable. They were not disturbed by the camera being The increase in the number of uploaded materi- switched on during the exam; however, they found als and active classrooms reflects not only adminis- the sound more distracting, as they could hear the trative compliance but also a growing trend towards sounds of typing on the keyboards, possible back- blended learning. Students gain continuous access ground noise etc. to resources, which supports self-regulated learning Students liked the fact that they had a quick over- and flexible study pacing, a core principle of con- view of their scores and exam grades after the exam, structivist pedagogy emphasised in our theoretical and they felt that the assessment itself was objective. framework [4, 8]. Through additional comments, the online class- High engagement with the Assignment and room was mostly praised, saying that it was a good Quiz modules indicates a gradual move from way of conducting the exam, that it enabled a more summative assessment towards formative evalua- relaxed atmosphere etc. However, there were also a tion. Students’ comments highlight that receiving few comments that it was easier to write the exam in feedback on uploaded work improved the iterative person, that the exam time was too short and that development of projects, supporting reflective and they were nervous about sitting the exam online. process-oriented learning. This suggests that digital 318 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 302–320 tools are increasingly used to facilitate continuous gogical outcomes, exploring how improved online assessment loops, consistent with the European classroom design and functionality influence stu- Commission’s Digital Education Action Plan [1, 2]. dent engagement, learning retention and academic While the use of forums and peer-assessment performance, thereby linking digital transformation features remains lower than expected, their inclusion more directly with educational impact. in course design demonstrates pedagogical aware- Regardless of further research, we can make ness of collaborative learning. Students’ remarks recommendations for broader and more effective that teachers rarely engage in forum-based dialogue use of Moodle at the faculty, based on the results underline a need for stronger teaching presence, obtained so far. Recommendations may include as proposed in social-constructivist models. These systematic training for both teaching and technical insights reveal that the main challenge is no longer staff on more advanced Moodle features, encourag- technical implementation, but the pedagogical acti- ing the use of interactive tools, developing unified vation of digital spaces. pedagogical guidelines for designing online course Increased mobile device access reflects changing environments, regularly monitoring student satis- study habits and confirms the importance of inclu- faction and user experience and integrating their sive, mobile-first learning design. Students’ mixed feedback, introducing incentives for teachers who experiences with interface navigation suggest that actively develop digitally supported teaching etc. UX factors directly influence engagement and moti- Such recommendations would not only strengthen vation, an often-overlooked pedagogical dimension the conclusion but also contribute to more strategic of usability. planning of the faculty’s future e-learning develop- The results of online examinations and submis- ment. sion-based tasks indicate that students view digital environments as authentic extensions of classroom Acknowledgements: We would like to thank the learning when clear instructions and transparent administrators of the study programmes, teachers grading are provided. This aligns with the TAM and staff of the Faculty of Natural Sciences and En- model, where perceived usefulness and clarity gineering of the University of Ljubljana for their help increase acceptance and learning confidence [7, 5]. and for encouraging students to complete the survey. As mentioned already, Digital Centre UL has The project ULTRA is co-funded by the Republic of started developing a new user interface for online Slovenia, Ministry of Higher Education, Science and classrooms. The upgrade is planned as part of the Innovation, and the European Union – NextGenera- RSF project Unified plug-in and customised inter- tionEU. face of online classrooms at the University of Lju- bljana, where mentors and students from our faculty Data availability statement: The data that support are participating. 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Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 321–332 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025035 321 Neha Arora, 1 Kavita Chaudhary 2 1 Amity School of Fashion Technology, Amity University, Sec-125, Noida, UP India 2 Department of Design, Bansathali Vidyapith, Rajasthan, India Optimizing Fashion E-Commerce: The Impact of Quick Delivery, Sustainable Practices and Competitive Pricing on Customer Satisfaction and Delivery Efficiency Optimizacija modnega e-trgovanja: vpliv hitre dostave, trajnostnih praks in konkurenčnih cen na zadovoljstvo strank in učinkovitost dostave Preliminary communication/Predhodna objava Received/Prispelo 3–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 10–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčna avtorica: Neha Arora E-mail: narora1105@gmail.com Tel: +91-7303119240 ORCID iD: 0000-0001-5935-2658 Abstract This study investigates the interplay between customer satisfaction, delivery efficiency, pricing strategies, ESG (environmental, social and governance) sustainability practices and quick third-party delivery systems within the fashion e-commerce sector. The findings reveal that quick third-party delivery services significantly enhance customer satisfaction (β = 0.135, p < 0.001) and improve delivery efficiency through strategic partnerships with providers such as Blinkit and Rapido (β = 0.651, p < 0.001). The adoption of ESG sustainability practices, such as e-bikes and e-rickshaws as a mode of transportation, has a significant impact on quality assurance for sus- tainable deliveries (β = 0.684, p < 0.001), which can be linked to customer satisfaction and brand recognition. This research emphasizes that customer satisfaction plays a mediating role in the linkage of delivery efficiency to pricing strategies (β = 0.789, p < 0.001), bridging operational performance to cost-effectiveness. Moreover, technology adoption moderates the relationship between eco-friendly delivery assurance and customer sat- isfaction (β = 0.191, p < 0.001), while with accessible and user-friendly digital platforms, sustainable practices have more impacts. These results underscore the need for expedient, sustainable and customer-centric deliv- ery approaches that address evolving consumer needs. This research can provide insights to achieve long-term customer loyalty and sustainable growth with global sustainability objectives. Keywords: fashion e-commerce, customer satisfaction, ESG sustainability, quick delivery services, pricing strat- egy, delivery efficiency, sustainable logistics, third-party delivery Izvleček Študija raziskuje medsebojno povezanost med zadovoljstvom strank, učinkovitostjo dostave, strategijami do- ločanja cen, trajnostnimi praksami ESG (angl. Environmental, Social and Governance; slo. okoljski, socialni in Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. 322 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 321–332 upravljavski vidiki) ter hitrimi dostavnimi sistemi preko tretjih oseb v sektorju modnega e-trgovanja. Rezultati kažejo, da hitre dostave preko tretjih oseb pomembno vplivajo na zadovoljstvo strank (β = 0,135, p < 0,001) in izboljšujejo učinkovitost dostave preko strateških partnerstev s ponudniki, kot so Blinkit in Rapido (β = 0,651, p < 0,001). Uvedba trajnostnih praks ESG, npr. uporaba električnih koles in električnih rikš kot prevoznega sredstva, ima pomemben vpliv na zagotavljanje kakovosti trajnostnih dostav (β = 0,684, p < 0,001), kar se lahko po- vezuje z zadovoljstvom strank in prepoznavnostjo blagovne znamke. Raziskava poudarja, da je zadovoljstvo strank vmesni člen med učinkovitostjo dostave in strategijami določanja cen (β = 0,789, p < 0,001), pri čemer je operativna učinkovitost povezana s stroškovno učinkovitostjo. Sprejemanje novih tehnologij ravno tako vpliva na odnos med zagotavljanjem okolju prijazne dostave in zadovoljstvom strank (β = 0,191, p < 0,001), pri tem pa imajo trajnostne prakse z dostopnimi in uporabniku prijaznimi digitalnimi platformami še močnejši vpliv. Izsledki raziskave poudarjajo potrebo po hitrih, trajnostnih in na stranke usmerjenih pristopih k dostavi, ki od- govarjajo na spreminjajoče se potrebe potrošnikov. Raziskava nudi predloge za doseganje dolgoročne zvestobe strank in trajnostne rasti v skladu z globalnimi trajnostnimi cilji. Ključne besede: modno e-trgovanje, zadovoljstvo strank, trajnost ESG, hitre dostavne storitve, strategija določa- nja cen, učinkovitost dostave, trajnostna logistika, dostava preko tretjih oseb 1 Introduction In the rapidly evolving fashion industry, innovative clientele, which would increase your company’s total technologies are significantly transforming cus- profitability [5]. Business models that increasingly tomer experiences. One such advancement, virtual use current technologies and evolving customer reality (VR), is garnering increasing attention as a behaviour compel entrepreneurs to enhance their transformative tool, offering immersive platforms innovative capabilities to remain competitive [6‒7]. for presenting fashion exhibitions [1, 2]. Tradition- This assessment reveals the adequacy of the provided ally, fashion has been defined by its visual appeal service quality [8]. Ultimately, customer satisfaction and tactile engagement. Omnichannel marketing is a function of service quality, which is evaluated is an advanced online selling strategy that provides based on the user’s experience and perception of customers with a seamless experience across the service delivered [8]. However, satisfaction is multiple channels, including physical storefronts not solely determined by service quality. Additional and online platforms [3]. This multi-channel influencing factors include brand image, advertising sales strategy unifies the buying experience across effectiveness and consumer trust, especially in online physical stores, smartphone apps and social plat- environments where concerns over cybersecurity forms, providing customers with a consistent and and fraud remain prevalent [9]. Enterprises in this integrated experience. Technological advancements domain often compete based on the level of custom- have enabled retailers to engage in novel ways with er satisfaction achieved through their products and customers, such as using social media networks like services [10‒11]. Instagram and Facebook to reach a wider audience and showcase products effectively [4]. This increases 1.1 Background study their likelihood of becoming brand ambassadors 1.1.1 Strategies for improving customer satisfaction for you in addition to increasing the likelihood that Strategies for enhancing customer satisfaction vary they will visit your store again and make another depending on a company’s products or services, purchase. This may include building a more valued available resources and the characteristics of its Optimizing Fashion E-Commerce: The Impact of Quick Delivery, Sustainable Practices and Competitive Pricing on Customer 323 Satisfaction and Delivery Efficiency customer base. The transparent communication of Valuable customer insights shipping policies, estimated delivery times and pro- Customer service interactions provide valuable data active updates via email or SMS (especially in cases regarding customer needs, preferences, and pain of delays) builds trust and manages expectations. points. Analysing feedback from complaints, sup- Finally, product and service quality encompass more port tickets and suggestions helps identify recurring than just the physical attributes of an item. It extends issues and areas for improvement. These insights to production processes, packaging, marketing can provide information for product development, and after-sales service, all contributing to overall refine marketing strategies and enhance overall customer satisfaction [12]. Quality is closely tied service quality. Businesses that actively use customer to the efficiency of supply chain operations, playing feedback to tailor their offerings are more likely to a pivotal role across manufacturing, logistics and exceed expectations, stay ahead of competitors and customer service functions [13]. foster deeper customer engagement. 1.1.2 Enhanced customer satisfaction 1.2 Research objectives Effective and responsive online customer service a) To analyse the impact of quick delivery systems plays a critical role in enhancing customer satisfac- and third-party partnerships on customer satis- tion. This proactive approach not only minimizes faction within the online fashion retail sector. customer frustration but also demonstrates that the b) To evaluate the role of logistics tie-ups, such as business values its customers. As a result, customers with Blinkit and Rapido, in enhancing delivery are more likely to develop positive perceptions of the efficiency and ensuring secure site deliveries for brand and recommend it to others, contributing to a fashion retailers. more satisfying and holistic user experience. c) To examine the influence of environment, Social, and governance (ESG) sustainability practices, Increased sales and repeat business including the use of e-bikes and e-rickshaws, Providing excellent customer service has a direct on quality assurance in eco-friendly delivery impact on purchasing behaviour and customer re- options. tention. Quality service fosters trust and reliability, d) To investigate the mediating role of customer making customers feel confident in their decisions. satisfaction in the relationship between pricing This trust can transform one-time buyers into loyal strategies (e.g., discounts and budget-friendly repeat customers, thereby boosting long-term sales offers) and safe site delivery efficiency. and contributing to the development of a dedicated customer base. This shift in consumer behaviour and technology has led to a more efficient and innovative business Enhanced brand reputation model [14]. Additionally, this research aims to The quality of customer service significantly influenc- assist customers in calculating and identifying their es a brand’s reputation. Positive experiences often lead clothing size during shopping, while examining the to favourable online reviews and word-of-mouth re- impact of fast fashion on traditional retail, consid- ferrals, which can attract new customers. In contrast, ering five fashion entities, three of which are fast negative service encounters may harm a company’s fashion and two retail industries [15]. This research image and deter potential buyers. A strong reputation also provides a comprehensive understanding of for delivering \exceptional customer service differ- the fast fashion industry’s implications on the retail entiates a business from competitors and supports industry [16]. sustained growth in a competitive online marketplace. 324 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 321–332 1.3 Research Hypothesis H1: Quick third-party delivery systems significantly influence customer satisfaction H2: Logistics tie-ups significantly enhance safe site delivery efficiency for fashion retailers. H3: ESG sustainability practices significantly influence quality assurance for eco-friendly delivery. H4: Customer satisfaction mediates the relationship between pricing strategies (discounts and budget-friendly offers) and safe site delivery efficiency. H5: Technology adoption (ease of use and accessibility) moderates the relationship between customer satisfaction and quality assurance for eco-friendly delivery. Hypothesis 1: Quick third-party delivery systems Hypothesis 3: ESG sustainability practices signifi- significantly influence customer satisfaction, cantly influence quality assurance for eco-friendly presented an index system for assessing customer delivery explored the role of innovation and satisfaction with third-party logistics service quality online selling models in sustainable development, [17]. It uses original data to create a questionnaire particularly in Dubai [22]. It discusses strategies based on the evaluation index. This study reveals such as green sourcing, efficient production, smart that logistics service speed is the most significant inventory management, sustainable warehousing, factor affecting customer satisfaction, while risk green transportation, eco-friendly packaging and perception is the least important. This paper aims reverse logistics [23]. This paper also reviews exist- to improve logistics service satisfaction for online ing literature on intelligent logistics management, shopping, while examining the impact of short sustainability in attended home delivery and public delivery times on product returns in online retailing. views on online selling. It uses a large dataset from a global fashion retailer’s US online selling platform. Results show that fast de- Hypothesis 4: Customer satisfaction mediates the liveries increase the likelihood of returns, especially relationship between pricing strategies (discounts among new customers. Using the Unified Theory and budget-friendly offers) and safe site delivery of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) efficiency investigated online selling managers’ model, it found a significant correlation between pricing strategies to understand their motivations omnichannel shopping and satisfaction [18-19]. and challenges [24]. This study finds that personal With 85 respondents, the data was analysed using perspectives and judgments are more complex and SPSS tools and statistical tools such as frequency and difficult to measure than economic factors. Online regression analysis. selling owners often struggle with determining a suitable pricing strategy due to intangible product Hypothesis 2: Logistics tie-ups significantly value. By creating a high usability website for phone enhance safe site delivery efficiency for fashion cases and related products, 42 individuals were test- retailers explored the impact of delivery efficiency ed with regard to their purchasing behaviour. Results on online shoppers’ relationships with e-retailers showed no correlation between the effectiveness of [20-21]. This review, based on 70 studies, highlights selling strategies and perceived usability challenges such as order volume, inventory tracking Hypothesis 5: Technology adoption (ease of use and and timely shipping. To overcome these, companies accessibility) moderates the relationship between can invest in infrastructure, inventory management, customer satisfaction and quality assurance for transportation systems and emerging technologies eco-friendly delivery. Product development is cru- such as drones and robots. cial for business operations, especially in the fashion Optimizing Fashion E-Commerce: The Impact of Quick Delivery, Sustainable Practices and Competitive Pricing on Customer 325 Satisfaction and Delivery Efficiency industry. With advancements in technology and integrated to effectively address the research prob- environmental awareness, sustainable product de- lem. A well-structured design is vital for ensuring velopment processes (PDPs) are essential identified the accuracy, reliability and validity of the research, supply chain structures that identify essential steps while each stage must be meticulously executed to in fashion PDPs, classify them into traditional, new achieve meaningful outcomes. and sustainable processes, and analyse key factors for sustainable fashion using the triple bottom line 2.2 Conceptual framework framework [26‒27]. The conceptual framework in this study illustrates the interrelated elements that influence customer 2 Material and Methods satisfaction and delivery efficiency in the fashion online selling sector. The integration of advanced 2.1 Research design technologies further enhances service quality by The research design serves as the foundational enabling real-time tracking, automation and da- framework for this scientific study. It outlines a stra- ta-driven decision-making. Together, these elements tegic plan that guides the researcher in answering create a synergistic model aimed at meeting evolving research questions and testing the proposed hypoth- customer expectations, boosting satisfaction and eses. A comprehensive research design ensures all improving delivery performance in the competitive components of the study are logically and cohesively fashion e-commerce landscape. Figure 1: Conceptual framework 2.3 Data collection tools and techniques not engaged in online fashion purchases over the A questionnaire using Likert-scale questions was preceding six months were omitted from the sample used to assess respondents’ impressions of delivery to ensure relevance. dependability, environmental and social responsi- bility, price equity and technology adoption. It also 2.4 Measures collected demographic data, such as age, gender and Data was gathered with the help of a structured purchasing frequency, to provide deeper insights questionnaire. The questionnaire was prepared using into customer preferences and behavioural patterns. a Likert-type scale where respondents were asked The study participants consisted of 390 respondents, to share their opinions regarding various research all of whom were active online consumers with questions under study. The questionnaire included a previous experience in acquiring fashion goods set of both open-ended and closed-ended questions. via online selling platforms. Individuals who had Questions were carefully crafted to gather meaningful 326 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 321–332 information with respect to identified research vari- 2.4.4 Customer satisfaction ables. There were five categories of respondents in the Customer satisfaction is the satisfaction customers survey, while a separate questionnaire was designed feel when their expectations and needs are met by for each category of respondents. a company’s products or services. Factors influenc- ing customer satisfaction include product quality, 2.4.1 Quick third-party delivery systems delivery efficiency, pricing strategies and overall Quick third-party delivery systems are crucial for purchasing experience. A 5-point Likert scale was enhancing product delivery speed and efficiency used to measure satisfaction levels, with respondents in online selling. These systems use third-party indicating their level of agreement or disagreement. logistics providers to ensure goods reach customers The scale gauged satisfaction with aspects such as quickly, impacting customer satisfaction and sales product quality, delivery timeliness, ease of purchase performance. Implementing quick delivery systems and value for money. in fashion online selling is essential for staying com- petitive in the fast-paced market. This study assessed 2.4.5 Safe site delivery efficiency the effectiveness and timeliness of these systems Safe site delivery efficiency is the efficient and safe using a 5-point Likert scale, assessing reliability, effi- delivery of goods or services to a designated site, ciency, timeliness, customer satisfaction and overall ensuring timely completion and minimizing risks. performance in the online selling environment. This study used a 5-point Likert scale to assess this efficiency, focusing on delivery timeliness, safety 2.4.2 Logistics tie-ups adherence, resource management, risk mitigation Logistics tie-ups are strategic collaborations between and overall satisfaction with the delivery process. fashion online selling companies and third-party lo- The goal is to ensure secure and efficient delivery gistics providers to improve supply chain efficiency, without compromising safety. delivery timelines and operational costs. This study focuses on the impact of logistics tie-ups on customer 2.4.6 Quality assurance satisfaction and operational performance. A 5-point Quality assurance is a systematic process to ensure Likert scale was used to assess the effectiveness of products, services or outcomes meet defined these partnerships in streamlining delivery process- standards and objectives. It involves identifying, es, ensuring timely shipments and contributing to addressing and preventing defects or performance customer satisfaction. The scale gauged stakehold- variations. Measures include monitoring, evaluating ers’ perceptions of the efficiency and reliability of and improving processes. This study used a 5-point logistics tie-ups in the fashion online selling sector. Likert scale to assess satisfaction, reliability and effectiveness, ensuring participants’ perceptions are 2.4.3 ESG sustainability practices accurate. The scale ranges from strongly agree to In this study, ESG sustainability practices include strongly disagree. strategies, policies and actions to reduce environmen- tal impact, promote social equity and ensure ethical 2.4.7 Pricing strategies governance. A scale was used to evaluate a company’s Fashion online selling businesses use pricing strat- commitment to these practices, measuring environ- egies to determine product value and maximize mental impact, social responsibility and governance sales and profitability, while considering customer practices. The scale used a 5-point Likert scale, with preferences and market conditions. These strategies responses corresponding to each of the three ESG pil- include dynamic pricing, discounting, bundling and lars, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. value-based pricing. A pricing strategy scale assesses Optimizing Fashion E-Commerce: The Impact of Quick Delivery, Sustainable Practices and Competitive Pricing on Customer 327 Satisfaction and Delivery Efficiency perceived value, pricing fairness, price sensitivity Table 1: Internal consistency and convergent validity and competitive pricing using a 5-point Likert scale Cronbach’s Variables CR AVE with five questions. Participants indicate their level Alpha of agreement with pricing strategies. Quick third-party 0.892 0.865 0.785 delivery systems Customer satisfaction 0.820 0.794 0.608 2.4.8 Technology adoption Logistics tie-ups 0.841 0.876 0.822 Technology adoption is the process of accepting and Safe site delivery implementing new technological innovations, which 0.850 0.871 0.805 efficiency is crucial for organizational growth and operational ESG sustainability 0.896 0.866 0.788 efficiency. This study used a technology adoption practices Quality assurance for scale to assess these factors, focusing on perceived 0.840 0.827 0.676 eco-friendly delivery ease of use, usefulness, compatibility with existing Pricing strategies 0.846 0.870 0.802 systems and attitude towards technology. A 5-point Technology adoption 0.842 0.875 0.819 Likert scale with five questions was used to analyse how technology adoption affects organizational AVE values exceed 0.5. Composite reliability (CR) performance and individual engagement with new values are also above the 0.7 benchmark, thereby technologies. reinforcing the constructs’ dependability. ESG sustainability practices and logistics tie-ups exhibit 3 Results and discussion exceptionally high reliability and validity, laying a robust foundation for further analysis of inter-vari- This study investigates how pricing strategies, ESG able relationships. sustainability practices and quick third-party deliv- ery systems contribute to customer satisfaction and Table 2: Descriptive statistics of variables safe site delivery efficiency in the fashion online sell- Std. ing sector. This research also explores the impact of Variables Mean deviation partnerships with logistics companies such as Blinkit Quick third-party delivery systems 3.7446 0. 76559 and Rapido on delivery performance, alongside the Customer satisfaction 3.7328 0. 69600 role of eco-friendly delivery options, such as e-bikes Logistics tie-ups 3.6544 0. 69202 and e-rickshaws, in improving quality assurance for sustainable delivery. Additionally, it examines how Safe site delivery efficiency 3.6926 0. 72707 technology adoption moderates the relationship ESG sustainability practices 3.7015 0. 79222 between eco-friendly delivery and customer satis- Quality assurance for eco-friendly 3.7072 0. 77060 delivery faction, and how customer satisfaction mediates the Pricing strategies 3.6215 0. 72796 link between pricing strategies and safe site delivery efficiency. Data were collected via structured ques- Technology adoption 3.6600 0. 69014 tionnaires from stakeholders in the online fashion selling sector, offering valuable insights into balanc- Respondents displayed generally favourable per- ing cost, sustainability and customer satisfaction in ceptions of all variables, with means ranging from delivery procedures. 3.6215 to 3.7446. Pricing strategies had the lowest The constructs demonstrate excellent reliability mean, suggesting moderate satisfaction with dis- and validity, with Cronbach’s alpha values ranging counts and competitive pricing. Quick third-party from 0.820 to 0.896, confirming strong internal delivery systems received the highest mean, under- consistency. Convergent validity is established, as all scoring the need for efficient delivery in the fashion 328 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 321–332 online selling space. ESG sustainability practices technology adoption had the lowest standard devi- showed the highest standard deviation (0.7922), ation (0.6901), suggesting a consensus on the utility indicating diverse opinions regarding the necessity and accessibility of tech solutions. for environmentally friendly logistics. Conversely, Table 3: Discriminant validity Quality Quick Safe site ESG assurance third-party Customer Logistics Pricing Technology Variables delivery sustainability for delivery satisfaction tie-ups strategies adoption efficiency practices eco-friendly systems delivery Quick third- party delivery 0.886002 systems Customer 0.23 0.779744 satisfaction Logistics 0.185 0.757 0.906642 tie-ups Safe site delivery 0.183 0.751 0.805 0.897218 efficiency ESG sustainability 0.142 0.649 0.545 0.601 0.887694 practices Quality assurance for 0.165 0.686 0.617 0.665 0.677 0.822192 eco-friendly delivery Pricing 0.178 0.789 0.685 0.709 0.68 0.67 0.895545 strategies Technology 0.178 0.746 0.996 0.8 0.544 0.615 0.692 0.904986 adoption Significant correlations (p < 0.01) indicate mean- ficiency (H2). ESG sustainability practices positively ingful relationships among the constructs. Logistics impact quality assurance in eco-friendly delivery tie-ups strongly correlate with technology adoption (H3), validating their role in sustainable logistics. (r = 0.996) and safe site delivery efficiency (r = Furthermore, customer satisfaction acts as a strong 0.805), suggesting these partnerships are essential mediator between pricing strategies and delivery for reliable deliveries. Pricing strategies strongly efficiency, supported by high estimates. correlate with both customer satisfaction (r = 0.789) Technology adoption moderates the link between and delivery efficiency (r = 0.709), emphasizing the eco-friendly delivery quality and customer satisfac- importance of strategic pricing. The square roots of tion (H4), emphasizing how digital accessibility can AVE (diagonal values) confirm discriminant validity amplify sustainable efforts. The consistent statistical across constructs. significance (p < 0.001) strengthens the reliability of The results highlight key dynamics in fashion these findings. online selling. Quick third-party delivery systems The findings also reaffirm that service quality significantly enhance customer satisfaction (H1), dimensions, such as reliability, responsiveness, while logistics tie-ups critically improve delivery ef- empathy and tangibility, along with strong brand Optimizing Fashion E-Commerce: The Impact of Quick Delivery, Sustainable Practices and Competitive Pricing on Customer 329 Satisfaction and Delivery Efficiency Table 4: Hypothesis implementation Hypothesis Relationship Estimate C.R. Sig. p Results H1 Quick third-party delivery systems → 0.135 2.459 *** Accepted Customer satisfaction H2 Logistics tie-ups → Safe site delivery 0.651 12.326 *** Accepted efficiency H3 ESG sustainability practices → Quality 0.684 13.090 *** Accepted assurance for eco-friendly delivery H3 Mediating 0.789 25.302 *** Accepted Customer satisfaction → Pricing strategies Safe site delivery efficiency → Pricing 0.308 5.912 *** strategies Safe site delivery efficiency → Customer 0.508 9.749 *** satisfaction H4 Moderating ZQuality assurance for eco-friendly delivery 0.191 5.028 *** Accepted → ZCustomer satisfaction ZQuality assurance for eco-friendly delivery 0.597 15.308 *** → ZTechnology adoption ZQuality assurance for eco-friendly delivery 0.120 3.080 0.002 → INTERACTION Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). trust, are critical to sustained customer satisfaction. tegic collaborations with platforms such as Blinkit Quick and eco-friendly deliveries, aligned pricing and Rapido were also found to significantly improve strategies and responsible governance frameworks delivery efficiency at safe sites (β = 0.651, p < 0.001), are no longer optional; they are essential for long- minimizing logistical challenges for fashion retailers. term growth and loyalty in the online selling space. ESG sustainability practices emerged as a crucial factor in ensuring quality and environmentally re- 4 Conclusion sponsible deliveries (β = 0.684, p < 0.001). Utilizing eco-friendly transportation methods such as e-bikes This study investigates the key factors influencing and e-rickshaws not only aligns with customer pref- customer satisfaction and safe site delivery efficiency erences but also bolsters brand image, highlighting within the fashion online selling industry, focusing the growing relevance of sustainability in e-com- on pricing strategies, logistical partnerships, ESG merce operations. sustainability practices and rapid delivery methods. This research highlights the mediating role of The findings offer valuable insights into how these customer satisfaction in the relationship between elements interact and affect operational performance safe site delivery efficiency and pricing strategies. and customer satisfaction. The strong mediation effect (β = 0.789, p < 0.001) A key outcome reveals that swift third-party indicates that customer satisfaction bridges the gap delivery systems significantly enhance customer between operational effectiveness and cost-efficient satisfaction (β = 0.135, p < 0.001). The study empha- pricing, influencing both purchase decisions and sizes the importance of integrating quick delivery delivery performance. mechanisms to meet consumer expectations and The moderating impact of technology adoption ensure a positive online shopping experience. Stra- on the relationship between eco-friendly delivery 330 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(3), 321–332 assurance and consumer satisfaction is also signifi- Data availability statement: Research data (sur- cant. Accessibility and ease of use in digital platforms vey questions and respondents’ answers) contain enhance the effectiveness of sustainable delivery sensitive participant information and cannot be an- methods, with notable moderating (β = 0.191, p < onymized without compromising the integrity and 0.001) and interaction effects (β = 0.120, p = 0.002). authenticity of the research. Therefore, the complete This underscores the importance of incorporating dataset can only be shared upon a justified request advanced technological solutions to foster loyalty made directly to the corresponding author. and enrich customer experience. The study demonstrates that quick third-party References delivery systems, strategic logistics partnerships and ESG-aligned practices are critical drivers of custom- 1. AHMAD, S., ZHANG, Y., YAMIN, I., AHMAD, er satisfaction and delivery efficiency in the fashion W. The future of fashion retail: virtual experien- e-commerce sector. ces and e-commerce integration. 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