Po štn ina pl ača na pr i p ošt i 4 10 2 K ran j Journal of Management, Informatics and Human Resources ISSN 1318-5454 Revija za management, informatiko in kadre Volume 54, Issue 1, February 2021 Organizacija (Journal of Management, Informatics and Human Resources) is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed journal which is open to contributions of high quality, from any perspective relevant to the organizational phenomena. The journal is designed to encourage interest in all matters relating to organizational sciences and is intended to ap- peal to both the academic and professional community. In particular, journal publishes original articles that advance the empirical, theoretical, and methodological understand- ing of the theories and concepts of management and or- ganization. The journal welcomes contributions from other scientific disciplines that encourage new conceptualiza- tions in organizational theory and management practice. We welcome different perspectives of analysis, including the organizations of various sizes and from various branch- es, units that constitute organizations, and the networks in which organizations are embedded. Topics are drawn, but not limited to the following areas: • organizational theory, management, development, and organizational behaviour; • human resources management (such as organization & employee development, leadership, value creation through HRM, workplace phenomena etc.); • managerial and entrepreneurial aspects of education; • business information systems (such as digital business, decision support systems, business analytics etc.); • enterprise engineering (e.g., organizational design, business process management, enterprise transformation paradigms etc.); • papers that analyse and seek to improve organizational performance. Organizacija (Revija za management, informatiko in človeške vire) je interdisciplinarna recenzirana revija, ki objavlja visoko kakovostne prispevke z vseh vidikov, ki so pomembni za organizacijske procese in strukture. Revija je zasnovana tako, da spodbuja zanimanje za različne vidike v zvezi z organizacijskimi vedami in je namenjena tako akademski kot strokovni skupnosti. Revija objavlja izvirne članke, ki spodbujajo empirično, teoretično in metodološko razumevanje teorij in konceptov managementa in organizacije. Pozdravljamo tudi prispevke iz drugih znanstvenih disciplin, ki spodbujajo nove koncepte v organizacijski teoriji in praksi. Objavljamo članke, ki analizirajo organiziranost z različnih vidikov, so usmerjeni na organizacije različnih velikosti in iz različnih sektorjev, na enote, ki sestavljajo organizacije, in na mreže, v katere so organizacije vpete. Teme so pokrivajo predvsem naslednja področja: • organizacijska teorija, upravljanje, razvoj in organizacijsko vedenje; • management človeških virov (kot so organizacija in razvoj zaposlenih, vodenje, ustvarjanje vrednosti s pomočjo človeških virov, organizacijski pojavi na delovnem mestu itd.); • vodstveni in podjetniški vidiki izobraževanja; • poslovni informacijski sistemi (kot so digitalno poslovanje, sistemi za podporo odločanju, poslovna analitika itd.); • podjetniški inženiring (npr. organizacijsko oblikovanje, upravljanje poslovnih procesov, paradigme preoblikovanja podjetij itd.); • članki, ki analizirajo organizacijsko uspešnost in prizadevanja za izboljšanje le-te. Organizacija, Volume 54, Issue 1 February 2021 Contents 1/2021 Editorial office: University of Maribor, Faculty of Organizational Science, Založba Moderna Organizacija, Kidriceva 55a, 4000 Kranj, Slovenia Telephone: +386-4-2374-295 , E-mail: organizacija@um.si, URL: http://organizacija.fov.uni-mb.si. 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RESEARCH PAPERS 3 18 36 49 63 82 Ilker UNDER, Ender GEREDE Renato Lopes DA COSTA, João MIGUEL, Álvaro DIAS, Leandro PEREIRA, José SANTOS Amro AL-MADADHA, Ahmad Samed AL-ADWAN, Fida Amin ZAKZOUK Tareq LUBBADEH, Febri Nila CHRISANTY, Michael Surya GUNAWAN, Retno W.WIJAYANTI, Budi W. SOETJIPTO Mahmut BİLGETÜRK, Elif BAYKAL Silence in Aviation: Development and Validation of a Tool to Measure Reasons for Aircraft Maintenance Staff not Reporting Exploring the Cultural, Managerial and Organizational Implications on Mergers and Acquisitions Outcomes Organisational Culture and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour: The Dark Side of Organisational Politics Job Burnout and Counterproductive Work Behaviour of the Jordanian Bank Employees The Role of Transformational Entrepreneurship, Readiness to Change and Counterproductive Work Behavior in Enhancing Employee Performance How does Perceived Organizational Support Affect Psychological Capital? The Mediating Role of Authentic Leadership 2 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021 EDITOR / UREDNIK Jože Zupančič University of Maribor, Faculty of Organizational Sciencies, Slovenia CO-EDITORS / SOUREDNIKI Petr Doucek Prague University of Economics, Faculty of Informatics and Statistics, Czech Republic Matjaž Maletič University of Maribor, Faculty of Organizational Sciencies, Slovenia Włodzimierz Sroka WSB University, Department of Management, Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland EDITORIAL BOARD / UREDNIŠKI ODBOR REVIJE Hossein Arsham, University of Baltimore, USA Franc Čuš, University of Maribor, Slovenia Sasha M. Dekleva DePaul University, School of Accountancy and MIS, Chichago, USA Vlado Dimovski, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Daniel C. Ganster, Colorado State University, USA Jože Gričar, University of Maribor, Slovenia Werner Jammernegg Viena University of Economics and Business Administration, Austria Marius Alexander Janson, University of Missouri-St. Louis, USA Stefan Klein, University of Münster, Germany Aleksandar Marković, University of Belgrade, Serbia Hermann Maurer, Technical University Graz, Austria Matjaž Mulej, University of Maribor, Slovenia Valentinas Navickas, Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania Ota Novotny, University of Economics, Prague, Czech Republic Milan Pagon, Independent University, Bangladesh (IUB), Dhaka, Bangladesh Björn Paape, RWTH-Technical University Aachen, Germany Matjaž Perc University of Maribor, Slovenia Dušan Petrač, NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, USA Nataša Petrović University of Belgrade, Serbia Tetyana Pimonenko, Sumy State University, Balatsky Academic and Scientific Institute of Finance, Economics and Management, Ukraine Hans Puxbaum, Vienna University of Technology, Austria Vladislav Rajkovič, University of Maribor, Slovenia Gábor Rekettye, University of Pécs, Hungary Henk G. Sol, Faculy of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Netherlands Eugene Semenkin Reshetnev Siberian State University of Science and Technology, Krasnoyarsk, Russian Federation Velimir Srića, University of Zagreb, Croatia Paula Swatman, University of Tasmania, Australia Brian Timney, The University of Western Ontario, Canada Maurice Yolles, Liverpool John Moores University, UK Douglas R. Vogel, Harbin Institute of Technology-HIT, School of Management, China Gerhard Wilhelm Weber, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Stanisław Wrycza, University of Gdańsk, Poland Anna Lucyna Wziątek-Staśko, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland Yvonne Ziegler, Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Germany Hans-Dieter Zimmermann, FSH St. Gallen University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland 3 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 1 Received: 29th September 2020; revised: 3rd December 2020; accepted: 23th December 2020 Silence in Aviation: Development and Validation of a Tool to Measure Reasons for Aircraft Maintenance Staff not Reporting Ilker UNDER1, Ender GEREDE2 1 Anadolu University, Graduate School of Social Sciences, Eskisehir, Turkey, ilkerundr@gmail.com (corresponding author) 2 Eskisehir Technical University, Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Eskisehir, Turkey egerede@eskisehir.edu.tr Background and purpose: Organizational silence, seen as the greatest obstacle to the success of organizations and expressed as a refraining from expressing feelings, and ideas about problems encountered in their organi- zations, is identified as the avoidance of voluntary reporting in aviation organizations. The main purpose of this research is to identify and develop a tool to measure the various reasons for aviation employees’ remaining silent about the unsafe acts and events they witness, and the factors causing them to refrain from adopting safety en- hancement proposals. Methodology: Within the scope of the study, a data collection tool was developed. Explanatory and confirmatory factor analysis of the data obtained from 483 employees was conducted to test the reasons for not reporting volun- tarily in aviation. Results: As a result, it was found that employees did not participate in voluntary reporting due to factors of silence based on relational and prosocial factors, disengagement, quiescence and acquiescence, along with fear and defen- siveness. Conclusion: Accordingly, organizations need to acknowledge and act with the awareness that organizational silence is a common phenomenon. The importance of voluntary reporting should be explained to employees at every oppor- tunity and the number of quality voluntary reports should be increased. However, this should go beyond the simple slogans of ‘Safety comes first in this workplace’ or ‘Safety first’ hanging on the wall of every organization. Keywords: Organizational silence, Reporting, Safety management system, Aircraft maintenance DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0001 1 Introduction Many aviation regulations are in place for the safe operation of air transport activity located at the center of the civil aviation system because air transportation offers many benefits, especially in the economic and socio-cul- tural areas (IHLG, 2019). However, the expected benefits of air transportation depend on the safe operation of air transportation procedures (Doganis, 2002). How can aviation safety be improved? There are cer- tainly many different answers to this question, but all of these answers require information that can be used to in- crease safety. The new generation safety management ap- proaches assert that employees’ experience, knowledge, opinions, suggestions, and predictions have to be drawn upon to obtain information towards enhancing safety 4 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers (Jausan et al., 2017). To make such an approach work, the voices of employees are necessary (Chen, 2017). It is underlined that if such voices are scarce or absent (Morri- son and Milliken, 2000) it would be very difficult to im- prove safety because safety data and information cannot be obtained (Bienefeld and Grote, 2012). In this case, it is important to identify factors that reduce the voices of em- ployees and even remove them altogether. Managers and civil aviation authorities who are striving to increase avi- ation safety spend great effort to identify and remove the reasons for organizational silence. For aviation safety, the most important voice for employees is voluntary reporting and, without it, any new generation of safety management approaches is destined to fail (Gerede, 2015a; Jausan et al., 2017) Despite the fact that organizational or employee silence has recently been among the topics frequently discussed in management literature, the number of studies in which this subject is discussed, within the context of aviation, has unfortunately, been limited. This studies have focused on reasons for flight personnel to remain silent (Bienefeld and Grote,2012), cockpit interpersonal dynamics (Milan- ovich et al. 1998) and the source of motivation for cabin staff voicing their safety concern (Chen, 2017). While it is thought that employees do remain silent and avoid volun- tary reporting by not expressing safety hazards, not pro- viding information about unsafe incidents, and not mak- ing risk mitigation proposals that are all essential for an increase of safety, yet there is no a reliable and valid tool in the literature to measure the reasons aviation employees not reporting. Despite the criticality of voluntary reporting on safety performance, little is known about why aviation employees remain silent. In response to such research gaps, this research is aimed find the reasons behind reporting failure behaviour, which is viewed as organizational silence, of the mainte- nance personnel of airline companies and the Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul Organizations (MROs) in Turkey and develop a tool to measure that. Voluntary reporting covers factors that may create unsafe conditions, such as hazards and incidents that cause such incidents, their pos- sible consequences, the probability and severity of these consequences, and risk mitigation measures. In this study, organizational silence is defined as remaining silent even though these issues are known, seen or observed. 2 Literature Review 2.1 The Relationship between Safety Management and Voluntary Reporting The performance-based approach sees and evaluates the world as it is, which is contrary to the traditional safety management approach that views the world as it should be (Reason, 2008). It places people in the center of the sys- tem by acknowledging that people and organizations can make errors and violate rules, and that risks cannot be to- tally eliminated (Karanikas & Chionis, 2019). As stressed by Reason (2008), human errors are inevitable and it is necessary to have systems to counter and capture them by ‘voluntary reporting’ in a ‘just culture’ environment. The key to this approach is that the organization proactively enhances its safety performance through real-life condi- tions by way of organizational learning, and finding and solving implicit organizational problems that arise in its own context (Gerede, 2015b). For this, the organization certainly needs safety data and knowledge from its own context. On the other hand we think that the shift from a culture of compliance based approach to a performance based approach may have some difficulties for some in- spectors. The management tools that apply to the perfor- mance-based approach are the State Safety Program (SSP) and the Safety Management System. The ICAO, which published its last comprehensive regulation (Annex-18) in 1984, published Annex-19 concerning ‘Safety Man- agement’ on November 14, 2013, 29 years later. With Annex-19, the ICAO makes it compulsory for states to implement the SSP, and the aviation organizations to im- plement the SMS (ICAO, 2013a). It is necessary to have a timely, accurate and rich safety data set so that the SMS can be successfully implemented and safety performance improved (Gerede, 2015a). The most important source of rich and qualified data that the SMS needs is employees (Liao, 2015). Volun- tary reporting is the process by which employees volun- tarily report safety hazards, human error and violations, incidents and their causes, and risk mitigating proposals to relevant units of the organization in order to increase safety (ICAO, 2013b). Voluntary reporting is feedback that members of the organization voluntarily provide, without any legal obligation or management pressure (FAA, 2020; SkyBrary, 2020). Mandatory reporting includes unsafe events that are required by the civil aviation authority to be notified compulsorily by service providers. The specific procedure regarding how to report about the who, what, and how questions in mandatory reporting is explained in detail by the ICAO (2013b). Civil aviation authorities, for example, are required to report accidents, near air misses, and fires during flight (Wood, 2003). New generation per- formance-based safety management tools cannot succeed without safety data and information; in other words, with- out voluntary reporting. For this reason, the ICAO requires relevant civil aviation authorities to use the voluntary re- porting system (ICAO, 2013b). Such data and informa- tion provide proactivity in safety management, making it possible to identify specific contextual issues of aviation organization and to make successful predictions about fu- ture safety performance (Jausan, et al., 2017). As a result, 5 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers voluntary reporting has the potential to produce valuable information to increase safety. In addition, being informed about incidents that do not produce serious consequences, but which are caused by the presence of safety hazards, can also produce useful in- formation, since factors that are present in the organization regarding such incidents threaten safety, but fail to produce significant results (Liao, 2015). In other words, accidents that produce serious negative consequences and factors that cause unsafe incidents of low importance are, in fact, the same. The only difference being the degree of negativ- ity in the outcome of the event. For this reason, having in- formation about incidents with low-priority consequences is also crucial to the improvement of safety (FAA, 2018). However, incidents that are thought to have had no se- rious consequences are not reported (Reason, 1997). Avi- ation organizations’ awareness of accidents, of incidents that threaten safety, and of the factors that cause such in- cidents, is vital for the prevention of future unsafe events by taking lessons from the past. Such data and information in aviation activities can be obtained through voluntary re- porting by employees (ICAO, 2013b). 2.2 Silence and the Concept of Organizational Silence Silence is defined as the conscious concealment of knowledge, suggestions, thoughts, and anxiety by an in- dividual about his/her job or organization (Morrison and Milliken, 2000; Tangirala and Ramanujam, 2008). Employees have to make decisions regarding the ex- plaining of their thoughts and concerns about their organ- ization or remaining silent (Kıcır, 2018). However, it is generally observed that employees often keep information that may be valuable to an organization to themselves be- cause they think it is safer for them not to speak, and thus they prefer to remain silent (Morrison and Milliken, 2000). This deprives decision-makers of the organization of this information when making decisions (Morrison, 2011). The phenomenon of silence can occur, not only at an individual level, but also at a group or organizational level. Silence has a contagious nature that starts at the level of individu- als and then spreads to the group or organization, ending up with organizational silence (Brinsfield et al., 2009). However, research has shown that organizational si- lence can degrade performance, create a potential barri- er to development and innovation, and can have negative consequences at the individual/organizational level (Mil- liken, et al., 2003; Pope, 2019). Organizations use a number of mechanisms to en- courage employees not to remain silent and to have them point out problems or suggest solutions to these problems. This mechanism for safety in aviation organizations is the voluntary reporting system. In other words, voluntary re- porting is a written feedback tool that employees use to communicate. Employees in aviation organizations can voluntarily report incidents, unsafe acts, circumstances, conditions and the factors that cause them, and risk mit- igation measures to be used to increase safety. However, employees prefer to remain silent by not participating in voluntary reporting, which is an important data source in assuring safety for various reasons and for taking neces- sary preventive measures (Kongsvik, et al., 2012). In this study, silent behavior is considered as not reporting vol- untarily. 2.2.1 Types of employee silent behavior There are variations in employee silence classifica- tions based on employee behavior (Morrison and Milliken, 2000; Pinder and Harlos, 2001; Dyne et al., 2003). First examined by Pinder and Harlos (2001), employee silence is characterized by four different types of silence behavior (Dyne et al., 2003; Morrison and Milliken, 2000; Brins- field, 2013), which will be further elaborated on below. On the other hand, Brinsfield (2013) has added a new di- mension to previously revealed dimensions of employee silence; relational silence. Morrison and Milliken (2000) argue that a climate of silence emerges when employees in organizations think that it is not worth the effort to talk about problems. In organizations where a climate of silence is dominant, em- ployees think that their opinions will not be taken into consideration when they express a problem or idea, that their reports will not lead to change, and that the effort they are putting into express their thoughts is wasted; thus, they choose to remain silent (Dyne, et al., 2003). Employees who internalize the assumption that their ideas will not be considered ignore the desire to make a declaration by ac- cepting that they will not be able to change this situation by their own efforts, remain disengaged to making any re- ports and prefer to accept without objection (Pinder and Harlos, 2001). Therefore, employees remain unconcerned about their organization’s problems, which is reflected on the negative outcomes of the organization (Morrison and Milliken, 2000). Underpinning another type of silent behavior is fear (Brinsfield, 2013). Propounded by Pinder and Harlos (2001) for the first time, this type of silent behavior is de- fined as employees remaining deliberately silent fearing being made being subject to consequences if they speak out. Based on silence, there is a fear of encountering neg- ative consequences, such as punishment or even dismissal from the workplace (Morrison and Milliken, 2000; Kıcır, 2018). Dyne et al. (2003) argue that such silent behavior results from a wish on the part of employees to protect themselves from any possible harm. The prosocial silence associated with organization- al citizenship behavior is consciously concealed by em- ployees thinking that they will harm their colleagues or 6 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers their organizations if they share thoughts, knowledge, and opinions about any issue within the organization (Dyne et al., 2003). In this kind of silence behavior, rather than being afraid of suffering personal harm, the employee is concerned that his/her colleagues may face negative out- comes if s/he speaks. Underlying such concealment by the employee is his/her wish to participate in some sort of co-operation with co-workers and thus, acts altruistically, without expecting anything in return (Dyne et al., 2003). Employees exhibiting this kind of behavior remain silent to protect the interests of their organizations or colleagues. Employees prefer to remain silent if they think that their relationships will be harmed if they talk (Brinsfield, 2013). The first of such relationships is the one with man- agers. Employees do not want their relationship with their managers to be harmed, worrying that they will lose man- agerial support, or that their managers will impose vari- ous sanctions on them (Perlow and Williams, 2003). The second type of relationship is the one established with co-workers. When employees do not remain silent and speak out, they are afraid that they will be stigmatized by their co-workers as a whistleblower, troublemaker, spoil- sport, killjoy, or complainer. Thinking that such percep- tions would harm their relationships with their co-workers, they prefer to remain silent. Employees do not want to de- stroy good relationships with their colleagues (Milliken et al., 2003). In fact, employees do not talk about issues that have the potential to harm their managers or colleagues or about issues that they would not be pleased to hear them- selves (Perlow and Williams, 2003) 3 Method 3.1 Population and Sample The population of this study is composed of all the technicians, engineers, managers and maintenance plan- ners working in aircraft maintenance organizations and aircraft maintenance units of airlines operating throughout Turkey. The main reason for choosing this study popula- tion is that maintenance personnel play a key role in ensur- ing safety, since the success of aircraft maintenance activ- ities directly affects aviation safety. Another reason is that aircraft maintenance activities are extremely comprehen- sive, sophisticated and complex. For this reason, there are many data types and much information to be reported. If data and information subject to reporting are not reported due to silence, maintenance activities create a rich source of data for this study. Convenience and snowball samplings are methods used in the study. In order to ensure the anonymity of the aircraft maintenance staff in the research population, and to encourage them to participate in the survey, no data was collected about the companies they were working for. 3.2 Data Collection The researchers themselves developed the data col- lection tool. In order to create the item pool, the related scales were first reviewed. In addition, the views of acade- micians, recognized experts in organizational behavior and aviation safety, were consulted. As a result, an item pool of 53 items was obtained. After this, expert opinion was sought for content validity. At this stage, assistance was provided by academic staff specialising in organizational behavior, aviation safety and scale development. Between 5 January and 11 March, 2016, a total of seven experts, in- cluding three organizational behavior specialists, three avi- ation safety experts and one measurement and evaluation expert, was consulted through the Expert Opinion Form. For each item on this form, the experts were asked to high- light one of the following options; appropriate (keep in the data collection tool), inappropriate (remove from the data collection tool), and revision necessary (keep in the data collection tool following revision). In the case of choos- ing the ‘inappropriate’ option, the experts were asked to state their reason for so doing. The items on which the ex- perts agreed were retained in the data collection tool, those identified for removal were dropped, and those requiring revision were revised accordingly. Finally, a 43-item data collection tool was created. A 5-point Likert-type scale was used for data collection. To ensure the face validity of the data collection tool, the survey was piloted face-to-face with five aircraft main- tenance technicians. Between 17 March and 18 April, 2016, this survey was distributed in person and via email to 1000 people using convenience sampling, with 571 of these responding. As a result, a total of 483 surveys are included in the analysis. To digitize and record the survey data, an EXCEL program was utilised. The data was then transferred into SPSS for Windows 15.0 (Statistical Pack- age for Social Sciences) and LISREL 9.1 (Linear Structur- al Relations) programs. 4 Results 4.1 Sample Characteristics Table 1 shows the demographic information of the par- ticipants. A total of 483 participants in this study. When the ages of those participating in the study are examined, it can be seen that the ratio of participants in the age group of 35 and above constitutes 31% of the total participants. When the various lengths of the participants’ occupational experience are considered, it can be seen that 50% have worked for longer than five years. When the participants’ age and professional experience are considered together, participants working in aircraft maintenance can be con- sidered as experienced. It is noteworthy that, considering 7 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers their level of education, 72,3% of the participants are edu- cated to at least an undergraduate level. On the other hand, 174 of the participants are Certify- ing Staff (CS) maintenance technicians, followed by 109 non-CS maintenance technicians. Regarding their work units, 244 employees are employed in line maintenance and 164 work in base maintenance. 4.2 Reliability Analysis Reliability analysis is defined as the degree to which a data collection tool produces consistent results or achieves the same results under the same conditions (Field, 2009). For this purpose, a reliability analysis was performed ac- cording to the answers provided for the 43 Likert type questions in the study. The reliability coefficient (Cron- bach’s Alpha coefficient of the whole scale = .96, relational and prosocial silence .91, disengaged silence .81, quies- cence and acquiescence silence .84 and fear and defensive silence .80), which was calculated for the sub-dimensions of the survey and for the whole, shows that the results have a high level of reliability. Measurements with high reliabil- ity produce observable results that are close to real results (Punch, 2005). Table 1: Demographic and Occupational Characteristics Variables n % Variables n % Age Gender 34 and younger 312 69.6 Female 19 3.9 35-44 83 18.6 Male 459 95 45+ 53 10.8 No response 5 1.1 No response 35 7.2 Total 483 100.0 Total 483 100.0 Level of Education Status of Occupation High School 72 14.9 Unemployed 6 1.2 Associate 54 11.2 Employed in Civil Aviation 470 97.4 Bachelor’s 295 61.1 No response 7 1.4 Postgraduate 54 11.2 Total 483 100.0 No response 8 1.7 Total 483 100.0 Maintenance position Maintenance unit CS Maintenance Technician 174 36.0 Line Maintenance 244 50.5 Non-CS Maintenance Technician 109 22.6 Hangar Maintenance 164 33.9 Assistant Technician 101 20.9 Engineering Department 20 4.1 Engineer 28 5.8 Production/ Maintenance Planning 12 2.5 Other* 51 10.6 Other** 28 5.9 No response 20 4.1 No response 15 3.1 Total 483 100.0 Total 483 100.0 Professional experience Experience in the current organization 5 years or less 231 51.6 5 years or less 318 65.6 5-10 years 99 22.1 5-10 years 71 14.7 10-20 years 66 14.7 10-20 years 38 8.1 20+ years 52 11.6 20+ years 6 1.2 No response 35 0.6 No response 50 10.4 Total 483 100.0 Total 433 100.0 *Component technicians, managers and warehouse staff. **Workshops and warehouses. 8 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 4.3 Factor Analysis The first analytical goal in the study is to determine the factor structure by performing an exploratory factor analysis (EFA). 4.3.1 Exploratory factor analysis Before starting an EFA, certain basic concepts need to be questioned in order to be able to minimize problems that may arise and to test the suitability of the data set for the EFA (Field, 2009). As such, a number of key elements that require correct attention are sample size, Kaiser-Mey- er-Olkin (KMO) and the Bartlett Test, and correlation ma- trix. There are various views about an ideal sample size (Hair et al., 2010, Field, 2009). There are 43 items in this study. Considering the most conservative researchers in determining the size of the sample, 430 participants need to be accessed. The fact that we reached 483 participants in our study indicates that our sample size is sufficient. To determine the adequacy of the data set for an EFA, KMO and Bartlett test analyses were conducted. The KMO test result was found to be 0,923, and KMO>0,90 can be interpreted as the perfect result. The Bartlett test was also significant (Sig. = 0,001 < α = 0,05). The high correlation between the variables and the obtained values indicate that the data set is adequate for a factor analysis. Different methods are used to determine the number of factors. The most commonly used method is Kaiser cri- terion. The Eigenvalue is based on continuing with factors greater than 1 (Kaiser, 1970). Another method is the scree plot graph. This graph determines the number of factors more successfully than the Kaiser criterion (Field, 2009; Thompson, 2004). In order to obtain the best possible factor structure, more than one analysis was performed considering various criteria. Finally, it was decided that the number of factors should be four. This also coincides with the number of fac- tors expected from the theoretical explanation of the data collection tool reported in the relevant literature. According to the factor analysis, it appears that the items are grouped under four different dimensions. When items are evaluated in terms of not meeting the level of acceptance and factor loadings, certain items are clearly in line with other items and some items cannot meet the ac- ceptance level for the factor load value. According to this, it can be said that these items do not sufficiently contribute to explain the variance of the latent variable (Netemeyer, et al., 2003). Therefore, the mentioned items are excluded from the analysis. The appropriateness of the data set to the factor anal- ysis needs to be tested after each procedure. For this pur- pose, KMO and Bartlett tests were performed again. A new factor analysis was performed following the removal of overlapping and low factor loadings. Starting with 43 items, the final version of the data collection tool included a total of 25 items after dropping 18 items based on the factor analyses. Table 2 shows the values of the rotated factor analysis obtained after item removal. Table 2: KMO and Bartlett Test Results KMO and Bartlett Test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy ,922 Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Chi-square 5607,065 Degree of freedom (df) 300 Significance ,000 Table 3: Total Variance Explained Factors Initial Eigenvalues Rotated Squared Weights Total Rotation Squared Weights Total Total Variance % Cumulative % Total Variance % Cumulative % Total Variance % Cumulative % 1 10.104 40.416 40.416 10.104 40.416 40.416 4.973 19.892 19.892 2 1.955 7.818 48.235 1.955 7.818 48.235 3.892 15.567 35.459 3 1.762 7.049 55.283 1.762 7.049 55.283 3.441 13.764 49.223 4 1.248 4.993 60.276 1.248 4.993 60.276 2.763 11.054 60.276 … … … … 25 0.172 .689 100.00 9 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers After reducing the number of items, the result of the KMO test was found to be 0,922. Since KMO is>0.90, an excellent result is obtained and each variable in the meas- ure can be predicted perfectly by other variables (Tabach- nick and Fidell, 2007). According to the factor analysis after subtracting the items that do not meet the overlapping and factor load value, the four factors obtained account for 60,276% of the total variance. In the factor analysis conducted in so- cial sciences, the variance explained may be between 40 and 60% (Hair, et al., 2010). Therefore, a contribution of 60,276% is sufficient in explaining the total variance of these four factors in the study. The high total variance ex- plained suggests that the structure developed on the causes of voluntary reporting is well measured (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). Table 4: Rotated Factor Matrix Items Rotated Factor Loads Relational and Prosocial Silence Disengaged Silence Quiescence and Acquiescence Silence Fear and Defensive Silence S12 I do not want to stir up trouble with my co-wor- ker(s) by reporting them .776 S27 I do not want to damage my relationships with my co-worker(s) by reporting them .697 S11 I am concerned about being cast out by my co-workers .694 S43 I do not want to stir up trouble with my mana- ger(s) by reporting them .681 S23 I do not want to be stigmatized as the ‘complai- ner’ in my company/among my co-workers .664 S42 I do not want to reveal my company’s faults and cause it to be penalized by the DGCA1 .655 S34 I do not want to damage my relationships with my manager(s) by reporting them .641 S24 I do not want to reveal my company’s faults and cause it to be penalized by the EASA2 .640 S36 I do not want to reveal my co-workers’ faults and cause them to be punished .634 S20 I do not want to waste my free time reporting .716 S29 I do not want to bother with learning how to report .682 S18 I do not think reporting is my job .679 S37 I do not want to waste time reporting when I do not have time for my own duties .651 S17 I do not think reporting will do me any good .638 S21 I do not know how to report .590 S35 I think that the issue to be reported has already been reported by someone else .568 1 1Directorate General of Civil Aviation. 2European Aviation Safety Agency 10 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers S31 I think that previous reports have been covered up .803 S30 There has been no feedback on previous reports .756 S28 I think our managers do not encourage reporting .744 S22 I think our managers urging us to report is only lipservice .726 S19 I do not think that our managers like to hear anything negative .573 S2 I think the DGCA will punish me .803 S1 I think my company will punish me .756 S4 I think that I will face the same problems expe- rienced by my co-workers who have previously reported .700 S3 I do not think there is any legislation in place to protect me in case of an accident investigation .651 Mean 2.479 2.162 2.612 2.484 SD .852 .677 .913 .917 Table 4: Rotated Factor Matrix (continues) According to the analysis results, it is obvious that all the items meet the acceptance level of the factor load values. Analysis of basic components such as the factori- zation method was used to reveal factor design, and max- imum variability (Varimax) was chosen as an orthogonal rotation method. The most important reason for choosing the orthogonal rotation method is that this method offers the opportunity to easily interpret, describe and report re- sults (Field, 2009, Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007; Hair, et al., 2010). The first factor corresponds to the dimension of rela- tional and prosocial silence in the organizational silence literature. For this reason, this factor is called ‘relational and prosocial silence’. In the study, aircraft maintenance employees not reporting voluntarily, based on relation- al and prosocial inclination, accounts for 19.8% of total variance. This is the strongest factor among the four fac- tors explaining voluntary reporting. With the highest item load among all items, the item, ‘I do not want to stir up trouble with my coworker(s) by reporting them’ indicates that employees remain silent because they do not want to harm their relationships within their organization. The employees think that if they talk about a coworker whose behavior is the subject of the report, then the relationship with him/her will be damaged and they may be stigmatized as a snitch that constantly complains and causes harm to colleagues. Employees do not want to end up in such a problematic situation. With high item loads, the statements, ‘I do not want to reveal my company’s faults and cause it to be penalized by the DGCA’ and, ‘I do not want to reveal my co-work- ers’ faults and cause them to be harmed’ demonstrate that employees display prosocial behavior and thus feel forced to remain silent. In the light of this finding, it can be con- cluded that employees do not want to report voluntarily on matters involving their colleagues. The second factor is labeled ‘disengaged silence’. The item, ‘I do not want to waste my free time reporting’, had the highest load here. Employees do not see reporting as a worthwhile endeavor. In addition, the item, ‘I do not think reporting will do me any good’, indicates that employees display silent behavior in voluntary reporting. By perform- ing benefit-cost analysis, Premeaux and Bedeian (2001) states that an employee will be silent if s/he thinks s/he cannot benefit by speaking up. When these two items are considered together, it is clear that the employee remains silent because he/she does not care to waste time reporting, thinking that it will not be of any use to him/her. Since the third factor is similar to the acquiescent si- lence reported in the relevant organizational silence liter- ature, it is labeled ‘quiescence and acquiescence silence.’ The items ‘I think that previous reports have been covered up’ and ‘There has been no feedback on previous reports’ had the highest loads among the other items. These state- ments and their values indicate that employees will not re- port when they think that that reporting matters that they care about and want to be valued will be of no use. When organizations do not act on voluntary reports or do not in- form their employees about their responses to the reports, employees are led to believe that reporting will be useless. 11 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Moreover, the employee feels worthless when failing to receive feedback from the company. Consequently, in line with findings reported by Wood (2003), employees who think that their ideas are not valued become less motivated to contribute to the safety performance of their organiza- tion by reporting voluntarily. Finally, the fourth factor in our study corresponds to silence based on fear and defensiveness as reported in the organizational silence literature. The silence factor based on fear and defensiveness, which accounts for 11.0% of total variance, draws attention as the highest item load among all the items included in the measurement tool. Ar- guably, the most important factor causing silence based on fear and defensiveness is the existence of a weak positive just culture in organizations. Dekker and Breakey (2016) state that such a weak culture negatively affects reporting. This can be explained by the fact that filing a report can result in penalties for the employee, and the employee does not want to suffer such harm (Morrison and Milliken, 2000). If disciplinary system practices in an organization causes such an unfair perception of unfairness, employees’ fear and worries concerning reporting will increase and the weak positive just culture will force them into silence. Employees are sometimes afraid that the information con- tained in a report may be used against them and that they will be penalized. Such penalties include humiliation in front of co-workers, being fined, being dismissed from work, or even losing a professional license. The fact that these survey items received high item loads can be inter- preted as an indicator of such employee fears. Another important finding of this study is that a num- ber of the factors (relational and prosocial silence) pro- posed in the literature are combined, while some (disen- gaged silence, quiescence and acquiescence silence, and fear and defensive silence) emerge as separate factors, in harmony with the relevant literature. 4.3.2 Confirmatory factor analysis Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is employed to test the accuracy of a previously established relationship by the researcher (Netemeyer, et al., 2003). For this purpose, in this study, firstly, a four-factor structure is obtained by EFA. In the second phase, the research aims to test four latent variables; prosocial silence, fear and defensive si- lence, disengaged silence, and quiescence and acquies- cence silence. 4.3.2.1 First-order confirmatory factor analysis The purpose of the first-order CFA is to test wheth- er the resulting structure of the EFA yields the voluntary reporting variable in aviation. The four-factorial structure obtained as a result of the EFA was first tested by a first order CFA. In the first-level CFA analysis as shown in Table 5. Good fit index values correspond to a good fit (Thompson, 2004). The goodness of the GF values can be interpreted as being appropriate for the aggregated data on the model being tested for the reasons for failure to report voluntarily. 4.3.2.2 Second-order confirmatory factor analysis In the first-order CFA, four dimensions came togeth- er to form the voluntary reporting variable. However, the ‘Failure to Report Voluntarily’ variable was not included in this analysis. By adding this variable to the model, the second-order CFA was performed to see whether the four factors (latent variables) obtained after the first-order CFA explained the ‘Failure to Report Voluntarily’ latent varia- ble. In the first-order analysis, the four factors that can be seen as relatively independent, but interrelated, bases are components of the ‘Failure to Report Voluntarily’ latent variable, which is meant to be a higher level structure. One-way linear relationships are defined for latent varia- bles from the variables observed in the first-order analysis. One-way linear relationships are also defined in the direc- tion from the observed variables to the observed variables in the second order analysis. One-way linear relationships demonstrate that latent variables predict observed varia- bles. The results of second-order CFA are shown in Figure 1. According to the goodness of fit indices obtained af- ter the retest, the four-factorial structure was accepted as adequate to explain the latent variable ‘Failure to Report Voluntarily in Aviation’. In other words, the reasons for the lack of voluntary reporting by aircraft maintenance work- ers were tested by second-order CFA, and it was concluded that the four latent variables together create an absence to report voluntarily in aviation. At this stage of the analysis, each goodness of fit value will be examined, and the relationship of the four latent variables with the silence in aviation variable will be test- ed. When the relevant goodness of fit values is analyzed, it clearly corresponds to a good fit (Thompson, 2004). 12 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Figure 1: Second-order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (The values in the figure are standardized coefficients) Table 5: Goodness-of-Fit Values Obtained from the First-order and Second-order Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model No. N Chi-square/df GFI AGFI CFI NNFI RMSEA RMR First-order CFA 483 3.04 0.87 0.86 0.97 0.96 0.06 0.07 Second-order CFA 483 3.11 0.87 0.85 0.97 0.96 0.06 0.06 13 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers To sum up, the four-factorial structure, resulting from the EFA, was first tested by first order CFA. Second-order CFA was performed after the first-order analysis and the relationship between the four-factorial latent variable and the ‘silence in aviation’ latent variable was tested. The sec- ond-order factor analysis shows that the four latent compo- nents explained the ‘failure to report voluntarily’ variable on the basis of relational and prosocial silence, disengaged silence, quiescence and acquiescence silence, and fear and defensive silence. 5 Discussion With the developed data collection tool, the collected data were first subjected to EFA and a four-factorial struc- ture was obtained. The obtained four-factorial structure was tested in a model created by first-order CFA and it was concluded that the 25 observed variables explain the latent variables of relational and prosocial silence, disengaged silence, quiescence and acquiescence silence, and fear and defensive silence. In the second order CFA, voluntary re- porting was accepted to be measured with four latent var- iables, and was assembled into a holistic model. Based on the obtained goodness of fit values, it was concluded that the ‘Failure to Report Voluntarily’ latent variable was ex- plained by the four latent variables. According the results of our study, the relational and prosocial silence is the primary factor among the factors that lead to aircraft maintenance employees’ exhibiting si- lence behavior and their lack of voluntary reporting. The fear of harming relationships, the anxiety of becoming a wet blanket in the group, the fear of getting stigmatized as a whistle-blower, the risk of being perceived as a trou- blemaker and a complainer force employees into silence (Milliken et al., 2003). In addition, it can be argued that, the high femininity and collectivism characteristics of the Turkish culture (Göregenli, 1997) may be playing an im- portant role in such employee silence. In societies where collectivism is dominant, people remain loyal to their com- munities throughout their lives, and the social relationships have to be good (Hofstede, et al., 2010). Deterioration of relationships is avoided because it causes individuals to feel stressed. Therefore, collectivist traits lead employees to prosocial behaviors by making them care about other people and try to prevent harm to the organization or group they belong, which ultimately keeps them from reporting voluntarily. Notifying authorities about coworker faults through voluntary reporting corresponds to whistleblow- ing and sycophancy, which are not approved by the larger society (Çakıcı, 2010). Besides, the teamwork required for aircraft maintenance and the fact that these teams are com- posed of small groups results in revealing which employee knows or reports what, and thus in the event that a work- er reports voluntarily, s/he knows that s/he will be easily figured out as the person doing the reporting. As another characteristic of the Turkish culture, employees view re- porting, which is to cause trouble for their organization, as biting the hand that feeds them, something clearly frowned upon by the mainstream society. In our study, another factor causing employees not to be involved in voluntary reporting is the disengaged si- lence. It was concluded that, employees display selfish behaviors (Premeaux and Bedeian, 2001), and after doing a benefit-cost analysis between silence and voluntary re- porting, if they decide that remaining silent would be more advantageous, they may prefer staying quiet even if the safety is threatened. On the other hand, psychological con- tract violations and procedural injustice in organizations cause employee disappointment and cynicism. Experienc- ing such disappointment, employees exhibit cynical be- haviors (Özgener, et al., 2008), which leads employees to remain silent based on disengaged. In addition, employees’ not knowing how to report, or their lack of motivation to spend time learning how to do it indicates that they are disengaged to reporting. Another factor negatively affecting employees’ volun- tary reporting is the acquiescence and quiescence silence. Based on the findings from the present study, which con- firm other related research, the reason underlying this si- lence is the belief held by employees that their opinions do not count and that they cannot make a difference or change anything by reporting (Wood, 2003). According to the Turkish values survey conducted throughout Turkey be- tween 2011 and 2012, Turkish employees believe that they have to follow the orders given by their superiors whether they make sense or not (40% of the participants stated that the instructions must be followed). This rate is 10% high- er than the average found for Europe. In other words, the tendency of employees in Turkish society to fulfill orders without question is higher than the European average (Es- mer, 2012). These findings indicate that employees in the Turkish society are obedient, that they do not feel the need to make extra effort to make reporting work, and that they accept the situation more easily. The motivation underlying the quiescent and acquies- cent and disengaged silences can be explained by Vroom’s Expectation Theory. According to Vroom, if certain behav- ior helps a person attain desired results, or leads to unde- sired results but the outcome is predicted to be more posi- tive, s/he tends to exhibit certain behavior with a positive attitude. If employees keep getting positive results when they express their opinions clearly, it seems reasonable to assume that the value they attach to reporting will increase and that they will repeat their reporting behavior. Howev- er, if employees face adverse outcomes due to reporting, their reporting behavior may become less frequent. By try- ing to predict the benefits and losses depending on their reporting, employees carry out a cost-benefit analysis. This analysis could indicate a future benefit or cost involved in 14 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers reporting. Therefore, it can be argued that the aforemen- tioned dimensions of silence may be influenced by this analysis (Premeaux and Bedeian, 2001). The last factor that led to the absence of voluntary re- porting in the survey is fear and defensive silence. It has been emphasized in many studies that employees remain silent based on fear and defensiveness (Morrison and Mil- liken, 2000; Dyne et al., 2003; Brinsfield, 2013). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1943) can help to explain the motivation source of fear and defensive silence. According to this theory, the behavior of an individual is directed to- wards satisfying a need, within an order of hierarchy. One of these is a need for safety. Safety refers to protection from physiological and psychological harm. It is an im- portant necessity to have work and regular income so that people can meet their needs and feel safe. Aircraft mainte- nance personnel may feel threatened by the risk of losing their jobs or licences. If reporting is likely to produce such consequences, employees who need to feel safe may avoid reporting (Schepers, et al., 2008). Perhaps counter-intuitively, the factor comprising items with the highest item loads in all factors makes less of a contribution to the total variance than the relational and prosocial silence. One factor that causes this situation could be the collective characteristics of Turkish culture. Combined with its collectivist characteristics (Hofstede, et al., 2010), the individual characteristics of Turkish culture (Göregenli, 1997) may have resulted in this type of more relational and prosocial employee silence. The individual characteristics of this society may mean that, taking into account personal interests, the employee remains silent in order not to strain his/her relationships with co-workers or managers. On the other hand, a majority of previous research indicates that the most important factor leading to a failure to voluntarily report by employees is fear (Jausan et al., 2017; Bienefeld and Grote, 2012; Gerede, 2015b). Our study finds that employees remain silent, based on fear and defensiveness. 6 Conclusion and suggestions In aviation organizations, employees’ preference of reporting critical information about incidents or remain- ing silent about them can determine the fine line between life and death. Employees’ silent behaviors can threaten aviation safety and cause irreparable accidents. Reporting is also the basis of proactivity and without reporting the performance based safety management approach cannot succeed. Therefore, in order to encourage voluntary reporting that would provide very valuable data for increased avia- tion safety, identifying why employees remain silent is an urgent research problem. This study aimed at determining the reasons for the behaviors of not voluntarily reporting and remaining silent displayed by the employees working in aircraft maintenance organizations, which are the key hubs of the activities directly affecting aviation safety. To achieve this, we developed a tool to measure reasons aviation employees not reporting and made validity and reliability analysis. The four-factor structure of the failure of aircraft maintenance employees to report based on re- lational and prosocial, fear and defensive, quiescence and acquiescence, and disengaged silence was found to be structurally valid. Accordingly, organizations need to acknowledge and act with the awareness that organizational silence is a com- mon phenomenon. The importance of voluntary reporting should be explained to employees at every opportunity and the number of quality voluntary reports should be in- creased. However, this should go beyond the simple slo- gans of ‘Safety comes first in this workplace’ or ‘Safety first’ hanging on the wall of every organization. Organi- zations absolutely need to embrace the strong just culture. In the presence of such a positive just culture, when em- ployees want to report, they will be free from any fear of punishment or harm. Although this study has contributed to the knowledge of organizational silence and voluntary reporting litera- ture, it still has certain limitations. Therefore, further re- search is recommended to strengthen the findings. In some cases, even if legal mechanisms and voluntary reporting systems created in organizations are sufficient for employ- ees to speak or voluntarily report, employees could prefer to remain silent. It would be interesting to investigate how organizational trust, organizational justice, national cul- ture, organizational culture and laws system effect volun- tary reporting. In addition, the tool developed in this study has only confirmed on aircraft maintenance employees and both EFA and CFA is conducted to the same sample. 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Personnel Psychology, 61, 37-68, https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/j.1744- 6570.2008.00105.x Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and Confirmatory Fac- tor Analysis (1st edition). Washington: American Psy- chological Association. Wood, R. H. (2003). Aviation Safety Programs, A Man- agement Handbook (3rd Edition). America: Jeppesen. Ilker Under is a research assistant at Graduate School of Social Sciences, Anadolu University, Turkey. He is a PhD candidate from Civil Aviation Management, Anadolu University. His research interest mainly focuses on organizational behavior, aviation safety and human factors. This study is based on the Master›s thesis of the first author under the supervision of the second author. Ender Gerede, PhD, currently works at Air Transport Management Department of Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Eskisehir Technical University as a Professor, in Eskisehir, in Turkey. He teaches and conducts researches on Safety Management, Human Factors, Crew Resource Management, Airline Management and Aircraft Maintenance Management both at undergraduate and graduate levels. 17 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Molk v letalstvu: razvoj in validacija orodja za merjenje razlogov, da osebje za vzdrževanje letal ne poroča Ozadje in namen: Organizacijski molk, ki je često največja ovira za uspeh organizacij, se kaže kot izogibanje izra- žanja čustev in idej o težavah, s katerimi se srečujejo njihove organizacije. Opredelimo ga lahko kot izogibanje pro- stovoljnemu poročanju v letalskih organizacijah. Glavni namen te raziskave je opredeliti in razviti orodje za merjenje razlogov, zaradi katerih letalski uslužbenci molčijo o nevarnih dogodkih in dogodkih, ki so jim priča, ter dejavnikih, zaradi katerih se vzdržijo sprejemanja predlogov za izboljšanje varnosti. Zasnova / metodologija / pristop: V okviru študije je bilo razvito orodje za zbiranje podatkov. Pojasnjevalna in potrditvena faktorska analiza podatkov, pridobljenih od 483 zaposlenih, je bila izvedena za preizkus razlogov za prostovoljno poročanje v letalstvu. Rezultati: Posledično je bilo ugotovljeno, da zaposleni niso sodelovali pri prostovoljnem poročanju zaradi dejavni- kov molka, ki temeljijo na relacijskih in prosocialnih dejavnikih, razdruževanju, mirovanju in popuščanju ter strahu in obrambnosti. Zaključek: V skladu s tem morajo organizacije priznati in delovati z zavedanjem, da je organizacijski molk pogost pojav. Pomen prostovoljnega poročanja je treba zaposlenim razložiti ob vsaki priložnosti in povečati število kakovo- stnih prostovoljnih poročil. Vendar bi to moralo presegati preprosta gesla „Varnost je na prvem mestu na delovnem mestu“ ali „Varnost najprej“, ki visi na steni vsake organizacije. Ključne besede: Organizacijska tišina, Poročanje, Sistem varnega upravljanja, Vzdrževanje letal 18 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 1 Received: 7th May 2020; revised: 4th January 2021; accepted: 30th January 2021 Exploring the Cultural, Managerial and Organizational Implications on Mergers and Acquisitions Outcomes Renato Lopes DA COSTA1, João MIGUEL1, Álvaro DIAS1,2, Leandro PEREIRA1, José SANTOS3 1 ISCTE-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, BRU-Business Research Unit, Lisboa, Potugal, Renato_Jorge_Costa@ iscte-iul.pt, joaoazmiguel@gmail.com, alvaro.dias@ulusofona.pt (corresponding author), Leandro.Pereira@iscte-iul. pt 2 Universidade Lusfófona/TRIE and ISCTE-IUL, Department of Marketing, Strategy and Operations, Lisboa, Portugal 3 ISCTE-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, Department of Quantitative Methods, WINNING LAB, Lisboa, Portugal, Jose.Santos@winning.pt Background/Purpose: This work is focused on the variables that influence the outcomes of mergers and acquisi- tions, by learning from past mistakes, adopt better strategies and make wiser decisions to enhance the outcomes of their mergers and acquisitions. Using a qualitative approach, this research contributes to existing knowledge on mergers and acquisitions performance by exploring the cultural, managerial and organizational factors dimensions through an integrative approach using multiple perspectives. Methodology: Fifteen interviews were conducted with experienced professionals in multiple areas of mergers and acquisitions. Content analysis was used to interpret the results. This enabled to achieve a more complete set of an- swers and potential solutions while comparing opinions on the same problems from slightly different angles. Results: Results show the existence of managerial hubris, emotional attachment and over-optimism in mergers and acquisitions. There was a relative support towards standardizing the process of mergers and acquisitions deals, but respondents advise to keep some creativity and flexibility. Conclusion: The article concludes by addressing key issues for mergers and acquisitions performance: capabilities and experience; organizational communication; internal coordination; and, key issues for decision-making. Keywords: Mergers and acquisitions, Synergies, Culture, Strategy, Growth, Performance. DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0002 1 Introduction The mergers and acquisitions failure rate is a matter of concern to academics and practitioners. Some authors point failure rates in the range of 66 to 75 percent (McK- insey & Company, 2010). Other shocking studies, put the failure rate of mergers and acquisitions between 70 and 90 percent (Christensen et al., 2011). The failure rate of mergers and acquisitions changes from study to study. Measuring the outcomes of mergers and acquisitions is hard to do (Beck & Scott Morton, 2020). Both financial in- dicators and non-measurable abstract variables, such as the achievement of the delineated strategic goals, are impor- tant and can be considered when classifying the outcome of a certain deal (Faisal et al., 2016). There is substantial evidence in McKinsey´s survey that there are new interests and attitudes towards merg- ers. The respondents showed large interest in using merg- ers and acquisitions to move beyond the already existing lines of business and into new strategic areas and create re- search and development portfolios (McKinsey & Compa- 19 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers ny, 2010). Mergers and acquisitions will continue to exist and for sure play a significant role in the future (Kuo et al., 2013). Some authors argue that researchers are not look- ing at the right set of variables and that the importance of non-financial variables is underestimated in theory and re- search (Gomes et al., 2013). However, as stated by Kiess- ling, Vlačić and Dabić (2019) mergers and acquisitions’ research is mainly focused on the influence of the ante- cedents of mergers and acquisitions and the “many aspects in the decision-making process of M&A (such as strategy formulation, target identification, due diligence, pricing of the acquisition, postacquisition integration, and subse- quent performance)” (p. 1). More specifically, the human dimension is still underexplored, specially the cultural and organizational preparedness (Friedman, Carmeli, Tishler, and Shimizu, 2016; Bereskin et al., 2018). As such, the objective of this article is to understand which causes are propelling such a high failure rate in mergers and acquisitions and propose solutions on how to enhance their outcomes. To address the research gap previ- ously mentioned, this research will focus on specific ante- cedents, such as cultural and organizational preparation for mergers and acquisitions. To understand the complexity of the phenomena, we follow a qualitative approach seeking to know, from the decision makers’ point of view, how the various factors influencing the success of mergers and ac- quisitions are considered. This methodological approach is considered the most appropriate to include the deci- sion-maker perspective (Risberg, 2015), and the cultural and organizational dimensions (Smollan & Sayers, 2009). The article is structured as follows. Section 2 discusses relevant literature. Section 3 presents the methodology and specifies the research model. Section 4 shows the results, which are discussed in section 5. Finally, section 6 pre- sents the theoretical and practical conclusions as well the research limitations and suggestions for future research. 2 Theoretical Framework 2.1 Pre-deal procedures A better understanding of the reasons behind so many mergers and acquisitions failures is likely to help in con- ducting better deals and reduce the chances of failing. In the pre-merger/acquisition stage is when the decision to try to merge or acquire is made and with which company the deal should be done. Carefully searching and evaluating potential targets is extremely important; choosing the right target can determine the success of the deal from the very beginning. Taking enough time to deeply understand the target´s business and plan accordingly, pays off in mini- mizing the chances of choosing an unfit company and it will help exploring additional synergy sources (Moreira & Janda, 2017). Despite the evidence that mergers and acquisitions have played an important role in the past and will continue to rise in number and value over the next years as a new cycle unfolds, the statistics do not show positive numbers regarding merger and acquisition returns (Duan and Jin, 2019). On average the buyer pays the target all the val- ue that is generated with the realization of combinational synergies, this value ranges from 10 to 35 percent of the target´s market value (McKinsey & Company, 2004). Predicting accurate synergy values is surely crucial to make right decisions, they are important not only to con- clude if the deal should go forward or not, but at a more precise level they make an impact when making smaller decisions. With more accurate synergy estimations, better decisions can be made, and failures avoided (Garzella & Fiorentino, 2017; Moreira & Janda, 2017). Many mergers and acquisitions deals were already condemned from the start as they would not generate enough synergy value to make the deal worth (Duan & Jin, 2019). The first step in initiating a merger or acquisi- tion is to look for a suitable partner. The evaluation of the potential partner should take into account its strengths and weaknesses, investment requirements, quality of the target management and implementation barriers such as cultural differences (Bereskin et al., 2018; Gomes et al., 2013). 2.2 Culture assessment Despite the multiple comments from authors in the field of mergers and acquisitions that culture is a variable with influence on the outcome of deals (Bain & Company, 2013; King et al., 2015), on the other hand, authors and practitioners point fingers towards the negligence organ- izations demonstrate when they handle cultural problems (Lodorfos and Boateng, 2006; Bain & Company, 2013). Mergers and acquisitions can promise to deliver a lot of value (Deloitte, 2017). When this happens, the tempta- tion to do the deal regardless of cultural problems can be hard to avoid. There can be several other reasons to why companies engage in mergers and acquisitions, such as the existence of a managerial hubris and the use of mergers and acquisitions as a way to avoid bankruptcy and achieve financial diversification (Barney and Hesterly, 2012). Organizational culture is a deep and subjective part of an organization that possibly evolved through several years, therefore it is hard to change and the new habits to form (Marks & Mirvis, 1992). The authors highlight the use ceremonies to symbolize the transition into the new phase, these events help employees detaching from the past and embracing change. Culture is inseparable from any deal because it is em- bedded in both organizations (Gordon, 1991), so it would be great to overcome the cultural problems barrier and find a way to make the deal happen well by addressing and/or 20 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers dodging the cultural problems. It is imperative to conduct further research on cultural problems and the possibility to minimize their negative impact, that is, how to minimize the negative impact of cultural incompatibilities. 2.3 Culture incompatibilities Organizational culture results from the adaptation to- wards shared beliefs and expectations, it is particular of one firm and it has both a subjective and objective dimen- sion (Kuo et al., 2013). Cultures are hard to change and combine because they have unique characteristics that relate to the orientations and goals of the previous sepa- rate organizations, they can also evolve and consolidate throughout several years (Gordon, 1991). One example is the failed merger between the auto makers Daimler and Chrysler which has increased the awareness towards the importance of cultural compatibility in mergers and ac- quisitions (Badrtalei and Bates, 2007). On the other hand, some studies with positive results prove that mergers and acquisitions are sources of efficiency and value generation (David, 2014). A merger or acquisition with a high cultural fit happens when cultures are similar and combine well, there is a re- duced need for organizational integration efforts (Bauer & Matzler, 2014). Having a poor cultural fit is bad because the uncertainty that is associated with cultural distances reinforces the need for monitoring and control and can cre- ate managerial conflict (Bereskin et al., 2018; Denison & Ko, 2016). In a Bain & Company survey, the number one cause appointed by executives on why deals fail to deliver the promised value was a cultural clash (Bain & Company, 2013). Despite the evidence supporting the importance of a proper cultural assessment and management, culture is still found to have been neglected in a substantial percent- age of deals (Schraeder & Self, 2003). The results from McKinseys´s study point out that 92 percent of executives believe a better cultural understand- ing prior to the deal would be beneficial, and 70 percent of them agree too little attention is given to culture (McK- insey & Company, 2010). Several questions can be asked: are companies being just negligent towards the importance of culture or is there also a need for a structural change in the way cultural evaluation is conducted? It can also be ar- gued some companies might lack the expertise to properly conduct a good cultural evaluation, in such case, should they seek help from an external entity? 2.4 Mergers and acquisitions value approaches The approach towards deals observed during the last decades, referred to by some practitioners as the traditional risk-mitigation approach, is producing too many failures (Christensen et al., 2011; Faisal et al., 2016). There is sub- stantial support towards the idea of a broader approach to value creation, referred to as the value-seeking approach. The numbers indicate an increase in value creation be- tween 30 and 150 percent (McKinsey & Company, 2010). In a risk avoidance strategy, the managers, the merger and acquisition teams and external consultants focus on preventing bad events from happening. The analysis and decisions are made quickly and one of the usual assump- tions that make the deal profitable is the cost savings as- sociated with merging the companies (McKinsey & Com- pany, 2010). These cost savings often involve cutting the less profitable operations and downsize the number of employees, this practice has negative implications towards employee morale and cultural conflicts often emerge (We- ber & Fried, 2011). The returns on the investments made in transforma- tional areas (areas with new markets, new customers and new products) are, on average, much higher than the in- vestments made in core business areas. However, compa- nies invest 70 percent of their innovation investments in core areas in which they achieve average returns of only 10 percent. At the same time, merely 10 percent of the in- novation investments are made in transformational areas and these generate average returns of 70 percent (Deloitte, 2017). People respond differently to the changes being im- posed during the integration process, it is up for top man- agement to recognize these discrepancies and try to have some degree of flexibility. There is no such thing as a general integration process, with all its specific steps, that works for every type of deal. The integration should adapt to the type of deal being pursued (Deloitte, 2017). Communication is also a variable of great importance in mergers and acquisitions, excellent communication throughout the whole process helps overcome uncertain- ty (Angwin et al., 2014). Failing to properly communicate with key line managers and give them a chance to be in- volved in the decision-making process can have replica- tions throughout the entire organization (Friedman, et al., 2016). They often are the closest superior for many base- line employees and if they express discontent and uncer- tainty towards the merger or acquisition it will negatively impact employee morale and performance, these key line managers can also promote a communication climate that facilitates effective integration (Friedman, et al., 2016). Other authors point out that acquirer returns are signifi- cantly lower and there is less value creation when in the presence of social ties between senior executives and di- rectors of both companies (Ishii & Xuan, 2014). 21 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 2.5 Organization preparation As defended by some practitioners, transformational deals can generate a lot more value when compared to typ- ical deals (McKinsey & Company, 2010), it is however important to know about how to better adjust companies in mergers and acquisitions to extract more value and avoid risk. It is specifically important to study what practitioners think about generating value and avoiding risk in transfor- mational deals, as this is a topic lacking exploration. Having a feeling of participation and understanding the reasons behind the need for change is important, even the individuals that express the largest resistance to change are more likely to support the deal (Schraeder & Self, 2003). Getting employees into feeling involved in the merger or acquisition process is vital to make them more coopera- tive with the organization’s strategies and consequent ac- tions, a good way to achieve this is by dividing people into teams and creating a feeling of excitement about the future (Marks & Mirvis, 1992). Having trust in top management is a key factor into stimulating obedience and positive action in employees to- wards the deal. A good leader should inspire, be competent and transmit credibility into others. When top management builds a relationship of trust and induces a feeling of se- curity it is much easier to get employees into cooperating with actions that will somehow affect those (Schraeder & Self, 2003). Managers should deal with employee concern issues as fast as possible to destroy the negative rumours, however, it is not advised to make commitments or state- ments that the company might not keep (Morrison & Rob- inson, 1997). 3 Methodology 3.1 Research model To address the research objectives an explorative qual- itative research was conducted to obtain deeper insights about the causes related with mergers and acquisitions high failure rate and to identify solutions to enhance their outcomes. Furthermore, this research explores specific an- tecedents, such as cultural and organizational preparation for mergers and acquisitions. We followed a ‘systematic combining’ approach (c.f. Dubois & Gadde, 2002) by pro- moting an intertwined application of the different activities in the research process since it is better suited for quali- tative research than a “standardized conceptualization of the research process as consisting of a number of planned subsequent ‘phases’” (Dubois & Gadde, 2002, p. 555). Ta- ble 1 specifies the relationships between the investigation specific objectives and the interview questions, as well the link with relevant literature. According to Vilelas (2009), the number of interviews is said to be in an acceptable interval when it is located between 15 to 20 interviews. However, we followed Fusch and Ness (2015) and Saunders et al. (2017) recommenda- tions by stopping the interviews when the data saturation was obtained. This means that the last two interviews add- ed no new topics or themes. Following a purposive sampling (Patton, 2005), a total fifteen interviews were conducted to business consultants randomly selected from a professional database. Each in- terview was conducted face to face and had an average duration of 73 minutes and was conducted by three re- searchers. Even though the number of interviews is in the acceptable interval, the results of this research should be taken with caution. Table 2 details the respondents’ char- acteristics. The interview sample was intentional and was selected according to several requirements; such as their expertise and experience and their functions in mergers and acquisitions. The study aimed to understand the meaning people attribute to this phenomenon more than just interpret it. This is because words, actions and gestures have their own context and therefore they must be interpreted using in- duction (Vilelas, 2009). In terms of the qualitative analysis technique used for the data interpretation in the interviews, this can be resumed to an analysis of content that tried to relate the semantic and sociologic structures in such a way that the answers are interpreted and put into context with the factors that determine their characteristics, such as the psychosocial variables, cultural context and ways of repro- ducing the message (Duriau et al., 2007). In the figure below, the interview “corpus” is shown. This scheme illustrates how the objectives of the research translate into the interview questions. The broad topic of the variables that influence mergers and acquisitions ramifies into the generic categories and later into the sub- categories. This ramification is the result of the literature review and can be interpreted as going deeper and deeper into the subject- Figure 1. The process of clarification, systematization and con- tent expression of the messages was organized in conform- ity with the three chronologic pillars of Bardin (1977). The interviews were chosen as the preferred method to gather information because even though there is an inherent sub- jectivity in the information collected by using this method, it allows the collection of information from the very own social actors with the possibility to dynamically adjust the direction of the speech as the interview flows (Vilelas, 2009). 22 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Table 1: Relating the investigation objectives to the interview questions and the theoretical support Investigation specific objectives Interview questions Authors Study the variables and actions nega- tively influencing the decisions at the pre-deal stage and achieve a set of rec- ommendations to improve them. What is failing in the estimation of syn- ergies and what could be done to im- prove their accuracy? (a clarification what synergy meat was conducted by the interviewer) Bijlsma-Frankema (2001); Schraeder and Self (2003); Garzella and Fiorentino (2017); Lodorfos and Boateng (2006); McKinsey & Company (2010); Barney & Hesterly (2012); Bain & Company (2013). Understand how practitioners perceive the importance of culture and if com- panies are neglecting this variable. Are companies neglecting the impor- tance of culture and that translates into a bad cultural evaluation or do they also lack internally the capability to evaluate culture? Schraeder and Self (2003); Lodorfos and Boateng (2006); Badrtalei and Bates (2007); Weber et al. (2009); Sara- la (2010); Weber and Fried (2011); Bain & Company (2013) Comprehend why companies engage in deals between “incompatible” compa- nies. Develop a set of recommendations on how to extract value on this type of deals. If cultural problems are expected but the deal must go forward, what can be done in terms of integration stage agenda, organizational structure and others to minimize their negative im- pact? Bijlsma-Frankema (2001); Schraeder and Self (2003); Lodorfos and Boateng (2006); McKinsey & Company (2010); Barney & Hesterly (2012); Bain & Com- pany (2013). Understand how practitioners perceive the current state of making mergers and acquisitions, if they think the pro- cess is too standardized and if there is benefit on investing more time and re- sources trying to capture more value. Is it true that deals would benefit of changing towards a less standardized and more flexible approach as some practitioners point out? If yes, how to optimize time and resources consump- tion with the need to make a more ex- tensive research and evaluation in the value-seeking approach? McKinsey & Company (2010); Weber and Fried (2011); Christensen et al. (2011); Bauer and Matzler (2014); Fais- al et al. (2016); Deloitte (2017). Achieve a set of recommendations on how to prevent negative outcomes and how to generate more value through deal-making How can organizations prepare, and which actions can they develop to more easily integrate in deals and extract maximum value with minimal risk? McKinsey & Company (2004); McK- insey & Company (2010); Bauer and Matzler (2014). Nº Function Country Gender 1 Financial Director Portugal Male 2 Head of M&A Germany Male 3 Director of M&A Germany Female 4 Senior Consultant Germany Male 5 Head of Acquisitions Germany Male 6 Senior Expert of Field Development M&A Germany Male 7 M&A Associate Advisor Germany Male 8 M&A Communications Lead Germany Female 9 M&A Expert Portugal Male 10 M&A Director Germany Male 11 M&A Partner Germany Female 12 Strategy & Investments Senior Manager France Male 13 CEO and Owner Belgium Male 14 CEO and M&A Consultant Germany Male 15 M&A and Strategy Responsible Germany Male Table 2: Characterization of the sample of participants in the interviews 23 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Figure 1: Categorization and codification of the interview “corpus” for qualitative analysis The semi-structured technique was developed on an organized and standardized set of questions; however, it was implicit that the direction of the conversation would flow naturally, and in some occasions, questions were gen- erated as the interview run and a deeper clarification on a target concept was necessary (e.g. synergy). This sponta- neous nature of the interview has contributed for a lot of information that would otherwise be missed or left unclear (Werr & Styhre, 2002). As defended by Vilelas (2009), this flexible way of conducting the interviews has abolished the need for rigid criteria that would damage the level of detail collected in the investigation. Regarding the disadvantages of having such flexibility is that the results were not standardized and there was a high degree of difficulty and required time when it came to organize, compare and reach conclusions on the results. 4 Results 4.1 Pre-deal assessments: synergy estimations Five respondents pointed indirectly to a managerial hubris as a cause for the inaccuracy of the synergy estima- tions. This managerial hubris might be particularly strong in SME´s because leaders have always used their intuition to reach their success. As observed in the literature review, it can also interest management to grow through mergers and acquisitions to receive bonuses and to gain reputa- tion. However, some respondents mentioned the lack of technical capabilities of companies to correctly estimate synergies. 24 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Several respondents also mentioned the emotional at- tachment of people for the realization of the deal to why companies over-estimate synergies. These people can be quite emotionally driven and even be willing to manipu- late numbers in order to promote a positive decision of the board of directors towards the realization of the deal. Another mentioned factor that adds to the over-estima- tion of synergies is that in the most exciting deals, there is many times a lot of competition to acquire the business, a conservative bidding proposal based on conservative syn- ergy estimations is unlikely to win against the competitors. In a general way, over-optimism can be appointed as a reason to why estimations end up being short of what was expected. But as six respondents directly mentioned, syn- ergies can be difficult to estimate, and people often work with imperfect data. When trying to extract information from the target or a potential partner companies face sev- eral obstacles. The information they are seeking can also be confidential, one of the respondents pointed to confi- dentiality as a reason to why he often is confronted with difficulties in calculating synergies. Two respondents pointed fingers at banks and how Table 3: Characterization of the sample of participants in the interviews Content Analysis Nº Text Category 1 I have a very well-formed opinion about this… I think that there is clearly Hubris and it is con-stant in this type of businesses. This hubris happens very often on the buyer side. I.1.1 3 When they want to buy a company, they make high estimations, because they are excited and want to buy it. I.1.1 5 Probably also that the people who are making the acquisitions are too aggressive (…), and over-optimistic. I.1.1 9 The main factor that influences this gap is the excess of optimism from the buyer´s side and overconfidence in the capacities to execute. I.1.1 14 Mergers and acquisitions are many times driven by heart and not by facts, I would say. I.1.1 they operate with rules of thumbs, others mentioned that companies are not really worried into making these esti- mations and they are just used to justify what they have already emotionally decided. One of the critiques respond- ents gave to banks is that they have expertise in finance, and it is something they are really good at; but they lack the operational expertise to be able to accurately estimate synergies. In question four some respondents also touched the point of the current practice of banks as being the result of an adaptation towards efficiency and that this is unlikely Nº Text Category 3 What we try to do is to quantify these synergies bottom-up. Yes, they are still much based on assumptions, but we do try to quantify each synergy as much as possible and always ask how high is the likelihood that this is going to happen. I.1.1 5 I think it is difficult to estimate the synergies; really, these are cost savings and specially going forward. Most of the time you are working with imperfect data, so you need to make some assumptions. I.1.1 6 When it comes to acquire something and realizing what it is. Again, there are a lot of un- knowns and it all has to do with the amount of data available at the time of this decision to move into this asset. I.1.1 10 I don´t think you can improve the estimations. What you can do is to prepare a wider arrange of variants. In many cases you get a wrong estimation because you didn´t know things in advance. I.1.1 12 As an M&A director you often need to get permission to discuss the details with the opera- tional people, because that is confidential information. You cannot ask for bottom-up analy- sis, so then you have to do top-down analysis and rely on statistics. I.1.1 Table 4: Evidence for the difficulty in making accurate synergy estimations 25 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers to change because this is the result of many decades of experience and a deviation from current practices is likely to induce more mistakes and increase the risk of not real- izing deals. Three respondents mentioned the importance of mak- ing bottom-up synergy estimations as opposed to top-down synergy estimations. In bottom-up synergies estimations, companies calculate the impact change will have on the micro and detailed aspects of the business and then arrive at the final result by multiplying that for the scale that syn- ergy is repeated. According to respondents, making top- down synergy estimations is more abstract and opens room for biased perspectives with lack of reality. A fact that is appointed by some respondents and that is later indirectly confirmed by an analysis of the responses and how the work of the respondents is performed is that many times the team that is responsible for making the deal happen is different from the team that is responsible for the integration of the company and all the strategic aspects. One of aspects that make companies not achieve the results they predicted is that they also fail to account for revenue dis-synergies. These revenue dis-synergies can happen for the very fact the deal is realized, one of the respondents gave the example that a company acquired an- other and achieved a big market share in the region. As a consequence, one of the previous clients decided to break the contract because the monopolization of the market from this company was making it concerned about being overly-dependent on the firm. Table 5: Evidence for the preference for making bottom-up synergy estimations Nº Text Category 3 Indeed, I think that many companies don´t do it in this diligent way. Often times, the synergy targets have been made by investment bankers, advisors or by the top management in a top- down manner. I.1.1 9 The difference in knowledge between sectors makes all the difference when it comes to the capacity to make calculations. When we are dealing with a horizontal acquisition, then things are much easier, and the estimations must be done in a bottom-up manner. I.1.1 12 You cannot ask for bottom-up analysis, so then you have to do top-down analysis and rely on statistics. (referring to that as a less accurate method) I.1.1 Some appointed solutions include having an experi- enced and neutral team that has minimal emotional attach- ment to the realization of the deal. When there is enough time and resources, to calculate synergies in multiple ways and compare those perspectives to check for asymmetries. Using available databases of past synergies that were achieved in similar circumstances also provide another way to check if the estimations are realistic. Holding people accountable for the achievement of predicted synergies and incentivize them with money to achieve the expected results is another appointed way to force people into making accurate predictions and achiev- ing them. Other referred path to improve the accuracy of estimations include having a solid plan B in case some- thing goes wrong, so that it minimizes the negative impact of a deviation from the expected results. Nº Text Category 4 Mergers often fail because it is very difficult to execute, the reason could be anything, and there could be cultural clashes, delay in the implementation or improper execution on the operational part of the advisors or even the target company. I.1.1 7 The full process of M&A takes a long time. A long time after the acquisition is done, a new team which is responsible for executing the integration takes place and I think it is because these teams are separated. (referring to what is failing in synergies estimations) I.1.1 10 In many cases you get a wrong estimation because you didn´t know things in advance. If you are more conservative you can reduce the failure rate, on the other hand it also lowers your chances of closing the deal because your offer is lower than competitors. I.1.1 12 There is also an effect of not being able to predict the future. In a company, when you do a strategic plan, you do a lot of mistakes because macro-economic effects are not predictable. I.1.1 Table 6: Problems related with synergy estimations 26 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 4.2 Cultural assessment: importance, problems and solutions This question has received very wide and conflicting answers. Six respondents strongly defended the impor- tance of culture, sometimes pointing fingers and blaming the negligence companies have when it comes to cultural variables. Three respondents showed no agreement to the statement that culture is important, several others were in a neutral opinion zone or gave no comments on the topic. Some of the practitioners who agree with the im- portance of culture mention that there can be substantial differences between companies of the same country and that these are the ones that are more likely to go “under the radar”. Defendants of the importance of culture also point Table 7: Appointed solutions to improve synergy estimations Nº Text Category 1 I think that for this, clearly is to have independent teams. I believe that they are often despised by the business owners, the business leaders are not “dumb” but they have a lot of incompe- tence’s. I.1.1 3 It´s important to have a check for example from the board of management or in our case the M&A department that are not emotionally involved in the deal and takes a really realistic view to cross-check if this makes sense. I.1.1 6 You can´t just have “plan A”, you need to have plan A, B, C... I.1.1 7 You also have to do really profound work and from my personal view, bankers don´t do this. If management can´t do this, they should employ experts. To make it better I would say to hire consultants. I.1.1 15 During the due diligence process, you can adjust your synergy expectations. If you after all see they have very different infrastructures, then you should include a discount on your synergy expectations. I.1.1 that there is too much optimism when it comes to culture and that people make the wrong judgment when they think that if companies operate in the same business area they may be compatible culturally. When it comes to integrate companies, two re- spondents mentioned that internal teams are biased and adopt own firm culture and over-estimate how the other firm will perceive operating under a different culture. A possible connection between the levels of agreement towards the importance of culture was found when analyzing this statement. Almost all the respond- ents who showed disagreement towards the importance of culture, do not work in direct contact with the integration stage where culture supposedly creates problems. Respondents mentioned that companies can lack that capability to evaluate culture and three mentioned that hiring consultants is a good alternative, when necessary. However, the costs of making the deal happen will in- crease, and they advised to reflect if after adding those pre- dicted costs the deal is still profitable. One of the respond- ents said that it is hard to know exactly who is on the other company, they can be manipulative and deceiving and you only really know them afterwards, said the respondent re- calling past events. Some respondents pointed as a possible way to im- prove cultural evaluation to take cultural research seri- ously and include a cultural due diligence in the timeline. Three practitioners mentioned the importance of getting involved, it can be visiting warehouses, offices, commu- nicating and getting to know the people of the other com- pany. Surveys to evaluate satisfaction were also appointed twice as a possible solution. 4.3 Cultural incompatibilities: performing deals on companies with different cultures As one of the respondents noted, it depends on the level cultural incompatibilities are observed. According to him, these cultural incompatibilities can happen at nu- merous levels such as top-management or operational/ employee level. He advises to evaluate which are those incompatibilities exactly and which impact will they have, because each level requires a specific set of actions and depending on the type of company and deal being pursued their impact can vary. 27 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Table 8: Opinion of respondents on the importance of culture Nº Text Category 2 I agree that companies are neglecting the importance of culture. (…). I would not say that they do lack the capability to evaluate culture. I.2.1 3 At Bayer we are involved in many, many deals. I personally sold and acquired businesses world-wide and I haven´t come across with cultural issues so much. I.2.1 4 The key point is that the buyer should know that the cultures differ and imposing the culture on theirs can destroy value. That is the key point. Culture should be a part of the strategic evaluation, I.2.1 7 Top management consists of highly educated and experienced people, they are also globalized, and they can deal with integrating the company well. I.2.1 8 For us culture is always a field that we analyze to see if there is cultural fit, which is key. I.2.1 9 I think it is something that can go unnoticed and there is overconfidence, optimism and under-estimating in the ability of someone in the target company to do things. I.2.1 10 There is little opportunity to adapt to other culture needs. There is bad preparation. You also should not underestimate culture in deals between neighbouring countries. I.2.1 11 I think many buyers who are looking for targets fail to evaluate culture, and this is maybe two-fold. I.2.1 13 I think both are true, on one hand companies often neglect culture and the psychological side of a deal is also the cultural side. I.2.1 14 In my point of view, culture is not the reason. I can´t say that these cultural variables are im-portant. I.2.1 Table 9: Opinions on how to improve cultural evaluation/planning Nº Text Category 5 I think this is one of the most difficult things to do, I don´t think that anything within reason can be done. It´s my opinion. I.2.1 9 Everything that has to do with getting to know the target company’s people is essential, manage-ment meetings, shop visits, factories, warehouses or whatever is extremely useful. I.2.1 13 I would say that certainly yes; by being aware of culture and by investigating, asking questions and feeling the culture. This is not exact science of course. I.2.1 15 During the due diligence process, you can adjust your synergy expectations. If you after all see they have very different infrastructures, then you should include a discount on your synergy expectations. I.2.1 Five respondents directly mentioned that the level of integration can be set to minimize those incompatibilities. The more culturally distant they are, the less integrated/ more independent companies should be. One of the re- spondents also added that besides this level of integration, one should think about how well the target is running alone and in case it is a “well-oiled” company to check if an intervention is going to destroy that working efficiency. Do not integrate them, play with the level of integration (depends on how distant culturally they are and how well- oiled they are you should not destroy a well-oiled compa- ny. Two respondents mentioned that awareness is key to be ready to act. Firing the target employees, especially the top-man- agement was a frequent topic to be touched by the re- spondents. Around four practitioners advised to deal with people in a very precise and well thought manner. The leaders of the target company can be quite resistant to the change and they have a lot of power to negatively influ- ence the outcome of the deal. What can be done, according to the answers is to deal with these people very carefully, and if they are causing problems to fire them. As observed in the literature review it was proposed by some authors that making a commitment to retain people is beneficial to the outcomes of deals because people get less anxious. However, one of the respondents who have 28 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers experience in the topic said that from her experience the several times that commitment was done, that she saw it negatively influencing the profitability of the deal, some- times in severe way. One of the respondents mentioned the importance of thinking about the long-term value-erosion of dealing with conflicting cultures. He defended that the negative effects might perpetuate for longer than expected, and he advised that when in doubt that it is better to find someone else. 4.4 Approaches to mergers and acquisitions: standardization and viability of a value-seeking approach The answers for this question were more abstract and complex than other questions, their opinions also referred to specific contexts. When carefully analyzing the possibly conflicting answers, it is visible that they are directed at Table 10: Appointed solutions on how to perform deals in culturally incompatible companies Nº Text Category 1 I think that, in addition to the prior evaluation that there should be (...), it is fundamental to have in the central decision-making team people who understand the culture of the other company (...). And then it is the adaptation of internal procedures so that they do not collide with that culture. For example, a Portuguese company cannot reach Spain and expect the workers to accept it at eight in the morning. I.3.1 5 Sometimes it makes sense to impose your culture as the leading culture and sometimes they should be independent and without a full integration, it´s about the level of integration. I.3.1 7 In a recent deal, a German company has made a promotional video for the employees about the future of the company. I can say that for the lower-skilled employees this has been really helpful, they were very excited. I.3.1 8 Leadership is extremely important in such a case, if you get the leaders of the acquired com-pany behind you and be promoters of the change, then you´ve done a great thing already. I.3.1 9 There are internal integration actions that can be launched where the resources of the two companies are combined and where one does not only seek to produce something together, but to create team spirit and integration. I.3.1 10 First of all, you talked about integration. But that is not the only way you can create value; the other way would be to keep them separated. I.3.1 15 This kind of situation would be very unlikely to happen. If it´s a geographic thing, then keep them independent as the time gap between companies would also make it difficult for inte- gration. I.3.1 specific contexts that can complement and fit each other without necessarily conflict. Four respondents said that standardization exists and that it is essential on an oper- ational level; several others indirectly defended standard- ization. What four practitioners argued against standardization can be interpreted as a critique to standardizing the reasons for mergers and acquisitions. And that over-standardiza- tion, when paired with a lack of creativity, can be a val- ue-destroying combination. Three participants referred that the counter-side of im- plementing a less standardized approach that tries to seek and capture value on deeper levels is that it increases the risk of the deal not happening. One respondent mentioned: having more time to do such things would certainly add value; however, no one is interested in giving the target more time to create problems. Some respondents high- lighted the importance of time and that the less standard- ized you are, the more time you will require and depending on the context it can destroy more value than what it adds. Even though their answers were sometimes abstract and hard to compare, it can be said that they agree on the fact that standardization with a touch of flexibility is key. Some areas only benefit of a high standardization such as the legal area, depending on the context, adding a bit of time and flexibility can be beneficial. One of the respond- ents mentioned that such an approach could work if the team was entrepreneurial and experienced enough to think outside the box and in an efficient manner. 29 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Table 11: Opinions on the standardization of mergers and acquisitions Nº Text Category 1 I think there is parameterization. It has some disadvantages, but it is also important. I.4.1 4 No, it´s not too standardized. What fails is the reason to do the deal, if I can produce something myself why should I purchase a company? I.4.1 6 You can possibly extract guidelines, but remember you need to accustom things to work on the situations you are presented with. I.4.1 7 Process standardization in my personal view needs to exist as much as possible, and it is good. It lowers the risk and reduces the time and effort. I.4.1 9 The biggest driver is the level at which the management team thinks outside the box. This will determine how the company looks at the approaches. I.4.1 15 I don´t think that merger and acquisition transactions are standardized. It´s probably only M&A theoretical people that say such a thing. On one hand, standardization is helpful. I.4.1 Table 12: Opinions on being creative and flexible in the process Nº Text Category 1 I think what is important is to maintain creativity, in a given scenario, to imagine and create something with more value. I.4.1 6 You need to formulate and adapt to the situation based on the criteria and the principles that you are faced with. So yes, you need to be flexible without a doubt. I.4.1 9 I think the main variable is the degree of entrepreneurship of the management team and the company. This will determine the risk aversion that happens in these more transformational acquisitions. I.4.1 4.5 Preparing an organization to perform mergers and acquisitions One of the most cited solutions that can help compa- nies prepare for transformational deals, as pointed by five respondents, is having a proactive, multifaceted and expe- rienced team that can make the deal-making process more entrepreneurial while having enough expertise to know what they are doing. Team experience will reduce the risk of failure due to lack of process regulations. One of the respondents also noted that it is not uncommon that the people involved in the process are working with different IT systems and according to him; it would improve coor- dination if people were all working with the same system. Communicating more and in a clear manner, was re- ferred by three respondents as a way to make a good prepa- ration for an upcoming deal. One of the respondents added, in case you are trying to sell our business, you should take care of all the marketing to be as visible as possible and increase the number of interested companies. There are important things, such as having a nice and professional website page that enables you to pass the image of being a modern and professional company, something you should want to achieve if you are trying to sell your business. Two respondents pointed to the importance of fixing internal problems before engaging in any deal. First, they say, you should optimize what you have and make sure it is running in an efficient and stable way. Two practitioners pointed to the importance of prioritizing the upcoming merger or acquisition event, to define a timeline and allocate the re- sources necessary to make a smooth transaction. About making a more extensive research and looking for deeper sources of value, one of the respondents mentioned that it should not be more complex than a regular deal; it is just a matter of evaluating and preparing with more time and having attention to details. Two respondents advised to have more transparency in the process. And one respondent mentioned the impor- tance of adjusting the dynamics of both companies so that the target knows it is a two-sided process. Regarding other aspects that could be improved, one respondent also men- tioned to define leadership more clearly; the idea is to al- ways have a board or a committee that is ready to take care and supervise the deal. Two respondents mentioned that it is a human thing that people don’t like unexpected change, especially when it is not in their interests. Therefore, they can try to resist changing. What one practitioner advised is 30 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers to educate people on these issues and to pay them well to keep them satisfied and motivated via the achievement of financial bonuses. One respondent commented on the fact that trying to extract deep synergies from attractive deals has its disadvantages when compared with easier deals. Easier deals can also create value by having less competi- tion and being less time and resources consuming. Another responded commented that in mergers and acquisitions if one side wins a lot the other side must be losing. 5 Discussion 5.1 Pre-deal Assessments: synergy estimations In the estimation of synergies, this study found proof that there is indeed a presence of a managerial hubris and an over-optimism involving the realization of deals, this Table 13: Opinions on how to prepare an organization to perform mergers and acquisitions Nº Text Category 7 If you are acquiring to make a completely new company, with a new branding, do it step by step. Do it gradually, it is quite important. You need enough time to get everybody used to the idea and deploy the resources. I.5.1 9 What I would say in a simplistic way is that the more knowledge you have about the industry and the more referrals you collect from the target company, the lower the associated risk be- cause the greater the understanding and the ability to choose what you really want. I.5.1 10 You can prepare your organization, (…) having people with experience that can react to that specific situation. I.5.1 15 A board or an integration committee that is installed to control the process. This is normal in large M&A deals. Feedback from employees is also crucial and that goes back to the cultural question, when things are not going as expected. I.5.1 goes in conformity with the statements of Barney and Hes- terly (2012). As the authors mention, too often people are emotionally attached to the deal and think with their heart instead of reason. In an interview, one transaction consult- ant with many years of experience pointed a figure regard- ing this topic, according to him; this happens more than a half the cases a transaction in done on an SME. It was also pointed that synergies estimations can be hard to estimate, and that it is no problem of the companies and managers themselves. One interviewed director point- ed to his experience as he felt many times frustrated after not being able to get essential confidential information from the target. The data itself can be imperfect, no one can calculate everything to the most minuscule of details, even the most well-made synergies estimations are just estimations and there are many non-financial variables in- volved, these results are in conformity with the arguments of Gomes et al. (2013). The importance of making bottom-up synergy predic- tions instead of top-down estimations was highlighted a couple of times. Whenever it is possible and advisable, companies should perform bottom-up analysis. This find- ing is in conformity with the previous literature such as the arguments of McKinsey & Company (2010), however expands existing knowledge by alerting to avoid over-opti- mistic involving decision making as suggested by Garzella and Fiorentino (2017). 5.2 Cultural assessment: importance, problems and solutions Regarding the cultural variable, the interview respons- es were contradictory. Some people defended strongly the importance of culture, while others even mentioned that during their decades of experience they never observed the effects of culture to be a significant problem. Most of the reviewed literature defends the importance of culture although with divergent result (Schraeder and Self, 2003; Lodorfos and Boateng, 2006; Badrtalei and Bates, 2007; Weber et al., 2009; Sarala, 2010; Weber and Fried, 2011; Bain & Company, 2013). The results of this study bring additional information on this issue, by identifying that culture is effectively important. The belief of some of the interviewed professionals that think otherwise only prove the existence of cultural negligence, which is defend- ed by some authors as a cause for the failure of mergers and acquisitions (Schraeder and Self, 2003; McKinsey & Company, 2010). The majority of interviewed people who disagreed with the importance of culture work at the pre- 31 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers stage and due-diligence phases and hold positions in banks or large corporations with highly specialized deal-making functions and have no responsibility in integrating organ- izations, this might be a factor contributing for their view on the importance of culture. 5.3 Cultural incompatibilities: performing deals on companies with different cultures The obtained results are in conformity with the argu- ments of the authors studied in the literature review. When dealing with deals that are predicting large financial bene- fits, but companies have cultural incompatibilities, one of the mentioned solutions was to play with the level of in- tegration; to keep the companies independent if it doesn´t generate much damage to the capability to reap the syn- ergies. This complements the argument of Schraeder and Self (2003) on the importance of developing a well-sup- ported plan as well as the argument of Barney and Hesterly (2012) that managers should balance the interests of em- ployees, managers, shareholders and stakeholders of both companies in a neutral way and while avoiding conflicts of interest. Another finding consistent with the literature review was on the benefits of communication; to try getting con- nected with the leaders of the target company to plan things together and to involve employees as well. According to the authors in the literature as well as the respondents, this communication and participation creates team-spir- it and reduces the resistance to change by changing the perception of people that the ones behind the deal are on their side (Schraeder & Self, 2003). Gundry and Rousseau (1994), also mentioned the importance of having integra- tion activities. Communication is also important in the per- spective of Marks and Mirvis (1992), their argument is that uncertainties destabilize employee performance, good and clear communication certainly helps reduce uncertainties. Some respondents mentioned that when dealing with distant cultures, managers should not immediately impose one over the other. Managers should instead develop inte- gration activities that slowly build a team-play spirit be- tween the two sides and after that the speed and degree of cultural change can be molded to avoid major conflicts. As Gordon (1991) mentions cultures are abstract and hard to change. This article expands previous knowledge about cultural and human factors on mergers and acquisitions (Bereskin et al., 2018; Denison and Ko, 2016) by identify- ing the managerial hubris as a key factors that creates an over-optimism in decision making. 5.4 Approaches to mergers and acquisitions: standardization and viability of a value-seeking approach The value-seeking approach concept as proposed by McKinsey & Company (2010), did not receive much ap- proval from the respondents. However, respondents agreed that keeping creativity and flexibility in some areas is vi- tal, therefore giving partial support to a possible change in the way mergers and acquisitions are conducted. The consensus among respondents is that standardization leads to a faster and more efficient process, but when things are running too automatically, some variables are not observed and are left untreated because people are working with guidelines. Trying to search and explore deeper synergies could indeed add value for the deal, but it is also not in the interest of the buying company to, in many cases, give the target more time to cause problems. Some respondents said that the theoretical reasoning behind the value seeking approach is correct and makes sense, but that too often there are very tight time constraints as well as other variables such as the negative perks of giving the target more time that make this more extensive approach not look as good. Therefore the concept for this new approach of McKinsey & Company (2010) can work out if the proper conditions are in place and more research needs to be conducted. 5.5 Preparing an organization to perform mergers and acquisitions Having experienced and proactive teams with a well-defined leadership was one of the mentioned topics by respondents to prepare organizations to better perform deals, this is in accordance with the view of McKinsey & Company (2010). Another mentioned action to make sure an organization is prepared to perform mergers and acquisitions is to make sure that the company is running smoothly and efficiently before engaging in a merger or acquisition deal, this finding is consistent with previous research (c.f. Kiessling, Vlačić, and Dabić, 2019). The importance of have a good amount and quality of communication for the success of mergers and acquisitions was appointed by the respondents, this opinion is in line with what was observed in the literature review (Wilter- muth and Neale, 2011; Faisal et al., 2016). As mentioned by Konstantopoulos et al. (2009), when there is lack of communication, it creates feelings of insecurity and al- lows negative rumors to spread. On this vein, this research extends previous research (e.g. Friedman, et al., 2016) by providing a more deep detail of the communication cli- mate that must be developed to prepare the organization for mergers and acquisitions. This article also expands ex- 32 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers isting knowledge about mergers and acquisitions synergies (Moreira & Janda, 2017) by including the cultural dimen- sion besides the financial one. 6 Conclusion This investigation reinforces the arguments of some previous authors and brings light into several topics of mergers and acquisitions. Regarding synergy estimations, the managerial hubris and over-optimism need to receive more attention from managers and organizations. This study reinforces the argument for the presence of a mana- gerial hubris that has been indicated by Barney and Hester- ly (2012). Multiple respondents referred to this variable as being a negative impediment for the neutral and efficient realization of deals. In the future, the field needs regulate itself by making sure professionals are not emotionally bi- ased in the deals. The process of decision-making needs to avoid rules of thumbs and engage in more rational data calculations by adopting clear and standardized methods. Another proposed solution achieved in this work is to make people accountable for their mistakes as well as their achievements, by adopting this reward system people will be more careful to check if they are building their argu- ments without emotional bias. The cultural variable received controversial and con- flicting answers, overall, professionals gave both positive and negative answers regarding the importance of culture. This conclusion means that there is a misalignment be- tween the beliefs of practitioners regarding the importance of culture, which obviously will influence how they handle the variable when they are performing deals. The results also conflict with the authors studied the literature review, since most of them defended the importance of culture. If culture is important, this study brings evidence and rein- forces the argument of authors blaming cultural negligence as a contributor for failure in mergers and acquisitions. If culture is important after all, a solution needs to start by raising the awareness of professionals for its importance, this can be done by performing more studies to prove why and how culture can influence the outcomes of mergers and acquisitions. When dealing with culturally distant companies, this study also makes several suggestions, it might be advisable for firms to not impose culture and try to excite the leader of the target to avoid having conflicts and do things in a friendly way instead. Employee integration actions help as well, when there are cultural conflicts and employees from both companies need to work collectively, companies can progressively develop projects that slowly integrate em- ployees and build the team spirit. The value seeking approach is a relatively new con- cept in the field of mergers and acquisitions. This study brings light into what practitioners think of adopting such an approach and how they perceive the current state of the sector. Standardization on mergers and acquisitions re- ceived support from most respondents, however, they also advise to keep some level of creativity and flexibility. An- other contribution to the field of mergers and acquisitions is how practitioners perceive the need to change the way mergers and acquisition are conducted, there were divided answers, some practitioners believe that the process can be improved and others don´t. For managers and entrepreneurs without much expe- rience that want to be prepared to engage in a merger or an acquisition, this investigation suggests several actions. Firstly, firms can start by defining the leadership very well and include people with experience in mergers and acqui- sitions in the team. Leaders also need to consider the im- portance of communication from the very beginning, an increase in quantity and quality of the information being communicated can have positive results in many levels. It can be internal and lead to an increase in internal coordi- nation, or it can be external and lead to an increase of the awareness in the context of the deal and enable firms to make better decisions. Considering the nature of the current research, as well as the topic being investigated, it is imperative to reflect on several limitations. Performing a broad and holistic study is very hard given the limited resources available to perform this investigation. Therefore, the achieved con- clusions need to be taken with caution as the study is not broad enough to induce in undeniable conclusions. It also needs to be well-thought-out that the achieved conclusions might be true only for the context upon which they were extracted. Therefore, this research is restricted regarding both contextualization and sample size. Another limitation was that some of the respondents favored to not disclose their identity or to not allow the interview to be recorded, which affected the detail of the information. In any case, the ones who opted for anonymity all agreed to disclose their identities for the evaluation committee in case there is scrutiny over the validity of their interviews. Literature Angwin, D. (2001). Mergers and acquisitions across Eu- ropean borders: National perspectives on preacquisi- tion due diligence and the use of professional advisers. Journal of World Business, 36(1), 32-57. https://doi. org/10.1016/S1090-9516(00)00053-5 Angwin, D. N., Mellahi, K., Gomes, E., & Peter, E. (2016). How communication approaches impact mergers and acquisitions outcomes. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(20), 2370-2397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2014.985330 Badrtalei, J., & Bates, D. L. 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Too much in- formation: The perils of nondiagnostic information in negotiations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(1), 192–201. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021871 Renato Lopes da Costa holds a PhD in General Management, Strategy and Business Development at ISCTE (Portugal) has published articles in several journals in the East, the United States, Canada, Africa, South America and Portugal. He is currently a researcher and member of the Scientific Council of the BRU-UNIDE and professor at ISCTE where guides master’s and PhD theses and teaches Business Strategy. Since 2016 is the MscBA director in ISCTE, master listed on Financial Times Report. During the school year 2013/2014, he started as a guest professor at the Military Academy. https://orcid.org/0000-0001- 9364-534X João Miguel holds a Master in Business Administration from ISCTE Business School. Álvaro Dias holds a Ph.D. on International Marketing in 2006, aggregation on Firm Economics in 2009, MSc in Strategy in 2003 and BaC in Management in 1994. He was Associate Professor of Management and Economics, Department Director at Universidade 35 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Kulturni, vodstveni in organizacijski dejavniki vpliva na rezultate prevzemov in združitev Ozadje / namen: Raziskava se osredotoča na spremenljivke, ki vplivajo na rezultate združitev in prevzemov, iz- hajajoč iz analize preteklih napak, da bi managerji lahko izluščili boljše strategije in sprejemali modrejše odločitve za izboljšanje rezultatov združitev in prevzemov. Študija prispeva k obstoječemu znanju o uspešnosti združitev in prevzemov z raziskovanjem razsežnosti kulturnih, vodstvenih in organizacijskih dejavnikov s pomočjo integrativnega pristopa z več perspektivami. Metodologija: Opravljenih je bilo petnajst intervjujev z izkušenimi strokovnjaki na več področjih združitev in prev- zemov. Za interpretacijo rezultatov smo uporabili vsebinsko analizo. To je omogočilo celovitejši nabor odgovorov in možnih rešitev, ob primerjanju mnenj o istih problemih, obravnavanih z nekoliko različnih zornih kotov. Rezultati: Študija kaže na vpliv vodstvene ogroženosti, čustvene navezanosti in preveč optimizma pri združitvah in prevzemih. Pokazala se je zmerna podpora standardizaciji postopkov združitev in prevzemov, vendar anketiranci svetujejo, da ne pozabimo na kreativnost in prilagodljivost. Zaključek: Članek zaključuje z strnitvijo ključnih vprašanj glede uspešnosti združitev in prevzemov: zmogljivosti in izkušnje, organizacijska komunikacija, notranje usklajevanje in ključni dejavniki pri odločanju. Ključne besede: Združitve in prevzemi, Sinergije, Kultura, Strategija, Rast, Izvedba. Autónoma de Lisboa (UAL), and he is currently Full Professor at Universidade Lusófona and invited professor in ISCTE-IUL. He is also collaborating with several institutions in Brazil and Angola as invited professor and co-supervisor of MSc and Ph.D. student. He was Director and founder of CEEFE/UAL - Research center for strategy and finance. https://orcid.org/0000- 0003-4074-1586 Leandro Pereira holds a Ph.D. in Project Management. He is also CEO and Founder of WINNING Scientific Management and Professor at ISCTE Business School. Dr. Pereira is also former President of Business Case Institute, PMI Portugal Chapter and Training Specialist of the Court of Auditors. As CEO, Dr. Pereira receives from Best Teams Leaders the award of Best Team Leader and CEO of Portugal in 2017 in Portugal. He is also PMP from PMI and ROI certified. As researcher, he published more than 50 scientific publications and 10 books. As student, he received the best student award from University of Minho. Dr. Pereira is an international expert in Strategic Management, Project Management, Benefits Realization Management, and Problem Solving. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4920- 0498 José Santos is a PhD student and the Head of Winning LAB, the scientific laboratory of his company, Winning Scientific Management. He has an extensive knowledge in management and already published several scientific papers and well as participated in several conferences as a speaker. He has more than ten years of professional experience. 36 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 1 Received: 31th May 2020; revised: 27th November 2020; accepted: 16th December 2020 Organisational Culture and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour: The Dark Side of Organisational Politics Amro AL-MADADHA1, Ahmad Samed AL-ADWAN2, Fida Amin ZAKZOUK1 1 Princess Sumaya University for Technology, Department of Business Administration, Amman, Jordan, a.almadadha@psut.edu.jo, (Corresponding Author), f.zakzouk@psut.edu.jo 2 Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Electronic Business and Commerce Department, Amman, Jordan, a.adwan@ammanu.edu.jo Background and Purpose: Organisational politics can have a substantial negative effect on employees’ perfor- mance, however many organisations still do not pay attention to this organisational behaviour. In our study, we aim to examine the relationship between organisational culture and organisational citizenship behaviour through how employees perceive political behaviour within organisations. Methods: Convenience sampling technique has been employed, quantitative data were collected from 532 employ- ees in the Jordan banking industry via online surveys. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed to test the hypotheses of the study. Results: Analyses showed that organisational culture within the banking industry has an effect on how employees perceive political behaviour. A negative perception of political behaviour by employees, in turn, has a negative influ- ence on employees’ citizenship behaviour. These findings answer previous calls to investigate the destructive effect of organisational politics on employee outcomes. Conclusion: Organisations should pay more attention to the destructive effect of organisational politics and try to minimise such behaviour. Organisational citizenship behaviour, in contrast, benefits organisational performance, and the enhancement of this is recommended through the implementation of more effective policies and strategies. Keywords: Organisational culture; Perceived organisational politics; Organisation citizenship behaviour. DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0003 1 Introduction The success of any organisation essentially depends on the performance of its employees, in that they make an effort beyond what is expected of them in the work- place (Lee et al., 2018). This is especially true at present, given the dramatic changes in the economic environment, constant improvements in technology, and the extent of heated competition in the marketplace. Excellent perfor- mance on the part of employees is ideally voluntary and is not included in their officially contracted tasks. This phenomenon is called organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB; Khan et al., 2019). Organ (1997, p.91) has defined OCB as ‘employee behaviour that is relatively discretion- ary and contributes to the maintenance and enhancement of the social and psychological context that supports task performance’. Management inside organisations typically welcomes this kind of altruistic behaviour because that it to organisational effectiveness. This is especially true in the service industry, where organisations need to deal with unexpected daily challenges and employees often have to exert more effort or take on extra-role responsibilities (ac- tivities performed by employees that are not included in their job description; Takeuchi et al., 2015). OCB studies 37 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers have tended to focus on the most effective antecedents of OCB: leader-member exchange (LMX) (Newman et al., 2017), prosocial values (Cheung et al., 2018), and im- pression management and organisational concern motives (Takeuchi et al., 2015). Recently, considerable attention has been paid to the influence of organisational politics and how employees perceive this (Yang, 2017; Zhang et al., 2019). Organisational politics (OP) has been referred to as ‘individual or group behaviour that is informal, ostensibly parochial, typically divisive, and above all, in a technical sense, illegitimate - sanctioned neither by formal authori- ty, accepted ideology, nor certified expertise’ (Mintzberg, 1983, p.172). These behaviours can generate a struggle between individuals within an organisation, often leading to perceptions by employees that their colleagues are mo- tivated by self-interest (De Clercq & Belausteguigoitia, 2017). Therefore, many employees consider organisation politics to be unhealthy, unprofessional behaviour (Malik et al., 2019). However, these behaviours are sometimes necessary for employees to be rewarded or promoted within the organisation, which in turn affects OCB (Vi- goda-Gadot & Beeri, 2011). Similarly, Abbas and Raja (2014) claimed that Organisational Politics is essential for an organisation’s growth. There is considerable controversy regarding the ef- fects of OP and whether they are fundamentally positive or negative. Shoe et al. (2013), for example, stated that OP effects differ from one culture to another and that OP might be ‘cultural-dependent’. This is because ‘culture’ entails the traditions and norms of any organisation, including ba- sic assumptions that encourage or discourage employees to participate in OCB (Pohl et al., 2019). Moreover, it appears that organisational politics can af- fect OCB, as they can prompt more effort in the workplace. This link is critical, and may be behind the inconsistent results in previous studies (Hsiung et al., 2012). However, we can conceptually trace the connection between the cul- tural dimensions of Hofstede (2001) and OP, as the former can make an excellent environment for employees engag- ing in such political behaviours. The positive outcome of self-serving behaviour (OP) makes employees exert extra effort in the workplace, as they attain rewards and recogni- tion within an organisation by engaging in such behaviour (Khan et al., 2019). To the best of our knowledge, organ- isational politics has never been examined in the banking industry in Jordan. The cultural context of Jordan, as in any other country may play a key role in shaping the compo- sition of both public and private organisations. The tribal system in Jordan is the dominant system in the Parliament, and this may have echoes within private organisations as well (Clark, 2012), To address these gaps, the present study aims to answer the following question: do cultural dimensions make an essential contribution to OCB through POP? To the best of our knowledge, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions have not been explored in relation to Jordan banking industry. Fur- thermore, previous studies on OCB have broadly been con- ducted in both western and eastern contexts (Meynhardt et al., 2020; Miao et al., 2018). Therefore, it is very impor- tant to examine this relationship in a different context (e.g., Jordan) to further clarify the relationship between these cultural dimensions and OCB. Much existing research on OCB has been aimed at psychological empowerment (Abdulrab et al., 2018). Psychological empowerment has also been considered a mediator through which other vari- ables have an effect on OCB. However, findings have been inconsistent regarding this mediator, leading to a call for the consideration of other mediators (Taylor, 2013). There- fore, the present study considered organisational politics as a mediator between the cultural dimension and OCB. This study theorises that OP acts as a mediating variable between organisational culture and OCB. The present study draws upon social exchange theory. The fundamental premise for this is that individuals’ feel- ing towards any relationship rely mainly on the outcome of that relationship. Where organisations and their employees enter into a reciprocal relationship, the organisation needs high performance and loyalty from employees, while the latter desire both tangible and intangible benefits. From the perspective of the social exchange theory, individuals tend to engage in political behaviour to gain the benefits of such behaviour, putting in more effort to obtain better outcomes (Chernyak-Hai & Rabenu, 2018). The main objective for the present study is to build a model and find an empirical and conceptual linkage between the organisational culture dimension and OCB through the mediating effect of organ- isational politics. 2 Literature Review 2.1 Organisational Culture Organisational culture is a broad conceptual landscape. However, organisational culture can range from well- known traditions and norms to sophisticated workplace practices. The culture of any organisation depends upon the philosophy that the organisation adopts, and both of these affect employees’ behaviour unconsciously (Kawia- na et al., 2018). Hofstede (2001) proposed several cultural dimensions - power distance, uncertainty avoidance, collectivism, masculinity-femininity, and short-term vs. long-term ori- entation - to describe organisational culture. Power dis- tance is the extent to which power is distributed among individuals within an organisation (Hofstede, 2001). Un- certainty avoidance is ‘the extent to which the members 38 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situ- ations’ (Minkov & Hofstede, 2011, p.12). Collectivism is the extent to which people prioritise group cohesiveness (Tusar et al., 2016). Masculinity-femininity is concerned with culture rather than gender, in that a ‘masculine’ cul- ture pays attention to performance and outcomes, while a ‘feminine’ culture values the process. Cultures with a short-term orientation operate with a focus on achieving quick results. Long-term cultures, in contrast, focus on balanced development, paying more attention to future re- sults (Bukowski & Rudnicki, 2019). Hofstede Insights (2020) measured the scores for Jordan on each of these dimensions. On the dimension of power distance, Jordan scored 70, meaning that there is an unequal distribution of power among organisation- al members. Jordan scored 65 in uncertainty avoidance, meaning that 65% of Jordanian people feel threatened by the unknown. This may be due to the political situation that exists in the area. Jordan scored 30 in individualism, indicating that Jordanian people prioritise their family, their extended family, and the society around them. Along the same lines, Jordan scored 45 in masculinity, therefore, it is considered to be relatively feminine. Finally, Jordan scored 16 in long-term orientation, indicating that Jordani- ans tend to look for the achievement of quick results. In this paper, we examine these cultural dimensions in the context of the Jordanian banking industry. 2.2 Organisational Politics (OP) As with organisational culture, organisational politics can be defined in a number of ways. However, there are two main perspectives. To emphasise this point, Block (1988, p. 5) stated: ‘If I told you were a very political person, you would take it either as an insult or at best as a mixed blessing’. From the first point of view, political behaviour relates to the broad domain of interpersonal relationships (Aybar & Marsap, 2018). This means that the political be- haviour of employees depends on the situations that they might face within an organisation. For instance, as Fedor et al. (2008) argue, ‘The contribution of positive politics to the predication of employees’ reaction’ means that or- ganisational politics has positive and negative outcomes at each level (i.e., individual, group, and organisation). In the same vein, Drory and Vigoda-Gadot (2011) stress the positive aspects of organisational politics, particularly if one of the employees is acknowledged by his or her team members as being an excellent employee who wants to get promoted. Some aspects of good political behaviour require substantial interpersonal skill. On the other hand, Kacmar and Baron (1999, p.4) de- fine organisational politics as the ‘…actions by individuals which are directed toward the goal of furthering their own self-interest without regard for the well-being of others or their organisation’. In this interpretation, the activities of employees springing from their own self-interest are considered organisational politics in the workplace (Vigo- da-Gadot & Talmud, 2011; Zhang et al. 2019). Similarly, Landells and Albrecht (2017) have stated that examples of organisational politics include ignoring and neglecting the hierarchy in order to obtain promotions, lobbying manag- ers in one’s own self-interest, and obtaining specific tools through inappropriate means. All of these behaviours lead to the subversion of justice and fairness within the organ- isation, since all employees do not have the same political abilities. 2.3 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) Organisational citizenship behaviour was identified by Khan et al. (2019) as essential behaviour for functioning organisations. Organisations cannot rely solely on regular behaviours. The need for innovation and constant change rely on behaviours beyond what is written in job descrip- tions. The need for such extraordinary behaviour is essen- tial, not just for innovation but also for survival (Pohl et al., 2019). OCB can play another role inside organisations: it can actually accommodate social interaction inside an organisation by working as a support system for coopera- tion in the event of contingencies or when seeking change (Haque et al., 2019). OCB reduces conflict and encourages teamwork, thereby increasing organisational effectiveness and productivity (Devece et al., 2016). According to Organ (1997), the dimensions of OCB are altruism, courtesy, cheerleading, peacekeeping, sports- manship, civic virtue, and conscientiousness. Civic virtue and conscientiousness are key to mutual assistance and teamwork in the workplace, improving organisational per- formance. Similarly, the cheerleading, peacekeeping, and sportsmanship dimensions reflect the nature of the rela- tionship among employees. At the same time, altruism and courtesy help prevent any miscommunication and reduce conflict (Arıkoğlu et al., 2019). As Lee and Allen (2002, p.132) state: ‘central to all definitions, however, is the idea that OCBs are employee behaviours that, although not critical to the task or job, serve to facilitate organisational functioning’. 3 Development of Hypothesis If all policies were applied to everyone within an or- ganisation, and individuals were treated fairly, it would be difficult to observe political behaviour. According to Landells and Albrecht (2017), the political behaviour of individuals within an organisation changes according to the management philosophy. This makes organisations un- 39 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers predictable. Consequently, tangible and intangible reward distribution is based on the strength of the relationship with management. Leslie and Gelfand (2012) suggested two main propo- sitions based on Hofstede’s culture theory. The first prop- osition states that OP is socially and culturally embedded, because individuals within organisations have to deal with each other on a daily basis. This leads us to the second proposition, that organisational culture influences OP. In their meta-analysis, Watkin et al. (2014) used a sample of 292 participants to examine the link between perception of uncertainty and OP. They identified a weak correlation be- tween high power distance cultures and OP. These authors found that despite the fact that individuals generally react negatively to OP, people vary in how they perceive OP ac- cording to their culture (Lesli & Gelfand, 2012; Slawinski et al., 2019). Organisations with higher power distance generally accept the chain of command and unequal distributions of power. On the other hand, organisations with low pow- er distance support the concept of empowerment. Under these circumstances, employees do not feel the burden of rules and regulations, which encourages them to engage in political behaviour (Elbana, 2016). In the same way, masculine organisations are directed towards achieve- ment and competition, therefore there is a higher chance that members of an organisation will act politically in the workplace, due to the heated competition and having to accomplish the required tasks in one way or another (Ka- wiana et al., 2018). Similarly, a person in an individualistic culture stands for ‘I’ more than ‘We’. Employees perceive that people engage in political behaviour when they work hard in their own self-interest. Conversely, in a collectivist culture, employees are very cooperative with each other, tending to support and help their colleagues or subordi- nates. People do not prioritise their own self-interest in the workplace, so there is little opportunity for political be- haviour (Bukowski & Rudnicki, 2019). Based on this, we hypothesise that: H1: Cultural dimensions have a significant relationship with organisational politics. H1a: Power distance has a significant relationship with organisational politics. H1b: Masculinity has a significant relationship with organisational politics. H1c: Uncertainty avoidance has a significant relation- ship with organisational politics. H1d: Collectivism has a significant relationship with organisational politics. Previous studies on OP have examined it in terms of negative organisational outcomes such as stress lev- els (Yang, 2019), work tension (Meisler & Vigoda-Gad- ot, 2014), and employee turnover (Rizwan et al., 2019). High OP is associated with negative behaviour on the part of employees within the workplace (e.g., employee absenteeism, intention to quit, and employee resentment). Moreover, several studies have found a strong connec- tion between OP and negative employee outcomes such as absenteeism, intention to leave, and employee turnover (Hsiung et al., 2012; Yang, 2019). Furthermore, employ- ee with high political behaviour can be harmful and have a negative effect on group unity within an organisation, potentially encouraging employees to work in their own personal interest (Rizwan et al., 2019). Hence, it is expect- ed that a high level of perceived OP will have a negative influence on OCB. A growing body of literature on how employees per- ceive political behaviour does indeed demonstrate a nega- tive association with OCB (Lau et al., 2017). On the other hand, few studies claimed that organiza- tional politics accompanied with positive outcomes. Solís and Monroy (2015), for example, argue that individuals within organisations might engage in political behaviour and produce a positive organisational outcome if OP is the best way to get things done. Along the same lines, Fedor et al. (2008, p.78) state: ‘what may make political (i.e., non-normative, self-serving) behaviours positive is the ex- tent to which these self-serving behaviours are considered as legitimate or consistent with goals that enhance organ- isational effectiveness.’ However, despite this argument regarding the possible positive influence of OP on OCB, the majority of the literature has examined the dark side of political behaviour (for example Khan et al., 2019; Malik et al., 2019). Based on the research reviewed above, we expect OP to have a direct negative effect on OCB. Thus, we hypoth- esise that: Hypothesis 2: Organisational politics has a negative influence on OCB. Previous studies have examined the influence of fac- tors mediating between organisational culture and OCB. Farzaneh et al. (2014), for example, found that empow- erment, trust, organisational support, and organisational justice mediate the relationship between organisational culture and OCB. Procedural justice and employee com- mitment have also been found to be mediating factors be- tween organisational culture and OCB (Chun et al., 2013). To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, the relationship between Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and POP has not been explored in detail in the literature As discussed above, organisations with low power distance tend to empower their employees. This increases the opportunities for them to engage in political behaviour (Elbana, 2016). This engagement in such behaviour will affects employees OCB (Lau et al., 2017). In the same way, Malik et al. (2019) proposed that individualistic or- ganisations that support ‘I’ more than ‘We’ - in other words ‘competition’ - have employees who might act politically in order to achieve some personal goal. This leads us to 40 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers believe that employee perceptions of political behaviour may affect OCB. Therefore, we hypothesise: Hypothesis 3: Perceived organisational politics medi- ates the relationship between organisational cultural di- mensions and OCB. 4 Methods 4.1 Participant and Data Collection Procedure The present study was conducted in the banking in- dustry in Amman, Jordan. Banking industry in Jordan in- cludes 25 banks (16 national and 9 foreign). The research team obtained a permission to disrepute the survey in 15 banks (all located in the capital city Amman). According- ly, participants were senior-level employees at 15 banks. These participants worked in different departments (e.g., clearing, risk management, sales and marketing, loans and credit). Those employees were chosen based upon con- venience sampling. This sampling method is considered suitable for exploratory studies as there are no intention to achieve generalization or representativeness (Cohen et al., 2017). This study is exploratory as it aims to explore the relationship between organisational culture and organ- isational citizenship behaviour through how employees perceive political behaviour within organisations. Sub- sequently, convenience sampling was recognized to be proper for this purpose of this study. The research team contacted the Human Resources department at each bank to obtain a list of employee contacts. We sent an email with a URL survey link to a total of 720 employees, attaching a letter that assured confidentiality. The HR department in each bank also sent an email to encourage employees to respond to the survey. Data was collected in the period between October 2019 and December 2019. The survey was comprised of three parts (see Appendix for details). The first part addressed organisational culture, the second addressed perceived organisational politics (POP), and the final part addressed organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB). The response rate was 76% (543 respondents). Of these responses, 532 were usable for further analysis. The respondents’ average age was 31.4 years. Of the 532 usa- ble responses, 62% came from male employees. The or- ganisational tenure of the respondents was 4.4 years on av- erage. In terms of educational level, 79% held a Bachelor’s degree, 15% held a Master’s degree, and 6% held a PhD. 4.2 Measures The questionnaire was translated from English to Ara- bic and back-translated to English. Hence translation and back-translation were undertaken (Brislin, 1980). The present study used a five-point Likert scale: strongly dis- agree = 1, disagree = 2, neutral = 3, agree = 4, strongly agree = 5. 4.2.1 Organisational Culture In terms of organisational culture, we used measures suggested by Hofstede (2001). For this construct, 16 items were used with four different subscales: 1) Power distance (α = 0.91), 2) uncertainty avoidance (α = 0.94), 3) collec- tivism (α = 0.93), and 4) masculinity vs. femininity (α = 0.92). The reliability of the 18 items was 0.81. Examples of the items were: ‘My manager makes most decisions without consulting subordinates’, ‘I would be willing to consider taking a new and comparable job if it were of- fered today or tomorrow’, and ‘I would not get the proper opportunity if I left my current organisation’. 4.2.2 Organisational Politics (OP) The present study has adopted a shorter version of the scale created by Kacmar and Ferris (1991) and further de- veloped by Kacmar and Carlson (1997). This scale has five items that measure the perception of employees towards OP. Examples of the items include: ‘Favoritism rather than merit determines who gets ahead around here’ and ‘There is a group of people in my department who always get things their way because no one wants to challenge them.’ The reliability coefficient was 0.90. 4.2.3 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) We used eight items to measure OCB with a scale de- veloped by Lee and Allen (2002). Examples of the items are: ‘Attends functions that are not required but that help the organisational image’ ‘Helps others who have been ab- sent’ and ‘Assists supervisor with his/her work (when not asked)’. The reliability for this scale was 0.88. 5 Data Analysis A two-step approach was employed to analyse the data: 1) a measurement model to ensure the validity of the research instrument, and 2) a structural path analysis. 5.1 Measurement Model Two validity tests were conducted to evaluate the measurement model in terms of 1) convergent validity and 2) discriminant validity. 41 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 5.1.1 Convergent Validity Convergent validity is usually established by assessing the loadings of the measurements used, the composite re- liability, and the average variance extracted (AVE) (Hair et al., 2013). As indicated in Table 1, the loadings of each construct’s items were all above 0.708, the composite reli- ability of all constructs exceeded 0.7, and the AVE values of all constructs were higher than the recommended coef- ficient of 0.5. The cross-loading of all construct indicators was evaluated. Table 1 shows that the loadings of each construct’s indicators were substantially higher than their cross-loadings with other constructs, confirming the dis- criminant validity of the dataset (as per Wang et al., 2015). Additionally, the internal consistency of all constructs was measured using Cronbach’s Alpha (α). As demonstrated in Table 1, Cronbach’s Alpha for all constructs was above 0.7, showing that the constructs are internally consistent. 5.1.2 Discriminant Validity Fornell-Larcker’s (1981) criterion was used to assess discriminant validity. To confirm discriminant validity, the squared root of the AVE value for each construct must be higher than the construct’s correlations with other con- structs. As can be seen in Table 2, the square root of the AVE value for each construct is significantly higher than the construct’s correlation with any other construct, indi- cating discriminant validity. Table 1: Convergent Validity “Cross Loading” Cross-loading Construct CR AVE Item Construct COL MAS OCB POP POW UA Power Distance (POW) 0.94 0.80 POW1 0.90 0.36 0.34 0.55 -0.03 0.39 POW2 0.91 0.32 0.43 0.56 0.07 0.39 POW3 0.88 0.29 0.32 0.53 0.17 0.41 POW4 0.88 0.28 0.30 0.56 0.16 0.43 M a s c u l i n i t y (MAS) 0.96 0.88 MAS1 0.34 0.90 0.29 0.40 0.17 0.34 MAS2 0.32 0.97 0.31 0.40 0.16 0.39 MAS3 0.38 0.92 0.34 0.44 0.21 0.38 MAS4 0.29 0.95 0.32 0.39 0.18 0.41 Organisational Citizenship Be- haviour (OCB) 0.92 0.60 OCB1 0.45 0.25 0.81 0.45 0.06 0.37 OCB2 0.42 0.25 0.83 0.44 0.09 0.4 OCB3 0.28 0.28 0.79 0.35 0.07 0.21 OCB4 0.3 0.23 0.73 0.28 0.07 0.29 OCB5 0.24 0.27 0.76 0.26 0.1 0.31 OCB6 0.20 0.32 0.74 0.27 0.1 0.21 OCB7 0.23 0.21 0.76 0.27 0.12 0.3 OCB8 0.24 0.29 0.77 0.31 0.12 0.22 Organisational Politics (OP) 0.94 0.78 OP1 0.48 0.37 0.42 0.87 0.11 0.58 OP2 0.55 0.35 0.40 0.87 0.15 0.61 OP3 0.57 0.39 0.37 0.92 0.04 0.54 OP4 0.51 0.37 0.42 0.87 0.01 0.46 OP5 0.65 0.43 0.36 0.87 -0.04 0.49 42 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers C o l l e c t i v i s m (COL) 0.97 0.90 COL1 0.09 0.19 0.08 0.06 0.96 0.28 COL2 0.09 0.14 0.11 0.04 0.94 0.26 COL3 0.11 0.17 0.09 0.06 0.95 0.3 COL4 0.1 0.20 0.14 0.06 0.95 0.25 U n c e r t a i n t y Avoidance (UA) 0.95 0.84 UA1 0.41 0.39 0.38 0.55 0.37 0.93 UA2 0.39 0.37 0.39 0.53 0.31 0.95 UA3 0.46 0.33 0.29 0.604 0.08 0.88 UA4 0.38 0.37 0.34 0.51 0.31 0.91 Table 1: Convergent Validity “Cross Loading” (continues) CR: Composite Reliability, AVE: Average Variance Extracted * Questionnaire items are presented in the Appendix Table 2: Discriminant Validity Correlation (*square root of AVE for each construct) Construct AVE MAS POW OCB POP COL UA MAS 0.88 0.93* POW 0.80 0.36 0.89* OCB 0.60 0.34 0.40 0.77* POP 0.78 0.44 0.62 -0.46 0.88* COL 0.90 0.19 0.10 0.11 -0.06 0.94* UA 0.84 0.40 0.45 0.38 0.61 0.29 0.91* 5.2 Structural Model This stage was performed using the SmartPlus3 soft- ware package. Before proceeding to examine the proposed paths, the fit indices of the research model were exam- ined. Three indices were used to measure goodness of fit, including the Normed Fit Index (NFI), the Standardised Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), and the exact model fit (bootstrapped based on statistical inference). The results indicate that the values of NFI = 0.9422 (> 0.9) ¸ SRMR = 0.037 (< 0.08) and the dULS < bootstrapped HI 95% of dULS and dG < bootstrapped HI 95% of dG. These results are all within the values recommended by Ramayah et al. (2017). It can be concluded that the data fits the research model. As demonstrated in Figure 1, the four dimensions of organisational culture explained 55% (R2 = 0.55) of the variance in perceived organisational politics (OP). Addi- tionally, OP explained 20.1% (R2 = 0.201) of the variance in organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB). In terms of the path analysis, power distance (POW) had the strong- est significant positive effect on OP (β = 0.399, t = 30.7), while masculinity (MAS) had the weakest significant posi- tive effect on OP (β = 0.159, t = 12). Uncertainty avoidance (UA) had a significant positive effect on OP (β = 0.396, t = 26.3). The only significant negative effect on OP came from collectivism (COL) (β = - 0.123, t = 13). Finally, POP had a significant negative effect on the organisational citi- zenship behaviour (OCB) (β = - 0.448, t = 42.1). 5.3 Mediation Analysis A Sobel (1982) test was performed to examine whether POP mediates the relationship between organisational cul- ture dimensions and OCB. As shown in Table 3, the find- ings of the Sobel test indicate that all effects of organisa- tional culture dimensions on OCB are mediated by POP. In other words, POP carries the effects of the organisational culture dimensions on OCB to a significant degree. 43 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Figure 1: Structural Model (Path Analysis) Table 3: Mediation Test Independent Variable Mediator Dependent Variable t-statistic P-value UA POP OCB 5.7 <0.0001 COL POP OCB 4.4 <0.0001 MAS POP OCB 4.9 <0.0001 PD POP OCB 5.3 <0.0001 6 Discussion 6.1 Theoretical implications This study contributes to existing research on how or- ganization politics leads employees to have lower OCB (Khan et al., 2019). It examines how organisational culture affects organisational citizenship through perceived or- ganisational politics, given that previous studies regarding organisational culture and OCB have shown inconsistent and unsatisfying results (Hsiung et al., 2012). Three major hypotheses were formulated to examine the relationship among variables. All of the hypotheses were supported by the results of the structural modelling, as shown above, which provides more validation and expands the scope of research on this topic. In contrast with the organisational culture relationships investigated in previous studies (Watkin et al., 2014; Elba- na, 2016), the present study considered OP as a mediator variable, answering calls for this in previous research (e.g. Taylor, 2013). In the current study, we provide a mediating model based on OP and link these dimensions together for the first time. As shown in Figure 1, the findings demonstrate a positive relationship between Hofstede’s (2001) cultural dimensions and OP. Of these dimensions, power distance had the strongest effect on OP, consistent with the results of previous studies (Elbana, 2016). Uncertainty avoidance also demonstrated a positive effect on OP, consistent with the results of Slawinski et al. (2019). Masculinity had the weakest effect on OP, supporting the result in Hofstede Insight (2020) that Jordanian society tends to be more feminine. Collectivism had a negative relationship with OP, which can be explained by the tendency of employees in Jordan to encourage relationships in which every indi- vidual in a group takes responsibility for their colleagues (Hofstede Insight, 2020). In sum, the study found that or- ganisational culture does have an impact on OP. To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, this is the first time that the relationship has been examined in Jordan, providing in- sight into these phenomena within a new cultural context. 44 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers As shown in Figure 1, POP has a negative effect on OCB. This finding is consistent with previous studies (e.g. Abbas et al., 2014; Malik et al., 2019). This provides fur- ther validation of the findings, responding to calls to ex- amine this relationship in different contexts, with a larger sample size, and a research design that covers more than one organisation (De Clerq et al., 2017). This finding gives an indication of the damaging impact of POP on favoura- ble work outcomes in terms of OCB within organisations. Finally, previous studies have shown inconsistency in terms of how organisational culture can impact OCB (Hsi- ung et al., 2012; Newman et al., 2017). The present study gives us increased insight into the relationship between or- ganisational culture and OCB and forms a foundation for potential future research. This study could be replicated in organisations in neighbouring Arab countries in an attempt to find out more about how values might differ from one culture to another. 6.2 Practical implications This study has important implications for our under- standing of how employees behave within a certain cultur- al setting, making it useful in a work context. Understand- ing employee behaviour in terms of cultural dimensions may provide more guidance on how to encourage certain behaviours on the part of employees, for example by using more appropriate and effective policies and strategies. The cultural dimensions we examined had important implica- tions for organisations to consider when managing em- ployees in Jordan. For example, the dimensions of uncer- tainty avoidance and power distance were found to be of greater importance than the others in terms of how Jorda- nian employees perceive OP. Managers need to be aware of how to direct their strategies to improve the behaviour of their employees and enhance effectiveness in general (Pohl et al., 2019). The results of the study showed a neg- ative relationship between POP and OCB. Consequently, management within an organisation should pay attention to the destructive effect that OP has on employees and at- tempt to reduce such behaviour within organisations. 6.3 Limitations There are several limitations to this research. First of all, the present study is a cross-sectional study, which weakens the evidence of any relationship between the var- iables considered in the study. Therefore, we suggest that future research use a longitudinal design in order to cap- ture the whole picture of such relationships. Furthermore, we have targeted a particular Jordanian industry, limiting the study to Jordanian employees in the banking sector. These employees are from the same area (Amman) and share similar circumstances and a similar work culture. This means that the generalisability of the findings may be limited. Therefore, further research is recommended in a different industry. It would also be beneficial to conduct more research using the same variables in a neighbouring country to provide more validation for the model. Final- ly, further research is suggested using dependent variables other than organisational citizenship behaviour (e.g. em- ployee creativity). 7 Conclusion The key question in the present study was as follows: do cultural dimensions make an essential contribution to OCB through affecting POP? In answering this question, the study has responded to calls to examine the relationship between POP and OCB in different contexts, as well as to consider POP as a mediating variable. The relationships associated with organisational culture were tested, with four dimensions examined to find out more about the im- pact of organisational culture on the way in which employ- ees perceive organisational politics. The results showed that some dimensions, such as uncertainty avoidance and power distance, had a stronger effect on how employees perceive organisational polities than other dimensions. Collectivism demonstrated a negative relationship with OP, as people in Jordan tend to work in groups and take responsibilities for their colleagues in the workplace. This helps us to determine which factors really matter when it comes to dealing with organisational politics. The study examined how perceived organisational pol- itics can mediate the relationship between organisational culture and organisational citizenship behaviour, with OP found to have a negative effect on OCB. 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Differenc- es between national cultures matter – case of Slove- nian-Korean working environment. Organizacija, 49(3), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1515/orga-2016- 0017 Vigoda-Gadot, E., & Beeri, I. (2011). Change-Oriented organizational citizenship behavior in public admin- istration: The power of leadership and the cost of or- ganizational politics. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 22(3), 573–596. https://doi. org/10.1093/jopart/mur036 Wang, X., French, B. F., & Clay, P. F. (2015). Convergent and discriminant validity with formative measure- ment: A mediator perspective. Journal of Modern Ap- plied Statistical Methods, 14(1), 83–106. https://doi. 47 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers org/10.22237/jmasm/1430453400 Yang, F. (2016). Better understanding the perceptions of organizational politics: Its impact under different types of work unit structure. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 26(2), 250–262. https:// doi.org/10.1080/1359432x.2016.1251417 Zhang, Q., Sun, S., Zheng, X., & Liu, W. (2019). The role of cynicism and personal traits in the organizational political climate and sustainable creativity. Sustain- ability, 11(1), 257. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010257 Amro Al-Madadha holds a PhD in Management from Cardiff Metropolitan University – United Kingdom, he holds an MBA from New York Institute of Technology. His B.Sc. in Banking Management from Hashemite University Currently, Dr Al-Madadha teaches at Princess Sumaya University for Technology (PSUT) and he is the Vice Dean for King Talal School of Business Technology. Amro’s research focuses on leadership, empowerment, creativity, organizational behavior and human resource management. His research has been published at several international journals. Ahmad Samed Al-Adwan, PhD, is the Vice Dean for academic affairs and an Associate Prof. of Electronic Business and Commerce, Business School, at Al- Ahliyya Amman University, Jordan. He holds a Ph.D. in Management Information Systems Studies/E-business, and M.Sc. in Information Technology Management from the University of Wales, UK. He is particularly interested in using management information systems to inform long-lasting developments in ICTs. His research interests include user acceptance of ICT and information systems, modelling ICT, e-learning, SME, management information systems. Fida Amin Zakzouk is a faculty member at King Talal School of Business and Technology-Business Administration Department, Princess Sumaya University of Technology Amman, Jordan. She earned her Bachelor’s degree in Accounting from Mutah University, Jordan. In 2011 Fida earned her MBA degree in Management, from Strayer University, USA. Mrs. Fida has over 10 years of practical experience in Management and over 6 years in Academia, which enabled her to offer students more than just a traditional lecture. Organizacijska kultura in obnašanje v dobrobit organizacija: temna stran organizacijske politike Ozadje in namen: Organizacijska politika lahko bistveno negativno vpliva na uspešnost zaposlenih, vendar številne organizacije še vedno niso pozorne na to možnost organizacijskega vedenja. V naši študiji želimo raziskati razmerje med organizacijsko kulturo in obnašanjem v dobrobit organizacije upoštevajoč, kako zaposleni dojemajo politično vedenje v organizacijah. Metode: Uporabljena je bila tehnika enostavnega vzorčenja, kvantitativni podatki so bili zbrani od 532 zaposlenih v jordanski bančni industriji s pomočjo spletnih anket. Za preizkušanje hipotez študije smo uporabili modeliranje strukturnih enačb (SEM). Rezultati: Organizacijska kultura v bančništvu vpliva na to, kako zaposleni dojemajo politično vedenje. Negativno dojemanje političnega vedenja zaposlenih pa negativno vpliva na vedenje zaposlenih v dobrobit organizacije. Naše ugotovitve so odgovor na zaključke in predloge drugih raziskav, ki pozivajo, da se bolje prouči škodljive vplive orga- nizacijske politike na rezultate zaposlenih. Zaključek: Organizacije bi morale biti bolj pozorne na škodljive učinke organizacijske politike in poskušati takšno vedenje čim bolj zmanjšati. V nasprotju s tem, vedenje v dobrobit organizaciji koristi organizacijski uspešnosti, zato ga je treba izboljšati z izvajanjem učinkovitejših politik in strategij. Ključne besede: Organizacijska kultura; Zaznana organizacijska politika; Obnašanje v dobrobit organizacije. 48 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Appendix: List of Measurement Items Organizational Culture 1- POW: Power Distance POW1: My manager makes most decisions without consulting subordinates. POW2: My manager uses authority and power when dealing with subordinates POW3: My Manager rarely ask for the opinions of employees. POW4: I should not disagree with management decisions. 2- UA: Uncertainty Avoidance UN1: It is important for me to have job requirements and instructions spelled out in detail so that I always know what I am expected to do. UN2: I am willing to consider taking a new and comparable job if it is offered today or tomorrow. UN3: Rules and regularities are important because they inform me about what the organization expects of me. UN4: I would not get the proper opportunity, if I left my current organization. 3- MAS: Masculinity MAS1: Meetings are usually run more effectively when they are chaired by a man. MAS2: It is more important for men to have a professional career than it is for women to have a professional career. MAS3: Men usually solve problems with logical analysis; women usually solve problems with intuition. MAS4: Solving organizational problems usually requires an active, forcible approach which is typical of men. 4- COL: Collectivism COL1: Group welfare is more important than individual rewards. COL2: Group success is more important than individual success. COL3: Being accepted by the members of your workgroup is very important. COL4: I pursue my goals after considering the welfare of the group. Organisational Politics OP1: People in this organization attempt to build themselves up by tearing others down. OP2: Favoritism rather than merit determines who gets ahead around here. OP3: There is a group of people in my department who always get things their way because no one wants to challenge them. OP4: - Good ideas are desired even if it means disagreeing with superiors. OP5: Agreeing with powerful others is the best alternative in this organization. Organisational Citizenship Behavior OCB1: - I help others who have been absent. OCB2: I willingly give my time to help others who have work-related problems. OCB3: I adjust my work schedule to accommodate other employees’ requests for time off. OCB4: I go out of the way to make newer employees feel welcome in the work group. OCB5: I Show genuine concern and courtesy toward co-workers, even under the most trying business or personal situations. OCB6: Assists supervisor with his/her work (when not asked). OCB7: I assist others with their duties. OCB8: Attend functions that are not required but that help the organizational image. 49 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 1 Received: 12th July 2020; revised: 29th November 2020; accepted: 22th December 2020 Job Burnout and Counterproductive Work Behaviour of the Jordanian Bank Employees Tareq LUBBADEH University of Pécs, Faculty of Business and Economics, Pécs, Hungary, Tareq.lubbadeh@yahoo.com Background/Purpose: This study investigated the relationship between job burnout and counterproductive work behavior (CWB) among 307 employees drawn from various banks within Jordan. This study also examined the levels of job burnout and CWB with regard to gender, age, marital status, and education. Methodology: For data collection, the convenience sampling method is utilized to survey frontline bank employees. The Oldenburg Burnout Inventory scale, which assesses exhaustion, disengagement, and the CWB scale from the Individual Work Performance Questionnaire (IWPQ), were used for data collection. The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science 25.0. Results: The study results suggest that there is a significant positive relationship between job burnout two dimen- sions and CWB. The research also shows that age, education, and marital status affect both job burnout and CWB. Nevertheless, gender was found to have a significant effect only on the disengagement dimension of job burnout. Further, the study implies that exhaustion and disengagement are vital predictors influencing CWB. Conclusion: With regard to the results, the phenomena of job burnout provide the means that can provoke deviant behavior in the workplace. Keywords: Job burnout, Exhaustion, Counterproductive work behavior, Bank employees, OLBI DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0004 1 Introduction Banking industries have undergone a number of dra- matic changes in management and structure over the last few years, such as introducing new technology and methods of structuring the process, which affected the working conditions and the employees’ daily lives. The financial industry now is more customer-oriented, offer- ing convenience, quality of service, and creative service. Bank workers perform an essential role in providing high service quality. These advancements generate a great deal of stress for those who work in the banking sector (Giorgi et al., 2017). The banking sector jobs have been highly valued out from a social, financial, and economic viewpoint. In recent years, nonetheless, this situation has changed drastically for many reasons; for example, the size of these financial institutions has shrunk, resulting in massive layoffs, increased pressure, increased demand and competition in daily work, or consumer hostility towards employees who are blamed for selling financial products that lead to large losses (Amigo et al., 2014). These chang- es created an environment of sensitivity among the bank’s staff, which sharpened their work context, and individual- ly reinforced the tendency to feel overwhelmed, and thus, counterproductive work behavior. Originally, job burnout was conceived as being pri- marily related to professions of the human service (e.g., physicians, nurses, and teachers), as they are presumed to be most vulnerable to emotional stimuli because their roles require a great deal of interaction with people. Nev- ertheless, more recent research has shown that job burnout 50 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers is not constrained undecidedly to these occupations but also expanded to other professions (e.g., managers, bank employees, and HR workers) (Demerouti et al., 2001; Maslach, 2006; Prusik & Szulawski, 2019). Job burnout is described here as a consequence of con- stant exposure to work-related stress caused by high job requirements and insufficient job resources and consists of two fundamental dimensions exhaustion and disengage- ment from work (Demerouti et al., 2014). Exhaustion is described as a response to the intense physical, affective, and cognitive strain due to increased exposure to specif- ic demands at work. Disengagement involves distancing oneself from work and developing a negative attitude regarding the work context due to the inadequacy in the job resources (Demerouti et al., 2001). Job burnout has been associated with various adverse individual and or- ganizational outcomes. For instance, burnout employees have a higher intention to leave their jobs (Maslach et al., 2001; Vaamonde et al., 2018; Wen et al., 2020), absentee- ism (Dyrbye et al., 2019; Lubbadeh, 2020), job attitudes (Laschinger & Fida, 2014), lower task and contextual job performance (Bakker et al., 2004; Demerouti et al., 2014), and counterproductive work behavior (CWB) (Ugwu et al., 2017; Makhdoom et al., 2019). Job burnout dimen- sions were also linked with numerous health and mental problems such as headaches, cardiovascular problems, in- somnia, and depression (Armon, 2009; Leiter et al., 2013). Accordingly, job burnout may influence the organiza- tional outcomes negatively by counterproductive work be- haviors (CWB) - refers to “voluntary behavior that harms the well-being of the organization.” (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002, p. 69). Damaging an organization’s property, with- drawal, gossiping, complaining, insulting others, harassing behaviors, and theft are examples of CWB. These behav- iors are damaging to the organization either by impacting its activity or assets directly or negatively influencing the employees in ways that decrease their efficacy. Counter- productive work behaviors have substantial financial con- sequences for the organizations; according to Bennett and Robinson (2000), 33% to 75% of all U.S. employees have been involved in different forms of Workplace deviance behaviors. Additionally, the predicted cost of CWB for organizations exceeds $1 trillion distributed on deviation behaviors such as theft, violence in the workplace, and fraudulent activities (Banks et al., 2012; Smoktunowicz et al., 2015). CWB is not only costly for the organizations, but further has various adverse outcomes for employees. For example, employees who are a victim of CWB (e.g., bullying and harassment) can lead to reduced job satisfac- tion, prolonged stress, and quitting intentions, among oth- ers (Berry et al., 2012). Considering such high costs, both for organizations and workers, it is crucial for company leaders to consider and anticipate who is most likely to participate in such behavior (Cohen, 2016). In light of this, the main objectives of the present study are to investigate the relationship between job burnout and counterproductive work behavior (CWB) among bank employees by analyzing their opinions. The research also explored several determinants, such as gender, age, marital status, and education, and their influences on the relation- ship between job burnout and CWB. This study presents research contributions in various fundamental ways. First, this investigation continues previous research on the rela- tionship between job burnout and CWB. Second, despite the presence of vast literature on job burnout and CWB, these relationships have not been examined much in the banking sector. Therefore, examining these relationships may increase managerial awareness of the causes of job burnout, CWB, and its negative impact on organizations and individuals, as well as to advance prevention and protection strategies. Third, in the study, job burnout and CWB were studied in the Jordanian setting, which is rarely examined. It is necessary to investigate job burnout and CWB in different contexts to see whether the indicators of this behavior act in other societies differently. Finally, the current study by examining job burnout and its rela- tionship to the CWB of the front office officers in Jordan’s banking sector contributes to the field of HRM. The rest of the article is displayed as follows. Chapter 2 outlines the literature review, whereas Chapter 3 describes the research hypothesis. In Chapter 4, the study meth- odology is specified, while Chapter 5 displays the study results—finally, Chapter 6 closing the paper with a Con- clusion, contribution, and possible future research studies. 2 Literature Review 2.1 Theoretical overview CWB is an essential subject to study because it carries negative implications and consequences for organizations and employees themselves (Banks et al., 2012). For ex- ample, deviant work behaviors destabilize the organiza- tion’s internal performance and create high costs due to lost productivity. These behaviors may also directly affect employee performance evaluation and career development (De Clercq et al., 2019). CWB is composed of intentional behavior displayed by employees intended to harm organ- izations and their stakeholders (e.g., customers, co-work- ers, and supervisors) (Spector & Fox, 2005). Sackett and DeVore (2002) describe CWB as deliberate behavior by an organization member, which the organization deems to be contrary to its legitimate interests. CWB has been abstracted in several ways, such as aggression (Spector et al., 2006) and workplace deviance (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). Deviance is a distinct form of CWB; Robinson and Bennett (1995) defined it as “voluntary behavior that vi- 51 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers olates significant organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well-being of an organization, its members, or both.”(p 556). Bennett and Robinson (2000) distin- guished between two types of deviance, organizational deviance directed at the organization (e.g., withholding effort) while the other interpersonal deviance is directed at individuals working in the organization (e.g., behaving indecently toward co-workers). The stressor-emotion model of CWB (Spector & Fox, 2005) may be used to illustrate the process that contributes to CWB. The model suggests that stressful work conditions may provoke the employees’ negative feelings and their perception of limited control over the situation, which in turn contributes to CWB. According to their model, CWB reflects the employees’ responses to a stressful work envi- ronment as a way to deal with the impediment arising from work. In support of this line of thinking, using the bank employees as a case (Cruz-Santiago et al., 2020) affirmed that employees working in the banking sector experience stress, overburdened, work routine, and disappointment with their work creating emotional, and physical strain which can lead to job burnout. In fact, there is much litera- ture indicating how stressful and challenging is that work- ing in the banking sector can be. For example, working in the banking sector has the distinction of being one of the most challenging and demanding business environments, with excessive work-load, ambiguity, unattainable job re- sources, and constant contact with clients (Giorgi et al., 2017; Rehman et al., 2015; Socorro et al., 2016). These make the banking sector workers more susceptible to job burnout’s adverse influence and, by extension, CWB. The Job Demand-Resources (JD-R) model (Demerou- ti et al., 2001) can illustrate how job burnout can lead to CWB. The (JD-R) model assumes that job characteristics can be classified into two classes (job demands and job resources) associated with job burnout dimensions ex- haustion and disengagement. Job demands refer to work factors such as (physical work-load, time pressure, and re- cipient interaction) that require constant energy from the employee; hence, if the job demands are remarkably high or inadequately designed could point to the exhaustion di- mension. Conversely, job resources associate with factors such as (rewards, safety at work, career opportunities, and support), which are required to deal with job demands, the absence of job resources could point to job burnout’s disengagement dimension (Demerouti et al., 2001, 2005). Based on the JD-R model, we reason that high job require- ments accompanied by a scarcity of work resources can strengthen the employees’ exhaustion and disengagement, which produces the necessary levels of fatigue and with- drawal for CWB to develop. 2.2 Job Burnout and CWB The intriguing relationship between job burnout and counterproductive work behavior (CWB) has been ex- plored in various occupational groups, and different expla- nations for the relationship were advanced. For example, Mulki, Jaramillo, and Locander (2006) found that emo- tionally exhausted employees become less satisfied with their jobs and become less devoted to the organization, which leads to deviant behaviors. However, the research- ers only investigated the relationship between emotional exhaustion and workplace deviance. In comparison, Liang and Hsieh (2007) investigated the relationship between job burnout and workplace deviance behavior (as part of the work performance) of 303 Taiwanese flight attendants. The authors hypothesized a positive relationship between the job burnout dimensions (emotional exhaustion, dep- ersonalization, reduced personal accomplishment) and workplace deviance. The study found that only job burnout dimensions depersonalization was a significant predictor of deviant behavior in the workplace. That being said, the researchers observed no meaningful relationship between the other two dimensions of job burnout and the employ- ees’ deviant behavior. The authors argued that a lack of emotional resources and high emotional demands at work could lead to emotional exhaustion then depersonalization, which may lead to deviant behavior in the workplace. In a comparable study that examined the relationship be- tween job burnout and CWB (Bolton et al., 2011) found that employees who reported being depersonalized were more prone to display CWB. However, they explained that exhausting the employee’s emotional resources could lead to an increase in his sense of depersonalization, which in turn leads to an increased probability of the employee to participate in behaviors that harm the organization. Banks et al. (2012) explore the relationship between emotional exhaustion and CWB targeted at the individual (CWB-I) and the organization (CWB-O) among a sample of bank employees working in South Korea. The study re- ported a significant positive relationship between emotion- al exhaustion and CWB through a decline in the employ- ees’ commitment toward the organization. The authors note that employees’ attitudes and expectations directly impact their behaviors rather than job stressors and per- sonal strains. Employees become emotionally exhausted, their exchange with the organization becomes less favora- ble, and they are more likely to lower their overall lev- els of commitment, which can increase CWB. Moreover, Uchenna (2013) examined the significance of perceived organizational support, job burnout, and age on counter- productive work activity between employees employed in the hospitality and healthcare sectors. The study found that there was a significant negative relationship between perceived organizational support and CWB. The study 52 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers also conveyed that employees who reported job burnout demonstrated a higher tendency to participate in counter- productive work behavior than employees who did not re- port job burnout. The study as well found that age has no significant influence on displaying CWB between employ- ees. The results indicate that employees were more will- ing to display harmful behaviors if they realized that the support they received from the organization was limited. In contrast, when the employees perceive that the organi- zation’s support is favorable and discretionary, they were less prone to engage in CWBs (Uchenna, 2013). In their study, Smoktunowicz et al. (2015) examined the relationship between job burnout two dimensions (ex- haustion and disengagement) and CWB among 607 police officers using the job demands, control, support model, and the conservation of resources model (COR). The study found that job burnout moderates the relationship between job demands and CWB. However, they explained that the relationship between job burnout and deviant behavior might be based on the chain reactions from job demands to CWBs. High job demands in the workplace may limit the employees’ job resources and lead to exhaustion and dis- engagement from work. In response, the employees may channel their work hours to CWBs rather than behaviors that follow the organization’s interest in maintaining their resources. With respect to healthcare professionals, Ugwu et al. (2017) investigated the relationship between job burnout and CWB among 401 nurses working in several hospitals in Nigeria. The uniqueness of this study is that it found a relationship between the three job burnout dimensions (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment) and counterproductive work behavior. The authors concluded that stressful work environments with long hours of work could deplete nurses’ emotional resources and lead them to experience disconnection from their work and patients, thus increasing CWB opportuni- ties. In their research, Shkoler and Tziner (2017) found in a sample drawing from different sectors that burning out employees engage in more misbehavior (WMBs) as coping mechanisms for developing a sense of emotional stability subjugating negative feelings at work. More re- cently, Lebrón et al. (2018) found that employees who de- scribed being emotionally exhausted were more likely to display organizational deviance behavior. According to the authors, emotionally depleted employees may think that they do not receive adequate compensation for their work. As a consequence, they may try to rectify the situation by engaging in organizational deviations. In a related study that investigated the relationship between job burnout and different forms of CWB (with- drawal, abuse, and sabotage), Makhdoom, Atta, and Malik (2019) found that reduced personal accomplishment and depersonalization significantly predict withdrawal and sabotage. However, the researchers found that emotional exhaustion was not a significant predictor of sabotage and withdrawal. The researcher justifies these results based on the suggestion of Maslach et al. (2001) that emotional ex- haustion is more related to the social conflict that might result in abuse instead of the lack of resources that might result in sabotaging the organization’s assets. The majority of the previous studies that investigated the relationship between job burnout and CWB focused on different occupations. Nevertheless, studies among bank employees are limited in general and, expressly, in the Jor- danian context. Job burnout and CWB dramatically influence the type of work in which the employee is involved. The relation- ship between job burnout and CWB is substantial. Overall, job burnout can lead to a higher tendency by the employ- ees to engage in CWBs. 3 Research hypotheses According to the hypothetical ground, the following research hypotheses were formulated. Hypothesis H1 was formed according to the Job Demand Resources Frame- work (JD-R) (Demerouti et al., 2001), in which high job requirements followed by lack of labor resources can lead to intense employees’ exhaustion and disengagement from work, which could create the necessary environment for CWB to develop. • H1: There is a statistically significant relationship be- tween job burnout and counterproductive work behavior among Jordanian bank employees. Hypotheses H2, H3, H4, H5 were formed based on the findings of Amigo et al. (2014), who stated that age and gender are essential influencer factors in job burnout and the results of Tarcan et al. (2017 ) who affirmed that educa- tion, marital status, and occupation affect job burnout. The results of Cruz-Santiago et al. (2020) showed that gender affects job burnout. According to Bolton et al. (2011), gen- der and age are significant factors regarding CWB. Ugwu et al. (2017) summarized that gender and age are influenc- ing predictors of CWB. The findings of De Clercq et al. (2019) who reported that female employees are less likely to engage in CWB than their male counterparts. • H2: There will be a statistically significant infl ence of gender on job burnout and CWB. • H3: There will be a statistically significant infl ence of age on job burnout and CWB. • H4: There will be a statistically significant infl ence of marital status on job burnout and CWB. • H5: There will be a statistically significant infl ence of education on job burnout and CWB. 53 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 4 Methodology 4.1 Participants and Procedures Participants in the study consisted of frontline bank employees working in different commercial banks oper- ating in Jordan. Participants were confined to front office employees of the banks that interact instantly with custom- ers in their jobs. Therefore, the sample includes employees who were in the front office, in charge of customer ser- vices, sales, and money exchange services (tellers). Banks were chosen based on two criteria, the first of which is the number of employees (more than 100 employees); accord- ingly, 17 banks were targeted in the Kingdom of Jordan. The second criterion was the bank’s approval of distribut- ing the questionnaire among the employees; thus, seven of the 17 banks agreed to participate in the field survey. This study used a convenience sampling technique to collect the data. Therefore, the final sample for the data analysis fea- tured 307 bank employees (n=307). Participants in the study were invited through bank representatives or by e-mail, or by visiting different bank branches. The data have been finalized without missing data incidence. A link to an online survey was provided to the prospective study participants in several commercial banks operating in Jordan (including Jordanian and for- eign commercial banks). The survey consisted of the demographics (gender, age, gender, age, marital status, and educational levels), job burnout, and CWB (IWQP). Bank employees ex- pressed their consent to participate in the study by com- pleting the questionnaire. The research was voluntary, and participants were not offered compensations. Data were collected as part of an ongoing Ph.D. dissertation at the University of Pécs. The data were collected during the emergency state in Jordan related to (COVID-19) and took around three weeks from the beginning of May until the beginning of June 2020. The study sample was approximately equal concerning gender 157 (51.1%) of whom were male, and 150 (48.3%) of whom were female, while 131 (42.7%) were single, 145 (47.2%) were married, and only 31 (10.1%) were divorced. The minimum working experience in the current bank was 1, with a maximum of 25 years (M=6.5, SD=4.8). All of the participants in the study were well educated; 14 (4.6%) of the respondents are holding a diploma degree, 204 (66.4%) with a bachelor’s degree, and 75 (24.4%) of the participants holding a master’s degree. Additionally, there were 14 (4.6%) employees with a Ph.D. Concerning the age groups, 184 (59.9%) of the participants were in the age group 20-34 (young), 96 (31.3%) were in the age group 35-49 (middle-aged), and 27 (8.8%) were aging (50 and older). 4.2 Measures In order to assess job burnout and counterproductive work behavior, pre-existing, and validated measures were used. The survey also comprised questions about demo- graphics (gender, age, marital status, and educational lev- els). Job burnout was assessed using the Oldenburg Burn- out Inventory (OLBI) English version (Demerouti et al., 2003, 2010). The instrument consists of two subscales, exhaustion and disengagement; each subscale consists of four questions worded positively and four questions word- ed negatively. Exhaustion was measured with eight items (e.g., after working, I have enough energy for my leisure activities), reversed items (e.g., There are days when I feel tired before I arrive at work). Disengagement was meas- ured with eight items (e.g., I find my work to be a positive challenge), reversed items (e.g., Lately, I tend to think less at work and do my job almost mechanically). Response to the 16 items instrument is provided using a four-point scale, ranging from 1 to 4 (Strongly agree to strongly dis- agree). The construct convergent validity of the (OLBI) has been confirmed in previous validation studies in various countries and professions (Halbesleben & Demerouti, 2005; Al-Asadi et al., 2018). These investigations certain- ly proved that the structure of two factors (exhaustion and disengagement) as the underlying factors fits better with different occupational groups’ data than alternative factor structures. The variables’ internal consistencies were sat- isfactory for exhaustion (Cronbach’s alpha =0.731) and disengagement (Cronbach’s alpha =0.730). For computing the average score for each of the two subscales, the nega- tive items were reversed when necessary so that the higher score indicates more exhaustion or disengagement. In fur- ther analysis, we used the average scores. Counterproductive work behaviors (CWB)- was measured via a five-item scale developed by (Koopmans, 2015; Koopmans et al., 2016) (The Individual Work Per- formance Questionnaire (IWQP)) English version. The five-item scale measures counterproductive work behavior aimed at the personal and the organizational levels (e.g., I focused on the negative aspects of situation at work in- stead of the positive aspects). The scale had a recall peri- od of 3 months, and participants answered each item on a five-point scale (0 = never, 1= seldom, 2=sometimes, 3= quite often, 4= often). The construct validity and reliability of the (IWQP) were also established in earlier validation studies in various countries and professions (Koopmans et al., 2016; Jakada et al., 2020). The internal consistency of the CWB was excellent (Cronbach’s alpha =0.85). The means of the counterproductive work behavior scale can be calculated by summing the scores on the scale items and dividing the total by the number of items in the scale, 54 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers higher scores indicating higher counterproductive work behavior (Koopmans, 2015). We used the average scores of the scale in the analysis. The scale items for all variables are presented in the Appendix. 4.3 Data analysis The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (IBM-SPSS) version 25.0. The data obtained from the questionnaires were first transformed to excel and codded, then transformed into the SPSS program; significance tests of the difference between the means of the groups and the necessary descriptive statistics were performed to verify alignment with the study’s aims. Additionally, the Pearson correlation (r) test was used to ascertain the correlation between studied constructs. The parametric t-test was used to test hypothesis H2 regarding the influence of gender on job burnout and CWB levels. The parametric one-way ANOVA and the Bonferroni post hoc test was used to test hypothesis H3 – H5 about the influence of age, marital status, and education on job burn- out and CWB levels. A hierarchal regression (with gender, age, marital status, and education entered as control varia- bles) was used to test hypothesis H1 about the relationship between job burnout and CWB. 5 Results A preliminary examination was carried to assure no vi- olation of the assumption of normality; the study variables were normally distributed according to the examination of histograms and Skewness and kurtosis values falling with- in the acceptable range of ±1.0. Also, no potential multi- variate outliers were identified based on the analysis of the Mahalanobis distances. Table 1 presents a summary of descriptive statistics for the variables and their correlations. The level of exhaus- tion was (2.60), disengagement (2.62), and counterproduc- tive work behavior (1.97) across the sample. All constructs were positively intercorrelated (job burnout and CWB). It is observed that there a significant positive correlation between the two dimensions of job burnout. The two job burnout dimensions: exhaustion and disengagement, were significantly and positively correlated with the bank em- ployees’ counterproductive work behavior (CWB). Table 1: The Summary of Descriptive Statistics & Correlations, N=307 Variable M SD 1 2 3 1. Exhaustion 2.60 0.52 1 2. Disengagement 2.62 0.57 0.731** 1 3. CWB 1.97 1.01 0.473** 0.456** 1 Note: N=307, ** p < 0.01 (two-tailed) Table 2: Job burnout and counterproductive work behavior according to gender Note: N=307. Gender was coded 0=male, 1=female. *p <0.05 (two-tailed). Job burnout and CWB Gender n M SD t p Exhaustion Male 157 2.54 0.49 -1.937 0.54 Female 150 2.66 0.58 Disengagement Male 157 2.55 0.50 -2.043 0.043* Female 150 2.68 0.60 CWB Male 157 1.978 0.91 0.020 0.984 Female 150 1.976 1.09 55 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Table 2 shows the comparison of job burnout and counterproductive work behavior based on gender. The disengagement dimension of job burnout had a significant difference between males and females employees. In terms of disengagement, the average burnout scores for female bank workers were more prominent than those of their male peers. Moreover, the average score of females was higher than their male peers in counterproductive work be- havior. However, gender differences in counterproductive behavior scores were not statistically significant. There- fore, we concluded that while gender influences burnout levels, it does not substantially influence counterproduc- tive work behavior levels. Based on the results, H2: There will be a statistically significant influence of gender on job burnout, and CWB can only be partially confirmed. Table 3 presents the comparison of job burnout and counterproductive work behavior by age. Although ex- haustion dimension scores differ significantly depending on age, in contrast, disengagement scores were not sig- nificantly affected by age. The exhaustion score among the aging group was higher than the score for the young and middle-aged groups. We also note that the exhaustion scores increases with the increase in the age group. Simi- larly to the Exhaustion score results, the counterproductive work behavior scores were statistically significant, and the CWB scores among the aging group were higher than the score of the other two groups. The post hoc test indicates, the aging group (50 years and older) showed higher ex- haustion than the young age and the middle age groups. Concerning CWB, the aging group showed higher CWB than the young and the middle age groups. We have ac- cordingly reasoned that age is an essential factor that influ- enced both exhaustion and CWB. Based on the results, the hypothesis H3: that there will be a statistically significant influence of age on job burnout and CWB, can only be partially confirmed. Table 3: Job burnout and counterproductive work behavior based on age Job burnout and CWB Age n Mean SD F p Exhaustion 20-34 years 184 2.55 0.51 4.412 0.013* 35-49 years 96 2.60 0.51 50 years and older 27 2.88 0.60 Disengagement 20-34 years 184 2.57 0.56 2.854 0.059 35-49 years 96 2.65 0.56 50 years and older 27 2.83 0.65 CWB 20-34 years 184 1.93 1.04 6.712 0.001* 35-49 years 96 1.88 0.89 50 years and older 27 1.97 1.08 Note: Age was coded 0= 20-34 years, 1=35-49 years, 2= 50 years and older. *p <0.05 Table 4: Job burnout and counterproductive work behavior based on marital status Job burnout and CWB Marital status n M SD F p Exhaustion Single 131 2.50 0.532 6.029 0.003* Married 145 2.63 0.531 Divorced 31 2.85 0.571 Disengagement Single 131 2.55 0.513 3.004 0.051 Married 145 2.64 0.559 Divorced 31 2.81 0.680 CWB Single 131 1.89 0.982 7.513 0.001* Married 145 1.91 0.981 Divorced 31 2.62 0.992 Note: Marital status was coded 0= Single, 1= Married, 2= Divorced. *p <0.05. 56 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers A comparison of job burnout and counterproductive behavior based on marital status are presented in Table 4. There was a significant variation between marital status and the exhaustion dimension, while the disengagement scores did not significantly differ according to marital status. Job burnout scores among divorced employees were higher than those for single and married employees concerning burnout’s exhaustion dimension. Similarly, the differences in the counterproductive work behavior scores according to marital status were also statistically significant, and the CWB scores among divorced employees were higher than the scores for their co-workers. The post hoc test indicates that divorced employees score higher on the exhaustion scale than single employees. With respect to counterpro- ductive work behavior, divorced employees score higher on the CWB than married and unmarried employees. Thus, we can infer that marital status was a significant variable as it influenced exhaustion and CWB. H4: stating that there will be a statistically significant influence of marital status on job burnout, and CWB has been partially confirmed. The results of the comparison of job burnout and coun- terproductive work behavior, according to educational lev- els, are displayed in Table 5. The findings indicate that the level of education significantly influences job burnout and CWB. Job burnout scores of bank employees with a Ph.D. degree were higher than the other employees. Notably, we can see that as the educational attainment increased, the scores of exhaustion and disengagement also increased. According to education levels, the differences in exhaus- tion and disengagement were statistically significant. There were also substantial differences in CWB scores for educational status. The post hoc analysis results showed that employees with bachelor’s degrees were less affect- ed by exhaustion than the employees with master’s and Ph.D. degrees. Also, employees with bachelor’s degrees exhibit less disengagement than the employees with mas- ter’s and Ph.D. degrees. Concerning the CWB, employees with Ph.D. degrees display more deviant behavior at work than the employees with bachelor’s and master’s degrees. Therefore, hypothesis H4 that there will be a statistically significant influence of education on job burnout and CWB is fully supported. Table 5: Job burnout and counterproductive work behavior based on educational levels Job burnout and CWB Diploma (n=14) Bachelor degree (n=204) Master degree (n=75) PhD degree (n=14) F p Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Exhaustion 2.56 0.43 2.51 0.52 2.77 0.52 3.03 0.69 7.756 0.000* Disengagement 2.53 0.62 2.54 0.50 2.77 0.61 3.00 0.68 5.402 0.001* CWB 2.24 1.02 1.82 0.96 2.16 0.99 2.95 0.89 7.695 0.000* Note. Educational levels was coded 0= Diploma, 1= Bachelor, 2= Master, PhD=3, *p <0.05. The hierarchical regression model was used, where the dependent variable was CWB, while the explanatory variables included in the model were job burnout dimen- sions (exhaustion, disengagement). In the analyses, con- trol variables, including gender, age, marital status, and education, were inscribed in Step 1. The two dimensions of job burnout were entered at Step 2 together rather than entered step by step. The results are presented in Table 6. The regression results showed that the overall regression model significantly predicted CWB, [F (6,300) = 17.181, p < 0.001], and that over 26% of the variance of a dependent variable is explained by the regression model (R square = 0.263). The values of the variance inflation factor (VIF) were below 2, and the tolerance values were above 0.10, which indicates that there was no concern regarding the multicollinearity in the regression model (Kleinbaum et al., 1988). In the first step, the sociodemographic variables: gen- der, age, marital status, and education have entered; the variables jointly accounted for 5.6% variance in CWB with only marital status (β = 0.140, p ˂ 0.05) and education (β = 0.185, p ˂ 0.001) emerged as a significant predictor of CWB. After controlling the sociodemographic variables and introducing exhaustion and disengagement into the regression equation (step 2), the amount of variance ex- plained increased significantly [R squared change =0.207, p ˂ 0.001]. Results also reveal that the impact of exhaus- tion on the employees’ CWB is, as expected, positive. The higher the exhaustion, the higher on average, the employ- ees’ CWB; the impact is significant (β = 0.278, p ˂ 0.001). The disengagement dimension of job burnout also proved to have a significant and positive impact on employees’ CWB (β = 0.236, p ˂ 0.01); employees who perceive a higher level of disengagement are more likely to engage in CWB behavior at work. Overall, hypothesis H1, which stated that there is a statistically significant relationship between job burnout and counterproductive work behavior among Jordanian bank employees, was supported. 57 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Table 6: Hierarchical Regression Analysis results Step 1 Step 2 B SE t B SE t Constant 1.467 0.150 9.802*** -0.621 0.263 -2.357*** Sociodemographic 1. Gender -0.014 .112 -.127 -.125 0.100 -1.244 2. Age -0.028 .111 -.249 0.003 0.099 0.030 3. Marital status 0.216 .104 2.085* .093 0.093 0.999 4. Education 0.298 .099 3.024** 0.111 0.090 1.240 Main effects 5. Exhaustion 0.513 0.136 3.759*** 6. Disengagement 0.426 0.131 3.243** F 4.442** (4,302) 17.818***(6,300) F change 4.442 ** (4,302) 42.150***(2,300) R2 0.056** 0.263*** ∆R2 0.056** 0.207*** Adj. R2 0.043** 0.248*** Note. N=307, *p <0.05, **p <0.01, ***p <0.001. 6 Discussion and conclusion This current study investigating the relationship be- tween job burnout and counterproductive work behavior in Jordan’s banking sector is of considerable significance be- cause, firstly, the banking sector is one of the most signifi- cant sectors in Jordan and contributes largely to its econo- my. Moreover, the number of studies that investigated the relationship between job burnout and CWB with respect to bank employees is limited, where the majority focused on human service employees. To begin with, the study results indicate that bank em- ployees are suffering from job burnout and high levels of counterproductive work behavior. We also notice that job burnout and CWB are influenced by age, marital status, and education levels, but CWB is not significantly affected by gender. The study shows that there are significant gender dif- ferences in job burnout (disengagement) levels. Female employees experience higher disengagement levels than their male co-workers, as reported in previous studies (Lackritz, 2004; Amigo et al., 2014; Tarcan et al., 2017). One explanation that can be devoted to this result is that in Jordanian society, women are still performing the ma- jority of housework in addition to their job requirements, which may direct to an increased sense of job burnout. In comparison, no significant gender-based differences in CWB levels, which indicate that bank employees engage in counterproductive work behaviors regardless of gender, which consists of (Baysal et al., 2020), who stated that the gender variable does not create a variation in CWB. Unlike the results of the present study (Ugwu et al., 2017) report- ed that gender negatively predicts CWB and the outcomes of (De Clercq et al., 2019), who noted that male employ- ees are more prone to take part in CWB than their female co-workers. Concerning age, the results show that exhaustion lev- els significantly vary according to age. With respect to exhaustion, employees in the aging group (50 years and older) experience more exhaustion than the other two groups; this finding corroborates similar results from prior studies (Ahola et al., 2006; Lindblom et al., 2006; Llorent & Ruiz-Calzado, 2016; Rožman et al., 2019). This may be because older employees face higher job demands and re- sponsibilities; also, boredom can play a considerable role over time. Similarly, the CWB scores were significantly vary based on age; older employees are more likely to participate in CWB than the other two age groups. This is inconsistent with the results of (Peng, 2012; Ugwu et al., 2017), which observed that older employees are less likely to engage in CWB. In contrast, (González-Navarro et al., 2018; Ying & Cohen, 2018) found no differences in CWB based on age; young and old employees display equal chances to en- 58 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers gage in deviant behavior. This might be because most of the training programs usually target younger employees, making the older employees feel that the organization ne- glects them. Besides, the banking sector framework has experienced profound shifts (e.g., online banking), which led to intensifying the competition between young and old- er employees. Another possible explanation is that when approaching retirement age, employees begin to develop a feeling that there is nothing to lose compared to younger employees and the difficulty in finding jobs. The present study also highlights significant marital status differences in the exhaustion dimension of job burn- out; single employees’ manifest lower levels of exhaustion than divorced co-workers, which consistent with the re- sults of (Ahola et al., 2006) and partially with the results of (Llorent & Ruiz-Calzado, 2016) who observed that only depersonalization levels differ significantly according to marital status. Contrary to the current study results ( Wu et al., 2019; Mahmoudi et al., 2020) reported that mari- tal status does not affect job burnout. Also, CWB scores significantly differ based on marital status; divorced em- ployees are more likely to display deviant behavior than those married and single co-workers. This is incompatible with (Baysal et al., 2020), who stated that the marital status variable does not create a variation in CWB. With respect to education level, we found that educa- tion levels significantly influence job burnout and coun- terproductive work behavior. The results show that as ed- ucational achievement advances, so does job burnout and CWB. Therefore future studies on the relationship should consider the educations levels of the employees. The hierarchical regression analysis results revealed that job burnout has a significant positive impact on CWB among the frontline employees in the Jordanian banking industry. More specifically, the results show that the two job burnout dimensions, exhaustion, and disengagement, contribute significantly and positively to CWB among the employees. Job burnout dimensions alone responsible for at least 20.7% of the variation in CWB of the bank em- ployees. The result of the current study supported with previous findings of (Ugwu et al., 2017), who reported a positive relationship between job burnout and CWB among nurs- es, (Banks et al., 2012) also found a positive association between job burnout and CWB among bank employees, (Cohen & Diamant, 2017; Makhdoom et al., 2019) among teachers and ( Liang & Hsieh, 2007; Shkoler & Tziner, 2017; Lebrón et al., 2018) across occupations. The results partially supported the findings ( Liang & Hsieh, 2007; Bolton et al., 2011), who reported a positive relationship between only depersonalization and CWB. One expla- nation for the positive relationship may be related to the fact that bank employees in Jordan experience stress as a result of long working hours, extensive contact with var- ious types of clients, high job demands, and competition between the employees. Also, the employee’s salary and the annual evaluation depend on the monthly target, a state that can overburden and consume them (Particularly for customer service employees, tellers, and branch manag- ers). Therefore, the stress-inducing work environment can extend the means to evoke the feeling of exhaustion and disengagement and, thus, lead to deviant work behaviors. Additionally, the exhaustion caused by employees’ ex- cessive work-load can drive them to feel indifferent about their customers and work. Exhaustion and disengagement can increase the chances of deviant work behavior, for ex- ample, complaining about work tasks, creating problems, talking about work inside and outside the workplace, and concentrating on cynical aspects of work, especially in the recent period where the banking sector was among the sectors that continued to operate during the quarantine pe- riod and the spread of coronavirus in Jordan. The study results indicate that the relationship between job burnout and work outcomes (CWB) should be taken into more con- sideration by the banking industry. Accordingly, our study has several implications. Banks that wish their workers not to participate in deviant be- havior should ensure that employees’ work demands do not overstretch and deplete their resources. The bank man- agement, along with the human resources department, could utilize burnout intervention strategies concentrated on changing the organization (Organizational-level inter- vention) (Lubbadeh, 2020), which focuses on reducing the mismatch between the employees and the organization (e.g., overload, fairness, role ambiguity) and stressor at the workplace, or individual-level strategies that improve the employees’ ability to manage and cope with the workplace stressor. For example, strategies geared towards develop- ing the employees’ psychological capital (PsyCap) and emotional intelligence can provide the employees with the necessary skills to cope with work stress and abilities to effectively manage their emotions and behaviors (Dart- ey-baah et al., 2020). Human resource managers in banks should also perform and design practical training and coaching procedures to promote employees’ mental and physical health; in addition, organizing more out of work activities (e.g., sporting events, annual party) to increase the employee’s feelings of belonging to the organization. The present investigation has some limitations that should be recognized. All study participants were em- ployees of commercial banks in Jordan, and the study did not include employees of Islamic banks. Data have been collected mainly by self-reporting instruments that could induce common method bias. Furthermore, data were col- lected during the outbreak of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) and State of emergency in Jordan, which could have influ- enced the participants’ responses because they were those who continued their work during this period. Further studies are needed to explore better the rela- tionship between job burnout and counterproductive work 59 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers behavior. It would be interesting to carry on a comparative examination between the employees working in commer- cial and Islamic banks or comparison at the internation- al level. A longitudinal design study for future research would contribute to explaining the relationships between job burnout and CWB. Future research should also com- pare the link using different burnout inventory, such as MBI-GS and the Burnout Measure (BM.). Future research should also examine the result of the study after the end of the pandemic. 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An analysis of relationship between burnout and job satisfaction among emergency health professionals. Total Quali- ty Management and Business Excellence, 28(11–12), 1339–1356. https://doi.org/10.1080/14783363.2016.1 141659 Uchenna, C. O. (2013). Counterproductive Work Behavior among Employees in Emotionally Demanding Jobs: The Roles of Perceived Organizational Support, Job Burnout, and Age. Nigerian Journal of Applied Beha- vioural Sciences, 1, 105–114. Ugwu, L. I., Enwereuzor, I. K., Fimber, U. S., & Ugwu, D. I. (2017). Nurses‘ burnout and counterproductive work behavior in a Nigerian sample : The moderating role of emotional intelligence. International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences, 7, 106–113. https://doi.or- g/10.1016/j.ijans.2017.11.004 Vaamonde, J. D., Omar, A., & Salessi, S. (2018). From Organizational Justice Perceptions to Turnover In- tentions : The Mediating Effects of Burnout and Job Satisfaction. Europe‘s Journal of Psychology, 14(3), 55–570. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v14i3.1490 Wen, B., Zhou, X., Hu, Y., & Zhang, X. (2020). Role Stress and Turnover Intention of Front-Line Hotel Em- ployees : The Roles of Burnout and Service Climate. Front. Psychol, 11(36), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2020.00036 Wu, G., Hu, Z., & Zheng, J. (2019). Role Stress, Job Bur- nout, and Job Performance in Construction Project Managers : The Moderating Role of Career Calling. Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(13), 2394. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132394 Ying, L., & Cohen, A. (2018). Dark triad personalities and counterproductive work behaviors among physi- cians in China. International Journal of Health Plan- ning and Management, 33(4), e985–e998. https://doi. org/10.1002/hpm.2577 Tareq Lubbadeh (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8118- 8775) is a Ph.D. candidate in business administration at the University of Pécs, Hungary. He holds an MBA degree from Al- Balqa‘ Applied University (BAU), Amman, Jor- dan. In his doctoral research, he focuses on the relation between job burnout and employee performance. He has a genuine interest in combining the art and science of psy- chology with useful and practical business applications to improve the work environment. 62 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Izgorelost na delu in kontraproduktivno delovno vedenje zaposlenih v jordanski banki Ozadje / namen: Raziskali smo razmerje med izgorelostjo na delovnem mestu in kontraproduktivnim delovnim ve- denjem (CWB) med 307 zaposlenimi iz različnih bank v Jordaniji. Proučili smo tudi stopnje izgorelosti in CWB glede na spol, starost, zakonski stan in izobrazbo. Metodologija: Za zbiranje podatkov smo uporabili metoda priročnega vzorčenja za anketiranje zaposlenih v prvih bankah. Za zbiranje podatkov so uporabili lestvico Oldenburg (OLBI), ki ocenjuje izčrpanost in izključenost, in le- stvico CWB iz vprašalnika za individualno delovno uspešnost (IWPQ). Podatki so bili analizirani z uporabo paketa SPSS 25.0. Rezultati: Študija je pokazala, da obstaja pomembna pozitivna povezava med dvema dimenzijama izgorelosti dela in CWB. Raziskava tudi kaže, da starost, izobrazba in zakonski stan vplivajo tako na izgorelost službe kot na CWB. Pokazalo pa se je, da spol pomembno vpliva le na dimenzijo »ne-angažiranost« na delovnem mestu. Poleg tega študija kaže, da sta izčrpanost in neangažiranost ključna napovednika, ki vplivata na CWB. Zaključek: Glede na naše rezultate, pojav izgorelosti na delovnem mestu lahko povzroči deviantno vedenje na delovnem mestu. Ključne besede: Izgorelost na delu, izčrpanost, Kontraproduktivno delovno vedenje, Zaposleni v bankah, OLBI. Appendix A. List of Measurement Items: Supply Chain Dynamic Capabilities The Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI) Disengagement items D1: “I always find new and interesting aspects in my work.” D2: “I find my work to be a positive challenge.” D3: “This is the only type of work that I can imagine myself doing.” D4: “I feel more and more engaged in my work.” Disengagement reversed items DR1: “It happens more and more often that I talk about my work in a negative way.” DR2: “Lately, I tend to think less at work and do my job almost mechanically.” DR3: “Over time, one can become disconnected from this type of work.” DR4: “Sometimes, I feel sickened by my work tasks.” Exhaustion items EX1: “I can tolerate the pressure of my work very well.” EX2: “After working, I have enough energy for my leisure activities.” EX3: “Usually, I can manage the amount of my work well.” EX4: “When I work, I usually feel energized.” Exhaustion reversed items EXR1: “There are days when I feel tired before I arrive at work.” EXR2: “After work, I tend to need more time than in the past in order to relax and feel better.” EXR3: “During my work, I often feel emotionally drained.” EXR4: “After my work, I usually feel worn out and weary.” Counterproductive work behavior scale (CWB). CWB1: “I complained about minor work-related issues at work.” CWB2: “I made problems at work bigger than they were.” CWB3: “I focused on the negative aspects of situation at work instead of the positive aspects.” CWB4: “I talked to colleagues about the negative aspects of my work.” CWB5: “I talked to people outside the organization about the negative aspects of my work.” 63 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 1 Received: 2nd October 2020; revised: 15th December 2020; accepted: 12th January 2021 The Role of Transformational Entrepreneurship, Readiness to Change and Counterproductive Work Behavior in Enhancing Employee Performance Febri Nila CHRISANTY1, Michael Surya GUNAWAN1, Retno W. WIJAYANTI1, Budi W. SOETJIPTO1,2 1 University of Indonesia, Faculty Economics and Business, Depok, Indonesia, febrinilac@yahoo.com (correspond- ing author), mbwftafg@gmail.com, retno.wijayanti65@gmail.com, b.soetjipto@gmail.com 2 University of Pertamina, Faculty Economics and Business, Jakarta, Indonesia Background and Purpose: The company sustainability balancing economic with social impact to coexist whilst the transformation entrepreneurship create the coexist. The purpose of this research is to better understand the consequences of transformational entrepreneurship, in terms of increasing organizational readiness for change, minimizing counterproductive work behavior and enhancing employee performance. In addition, this paper aims to comprehend the extent to which organizational readiness for change and counterproductive work behavior affect employee performance. Methodology: The data were collected via a survey of 257 branches of a state-owned bank. The structural equation model (SEM) was used to test the proposed model. Findings: Transformational entrepreneurship positively and significantly affect organizational readiness for change and employee performance, and negatively and significantly affect counterproductive work behavior. Moreover, the result demonstrated a significantly positive effect of organizational readiness for change on employee performance, and demonstrated a significantly negative effect of counterproductive work behavior on employee performance. Conclusion: Point of this study is the effectiveness of transformational entrepreneurship in directly affecting em- ployees’ performance. However, the effect transformational entrepreneurship has on readiness for change and counterproductive work behavior adds its impact on employees’ performance and based on the direct effect, readi- ness for comes up much more impactful than the other two. It implies how volatile and dynamics the work (internal and external) situations that having employees ready for change can help them cope with such volatility and dynam- ics to reach better performance. Keywords: Employee performance, Counterproductive work behavior, Readiness for change, Transformational en- trepreneurship DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0005 1 Introduction A research by Deutsche Bank shows that companies with high ratings for environmental, social, and govern- ance (ESG) factors lead the market in the medium (three to five years) and long (five to ten years) term (Bonini & Swartz, 2014). According to McKinsey Global Survey, al- most six in ten respondents say that their organizations put more emphasis on sustainability than they did two years ago (McKinsey, 2017). These facts indicate the business’ attention has shifted toward sustainable environment. In other words, companies now cannot just aim at econom- ic results; they also have to simultaneously consider so- cial impacts. Such co-existence leads us to the concept of transformational entrepreneurship. Transformational entrepreneurs continuously seek and develop innovative solutions not only for the wealth of their company, but also for the well-being of the society. They understand 64 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers that their company’s success cannot be separated from the growth of the society. Society who are well taken care of will have resources to sustain the company’s future de- velopment. Transformational entrepreneurs recognize the reciprocal and mutual benefit nature of company-society relationship. This recognition however will bear consequences, mainly that the company itself must be ready for a change; a change that brings an economic, shorter-term perspective into a socio-economic, longer-term perspective of manag- ing the business. Related to Lewin’s (1951) unfreezing, such readiness indicates employees’ “beliefs, attitudes and intentions regarding the extent to which changes are need- ed and the organization’s capacity to successfully make those changes” (Armenakis, Harris and Mossholder, 1993, p. 681). In other words, readiness for change is all about employees’ conviction on the necessity of change and their company’s ability to implement it. Despite the importance of understanding the nature of transformational entrepre- neurship-readiness for change connection, little attention has been paid to empirically examine it. For that reason, this study aims at investigating such connection. Nonetheless, the above consequence may not be well accepted by all employees in the organization. Some may see it as an injustice. Those who have consistently deliv- ered economic results may feel that part of their (future) performance is unfairly taken. Employees who have been credited with high performance in the past may not have as high performance in the future. This decreased perfor- mance certainly affect their financials. For these employ- ees and some more others, such financials are their (only) personal goal working in the organization. Shifting to ac- commodate both economic results and social impacts may be seen as an obstacle to achieve their goal; the goal they have steadily achieved in the past. This potential inability is an instrumental factor for them. Referring to Klander- mans (1997; 2002), perceived injustice and instrumentality are two primary components of collective protest. Kello- way, Francis, Prosser and Cameron (2010) suggested that counterproductive work behavior depicted such protest. In other words, practices of transformational entrepreneur- ship could lead employees to engage in counterproductive work behavior. Unfortunately, previous researches have lacked of interest in investigating that plausible connec- tion, and, therefore, empirically examining this connection becomes the objective of this study. Practices of transformational entrepreneurship and being ready for a possible change all aims at improving employees’ performance, which in turn increasing organ- ization’s performance. Pradhan and Jena (2017) catego- rized employees’ performance into task performance (per- formance related to job description and/or employment contract), adaptive performance (performance related to dynamic work situation, such as technological changes), and contextual performance (performance related to main- taining and developing prosocial or helping behavior). To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no empirical study has been conducted to examine the effect of transformational entrepreneurship on employees’ performance. Meanwhile, Weeks, Roberts, Chonko and Jones (2004) demonstrated a positive and significant association between organization- al readiness for change and job performance in sales or- ganizations. Job performance examined in this study was essentially task performance. No studies have been found that connect organizational readiness for change and adap- tive performance, as well as contextual performance. Con- sequently, this study investigates the effect of each trans- formational entrepreneurship and organizational readiness for change on employees’ performance, in terms of task, adaptive and contextual performances. On the other hand, as an indicative of protests, coun- terproductive work behavior may result in lower employ- ees’ performance. Sackett (2002) identified some findings with regard to this effect on big three data sets. The first one was the US Army Selection and Classification Pro- ject (called Project A), which he found a low relationship between counterproductive work behavior (-.19) and task performance (-,17), in terms of core technical and gener- al soldiering proficiencies, but a much higher relationship (-.59) between counterproductive work behavior and con- textual performance, in terms of citizenship behavior. In the second data set was from Hunt’s (1996). This data set demonstrates a similar relationship (-.67) between coun- terproductive work behavior and contextual performance, in terms of citizenship behavior. From the third data set (Viswesvaran, Schmidt and Ones’ (1999) meta-analysis), he found a much higher relationship (-.54) between coun- terproductive work behavior and task performance, in terms of job knowledge, quantity of output and quality of output, but a consistent relationship (-.57) between coun- terproductive work behavior and contextual performance, in terms of citizenship behavior. Furthermore, Greenidge, Devonish and Alleyne (2015) found rather high corre- lations (-.36 and .40) between counterproductive work behavior (toward the organization and toward the indi- viduals) and contextual performance. Previous research however has not provided result for counterproductive work behavior-adaptive performance relationship. This study therefore empirically examines the effect of coun- terproductive work behavior on adaptive performance, as well as on task and contextual performances. This study is conducted in a state-owned bank in In- donesia. Banks have been known to serve a wide range of people and thus to provide economic and social bene- fits to people. Therefore, ESG factors are not new to them and the shift to include such factors is inevitable. Howev- er, the pull for achieving higher financial performance is not getting weaker as the competition in banking industry 65 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers is tighter. In other words, banks are at a cross road: keep pumping higher financial performance or compromise fi- nancial performance to accommodate social impacts. This position implies a need for practicing transformational en- trepreneurship to simultaneously achieve economic results and social impact, and it brings up a need for readiness to change and a risk for encountering counterproductive work behavior. Banks are therefore considered an appro- priate context for this study. Accordingly, this study at- tempts to answer these research questions: RQ1. How does transformational entrepreneurship af- fect the organizational readiness for change? RQ2. How does transformational entrepreneurship af- fect the employee performance? RQ3. How does transformational entrepreneurship af- fect the counterproductive work behavior? 2 Sustainability and Transformational Entrepreneurship Environmental Performance Index (EPI) (2020) re- cently releases global metrics for the environment. Among many findings, one is the most important for businesses, that is, “the pursuit of economic prosperity – manifested in industrialization and urbanization – often means more pol- lution and other strains on ecosystem vitality” (EPI, 2020, p. 1). In other words, there seems to be a contradiction be- tween economic or financial prosperity and social welfare. If economy prospers, social will suffer, and vice versa. The ultimate impact of this contradiction is continual reduction to quality of all life, including human life. This continuous quality degradation will decrease human productivity, that in turn will inhibit the companies to grow. In other words, the pursuit of economic prosperity will likely have a boo- merang effect when social welfare is ignored. The pros- perity the companies try hard to generate may therefore be short-lived. To create a long-term success, companies must build their business around environment and social considera- tions. Starik & Rands (1995) called this effort and all other efforts to survive by developing their ability to exist and flourish in a long term as a sustainability. Weber (2017) found a positive relationship between financial perfor- mance and sustainability performance. With a more bal- ance between both performances, company’s success can be cascaded to the prosperity of the society (Maas, Jones & Lockyer, 2019). A prosper society will be potential consumers to back the company’s growth. So, a prosper society could further prosper the companies, and econom- ic prosperity does not have to be in contrast with social welfare. Entrepreneurship has been known to lead the compa- nies to the discovery, evaluation and exploitation of oppor- tunities (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). Entrepreneurship, however, has also been known to be related more to busi- nesses. Scholars then developed a concept of social en- trepreneurship. It was Robert Owen, a philanthropic busi- nessman, who first introduced social entrepreneurship in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when he paid more attention to employees’ welfare, in terms of their work- ing, education and cultural lives (Shaw & Carter, 2007). In a later development, social entrepreneurship has broad- ened its focus toward “work of community, voluntary and public organizations, as well as private firms working for social rather than for-profit objectives” (Shaw & Carter, 2007, p. 419). Consequently, “its impact has been limited to date as its solutions are rarely devised with scalability and true economic sustainability in mind” (Marmer, 2012, p. 2). In other words, social entrepreneurship does not deal with transformation of a profit-motive institution (e.g. the company) to also include social perspective in its objec- tives. Transformational entrepreneurship came into consid- eration when there is a need for individuals, communities and institutions to interact and collaborate for taking ad- vantage of the existing opportunities and reaching a broad- er scale (Maas et al., 2019; Schoar, 2010). Transforma- tional entrepreneurship develops entrepreneurial activities that bring major changes in market and industry as well as in social and cultural life (Marmer, 2012). Mass and Paul (2019) further delineated that transformational entre- preneurship puts more emphasis on stimulating socio-de- velopment in a dynamic manner, while Schoar (2010) en- visioned transformational entrepreneurship to create large, vibrant business that grow much beyond the scope of an individual’s subsistence needs and provide jobs and in- come for others. Past literature found that transformational entrepreneurship is characterized by high quality human capital, high willingness to take risk, and high responsive- ness to environment (Mass & Paul, 2019; Herrera & Lora, 2005; Schoar, 2010). Without qualified people and consid- eration of external conditions, risking to take advantage of the opportunities will not be worth. 3 Consequences of Transformational Entrepreneurship What differentiates transformational entrepreneurship from entrepreneurship is the scope. Transformational en- trepreneurship broadens the scope of entrepreneurship from businesses to communities and societies so that provides the opportunities for companies to create social impacts. Realizing these opportunities may, however, require employees to master a different skill set. Before conforming to this requirement or expectation, employees must accept it. Holt, Armenakis, Harris and Feild (2007), conforming and accepting are two stages of change, where 66 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers conforming is the adoption and accepting is the readiness. In other words, for companies to implement transforma- tional entrepreneurship, their employees must be ready to master the new skill set. This new skill set is a change for them. Part of readiness is upper management’s com- munication to employees explaining why and how such new skill set will improve their subsequent performance. Another part of readiness concerns with company’s will- ingness to invest time, effort and money to upgrade em- ployees’ skill set. Therefore, readiness for change involves commitment for both sides: on employees’ side, they have to be committed to learn and master the new skill set, and on companies’ side, they have to be committed to invest in employees’ training. Correspondingly, we can conclude that: H1: Transformational entrepreneurship positively af- fects organizational readiness for change As previously indicated, the introduction of transfor- mation entrepreneurship is not merely to create social im- pacts. It is farther than that; it is to generate sustainable success for companies, which means sustainable success for employees as well. In other words, the introduction of transformation entrepreneurship is actually to improve em- ployees’ performance, that is not only task performance, but also adaptive performance and contextual performance (Pradhan and Jena, 2017). Task performance will be en- hanced because employees are able to perform above and beyond what are required by job description, adaptive performance will be better because employees are able to cope with the shift toward generating both economic prosperity and social welfare, and contextual performance will be increased because employees are able to demon- strate prosocial behavior when solving new problems and overcoming new challenges. Subsequently, we propose the hypothesis below: H2: Transformational entrepreneurship positively af- fects employees’ performance. Companies’ practice of transformational entrepreneur- ship may not however be well accepted by employees. They may see this practice as unfair because they have been resulting good economic performance for a number years, and suddenly they have to shift gear to also create social impacts. As a consequence, they have to spend time and effort to upgrade their skills. Not all employees are willing to spend that much time and effort, and not all employees are capable of upgrading their skills. Their work life that has so far been routine and predictable, now it seems un- certain and unclear. Employees who have sufficiently per- formed in the past, may not be able to reach that point in the future. It is like their future, predicted performance is taken away from them. This possible lowered performance could affect their take home income. So, practicing trans- formational entrepreneurship can be seen as a stumbling block to realize employees promised wealthy future and such inability becomes instrumental for their life. Klan- dermans (1997; 2002) argued that (perceived) injustice and instrumentality are core elements of collective protest, and this protest is an indicative of counterproductive work behavior (Kelloway, et al., 2010). For those reasons, the following hypothesis is presented: H3: Transformational entrepreneurship negatively af- fects counterproductive work behavior. 4 Readiness for Change, Counterproductive Work Behavior and Employee Performance A well-known scholar in change, Kurt Lewin (1947), introduced three stages of change. They are unfreezing, moving, and refreezing. Lewin classified change itself as moving, so before change is conducted, people must go to unfreezing stage. This is the stage where readiness is developed by shifting the mindsets and generating moti- vations to change (Weiner, 2009). Weiner further argued that readiness for change involves change commitment and change efficacy, which essentially relate to willing- ness and ability to implement change. Moreover, readiness for change concerns with benefits of change (Prochaska, Velicer, Rossi, Goldstein, Marcus, Rajiowski, Eiore, Har- low, Redding, Rosenbloom and Rossi, 1994), risks of fail- ing to change (Armenakis et al., 1993; Beer, 1980; Spector, 1989), or externally forced changes (Pettigrew, 1987). If benefits are high and risks are low, readiness are more like- ly. But, for externally forced changes, readiness may not be a choice because if organizations and their employees are not ready, they may be extinct. Armenakis et al. (1993) further argued that, ultimately, readiness was all about be- havior. People’s beliefs, attitudes and attentions may have accepted change, but they do not show it in their behavior, they are not considered ready for change. It is with this behavior people implement change. In addition, Weeks, Roberts, Chonko and Jones (2004) found that when organizations are ready to implement change, their employees are likely to show better perfor- mance. Helmy, Adawiyah and Setyawati (2020) also found that the workplace friendship has a significant influence on innovative service behavior. This is due to the fact that these employees are well prepared by their organizations to deal with change, are ensured the benefits and risks of change, and are confident their organization will help and assist them in overcoming challenges and obstacles that can impede their performance. In other words, organiza- tions’ readiness for changes is believed to support their employees to implement change that eventually lead to their increased performance. Consequently, we formulate the following hypothesis: H4: Organizational readiness for change positively af- fects employee performance. 67 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers On the other hand, as discussed previously, not all employees are happy and satisfied with the policies and decisions of the organization, especially when a possible change is involved because change can put them in an unfair and unfortunate position. They can express their unhappiness and dissatisfaction by protesting in the form of behaving counterproductively to attract attention to the policy and decision makers with the hope that unfavorable policies and decisions will be revised and redressed. This counterproductive behavior includes keep complaining on seemingly unimportant matters, make a problem bigger than it should be, and focus on negative aspects of works, which ultimately drag employees away from their targets or objectives. Instead of paying attention to how to car- ry out their job above and beyond what are required by job description, to create both economic prosperity and social welfare, and to solve new problems and overcome new challenges, they intentionally slow down the work or even sabotage it. Employees who demonstrate counterpro- ductive work behavior will likely not achieve their targets. Furthermore, Sackett (2002) found that counterproductive work behavior might result in lower employees’ perfor- mance. He, for instance, found negative relationships between counterproductive work behavior and task and contextual performances in three occasions. Greenidge, Devonish and Alleyne (2014) found a similar correlation between counterproductive work behavior and contextual performance. Because of that, we hypothesize as follows: H5: Counterproductive work behavior negatively af- fects employee performance. Figure 1: Research Model 5 Methods 5.1 Measures Measure for each variable was adapted from litera- ture of respective variable. Measure for transformational entrepreneurship variable was adapted from Maas et al., (2019), Marmer (2012), Schoar (2010), and Virmani and Lepineux (2016). Measure for readiness for change var- iable was adapted from Armenakis et al., (1993). Meas- ure for counterproductive work behavior variable was adapted from Koopmans, Bernaards, Hildebrandt, Buuren, van der Beek, and de Vet (2014). Measure for employee performance variable was adapted from Pradhan and Jena (2017). Response for each item was measured using a sev- en-point Likert-scale ranging from (1) “strongly disagree” to (7) “strongly agree”. The constructs employed in this study consist of: Transformation Entrepreneurship (TE), Readiness for Change (RC), Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB) and Employee Performance (EP). The dimensions of each constructs are: Transformation Entrepreneurship (TE) consist of: a. Human Capital Quality (HCQ), b. Risk Tak- ing & Taking Opportunity (RTT) and c. Evaluating Chang- ing Condition (ECC) whilst the dimensions of Employee Performance (EP) consist of: a. Task Performance (TP), b. Contextual Performance (CP) and c. Adaptive Perfor- 68 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers mance AP). Readiness for change and Counterproductive Work Behavior variables were categorized as First Order Con- firmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) since they were measured directly from indicators (without any dimension). Whilst Transformational Entrepreneurship and Employee Perfor- mance variables were categorized as Second Order CFAs since they each had dimensions. The detail relationship of constructs, dimensions and items measured in this study may be seen in Appendix.1 5.2 Sample and Data Collection Data were collected through online survey to 468 branches (four people from each branch: one branch head and his or her three direct managers). So, in total, there were 468 branch heads and 1,404 branch managers we invited to participate in the survey. We followed up the online survey with phone calls and emails as reminders for them give their response. From total population of 468 branches, we received responses from 330 branches (1.582 samples), but 73 of those branches were incomplete. So, only 257 branches were counted for this study, comprised of 890 respondents (257 branch heads and 633 managers), indicating of 56 percent effective response rate. The re- spondent profile may be seen in Table 1 and 2 . If we compared the demographic characteristics of branch head respondents to that of population, they are not much different. The majority of both is between 30 to 40 years old, male, holding a bachelor degree, married, having 3 to 5 dependents, and having 11 to 25 years of Table 1: Respondents and Population Profile Characteristic Branch Manager Total Population Branch Man- ager Number Percentage Number Percentage 1. Ages of respondents <30 years 0 0.00 0 0% 30-40 years 114 44.36 144 44% >40-50 years 101 39.30 124 38% >50 years 42 16.34 62 19% 2. Gender of respondents Male 247 96.11 317 96% Female 10 3.89 13 4% 3. Education of respondents Senior High School or below 0 0.00 0 0% Bachellorate 2 0.78 2 1% Bachelor Degree 213 82.88 276 84% Master Degree or above 42 16.34 52 16% 4. Status Single 8 3.11 9 3% Ever been married 2 0.78 2 1% Married 247 96.11 319 97% 5. The number of dependents 0-2 people 97 37.74 112 34% 3-5 people 156 60.70 212 64% >5 people 4 1.56 6 2% 69 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 6. Work Experience 0-5 years 1 0.39 1 0% 6-10 years 39 15.18 49 15% 11-15 years 68 26.46 85 26% 16-20 years 64 24.90 80 24% 21-25 years 51 19.84 68 21% 26-30 years 18 7.00 24 7% >30 years 16 6.23 23 7% Total 257 330 Table 1: Respondents and Population Profile (continues) Table 2: Respondents and Population Profile Characteristic Branch Manager Total Population Branch Man- ager Number Percentage Number Percentage 1. Ages of respondents <30 years 0 0.00 4 0% 30-40 years 46 17.90 481 38% >40-50 years 189 73.54 428 34% >50 years 22 8.56 339 27% 2. Gender of respondents Male 521 82.31 1.016 81% Female 111 17.54 236 19% 3. Education of respondents Senior High School or below 3 0.47 20 2% Bachellorate 218 34.44 52 4% Bachelor Degree 246 38.86 1,126 90% Master Degree or above 166 26.22 54 4% 4. Status Single 19 3.00 42 3% Ever been married 17 2.69 19 2% Married 597 94.31 1,191 95% 5. The number of dependents 0-2 people 285 45.02 553 44% 3-5 people 337 53.24 669 53% >5 people 11 1.74 30 2% 6. Work Experience 0-5 years 3 0.47 11 1% 70 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 6-10 years 153 24.17 285 23% 11-15 years 100 15.80 193 15% 16-20 years 170 26.86 341 27% 21-25 years 108 17.06 210 17% 26-30 years 61 9.64 127 10% >30 years 38 6.00 85 7% Total 633 1,252 Table 2: Respondents and Population Profile (continues) working experience. In essence, branch head respondents represent the population. The same is true for branch manager respondents. The majority of respondents and population is between 30 to 40 years old, male, holding a bachelor degree, married, having 3 to 5 dependents, and having 16 to 20 years of working experience. In essence, branch manager respond- ents represent the population. 6 Analyses and Results Data collected from the online survey were analyzed in two steps. The first is measurement model analysis, in which validity and reliability of each measure was test- ed. The second is structural model analysis, in which the research model was examined using structural equation model (SEM). The detail of each step is elaborated below. 6.1 Measurement Model Analysis Measurement model analysis is to ensure the validity and reliability of all measurements (indicators, dimensions and variables). This study uses standardized factor loading (SFL) as a threshold for validity, where a good validity had SFL ≥ 0.50 (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, and Tatham, 2014). Measurement with SFL <0.50 is considered as in- valid and will be dropped and will not be used in meas- urement models. This study uses construct reliability (CR) and variance extracted (VE) to indicate measurement re- liability. A good reliability is where CR ≥ 0.70 and VE ≥ 0.50. SFL of all measurements were in the range of 0.69- 1.00, except for adaptive performance (-0.08). Hence, our measurement model was valid except for adaptive per- formance dimension in employee performance (EP_AP) since its SFL was < 0.5 and for that reason adaptive per- formance was dropped from measurement model. To eval- uate discriminant validity, we analyzed the relationship between square correlation and AVE. As shown in Table 3, AVE for all variables (diagonal and italics) are higher than the corresponding correlations between those variables, suggesting that there is no issue of discriminant validity in our measurement model (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). CR of all measurements were in the range of 0.86-1.00, Table 3: Discriminant Validity Readiness for Change Employees’ Perfor- mance Counterproductive Work Behavior Transformational Entrepreneurship Transformational Entrepreneurship 0.0324 0.2809 0.0676 0.69 Counterproductive Work Behavior 0,16 0.2916 1 Employees’ Perfor- mance 0.05476 0.83 Readiness for Change 1 71 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers whilst VE were in range of 0.68-1.00. Therefore, all meas- urements were reliable. Latent variable score (LVS) is calculated to simplify models based on the item parceling concept (Bandalos, 2002; Jöreskog, 2000; Jöreskog, Sorbom and Walentin, 2006; Rhemtulla, 2016). LVS transforms the Second Or- der to First Order CFAs. In this study, the dimensions will transform to the First Order CFAs. Item parceling was needed because the measurement model initially had 88 indicators, which required five times the number of indi- cator (440 branches) (Bentler and Chou, 1987), while par- ticipated branches was only 257. By item parceling, the number indicators were reduced to seven indicators, and the actual sample was then way above the requirement (257 > 35). Item parceling yielded a more stable estima- tion of parameters for a small sample (Bandalos, 2002) and improved the model’s fit. 6.2 Structural Model Analysis We performed structural model analysis using LISREL 8.8. We first evaluated goodness-of-fit indices (GOFIs)— Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI), Confirmatory Fit Index (CFI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Standardized Root Mean Squared Residual (SRMR) and Goodness of Fit In- dex (GFI). Table 4 provides the result of overall fit evalu- ation. All six GOFIs show good fit. The structural model’s overall fit is hence good. We then conducted path analysis. Figure 2 and Table 5 show the results of hypotheses testing. Hypotheses are supported when t-value ≥ 1.96 or  -1.96. As can be seen, all hypotheses are accepted. Support for H1 (coefficient = 0.17, t-value ≥ 1.96, p < 0.05) means transformational en- trepreneurship positively affects organizational readiness for change. This support indicates that employees accept the fact that implementing transformational entrepreneur- ship requires then to master a new, different skill set. It also demonstrates employees’ commitment to learn such skill set. On the other hand, the organization where they work Table 4: Goodness of Fit Indices (GOFI) GOFI Criteria for Good Fit Value RMSEA ≤ 0,08 0.0 NNFI ≥ 0.90 1.00 CFI ≥ 0.90 1.00 IFI ≥ 0.90 1.00 RFI ≥ 0.90 0.98 SRMR ≤ 0,05 0.013 GFI ≥ 0.90 0.99 Norm χ2 ≤ 3 0.88 must be willing and committed to invest time, effort and money to upgrade their skills. Support for H2 (coefficient = 0.36, t-value ≥ 1.96, p <0.05) means transformational entrepreneurship positive- ly affects employees’ performance. This support indicates that transformational entrepreneurship indeed leads the employees to better performance, particularly task and contextual performances. Task performance is better as employees perform above and beyond what are required by job description, and contextual performance is better as employees demonstrate prosocial behavior when solving new problems and overcoming new challenges. Such an increase in performance may be due the direction of trans- formation entrepreneurship to generate social impacts, which are mostly above and beyond what are required by job description, as well as new problems and challenges for employees. Support for H3 (coefficient = -0.26, t-value  -1.96, p < 0.05) means transformational entrepreneurship nega- tively affects counterproductive work behavior. This sup- port shows that transformational entrepreneurship may not however be well accepted by employees, especially those who have been resulting good economic performance for a number of years. These employees suddenly have to shift gear to also create social impacts, and, thus have to spend time and effort to upgrade their skills. They may not be capable of upgrading their skills as well. Their work life may no longer be routine and predictable like before; it not may become uncertain and unclear. With this new area of performance, employees’ past good performance may not 72 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers matter at present. They may therefore feel like their future, predicted performance based on their past performance, as well as their future take home income, are taken away from them. In other words, transformational entrepreneur- ship may be seen as a stumbling block for employees to realize their wealthy future. For that reason, employees may silently and collectively protest to the organization they work for (Klandermans, 1997; 2002) in the form of counterproductive work behavior (Kelloway, et al., 2010). Support for H4 (coefficient = 0.60, t-value ≥ 1.96, p < 0.05) means organizational readiness for change positively affects employees’ performance. This support shows that organizational readiness for change leads the employees to better performance as well, particularly task and contextu- al performances. It also indicates that employees consid- er change are beneficial for them and the risks associated with it are acceptable (Armenakis et al., 1993; Beer, 1980; Prochaska, et al., 1994; Spector, 1989), so they are com- mitted to it by improving their efficacy to execute change that lead to better performance. Such commitment may be due to the fact that employees are confident their organi- zation will help and assist them in overcoming challenges and obstacles related to change that can impede their per- formance. In addition, the finding of this study is consist- ent with what Weeks et al. (2004) found that when organ- Figure 2: Path Diagram Hypothesis t-Value Coefficient Remark Summary H1: Transformational entrepreneurship posi- tively 2.66 0.17 Significant Positive H1 Accepted H2: Transformational entrepreneurship posi- tively 8.11 0.36 Significant Positive H2 Accepted H3: Transformational entrepreneurship nega- tively affects counterproductive work behavior -3.95 -0.26 Significant Negative H3 Accepted H4: Organizational readiness for change posi- tively 13.78 0.60 Significant Positive H4 Accepted H5: Counterproductive work behavior nega- tively -4.94 -0.21 Significant Negative H5 Accepted Table 5: Hypotheses Result Chi-Square = 8.88, df = 10, p-value=0.54380, RMSEA = 0.00 73 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers izations are ready to implement change, their employees are likely to show better performance. Support for H4 (coefficient = 0.60, t-value ≥ 1.96, p < 0.05) means organizational readiness for change positively affects employees’ performance. This support shows that organizational readiness for change leads the employees to better performance as well, particularly task and contextu- al performances. It also indicates that employees consid- er change are beneficial for them and the risks associated with it are acceptable (Armenakis et al., 1993; Beer, 1980; Prochaska, et al., 1994; Spector, 1989), so they are com- mitted to it by improving their efficacy to execute change that lead to better performance. Such commitment may be due to the fact that employees are confident their organi- zation will help and assist them in overcoming challenges and obstacles related to change that can impede their per- formance. In addition, the finding of this study is consist- ent with what Weeks et al. (2004) found that when organ- izations are ready to implement change, their employees are likely to show better performance. Support for H5 (coefficient = -0,21, t-value  -1.96, p < 0.05) means counterproductive work behavior negative- ly affects employees’ performance. This support indicates that counterproductive work behavior leads the employ- ees to worst performance, particularly task and contextual performances. Furthermore, it indicates that unhappy and dissatisfied employees who exhibit their protests toward their disagreements on change in such form as complain- ing on seemingly unimportant matters, making a problem bigger than it should be, and focusing on negative aspects of works may not carry out their job above and beyond what are required by job description, create both economic prosperity and social welfare, and solve new problems and overcome new challenges. Instead, they may intentionally slow down the work or even sabotage it. The finding of this study is also consistent with Sackett (2002) who found that counterproductive work behavior might result in low- er employees’ task and contextual performances, and with Greenidge et al. (2015) who found that counterproductive work behavior might lead to decreased contextual perfor- mance. 7 Conclusion, Implications and Future Studies There are several interesting conclusion drawn from the above findings. The first conclusion is related to insignificant contribution of adaptive performance to em- ployees’ performance (adaptive performance was dropped from measurement model because it had SLF < 0.5). Ac- cording to Hesketh and Neal (1999), adaptive performance was an individual’s ability to adjust and get necessary sup- ports to carry out his or her job profile in a dynamic work situation. So, adaptive performance indicates employees’ ability to overcome such volatile work conditions as re- lated to implementing transformational entrepreneurship, in an effective and efficient manner (Baard, Rench, and Kozlowski, 2014). It involves employees’ willingness to embark in new learning experience and get themselves comfortable with volatility in effectively and efficiently (Griffin, Parker, and Mason, 2010; Hollenbeck, LePine, and Ilgen, 1996), and to adjust their interpersonal behavior so they could work successfully with a wide range of peers and subordinates. On the other hand, task performance emphasizes on behaviors directed at fulfilling job responsibilities as a part of job description. It focuses on effective executions on the assigned tasks to achieve the organization’s objectives, and involves knowledge, skills and habits (Conway, 1999). Meanwhile, contextual performance refers to employees’ voluntary behaviors that help other employees and or their organization achieve their goals (Bateman, & Organ, 1983). These so-called prosocial or extra role behaviors are not necessarily mentioned in their job description, but such behaviors are conducted with the intention of supporting the advancement of fellow employees and or organization towards their objectives (Brief and Motowidlo, 1986). This study implies that in times of change, particu- larly in a highly competitive but regulated industry like banking industry where this study took place, task and contextual performances were found to contribute much more significant to employees’ performance compared to adaptive performance. The possible reason for this finding relates to continuous change banks have experienced in re- cent years that cause regulations to be regularly adjusted and make adaptability inherent in their daily operations. Consequently, being adaptable is not something employ- ees have to perform as it is already built-in to their routine work behaviors and procedures. In the meantime, the de- mand for task performance is getting higher as the compe- tition in banking industry is much tougher, especially with the eminent threat from financial technology. Contextual performance is also getting more relevant because of its prosocial nature, in which employees help each other and help their organization to reach their collective successes. Accordingly, for organizations operating in a highly regu- lated and competitive industry such as in banking indus- try, demonstrating task and contextual performances are increasingly critical to help organizations thrive in the competition. Management of such organizations should therefore direct their employees to achieve their respective targets and to help each other to achieve those targets, giv- en that adaptability has already immersed into their daily routine. The second conclusion is that all hypotheses examined in this study are all accepted. It means there are three paths from transformational entrepreneurship to employees’ per- 74 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers formance. There is a direct path and there are two indirect paths via readiness for change and counterproductive work behavior. The direct path has a coefficient of 0.36, while the indirect paths via readiness for change has a coefficient of 0.102 (this coefficient is obtained from a multiplication of transformational entrepreneurship-readiness for change path of 0.17 and readiness for change-employees’ perfor- mance path of 0.60) and the indirect paths via counterpro- ductive work behavior has a coefficient of 0.0546 (this coefficient is obtained from a multiplication of transforma- tional entrepreneurship-counterproductive work behavior path of -0.26 and readiness for change-employees’ perfor- mance path of -0.21). These findings imply the effectiveness of transforma- tional entrepreneurship in directly affecting employees’ performance, rather than go through readiness for change and counterproductive work behavior. Transformational entrepreneurship itself is essentially entrepreneurial activ- ities that bring major changes in market and industry as well as in social and cultural life (Marmer, 2012). It puts more emphasis on stimulating socio-development in a dy- namic manner (Mass and Paul, 2019), and it creates large, vibrant business that grow much beyond the scope of an individual’s subsistence needs and provide jobs and in- come for others (Schoar, 2010). Transformation entrepre- neurship generates employees’ performance as it develops organization’s market and industry, and thus gives much more opportunities for employees to perform. According- ly, to improve employees’ performance, management of the organizations needs to nurture and encourage trans- formational entrepreneurial activities among employees. These activities benefit not only the organizations where they work, but also themselves. The above findings also imply that the effect transfor- mational entrepreneurship has on readiness for change and counterproductive work behavior adds its impact on em- ployees’ performance. But, if we compare the direct effect of these three variables toward employees’ performance, readiness for change comes up much more impactful than the other two. It shows that having employees ready for change can help them cope with such volatility and dy- namics, more than avoiding or minimizing counterproduc- tive work behavior, to reach better performance. Readiness for change itself involves shifting the mindsets and gener- ating motivations to change; it involves change commit- ment and change efficacy (Weiner, 2009). Consequently, to enhance employees’ performance, management of the or- ganizations needs to urge employees’ mind shift and boost their motivations toward change so they are committed and able to execute change when the time comes. Future studies may be warranted in industries other than banking industry that have different characteristics of volatility and dynamics to empirically examine whether readiness for change comes up more impactful than trans- formational entrepreneurship and counterproductive work behavior. In addition, future studies may need to include internal and external situational factors, such as Deni- son, Hooijberg, Lane and Lief’s (2012) corporate culture, and Dess and Beard’s (1984) environmental dynamism, complexity and munificence as moderators to each of the three paths toward employees’ performance to measure the extent these situational factors strengthen or weaken the effect of transformational entrepreneurship, readiness for change and counterproductive work behavior on em- ployees’ performance. Future studies may also need to consider a longitudinal approach to examine this study’s causal-effect relationships. Although we hold that such re- lationships, specified based on literature, were plausible, we cannot demonstrate that contention empirically using cross-sectional data. 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(2009). A theory of organization readiness for change. Implementation Science, 4, 67 https://doi. org/10.1186/1748-5908-4-67 Weeks, W. A., Roberts, J., Chonko, L. B., & Jones, E. (2004). Organizational readiness for change, individu- al fear of change, and sales manager performance: An empirical investigation. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 24, 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 08853134.2004.10749012 Weber, Olaf. (2017). Corporate sustainability and financial performance of Chinese banks. Sustainability Account- ing, Management and Policy Journal, 8, (3), 358-385. https://doi.org/10.1108/SAMPJ-09-2016-0066 Febri Nila Chrisanty is a Ph.D student in University of Indonesia, Faculty Economics and Business, Depok, Indonesia. She completed her undergraduate degree at the Faculty of Economics, University of Trisakti, Indonesia, and her master’s degree at the Magister Management, University of Indonesia, Indonesia. She has 18 years of practical experience in financial industry. Michael Surya Gunawan is a Ph.D student in University of Indonesia, Faculty Economics and Business, Depok, Indonesia. He completed his undergraduate degree of Electrical Engineering at the 1986, University of Trisakti, and his master’s degree at University of Indonesia. He has been for more than 30 years of practical experience in IT / ICT (Information Technology / Information & Communication Technology) Industry. 77 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Retno W. Wijayanti is a Ph.D student in University of Indonesia, Faculty Economics and Business, Depok, Indonesia. She completed her undergraduate degree on Agribisnis at Bogor Agricultural Institute (IPB University), Indonesia, in 1988, and her master’s degree at Drexell University, USA in 1997. She has 31 years of practical experience in Banking at PT. Bank Rakyat Indonesia (Persero), Tbk. Budi W. Soetjipto is a vice rector of University of Pertamina, Faculty Economic and Business, Jakarta, Indonesia and also an associate professor in management at University of Indonesia, Faculty of Economics and Business, Depok, Indonesia. He completed his undergraduate degree at the Department of Management, University of Indonesia, and his master’s and Ph.D degrees at Department of Management and Labor Relations, Cleveland State University, USA. He has 30 years of academic and practical experiences in the fields of human resources management, organizational behavior, and strategic management.(ht tps://orcid.org/0000-0001-5670- 0864). Vloga transformacijskega podjetništva, pripravljenosti na spremembe in kontraproduktivnega delovnega vedenja dela pri povečanju uspešnosti zaposlenih Ozadje in namen: Trajno podjetje uravnoteži gospodarski in družbeni vpliv, medtem ko transformacijsko podje- tništvo ustvarja ravnotežje med gospodarskim in družbenim vplivom. Namen te raziskave je proučiti vpliv trans- formacijskega podjetništva na povečanje organizacijske pripravljenosti na spremembe, zmanjšanje kontraproduk- tivnega delovnega vedenja in povečanje uspešnosti zaposlenih. Poleg tega želi prispevek proučiti, v kolikšni meri organizacijska pripravljenost vpliva na spremembe in kontraproduktivno delovno vedenje na uspešnost zaposlenih. Metodologija: Podatki so bili zbrani z anketo v 257 podružnicah državne banke. Za preizkus predlaganega modela smo uporabili model strukturne enačbe (SEM). Ugotovitve: Transformacijsko podjetništvo pozitivno in pomembno vpliva na organizacijsko pripravljenost na spre- membe in uspešnost zaposlenih ter negativno in pomembno vpliva na kontraproduktivno delovno vedenje. Poleg tega je študija pokazala znaten pozitiven učinek organizacijske pripravljenosti na spremembe na uspešnost zaposle- nih in izrazito negativen učinek kontraproduktivnega delovnega vedenja na uspešnost zaposlenih. Zaključek: Glavna ugotovitev te študije je, da se učinkovitost transformacijskega podjetništva kaže pri neposre- dnem vplivu na uspešnost zaposlenih. Vendar vpliv, ki ga ima transformacijsko podjetništvo na pripravljenost na spremembe in na kontraproduktivno delovno vedenje, poveča njegov vpliv na uspešnost zaposlenih. Neposredni učinek na je veliko pomembnejši od prej omenjenih dveh. Iz tega izhaja, da v volatilnih in dinamičnih so delovnih situacijah (notranjih in zunanjih), pripravljenost zaposlenih na spremembe lahko pomaga, da se spoprimejo s tako nestanovitnostjo in dinamiko in dosežejo boljše rezultate. Ključne besede: Organizacijsko zaupanje; Organizacijska zavezanost; Zdravstvene organizacije, Strateško upravlja- nje 78 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Appendix A: Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (Meyer and Allen, 1991) Construct Dimension Items Measures Transformational Entrepreneurship (TE) Human Cap- ital Quality (HCQ) TE_QHC1 Our employees demonstrate sufficient knowledge at work TE_QHC2 Our employees are skillful at their work TE_QHC3 Our employees show appropriate attitude at their work TE_QHC4 Our employee consistently generates new ideas TE_QHC5 Our employees perform to the best of their ability TE_QHC6 Our employees constantly do their best Risk Taking & Taking Opportunity (RTT) TE_ RTT01 We continuously seek for new opportunities in the market TE_ RTT02 We have to take risks to take the advantage of new opportunities TE_ RTT03 We believe changes in market creates new opportunities TE_ RTT04 We tend to participate in high-risk projects TE_ RTT05 We talk more about opportunities than problems. TE_ RTT06 We believe risk is an inherent part of new opportunities Evaluating Changing Condition (ECC) TE_ECC1 We gather relevant information to evaluate external changing condi- tions TE_ECC2 We collect information accordingly to understand market dynamics TE_ECC3 We continuously evaluate every change in the market TE_ECC4 We assess relevant information as a part of market evaluation TE_ECC5 We evaluate market conditions using valid information Readiness for Change (RC) RC_1 People in this organization readily accept change RC_2 Past Introduction of new technology have gone smoothly RC_3 Clear business goals are guiding the introduction of the new technology RC_4 The new technology will improve job quality in our organization RC_5 The new technology will improve Job security RC_6 People trust upper management to make technology decisions RC_7 There is good communication between management and employees RC_8 We have the money needed to invest in new technology RC_9 Our employee are willing to be trained to work with new technology RC_10 The physical infrastructure of our workplace can readily accommodate new technology Counterproduc- tive Work Behav- ior (CWB) CWB_1 I complained about unimportant issues at work CWB_2 I made problems at work bigger than they were CWB_3 I focused on the negative aspects of a situation at work instead of the positive aspects CWB_4 I talked to colleagues about the negative aspects of my work CWB_5 I talked to people outside of the organization about the negative as- pects of my work 79 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Employee Perfor- mance (EP) Task Perfor- mance (TP) EP_TP1 I was able to plan my work so that I finished it on time EP_TP2 I kept in mind the work result I needed to achieve EP_TP3 I was able to distinguish main issues from side issues EP_TP4 I was able to carry out my work well with minimal time and effort EP_TP5 I planned my work optimally Contextual Perfor- mance (CP) EP_CP1 On my own initiative, I started new tasks when my old tasks were completed EP_CP2 I took on challenging tasks when these were available EP_CP3 I worked on keeping my job-related knowledge up to date EP_CP4 I worked on keeping my work skills up to date EP_CP5 I came up with creative solutions for new problems EP_CP6 I took on extra responsibilities EP_CP7 I Continually sought new challenges in my work EP_CP8 I actively participated in meetings and/or consultations Adaptive Perfor- mance (AP) EP_AP1 I use to perform well to mobilize collective intelligence for effective team work EP_AP2 I could manage change in my job very well whenever the situation demands. EP_AP3 I can handle effectively my work team in the face of change. EP_AP4 I always believe that mutual understanding can lead to a viable solution in organization EP_AP5 I use to lose my temper when faced with criticism from my team mem- bers. (R) EP_AP6 I am very comfortable with job flexibility. EP_AP7 I use to cope well with organizational changes from time to time. Appendix A: Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (Meyer and Allen, 1991) (continues) 80 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Appendix B: Relationship of Construct Dimension Items Measures and SFL Construct Dimension Items Measures SFL Transformational Entrepreneurship Human Cap- ital Quality TE_QHC1 Our employees demonstrate sufficient knowledge at work 0,689 TE_QHC2 Our employees are skillful at their work 0,800 TE_QHC3 Our employees show appropriate attitude at their work 0,829 TE_QHC4 Our employee consistently generates new ideas 0,779 TE_QHC5 Our employees perform to the best of their ability 0,922 TE_QHC6 Our employees constantly do their best 0,879 Risk Taking & Taking Opportunity TE_ RTT01 We continuously seek for new opportunities in the market 0,665 TE_ RTT02 We have to take risks to take the advantage of new oppor- tunities 0,657 TE_ RTT03 We believe changes in market creates new opportunities 0,720 TE_ RTT04 We tend to participate in high-risk projects 0,321 (Not Valid) TE_ RTT05 We talk more about opportunities than problems. 0,752 TE_ RTT06 We believe risk is an inherent part of new opportunities 0,764 Evaluating Changing Condition TE_ECC1 We gather relevant information to evaluate external chang- ing conditions 0,864 TE_ECC2 We collect information accordingly to understand market dynamics 0,917 TE_ECC3 We continuously evaluate every change in the market 0,880 TE_ECC4 We assess relevant information as a part of market evalua- tion 0,894 TE_ECC5 We evaluate market conditions using valid information 0,841 Readiness for Change RC_1 People in this organization readily accept change 0,672 RC_2 Past Introduction of new technology have gone smoothly 0,259 (Not Valid) RC_3 Clear business goals are guiding the introduction of the new technology 0,848 RC_4 The new technology will improve job quality in our organi- zation 0,860 RC_5 The new technology will improve Job security 0,744 RC_6 People trust upper management to make technology deci- sions 0,740 RC_7 There is good communication between management and employees 0,832 RC_8 We have the money needed to invest in new technology 0,570 RC_9 Our employee are willing to be trained to work with new technology 0,797 RC_10 The physical infrastructure of our workplace can readily accommodate new technology 0,675 81 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Counterpro- ductive Work Behavior CWB_1 I complained about unimportant issues at work 0,591 CWB_2 I made problems at work bigger than they were 0,838 CWB_3 I focused on the negative aspects of a situation at work instead of the positive aspects 0,854 CWB_4 I talked to colleagues about the negative aspects of my work 0,904 CWB_5 I talked to people outside of the organization about the negative aspects of my work 0,862 Employee Perfor- mance Task Perfor- mance EP_TP1 I was able to plan my work so that I finished it on time 0,847 EP_TP2 I kept in mind the work result I needed to achieve 0,839 EP_TP3 I was able to distinguish main issues from side issues 0,845 EP_TP4 I was able to carry out my work well with minimal time and effort 0,847 EP_TP5 I planned my work optimally 0,863 Contextual Perfor- mance EP_CP1 On my own initiative, I started new tasks when my old tasks were completed 0,339 (Not Valid) EP_CP2 I took on challenging tasks when these were available 0,820 EP_CP3 I worked on keeping my job-related knowledge up to date 0,870 EP_CP4 I worked on keeping my work skills up to date 0,882 EP_CP5 I came up with creative solutions for new problems 0,896 EP_CP6 I took on extra responsibilities 0,833 EP_CP7 I Continually sought new challenges in my work 0,846 EP_CP8 I actively participated in meetings and/or consultations 0,860 Adaptive Perfor- mance EP_AP1 I use to perform well to mobilize collective intelligence for effective team work 0,719 EP_AP2 I could manage change in my job very well whenever the situation demands. 0,882 EP_AP3 I can handle effectively my work team in the face of change. 0,720 EP_AP4 I always believe that mutual understanding can lead to a viable solution in organization 0,631 EP_AP5 I use to lose my temper when faced with criticism from my team members. (R) 0,321 (Not Valid) EP_AP6 I am very comfortable with job flexibility. 0,627 EP_AP7 I use to cope well with organizational changes from time to time. 0,178 (Not Valid) Appendix B: Relationship of Construct Dimension Items Measures and SFL (continues) 82 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 1 Received: 31th August 2020; revised: 19th December 2020; accepted: 23rd January 2021 How does Perceived Organizational Support Affect Psychological Capital? The Mediating Role of Authentic Leadership Mahmut BİLGETÜRK1, Elif BAYKAL2 1 Yıldız Technical University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey, mahmutb@yildiz. edu.tr (Corresponding author), 2 Istanbul Medipol University, Medipol Business School, Istanbul, Turkey, elif.baykal@medipol.edu.tr Background and Purpose: Authentic leadership, the most noteworthy positive leadership style accepted by pos- itive organizational behavior scholars, is famous for its contributions to psychological capitals. And, in fact, this leadership style can flourish and be experienced more easily in situations where there are supportive organizational conditions. Hence, in this study, we assume that organizational support is an important antecedent for experiencing and displaying authentic leadership. Furthermore, in organizations wherein authentic leadership is practiced, people may assume organizational support comes about thanks to their leaders’s management style, particularly where authentic leadership may shadow the effect of perceived organizational support on the psychological capitals of individuals. So, in our model we proposed that perceived organizational support will have a positive effect on both authentic leadership style and the psychological capitals of individuals. Moreover, authentic leadership will act as a mediator in this relationship. Design/Methodology/Approach: For the related field research we collected data from professionals working in the service sector in Istanbul. Related data have been analysed with structural equation modelling in order to test our hypotheses. Results: Results of this study confirmed our assumptions regarding the positive effects of perceived organizational support on authentic leadership and on four basic dimensions of psychological capital: self-efficacy, optimism, resilience, and hope. Moreover, our results confirmed the statistically significant effect of authentic leadership on psychological capital and partial mediator effect of authentic leadership in the relationship between perceived orga- nizational support and psychological capital. Conclusion: Our results indicate the importance of empowering employees and engaging in authentic leadership behaviour in increasing psychological capitals of employees and psychologically creating a more powerful work- force. Keywords: Perceived organizational support, Authentic leadership, Psychological capital DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0006 1 Introduction Recent political and economic negativities in many parts of the world have brought about an array of results, such as a decreasing belief in politicians and businessmen, economic crises, violations of trust in managers and pro- fessionals during these crises, and an increased need for more ethical and trustworthy leaders. People have begun to need leaders who behave as they are, that is, who have the ability to be honest with others and to be honest with themselves, and when we come to the 2000s, researchers such as Luthans et al. (2007), Walumbwa et al., (2008) have developed authentic leadership, which is a positive 83 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers leadership form that has been adopted as a product of pos- itive psychology. Among positive organizational school researchers, authentic leadership was seen as a fruit of pos- itive organizational atmosphere, and it was claimed that increased awareness, auto control, and positive modelling that was created by authentic leadership will also increase the individual authenticity of the followers (Walumbwa et al., 2008). In this study, we suggest that a suitable environment that nourishes authentic behavior by supporting both lead- ers and followers in an organizational setting will lead to the development of authentic leadership. On the one hand, we posit that this suitable environment can be a support- ive and empowering environment which also culminates in higher levels of psychological capacity on the side of followers. Furthermore, we will test if authentic leadership acts as a mediator in the relationship between this sup- portive environment and the psychological capacities of followers. 2 Literature review 2.1 Authentic Leadership Luthans and Avolio (2003) explained authentic leader- ship as a process drawing from both psychological capital (Positive Psychological capacities) and a nourishing envi- ronment resulting in both greater awareness and positive behaviours on the part of both leaders and their followers, culminating in positive self-development. Later, Walumb- wa et al. defined authentic leadership as a leadership style that not only draws upon and promotes the positive psy- chological capitals of individuals but also culminates in positive organizational climate: all in order to foster high- er levels of self-awareness, an internalized moral perspec- tive, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency for both the leader and the led (Walumbwa et al., 2008:94). Whitehead (2009) also posited that authentic leadership can be conceived as an ethical leadership style wherein the leader is self-aware, humble, empowering and caring (Whitehead, 2009:850). In fact, in authentic leadership, as the relationship be- tween the leader and his followers becomes authentic, the parties individually develop and become more competent. The most widely cited work on authentic leadership is the work of Walumbwa et al. (2008), consisting of five compo- nents. The first of these components is the self-awareness dimension, including being aware of one’s own individ- ual abilities, strengths, and weaknesses. Transparency in relationships is the second dimension, suggesting that the leader is extremely clear and open in his relationships. The balanced processing of information dimension explains the, authentic leader’s objectivity in considering all related data before making a decision (Walumbwa et al., 2008). The dimension of internalized moral behavior is that the individual can act in accordance with their own value judgments, choices and needs (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Actually, authentic leadership is significant in promot- ing healthy work environments by influencing employees and creating positive organizational outcomes (Alilyyani et al., 2018: 34), a supportive environment (Wong et al., 2013), employee empowerment (Regan et al., 2016), or- ganizational identification (Valsania and Molero, 2016), and creativity (Moreover, Mubarak and Noor (2018) and proactive employee behavior (Zhang et al., 2018). Addi- tionally, authentic leadership is also effective in hindering negative organizational outcomes, such as silence behav- ior (Xiyuan et al.,2017). 2.2 Perceived Organizational Support According to Eisenberger (2001), employees attach great significance to balance in their mutual relations with the organization they work with. It denotes employees’ evaluation of self-value by the organization (Albawi et al., 2019). They search for equivalence between the val- ue given to them by their organization and their spend- ing both material and emotional for their organizations. In the existence of equivalence, individuals begin to feel confident that they will be rewarded by the organization for their pro-organizational behavior (Eisenberger et al., 2001). Eisenberger et al. (1986) explains perceived organ- izational support as the total of benefits it provides to its employees by an organization in order to achieve the goals that lead to organizational success. Employees direct their performances in an organizational setting according to the awards they expect the organization to provide for them in the future (Stamper & Johlke, 2003). Actually, as Hellman et al. (2006) suggest, perceived organizational support is the hope that the employee’s contribution to the organi- zation will be valued by the organization, accepted as a value, and rewarded in return. Hochwarter et al. (2013) claim that one of the most striking points in the concept of perceived organizational support is the fact that members of the organization see various activities, attitudes, and be- haviours carried out by the representatives of the organi- zation as indicators of the intention of the superior mind of the organization rather than the personal preferences of these people and the behavior of the representatives of the organization. Organizational support positively affects the employees’ emotional bond within the organization be- cause it includes accepting their employees as valuable, in- terested in their happiness, making them feel that they care (Eisenberger et al., 1986), and meeting the needs of the individual within the organization to belong, be respected, and approved. Moreover, it boosts flourishing at work that 84 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers leads to greater well-being and work engagement (Imran et al., 2020), affective commitment (Ullah et al., 2020), employee voice behavior (Stinglhamber et. al., 2020) and a lower burnout rate (Leupold et al., 2020). 2.3 Psychological Capital Luthans defined psychological capital as a second order construct which can be measured, developed, and taught for attaining higher performance and deals with who the person is and what can happen through positive development (Luthans, Youssef, and Avolio, 2007).This is a higher-order construct encompassing self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience (Luthans, Youssef and Avolio, 2007). These are positively oriented human strengths that are measurable, developable, and manageable for higher performance (Baykal, 2020: 278). Psychological Capital is open to change and it is developable and that is why it is considered to be a “state-like” rather than a “trait-like” feature. It can be modified and improved with the help of positive organizational interventions, programs, and on- the-job training (Lupşa et al., 2020: 1508). Self-efficacy has its roots in the social cognitive theory of Bandura (2000) that defines an individuals’ confidence in themselves in mobilizing their self-motivation and ca- pabilities with the aim of achieving high performance. It is one’s specific confidence regarding a specific task. One can have high self confidence in a task while experienc- ing lower self-confidence in another task. Also, optimism, another important component of psychological capital, indicates an individual’s expectancy of positive outcomes (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 2001). According to Scheier, Carver and Bridges (2001), optimism is a general, inclu- sive positive perspective that is specific to more gener- alized situations and conditions, and has been extended to cover most of the individual’s life. In fact, hope is a psychological capacity through which individuals can em- brace a more positive attitude towards reaching a certain goal. It involves two components: agency (goal-directed energy) and pathways (alternative ways to attain a specif- ic goal) (Snyder, 2002). In simpler terms, hope involves knowing both the person’s will and probability of achiev- ing the goal, the ways to reach the goal, and the importance of the goal. Producing strategic ways and having motiva- tion are both important points, but none of them is suffi- cient for success. Lastly, resilience explains one’s ability to bounce back from crises, adversities, uncertainties, risks or failures, and adapt to changing situations (Masten & Reed, 2002). Unlike other dimensions, it has a reactive nature and contributes to work-related outcomes, such as perfor- mance, job satisfaction, work happiness, and organization- al commitment (Youssef and Luthans, 2007: Nguyen and Ngo, 2020). 3 Theoretical background and hypotheses 3.1 Perceived Organizational Support and Optimism In psychological capital literature, Seligman (1998) defines optimism as an attitude that explains positive sit- uations stemming from inner reasons and negative situa- tions in terms of external, temporary, and situation-spe- cific reasons. The mechanism for optimism is not merely shaped by self-perception but also includes external caus- es, including other people or situational factors (Seligman, 1998). Organizational support theory posits that emotional support from colleagues and managers has the power to satisfy employees’ needs for affiliation and an optimistic mindset, which in turn will enhance their motivation and satisfaction at the workplace (Tews et al., 2013). In fact, positive work experiences are often encoded in one’s long- term memory systems and readily accessible when a new situation arises that needs to be interpreted either positive- ly or negatively. Co-worker and supervisor support also tend to increase optimism through learning since social learning makes optimism contagious. When the extant lit- erature is examined, we can find some empirical support for the perceived organizational support-optimism rela- tionship. For instance; Liu, Huang and Jiang (2016), Seger et al. (2018) and He et al. (2016) revealed the positive im- pact of perceived social support on psychological capitals of individuals. It is hypothesized that: H1. Perceived Organizational support has a positive effect on optimism. 3.2 Perceived Organizational Support and Hope Miller et al. (2014) emphasized the importance of sup- portive relationships in increasing hope levels of individ- uals. During the hope building process, individuals estab- lish a strong bond with caregivers who develop the greatest amount of hope. Such a secure attachment gives people a sense of empowerment to attain their goals (Snyder et. al. 2002). Therefore, fostering hope is the most important task of a leader (Walker, 2006:542). On the one hand, according to hope theory, high-hope individuals can determine goals that are both more challenging and attainable: they pursue these goals with a high motivation and develop alternative meaningful routes for reaching these goals (Snyder, 2002). In the long run, individuals benefit from feedback related to goal outcomes in order to design their future agency and pathways thinking (Cheavens, 2019: 453). In this process, we propose that a high quality and benevolent counselling 85 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers from the leaders and from the organizations may lead to a more confident and fruitful goal setting process. In the extant literature, there exists some empirical support for the positive effect of support on hope levels of individuals. For instance, Whelan et al. (2016) showed the positive ef- fect of a supportive career guidance on well-being, hope, and self-efficacy levels of individuals. Similarly, Fletcher (2018) showed the positive effect of social support in times of crises contributing to higher levels of hope, optimism, and resilience. Madani et al. (2018) confirmed the positive effect of social support on the hopefulness of cancer pa- tients and Aria, Jafari, and Behifar (2019) confirmed the impact of organizational support on psychological capi- tals of teachers working in Tehran. Being inspired from the extant literature the following hypothesis H2 has been constructed. H2. Perceived Organizational support has a positive effect on hope. 3.3 Perceived Organizational Support and Self-efficacy Self-efficacy is defined as an individuals’ convictions regarding their capacities to culminate high performance. Self-efficacy convictions designates individuals’ percep- tions regarding themselves (Bandura, 2010:1). The most effective way of increasing self-efficacy is through expe- rience necessary to master one’s capabilities. Moreover, having proper role models and spending time with similar people who have succeeded before is important in the effi- ciency building process (Bandura, 2010:2). Social persua- sion is also important in the efficacy building process since positive appraisals culminate in higher self-efficacy. The way individuals interpret their self-efficacy beliefs is also conceived as the third most important way to increase their self-efficacy. Thus, an encouraging atmosphere and em- powerment can contribute to greater self-efficacy. In this point, Phan and Locke (2016) found that social persuasion and support is the most important source of self-efficacy in their study among university teachers. In Klassen and Tze’s (2014) meta-analysis, self-efficacy levels of employ- ees have been found to be strongly related with evaluations of their effectiveness by their colleagues and managers. Similarly Rockow et al. (2016) revealed that work efficacy is significantly related to perceived organizational support. Mahdad, Adibi and Saffari (2018) confirmed the effect of perceived organizational support on self-efficacy in Irani- an context. More recently, Hen et al. (2020) also confirmed the relationship between perceived organizational support and the self-efficacy of nurses in Chinese context. Taking the extant literature into consideration the following hy- pothesis H3 has been built: H3. Perceived Organizational Support has a positive effect on Self-efficacy 3.4 Perceived Organizational Support Resilience As mentioned before, psychological resilience itself is a kind of ability to “bounce back” from negative events, being able to regulate stress, prevent negative mental out- comes, and reduce work stress (Baykal, 2018:34). Having access to necessary capitals, having competence/expertise, being supported by individuals within an environment, and having the chance to master experiences that contribute to enhancing competencies and individual progress are im- portant factors that contribute to resilience (Luthar, Cic- chetti, and Becker, 2000). Furthermore, as Ollier-Malaterre (2010) posits, appreciation and managerial support have a positive impact on resilience, making it important to have organizational support to boost resilience. Empirical proof for the importance of organizational support on resilience also exists. For example; Meredith et al. (2011) showed the effect of perceived organizational support on higher levels of resilience among military officers in the USA. Liu et al. (2013) examined positive resources for combating depres- sive symptoms among Chinese male correctional officers, and the results of their study showed that perceived or- ganizational support is effective for the resilience and op- timism of individuals. Hodlife (2014) reported the role of empowering leadership in fostering employee resilience. Azim and Dora (2016) also confirmed the positive effect of perceived organizational support on all dimensions of psychological capital, including resilience. Similarly, Liv- ingston and Forbes (2016) confirmed the same effect on sports officials, and Zehir and Narcıkara (2016) confirmed the effect of organizational support on resilience in Turkish context. Being inspired from these studies, the H4 hypoth- esis has been set forth; H4. Perceived organizational support has a positive ef- fect on resilience. 3.5 Perceived Organizational Support and Authentic Leadership Empowered individuals seek consistency in leaders’ talks and behaviours (Simons et al., 2015), namely when employees feel supported they expect their leaders to be more authentic since they feel they have the right to ex- pect more trustworthy and open leaders and colleagues. Moreover, when employees are empowered, they demand higher levels of managerial adherence to an organization’s code of conduct in case of any conflict that may arise; oth- erwise, their commitment to their organizations ceases to exist (Saleem et al. 2019: 305). Authentic leadership requires a highly developed or- ganizational environment, resulting in both high levels of self-awareness and greater self-regulated positive be- 86 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers haviours culminating in both leader and follower devel- opment. But acting as an authentic leader and meeting the demands of empowered employees requires high levels of organizational support when evaluated from the per- spective of leaders (Shapira-Lishchinsky, 2014:995). On the one hand, in order to act authentically, people ought to have high self-consistency between their convictions, beliefs and behaviours (Walumbwa et al. 2008: 93) and this is possible only if the organizational climate lets in- dividuals experience this consistency. To that point, Avo- lio and Gardner (2005) posit organizational environments providing open access to information and organizational resources and supporting organizational members while providing equal opportunity for all members to learn and develop, and as a result, organizations will create the re- quired atmosphere for authentic leadership. So, this rela- tionship was tested through the following hypothesis H5: H5. Perceived Organizational Support has a positive effect on Authentic Leadership. 3.6 Authentic Leadership and Psychological Capital Under authentic leadership, rather than negative emo- tions, followers have positive emotions towards the organ- ization and their own selves, thereby increasing their own psychological resource capacities (Baykal, 2018:60). Simi- larly, Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter (2003) posits that under authentic leadership, individuals’ can express themselves easily, culminating in higher motivation and contributing to higher levels of psychological capacity. Moreover, au- thentic leaders promote follower’s built-in motivation and enlarge their mental capabilities. This is possible through the enlargement of psychological capacities of individu- als that are state-like but also developable composites of attitudinal and cognitive resources (Wooley, Caza and Levy, 2011). A significant characteristic of psychological capacities is the fact that they are stable over time but open to development (Luthans et al., 2006). Through increased psychological capital, people can use their mental capacity more effectively. They will feel more confident and have a more optimistic and hopeful view about their capacity to use mental powers, which can in turn increase their mental powers in the long run. According to the broaden and build theory of Frederickson (2004), when individuals use their cognitive powers with the help of escalation effect, they end up with greater capacity in that specific power. These leaders have the capacity to enhance positive sentiments of individuals by building supportive, positive, reasonable, and transparent connections with them (Pe- terson et al., 2012). In the extant literature, there are an important number of studies confirming authentic leader- ship and psychological capital relationship. For instance, Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang and Avey (2009) revealed this relationship in the USA. In another study, Amunkete and Rothmann (2015) also confirmed the same effect. Later, McDowell, Huang and Caza (2018) confirmed the posi- tive effect of authentic leadership on basketball players’ psychological capacities. In a more recent study, applied in Pakistan by Adil and Kamal (2019), the results revealed that authentic leadership had direct effects on work en- gagement, psychological capacity, and the job-related af- fective well-being of employees. Taking these studies into consideration, the following hypothesis H6 has been con- structed in order to test the possible existence of authentic leadership as a mediator using hypothesis H7. H6. Authentic Leadership has a positive effect on Psychological Capital H7. Authentic Leadership acts as a mediator in the re- lationship between Perceived Organizational Support and Psychological Capital. 4 Methodology 4.1 Sample and data collection procedures This study employs a qualitative research approach to the collection of empirical data from managers and white-collar employees in Turkish service sector firms, especially those working in the finance sector. In Turkey, one of the most meaningful alternatives that can be select- ed as a representative of the service sector is the finance sector, including banks and all kinds of other financial in- stitutions. It is a typical service sector example with its high level of institutionalization and proportional excess of educated employees and a customer-oriented working style. Owing to the fact that many banks and financial in- stitutions in Turkey have their headquarters in Turkey, the related field research was conducted in Istanbul. Online surveys were sent to the employees of financial institutions located in İstanbul and active in the joint stock market. An online questionnaire was sent through the employees’ Linkedin account using a random sampling method over an eight-week period. All respondents were guaranteed that their answers would remain anonymous to minimize the likelihood of common method bias (Podsakoff, Mac- kenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Following the data col- lection process, 2480 online surveys were sent. After elim- inating the unusable data, 584 participant data from 121 companies remained. The respondents included 335 (66.7 percent) females and 166 (33.1 percent) males. Most of the respondents were aged between 18 and 25 years (45.5 percent) followed by 26–35 years (41.5 percent), 36–45 years (10.5 percent) and above 55 (2.6 percent). Addition- ally, 61.6% of the participants are university graduates and 58.2% are lower and middle level managers. 87 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers 4.2 Measures For measuring authentic leadership, the most com- monly used scale of Walumbwa et al. (2008) was adopted. This is a four-dimensional scale (self-awareness, relation- al transparency, ınternalized moral perspective, balanced processing) comprising 16 items. A 10-item scale was used to measure perceived organizational support, which was developed by Eisenberger et al. (1986) and validated by Armstrong-Stassen and Ursel (2009). Finally, the scale for psychological capital was used from Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio (2007). It is a 24 items’ scale with four dimensions (efficacy, hope, resiliency, optimism). 4.3 Reliability and validity We conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for testing the meas- urement model and examining the reliability and validity of measures. In EFA, using the principal component anal- ysis with Promax rotation; the results showed that both KMO (0.95) and Bartlett (p <0.001) tests were performed, demonstrating that the sample data were suitable for EFA. Items with low factor loading or items loading into wrong factors were excluded from the scale (AuL_RT5, POS6, POS7, PC_Opt1, PC_Opt3, PC_SeEff5, PC_Res3, PC_Res4, PC_Hope1). Factor analysis showed that all remaining items loaded into their theorizing constructs with the factor loadings were above 0.5. The total variance explained was approximately 71.76 percent. Cronbach al- phas values for the nine constructs in the studyranged from 0.79 to 0.94, which represents the internal consistency of scales (Hair et al. 2010). In the validation for the measurement of specific con- structs, confirmatory factor analysis is particularly useful (Hair et al., 2010). In our research, the unified data of 121 firms obtained from 584 participants were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis based on the structural equa- tion modelling (SEM) technique via AMOS (Arbuckle, 2008). SEM allows for a statistical test of the goodness- of-fit for the proposed confirmatory factor solution, which is not possible with principal components/factor analysis (Andersen and Kheam, 1998). Due to the fact that it is the most appropriate method for the data set in the confirmato- ry factor analysis, Maximum Likelihood estimation meth- od has been used. Assumptions of this method which are a minimum sample of 200, consisting of continuous data and normal distribution assumptions (Hox and Bechger, 1998) are also met. The CFA results indicate that χ2=1371.5, df=743, χ2/df=1.846, CFI=0.962, TLI=0.959, PNFI=0.835, SRMR=0.039, RMSEA=0.038, Pclose>0.05. The fac- tor loadings were statistically significant at p<0.001 and above 0.50 threshold. Furthermore, the average variance extracted (AVE) values are in the range of 0.50-0.70. The composite reliabilities (CR) are in the range of 0.80–0.94. According to results, convergent validity of scales was es- tablished (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). For discriminant validity, we examined the square roots of AVE and correlations. As Table 2 shows, correlations among variables are below the square roots of AVE of exact variables, which confirms the scales’ discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). It is seen that there is a construct validity of scales due to the existence of both convergent and discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2010). 4.4 Common method bias Common method bias means that an external factor may affect responses given to scales such as using on-line surveys (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). To prevent CMB, in the data collection process, data were collected from some participants face-to-face and some via online tools. The data suspected of being biased were excluded from the sample. Additionally, to test whether there is a CMB problem or not, Harman’s single-factor test was used. In this method, all items were loaded onto a sin- gle factor in exploratory factor analysis. If the Total Var- iance Explained is significantly low, it is understood that the factor structure is not explained with a single-factor structure, and there is no common method bias problem. In our study, the total explained variance with a single-factor was %33.77. Accordingly, it has been observed that there is no CMB problem. 4.5 Structural model and hypotheses testing Structural equation modelling was used to test the hypotheses in this study due to the fact that SEM is an advantageous method that allows the examining of caus- al relations (Hox and Bechger 1998; Hair et al., 2010). Based on the results of data analysis with AMOS software, the model fit indices of the structural model (χ2=1680.2 df=871 χ2/df=1.929 CFI=0.952 TLI=0.948 PNFI=0.834 SRMR=0.062 RMSEA=0.040 Pclose>0.05) confirmed a good fit between model and data (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Age, gender, and education were taken as control varia- bles. 88 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Table 1: CFA, reliability and validity values Factors Std. loading t-value Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE Perceived Organizational Support 0.937 0.937 0.652 POS1 0.863 - POS2 0.864 28.121 POS3 0.903 30.689 POS4 0.859 27.802 POS5 0.731 21.225 POS8 0.744 21.794 POS9 0.733 21.286 POS10 0.741 21.674 Authentic Leadership self-awareness 0.836 0.860 0.605 AuL_SA1 0.812 AuL_SA2 0.74 19.032 AuL_SA3 0.739 19.013 AuL_SA4 0.817 21.504 relational transparency 0.895 0.898 0.690 AuL_RT1 0.77 AuL_RT2 0.887 23.141 AuL_RT3 0.869 22.597 AuL_RT4 0.79 20.169 internalized moral perspective 0.787 0.840 0.568 AuL_IMP1 0.774 AuL_IMP2 0.725 17.326 AuL_IMP3 0.75 17.986 AuL_IMP4 0.764 18.358 balanced processing 0.870 0.875 0.701 AuL_BP1 0.839 AuL_BP2 0.881 25.269 AuL_BP3 0.788 21.816 Psychological Capital efficacy 0.917 0.919 0.694 PC_SeEff1 0.828 PC_SeEff2 0.888 26.796 PC_SeEff3 0.873 26.Ağu PC_SeEff4 0.825 23.888 PC_SeEff6 0.745 20.593 hope 0.902 0.910 0.670 PC_Hope2 0.744 PC_Hope3 0.858 21.185 89 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers PC_Hope4 0.802 19.678 PC_Hope5 0.865 21.372 PC_Hope6 0.817 20.084 resiliency 0.875 0.885 0.658 PC_Res1 0.775 PC_Res2 0.843 21.35 PC_Res5 0.801 20.137 PC_Res6 0.824 20.798 optimism 0.796 0.801 0.504 PC_Opt2 0.645 PC_Opt4 0.764 14.615 PC_Opt5 0.796 14.98 PC_Opt6 0.619 12.484 Model Fit χ2=1371.5 df=743 χ2/df=1.846 CFI=0.962 TLI=0.959 PNFI=0.835 SRMR=0.039 RMSEA=0.038 Pclose>0.05 CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted All factor loadings were statistically significant at p<0.001 Table 1: CFA, reliability and validity values (continues) Table 2: Correlations and Discriminant Validity 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1. Perceived Org. Support (0,808) 2. Efficacy 0,418 (0,833) 3. Hope 0,436 0,739 (0,818) 4. Relational Transparency 0,527 0,410 0,442 (0,830) 5. Resiliency 0,305 0,716 0,668 0,306 (0,811) 6. Internalized Moral Pers. 0,546 0,458 0,481 0,752 0,355 (0,753) 7. Self-awareness 0,543 0,346 0,361 0,746 0,242 0,693 (0,778) 8. Optimism 0,503 0,632 0,613 0,450 0,536 0,454 0,423 (0,710) 9. Balanced Processing 0,559 0,397 0,407 0,770 0,310 0,629 0,739 0,452 (0,837) All correlations were statisti- cally significant at p<0.001 Square roots of AVE repre- sent in diagonal. 90 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers As Table 3 shows, perceived organizational support is positively related to optimism (β=0.272; p<0.001), hope (β=0.189; p<0.001), self-efficacy (β=0.189; p<0.001), resilience (β=0.127; p<0.001) and authentic leadership (β=0.632; p<0.001). These results support hypotheses H1, H2, H3, H4 and H5. Result of SEM also shows that the effect of authentic leadership on optimism (β=0.368; p<0.001), hope (β=0.391; p<0.001), self-efficacy (β=0.369; p<0.001) and resilience (β=0.290; p<0.001). This findings suggests that authentic leadership is related to psychologi- cal capital that supported H6. We examined the mediating effect of authentic lead- ership by following the analysis method of Preacher and Hayes (2008). As a result of the indirect effects of perceived organizational support on optimism (β=0.272; p<0.001), hope (β=0.189; p<0.001), self-efficacy (β=0.189; p<0.001) and resilience (β=0.127; p<0.05) in 5000 bootstrap sam- ples with 95% confidence interval (Preacher and Hayes 2008), it has been concluded that authentic leadership has a mediator effect between perceived organizational sup- port and psychological capital. Related mediator effects could be defined as partially due to the fact that the ex- isting relations between perceived organizational support and psychological capital’ dimensions have decreased but not disappeared (Baron and Kenny, 1986), as compared to the total effects. Eventually, H7 was supported. The re- search model and analysis results are given below. Table 3: Results of Structural Model and Hypotheses Testing Hypothesized relationship Total ef-fects Direct ef- fect I n d i r e c t effect Lower Bias-corrected 95% CI Mediation Type ResultUpper H1 POS-->OPT 0.272*** Supported H2 POS-->HOPE 0.189*** Supported H3 POS-->SE 0.189*** Supported H4 POS-->RES 0.127* Supported H5 POS-->AL 0.632*** Supported H6 AL-->OPT 0.368*** Supported AL-->HOPE 0.391*** AL-->SE 0.369*** AL-->RES 0.290*** H7 POS-->AL-->OPT 0.505*** 0.272*** 0.233*** 0.132 0.344 P a r t i a l l y Mediation Supported POS-->AL-->HOPE 0.437*** 0.189*** 0.247*** 0.167 0.344 POS-->AL-->SE 0.423*** 0.189*** 0.233*** 0.145 0.336 POS-->AL-->RES 0.311*** 0.127* 0.183*** 0.097 0.284 Standardized path coefficients are given. *p < .05; ***p < .001 χ2=1680.2 df=871 χ2/df=1.929 CFI=0.952 TLI=0.948 PNFI=0.834 SRMR=0.062 RMSEA=0.040 Pclose>0.05 5 Discussion Authentic leadership is a unique kind of leadership that is key to the growth of leaders and followers and incorpo- rates a constant dedication to authenticity and a supportive managerial style (Dimovski et al., 2010). In this paper it was assumed that organizational support was an important organizational asset, and furthermore, it was assumed that this leadership style allowed leaders both to apply their leadership styles as well as experience their authenticity in their organizational context- thus increasing their fol- lowers’ psychological capacities. Hence, we examined the possible effect of perceived organizational support and authentic leadership and found that the analysis results confirmed our hypothesis. Furthermore, we built hypothe- ses explaining the relationship of perceived organizational support with each subdimension of psychological capital in order to elaborate these relationships in a more detailed manner while also examining whether authentic leadership has a positive effect on the psychological capital of individ- uals. Results regarding these relationships also confirmed our results for each of these dimensions including hope, optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy. We also assumed 91 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers Figure 1: Research Model and Results that backed by their organizations, the authentic leaders would dominate the resulting positive effect on psycho- logical capacities of individuals, so we hypothesized that it would act as a mediator in the relationship between per- ceived organizational support and psychological capital. Our results regarding the mediation relationship have also been confirmed, thereby showing that authentic leadership is nourished by perceived organizational support and is an important tangible asset in organizations and can lead to greater psychological capital- as in the examples of McDowell, Huang and Caza (2018) and Adil and Kamal (2019). Since psychological capital is a developable per- sonal resource, our results added extra proof for the im- probability of these psychological resources through suit- able organizational environments (Luthans, Youssef and Avolio, 2007), additionally, confirming the positive effect of authentic effect on individuals’ psychological powers (Baykal, 2018). As well, when the support necessary for individuals to feel strong is through both the organization and the leadership channel, the psychological capital of the individuals emerges and develops more easily. In turn, the data returns a partial mediation which may result from the fact that the effect of authentic leadership and the effect of organizational support may be shadowed by each other. That is to say, in an individuals’ mind, a confusion may occur regarding the rank of importance between these two elements contributing to their psychological power. Or due to the fact that all individuals do not have a di- rect relationship with their leaders, the positive effect on their psychological power may not be totally affected by authentic leadership and other organizational factors can also be effective. The results are enlightening in showing how effective and authentic leadership is effective for the development and psychological empowerment of individ- uals, and in fact, that individuals’ psychological capital can be developed both specifically through leadership and gen- erally through organizational support. The results reveal insights about how authentic leader- ship offers potential to calibrate the organisational internal selection environment (in terms of supportive work envi- ronment) with tailored leadership style in alignment with a specific combination of perceived organizational support and psychological capital. The fact that we have limited our scope of our study to İstanbul and the finance sector limits the representa- tiveness of our sample, so conducting the same study in a wider scope, including all provinces of Turkey and as many sectors as possible would be beneficial. This would lead to sample with higher representativeness and make our research statistically more explanatory. In further studies, we believe that other organizational features can be examined that may culminate a better at- mosphere for both authentic leadership and followership, and also, other behavioural results can be examined in re- lation to followers. Studies with similar models can also be conducted to test the effect of other positive leadership 92 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers styles, such as servant leadership or spiritual leadership. Furthermore, different employee attitudes, such as job sat- isfaction or job performance, can be added to the model in order to test the possible effects of higher psychological capital. 6 Conclusion Recently, leadership studies changed direction, and they have started to focus on ethical and more human-fo- cused versions of leadership aiming at justice, participa- tion, and glorifying employees, rather than hierarchical chief-officer relationships. In this atmosphere, authentic leadership drawing upon and promoting positive psycho- logical capitals of individuals has become noteworthy as an answer to the needs regarding morality, transparency, and empowerment (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Actually, ow- ing to their ethical self-guidance, relational transparency, and their capacity for balanced processing, authentic lead- ers can ensure a developmental atmosphere contributing to the psychological capabilities of individuals they lead. Our results confirmed this positive effect of perceived organi- zational support and authentic leadership on psychological capital of individuals and confirmed the assumed media- tor effect of authentic leadership. This study is important and unique in making it clear that in order to increase the psychological capitals of individuals, organizations should empower their employees and create the necessary climate that allows authentic leaders to exert their empowering and supportive leadership. The organizational support percep- tion created by a supportive work environment and sup- portive leadership are actually quite intertwined, creating a general positive perception regarding both the organization and the leader that ‘leads’ to more self-efficant, hopeful, optimistic, and resilient individuals. As Sun Tzu suggests, people are both those who fight in battles and also who win them; and the most important person in every battle is the general, that is the leader (Dimovski et al., 2012). In order to make people feel supported and motivated, a good general is needed in the battlefield of business. 7 Recommendations for Further Studies In this study, being inspired by a positive organiza- tional behavior approach, the effects of perceived organi- zational support on both authentic leadership propensities of leaders and on increased levels of psychological capital on the side of followers were tested. As well, the positive effect of authentic leadership on the psychological capaci- ties of followers, and the mediator effect of authentic lead- ership in the relationship between organizational support and psychological capital were examined. Our research results have confirmed our assumptions. In further studies, the same model for other positive leadership styles such as servant leadership, ethical leadership or spiritual lead- ership will be tested. Hence, whether or not this confirmed relationship is also valid for the other positive leadership styles will be examined. On the other hand, having con- ducted this study in the finance sector, this model should also be be tested in other sectors. Moreover, it will be il- luminating to design a cross-cultural study to see cultural differences among different countries in relation to this model. Literature Albalawi, A. S., Naugton, S., Elayan, M. B., & Sleimi, M. T. (2019). Perceived organizational support, alterna- tive job opportunity, organizational commitment, job satisfaction and turnover intention: A moderated-medi- ated model. Organizacija, 52(4), 310-324. https://doi. org/10.2478/orga-2019-0019 Alilyyani, B., Wong, C. A., & Cummings, G. (2018). 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EEPIC-Enhancing Employability through Positive Interventions for improving Career 95 Organizacija, Volume 54 Issue 1, February 2021Research Papers potential: the impact of a high support career guidance intervention on the wellbeing, hopefulness, self-effica- cy and employability of the long-term unemployed-a study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Tri- als, 19(1), 141. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-018- 2485-y Whitehead, G. (2009). Adolescent leadership devel- opment: Building a case for an authenticity frame- work. Educational Management Administra- tion and Leadership, 37(6), 847–872. https://doi. org/10.1177%2F1741143209345441 Wong C.A., Cummings G.G. & Ducharme L. (2013). The relationship between nursing leadership and pa- tient outcomes: a systematic review update. Journal of Nursing Management 21(5), 709–724. https://doi. org/10.1111/jonm.12116 Xiyuan, L., Lin, W., Si, C., & Bei, X. (2016). 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Journal of Research in Per- sonality, 24(1), 71-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092- 6566(90)90007-S Mahmut Bilgetürk is a Research Assistant at Yıldız Technical University in the Department of Management in the Economics and Administrative Sciences Faculty. He still continues his Ph.D. study in Business Administration at the same university. Strategic management, organizational behavior and data analytics are his main research interests. ORCID: 0000-0001-8290-4406 Elif Baykal, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Management and Organization at Istanbul Medipol University. She is the head of the Business Administration Department at the Faculty of Business and Management Sciences. Her research interests are Strategic Management, Leadership, Family Business and Positive Psychology. ORCID: 0000-0002-4966- 8074 Kako zaznana organizacijska podpora vpliva na psihološki kapital? Posredniška vloga avtentičnega vode- nja Ozadje in namen: Avtentično vodenje, najbolj opazen pozitiven stil vodenja, ki so ga sprejeli znanstveniki pozitiv- nega organizacijskega vedenja, je znan po svojem prispevku k psihološkim kapitalu. Ta slog vodenja obstaja in ga je lažje doživeti v razmerah, ko obstajajo podporni organizacijski pogoji. Zato v tej študiji predpostavljamo, da je organizacijska podpora pomemben predhodnik izkušenj in izkazovanja avtentičnega vodenja. Poleg tega lahko v organizacijah, v katerih se prakticira avtentično vodenje, ljudje domnevajo, da do organizacijske podpore prihaja za- radi načina vodenja njihovih vodilnih, zlasti kadar lahko avtentično vodenje zasenči učinek zaznane organizacijske podpore na psihološki kapital posameznikov. V našem raziskovalnem modelu smo torej predlagali, da bo zaznana organizacijska podpora pozitivno vplivala tako na avtentični stil vodenja kot na psihološki kapital posameznikov. Poleg tega bo avtentično vodenje v tem odnosu delovalo kot posrednik. Oblikovanje / metodologija / pristop: Za namene raziskave smo zbrali podatke od strokovnjakov, ki delajo v sto- ritvenem sektorju v Istanbulu. Zbrane podatke smo analizirali z modeliranjem strukturnih enačb, in tako preizkusili postavljene hipoteze. Rezultati: Študija je potrdila naše hipoteze v zvezi s pozitivnimi učinki zaznane organizacijske podpore na avtentič- no vodenje in na štiri osnovne dimenzije psihološkega kapitala: samo-učinkovitost, optimizem, odpornost in upanje. Poleg tega so naši rezultati potrdili statistično pomemben vpliv avtentičnega vodenja na psihološki kapital in delni posredni učinek avtentičnega vodenja v povezavi med zaznano organizacijsko podporo in psihološkim kapitalom. Zaključek: Naši rezultati kažejo na pomen opolnomočenja zaposlenih in vključevanja avtentičnega vodstvenega vedenja pri povečanju psihološkega kapitala zaposlenih in psihološkem vplivu na delovno učinkovitost zaposlenih. 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Organizacija is covered by the following services: Cabell’s Directory, CEJSH (The Central European Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities), Celdes, Clarivate Analytics - Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI), CNPIEC, Die Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek, DOAJ, EBSCO - TOC Premier, EBSCO Discovery Service, ECONIS, Ergonomics Abstracts, ERIH PLUS, Google Scholar, Inspec, International Abstracts in Operations Research, J-Gate, Microsoft Academic Search, Naviga (Softweco), Primo Central (ExLibris), ProQuest - Advanced Polymers Abstracts, ProQuest - Aluminium Industry Abstracts, ProQuest - Ceramic Abstracts/World Ceramics Abstracts, ProQuest - Composites Industry Abstracts, ProQuest - Computer and Information Systems Abstracts, ProQuest - Corrosion Abstracts, ProQuest - Electronics and Communications Abstracts, ProQuest - Engineered Materials Abstracts, ProQuest - Mechanical & Transportation Engineering Abstracts, ProQuest - METADEX (Metals Abstracts), ProQuest - Sociological Abstracts, ProQuest - Solid State and Superconductivity Abstracts, Research Papers in Economics (RePEc), SCOPUS, Summon (Serials Solutions/ProQuest), TDOne (TDNet), TEMA Technik und Management, WorldCat (OCLC) CONTENTS - 1/2021 3 18 36 49 63 82 Ilker UNDER, Ender GEREDE Silence in Aviation: Development and Validation of a Tool to Measure Reasons for Aircraft Maintenance Staff not Reporting Renato Lopes DA COSTA, João MIGUEL, Álvaro DIAS, Leandro PEREIRA, José SANTOS Exploring the Cultural, Managerial and Organizational Implications on Mergers and Acquisitions Outcomes Amro AL-MADADHA, Ahmad Samed AL-ADWAN, Fida Amin ZAKZOUK Culture and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour: The Dark Side of Organisational Politics Tareq LUBBADEH Job Burnout and Counterproductive Work Behaviour of the Jordanian Bank Employees Febri Nila CHRISANTY, Michael Surya GUNAWAN, Retno W.WIJAYANTI, Budi W. SOETJIPTO The Role of Transformational Entrepreneurship, Readiness to Change and Counterproductive Work Behavior in Enhancing Employee Performance Mahmut BİLGETÜRK, Elif BAYKAL How does Perceived Organizational Support Affect Psychological Capital? The Mediating Role of Authentic Leadership