Acta Linguistica Asiatica, 9(1), 2019. ISSN: 2232-3317, http://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/ala/ DOI: 10.4312/ala.9.1.89-103 UDERSTANDING SARCASTIC METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS IN HINDI THROUGH CONCEPTUAL INTEGRATION THEORY Sandeep Kumar SHARMA Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India skvpsharma@gmail.com Sweta SINHA Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India apna1982@gmail.com Abstract Metaphorical expressions are one of the most indispensable aspects of human language, thought and action. Their meanings are figurative, which in other words means that they carry literal meanings that are in direct opposition to the intended or primary meanings. The usage of metaphors is not limited to figurative writing and speaking only but they are pervasively found in everyday language. Irony, sarcasm, jokes, puns and other such metaphorical expressions rampantly occur in our everyday speech. This paper examines the abstract notion of sarcasm within the framework of conceptual integration theory, and with special reference to Hindi language. A corpus of five thousand sentences has been procured from Indian Language Technology Proliferation and Deployment Centre (TDIL) for the present study. The findings aim to provide a theoretical understanding of how Hindi sarcasm is perceived among the native speakers. Keywords: cognitive linguistics; metaphor; sarcasm; irony; conceptual blending; figurative language Povzetek Metaforični izrazi so eden nepogrešljivih vidikov človeškega jezika, mišljenja in delovanja. Njihovi pomeni so preneseni in so lahko v popolnem nasprotju z izvornimi pomeni pozameznih besed v izrazih. Metafore niso sredstvo samo v literarnem jeziku, ampak so splošno razširjene tudi v vsakodnevnem pisnem in govornem izražanju. Ironija, sarkazem, šale, besedne igre in drugi metaforični izrazi so vsakodnevnica v govoru. Članek preučuje abstaktnost sarkazma na primeru hindujščine in sicer po teoriji konceptualne integracije. Za raziskavo je bil uporabljen korpus Indijskega centra za jezikovne tehnologije (TDIL) s pet tisoč primeri stavkov. Rezultati raziskave predstavljajo teoretično razumevanje sarkazma, ki ga uporabljajo hindujski govorci. Ključne besede: kognitivna lingvistika; metafora; sarkazem; ironija; pojmovno prekrivanje; figurativni jezik 90 Sandeep Kumar SHARMA, Sweta SINHA 1 Introduction The field of cognitive linguistics has generated a powerful set of theoretical tools for analyzing the ways in which we understand, communicate and create concepts. Development of the conceptual theory has brought an insight into the appearance and usage of metaphorical expressions in everyday speech. Conceptualization of a metaphor is grounded in wide range of bodily, social and cultural experiences, and creates an integral aspect of cognitive faculty which plays a creative role in meaning construction of knowledge and understanding reality. A metaphorical expression is one of the most indispensable aspects of human life including language, thought and action. As Lakoff and Johnson (1980) noted “metaphor pervades our normal conceptual system. Because so many of the concepts that are important to us are either abstract or not clearly delineated in our experience (the emotions, ideas, time etc.), we need to get a grasp on them by means of other concepts that we understand in clearer terms” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 115). Therefore, Lakoff and Johnson argue that “metaphor is a natural phenomenon” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 247), it is beyond language as it is found primarily in thought and action (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 153). It reflects a particular speech community and its creative aspects of language and culture in a positive as well as negative light. Metaphoricity is a specific feature of human language where no form of language can exist without metaphorical traits (Goalty, 1997). Cognitive linguists claim that metaphors are not only limited to figurative writing. They are thought to be a specific mental mapping that reflects how people think and imagine in everyday life (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). Irony, satire, sarcasm and other such metaphorical expressions rampantly occur in everyday conversation of different speech communities (Tay, 2014). Sarcasm seems to stand out due to its heavily negative intention (Joshi, Bhattacharyya, & Carman, 2017). It is thought to be a form of figurative language and an integral part of human discourse where literal meaning of words are in direct opposition to the intended meaning (Grice, Cole, & Morgan, 1975). Under the developmental approach, sarcasm is described as culturally salient phenomenon that offers a clear cut case of discrepancy between content and literal meaning (Prokofiev, 2017). Sarcasm uses wit, ridicule and mockery. It is a form of a metaphorical expression which is identified by literary scholars as a skill of using incongruity to indicate distinction between reality and expectation. Sarcasm is not to be confused with irony, which pertains to situation and is thought be a tool for expressing sarcasm. Sarcastic language is defined as ‘irony that is especially bitter and caustic’ (Gibbs, 1994). Discrepancies between irony and sarcasm are reported to include disparity of literal meaning of an utterance – positive or negative, where a positive literal meaning is subverted by a negative intended meaning (Dews & Winner, 1995). In this respect, to understand sarcasm it would be crucial to understand the information that violates the truthfulness (Gibbs Jr & O'Brien, 1991). In the light of differential description between Uderstanding Sarcastic Metaphorical Expressions in Hindi through … 91 sarcasm and irony, when one comes to the conceptualization of sarcasm and its function, there are several paradigms that function as a conceptual framework to understand mental representation of metaphorical expressions in the process of meaning construction. Basically it seems that any metaphorical expression can be analyzed through Lakoff’s theory of conceptual metaphor, where metaphorical statements are largely perceived through one-to-one mapping. However, not all such statements can be perceived through the conceptual metaphor theory alone because their lexical extensions go beyond what appears on the surface level. Therefore, for the conceptualization of extended meaning, we should focus on the conceptual framework of integration or blending theory, which regulates the process of conceptualization in human cognition in the form of novelty construction as well as the understanding of one idea or conceptual domain in terms of another. In conceptual integration or blending theory, knowledge structures or mental spaces are selectively projected into blending space in which projected conceptual elements are assimilated to create a novel concept with respect to content based emergent structure. Constructing a new meaning through the integration of existing concepts provides a wide range of conceptual concepts of metaphorical expression from two input spaces into a new mental extent called blended space. This is the creativity of cognitive enterprise that frequently displays an emergent structure of conceptual relations that are unavailable in input spaces (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002). This approach is an effective mental process of composition, completion and elaboration of the blend. At the cognitive stage, a conceptually integrated emergent structure comprises neuro-biologically based semantic meanings with generative grammar, which relates them. In the theory of conceptual integration, it is not not a word, sentence or objects but rather the meaning that evokes an effective mental process. The following figure has been taken from Fauconnier and Turner’s “basic diagram” to represent the cognitive operation of conceptual blending (Fauconnier & Turner, 1998). It is a visual illustration of cognitive process and the construction of a concept, emerging from blending two input spaces into a single blended space. A special reference to Hindi language is added. 92 Sandeep Kumar SHARMA, Sweta SINHA Figure 1: Conceptual integration “basic diagram” (Fauconnier & Turner, 1998) 2 Sarcasm as a “linguistic element” A landmark article on psycholinguistics of sarcasm by Gibbs (1994) begins with the definition of irony from the Oxford English dictionary as “the use of words to express something other than and especially the opposite of literal meaning”. Both irony and sarcasm serve multiple purposes in spoken language, especially in discourse. Speakers and writers have been found to use sarcasm to convey humor and censure, and to indicate social norms violation (Brown & Levinson, 1978; Kreuz & Glucksberg, 1989; Shamay-Tsoory, Tomer, & Aharon-Peretz, 2005). Sarcasm often employs contradiction between literal and intended meaning, and appears as a universal feature of human language. Different speech communities use different visual, prosodic, lexical and contextual cues to convey sarcastic messages in distinct ways and with different emotions, attitudes, or intensions. Moreover, the function of sarcasm varies across speech communities consequently identifying and appropriately interpreting sarcastic utterances in a particular language different from others. Doing so entails both, the ability to read an array of potential cues that mark an utterance as sarcastic as well as the capacity to correctly interpret a speaker’s motivation for using sarcasm (i.e. ridicule or insult). Sarcasm is ubiqutous in all natural languages including Hindi and the speakers seemingly use various verbal and non-verbal strategies to express themselves. Non- verbal behaviors are also used to signal sarcasm such as raised eyebrows, eye rolling and titled head. The saliency of sarcastic indicators depends on how explicitly a speaker wishes to mark sarcastic utterances as a speaker may intentionally restrict the number Generic Space Input 1 Input 2 Blend (circles represent mental spaces or cognitive domains) (abstract structure shared by input) Cross space mapping (box represents emergent “reframed” structure of blended space) Uderstanding Sarcastic Metaphorical Expressions in Hindi through … 93 of cues offered in order to obfuscate subversive motives and preserve deniability. Moreover, contextual cues including biographical information, physical setting and even the history of the relationship between interlocutors can figure into sarcasm use. Gibbs and O’Brien (1991) describe that the violation of truthfulness maxim is the key to understanding sarcasm. The intended meaning of sarcasm can not be understood until the listener observes literal meanings of the text that violates truthfulness. Grice (1975) points out the exploitation of maxim which is observed by means of metaphorical expressions. Clark and Haviland (1977) claim that a deliberate violation is perceived by the hearer while interpreting what the speaker intended to say. Thus, sarcasm prevails through various dimensions such as a failed prediction, insincerity of pragmatic context, negative intention etc. (Campbell & Katz, 2012). 3 Method of Analysis Based on the theoretical description provided in the sections above, the methodology section outlines the research process from planning to presentation through qualitative approach. Data collection used is an annotated digital corpus1 that has been procured from ongoing and completed projects to strengthen technology development in and for Indian languages. For the present study five thousand sentences have been extracted from the large chunk of corpus which was built to investigate sarcasm in native speakers through conceptual integration theory. The data have been procured from the Indian Language Technology Proliferation and Deployment Centre.2 The data belongs to the discourse domain of politics that has already been segregated in the corpus. To filter the required data set, five thousand sentences have been read manually by a native speaker of Hindi. The filtered data sets have been analyzed qualitatively within the framework of conceptual integration to analyze sarcastic expressions. For the understanding of the context, the data sets have been analyzed through Grice’s maxim of conversation that examines the nature of congruency and incongruence (Grice, 1975). The flow chart below (Figure 2) gives a schematic representation of the methodology adopted for this study. 1 Indian Language Technology Proliferation and Development Centre, TDIL (Technology Development for Indian Languages). www.tdil.meity.gov.in 2 Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology - MeitY. The Centre works for consolidating and making available the linguistics resources under the initiation of Technology Development in Indian Languages Programme of MeitY. 94 Sandeep Kumar SHARMA, Sweta SINHA Qualitative Congruent Incongruent Figure 2: Methodology for investigating sarcasm in Hindi though Conceptual Integration The current research consists of six sections. The first introductory section attempted to introduce the research area by providing a background of similar researches that have already been done. The section also highlighted the theory of conceptual blending/integration which has been found to be very relevant in the conceptualization of figurative language in cognitive linguistics. Focusing this research on Hindi sarcasm and its conceptualization, section 2 attempted to establish sarcasm as a linguistic element. The current section (section 3) has already outlined the methodology/tools adopted for the purpose of analysis. The following section (section 4) analyses 12 sarcastic Hindi sentences that have been procured from the data source. Analyses as in examples (1) to (12) indicate two inputs spaces, that is input 1 and input 2 as being juxtaposed and creating a blended space of incongruence entities. This incongruity yields sarcasm. Section 5 discusses the examples in accordance with the theory of conceptual blending or integration and the results are eventually summarized in section number 6. 4 Analysis and results Extracted sarcastic sentences (1) to (12) have been analyzed through conceptual blending to observed the integrating process of a novel concept. The two input spaces contain the conceptual element of a particular metaphor. Both these input spaces have developed across their space mapping relations in order to obtain the correct perception of their conceptual constituent. As these constituents blend in a space, a naturally incongruous disparity is observed. Non-Sarcastic Context Analysis Congruency / Incongruence Sarcastic Data Analysis Conceptual Integration Uderstanding Sarcastic Metaphorical Expressions in Hindi through … 95 (1) chhata na hua Chhatrapati ka chhatra ho gaya umbrella NEG be Chhatrapati POST.P umbrella be MASC. PST PVF ‘As if this is not an ordinary umbrella but the umbrella of Chhatrapati Shivaji.’ Context: The expression is perceived as sarcasm because an ordinary object is attributed an extraordinary/unique status. Input 1 Chhatrapati ka chhatra Input 2 Chhata Generic space Blend Historical identity Non- historical identity An object Historical – Non historical Superior Public approach/General Concept Kingship – Public Royal use/Extraordinary Ordinary use Purpose Royal – Ordinary Symbol of prestige Symbol of need Symbol Prestige – Need Sarcastic Blend: Ordinary things cannot be a royal icon. (2) aira-gaira nahi kale angrejon ka sartaaj aa raha tha stranger NEG black Englishmen POST.P sartaaj come MASC. PST. PROG ‘The one who is coming is not a nobody but the king of black Englishmen.’ Context: This is perceived as sarcasm in a situation when a brown skinned person behaves like a ruler amongst their own people. Input 1 Aira-Gaira Input 2 Kale angrejon ka sartaaj Generic space Blend Undistinguished identity Distinguished identity Agent Undistinguished – Distinguished Irrelevant attitude Relevant attitude Position Irrelevant – Relevant Inglorious position Glorious position Knowledge Inglorious – Glorious Intellectual instability Intellectual stability Behavior Instability – Stability Sarcastic Blend: One who behaves like a Britisher. (Britain had colonized India for around 200 years.) (3) protocol me adami adami nahi rahta kenchua ban jata hai protocol POST.P man man NEG live earthworm become.MASC.PRS ‘A human behaves more like an earthworm when following protocols.’ Context: A sarcasm on the government system which reduces work efficiency by sticking to protocols too strictly. 96 Sandeep Kumar SHARMA, Sweta SINHA Input 1 Adami Input 2 Kenchua Generic space Blend +Human –Human Agent +Human – –Human Mobility Slow mobility (creeping) Movement Mobility – Slow mobility Sarcastic Blend: Protocols reduce work efficiency of a man. (4) lalu ji to media ke darling hai Lalu HON CONJ media POST.P darling be PRS. ‘Lalu Ji is loved by the media.’ Context: Despite so many events of national importance, the media has maximum coverage of Lalu Yadav. Input 1 Lalu Input 2 Darling Generic space Blend Public figure Personal image Agent Public – Personal Political power Non-political power Power Political – Non political Social representative Individual supporter Favor Social – Individual Sarcastic Blend: Getting publicity without reason. (5) Rahul Gandhi ko yuva neta ghoshit karne matra se kya yuva Rahul Gandhi POST.P youth leader announcedo only POST.P what youth kangres ko wot denge congress POST.P vote give MASC. FUT ‘Will youth vote for Congress only by announcing Rahul Gandhi as a youth leader.’ Context: For vote bank of youth, Congress Party announced Rahul Gandhi as a youth leader who has crossed the age of youth. Input 1 Rahul Gandhi Input 2 Yuva Generic space Blend By age 47 yrs. By Age 15-29 yrs. Biological aspect Age: 47 – 15-29 yrs. Sarcastic Blend: To be called youth one must possess the quality of youth. (6) bhajpa ne Narendra Modi ko sankatmochan bana ke bheja hai bhajpa NOM narendra modi ACC troubleredeemer make POST.P send MASC.PRS ‘Narendra Modi is sent as trouble redeemer by Bhajpa.’ Uderstanding Sarcastic Metaphorical Expressions in Hindi through … 97 Context: This is expressed sarcastically because Bhajpa represents Narendra Modi as the Lord Hanuman who solves the problems of people as per Hindu Mythology. Input 1 Narendra Modi Input 2 Sankat Mochan Generic space Blend Charismatic leader Charismatic lord Ability Leader – Lord Reformation of country Savior of universe Conscientious Reformation - Savior Circumscribed Omnipresent Presence Circumscribed - Omnipresent Positional act Ubiquitously act Power Positional- Ubiquitously Sarcastic Blend: Problems of the party are too huge for Narendra Modi to tackle. (7) tejashwi jaise neta Baisakhi ke sahare rajniti me aate hai tejashwi ADV leader crutches POST.P support politics POST.P come MASC.PRS ‘Leaders like Tejashwi come into politics through crutches.’ Context: Just as crutches enhance the mobility of those who have certain physical incompetence, similarly family has supported Tejashwi to join politics. Input 1 Tejashwi Input 2 Baisakhi Generic space Blend By support For support Sustain Support: By – for Public strength Strength of helpless Power Strength: Public – Helpless Political upliftment Miserable upliftment Goal Upliftment: Political – Miserable Legacy Support Moral support Need – Sarcastic Blend: One who rises in politics through support. (8) Tejashwi pahle padhai kare fir mange hisaab. tejaswi before study do CONJ ask justification ‘Let Tejashwi study first then ask for justification.’ Context: Tejashwi talks without knowing the context. Input 1 Tejashwi Input 2 Hisab Generic space Blend Surface understanding Deeper understanding Comprehension Understanding: Surface – Deeper Political discourse Educational discourse Communication Educational – Political Discrete knowledge Integrate knowledge Intelligence Knowledge: Discrete – Integrate 98 Sandeep Kumar SHARMA, Sweta SINHA Sarcastic Blend: Without education intellectual skills cannot be improved. (9) Daru bina dosti nahi tikti. liquor without friendship-NEG sustain FEM.PRS.IMP ‘Without liquor friendship does not sustain.’ Context: Liquor is important in friendship in the sense that friendship can be sustained longer. Input 1 Daru Input 2 Dosti Generic space Blend Loss of reasoning Help in decision Catalyst Loss – Help Unhealthy habit Healthy Behavior Effect Healthy – Unhealthy Short term pleasure Timeless companion Bond Short term – Timeless Loss of confidence Boost confidence Action Loss – Boost Sarcastic Blend: For friendship to continue one needs to offer liquor to friends. (10) Hum sab to Hindustan me fail hue lekin tumne to Londonme Hum sab to Hindustan me fail hue lekin tumne ADV landanPOST.P fail ho-kar dikha diya. fail be-CP see give MASC.PST ‘We failed in Hindustan but you showed up having failed in London.’ Context: It is perceived as sarcasm when someone who had failed in their native land due to lack of facilities compares themselves to those who studied abroad but could not pass examination despite having all facilities at hand. Input 1 Hindustan Input 2 London Generic space Blend Less infrastructure Great infrastructure Facility Infrastructure: Less – Great Non practical implication Practical implication Uses Non practical – Practical Trend based admission Interest based admission Selection Trend based – Interest based Believe in grade Believe in skill Understanding Believe: Grade –Skill Sarcastic Blend: In spite of all the facilities he could not pass. (11) Dimagme kitabe bharne sejebe nahi bharti hai. Brain POST.P book fill POST.P.pocket.PL NEG fill FEM.PRS ‘Just reading the books does not make one rich.’ Uderstanding Sarcastic Metaphorical Expressions in Hindi through … 99 Context: Only reading is not enough to earn money. One also needs to perform. Input 1 Dimag me kitabe bharnaa Input 2 Jebe bharnaa Generic space Blend Research skill Earning skill Ability Skill: Research – Earning Intellectual approach Realistic approach Perception Approach: Intellectual –Realistic Use knowledge Capitalize passion Decision Use Knowledge – Capitalize passion Creative thinking Business mind Comprehension Creative thinking – Business mind Sarcastic Blend: To make money, work has to be done. (12) Ab yogi bhi bhogi ki tarah bina khaye nahi rah sakte. now saint ADV bhogi like without eat MASC.PST . NEG live can. ‘Now ascetics too used to eat like common men to survive.’ Context: The line of distinction between an ascetic and a common man has blurred with regards to a way of life. Input 1 Yogi Input 2 Bhogi Generic space Blend Devine love Worldly love Feeling Devine – Worldly Undesirable Desirable Need Undesirable – Desirable Inner happiness Physical happiness Satisfaction Happiness: Inner – Physical With equanimity Without equanimity Balance Equanimity: With – Without Sarcastic Blend: Nowaday’s Yogi became Bhogi. 5 Discussion Above examples were obtained from an annotated digital corpus of five thousand sentences, which have been read to extract the sarcasm-oriented utterances from the large chunk of annotated data set. The domain mapping of conceptual metaphor does not always recognize all metaphorical expressions as it focuses only on one-to-one mapping of source and target domain. Therefore, to grasp extended meanings of metaphorical expressions it was important to go through either conceptual blending or integration theory to achieve an integrated mechanism with which observation of the novel construction gets possible. 100 Sandeep Kumar SHARMA, Sweta SINHA Input spaces contain one or more conceptual elements of a particular metaphor and represent its attached construal aspects. These conceptual packets have been observed with reference to generic sense. It was found out that they may have a general or abstract structure, which are seemingly shared by both input spaces to express a common sense for different conceptual constituents. Input space may project into blended space, and as such represent an emergent structure of a novel concept. As in (9) the two input spaces Daru (liquor) and dosti (friendship) have different conceptual elements where they have an abstract generic sense of catalyst, effect, bond, and action with respect to each conceptual element respectively. The cross space mapping between input one (loss of reasoning, unhealthy habit, short term pleasure and loss of confidence) and input two (helps in decision, healthy behavior, timeless companion and boost confidence) project their conceptual elements into the blended space that created an emergent structure of conceptual meaning of metaphorical expressions in blended space. Out of 5,000 sentences procured from data source, 12 sentences needed to be explained through conceptual blending or integration theory. With respect to the above description it is observed that negative sentences occur not only in the intension of an individual but also reflect literally, and in the form of dropped negation in sarcastic expression, as a cue. Such indicatory cues help develop the understanding of sarcastic expression. Besides such sarcastic expressions there are affirmative, interrogative and imperative sentences also that are used as tools to ridicule an individual. As such, sarcasm can be described as an obscure phenomenon. It carries several functions and uses means that are different from other communicative acts. The functional approach used in this research enables one to observe the intension of sarcastic utterances. Sarcasms in speech are used to express intense emotions. Based on the above results it is observed that sarcasm can be used in both positive and negative sense. The positive use of sarcastic utterance is attached with humorous intent through which an individual makes a critical comment without appearing rude. Sentences (1), (4) and (10) are positively functional. Sarcasms with a negative function may be realized in various ways such as through ridicule, indirect rebuke, minor irritation etc. They are used to makes critical remarks. In this respect sentences (2), (3), (5), (6), (7), (8), (9), (11) and (12) are negatively functional. In short, sarcasm has several functions and they rampantly occur in the discourse of people on everyday basis, primarily – though not necessarily – with negative function. Uderstanding Sarcastic Metaphorical Expressions in Hindi through … 101 6 Conclusion Mental processes have always intrigued mankind. Despite numerous researches that have already been conducted, a large part of this area is still to get examined carefully. Cognitive linguistics is an upcoming area in linguistics. The field of cognitive linguistics has generated a powerful set of theoretical tools for analyzing the way in which we understand, communicate and create concepts. The development of the conceptual theory has brought the ubiquity of metaphorical expressions in everyday speech. The conceptualization of a metaphor is grounded on a wide range of bodily, social and cultural experiences that create an integral aspect of cognitive faculty and play a creative role in meaning construction as well as in understanding reality. Metaphorical language is an indispensable aspect of human life through which people use figurative language to represent abstract concepts with reference to concrete entities for easy comprehension. In this respect, sarcasm is a form of figurative language and integral part of human discourse where literal meaning of words are in direct opposition to the intended meaning, which is pervasively used in everyday language to ridicule someone. Hindi sarcastic statements are heavily dependent on the contextual knowledge of the hearer in order to be effective. Conceptualization of sarcastic metaphorical expressions in Hindi can not be explained by conceptual metaphor theory alone. Major sarcasms – or to say more demanding ones – are those that can only be analyzed through blending/integration, which consequently brings one to the conclusion that not all metaphorical expressions can be understood through the help of conceptual theory or one-to-one mapping relationship only. To get the extended meaning we need to look at the theory of conceptual integration or blending. This paper tried to investigate the conceptualization of sarcastic expressions in Hindi language within the framework of conceptual integration. Conceptual blending integrates the conceptual elements into blended space with the help of generic sense and gives an emergent structure of meaning to observe its functions and uses. 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