31 Milo{ Slamka, Roman Moravec (1999). Comparison of selected kinematic structure parameters in male…  KinSI, 5(1–2) : 31–36
COMPARISON OF SELECTED KINEMATIC
STRUCTURE PARAMETERS IN MALE 
AND FEMALE HIGH JUMPERS
PRIMERJAVA MO[KIH IN @ENSK V
IZBRANIH KAZALCIH KINEMATI^NE
STRUKTURE  SKOKA V VI[INO
Milo{ Slamka
Roman Moravec
ABSTRACT
This work deals with selected parameters of high
jump technique of top-performance competitors.
Eighteen tries of men and twenty-one tries of wo-
men were evaluated by means of two-dimensional
analysis. Results of males were between 205 and
229 cm, females between 175 and 205 cm. The dis-
cussed parameters are sports performance, culmi-
nation of trajectory of the centre of gravity and ver-
tical velocity at the end of take-off. 
The most suitable parameter characterising sports
performance seems to be vertical velocity at the end
of take-off. The moment of amortisation phase com-
pletion and corresponding vertical velocity of the
body’s centre of gravity are deduced from take-off
knee angle changes. Analysis of results confirms that
optimum values of selected parameters may be
identified, depending however,  on the athlete’s per-
formance. The leverage by means of which a part of
horizontal velocity is transformed to vertical velocity
is explained. During the amortisation phase, men
reached 57.5 % and women 42 % of resulting verti-
cal velocity by means of leverage. Hereafter, para-
meters such as the angle of take-off from the last step
support, the angle of tread-down to take-off posi-
tion, the stride length of the last stride before the
take-off, and the difference in stride length between
the last two strides are discussed. In contrast to men,
the kinematic structure characterised by these para-
meters is not formed so well for women which is
seen from the big scattering of values.
Key words: high jump, horizontal velocity, leverage,
stride length, trajectory, vertical velocity
IZVLE^EK
V delu so analizirani izbrani kazalci tehnike skoka v
vi{ino vrhunskih tekmovalcev. Opravljena je bila
analiza osemnajstih mo{kih in enaindvajsetih `en-
skih skokov v dvo-razse`nostnem prostoru. Rezulta-
ti mo{kih so bili med 205 in 229 cm, `ensk pa med
175 in 205 cm. Analizirani so bili parametri: {portni
dose`ek, vi{ina vrha poti te`i{~a telesa in vertikalna
hitrost pri odrivu.
Rezultat je bil najbolj opredeljen z vertikalno hitrost-
jo ob odrivu. Trenutek zaklju~ka faze amortizacije in
odgovarjajo~a vertikalna hitrost te`i{~a telesa sta
ugotovljena iz sprememb v kotu kolena ob odrivu.
Analiza rezultatov potrjuje, da je mogo~e prepozna-
ti optimalne vrednosti izbranih kazalcev, vendar v
soodvisnosti od dose`ka tekmovalca. Razlo`eno je
kako se del horizontalne hitrosti preko vzvoda pre-
tvori v vertikalno hitrost. V amortizacijski fazi so mo{-
ki dosegli 57,5% in `enske 42% vertikalne hitrosti. V
nadaljevanju se razpravlja o kotu odriva glede na
oporno fazo zadnjega koraka, kot med polo`ajem
ob trenutku kontakta v zadnjem koraku in polo`a-
jem ob odrivu in razliki v dol`ini koraka med zadnji-
ma dvema korakoma. Za razliko od mo{kih, kine-
mati~na struktura `ensk ni tako dobro opredeljena z
uporabljenimi kazalci, kar je razvidno iz velike va-
riabilnosti izmerjenih vrednosti.
Klju~ne besede: skok v vi{ino, vzvod, horizontalna hi-
trost, vertikalna hitrost, dol`ina koraka, pot te`i{~a
telesa
Institute of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Co-
menius University, 
Nabr. L.Svobodu 9, SK-814 69 Bratislava, Slovakia
Tel: +42 1 55416228
Fax: +42 1 7 54413327
E-mail: Moravec@sporter.fsport.uniba.sk
Received: 08. 06. 1999 – Accepted: 29. 11. 1999

32 Milo{ Slamka, Roman Moravec (1999). Comparison of selected kinematic structure parameters in male…  KinSI, 5(1–2) : 31–36
Introduction
Works dealing with high jumping kinematic structu-
re analysis are published in technical literature qui-
te often. Tries of both men and women are dealt
with. In most cases, analyses are limited to statement
of selected parameters’ values for small groups of
competitors. A systematic approach to the topic of
high jump is given by Gjumishev (1989). High jum-
ping strategy from the aspect of impulse of force in
the joint centre of gravity, separate segments contri-
bution, separate joints’ moments contribution, use
of elastic energy and energy transfer between sepa-
rate segments are found in Brüggemann (1994). In
Dursenjev’s (1989) opinion, vertical force is genera-
ted by upward stretching of leg and back. Krjazhev,
Strizhak, Popov, and Borovnik (1989) deal with the
height of the centre of gravity at the moment of take-
off, magnitude of the take-off impulse, and the
height of the centre of gravity over the bar in a group
of female athletes. Killing (1996) describes the high
jump as a movement in a three-dimensional space
with a high level of freedom. He specifies »tunnel«
and »funnel« models as two possibilities of the run-
up final phase. Every competitor has his/her indivi-
dual optimum structure. Brüggemann and Loch
(1992) confirmed the fact that individual athletes
even within a homogenous group use different tech-
niques of overcoming the maximum height. They
published results of three-dimensional high jumping
analysis for ten men and eight women. Maximum
trajectory culmination, 246 cm in men, was reached
by Sotomayor in his try for 236 cm, and 214 cm for
women, by Henkel in her try for 205 cm. Dapena
(1980 a, b) analyses issues of start banking towards
the centre of curvature, vertical velocity, rising angle
(40° to 48°), stride length, horizontal velocity, take-
off knee bending and take-off duration in six com-
petitors. The one-before-the-last stride is longer than
the last one. Horizontal velocity in Stones is as high
as 8.5 m.s
-1
. His take-off time fluctuates between
140 ms and 200 ms. Another work specifies the re-
lationship between the bow start to the take-off po-
sition and angular moment required for somersault
execution over the bar with the help of a three-di-
mensional analysis. This issue is found also in the
work of Dapena and Chung (1988). The authors put
radial velocity generated by body rotation around
the tread-down area in connection with vertical ve-
locity. The flight phase rotation may accelerate due
to a decrease of the body momentum (Dapena,
1991). Blasco (1992) is in search for relationships
between EMG activities of six muscular groups du-
ring the take-off and height of the centre of gravity
in the take-off position, after the take-off and during
the pass-over the bar. Veldmann (1989) verbally des-
cribes the work of body segments in different run-
up phases. He deals with run-up, acceleration, lo-
wering of the centre of gravity, take-off, flight, pass-
over the bar and tread-down phases. Issues connec-
ted with the body speed during take-off, rising angle
and height of the centre of gravity during take-off are
found also in McWatt (1989). ^oh, ^uk, and Borst-
nik (1993) analyse kinematic parameters with the
help of three-dimensional analysis for 13 men and
11 women. Sotomayor (236 cm), 8.5 m.s
-1
, and Ko-
stadinova (205 cm) reached the highest horizontal
velocity, 7.5 m.s
-1
. In total 17 parameters are analy-
sed. Müller and Hommel (1997) found the highest
horizontal velocity of 8.04 m.s
-1
, vertical velocity of
4.8 ms.-1, and tread-down angle of 38° in Sotoma-
yor’s try for 237 cm. Ritzdorf (1983) characterises
flop 1 by means of a high run-up speed, 7.5 m.s
-1
to
8.2 m.s
-1
, and short take-off time, 0.16 sec to 0.18
sec. Flop 2 is characterised by a slower run-up
speed, 7 m. s
-1
to 8 m.s
-1
, and longer take-off time,
170 ms to 210 ms. Ritzdorf, Conrad and Loch (1988)
made an intraindividual analysis of ten tries of Kosta-
dinova at the 1987 World Championships in Rome
and 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul. In addition to
heights of the centre of gravity during take-off and
flight phases, vertical velocity (max. 4.42 m.s
-1
in
tries for 206 cm) and take-off time, from 115 ms to
140 ms, are presented there.
Material
Bases of investigations were obtained from video-re-
cords taken, in particular, at the 1997, 1998 and
1999 international competition »Banskobystrická
latka«. The sample of men consisted of 18 tries of the
following competitors: Benko for 215 cm; Bo~kay
for 220 cm; Brown for 228 cm; Fedorkov for 210 cm
and 225 cm; Ferenc for 205 cm; Janku J. for 224 cm;
Janku T. for 228 cm; Grant for 224 cm; Kemp for 215
cm; Kotewitz for 224 cm; Kovács for 210 cm; Kres-
sig for 228cm; Liolin for 220 cm; Searnblom for 220
cm; Sjoberg for 228 cm; Sonn for 225 cm; and Zhu
for 229 cm. The sample of women consisted of 21
tries of the following competitors: Bìlocká for 185
cm; Fiodorova for 193 cm; Göllnerová for 180 cm;
Gulevitsch for 193 cm; Iagar for 196 cm; Janku for
175 cm; Ková~iková for 190 cm and 193 cm; Lapi-
na for 180 cm; Medgyesová for 175 cm and 180 cm;
Melová for 184 cm, 193 cm and 194 cm; Nez-
daøilová for 180 cm; Øiháková for 184 cm; Shevtsc-
hik for 193 cm; and three tries from Atlanta 1996 of
Astafjeva for 201 cm; Babakova for, 201 cm; and the
winning Olympic try of Kostadinova for 205 cm.
In our analysis, we tried to cover the best tries of the
competitors. Repeated tries of the same competitor
were made always in following years.

33 Milo{ Slamka, Roman Moravec (1999). Comparison of selected kinematic structure parameters in male…  KinSI, 5(1–2) : 31–36
Method
Selected parameters of the high jump kinematic
structure were obtained by means of two-dimensio-
nal analysis of kinograms. The use of three-dimen-
sional analysis asks for installation of two cameras,
which would be connected with big problems at in-
ternational competitions. The camera was installed
in the middle of a circle by which the trace of the last
three run-up strides can be approximated (fig. 1). In
such an arrangement, the selected section of recor-
ded movement can be replaced well by a plane ver-
tical to the camera. In such an arrangement, distan-
ce changes between the investigated subject and ca-
mera are negligible. During the take-off, the body
rotates around all three spatial axes. Therefore, on-
ly movements performed in the plane vertical to ca-
mera can be evaluated. For calibration of records,
the known distance between the bar height and the
point in which the trajectory of the centre of gravity
passed it was used.
Results
All positions were taken from video-records made
with a frequency of 50 pictures per second. Begin-
nings and ends of support and flight phases of the last
three strides and the take-off are shown in fig. 2. In
total 42 parameters were obtained by means of ki-
nograms processing and analysis. Eight of them were
selected for interpretation purposes (tab. 1).
The length of the last (l
2
) and the one-before-the last
stride (l
1
) from which the difference of the stride
length can be calculated (l
1
- l
2
) are read in kino-
grams. In addition, a kinogram can show both the
angle of take-off from the one-before-the last sup-
port (α
1
) and the angle of tread-down to the take-off
position (α
2
). The trajectory of the joint centre of gra-
vity is also illustrated there. From its course, the
height of culmination of the centre of gravity (h
6
)
may be identified. Horizontal and vertical compo-
nents of velocity of the joint centre of gravity are de-
duced from derivation of horizontal and vertical
components of trajectory. Vertical velocity at the end
of take-off (vv
1
) and horizontal velocity at the begin-
ning of take-off (vh
3
) are taken directly from those
courses.
An important part of vertical velocity is generated by
means of the take-off leg leverage. The knee bend
during amortisation does not lower the centre of gra-
vity. It is compensated by stretching the body when
the take-off leg works as a lever in the forward mo-
tion. The leverage works during the whole take-off
phase. It is joined by the mechanism of the take-off
knee stretching and planary flexion, as well as by the
work of swinging parts at the end of amortisation
Fig. 1. Arrangement of Recording
Fig. 2. Evaluated Parameters
Tab. 1. Correlation Coefficients, Average Values and Standard
Deviations of Selected Parameters

34 Milo{ Slamka, Roman Moravec (1999). Comparison of selected kinematic structure parameters in male…  KinSI, 5(1–2) : 31–36
(Slamka and Moravec, 1990). The end of the amor-
tisation phase and the beginning of active take-off
may be identified from the course of the take-off
knee angle changes. At the end of amortisation, the
knee begins to stretch out and the knee angle increa-
ses. That moment determines the post-amortisation
vertical velocity value (vv
2
). Therefore, the courses
of velocity and angle change are illustrated as time
functions in the lower part of fig. 2.
Results of selected parameters are recorded in a dia-
gram. Trend lines go through the points as polynoms
of the 2-nd degree (MS Excel). Their closeness is re-
presented by the coefficient R
2
which is higher than
the linear regression correlation coefficient.
Discussion
Interpretation of results will issue from sports perfor-
mance and other eight selected parameters. Sports
performance means the height of the bar for which
the try was made. It is evident that the competitor
may have a considerable margin over the bar. There-
fore, sports performance does not fairly represent
the result in connection with other parameters.
The height of trajectory culmination is another rela-
tive parameter. A competitor bending his/her body
backward over the bar has an advantage. Problems
with anthropometrical points orientation for calcula-
tion of the joint centre of gravity rise, as the bending
becomes intense. In such a position, calculation is
less precise. In this case, an important role in judge-
ment of exerted effort is played by the body height of
competitor. From the aspect of exerted efforts, taller
athletes have an evident advantage in this parame-
ter.
The most suitable parameter for reached performan-
ce evaluation seems to be vertical velocity at the end
of take-off (vv
1
). Fig. 3 shows the dependence of
sports performance on vertical velocity at the end of
take-off. In the same vertical velocity, men attain re-
sults about 20-cm higher than women, which is
more than the difference in their average body
heights. This fact may be explained by better work
of men over the bar. Men work more effectively and
their body bends more intensely over the bar. Fig. 4
shows the dependence of culmination of the trajec-
tory of the centre of gravity on vertical velocity at the
end of take-off. Vertical shift of curves approxima-
tely corresponds to the difference in body heights.
In both cases shown in fig. 3 and 4, high correlation
values were reached and therefore, the parameter
of vertical velocity at the end of take-off may be used
as the sports performance index.
The dependence of vertical velocity at the end of
take-off on horizontal velocity before the take-off is
presented in fig. 5. An optimum horizontal velocity
in women is just below 7 m.s
-1
. In men, we notice
an extreme value of the run-up speed, 8.75 m.s
-1
,
attained by Zhu in his try for 229 cm. This athlete is
known for a quick run-up. This parameter singles
him out from the sample of men. If we take account
of this fact, we can state that optimum horizontal ve-
locity in men is from 7.5 to 8 m.s
-1
.
Fig. 3. Sports performance Dependence on Vertical Velocity at
the End of Take-Off
Fig. 4. Dependence of Culmination of Centre of Gravity on Ver-
tical Velocity at the End of Take-Off
Fig. 5. Dependence of Culmination of Centre of Gravity at the
End of Take-Off on Horizontal Velocity at the beginning of Take-
Off

35 Milo{ Slamka, Roman Moravec (1999). Comparison of selected kinematic structure parameters in male…  KinSI, 5(1–2) : 31–36
Fig. 6 shows the dependence of vertical velocity at
the end of take-off on post-amortisation vertical ve-
locity. Both curves fluently follow each other. We
suggest that the higher the vertical velocity at the end
of take-off, the bigger is the share of post-amortisa-
tion vertical velocity in its generation. Vertical velo-
city before the end of amortisation is generated on-
ly by the work of leverage through the take-off leg
(Moravec and Slamka 1998). This fact confirms the
significance of horizontal velocity at the beginning
of take-off and work of leverage in the resulting ver-
tical velocity generation. In the phase of amortisa-
tion, the leverage transforms horizontal velocity de-
crease to vertical velocity. Leverage and active take-
off are mutually replaceable in the resulting vertical
velocity generation. This means that the same verti-
cal velocity may be reached from various post-amor-
tisation vertical velocities, as well as different resul-
ting vertical velocities may be reached from the same
post-amortisation vertical velocity. The kinematic
structure depends on the competitor’s type (speed,
strength).
Fig. 7 shows the dependence of post-amortisation
vertical velocity on the angle of take-off from the
one-before-the last support. For men, it is more ad-
visable to take a more acute angle as a prerequisite
for generation of a more acute angle of tread-down
to the take-off position. Fig. 8 shows the dependen-
ce of post-amortisation vertical velocity on tread-
down angle. Similarly as in the previous case, here it
is also more advisable for men to take a more acute
angle. The leverage works better in such situations.
In more acute angle, a competitor starts to the take-
off position with his/her centre of gravity lowered in
the last phase of the run-up, which will shorten
his/her flight phase before the take-off. This concep-
tion is helped also by shortening of the last stride be-
fore the take-off.
Fig. 9 shows the dependence of vertical velocity at
the end of take-off on the last stride length. An opti-
mum stride length for men is about 210 cm. In fig.
10, notice that an optimum length of the last stride
Fig. 6. Dependence of Vertical Velocity at the End of Take-Off on
Vertical Velocity at the End of Amortisation
Fig. 8. Dependence of Vertical Velocity at the End of Amortisa-
tion on the Angle of Tread-Down to the Support Position
Fig. 7. Dependence of Vertical Velocity at the End of Amortisa-
tion on Angle of Take-Off from One-Before-the Last Support
Fig. 10. Dependence of Vertical Velocity at the End of Take-Off on
Length Difference between the Last Two Strides
Fig. 9. Dependence of Vertical Velocity at the End of Take-Off on
the Last Stride Length 

36 Milo{ Slamka, Roman Moravec (1999). Comparison of selected kinematic structure parameters in male…  KinSI, 5(1–2) : 31–36
for men is about 10 cm shorter than the one-befo-
re-the last stride length. A competitor can generate a
shorter flight phase before taking the take-off posi-
tion by means of the last stride shortening. During
the flight phase, the competitor’s body is exposed to
gravitation generating a free fall. Vertical velocity be-
fore taking the take-off position reaches small nega-
tive values. A shorter flight phase generates a slight
decrease of vertical velocity and the flight phase ef-
fect is negligible. This way, a competitor will genera-
te better conditions for the use of the jumping take-
off potential (Slamka and Moravec 1986).
In fig. 7 to 10, the courses of women are also shown.
However, their interpretation is hardly possible due
to the large dispersion of values. It seems that the ki-
nematic structure characterised by these parameters
is not formed yet so well for women.
Conclusion
Tries analysis in samples of men (n = 18) and women
(n = 21) confirmed that an important part of verti-
cal velocity is generated by means of horizontal ve-
locity transformation with the help of leverage
through the take-off leg. The leverage works also du-
ring the active phase of take-off. We suppose that
competitors, able to put their run-up speed in opti-
mum line with the angle of the take-off position, can
generate as much as 60% to 70% of vertical velocity
by means of leverage through the take-off leg. Re-
sulting vertical velocity significantly correlates with
horizontal velocity at the beginning of the take-off
phase. A shorter take-off time is reached by higher
horizontal velocity generating higher values of ma-
ximum force. Therefore, a competitor must put in
line his/her run-up speed and the angle of tread-
down to the take-off position with his/her strength
abilities. The leverage makes a significant contribu-
tion to resulting vertical velocity generation also in
the sample of women. In comparison with the male
sample, a rather big dispersion of values of the selec-
ted parameters characterising the final phase of the
run-up was found in women. Therefore, we came
to a conclusion that kinematic structure of the run-
up final phase characterised by those parameters is
not formed for women yet. With regard to extreme
requirements on competitor’s strength during the
take-off, an optimal modification of kinematic struc-
ture identified in both women and men will be use-
ful.
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