Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Vol. 7 | No4 | Year 2017 c e p s Journal c e p s Journal FO CUS Foreign Language Learning and Identity Reconstruction: Learners’ Understanding of the Intersections of the Self, the Other and Power Učenje tujih jezikov in rekonstrukcija identitete: razumevanje presečišča jaza, drugega in moči — Seyyed Hatam Tamimi Sa’d Elementary and Secondary School Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ Classroom Management Competencies Pogledi učencev osnovnih in srednjih šol na učiteljeve kompetence vodenja razreda — Jana Kalin, Cirila Peklaj, Sonja Pečjak, Melita Puklek Levpušček and Milena Valenčič Zuljan Multicultural Education vs. Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentric Education: Text Analysis of a Contemporary Israeli Value Education Program Multikulturna edukacija: implicitna in eksplicitna etnocentričnaedukacija – vsebinska analiza sodobnega izraelskega programa za vzgojo za vrednote — Roni Reingold and Sara Zamir Pre-Service Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs about Foreign Language Learning and Early Foreign Language Teaching in Slovenia Prepričanja študentov predšolske vzgoje o učenju in zgodnjem poučevanju tujega jezika v Sloveniji — Mateja Dagarin Fojkar and Darija Skubic In Search of Teaching Quality of EFL Student Teachers through Teaching Practicum: Lessons from a Teacher Education Program V iskanju kakovosti poučevanja prihodnjih učiteljev angleščine kot tujega jezika med pedagoško prakso: program izobraževanja učiteljev — Siti Nurul Azkiyah and Amirul Mukminin Primary School Student Teachers’ Perceived and Actual Knowledge in Biology Predstava bodočih učiteljev razrednega pouka o njihovem znanju biologije in njihovo dejansko znanje biologije — Eija Yli-Panula, Eila Jeronen and Nonmanut Pongsakdi Exploring the Link between Achievement Goals, Motivation, and Parental Expectations among University Students in Kosovo Ugotavljanje povezav med cilji dosežkov, motivacijo in pričakovanji staršev študentov na Kosovu — Albulene Grajcevci and Arif Shala Participation in Decision-making in Class: Opportunities and Student Attitudes in Austria and Slovenia Možnosti in želje učencev v Avstriji in Sloveniji po soodločanju pri pouku — Monika Mithans, Milena Ivanuš Grmek and Branka Čagran Changes in Beliefs Regarding Good Teachers and the Characteristics of Child Development of Primary Education Students Spremembe prepričanj študentov razrednega pouka o dobrem učitelju in značilnostih otrokovega razvoja — Helena Smrtnik Vitulič and Irena Lesar Cooperation between Parents and Preschool Institutions through Different Concepts of Preschool Education Sodelovanje med starši in vzgojitelji v različnih konceptih predšolske vzgoje — Sanja Berčnik and Tatjana Devjak REVIEWS Mary Hayden and Jeff Thomson (Eds.), International Schools: current issues and future prospects, Oxford: Symposium books, 2016; 240 pp.: isbn 978-1-873927-92-2 — Mirko Mrčela Vivian Cook and Li Wei (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multi- competence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016; 562 pp.: isbn 978-1-107-05921-4 — Gabrijela Petra Nagode i s s n 1 8 5 5 - 9 7 1 9 Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Vol. 7 | No4 | Year 2017 c o n t e n t s www.cepsj.si C en te r f or E du ca tio na l P ol ic y St ud ie s J ou rn al Re vi ja C en tra za št ud ij ed uk ac ijs ki h str at eg ij V ol .7 | N o 4 | Ye ar 2 01 7 c e p s J ou rn al University of Ljubljana Faculty of Education Editor in Chief / Glavni in odgovorni urednik Slavko Gaber – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Deputy Editor in Chief / Namestnik glavnega in odgovornega urednika Iztok Devetak – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Editorial Board / Uredniški odbor Michael W. Apple – Department of Educational Policy Studies, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, usa Branka Baranović – Institut za društvena istraživanja u Zagrebu, Zagreb, Hrvatska CÉsar Birzea – Faculty of Philosophy, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Vlatka Domović – Učiteljski fakultet, Zagreb, Hrvatska Grozdanka Gojkov – Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Novi Sad, Srbija Jan De Groof – Professor at the College of Europe, Bruges, Belgium and at the University of Tilburg, the Netherlands; Government Commissioner for Universities, Belgium, Flemish Community; President of the „European Association for Education Law and Policy“ Andy Hargreaves – Lynch School of Education, Boston College, Boston, usa Tatjana Hodnik Čadež – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Janez Jerman – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Mojca Juriševič – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Jana Kalin – Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Alenka Kobolt – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Janez Krek - Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Bruno Losito – Facolta di Scienze della Formazione, Universita' degli Studi Roma Tre, Roma, Italy Lisbeth Lundhal – Umeå Universitet, Umeå, Sweden Ljubica Marjanovič Umek – Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Silvija Markić - Ludwigsburg University of Education, Institute for Science and Technology Mariana Moynova – University of Veliko Turnovo, Veliko Turnovo, Bulgary Hannele Niemi – Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Mojca Peček Čuk – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Аnа Pešikan-Аvramović – Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Beograd, Srbija Karmen Pižorn – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Igor Radeka – Odjel za pedagogiju, Sveučilište u Zadru, Zadar, Hrvatska Pasi Sahlberg – Harvard Graduate School of Education, Boston, usa Igor Saksida – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Michael Schratz – School of Education, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria Keith S. Taber – Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, uk Shunji Tanabe – Faculty of Education, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, Japan Beatriz Gabriela Tomšič Čerkez – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Jón Torfi Jónasson – School of Education, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland Nadica Turnšek - Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Milena Valenčič Zuljan – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Zoran Velkovski – Faculty of Philosophy, SS. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Janez Vogrinc – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Robert Waagenar – Faculty of Arts, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands Pavel Zgaga – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Current Issue Editor / Urednik številke Iztok Devetak Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal issn 2232-2647 (online edition) issn 1855-9719 (printed edition) Publication frequency: 4 issues per year Subject: Teacher Education, Educational Science Publisher: Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Managing editor: Lea Vrečko / English language editor: Neville Hall / Slovene language editing: Tomaž Petek / Cover and layout design: Roman Ražman / Typeset: Igor Cerar / Print: Birografika Bori, d. o. o., Ljubljana © 2017 Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana Instructions for Authors for publishing in ceps Journal (www.cepsj.si – instructions) Submissions Manuscript should be from 5,000 to 7,000 words long, including abstract and reference list. 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Povzetki in indeksiranje Scopus | EBSCO - Education Source Publications | Co- operative Online Bibliographic System and Services (COBISS) | Digital Library of Slovenia - dLib | DOAJ - Directory for Open Access Journals | Academic Jour- nals Database | ERIH PLUS | ERIC | Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek EZB (Electronic Journals Library) | Base-Search | DRJI - The Directory of Re- search Journal Indexing | GSU - Georgia State Uni- versity Library | MLibrary - University of Michigan | NewJour | NYU Libraries | OhioLINK | Open Access Journals Search Engine (OAJSE) | peDOCS: open ac- cess to educational science literature | ResearchBib | Scirus | Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory; New Providence, USA Letna naročnina (4 številke). Posamezniki 45 €; pravne osebe 90 €. Naročila po e-pošti: info@cepsj. si; pošti: Revija ceps, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. Spletna izdaja na www.cepsj.si. c e p s Journal Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij The CEPS Journal is an open-access, peer- reviewed journal devoted to publishing research papers in different fields of education, including sci- entific. Aims & Scope The CEPS Journal is an international peer-re- viewed journal with an international board. It pub- lishes original empirical and theoretical studies from a wide variety of academic disciplines related to the field of Teacher Education and Educational Sciences; in particular, it will support comparative studies in the field. Regional context is stressed but the journal remains open to researchers and contributors across all European countries and worldwide. There are four issues per year. Issues are focused on specific areas but there is also space for non-focused articles and book reviews. About the Publisher The University of Ljubljana is one of the larg- est universities in the region (see www.uni-lj.si) and its Faculty of Education (see www.pef.uni-lj.si), established in 1947, has the leading role in teacher education and education sciences in Slovenia. It is well positioned in regional and European coopera- tion programmes in teaching and research. A pub- lishing unit oversees the dissemination of research results and informs the interested public about new trends in the broad area of teacher education and education sciences; to date, numerous monographs and publications have been published, not just in Slovenian but also in English. In 2001, the Centre for Educational Policy Studies (CEPS; see http://ceps.pef.uni-lj.si) was es- tablished within the Faculty of Education to build upon experience acquired in the broad reform of the national educational system during the period of so- cial transition in the 1990s, to upgrade expertise and to strengthen international cooperation. CEPS has established a number of fruitful contacts, both in the region – particularly with similar institutions in the countries of the Western Balkans – and with inter- ested partners in EU member states and worldwide. • Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij je mednarodno recenzirana revija z mednarodnim uredniškim odborom in s prostim dostopom. Na- menjena je objavljanju člankov s področja izobra- ževanja učiteljev in edukacijskih ved. Cilji in namen Revija je namenjena obravnavanju naslednjih področij: poučevanje, učenje, vzgoja in izobraže- vanje, socialna pedagogika, specialna in rehabilita- cijska pedagogika, predšolska pedagogika, edukacijske politike, supervizija, poučevanje slovenskega jezika in književnosti, poučevanje matematike, računalništva, naravoslovja in tehnike, poučevanje družboslovja in humanistike, poučevanje na področju umetnosti, visokošolsko izobraževanje in izobraževanje odra- slih. Poseben poudarek bo namenjen izobraževanju učiteljev in spodbujanju njihovega profesionalnega razvoja. V reviji so objavljeni znanstveni prispevki, in sicer teoretični prispevki in prispevki, v katerih so predstavljeni rezultati kvantitavnih in kvalitativnih empiričnih raziskav. Še posebej poudarjen je pomen komparativnih raziskav. Revija izide štirikrat letno. Številke so tematsko opredeljene, v njih pa je prostor tudi za netematske prispevke in predstavitve ter recenzije novih pu- blikacij. The publication of the CEPS Journal in 2017 and 2018 is co-financed by the Slovenian Research Agency within the framework of the Public Tender for the Co-Financing of the Publication of Domestic Scientific Periodicals. Izdajanje revije v letih 2017 in 2018 sofinancira Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije v okviru Javnega razpisa za sofinanciranje izdajanja domačih znanstvenih periodičnih publikacij. 2 c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 3 Editorial — Iztok Devetak Varia Foreign Language Learning and Identity Reconstruction: Learners’ Understanding of the Intersections of the Self, the Other and Power Učenje tujih jezikov in rekonstrukcija identitete: razumevanje presečišča jaza, drugega in moči — Seyyed Hatam Tamimi Sa’d Elementary and Secondary School Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ Classroom Management Competencies Pogledi učencev osnovnih in srednjih šol na učiteljeve kompetence vodenja razreda — Jana Kalin, Cirila Peklaj, Sonja Pečjak, Melita Puklek Levpušček, and Milena Valenčič Zuljan Multicultural Education vs. Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentric Education: Text Analysis of a Contemporary Israeli Value Education Program Multikulturna edukacija: implicitna in eksplicitna etnocentrična edukacija – vsebinska analiza sodobnega izraelskega programa za vzgojo za vrednote — Roni Reingold and Sara Zamir Pre-Service Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs about Foreign Language Learning and Early Foreign Language Teaching in Slovenia Prepričanja študentov predšolske vzgoje o učenju in zgodnjem poučevanju tujega jezika v Sloveniji — Mateja Dagarin Fojkar and Darija Skubic Contents 7 13 37 63 85 4 In Search of Teaching Quality of EFL Student Teachers through Teaching Practicum: Lessons from a Teacher Education Program V iskanju kakovosti poučevanja prihodnjih učiteljev angleščine kot tujega jezika med pedagoško prakso: program izobraževanja učiteljev — Siti Nurul Azkiyah and Amirul Mukminin Primary School Student Teachers’ Perceived and Actual Knowledge in Biology Predstava bodočih učiteljev razrednega pouka o njihovem znanju biologije in njihovo dejansko znanje biologije — Eija Yli-Panula, Eila Jeronen and Nonmanut Pongsakdi Exploring the Link between Achievement Goals, Motivation, and Parental Expectations among University Students in Kosovo Ugotavljanje povezav med cilji dosežkov, motivacijo in pričakovanji staršev študentov na Kosovu — Albulene Grajcevci and Arif Shala Participation in Decision-making in Class: Opportunities and Student Attitudes in Austria and Slovenia Možnosti in želje učencev v Avstriji in Sloveniji po soodločanju pri pouku — Monika Mithans, Milena Ivanuš Grmek and Branka Čagran Changes in Beliefs Regarding Good Teachers and the Characteristics of Child Development of Primary Education Students Spremembe prepričanj študentov razrednega pouka o dobrem učitelju in značilnostih otrokovega razvoja — Helena Smrtnik Vitulič and Irena Lesar 105 125 147 165 185 contents c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 5 Cooperation between Parents and Preschool Institutions through Different Concepts of Preschool Education Sodelovanje med starši in vzgojitelji v različnih konceptih predšolske vzgoje — Sanja Berčnik and Tatjana Devjak reViews Mary Hayden and Jeff Thomson (Eds.), International Schools: current issues and future prospects, Oxford: Symposium books, 2016; 240 pp.: ISBN 978-1-873927-92-2 — Mirko Mrčela Vivian Cook and Li Wei (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multi-competence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016; 562 pp.: ISBN 978-1-107-05921-4 — Gabrijela Petra Nagode List of Referees in Year 2017 207 227 231 237 6 c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 7 Editorial This issue concludes the 7th volume of CEPS Journal, and it celebrates the 70th anniversary of the establishment of the Faculty of Education, Univer- sity of Ljubljana in 1947. The current issue of CEPS Journal is not limited to a specific focus but intentionally presents a number of articles addressing a wide spectrum of relevant educational questions, as the Faculty of Education has done over the previous seven decades. The paper entitled “Foreign Language Learning and Identity Recon- struction: Learners’ Understanding of the Intersections of the Self, the Other and Power” by Seyyed Hatam Tamimi Sa’d explores the relationship between English language learning and identity reconstruction from the viewpoints of Iranian language learners. The data were gathered using qualitative approach- es to determine the concept of identity. The participants were found to draw upon notions as diverse as personal and social characteristics, ethnic origins, geographical locations, religious affiliations, national customs and rituals, and values, amongst others. Furthermore, the vast majority of the learners held that learning English had a profound impact on how they perceive their identity. The interviewees also expressed strong inclinations to integrate and, therefore, to identify with the target linguistic and cultural norms. The results highlight the vital role of motivation and the status of English as an international lan- guage in viewing, redefining and reconstructing identity. The authors conclude the paper by emphasising the role of discursive practices, power relations, soli- darity and otherising with regard to identity reconstruction in second language learning. The second paper, “Elementary and Secondary School Students’ Percep- tions of Teachers’ Classroom Management Competencies ”, by Jana Kalin, Ciri- la Peklaj, Sonja Pečjak, Melita Puklek Levpušček, and Milena Valenčič Zuljan, discusses the importance of teachers’ competence of knowledge transfer to dif- ferent students. When teachers are competent to effectively lead these activities, they can provide quality education. Teacher’s classroom management compe- tencies largely determine the potential of achieving educational goals and help- ing pupils form integral personalities. Studies show that teachers lack compe- tencies for classroom management and ensuring discipline in the classroom. The main purpose of this paper is to present the results of a study on students’ perceptions on teachers’ classroom management competencies in mathematics and the Slovene language. A total of 907 students from elementary and sec- ondary schools in Slovenia participated in the study. Differences in students’ assessments have been established in reference to school level and subject. 8 editorial Results show that secondary school teachers are more focused on achieving educational goals, while aspects of forming a suitable class climate remain less important. The components of quality classroom management (maintenance of supportive learning climate, trusting students) are present in Slovene classes in a larger extent in comparison to maths classes, particularly at the elementary school level. Secondary school students assessed the clarity of rules, student obligations, and paying attention in class more highly in maths than in Slovene. The results of students’ assessment of teacher competencies imply a need for additional research on teachers’ classroom management competencies in dif- ferent curriculum subjects. The third paper, by Roni Reingold and Sara Zamir, with the title “Multi- cultural Education vs. Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentric Education: Text Anal- ysis of a Contemporary Israeli Value Education Program˝ explains the analysis of contemporary Israeli program of value education. Using the method of con- tent analysis, this study sought to determine whether the syllabi of the contem- porary program reflect the adoption of a multicultural educational policy, or whether they produce only multicultural rhetoric. The findings reveal that the program reflected mainly the pluralistic approach while still maintaining traces of ethnocentric rhetoric of certain syllabi in the program. The fourth paper, by Mateja Dagarin Fojkar and Darija Skubic, is en- titled “Pre-Service Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs about Foreign Language Learn- ing and Early Foreign Language Teaching in Slovenia”. The implementation of foreign languages in preschool education has prompted the need for quali- fied teachers. However, most recent studies report a gap between the supply of qualified foreign language teachers of young learners and the demand for such teachers as foreign languages are introduced earlier and earlier. The authors of this paper present some models of initial and in-service training of preschool foreign language teachers in Slovenia. Learners’ beliefs about language learning have been considered an important variable, like many other individual differ- ences in language learning. Ninety pre-service preschool teachers participated in this study. The results imply that future preschool teachers are aware of the importance of foreign language learning and their awareness raises with the year of study. It is also important to emphasise that it would be beneficial to include early foreign language teacher training in the education of preschool teachers who are willing to teach foreign languages in kindergartens in Slovenia and elsewhere. The next paper, entitled ˝In Search of Teaching Quality of EFL Student Teachers through Teaching Practicum: Lessons from a Teacher Education Pro- gram”, by Siti Nurul Azkiyah and Amirul Mukminin, deals with the teaching c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 9 quality of student teachers when they were involved into teaching practice. Teaching quality is conceptualized according to eight classroom factors (orien- tation, structuring, modelling, application, questioning, building classroom as a learning environment, assessment, time management) of the dynamic model as described by the authors. The study presented in this paper applied a mix- method design, implementing a survey on students’ perception on the teach- ing quality of their teacher (student teachers) and classroom observation. The study was conducted in Indonesia, involving English as foreign language stu- dent teachers. Results indicate that the student teachers did not yet practice the classroom factors of the dynamic model and some recommendations to include this dynamic model in the teacher education programmes are suggested. The sixth paper, by Eija Yli-Panula, Eila Jeronen and Nonmanut Pong- sakdi, entitled ˝Primary School Student Teachers’ Perceived and Actual Knowl- edge in Biology”, discusses an analysis of student teachers’ perceived knowl- edge of biological content in relation to their actual animal and species name knowledge linked to the ecosystem in which they live. Individuals’ perceptions of their knowledge can have an important role in shaping their cognition and influencing their behaviour. The results show a high- and low-level perceived knowledge cluster group among the participants. They further indicate that the difference in actual animal and species name knowledge between these cluster groups remained the same during the five years of the study. The student teach- ers with a higher level of perceived knowledge tended to have better animal and species name knowledge than those in the low-level group. The animal name knowledge in these cluster groups was similar with regard to the local Finnish ecosystems but differed concerning the exotic species by year. The year that the participants enrolled in the study programme had an impact on their animal and species name knowledge. Strategies for coping with work-related demands and maintaining engagement in one’s career would be important additions to the teacher education curriculum. The seventh paper, entitled “Exploring the Link between Achievement Goals, Motivation, and Parental Expectations in University Students in Kosovo”, by Albulene Grajcevci and Arif Shala, presents the link between achievement goals, motivation and parent expectations between students attending universi- ty education in Kosovo, and how cultural differences mediate expected results. Results show that mastery goals positively correlate to intrinsic motivation, in addition to which curiosity as a subscale of intrinsic motivation positively pre- dicted preferences for mastery goals. As expected, performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals, correlated to extrinsic motivation with extrinsic motivation successfully predicting preferences for both types of performance 10 editorial goals. The authors also concluded that among students in Kosovo, all types of goals correlated to intrinsic motivation. Achievement goals discriminated in extrinsic motivation with mastery goals correlating rather weakly to only one subscale of extrinsic motivation. The next paper, written by Monika Mithans, Milena Ivanuš Grmek and Branka Čagran, “Participation in Decision-making in Class: Opportunities and Student Attitudes in Austria and Slovenia”, focuses on the problem of student involvement in the education process. Altogether, 322 students from Austria and 458 students from Slovenia participated in this study. The authors used questionnaire to gather the data. The results showed that students remain in- sufficiently aware of the right to participation in school. In addition, the study showed that students from Austrian schools have more decision-making op- portunities than their peers in Slovenia. The results also indicate that, in spite of its proven advantages, legal basis and repeated demands for its implementation, participation in the class environment has yet to become common practice. The ninth paper, entitled “Changes in Beliefs Regarding Good Teachers and the Characteristics of Child Development of Primary Education Students”, by Helena Smrtnik Vitulič and Irena Lesar, presents a longitudinal study. The authors determine the beliefs of the primary education students on the factors of academic achievement on good teachers and the developmental character- istics of students, and they presented which experiences mostly shape these beliefs. The primary education students filled in the same questionnaire twice, at the beginning of the first year (undergraduate) and then at the end of their postgraduate studies. At both measurements, the students estimated that they themselves are the most responsible for their academic achievement (approxi- mately 33%). At the beginning of the study the students mostly showed ideal- ized beliefs of a good teacher, such as he/she is self-controlled and calm in all situations; he/she likes all students equally, etc. At the end, the results showed a reshaping of most beliefs of good teachers towards more realistic ones. The last paper in this issue of CEPS Journal, entitled “Cooperation be- tween Parents and Preschool Institutions through Different Concepts of Pre- school Education”, written by Sanja Berčnik and Tatjana Devjak, analyses the importance, role, and methods of cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through the different concepts of preschool education, different ed- ucational approaches and formal framework. Through educational approaches, the authors analyse how cooperation affects the implementation of preschool education in alternative educational approaches, such as the Waldorf, Montes- sori, and Reggio Emilia educational approaches, and the Slovenian public pre- school institutions. They envisage that different educational approaches in the c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 11 field of preschool education perceive the importance and role of cooperation with parents differently and conclude that there are various models of coopera- tion, which can be displayed through a theoretical analysis of the aforemen- tioned alternative preschool approaches. In their view, partnership promotes a shared commitment to quality realisation of educational goals; it also develops understanding and an ethos of openness in the relationship between all actors in the process of care and education of preschool children. This issue of CEPS Journal concludes with two book reviews. The first review written by Mirko Mrčela introduces the book entitled “International Schools: Current issues and future prospects” by Mary Hayden and Jeff Thom- son (Eds.), Symposium books, 2016, ISBN 978-1-873927-92-2. Authour of the review emphasises that most authors in this book pay a great deal of attention to the unprecedented growth in the international school sector and try to con- tributed to the categorisation of the field as it is characterised by a considerable diversity and constant change. The author of the review also underscored that since the international schools field is relatively under-researched, the chapter presented in the book offer a close look into its history, current trends and pos- sible future issues. The second review presents the book entitled “The Cambridge Handbo- ok of Linguistic Multi-competence” by Vivian Cook and Li Wei (Eds.), Cam- bridge University Press, 2016, ISBN 978-1-107-05921-4, is written by Gabrijela Petra Nagode. The book review presents current aspects of its subject through a review of the concept of multi-competence from the psychological, sociolin- guistic, and Second Language Acquisition points of view. It tries to answer the question of how two or more languages are learned and contained in the same mind or the same community. Iztok Devetak 12 c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 13 Foreign Language Learning and Identity Reconstruction: Learners’ Understanding of the Intersections of the Self, the Other and Power Seyyed Hatam Tamimi Sa’d1 • The present qualitative study sought to explore the relationship between English language learning and identity reconstruction from the view- points of Iranian language learners. The data were collected by means of focus-group interviews with forty-five male intermediate learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). To define the concept of identity, the participants were found to draw upon notions as diverse as per- sonal and social characteristics, ethnic origins, geographical locations, religious affiliations, national customs and rituals and values, amongst others. Furthermore, the vast majority of the learners held that learning English had a profound impact on how they perceive their identity. Of these, nearly all the interviewees regarded the above impact as highly positive and beneficial to the course of language learning. The inter- viewees also expressed strong inclination to integrate and, therefore, to identify with the target linguistic and cultural norms. Notwithstanding, a number of opposing voices were raised by some learners who resisted identity reconstruction through language learning, claiming that they learned English simply for the sake of instrumental, as opposed to inte- grative, purposes. These participants also levelled criticisms at what they viewed as ‘the imposition of Western values on an Islamic country’. The results highlight the vital role of motivation and the status of English as an international language in viewing, redefining and reconstructing identity. In conclusion, the findings confirm the role of discursive prac- tices, power relations, solidarity and otherising with regard to identity reconstruction in the course of second language (L2) learning. Keywords: English as an international language, identity reconstruc- tion, learner identity, other, power 1 The Iran Language Institute, Iran; shtamimi90@gmail.com. varia 14 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction Učenje tujih jezikov in rekonstrukcija identitete: razumevanje presečišča jaza, drugega in moči Seyyed Hatam Tamimi Sa’d • Kvalitativna raziskava pojasnjuje odnos med učenjem angleškega jezika in rekonstrukcijo identitete pri iranskih učencih tujega jezika. Podatki so bili zbrani z metodo fokusnih intervjujev s petinštiridesetimi učenci nadaljevalnega tečaja učenja angleščine kot tujega jezika. Pri definiran- ju koncepta identitete so se udeleženci srečali z raznolikimi pojmi, med drugim na primer z osebnimi in družbenimi karakteristikami, etničnimi izvori, zemljepisnimi lokacijami, religioznimi pripadnostmi, nacionalnimi običaji in rituali ter z vrednotami. Poleg tega je velika večina učencev razumela, da ima učenje angleščine velik vpliv na način, na katerega dojemajo svojo identiteto. Od teh so skoraj vsi intervjuvanci dojeli prej omenjeni vpliv kot zelo pozitiven in koristen za tečaj učenja jezika. Intervjuvanci so izrazili tudi močno nagnjenost k integraciji in posledično k identifikaciji s ciljnim jezikovnimi in s kulturnimi norma- mi. Čeprav je bilo zaslediti kar nekaj nasprotujočih si mnenj učencev, ki so nasprotovali rekonstrukciji identitete prek učenja jezika, sklicujoč se na to, da so se učili angleščino samo z vidika instrumentalnih in ne integrativnih namenov. Ti udeleženci so prav tako enačili kritiko tistega, kar so razumeli kot »vsiljevanje vrednot Zahoda islamski državi«. Rezul- tati poudarjajo ključno vlogo motivacije in statusa angleščine kot inter- nacionalnega jezika pri razumevanju, redefiniranju in pri rekonstrukciji identitete. V sklepnem delu ugotovitve potrjujejo vlogo diskurzivnih praks, odnosov moči, solidarnosti in drugega glede na rekonstrukcijo identitete v okviru tečaja učenja drugega jezika. Ključne besede: angleščina kot internacionalni jezik, rekonstrukcija identitete, identiteta učenca, drugi, moč c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 15 Introduction Learning a new language is an overarching experience that involves the whole person: physically, cognitively, and emotionally. In this experience, lan- guage learners fluctuate between an understanding of themselves as speakers of their first language (L1) and their awareness of themselves as learners of a second language (L2), of how they ‘identify’ themselves. Hence, it is believed that identity construction through language use is an ongoing, continuous, and dynamic process (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2007). Furthermore, language is assumed to be central to human cognition and condition, identity construction and self-development (Edwards, 2009). Nor- ton (1997) argued that language both shapes and is shaped by one’s identity. In addition, it is commonly acknowledged that language learning and identity reconstruction are closely linked (Edwards, 2009; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Norton, 1995, 1997, 2009) although discussions of identity theory seldom fall directly under the rubric of research in second language acquisition (SLA) (Ortega, 2009). The present study attempts to demonstrate language learners’ under- standing of the impact of learning English on their identity perception, re- construction and redefinition based on qualitative data generated by means of focus group interviews (see Appendix). The results are discussed within the broader global context and status of English and references are made to the power relationships inherent in the course of learning English in a non-West- ern, EFL context (i.e., Iran). Identity Identity is based on both similarity and difference. Individuals identify with that to which they find themselves similar; conversely, they often dissoci- ate with and feel apprehensive about what they regard as different or conflicting. Edwards (2009) remarked that the underlying construct of identity is similar- ity, basing such theorising upon the Latin root of the word ‘identity’(identitas), which means ‘same’. Two decades ago, Norton (1997), the leading figure in re- search on identity in language, strongly defended the heated discussion on the relation between language learning and identity, viewing it as intimately tied to language education theorising. In this regard, Norton argued that language learners are constantly engaged in a continuous process of identity construc- tion every time they speak. However, according to van Lier (as cited in Deters, 2011), research on identity and its relationship with language and agency is in its 16 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction infancy. It is maintained that speakers can also demonstrate their identity in an L2 through their L1. For instance, Kasper (as cited in Johnson & Johnson, 1999) and Tamimi Sa’d and Modirkhamene (2015) observed that language learners preserve their L1 norms, for example, their L1-accented speech, not as a sign of negative pragmatic transfer but to mark their identity. Theorising identity has produced several theories of identity. Further- more, various categories and types of identity have been mentioned in the lit- erature including ‘social identity’, ‘sociocultural identity’, ‘cultural identity’, ‘eth- nic identity’, amongst others (Norton, 1997). In this line of research, identity has been approached from various perspectives. One approach to identity is poststructuralist which, according to Norton (2013, 2014), attempts to explain identity in terms of our subjectivity defined simply as ‘our sense of ourselves’ (p. 4). Subjectivity is explained in terms of power; that is to say, individuals are either subjects of power or subjects to power. Accordingly, power is a key notion in research on identity (see Morita, 2004). Indeed, studies that explore perceptions of identity reconstruction through target language (TL) learning are likely to reveal interesting insights, which will, in turn, cast light on the pos- sible paths that learners tread to acquire a new language and, most probably, a new identity and self. Theoretical background A growing mass of evidence from a variety of disciplines has demonstrat- ed that language learning and identity (re)construction are closely associated. This issue has received considerable research attention from many researchers (see, e.g., Barnawi, 2009; Huang, 2011; Joseph, 2009; Lazzaro-Salazar, 2013; Na- bavi, 2010; Norton, 1995, 1997, 2009, 2011; Norton & McKinney, 2011; Roth, 2010). Many scholars even regard language learning and identity as inseparable (Day, 2002; Edwards, 2009; Norton, 1997). Norton (2011) believes that the recent bur- geoning interest in identity comes as a result of a shift of interest from the psy- cholinguistic aspects of language learning to an emphasis on the sociological and anthropological dimensions of language acquisition. In a review of the literature on identity and education since the 1970s, Norton (2011) traced the development of research on this concept in light of such notions as resistance, imagined com- munities, and investment. Summarising her review thus, she explains, ‘the extent to which a learner speaks or is silent, and writes, reads, or resists has much to do with the extent to which the learner is valued in any given institution or com- munity’ (p. 326). In addition to Norton, other researchers have also been con- cerned with how power and resistance affect identity (e.g., Burr, 2006; Sato, 2014; c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 17 Schecter & Bayley, 1997; Trappes-Lomax, 2004; Wang & Phillion, 2011). In an- other recent study, Barnawi (2009) examined the identity negotiation and shap- ing of two Saudi Arabian students of English at American universities. Barnawi’s study focused on the subjects’ competence in participation and membership and revealed their difficulty socialising in the TL community. Taking a metaphor approach, Huang (2011) set out to examine identi- ty development by 35 Taiwanese students of non-English majors. The results confirmed that the majority of the participants reported positive metaphors to describe their L2 self-development through learning English. Zacharias (2012) studied 35 Indonesian multilingual EFL learners’ identity negotiation and con- struction. This study demonstrated that the participants rated their national identity negatively. Zacharias further argued that this negative view resulted from the participants’ recognition of themselves as non-native speakers (NNSs) and, therefore, as linguistically incompetent compared to native speakers (NSs). Morita (2004) also conducted a multiple case study on L2 learners’ negotiation of identities and participation in a Canadian university to determine that rela- tions of power played a significant role in this process. Similarly, Wang and Phillion (2011) examined the identity construction of two Hui students in east- ern China based on the postcolonial theory of identity. Their analysis revealed that Hui students’ identity construction was related to issues of power, domi- nance, and hegemony. In another study which used interviews as the data col- lection tools, Li and Simpson (2013) investigated migrant learners’ attitudes of English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) toward identity reconstruction in a migrant context. Taking a poststructuralist perspective of identity, Li and Simpson (2013) assert that understanding the process of identity reconstruction can assist us in gaining a better insight into needs analysis. More recently, using data gathered by means of questionnaires and in- terviews, Lefkowitz and Hedgcock (2006) demonstrated how Spanish learn- ers of English negotiated their identity in English through adopting standard pronunciation due to social pressure. Most recently, Sato (2014) carried out a study of the effect of study abroad on Japanese students’ identity construction. In line with Wang and Phillion (2011), Sato’s findings demonstrated that eq- uitable power relations contributed to favourable L2 identity construction, as did Wortham’s (2010) study of Tyisha, a black girl, and her identity develop- ment in classroom settings. Similarly, Kinginger (2004) tracked four years in the life of Alice, a motivated learner of French, narrating her story throughout her language learning journey. Ritzau (2015) carried out a study that clearly demonstrated that students of Danish, even at a beginning level of language learning, embarked on self-positioning and identity work in the TL. Despite 18 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction the significance of L2 identity perception and negotiation, research on learners’ perceptions of identity reconstruction through language learning in the Iranian context has not been very rigorous. The findings of the study will hopefully be concerned with critical pedagogy, needs analysis and teacher education pro- grams. The objective of the current study is three-fold: a) to explore how Irani- an language learners define, perceive and conceptualise identity; b) to evaluate language learners’ perceptions of their identity as Iranians (i.e., national iden- tity); and c) to appraise the way Iranian language learners interpret L2 identity reconstruction. Therefore, the following research questions are put forward: 1. How do Iranian EFL learners perceive and define identity? 2. How do Iranian EFL learners assess their national identity (i.e., as Iranians)? 3. How do Iranian EFL learners perceive identity reconstruction through learning English? Methodology Participants and Setting Forty-five intermediate learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) participated in the current study. All the participants studied English at the same private language institute in Ahwaz, Iran and constituted males only. Their age range was within 13-21, and their English learning experience ranged from 1 to 6 years. In terms of ethnic as well as linguistic background, the participants constituted Arabs, Turks and Persians and spoke Arabic, Turkish and Persian as their mother tongues. The selection procedure was convenience sampling, that is, a sampling method in which those participants who are available for the study are selected (Mackey & Gass, 2005). Instruments The data were elicited by means of focus-group interviews. These inter- views comprised eight questions which enquired about diverse issues surround- ing identity including the definition of identity, the importance of identity, the effect of foreign language learning on one’s identity and learners’ attitudes to- ward identity reconstruction through language learning (if any). The partic- ipants were asked to elaborate on these issues whenever possible during the interviews. It is noteworthy that the focus-group interviews were conducted in Persian to ensure the interviewees’ full comprehension of the questions. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 19 Procedure and Data Analysis The present study is qualitative, with data collected by means of focus- group interviews which were tape-recorded to be analysed later. The collected data were analysed in search of recurring themes and emergent categories aris- ing from the interview transcripts. As stated before, the interviews were carried out in Persian and the interview transcripts that appear in this study are their English translations. Results The objective of the study was three-fold: to examine the way Iranian learners of English define and view identity, to evaluate the participants’ under- standing of the possible impact of learning English on their identity, and finally to assess their attitudes toward such an impact as well as the major factors that cause it. Identity: Definitions The participants’ definition of identity was the first question addressed in the interviews. The participants were simply required to offer their defini- tion of ‘identity’ and what they perceived as composing identity (Question #1). Some definitions are as follows: Interviewee 1. A person’s identity shows what sex, language and race that person has. Interviewee 6. In my opinion, identity refers to what type a person one is, as well as to his/her culture, language, etc. It is also part of their behaviour and abilities. Interviewee 8. Everyone’s identity shows that person’s existence. It also depends on his/her race. Interviewee 21. Identity means your nationality and culture. Interviewee 22. Identity is what we do. Interviewee 28. Identity is our actions and behaviours. It is our norms and values. Interviewee 31. Identity means one’s existence. It is how one lives and the characteristics he has. Identity varies with one’s geographical location and place of living. Interviewee 36. I believe that one’s identity shows his/her whole life. It shows how a person lives, speaks, behaves, etc. 20 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction Interviewee 38. I think my identity is my nationality, personality, ethnic- ity, and religion. Interviewee 42. Identity is what defines a human being and determines what type of person one is like whether he is Muslim, Arab, etc. The analysis of the definitions of identity that the participants provided indicates that the following themes emerge as the building blocks and constitu- ents of identity: • Geographical boundaries: place of birth, residence, and work • Nationality: national values, customs, rites, and ceremonies • Culture: cultural and social values, norms, and standards • Personality: personal values, morals, manners, beliefs, and worldviews • Religion: religious values, beliefs, rituals, and acts • Ethnicity, race and ancestry: ethnic origins, racial background, and an- cestral traditions • Sex: sexual features, characteristics, and capabilities • Existence: one’s mere existence in the world • Physical body: bodily features and characteristics • Family and relations: people, communication, and relations • Civilisation: historical background and backdrop • Behaviour: one’s actions, behavioural manifestations, and patterns The above markers of identity are remarkably diverse, ranging from personal to social to individual and biological features. These definitions are highly illuminating, clearly demonstrating that the interviewees perceive iden- tity as being both personally and socially constructed; that is, identity should be defined in both personal and social terms. This demonstrates the highly dif- ferent, and at times conflicting, perceptions with which the participants have proceeded to define and mark the notion of identity. These definitions are wide-ranging and have been accurately reflected in the relevant scholarly literature. Identity has been defined on two levels: per- sonal and social (Edwards, 2009). The personal level characterises individual characteristics, features and traits. At the social level, identity is carried through history and tradition. Roth (2010) defines identity simply as ‘who someone is’ (p. 155), speculating that it includes issues and matters as diverse as motiva- tion, interests, attitudes, locus of control, aspirations, perceptions, and the likes (p. 115). The interviewees’ definitions demonstrate that they conceive of iden- tity as being a multi-layered, many-sided notion. This finding is in line with the scholarly literature which conceptualises and situates identity in terms of c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 21 ethnicity (Davies, 2007; Johnson & Johnson, 1999), nationalism (Davies, 2007; Edwards, 2009; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Saville-Troike, 2006), gender and sex (Johnstone, 2008), linguistic background (Davies, 2007; Johnson & Johnson, 1999), family and relations (Johnson & Johnson, 1999) and religious values and rituals (Rich & Troudi, 2006). Johnstone (2008) maintains that most research attention has been directed toward ethnicity, gender, nationality and race as the significant factors with which social identities are associated. She further explicates that identity can be defined in terms of one’s performance, a view which is humanistic, rhetorical, and deterministic. According to Johnstone, such a view highlights responsibility for one’s actions. With regard to the per- sonal side of identity, Johnstone (2008) states, ‘Current ways of understanding social identity and its relationship to discourse are rooted in the idea that the selves we present to others are changeable, strategic, and jointly constructed’ (p. 155). Therefore, the personal is found to be complemented by the social. This mutual interconnection will, in turn, account for the major part of the diversity in defining identity by the learners. Linguistically, identity might be expressed through one’s mother tongue accent in the TL, as well (Tamimi Sa’d & Modirkhamene, 2015). The complex web of variables and components in which the interview- ees defined identity can be accounted for by regarding this diversity as socially purposeful. According to Johnstone (2008), defining identity on the basis of such diverse factors and variables serves the purpose of ‘categorisation’. Speak- ers tend to ‘categorise’ others into groups based on their linguistic background, nationality, and so on. Part of the multi-layered and multifaceted nature of identity is understandable, particularly due to and since the introduction of what has been called ‘postmodernism’, which regards identity not as a fixed and stable concept but as a complex, dynamic and changing phenomenon continu- ously and constantly constructed and reconstructed though diverse discourses and practices (Deters, 2011). Prior to that, Norton (1997) articulated a similar view of identity by arguing in favour of a contradictory, complex and multi- faceted definition. Recently, Larsen-Freeman and Cameron (2007) have also adopted a similar approach to language called ‘complexity theory’ or ‘complex systems theory’, which views language as a complex, adaptive and dynamic sys- tem, constantly in a state of flux and change. A key point to make here is the fact that some of the constituents of identity numerated above are relatively fixed (e.g., geography, sex, etc.) while others are more flexible (e.g., behaviour, cul- ture, etc.). This distinction between these types of factors leads to the conclu- sion that while human agency might not be at play in the case of the former set of factors, it is at work in the latter set (Kabuto, 2011). In fact, as Kabuto (2011) 22 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction argued, ‘At the same time, identities are multiple. We can have different types of “selves” that make up who we are: a teacher, a mother, a wife, and a friend […]’ (p. 20). The numerous components referred to in the interviewees’ definitions of identity indicate that the interviewees see themselves as capable of enacting various multi-faceted and changing identities (see Ebtekar, 2012). Identity: Importance The next question concerned itself with the significance of having and identifying oneself with a specific identity and the reason(s) for that signifi- cance or the lack thereof (Question #2). The responses to this question reveal that 24 interviewees (53%) believed that it is highly important for one to associ- ate oneself with a special identity, while 21 (57%) interviewees did not consider this to be of much significance. Some of the quotes follow below: Interviewee 14. Everyone has an identity which shows his/her behaviour and race. Identity is important because foreigners ask you about it. Interviewee 17. Identity is very important because everyone behaves ac- cording to his/her identity and this behaviour will be different for different people. Interviewee 19. Having a special identity shows the value of our nation and shows how we appreciate our nation. Interviewee 23. Identity is very important because people with different identities have different ways of living and patterns of behaviour. There- fore, they communicate in different ways, too. Interviewee 28. Yes, it’s important to have a specific identity because peo- ple are different because they have distinct identities. It’ll not make sense to speak of identity if all people have the same identity. From the above quotes, it is seen that the participants defined identity not only in terms of the components mentioned in Section 1 (e.g., national- ity, race, ethnicity, behaviour, etc.) but also conceived of it as comprising these factors. In fact, it is argued that identity is important merely because of what it consists. Simply put, identity is of importance in and of itself. However, some respondents regarded identity as unimportant. Consider the following quotes: Interviewee 11. Identity isn’t that important to me because what I want to know is the other person’s nationality. Interviewee 16. It’s not important at all because all people have similar rights and responsibilities. Interviewee 19. It’s hardly important to have a special identity. What c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 23 counts is your talents and abilities. Interviewee 22. Humans are humans whether he comes from Iran or any- where else. Interviewee 41. Identity is not important because the colour of your skin doesn’t change the way you think! Despite all the above and next quotes which indicate that a large variety of factors are at work to form identity, some participants contend that identity is not formed by these factors and view it as separate. One participant, for in- stance, said: Interviewee 32. A person’s identity isn’t very important; instead, what one does and cares about is that person’s personality and behaviour. National Identity Identity is closely associated with one’s nationality, national values and customs and nationally shared beliefs (Edwards, 2009; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Saville-Troike, 2006). In this regard, national borders define what iden- tity is and how it is to be constructed and maintained. In light of this issue, the next interview question was concerned with how the participants regarded themselves as Iranian before they embarked on learning English (Question #4). Some responses are as follows: Interviewee 3. As a kid I didn’t use to like English but once I started to study it I learned that English is an international language. Interviewee 7. Before I started to learn English, I didn’t care about English or English-speaking countries. I had a world as small as Iran. At that time, I thought my identity was complete but after I started to study English I understood that there was a long way for me to take. Interviewee 36. I think I was an ordinary Iranian before I started to learn English. Interviewee 38. I’ve felt more complete since I started to learn English and because of this I’ve become more interested in learning English. Like Persian, this language is interesting to me. Interviewee 44. I used to view myself as superior to others. The analysis of the above quotes and many others reveals that the in- ternational status of English impacts the way learners from the ‘expanding circle’ of English view this language. Several participants explicitly stated that they learn English because of the prestige that comes from this internationally 24 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction spoken language. The above interview transcripts are in line with the major aim of identity theory which is said to be the integration of the individual language learner and the social world (Norton, 2011). Arguably, invoking nationality and investing in it as a major component in defining identity might be the partici- pants’ strategy to seek recourse in the attempt to preserve for themselves the rights of citizenship (Nabavi, 2010). Identity Reconstruction through English The interviewees were next asked to state whether and in what way the learning of English and exposure to this language has had any effect on their identity (Question #3). Furthermore, they were required to state whether they viewed this effect as positive or negative. The results were as follows: of the total 45 participants, 33 held that learning English has impacted the way they view their identity. Of these, 26 participants deemed this impact as positive, 5 par- ticipants as negative and two others as both positive and negative. In contrast, 12 interviewees maintained that learning English did not have any effect on their identity perception. The following quotes were articulated in response to the inquiry regarding the effect of learning English on one’s identity: Interviewee 1. It [the effect of learning English] has been positive because it enabled me to get familiar with other cultures. Interviewee 8. Learning English caused me to shape a positive attitude toward it because I’ll use English a lot in the future since it’s an interna- tional language. Interviewee 11. If we get an English identity when we learn English, we can get much information about English culture. Interviewee 15. We can increase our knowledge and value by learning another language whether it is Arabic, English, or Turkish. In this way, we can communicate more with others. Interviewee 27. By learning English, we can get to know English-speaking people and their identity better. The participants were next questioned regarding their beliefs about their current views of identity in the L2 after having been exposed to the ex- perience of learning English (Question #4). Some of the responses that this question drew are as follows: Interviewee 2. Learning English caused me to try to understand the meaning of English texts first by grasping their ‘English’ meaning instead of looking at their Persian translation. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 25 Interviewee 5. After I started to learn English I came to understand that I still needed to do a lot of practice and make more effort in order ‘to com- plete my identity’. Interviewee 24. I haven’t changed too much but by using English now I can get useful information about other people and correct some of the ‘bad’ habits of my own culture. Interviewee 35. I’ve started to think that I’m getting a new identity and that I can get what I want now. Interviewee 41. My view has improved because when I started to study English I was very enthusiastic to get to know other cultures and now I think it’s OK if those cultures become part of my identity. Interviewee 45. Since I started to learn English I’ve learned that I belong to an outdated society and culture. Of relevance here is Norton’s Social Identity Theory (Norton, 1997, 2011). Norton (1997) defined Social Identity as ‘the relationship between the individu- al and the larger social world, as mediated through institutions such as families, schools, workplaces, social services, and law courts’ (p. 420). Norton’s theo- ry examines and challenges the notion of power, attempting to demonstrate how language learners can create ample opportunity for language learning by challenging the dominant power relations. However, despite the above quotes, some participants resisted identity reconstruction through English by stating that they would prefer to abide by their L1 identity: Interviewee 8. I haven’t changed because I want to adjust myself to Islam and its rules not with the rules of the language I’m learning or with the country that speaks that language. Interviewee 26. I haven’t changed because learning a language has noth- ing to do with changing one’s behaviour and personality. Subsequently, in response to the enquiry as to their motivation to learn English, these ‘resisting’ learners stated that they were simply instrumentally driven to acquire English and that they did not intend to integrate into the tar- get culture. It is hypothesised that integrative motivation directs a learner into more investment into the TL which will, in turn, result in more acculturation into the target culture and will finally bring about more learning opportunities for the language learner. For instance, Ushioda and Dörnyei (2009) speculate that tendencies toward the target culture are mainly driven by integrative mo- tivation. Nevertheless, defining learners in binary terms such as motivated vs. unmotivated runs the risk of being neglectful of a lot of insights into the concept 26 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction of identity particularly from a poststructuralist perspective (see Norton, 2014). In addition, recent research shows that in the course of identity reconstruction in L2, learners are both integratively and instrumentally motivated and that those with both types of motivation have a distinct advantage over those with only instrumental motivation (Tarhan & Balban, 2014). Feelings toward Identity Reconstruction The next interview question dealt with the feelings that the participants had toward the impact, if any, that English has left on their identity perception (Question #5). The results showed that 40 participants (90%) believed that they felt or would feel pleased with the effect that the learning of English had or would have on their identity perception. The following quotes are indicative of this pleasure: Interviewee 1. Learning English has influenced me a lot. It has caused me to listen to English songs, watch English films and series, use English as the language of my cell phone or any other electronic device I use, and so on. Interviewee 11. Learning English causes our identity to be somewhat like that of English people and because English is an international language, then it’s good. Interviewee 17. By learning English your identity changes a bit. But eve- rything depends on you. You may wish to learn the ‘bad things’ of English. Or you may like to learn the ‘good things’ of it. Interviewee 28. I feel good because I think good changes have taken place since I started to learn English. Interviewee 33. English has influenced me in a positive way. I pay atten- tion to other cultures now, especially the English culture. Now I think I’ve got rid of monotony [in my life]. These quotes are also indicative of the fluctuating nature of motivation, being simultaneously both integrative and instrumental. To summarise, the majority of the interviewees did view the learning of English as leaving a posi- tive impact on their identities as reconstructed in the L2. However, as predicted, some opposing voices were raised as follows: Interviewee 8. It’s good that I don’t see English as influencing my origins. I’m Iranian and I’m still proud of that. Interviewee 26. Identity isn’t related to learning a language. It’s related to the values and norms we have. Interviewee 32. It’ll be really bad if somebody changes their identity c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 27 because of learning English because it’ll cause them to look as if they’re from another part of the world. Interviewee 40. I don’t want English to affect me because English people don’t care about hijab and they dress inappropriately. But I’m a Muslim and an Iranian. I care about the way I get dressed and we observe Islamic regulations in all aspects. The interviewees’ emphasis on religion emanates from the fact that re- ligion is a key shared social identity marker, one that designates not only one’s way of life but also his/her kind of person (Downes, 2011). Identity Reconstruction: (Dis)advantages Developing from the previous question, the next interview question examined whether the impact of English on the language learner is positive or negative regardless of whether it has or has not affected the participants’ identity perception (Question #7). The results for this question show that 30 participants viewed this impact as positive, two participants as negative, and 11 participants with mixed feelings. Finally, two participants did not confirm any effect as a result of the learning of English. Interviewee 1. This effect is good because English is accepted as an inter- national language. Interviewee 12. Language is like a key that opens new doors to how other people live and this causes the learner to look differently at his/her surroundings. Interviewee 35. We can get familiar with other cultures when we learn other languages and, in this way, we will be personally mature. Interviewee 37. The effect of English on our identity can be both good and bad. It depends. If we think of cultural aggression, then it’s bad; but if we consider the good aspects of their culture, then it’s good. Peers’ and Parents’ Views Defining identity at the interpersonal level, Roth (2010) states that, iden- tity is ‘who we are for ourselves and who we are in relation to others’ (p. 116). As language learning and identity reconstruction are social endeavours, tak- ing into account the role that other individuals such as learners’ parents and classmates play in this process sounds quite justified. Therefore, to ensure the continuity of the interview questions, the participants were asked to voice their 28 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction views regarding their peers’ and parents’ beliefs about identity reconstruction in the L2 (Question #8). The findings suggested that 36 participants believed that their parents and peers would welcome identity reconstruction while five participants pre- dicted that peers’ and parents’ beliefs would be negative; three participants stated that their peers’ and parents’ viewpoints might fluctuate between contra- dictory, mixed feelings, depending on the circumstances and finally one par- ticipant had no idea on this issue. Parents’ viewpoints are important simply be- cause parents influence their children, impact their worldviews, are in constant contact with them and direct their children’s learning path socioeconomically, affectively and emotionally. Some outstanding quotes are as follows: Interviewee 2. Language learners’ parents will see that their children can speak a language other than their own and this will help them make pro- gress. This is why parents view this effect as positive. Interviewee 8. My parents think of the effect of English as positive because they believe that if I learn English completely I’ll get a good job in the future. Interviewee 44. Their [parents’] opinion is positive in this regard because they believe that by learning another language we become able to under- stand other cultures. One interviewee, nonetheless, believed that his parents and friends dis- approve of the fact that English might influence learners’ identity and culture and regard it as negative: Interviewee 43. My parents think every language carries with itself the culture of the people who speak it. They just don’t like this. Influential Factors The interviewees were also enquired regarding the factors that influ- enced their identity reformation as they set out to learn English (Question #6). The participants’ responses pointed to two major factors: a) media and the press (e.g., Internet, movies, textbooks, games, etc.) and b) the culture of English- speaking countries (e.g., communication with NSs of English by traveling to English-speaking countries). This part produced quotes like the following: Interviewee 13. The media are the most influential means of communica- tion. They transfer big quantities of sound, pictures and films so quickly. Interviewee 18. Movies and clips contain many words that I don’t know. This makes me look those words up in the dictionary and, in this way, I learn more about English language and culture. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 29 Interviewee 29. The Internet is very influential because it’s so attractive to so many people because by using the Internet people can easily spread their own identity and influence our identity. Conclusion The participants’ strong inclination to identify and, therefore, to inte- grate with the English culture can be construed as their viewing English as a tool with which to mark their identity. Some researchers attribute EFL learn- ers’ openness to a fresh identity perception to be the result of starting to learn English at a young age when learners’ cultural identity has not yet been firmly established (see, e.g., Yihong, Zhao, Ying, & Yan, 2007). This conclusion is also defendable here since almost all the interviewees reported that they had started to learn English in childhood. Besides, it might be indicative of their perception of the issue of ‘ownership’ of English. In this regard, these learners might have viewed the TL community as the ‘norm’, and NSs as the only legitimate ‘owners’ of English to be followed by ‘outsiders’, that is to say by ‘foreign’ language learn- ers. As Norton (1997) pointed out, such a stance, although tentative and there- fore in need of further research, demonstrates the participants’ perception of English as belonging to its NSs and not to whoever speaks it. If this speculative conclusion proves correct, then it leads the discussion to the significant issue of native-speakerism defined as ‘the over-representation of the “native-speaker” (NS) point of view at the expense of the “non-native-speaker” (NNS) one’ (Wa- ters, 2007, p. 281). Finally, it might come as a surprise to the participants to know that the issue of the native-speaker ownership of English has been seri- ously challenged (see, e.g., Norton, 1997; Widddowson, 1994). The above speculation leads the discussion into the highly debated is- sue of the three circles of English (i.e., Inner, Outer and Expanding Circles; see Crystal, 2003; Kachru, 1985a, 1992). In conclusion, while the concept of ‘native- speakerism’ has recently been seriously challenged by a myriad of scholars (e.g., Cook, 1999; Holliday, 2009; Jenkins, 2006; Kim, 2011; Lurda, 2009; Widdow- son, 1994; Zhang, 2010, to name but a few), it is still prevailing among both language learners (e.g., Zacharias, 2012; Zhang, 2010) and teachers (e.g., Kim, 2011; Pavlenko, 2003), with the results of the current study lending more cre- dence to previous findings. The issue of ‘native-speakerism’ brings us to another major concept in recent lines of research and theory: the Other. Following Ku- maravadivelu (2006), this is normally thought to be the result of the process of ‘marginalisation’. Therefore, it is likely that the participants view themselves as outsiders to the domain of English and attempt to identify with the TL norms to 30 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction mitigate this sense of outsiderness. The conclusion is that EFL learners, Zachari- as (2012) pointed out, view their non-nativeness as a disadvantage to their lan- guage learning task/status. Over four decades ago, Scoon (1971) hypothesised that the desire to integrate with the foreign culture correlates positively with one’s success in language learning. By extension, such an assumption applies here where Iranian EFL learn- ers were found to hold remarkably positive attitudes toward the impact that learning English has on their identity construction. According to Scoon (1971), this can act as a strong motivator and a major predictor of success in language acquisition. In practical terms, this can be deemed a latent opportunity for lan- guage teachers to take full advantage of in language pedagogy. This necessitates an acknowledgement and understanding of learners’ multiple identities in the classroom on the part of teachers (see Norton, 1997). It was, consequently, the purpose of the current study to delve into language learners’ perceptions of identity and identity reconstruction. Similarly, Ushioda (2009) asserts that this can be carried out through pedagogical practices that encourage students’ mul- tiple identities and foster autonomy among them. Ellis (2012) posited that the underlying assumption of all perspectives of identity is the view that language and the broader social world are inextricably associated and that the dominant power relationships must be addressed if language learning is to be promoted. This study also has implications for critical pedagogy. Although it is commonly assumed that positive attitudes toward the TL and culture are con- ducive to language acquisition, ‘blind imitation’ is likely to turn out to be an impediment to the absorption of the target culture and to integration with the TL community. This is not advantageous. However, the possibly inherent dan- ger in such views is the fact that EFL learners might view their NNS status as a drawback to language acquisition instead of regarding it as a resource for negotiating their non-native identity. Previous research bears testimony to this conclusion (see, e.g., Zacharias, 2012). Students are also to be made aware of the truth behind every language practice and of the fact that no practice, what- soever, is free of power. Zacharias’ (2012) solution is as follows: ‘it is important for pre-service teacher education programs to introduce and integrate critical pedagogy, focusing on second language identities, nonnativeness, multicompe- tence, and multilingualism in their programs and/or existing courses’ (p. 242). In a similar vein, Norton (1997) rightly formulated her Social Identity Theory on the basis of three assumptions, one of which is the view that, in order for the learners to promote language learning, they should develop an awareness of the right to speak up in the face of the predominant, overt or covert, power relations inherent in interactions. Language is not neutral, and relationships c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 31 are heavily power-laden. Put differently, EFL learners, who are potential future EFL teachers, are to be empowered so that they assert, and even to take pride in, their NNS identity. As such, the study findings might be of concern to needs analyses as Li and Simpson (2013) highlighted. In contrast, since it is hypothesised that one’s identity is shaped and reshaped in interaction with others, and not in isolation (Blackburn, 2000), Iranian EFL learners’ positive attitudes toward identity reconstruction in L2 can arguably be seen as a window of opportunity to language learning experi- ence and access. Thus, teachers are supposed to capitalise on these remarkably positive attitudes as resources to foster acculturation capacities and learning capabilities for future interactions between EFL learners (i.e., NNSs) and NSs. An efficient path to take in language education programs can be a middle one in which the focus is on both integration/socialisation into the TL community and acknowledgement of its norms and appreciation of NNS’ status as suc- cessful language users, not as failed language learners. In fact, as Hahn (2001) argued, ‘Language learning does not have to imply a choice between one’s own native identity and a foreign identity’ (p. 262). A further implication arising from the current study is the need for teachers to acknowledge their learners’ multiple, shifting and wide-ranging identities, as opposed to the single-component view of identity. As Norton (2009) asserted, ‘Each of us performs a repertoire of identities that are con- stantly shifting, and that we negotiate and renegotiate according to the circum- stances’ (p. 348). Teachers should take into account the fact that language learn- ers are not merely learners. Rather, they might be workers, immigrants, parents, and even student teachers. By doing so, teachers recognise and acknowledge different versions of the same learners, thus allowing them to create and recre- ate themselves in the TL on their own. This is what Paulston (1978) called for, finding it ‘reprehensible’ to deny the learners the right to choose between the target and first culture. A final implication is the possibility to use the findings in carrying out needs analysis (Li & Simpson, 2013). The major limitation of the study is concerned with its sampling proce- dure. Data gathered from participants who are chosen by means of convenience sampling are likely to be biased and therefore should not be construed as being representative of the whole population (see Mackey & Gass, 2005). Further, the findings should be substantiated with more triangulated data. Note. An earlier version of this paper was presented under the title, ‘Lan- guage learning, language learners and identity (re)construction: An investiga- tion into an EFL context’ at The 13th TELLSI International Conference held at Lorestan University, Iran on November 17–19, 2015. 32 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction References Barnawi, O. Z. 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Attitudes beyond the inner circle: Investigating Hong Kong students’ attitudes towards English accents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Newcastle University, United Kingdom. Biographical note Seyyed Hatam Tamimi Sa’d holds a MA in English Language Tea- ching from Urmia University, Iran and is currently an English teacher in Iran Language Institute (ILI), Iran. He serves as a reviewer and editorial board mem- ber for several journals including Journal of Sociolinguistics, British Journal of Educational Technology (BJET), British Educational Research Journal (BERJ), TESL-EJ and The Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education (CJNSE). His interest lies in identity, acquisitional and interlanguage pragmatics. 36 foreign language learning and identity reconstruction Appendix Focus group interview Demographic Information Age: …… Mother tongue: …… Ethnic background: …… Sex: Male / Female How long have you been learning English at language institute(s): …Years Interview Questions 1. Define identity in your own words. 2. Is it important for a person to have a specific identity (i.e., to be Iranian, American, English, African, etc.)? why or why not? Please explain. 3. In your opinion, has the learning of English affected your attitude to- ward your identity? If yes, then do you view this effect as positive or negative? Please elaborate. 4. What viewpoint did you hold toward your identity as Iranian before you started to learn English? Has your identity changed since you started to learn English? If so, then in what way has your identity changed? 5. How do you feel now that English has or has not impacted on your iden- tity? Do you feel positive or negative? Please explain. 6. What causes the English language to impact a learner’s identity? Please elaborate. 7. In your viewpoint, is the impact of learning English, if any, on the learn- er’s identity positive or negative? Why? Please explain. 8. Do your parents and friends view the impact of learning English, if any, on the learner’s identity as positive or negative? Why? Please explain. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 37 Elementary and Secondary School Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ Classroom Management Competencies Jana Kalin*1, Cirila Peklaj2, Sonja Pečjak2, Melita Puklek Levpušček2 and Milena Valenčič Zuljan3 • Teachers with proper training in knowledge transfer to different students, in the creation of suitable learning conditions, the motivation of students for active cooperation and peer learning, in the formation of classroom community, as well as independent and responsible personalities, can provide quality education. Teacher’s classroom management competen- cies largely determine the potential of achieving educational goals and helping pupils form integral personalities. Studies show that teachers lack competencies for classroom management and ensuring discipline in the classroom. In the article, we present the results of empirical study on stu- dents’ perceptions on teachers’ classroom management competencies in two different subjects, mathematics and Slovene language. A total of 907 students from elementary and secondary schools in Slovenia participated in the study. Differences in students’ assessments have been established in reference to school level and subject. Students’ responses show that sec- ondary school teachers are more focused on achieving educational goals, while aspects of forming a suitable class climate remain less important. The components of quality classroom management (maintenance of sup- portive learning climate, trusting students) are present in Slovene classes in a larger extent in comparison to maths classes, particularly at the el- ementary school level. Secondary school students assessed the clarity of rules, student obligations and paying attention in class higher in maths than in Slovene. The results of student’s assessment of teacher competen- cies imply a need for additional research on teachers’ classroom manage- ment competencies in different curriculum subject. Keywords: classroom management, math classes, Slovene classes, student’s perception of teacher competencies, teacher’s roles 1 *Corresponding Author. University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Slovenia; jana.kalin@guest.arnes.si. 2 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Slovenia. 3 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Slovenia. 38 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... Pogledi učencev osnovnih in srednjih šol na učiteljeve kompetence vodenja razreda Jana Kalin, Cirila Peklaj, Sonja Pečjak, Melita Puklek Levpušček in Milena Valenčič Zuljan • Kakovostno vzgojo in izobraževanje lahko zagotavljajo samo učitelji, ki so ustrezno usposobljeni na več področjih – od posredovanja znanja raznolikim učencem, vzpostavljanja ustreznih pogojev za učenje, spod- bujanja učencev k aktivnemu sodelovanju in učenju drug od drugega do oblikovanja oddelčne skupnosti ter samostojnih in odgovornih os- ebnosti. Učiteljeve kompetence vodenja razreda v pomembni meri določajo možnosti za doseganje učnih ciljev in oblikovanje celostne osebnosti učenca. Raziskave kažejo, da so učitelji slabo usposobljeni prav za vodenje razreda in zagotavljanje discipline pri pouku. V članku predstavljamo rezultate empirične študije o učenčevem zaznavanju učiteljevih kompetenc vodenja razreda pri matematiki in slovenščini. V raziskavo je bilo vključenih 907 učencev iz slovenskih osnovnih in sred- njih šol. Glede na stopnjo šolanja in predmet poučevanja smo ugotav- ljali zanimive razlike med ocenami učencev. Odgovori učencev kažejo, da so učitelji v srednji šoli bolj osredinjeni na doseganje izobraževalnih ciljev, medtem ko vidik oblikovanja ustrezne razredne klime ostaja manj pomemben. Dejavnike kakovostnega vodenja razreda (vzpostavljanje podpornega učnega okolja, zaupanje učencem) so učenci v večji meri zaznavali pri pouku slovenščine kot pri pouku matematike, posebej na ravni osnovnošolskega izobraževanja. Dijaki srednjih šol so pri pouku matematike višje kot pri pouku slovenščine ocenjevali učiteljevo jasnost pri postavljanju pravil in šolskih obveznosti učencev ter pri zagotavl- janju pozornosti v razredu. Pogledi učencev na učiteljeve kompetence nakazujejo potrebo po dodatnem raziskovanju učiteljevih kompetenc vodenja razreda pri različnih učnih predmetih. Ključne besede: vodenje razreda, pouk matematike, pouk slovenščine, učenčevo zaznavanje učiteljevih kompetenc, učiteljeve vloge c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 39 Introduction Teachers’ competencies and their role in modern society Effective education must stimulate cognitive, motivational, emotional, and social processes in students, as well as declarative and procedural knowl- edge in the broadest sense. The teacher’s working methods, teaching tech- niques, provision of optimal learning conditions depending on individual student’s skills, classroom management styles, attitude towards students, com- munication, standpoints, values, and co-operation with parents all have a sig- nificant impact on student achievement and development of their education. Due to the complexity of all these educational goals (cognitive, motivational, and social) to be achieved by teachers, teaching is becoming one of the most complex professions in modern society. Teachers need knowledge of the rel- evant areas or professions they teach and adequate pedagogical and psycho- logical knowledge for the quality performance of their work. These skills are tightly interconnected. However, high quality knowledge of subject area alone is not sufficient for successful leadership and support to pupils: knowing how to take into account their individual differences is vital; furthermore, it is not enough to have knowledge from the field of education and psychology without adequate subject knowledge. Teachers need skills that enable them to help students achieve full po- tential, which are primarily those enabling them to (European Commission, 2007, p. 12): • define the needs of each individual student and respond to them by using a wide range of teaching strategies; • support the development of young people into becoming independent life-long learners; • help young people obtain competencies listed in the European Referen- ce Framework of Key Competences (Recommendation of the Council and the Parliament 2006/962/EC); • work in multicultural environments and understand the value of diver- sity and respect it; • cooperate closely with colleagues, parents and the broader community. In the knowledge society, teacher’s role should be comprehended gener- ally and not just as teaching the subject. Hagreaves (2003, p. 59) emphasizes that teacher’s role is to: […] promote social and emotional learning, commitment and character; 40 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... learn to relate differently to others, replacing strings of interactions with enduring bonds and relationships; develop cosmopolitan identity; com- mit to continuous professional and personal development; work and learn in collaborative groups; forge relationships with parents and com- munities; build emotional understanding; reserve continuity and secu- rity, and establish basic trust in people. Teaching is not only a cognitive and intellectual practice but also a so- cial and emotional one. “Good teachers fully understand that successful teach- ing and learning only occur when teachers have caring relationships with their students and when their students are emotionally engaged with their learn- ing” (Hargreaves, 2003, p. 60). According to Hargreaves (2003, p. 66) teaching should cultivate “character, community, security, inclusiveness, integrity, cos- mopolitan identity, continuity and collective memory, sympathy, democracy, personal and professional maturity”, which requires relevant professional quali- fications, personal attitude, and commitment, as well as experience of teaching as a mission. Such goals can be achieved by quality student-teacher relation- ships, which provide a unique entry point for educators and others working to improve the social and learning environments of schools and classrooms. The Jennings and Greenberg (2009) Prosocial Classroom Model em- phasises teachers’ socio-emotional competences (SEC), which enable teach- ers to set the tone of the classroom by developing supportive and encourag- ing relationships with their students, designing lessons that build on students strengths and abilities, establishing and implementing behavioural guidelines in ways that promote intrinsic motivation, coaching students through con- flict situations, encouraging cooperation among students, and acting as a role model for respectful and appropriate communication and exhibitions of proso- cial behaviour. Teachers’ SEC are an important contributor to the development of supportive teacher-student relationships; they demonstrate more effective classroom management (teachers are more proactive, skilfully using their emo- tional expressions and verbal support to promote enthusiasm and enjoyment of learning and to guide and manage student behaviours) and they implement social and emotional curricula more effectively because they are role models of desired social and emotional behaviour. Interlinking of all three aspects of the model contributes to creating the appropriate class climate; the latter directly contribute to students’ social, emotional and academic outcomes (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009, p. 493). It should be considered that teachers’ SEC are af- fected by different contextual factors inside and outside the school (colleagues’ support, head teacher’s leadership, school climate, rules, environmental values, c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 41 educational opportunities, properties of local and broader community, school legislation, etc.). Student-teacher relationships develop over the course of the school year through a complex intersection of student and teacher beliefs, atti- tudes, behaviours, and interactions with one another. Hamre and Pianta (2007, p. 57) emphasize that the formation of strong and supportive relationships with teachers allows students to feel safer and more secure in the school setting, feel more competent, make more positive connections with peers, and make greater academic gains. Teacher competence of classroom management and student outcomes In the Model of Teacher Social and Emotional Competence and Class- room and Student Outcomes, Jennings and Greenberg (2009) represent effec- tive classroom management, in addition to teacher-student relationships and effective SEL implementation, as one of the basic views of SEC, formation of relevant class climate and student’s social, emotional and academic outcomes. The use of relevant skills of class management promotes prosocial and coopera- tive behaviours through establishing warm and supportive relationships and communities, assertive limit-setting and guidance, and preventative strategies rather than controlling negative behaviours. Without a positive and stimulat- ing class atmosphere that enables and encourages learning, it is unrealistic to expect high learning achievements, students’ commitments to school and aca- demic engagement. Modern curriculum goals, such as encouraging a critical approach, initiative, originality, and problem solving, can only be achieved in a suitable school climate, which integrates the climate of a particular class. In this paper, we pay attention to students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom manage- ment competencies. We understand classroom management within the wider context of school climate, which are always interdependent and influence each other. The research did not include the study of school climate; therefore, we consider this fact in the interpretation of results and rely solely on the estab- lished facts. The quality of social relations may affect students’ goals. Hamre and Pi- anta (2001), who established the effect of early relationships with the teacher in pre-school on social and academic achievement until the eighth grade, showed just how long-term these effects can be. The dimension of negative relation- ship with the teacher (conflict and excessive dependence of children) was nega- tively associated with the desired behaviour (working habits, listening, learn- ing habits), behavioural problems (distraction in the classroom, absenteeism, 42 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... aggressive behaviour) and academic achievements through the eight years of schooling. The most significant effect of the student’s interpersonal experience with teachers is through the perception and interpretation of students themselves. Many studies showed that the perception of the teacher’s classroom manage- ment is associated with motivation, social processes and achievement (Bong, 2005; Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Huges et al., 2008; Lau & Nie, 2008; Patrick, Ryan, & Kaplan, 2007; Turner et al., 2002; Urdan, 2004; Wentzel, 1998). Marchant, Paulson and Rothlisberg (2001) studied American primary school pupils and determined that teachers’ behaviour in the classroom as shown in their interest and support to pupils’ activities and their settling the rules and consistent use of disciplinary strategies affect pupil’s internal and ex- ternal motivation in learning and pupil’s perception of learning competency. The research showed that teacher competencies in the classroom did not affect pupils’ outcomes directly but indirectly by stimulating their positive attitude towards learning and giving such feedback that pupils become aware of apparent successful learning. Wentzel (2002) reported on similar findings and highlighted two critical dimensions that affect students’ motivational beliefs and their behaviour in the classroom: the teacher’s high expectations of pupil achievements (in the sense of expectation that students truly take advantage of all potentials for learning) and the type of feedback that teachers give their pupils on their learning and academic achievements. In the study, the author notes that the mentioned teacher competencies have a positive impact on the pupil’s interest in learning, orientation in the management of learning content, learner’s responsibility to follow the rules in the classroom, and the learning success. A negative giving of feedback was associated with a lower liability for obeying the rules in the classroom, a low degree of prosocial behaviour in the classroom (in terms of providing assistance to the other), a greater degree of irresponsible, aggressive behaviour, and lower academic achievements. Dutch psychologist Wubbels was one of the few researchers who system- atically studied the effects of teacher competencies on academic and psychoso- cial achievements of pupils in Europe in previous decades. In his studies (e.g. Wubbels & Levy, 1993), he stipulated that the dimensions of teacher behaviour in the classroom could be divided into two basic dimensions that displayed the lev- el of teachers’ influence in the classroom and their communication with pupils. Based on those two dimensions, Wubbels and his colleagues operationalized eight basic dimensions of teacher behaviour in the classroom. He constructed a questionnaire to measure these dimensions which could also be answered by pupils (pupils assess the competencies of their teachers). The study showed that c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 43 particularly good teacher classroom management, readiness to assist students in learning activities, cooperative and empathic relationship with students, and set- ting the rules in the classroom contributed to improving the academic achieve- ment of students. Motivational and social emotional aspect of learning (class- room climate, the willingness of mutual cooperation, satisfaction with teaching) announced a dimension allowing autonomy of learners. In a study in which we studied the impact of teacher competencies on learning achievements and at- titudes towards learning in Slovene primary and secondary schools, we found that primary school pupils perceived more support and assistance in learning and a greater degree of autonomy in learning activities as secondary school stu- dents (Puklek Levpušček, 2004). Teachers’ support for learning and tolerance to independent work are important predictors of pupils’ perception of their own teaching effectiveness and intrinsic motivation for learning. Brophy (2006) reports that empirical studies on classroom management in the 20th century showed interesting shifts in various areas, from interactions with individual students and management of the class as a group to instilling learning community principles in the school as a whole; “from reactive dis- cipline to proactive classroom management procedures, from managing be- haviour (conduct) to managing engagement in activities (learning); and from unilateral teacher control to development of students’ capacities for exercising responsibility and self-regulation” (Brophy, 2006, p. 39). He also emphasizes that effective classroom management that takes into account students expecta- tions and helps students to achieve them is more efficient than the management that is directed to misbehaviour and accentuates “after-the-fact discipline than before-the-fact prevention” (ibid. p. 40). The system of management should support the system of instruction. Management is in service of the educa- tional process and should, therefore, foster active learning, critical thinking, higher order thinking, and the social construction of knowledge in students. We ought to be aware that management emerges from achievement gains or goals that we want to achieve and from our consideration about how to acti- vate students to achieve these goals and about the teacher role in this process (direction, support, optimal goals, feedback during learning process and the role of learning groups and collaboration among students in the class). Many authors (Hattie, 2009; Martin, Sugarman, & McNamara, 2000; Marzano, 2003; Tartwijk, Brekelmans, & Wubbels, 1998; Wentzel, 2002; Wubbels, Brekelmans, & Hoolymayers, 1991) emphasize the importance of suitable classroom manage- ment as the key element of quality educational work, including achieving the set educational goals in terms of student socialization and integral formation of each individual’s character. Wang, Haertel and Walberg (1993), conducted 44 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... a comprehensive study in which they formed a list of 228 variables that affect students’ achievements. One hundred and thirty-four experts in the field of education assessed the impact of each variable, and classroom management ranked first. A chaotic classroom is the result of poor management and not only fails to stimulate achievement but also even inhibits it. The teacher’s behaviour in class is linked to students’ learning achievements as well as to their learning motivation (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Tartwijk, et al., 1998; Wubbels, et al., 1991). Motivation for a subject is particularly stirred by dimensions of teacher’s behaviour in class, such as encouraging students’ initiative and responsibility, their empathy towards students, helping students, and structured class man- agement (Wubbels et al., 1991). Wentzel (2002) defines connections of teacher’s behaviour in class with learning achievement of students in varied age groups. Higher learning motivation, better learning achievements and socially respon- sible student behaviour depend particularly on the teacher’s firmly expressed expectations regarding students’ learning achievements, taking into account individual differences between students, and giving constructive and encour- aging feedback (ibid.). Even though the significance of classroom management is obvious, Mar- zano (2003) believes that it is difficult to define. Doyle (1986, as cited in Mar- zano, 2003, p. 394) defined classroom management as “covering a wide range of teacher duties from distributing resources to students, accounting for student attendance and school property, enforcing compliance with rules and proce- dures to grouping students for instruction”. Brophy (1996, as cited in Marzano, 2003, p. 5) defines classroom management as “actions taken to create and main- tain a learning environment conductive to successful instruction (arranging the physical environment of the classroom, establishing rules and procedures, maintaining attention to lessons and engagement in academic activities)”. Mar- zano (2003, p. 88) defines classroom management as “the confluence of teacher actions in four distinct areas: establishing and enforcing rules and procedures, carrying out disciplinary actions, maintaining effective teacher and student re- lationships and maintaining an appropriate mental set for management“. Only when effective practices in these four areas are employed and acting coordinat- ed is a classroom effectively managed. Similarly, Martin, Sugarman and McNa- mara (2000) emphasize that classroom management includes all those teacher’s class activities that help to establish a positive class climate enabling learning and teaching processes to take place. Therefore, effective management cannot be studied separately from teaching. Evertson and Weinstein (2006) stress the importance of classroom management, which represent the “actions teachers take to create an environment that supports and facilitates both academic and c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 45 social-emotional learning” (ibid., p. 4). This means that teachers carry out a number of specific tasks: 1) develop caring, supportive relationships with and among students; 2) organize and implement instruction in ways that optimize students’ access to learning; 3) use group management methods that encourage students’ engagement in academic tasks; 4) promote the development of stu- dents’ social and self-regulation; and 5) use appropriate interventions to assist students with behaviour problems. Classroom management can never be focused solely on the provision of adequate discipline conditions for learning and teaching, but it is significantly related to the teacher’s planning of learning activities of students, cooperation among them, learning from each other, and providing quality feedback to indi- viduals and learning groups in achieving educational goals. Therefore, teachers should have proper skills, especially in the face of a great diversity of students in the classroom, proceeding from the inclusion of students with special needs and gifted students. Teachers should know which strategies to be used in ac- cordance with the characteristics of a group or a class (younger or older stu- dents (Emmer & Gerwels, 2006), inclusive classes (Soodak & McCarthy, 2006), teacher-student relations and relations among students (Pianta, 2006), rela- tions between students’ rights and teachers’ authority (Schimmel, 2006). Work in an individual class and its relationship dynamics largely depend on the overall school climate, and culture. The organizational climate reveals how individual members of the social system perceive their work environment and how they feel in it (Bečaj, 1999, p. 163). The way people behave is largely defined by their perception or their understanding of the environment in which they find themselves. Therefore, social climate not only refers to how persons feel, but also to their way of perceiving and experiencing deeds, relations, and other people. A school’s culture is important because it can affect students’ learn- ing and behaviour (Anderson, 1982; Dupper & Meyer-Adams, 2002 as cited in Stewart, 2007; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1997 as cited in Stewart, 2007). Co- hen, McCabe, Michelli and Pickeral (2009, as cited in Fan, Williams, & Corkin, 2011, p. 632) defined school climate “as the character and quality of life within a school that is shaped by its organizational structure, physical environment, instructional practice, interpersonal relationships, and overarching values, ob- jective, and customs.” Research has shown that students’ sense of belonging influences academic achievement (Ma, 2003 as cited in Stewart, 2007; Radovan, 2011). Based on their longitudinal study of the Chicago Public Schools, Bryk and Schneider (2002, as cited in Stansberry Beard, Hoy & Woolfolk Hoy, 2010) explain that there are at least four social conditions in schools that directly pro- mote student learning: 1) teachers with a “can do” attitude, 2) school outreach to 46 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... parents, 3) a professional community emphasizing collaborative work practices with a commitment to improving, and 4) high expectations. Both teachers and pupils are directly included in the institution and, by co-existing therein, they (co)design its culture and climate through their values, attitudes and actions. At the same time, the institution, with the char- acteristics of its culture and climate, affects persons. Bečaj (2001) stresses that formation of school culture with an emphasis on tolerance, solidarity and co- operation, requires systematic and planned work. Every social community is a living organism with its own needs that operates according to its own rules. Consequently, such a community has to be formed first, then its ability of qual- ity operation has to be maintained; the latter can only be the result of planned and continuous work (ibid.). Since students spend the most time together in class, it is sensible to ask what educational features foster a cooperative climate, respect for people, and enable a teacher and students to co-design and actively participate in the educational process. It is important to be aware of the way that a teacher maintains student attention during class, of how clearly defined rules of cooperation and individual duties are, of the way discipline issues are resolved, to what extent students experience their teacher’s stimulation to ex- press their own opinions and suggestions, of the way the teacher forms the general atmosphere in the classroom: whether this is the case of a cooperative climate where students support each other in achieving their goals or there is a culture of competition where individual goals and achievements predominate. In other words, it is necessary to create such an educational climate in the class- room that will strengthen the responsibility of students (teachers and parents) towards oneself and others in the class (Hočevar, 2009, p. 213). Students’ motivation and their work depend greatly on work conditions in the classroom, its culture and climate, trust between students and students and teachers, their cooperation, and established relations. Through his or her class management, the teacher also affects all these factors. It is, therefore, im- portant for the teacher to be aware of this, to develop his or her competencies of managing students, and to allow students to realise their study goals and achieve personal development through planned work. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 47 Research Problem and Research Questions For the development of pre-service and in-service teacher training, it is necessary to know teachers’ competencies and their impact on the process among students at different levels of schooling. We were focused on the op- erationalisation of those teacher competencies by which we can determine the teacher’s classroom management efficacy. The basic aim of the study was to determine which substantive changes are necessary in the process of teacher education in order to provide a quality education to pupils and students, which will equip them to meet the challenges of the future via the creative and innovative use of the knowledge acquired in the conditions of constant changes. In the research, we studied the differences between students of elemen- tary and secondary schools in their perception of teacher competencies, their motivation and behaviour, and academic achievements. We were interested in determining how teacher competencies are expressed in the class and how teacher conduct is perceived by elementary and secondary school students. Teacher competencies were studied in two basic school subjects that students encounter every day at school and are provided with several hours of teaching in the curriculum. In our opinion, therefore, among all the subjects they can af- fect the cognitive, motivational-emotional and social development of pupils in the school. Teacher competencies and their impacts are studied in the Slovene language and mathematics. The study was part of a broader project entitled Teacher Education for New Competencies for the Knowledge Society and the Role of these Competencies in Educational Goal Attainment at School (Peklaj et al., 2008). In this paper, only findings related to the following research questions are presented: 1. How do elementary and secondary school students assess their teachers’ class management competencies in Slovene and maths classes? 2. Are there any significant differences in assessments of teachers’ class- room management competencies between Slovene and maths classes? 3. Are there any significant differences in assessments of teachers’ class- room management competencies with regard to the pupils’ assessments in the current school year? 48 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... Method Sample The research included two different samples: seventh-year pupils of the nine-year elementary school (the pupils’ average age was 12.8 years) and third- year secondary school students (the students’ average age was 17.8 years) from urban and suburban environments. We tried to ensure the representativeness of the sample, but in the end, the sample was formed ad hoc because of the complexity of data collection by various instruments, which required more support in schools. The elementary school sample consisted of 470 students (321 boys and 239 girls) from ten Slovene elementary schools. Students were from 26 different classes, and they assessed 13 teachers of mathematics and 14 teachers of the Slovene language. The mathematic teachers have been teaching for 20.04 years on average (SD = 9.87) and the Slovene teachers for 14.28 years (SD = 9.82). The secondary school sample comprised 437 third-grade students (176 boys and 261 girls) from six Slovene secondary schools (the gymnasium programme). Students were from 16 different classes, and they assessed 10 teachers of mathematics and 10 teachers of the Slovene language. The math- ematics teachers have on average been teaching for 14.97 years (SD = 7.79) and the Slovene teachers for 22.71 years (SD = 7.06). In total 907 pupils/students were included in the study (407 boys and 500 girls). Instruments In the research, we first attempled to define teacher competencies that are important for class management and developed a questionnaire with ad- equate measurement characteristics for the students to assess these compe- tencies (Kalin et al., Classroom Management Questionnaire). We constructed a questionnaire that describes teacher competencies so that they could be as- sessed by pupils as well. We followed the construction of similar questionnaires in other cultural environments (e.g. Wubbles’ questionnaire on teacher behav- iour in the classroom) and considered some specificities of teacher work in the Slovene school system. Likewise, we considered the existing lists of teacher competencies from previous studies performed in Slovenia (Peklaj, 2006). The questionnaire comprises the following competencies of teacher classroom management: the didactic and methodical aspect, classroom man- agement, testing and grading, promoting overall development of students, and the use of ICT. Pupils and students evaluated each statement on a four-level scale according to how often a particular behaviour emerges in their maths or Slovene teacher (1 – never, 2 – sometimes, 3 – often, 4 - always). Students c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 49 responded for each subject separately. Below we focus only on one sub-scale: class management. Principal Component Analysis shows that individual scales have a coherent one-com- ponent structure. The Cronbach alpha coefficients of reliability for Class man- agement scale in maths for the sample of elementary school pupils is α = 0.80, while the value for the sample of secondary school students is α = 0.74. The Cronbach alpha coefficient of reliability for Class management scale in Slovene is 0.84 for the sample of elementary school pupils, and 0.81 for the sample of secondary school students. We first obtained the consent of the teachers that their students might assess and the consent of the parents that their children may participate in the research. The testing in schools was carried out during regular school hours at the times most suitable for the school from the organisational point of view. The data from the questionnaires was processed by methods of descrip- tive and inferential statistics. Results How do Elementary and Secondary School Students Assess their Teachers’ Class Management Competencies in Slovene and Maths Classes? In the research, assessing teacher’s management competencies was lim- ited to questions related to paying attention and concentrating during class, the clarity of rules and student obligations, disciplinary measures, and the estab- lishment of a more relaxed classroom atmosphere, in which students can learn from their own mistakes and where their opinion is valued. All these aspects form a framework in which classes are conducted and are the factors that pro- mote or inhibit learning and teaching. Table 1 presents arithmetic mean values and standard deviations for the items within the classroom management scale, separately by subject and level of education. 50 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... Table 1 Arithmetic mean values and standard deviations for the items within the classroom management scale, separately by subject and level of education Subject Slovene Maths Level of education Items To ta l El em en ta ry sc ho ol Se co nd ar y sc ho ol To ta l El em en ta ry sc ho ol Se co nd ar y sc ho ol 1. The teacher is able to have us concentrate and pay attention all the time. M SD 2.60 .94 2.84 .97 2.35 .84 2.72 .93 2.86 .96 2.58 .88 2. The teacher has laid down clear rules for our behaviour (we know what the consequences would be if we failed to comply with the rules). M SD 2.65 .98 2.86 1.00 2.42 .91 2.87 .96 2.93 .94 2.81 .98 3. The teacher has made our obligations for this subject clear. M SD 3.03 .85 3.10 .88 2.94 .82 3.19 .81 3.17 .86 3.21 .76 4. The teacher strives to make the atmosphere in the class as relaxing as possible. M SD 3.03 .91 3.01 .88 3.06 .91 2.60 .97 2.62 .98 2.59 .95 5. Students are able to share their opinions with the teacher. M SD 3.16 .92 3.13 .97 3.20 .86 2.72 1.04 2.76 1.04 2.69 1.03 6. The teacher encourages us to learn from our mistakes. M SD 2.88 .90 2.89 .95 2.86 .84 2.62 .93 2.72 1.00 2.52 .83 7. The teacher intervenes and helps us resolve any discipline problems. M SD 2.85 .97 3.08 .92 2.60 .95 2.73 1.00 2.93 1.02 2.53 .94 8. The teacher trusts and encourages us. M SD 2.96 .89 3.11 .93 2.80 .81 2.68 .94 2.86 .97 2.49 .87 9. The teacher always tells us what we did right and what we did not. M SD 2.99 .85 3.06 .88 2.91 .81 2.89 .86 3.02 .90 2.74 .79 In class management in Slovene language classes, the average grade above 3 (which means that students perceive such behaviour as frequent) (see Table 1) appears eight times, i.e. with six different items. At the elementary and secondary school level, the average grade above 3 is present in two items: The teacher strives to make the atmosphere in the class as relaxing as possible, and Students are able to share their opinions with the teacher. Moreover, at the el- ementary school level, an average grade above 3 is present in the following four items: • The teacher has made our obligations for this subject clear, • The teacher intervenes and helps us resolve any discipline problems, • The teacher trusts and encourages us, • The teacher always tells us what we did right and what we did not. Based on the data, it can be concluded that in students’ opinions, teach- ers of Slovene pay great attention to aspects of quality management that do not c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 51 involve only appropriate information about learning achievements and prompt feedback regarding attainment of the educational goals. In Slovene, students perceive that teachers strive to form an appropriate learning climate and ex- perience so that they can express their opinions and thus contribute to class dynamics. Literature classes mostly enable as well as presuppose an exchange of opinions, personal experiences of literary works, and communication of the teacher and students as well as students among themselves. In conducting maths classes, the average grade above 3 (often) appears only three times. At the elementary and secondary school levels, such an aver- age grade appears with respect to the item The teacher has made our obligations for this subject clear and reappears at the elementary school level at the state- ment The teacher always tells us what we have done well and what not. No item was assessed below 2. Based on this data, we can conclude that according to students’ assess- ments with regards to maths, the aspect of achieving educational goals received much more emphasis: clearly set obligations for the subject in both elementary and secondary schools together with the prompt provision of feedback in order to direct students towards achieving their set goals. Hattie and Gan (2010, p. 250) pointed out that feedback is powerful when it makes criteria of success in reaching learning goals transparent to the learner and challenge the learner to invest effort in setting and monitoring learning goals. The learning environ- ment should be open to errors and disconfirmation. Are there any significant differences in assessments of teachers’ classroom management competencies between Slovene and maths classes? We were interested in whether elementary and secondary school stu- dents statistically significant differently assess class management items in Slo- vene and maths classes. 52 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... Table 2 Do elementary and secondary schools students statistically significant differently assess class management items in Slovene and maths? Classroom management Slovene Maths Items c2(2Î) g p c2(2Î) g p 1. The teacher is able to have us concentrate and pay attenti- on all the time. 75.889 3 .000 29.418 3 .000 2. This teacher has laid down clear rules for our behaviour (we know what the consequences would be if we failed to comply with the rules). 55.161 3 .000 9.418 3 .024 3. The teacher has made our obligations for this subject clear. 19.816 3 .000 11.707 3 .008 4. The teacher strives to make the atmosphere in the class as relaxing as possible. .742 3 .863 2.302 3 .512 5. Students are able to share their opinions with the teacher. 10.342 3 .016 4.057 3 .255 6. The teacher encourages us to learn from our mistakes. 12.973 3 .005 40.979 3 .000 7. The teacher intervenes and helps us resolve any discipline problems. 57.971 3 .000 48.509 3 .000 8. The teacher trusts and encourages us. 59.871 3 .000 50.656 3 .000 9. The teacher always tells us what we did right and what we did not. 23.440 3 .000 44.162 3 .000 When comparing the teaching level, it can be concluded that the assess- ments of students and pupils show statistically significant differences in eight out of a total nine items, referring to aspects of class management in Slovene classes. Elementary school teaching is evaluated considerably higher in all items; only for the item The teacher strives to make the atmosphere in the class as relaxing as possible, do pupils and students show no statistically significant difference in judgement. At both levels, a high share of answers “always” (pu- pils 35.6%, students 37.8%) and “often” (pupils 36.3%, students 36.2%) is appar- ent; however, 6.3% of students and pupils estimate they have never experienced their teacher striving towards a relaxed atmosphere in class. Some questions and concerns originate from the great discrepancies between estimates of pu- pils and students regarding items on retaining concentration, clear rules about behaviour in class, learning from one’s own mistakes, teachers’ interventions in resolving discipline problems, as well as on the level of trust and encourage- ment for students. It seems that secondary school students less often assess that teachers do so regularly or always. The reasons may lie in students’ greater inde- pendence and responsibility, meaning that teachers find it unnecessary to deal so much with such questions and allow students self-initiative and responsibil- ity to resolve discipline issues. In contrast, this can raise the question whether it c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 53 may be that secondary school teachers avoid these problems or prefer to leave them to resolve themselves or not at all. In any case, this strongly affects the classroom dynamics, the teaching process and its efficiency. It may also explain the lower learning achievements of students compared to pupils. To obtain more reliable answers, this area should receive more of a different type of atten- tion; the results of our study only indicate some open questions and challenges for everyday education practice and further research. Do elementary and secondary school students express statistically sig- nificant differences in assessing class management items in maths classes? The comparison between students’ assessments of class management in elementary and secondary school maths (see Table 2) indicates that elementary and sec- ondary school maths classes show statistically significant differences in seven out of a total nine items. No such difference was noted for the statements, The teacher strives to make the atmosphere in the class as relaxing as possible and Students are able to share their opinions with the teacher. These items show the same tendency as in the assessment of these items in Slovene classes. Are there any significant differences in assessments of teachers’ classroom management competencies regarding pupil assessments in the current school year? Tables 3 and 4 show correlations (Pearson’s coefficients of correlation) between perceptions of teacher’s class management and pupil assessments in mathematics and Slovene language in elementary and secondary schools. Table 3 Correlations between perceptions of teaching management of mathematics/ Slovene language and pupil assessments in mathematics/Slovene language in the current school year in the elementary school Assessment in maths (in the current school year) Assessment in Slovene (in the current school year) Class management .13** .06 Note. **p < .01. A low, statistically significantly positive correlation exists between per- ceived traits of teacher class management and assessment in mathematics. The perception of teacher class management is related to higher final assessments in mathematics. 54 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... No statistically significant correlations exist between perceived teacher class management and pupil assessment in Slovene language in elementary school. Table 4 Correlations between perceptions of teaching management of mathematics/ Slovene language and pupil assessments in mathematics/Slovene language in the current school year in secondary school Assessment in maths (in the current school year) Assessment in Slovene (in the current school year) Class management .24*** .16** Note. **p < .01, ***p < .001. A low statistically significant positive correlation exists between the per- ception of teacher class management and assessment in mathematics and Slovene language in the current school year in the elementary school. Higher perceptions of different aspects of management are related to the better learning achievements. The comparison of the relations between dimension of perceived teach- er class management and students’ achievements shows that differences exist between pupils in the elementary and secondary schools with regard to the achieved subject assessment. Our results in mathematics and Slovene language in the secondary school are in accordance with the studies that pointed to the low positive relations between dimensions of teacher class management and the formation of motivational structure in the class and learning achievements (Brekelmans et al., 1993; Wentzel, 1998). The results indicate the importance of creating the conditions for the establishment of appropriate climate in the class- room that encourages motivation and higher student achievements, based on the quality of interpersonal relations and classroom climate. Students with better learning achievements, except in Slovene language in elementary school, rated teacher competence in class management higher. Probably the reverse is also true: students who assess teacher competence in class management to a higher degree are willing to invest more effort to achieve better learning outcomes. Discussion and Conclusions In our research, we were interested in a comparison of teachers’ class- room management competencies in two different subjects in elementary and secondary schools, as they are perceived by their students. The results showed that the components of quality classroom management (maintenance of c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 55 supportive learning climate, trusting students) are mainly present in Slovene language classes in comparison to maths classes, particularly at the elementary school level. Elementary school students gave higher grades to items concern- ing the learning climate and trusting students in Slovene language, compared to maths. Secondary school students assessed the clarity of rules and student obligations and paying attention in class higher in maths than in Slovene lan- guage. Although maths and Slovene curricula (Učni načrt matematika, 2011; Učni načrt slovenščina, 2011) emphasize, in addition to educational goals, personal development, the development of communication skills, critical ap- proach and independence, an essential difference in the students’ perception of teachers’ work in maths and Slovene language classes has been detected. This is assumed to be connected with the teaching contents of each particular subject. Modern curricula are designed for goal-based learning, meaning that teachers should observe goals and not the contents (teaching contents are subordinated to educational goals), and they should enable students to develop appropriate competencies to operate in the knowledge society. The question is whether the education systems for maths and Slovene teachers differ in their fundamental premises, or whether teachers of different subjects understand their roles dif- ferently or class dynamics are to the greatest extent defined by the teaching contents, which in Slovene language classes presupposes communication and the inclusion of pupils with their views and opinions. Nevertheless, the same should take place in maths classes. Conception building, in-depth understand- ing of the teaching contents, and linking various concepts cannot be achieved or is underachieved in classrooms where the teacher is less diligent in establish- ing a participative culture and including pupils in direct educational work. On the basis of a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achieve- ment, Hattie concluded that the most powerful effects of the school relate to features within schools, such as the climate of the classroom, peer influence, and the lack of disruptive students in the classroom (Hattie, 2009). It is increas- ingly important to “understand fully that every interaction between teachers and students is a learning experience for the students involved in it or who witness it” (Lewis, 1997 as cited in Roache & Lewis, 2011, p. 234). Pianta (2003, as cited in Pianta, 2006) emphasizes the socio-emotional and instructional as- pects of child-teacher interactions as integrated processes that can be observed in teachers’ intentionality in interactions with the child and the classroom as a whole (ibid., p. 700): Intentional teachers have high expectations for their children, skills of management and planning, and a learning orientation in the classroom; they engage children’s attention with appropriate activities, use effective 56 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... feedback in their interaction with children, and convey warmth and ac- ceptance while doing so. Considerable differences between the views of pupils and students have been identified. Such differences indicate that, as students get older, teachers pay less attention to the aspects of quality class management in all its dynamics and multi-prospects. We can conclude that secondary school teachers are more fo- cused on achieving educational goals, while aspects of forming a suitable class climate remains less important. Lewis (2006) reported that teachers in secondary schools might see themselves as teachers of information and classes rather than teachers of individual student. Similarly, Lewis (1999, as cited in Lewis, 2006) found the stereotypical distinction between primary (elementary) and second- ary teachers: the first focus primarily on involving, supporting and educating the whole child, while the latter emphasise more surveillance and punishments to se- cure the establishment of the order necessary to facilitate learning. Harter (1996, as cited in Pianta, 2006) researched how relationships with teachers change from elementary to junior high school: “relationships between teachers and students become less personal, more formal, more evaluative, and more competitive” (ibid, p. 699). In contrast, many studies showed that high-quality relationships between teachers and students, adequate class climate, respect, consideration of feelings, trust between teachers and pupils, and appropriate support for teachers contribute to better learning outcomes (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; La Paro & Pianta, 2003 in Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Pianta, 2006). Obviously, Slovene teachers should be aware of the above aspects of learning outcomes and be provided by social and emotional competence. Wentzel (1998 in Pianta, 2006, p. 699) suggest that teachers who convey emotional warmth and acceptance as well as make themselves available regu- larly for personal communication with students foster the positive relational processes characteristic of support. Nevertheless, it is necessary to bear in mind the point made by Evertson and Poole (2008), who emphasised the importance of the content of learning and the learning process itself. They pointed out that a teacher’s classroom management system communicates the teacher’s beliefs about contents and the learning process. It also circumscribes the kinds of in- struction that will take place in a particular classroom and the use of educa- tional materials teachers choose to ensure the quality of teaching and learning process (Kovač & Kovač Šebart, 2004; Mažgon & Štefanc, 2012). It is important to know that the teacher’s instruction is well executed and adapted to individuals, effectively conveying feedback, considering students, encouraging learning from one’s mistakes, and trusting students is conditional c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 57 upon individualization. In a comprehensive study, Brophy (1996, as cited in Marzano, 2003) established that the most effective classroom managers tended to employ different types of strategies with different types of students, whereas ineffective managers did not. In situations involving behavioural problems, ef- fective managers decide on the spot which strategy to use in view of individual characteristics of students and how to react (in different ways). Roache and Lewis (2011, p. 246) stressed that teachers need to use the techniques that rein- force positive relationships between teachers and students. “Techniques such as rewarding and recognising positive student behaviour, involving students in setting expectations for appropriate behaviour, and calmly discussing breaches of rules with students as part of an agreed upon system aimed to help them develop responsibility and respect for the rights of others” (ibid.). The results of evaluation of teacher competencies would imply a need for change in teachers’ attitudes about their role and the role of students in teaching and learning. They should change towards a socio-constructivist per- spective in which the teacher is also seen as a promoter and moderator in the learning process, while pupils and students are seen as active participants in the learning process in which they construct their own knowledge. In our opinion, in-service training should start with intensive reflection on teachers’ subjective theories about teaching, learning, and their role in education. Special atten- tion is to be dedicated to raising teacher awareness of the significant connec- tion of achieving educational goals within appropriately formed class climate that facilitates and supports learning. As Pianta (2006) suggested, the quality of student-teacher relationships can be enhanced by systematic interventions and supports and such efforts routinely are related to improvements on a number of indicators of well-managed classrooms. References Anderson, C. S. (1982). The search for school climate: A review of the research. 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Social support and adjustment in middle school. The role of parents, teachers and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 202–209. Wentzel. K. R. (2002). Are effective teachers like good parents? Teaching styles and student adjustment c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 61 in early adolescence. Child Development, 73(1), 287–301. Wubbels, T., Brekelmans, M. J. G., & Hooymayers, H. P. (1991). Interpersonal teacher behaviour in the classroom. In B. J. Fraser & H. Walberg (Eds.), Educational environments (pp. 141–160). London, UK: Pergamon Press. Wubbels, T. & Levy, J. (1993). Do you know what do you look like? Interpersonal relationships in education. London, UK: The Palmer Press. Biographical note Jana Kalin, PhD, is a full professor of didactics and lectures at the Fac- ulty of Arts at the Department of Educational Studies and at the Faculty of Math- ematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana. She performs numerous seminars for teachers from the field of instruction, efficient learning, the role and the work of the class teacher and learning to learn. Her research work encompasses the field of professional development of teachers, teachers’ competences, the quality of higher education, learning individualization and differentiation, the quality of instruction and the cooperation between school and parents. Cirila Peklaj, PhD, is a full professor at the Department of Psychol- ogy, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. She teaches different undergraduate and graduate psychology courses: Psychology of teaching, Psychosocial relations in the class, Stress in school, Psychoeducational assessment. She also partici- pates in in-service teacher education. Her research interests are related to the phenomena of learning and teachers’ education: cooperative learning, self-reg- ulative learning, students’ achievement, e-learning and teachers’ competencies. She published several scientific articles, wrote monographs, university textbooks and contributed chapters to different books. Sonja Pečjak, PhD, is a full professor of educational psychology at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Her research focused on psychology of reading and literacy (development of early reading skills, reading motiva- tion and reading for learning), the processes of self-regulated learning (learn- ing strategies), e-learning, students with learning disabilities, process by career decision making in school guidance and emotional intelligence in educational settings. She published numerous scientific and academic books and articles and engaged in various research projects. Melita Puklek Levpušček, PhD, is a full professor in educational psychology at the Department of Psychology at the University of Ljubljana. Her 62 elementary and secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ classroom ... research focus is on psychosocial development in adolescence and emerging adulthood, academic motivation and development of teacher competencies in student teachers. Milena Valenčič Zuljan, PhD, is a full professor at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana. She is an editor and a reviewer of several journals and scientific monographs. Her research interest is in different didactic topics (cognitive-constructivist instructional model, problem-based learning, knowledge evaluation and assessment, differentiation and individualization, di- dactic innovations) as well as mentorship, teacher’s professional development and resilience. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 63 Multicultural Education vs. Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentric Education: Text Analysis of a Contemporary Israeli Value Education Program Roni Reingold*1 and Sara Zamir2 • In the year 2000, Israel purportedly adopted a multicultural educational policy. It replaced the covert assimilation policy, which was referred to as ‘the integration policy’. The aim of the present study was to analyse the contemporary Israeli program of value education. Using the method of content analysis, the present study sought to determine whether the syl- labi of the contemporary program reflect the adoption of a multicultural educational policy, or whether they produce only multicultural rhetoric. The findings reveal that the program reflected mainly the pluralistic ap- proach while still maintaining traces of ethnocentric rhetoric of certain syllabi in the program. Keywords: assimilation, educational policy, Israel, multiculturalism, value education 1 *Corresponding Author. Achva Academic College, Izrael; reingold@netvision.net.il. 2 Achva Academic College and Ben-Gurion University, Izrael. 64 multicultural education vs. implicit and explicit ethnocentric education Multikulturna edukacija: implicitna in eksplicitna etnocentrična edukacija – vsebinska analiza sodobnega izraelskega programa za vzgojo za vrednote Roni Reingold in Sara Zamir • Leta 2000 je Izrael domnevno sprejel multikulturno edukacijsko poli- tiko. Ta je nadomestila prikrito asimilacijsko politiko, ki je bila poimen- ovana kot integracijska politik«. Namen te raziskave je bil analizirati sodobni izraelski program za edukacijo vrednot. Z uporabo metod vsebinske analize je raziskava skušala ugotoviti, ali kurikulum sodob- nega programa odraža sprejetje multikulturne edukacijske politike ali samo proizvaja multikulturno retoriko. Ugotovitve kažejo, da program predvsem odraža pluralistični pristop, medtem ko se še vedno ohranjajo sledi etnocentrične retorike v določenih delih kurikuluma. Ključne besede: asimilacija, edukacijske politike, Izrael, multikultural- izem, edukacija vrednot c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 65 Introduction Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, its Ministry of Edu- cation has had complete and centralised control, including in determining the educational policy and activities pertaining to all the schools in the country (Baratz & Reingold, 2010), with exception of the Jewish ultra-Orthodox inde- pendent education. The ministry controls the schools’ curricula; the matricu- lation examination; the teachers’ preparatory education, accreditation proce- dures, and teachers’ continuing professional development (Baratz, Reingold, & Abuatzira, 2011). Subsequently, throughout the years of the existence of the State of Israel, this control has enabled the ministry to encourage conformist behaviour among teachers (Reingold, Baratz, & Abuatzira, 2013). Article B of a law dating from 1953, the ‘Israel National Education Act’, determined that the national education must be based on: • ‘the cultural values of Israel and its scientific achievements; love of coun- try and loyalty to the State and the people of Israel; training in the fields of agriculture and industry; a pioneering spirit; and the aspiration to create a society built on freedom, equality, tolerance, mutual help, and love of humanity’ (Kizel, 2005, p. 3). • ‘Cultural values of Israel […] love of country and loyalty to the State’ are all phrases that demonstrate the dominant social and educational policy that characterized the first decades after the State of Israel was founded: its goal was the ‘integration of Diasporas (exiles)’, to create a social ‘melting-pot’. Underlying this explicit assimilation policy was the wish to attract the Jewish immigrants from Islamic countries away from the cultures of their com- munities of origin and integrate them into the framework of what was con- sidered the native Israeli culture. That is, the hegemonic and dominant one, a variation of the culture of the ethnic group which was referred as the elite- the veteran Ashkenazim3 (Sever, 2001; Yonah, 2005). The melting pot policy (ideology) was replaced at the end of the 1960s by a new policy, which was referred to as ‘the integration policy’ or ‘the policy of cultural pluralism’. This policy accepted the existence of a variety of cultural groups in one political/social entity and ‘even’ viewed it as normal (Gaynor, 2011; Lamme, 1996). However, the acceptance of the existence of various and different cultures and different culture groups in the national education frame- work does not necessarily mean that this policy reflects the State’s vision, or that 3 ‘Ashkenazi’ is the term used to refer to the Jews who came from eastern European countries and established the State. 66 multicultural education vs. implicit and explicit ethnocentric education the State wishes to continue to foster this policy. It only means that the State allows it (Feinberg, 1996). To put into practice the policy of integration, an organisational reform was carried out in the educational system. Before the reform, the educational system was composed of two segments: elementary school (Grade 1–Grade 8) and high school (Grade 9–Grade 12). Middle high school (Grade 7–Grade 9) was developed between these two segments. The organisational reform was followed by educational and ideological ones. Middle high school became the first educational arena accepting students from Ashkenazi and Mizrachi (Sephardic)4 origin (previously, studies were segregated by area residents and consequently by ethnicity); nevertheless, no new programs were introduced featuring the culture and history of immigrants of Mizrachi origin (Yonah, 2005). In effect, the goal of the encounter between cultures (or ethnicities) was, as reflected in the words of the former education minister Zvulun Hamer, to ‘ensure amicability between the population groups, foster a sense of belonging to society in general, and strengthen Israel’s sense of unity’ (Yonah, 2005, p. 68). In contrast to the former description, in the last decade and a half, a new message can be heard from the Ministry of Education. The beginning of the shift was in the year 2000, when an amendment to the Israel National Educa- tion Act of 1953 was introduced. Specifically, the goals of national education in Israel were updated as well as the vision of the optimal high-school graduate. Many of the articles in the amendment are reminiscent of the original word- ings, for example, ‘to teach Israel’s Torah, as well as its Jewish history, herit- age, and traditions’ (Amendment to the Israel National Education Act, 2000). However, along with these, there are articles that introduce a new spirit and new goals, for example, ‘to become familiar with the language, culture, history, heritage, and unique traditions of the Arab population and of other population groups in the State of Israel’ (this article also introduces into the legislature the 1976 goals for national Arab education). Thus, it would appear that this document resonates with the values characteristic of multicultural approaches. Alternatively, it is similar to what the European educational discourse refers as an intercultural approach (Dervin, 2015; Todd, 2011). Through an interpretational analysis of major curriculum, the present study seeks to determine whether the current educational policy reflects the adoption of multicultural values that could potentially help strengthen weak- ened and marginalised population groups, or whether it successfully produces a multicultural rhetoric while engaging in ethnocentric curricula. 4 ‘Mizrachi’ or ‘Sephardic’ is the term used to refer to the Jews who came from Islamic countries in Asia or northern Africa. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 67 The discussion focuses on the value education curriculum, which serves as the arena in which the State’s preferred social values are delineated. Literature review The melting pot policy The melting pot was the formal social and educational policy, which was dominant in the State of Israel during the first decades after it was founded. Of course, it is not an original Israeli policy. The term was first used in a play named ‘Melting Pot’, written by the British author and playwright Israel Zang- will. Debuting in 1908, the play presented an approach asserts that immigrants should assimilate ‘into a generalized “American” identity while shedding their indigenous cultural identities in the process’ (Gaynor, 2011, p. 178). The goal of that policy in Israel was to hide the visibility of the immi- grants; the result of this official disregard of the immigrants’ culture was the formation of a negative visibility (Resnik, 2010). This policy aimed ‘to cut the new immigrants off from [...] their old traditions and to create in Israel a new uniform Hebrew-Israeli culture’ (Zameret, 2002, p. 125), which in effect was a variation of the established Ashkenazi elite culture. More specifically, the melt- ing-pot policy mainly fostered the identity of the national, secular Ashkenazi as representing the Israeli ethos. The educational-ideological policy implemented in the state education systems was based (and still is) on the acculturation model of pedagogy, which advocates the transfer of values and subject matter in the teaching process (Lamm, 2001), for the purpose of leading a movement of social assimilation, based on clear guidelines. Expression of the melting pot policy in the educational field can be found in the words of the third Minister of Education, Ben-Zion Dinur. While speaking about the history curriculum, he demanded that ‘everything taught in school must assist in imparting to the student[s] these values, train [stu- dents] to absorb them... and promote the [values] as a guiding factor in forming [their] identity, thoughts and way of life. Nothing in the curriculum or school life should be opposed to these goals’ (Kizel, 2005, p. 3). Another example of the assimilation policy can be found through an in-depth examination of the curricula in all four separate sectors of the Israeli pre-academic education system. Article A of The Israel National Education Act of 1953 led to a reality in which the Israeli pre-academic education system was composed of four separate sectors: state-funded secular Jewish education; 68 multicultural education vs. implicit and explicit ethnocentric education state-funded Jewish religious education; semi-independent Jewish ultra-Or- thodox education; and state-funded education in Arabic. Perusal of the cur- ricula of these separate sectors reveals that, in fact, religious Jewish education has roots in all of them. In the state-funded religious and in the ultra-Orthodox education systems, religion is taught within a religious framework and from a religious perspective. In contrast, in the state-funded secular Jewish educa- tion system teaching about religion serves an ethnocentric nationalist ideology. Originally, the legislation of 1953 was intended to end a heated debate in Israeli society between the secular and religious sectors. It was intended (at least al- legedly) that the secular schools would feature a curriculum with a humanistic orientation that expresses a pluralistic worldview. However, that did not hap- pen; thus, religious teachers are allowed to teach in the secular Jewish educa- tion sector, whereas secular teachers are denied the same privilege in the Jewish religious education sector. The situation of the fourth sector, the separate but state-funded and de- pendent Arabic education sector, is even more complex. There is a mandatory curriculum for teaching about Jewish religion, culture, and history, in addition to a more marginal curriculum that teaches Islamic religion (Reingold, Baratz, & Abuatzira, 2013). Pluralism via Integration The eventual replacement of the melting pot policy with the ‘integration’ or the ‘cultural pluralism’ policy at the end of the 1960s did little to resolve these complexities. While the pluralist policy accepted the existence of various cul- tural groups within one political or social entity and even viewed it as normal (Lamme, 1996), its aim was ‘to strive […] for cultural integration of different groups that may become realized precisely because of the recognition of their right to exist’ (ibid., p. 212). In other words, the pluralistic ethnocentric ver- sion of the new educational policy was reflecting a conception that advocated implicit assimilation. Underlying this approach was the view that particular and inferior cultures of minority groups should eventually disappear. The goal was identical to that of explicit assimilation, as it insisted that cultural and eth- nic difference be assimilated into the traditions and customs of the majority. Recognition of the right of ethnic groups and communities to preserve their separate cultures was a policy of last resort. It was a policy of hypocrisy, which offered false recognition. Indeed, in the period dominated by a formal pluralistic policy, the Min- istry of Education director, Elad Peled, noted (in a policy paper regarding the c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 69 principles for the educational system in the 1980s) the following: ‘essentially, the Israeli culture that is taking form is nurtured, for the most part, by its shared past history’ (Peled, 1976, p. 206). In other words, the orientation of the ethno- centric melting pot had not been eliminated. In regards to the Arab education system, even during the policy of plu- ralism, this sector was subject to a discriminatory separatism, i.e. exclusion, in addition to being under the control and supervision of the state (Jabareen & Agbarieh, 2010). Unlike the Jewish ethnic groups that were brought together in mid- dle school through the integration reform, the Arab education system re- mained separate. Exclusion, as well as control, were maintained. Reality was not changed, even though in 1975 a committee established by the Ministry of Education and headed by its manager (the Peled Committee) published a set of unique goals for the Arab education system, which up until that point had been subject to the ethnocentric Zionist goals defined in the National Educa- tion Law of 1953. The committee offered the following goal for the Arab educational sec- tor: ‘to establish education based on the fundamentals of Arab culture; scien- tific achievements; the striving for peace between Israel and its neighbours; the love shared by all citizens for the Land of Israel; loyalty to the State of Israel, with emphasis on common interests and the unique position of Arab citizens in Israel; knowledge of Israeli culture; respect for creative work and the aspira- tion to create a society based on freedom, equality, mutual assistance, and love of humanity’ (Ministry of Education, 1975, p. 14). However, this recommenda- tion was not accompanied by any significant change in the legislature or by the granting of autonomy to the Arab education system. Textbooks, for the most part, were translated from Hebrew, and the Department for Arab Education and Culture within the ministry sought to decentralise Arab education and at- tach it to the existing regional administrative divisions of the Ministry of Edu- cation (Reichel, 2008). Studies that have examined the history curriculum in Arab schools revealed that both in the past and in the present, Arab students have been, and continue to be, required to devote a major part of their studies to chap- ters in the history of the Jewish people, taught from a Jewish/Zionist perspec- tive. In contrast, only the Arab educational sector is required to study Arab and Muslim history (and in a relatively limited form), whereas these subjects are absent from the curricula of the Jewish educational systems (Al-Haj, 1995, 2002; Shemesh, 2009). In other words, there is an infringement on the rights of Arab students to study the history of their people from the perspective of their 70 multicultural education vs. implicit and explicit ethnocentric education people. This is due to the banning of any mention of the Nak’ba (the Palestin- ian term for events of the 1948 Israel War of Independence). Thus, in addition to the marginalisation of the study of Arab history and literature as well as the study of Islam (Pinson, 2005), students in the Arab educational sector are also required to study not only Jewish history, but also Jewish literature, and even the Jewish religion. In other words, the ethnocentric approach continued to dominate, even under the title of cultural pluralism. The approach of ethnocentric pluralism that is implemented in Israel as described above has two main variations: the ‘temporary pluralism’ approach, which aims for the adoption of the dominant culture by the entire society, albeit through a gradual process. The second version is that of ‘‘residual multicultur- alism’, i.e. an approach that accepts the permanent preservation of marginal cultural dimensions within the minority groups (Sever, 2001). Multiculturalism Even though pluralism can serve ethnocentric approaches, it may also serve as a basis for multicultural perceptions. The pluralist multicultural ideol- ogy does not require communities to renounce their own unique cultures, but strives to sustain a dialogue on the cultural boundaries between members of different cultural groups that preserve their particular cultures (out of recogni- tion of and pride in these cultures), without creating a cultural hierarchy or attempting cultural colonialism (Reingold, 2009). There are different multicultural approaches, and there is much debate among the advocates of multiculturalism (Gorski, 2009; Paul-Binyamin & Reingold, 2014). Nevertheless, there is a consensus that multicultural ideology (or in- tercultural ideology), which in Israel goes back only a few decades, aims to advance a policy that encourages a relationship of mutual respect among the various cultures that comprise a society (Paul-Binyamin & Reingold, 2014; Reingold, 2007). It is a ‘policy of maintaining a diversity of ethnic cultures within a com- munity’, and it upholds ‘the view that the various cultures in a society merit equal respect and scholarly interest’ (Raţă, 2013, p. 3). In other words, it is ‘a philosophy that appreciates ethnic diversity within a society and that encour- ages people to learn from the contributions of those with diverse ethnic back- grounds’ (ibid.). All of these definitions and characteristics are to be distinguished from what Peter McLaren (1995) defines as ‘conservative multiculturalism’, or what c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 71 I prefer to regard as ‘feigned multiculturalism’ (Baratz, Reingold, & Abuatzira, 2011), meaning a rhetoric which uses the terms multiculturalism and diversity to cover up a practice of assimilation. True multiculturalism claims that cultural diversity and intercultural di- alogue are necessary elements of culturally diverse societies; hence, educational manifestations of this ideology may involve the construction of common edu- cational public spaces shared by members of different cultural communities. At an earlier stage of the multicultural process, educational implementation of this ideology may require maintaining separate public educational spaces for different cultural minorities. This is to empower the community members of each group and to prepare them for an intercultural dialogue from a position of strength, that is, defining an early stage of a particular form of multiculturalism (Reingold, 2007). Banks (1995) identified five dimensions of multicultural education: content integration, the knowledge construction process, prejudice reduction, an equity pedagogy, and an empowering school culture and social structure. Teachers can add to the curriculum examples and content from a variety of cultures. They can help students to understand how the biases are being con- structed. They can help students to develop positive attitudes toward different racial, ethnic, and cultural groups; modify their teaching in ways that will facili- tate the academic achievement of students from diverse groups and transform the culture and organisation of the school in ways that enable students from diverse groups to experience equality. Multicultural curricula can help counter separatist and racist social phe- nomena, such as the pervasiveness of an exclusionary national mythology. Mul- ticultural curricula can achieve this by rehabilitating the self- and social-image of the other, and by giving voice to the cultural narratives of oppressed groups. The struggle of minority groups for recognition is based on the assumption that representation equals power: ‘I am in the text; therefore, I am’. The current study analyses a text: the syllabi of contemporary Israeli value education program, titled: ‘The other is myself ’. For several decades, the Ministry of Education in Israel chooses a val- ues-based topic to be addressed for one academic year in elementary, junior high, and high schools. A modest number of classroom hours is allotted to values-based education, during which the lesson is dedicated to the selected topic. The topic is applied to major theoretical disciplines, such as history and Bible studies, as well as to other disciplines, such as music and dance. In 2009, the values-based education was expanded to a core curriculum program, in which, the same values-based education approach and the same 72 multicultural education vs. implicit and explicit ethnocentric education values-based topic will be the centre of the educational activities, both in some major theoretical disciplines’ lessons and throughout the year in one weekly lesson carried out by the homeroom teacher. The guiding principles are the same in all the syllabi of the values-based educational core curriculum pro- gram, but each educational institution can choose its own particular manner of implementation (Ministry of Education, 2015). The topic selected beginning at the 2013–2014 school year was ‘The other is myself ’; by the 2015–2016 academic year the Ministry of Education published a folder of educational activities and suggested statement to be signed by teach- ers and pupils at schools concerning the subject. (The other is myself, The Min- istry of Education, 2015). The program comprised 142 syllabi meant to address the multicultural approach. According to the Ministry of Education’s (2014) document ‘Mutual life’, living in a multicultural society is a significant challenge in the State of Israel. Due to partisan disputes, Israeli society often becomes fertile ground for feel- ings of fear, ignorance and prejudice. Therefore, the Israeli education system has no choice but to be a leading factor in constructing moral education com- mitment and to change the mistrust and hatred between the various groups in the Israeli society to partnership and mutual respect. Thus, the program aims at presenting multicultural approach based upon universal-humanistic values, as can be perceived in the following excerpt: This step prioritizes universal values of respect, equality, justice, toler- ance, acceptance and passion, democracy, identity, and belonging […] [conveying an] understanding that there is difference in each of us, and it introduces the advantage of variability in terms of thinking, learning, conducting society […] [The program aims to] reject the phenomenon of racism and purge Israeli society of all forms of racism. Hence, the current research aim was to analyse the educational program ‘The other is myself ’ to determine whether it reflects the adoption of multicul- tural values that could potentially help strengthen weakened and marginalised population groups, or whether it produces a multicultural rhetoric while en- gaging in ethnocentric curricula. The research question was as follows: Are the declared goals compatible with the issues and topics addressed in the program? In other words, are the issues and topics addressed in the program compatible with the stated multicultural educational policy in Israel? c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 73 Methodology In accordance with the research aim, namely, to determine whether the program reflects the adoption of multicultural values, a qualitative-interpretive research method was applied to analyse the documents at hand. A textual anal- ysis was performed according to the principle of critical discourse that focuses on social problems and the various forms of language used in regard to under- privileged minority groups that are discriminated on the grounds of ethnicity or social status (Gee, 1992; 2004). The analysis was also based on Klein’s method (Klein, 2010, following van Dijk, 1991), which is intended for analysing socio- cultural connections and the implicit meanings derived from them. In detail, following Banks’ five dimensions of multicultural education, we were determining whether the contents represent underprivileged minority groups’ cultures or the references towards those groups are patronising, ethno- centric, or multicultural. For example, even before the deep analysis, we could reveal that the au- thors of the program chose not to use the word different but rather the word other, which appears also in the name of the program. The term different con- veys the idea that all human beings are equal, but have distinct features and characteristics, whereas the term other refers to ‘any being that is not me, that isn’t like me in terms of values, abilities, or worldview’ (Abu-Baker, 2002, p. 32). In comparison to other tools of measurement, content analysis has ma- jor advantages. A series of procedures is used in analysing the text aimed at arriving at significant diagnoses and generalisations from within the text (We- ber, 1990). According to Scholes’ (1985) assumption, content analysis involves reading within, on, and against the text. Reading within the text means under- standing the text according to its author’s intention; reading on the text means interpreting it according to the reader’s understanding; reading against the text means criticism, support or objection, and fathoming the reader’s arguments, according to his understanding, which is based on his previous knowledge and cultural background. It is not invasive; it is free of errors in data analysis stemming from the respondents’ awareness of the examiner’s presence and expectations, and it is also a technique that is able to deal with a large amount of data such as data retained from curricula (Krippendorff, 2004). The corpus: The program ‘the other is myself ’. For the three main edu- cational systems in Israel: secular Jewish education, religious Jewish education, and Arabic education within the entire ELHI education (elementary to high school education). 74 multicultural education vs. implicit and explicit ethnocentric education The program is composed of 142 different syllabi for the following dis- ciplines: Language Hebrew, Arabic & English, Yiddish), literature, Bible, and Oral Torah. History, Sociology, Psychology, Homeland studies, Social science, Po- litical science, Economics, Citizenship, Health education, Legacy studies, Com- munication, Dancing, Music, Theatre, Gymnastics and Arts. The following rubric was used in order to determine the effectiveness of the program according to the research questions: Ethnocentric rhetoric – Conveying the belief that one’s own culture is superior to all others and is the standard by which all other cultures should be measured. Demonstrating a model of social integration or cultural assimila- tion. In the current study, it means that the Jewish Zionist culture has been regarded as the superior one. Pluralistic rhetoric – Allowing deepest cultural differences. Exercising tolerance or benevolent paternalism. Multicultural rhetoric – Promoting ideas of dialogue and promotion of multiple cultural traditions within a single jurisdiction. Maintaining the dis- tinctiveness of multiple cultures in contrast to social integration, cultural as- similation and racial segregation. Irrelevant or unrelated rhetoric – None of the above. The reliability of the current research was calculated according the meth- od of percentage agreement among researchers. Since only four cases of disa- greement (out of 142) occurred, the reliability percentage was 97%. This high percentage was despite the fact that the researchers in the field of education come from different areas: one researcher’s fields of expertise is multicultural education and philosophy of education, while the others are experts in sociol- ogy of education and educational management. Findings We found that the categories: ethnocentricity, multiculturalism and plu- ralism in some cases were not purely distinctive within the syllabi layout of the program ‘The other is myself ’; hence, two intermediate categories were also elicited: Ethnocentrism + Pluralism (10 cases) as well as Pluralism + Multicul- turalism (8 cases). Those inconclusive categories reflect the in-between situa- tion between the original categories, offered by the rubric. The number of appearances in the syllabi according to the categories: Ethnocentrism 12 Ethnocentrism+ Pluralism 10 c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 75 Pluralism 59 Pluralism + Multiculturalism 8 Multiculturalism 22 Unrelated/Irrelevant 31 Figure 1. Rhetoric appearances in the program (counted) Within the entire of the program, 31 syllabi were defined Unrelated or Irrelevant to the categories defining the rhetoric above. Figure 2. Rhetoric appearances in the program (percentages) Thus, the pluralistic rhetoric represents the vast majority of the syllabi in the program. 76 multicultural education vs. implicit and explicit ethnocentric education Table 1 The distribution of the rhetoric appearances and their representative statements Representative syllabiPercentages No. of appearancesRhetoric/style 1-History for the state religious sector (Junior high school): ’Jewish aid institutes in the Jewish community during the Middle Ages – benevolence, charity and grace’. 2-Oral Torah (Bible) for the state general sector (Junior high school): ’Studying the scriptures of Sages from the Mishna and the Talmud-Between the genders -various aspects of marriage’. 8%12Ethnocentrism 1-Health Education for all sectors (Junior high school): ‘Celebrating Bar Mitzvah - wise nutrition of Israel’s various ethnic groups’. 2-Arabic for the Druze and Cherkasy sectors (elementary school): Acceptance, inclusion and caring about the language, the community and the homeland’. 7%10Ethnocentrism+ Pluralism 1-Gymnastics for all sectors (elementary school): ’Inclusion and empathy towards the different other’. 2-Theatre studies for all sectors (high school): ‘Empathy for the other through playing his/ her character in a play’. 42%59Pluralism 1-History for all sectors (Junior high school): ’De- veloping tolerance towards Christianity, Judaism and Islam- knowing and respecting each other’. 2-Film studies for all sectors (Junior high school): ’The representation of the other in films - Knowing, understanding and accepting the other 6%8Pluralism+ Multiculturalism 1-Legacy studies for all sectors (Junior high school): ’Preventing violence and racism’. 2-History for the state general sector (high school): ’Immigration absorption in Israel during the 1950s and ‘60s and the riots of ‘Wadi Salib1‘. 15%22Multiculturalism 1-Music for all sectors (elementary school): No specific aims. 2-Bible studies for the state religious sector (high school): ’Different aspects of child- parent relationships’. 22%31Unrelated/Irrelevant Discussion With its founding, the State of Israel declared a social and educational approach of overt assimilation. The purpose of this policy was to ensure that the Ashkenazi Zionist culture would be the predominant culture in Israel; in other words, it would be conceived as the only true Israeli culture. Several dec- ades later, this policy was replaced by another, which claimed to manifest an approach of cultural pluralism. However, in fact, it merely replaced the overt c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 77 assimilation policy with a covert one (occasionally during this period, the goal of assimilation was declared openly). In the last decade and a half, the Ministry of Education has been pro- ducing a multicultural rhetoric, both in its general policy statement and in its curricular documents. Analysing the rationale and the syllabi of the contemporary Israeli value education program, (‘The other is myself ’), we identified a mixture of terminol- ogies from the ethnocentric, pluralistic and multicultural approaches. The con- tradiction between the three approaches is profound; while pluralism allows the deepest cultural differences; Multiculturalism promotes ideas of respect and inter cultural dialogue resulting in the promotion of multiple cultural tra- ditions within a single jurisdiction without exercising benevolent paternalism. Ethnocentrism, in contrast, exercises social integration or cultural assimilation of multiple cultural groups. Purely ethnocentric rhetoric appeared 12 times within the program. Its use of a gentler rhetoric, which supposedly embraces multiculturalism, may actually prevent the realization of multiculturalism. Those syllabi use terms that are not derived from a multicultural approach, such as ‘the ethnic group of Mizrachi (Oriental) Jews’ (in Hebrew: edot hamizracc), which is the exclu- sionary term, rather than ‘the community of descendants of immigrants from Muslim countries’ which is the term used in multicultural discourse. The religious Jewish education system, in contrast, features no such syl- labi for presenting non-Jewish cultures. At most, its equivalent programs focus on the issue of tolerance in Judaism, e.g. historical examples of renowned acts of piety; Jewish laws regarding charity for those in need in society; showing respect for older people; etc. In classes in Yiddish in religious schools, the so- called ‘other’ that students learn about is the oppressed Jews of Eastern Europe (e.g. the Beilis Trial). It remains unclear precisely how Jews represent the ‘other’ for Jewish students. Religious schools also deal with topics such as parents and children, converts to Judaism, the other in the Bible, love and relationships, organ donation, the treatment of older people throughout history, proper nutri- tion among the various ethnic groups, sustainability and cycles in nature, and the dangers of smoking. All of these are issues of great importance, yet they have no concrete connection to multiculturalism (occasionally they are not even related to variability or otherness), although their study is accompanied by extensive use of the terms mutual responsibility, care and concern, and tolerance. However, the vast majority of the syllabi in the program (59) reflect the pluralistic approach, sometimes combined with the ethnocentric approach (10); despite their use of a multicultural heading, it is evident that no multicultural 78 multicultural education vs. implicit and explicit ethnocentric education approach has yet been internalized in those syllabi. The use of the phrase ‘other’ instead of ‘different’ characterizes an eth- nocentric approach for it emphasizes the ‘self ’. The use of further problematic phrases (from the multicultural perspective), such as ‘tolerance’ for the other and the different may convey a patronizing approach. It suggests that I am the one in power and, therefore, it is up to me to tolerate and be receptive towards the other. The proper expression in a multicultural context would be ‘learning about differences’, rather than the notion of forced acceptance. The patronizing undertone is also perceived in an additional term that appears in the program’s rationale: ‘taking care of those in society who are weaker’. A multicultural wording would use disadvantaged rather than weakened, and taking care of oth- ers should be replaced by helping to empower others. The major problem in this program becomes obvious when we examine its goals. Even though the program aims at multiculturalism, only 22 syllabi (15%) convey specific multicultural contents to be applied in the various disci- plines and in the different education systems. In some cases (8), one can trace a mixture of multicultural and pluralistic rhetoric. For example, the versions of the program that include a dialogue com- ponent, titled Archeology in the Land of Israel, includes both online and face-to- face meetings between students from different education systems. However, the goal of the syllabi is worded in pluralistic (rather than multicultural) terms: it aims to develop in students ‘a tolerant approach and respect for ethnic cultures and [minority] religions in Israel’. The second version of the program that offers a true dialogue experience is titled ‘getting to know the other and preventing racism’ and it should include ‘encounters between students from either the Jew- ish and the Arab education systems or the secular and religious Jewish educa- tion systems, for the purpose of conducting a joint research project’. The only elementary school versions of the program that contain a cer- tain degree of dialogue are titled ‘Let’s Talk’ and ‘Ya Salam’, which are taught in the framework of Arabic language lessons for the Jewish sector. This pro- gram includes dialogue and activities that take place between Jews and Arabs; however, these encounters are not real, but rather described in the textbook. Nevertheless, the goals of the program are defined in a manner that reflects a multicultural approach: their goal is to: ‘develop a sensitivity towards people from different cultural backgrounds. Learning Arabic gives students the oppor- tunity to learn about the rich cultural heritage of the Arab and Muslim people and their traditions’. There is however, a small number of programs intended for the state- funded religious schools for learning about the cultural heritage of Arabs and c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 79 Muslims and their traditions: 14 for elementary schools, one for junior-high schools and one for high schools. These do not include actual meetings with members of Arab communities. In contrast to the two Jewish state sectors, the Arab education system includes not only mandatory studies about the Jews, their culture, and their his- tory, but also the teaching of the values-based program focuses on the Jews. For example, in the program for elementary schools, they learn about King Solo- mon and social justice, or about the Ten Commandments (for some unknown reason, both are taught in the framework of history lessons). In other words, the value education program dedicated to learning about the other or about differences (which is relatively limited in scope, occa- sionally comprising only five academic hours) is at best pluralistic (rather than multicultural) in its use of terminology, as is much of its content, which in more than a few cases is even ethnocentric. Only a very small number of programs feature intercultural dialogue, while few focus on issues relating to the struggle against or prevention of racism. In the 21st century, diversity is one of the main characteristics of all the countries in the world. Cultural groups live side by side. In all the countries, one of the variables of cultural diversity relates to re- ligious beliefs and/or affiliations (including being secular). In many countries, several national groups side by side. Either indigenous or immigrants. In many of the most attractive countries for immigrants, such as Australia, Western Eu- rope or North American countries, politicians and educational policy makers are promoting for several decades multicultural/intercultural education policy and curricula (Todd, 2011). Some more efforts and action will be probably taken after the summer 2015 wave of migration from the Mideast to Europe. The cur- rent paper urges education researchers not to be misled by multicultural or intercultural rhetoric, but rather to deeply analyse the educational curricula and programs. Although the topic may appear to encompass a multicultural ap- proach, a review of the wording used to describe the topic and its goals reveals that this is not the case. The current paper focuses on a national educational policy. Neverthe- less, its significance to the international educational discourse is the exposure of a gap between manifestoes of educational policy and a practical education- al policy. 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Gadish, 7, 45–54. Shemesh, H. (2009). 8002 8491 ישראל במדינת הערביים הספר לבתי בהיסטוריה לימוד בספרי הזיכרון עיצוב [Fashioning memory through history textbooks in Arabic in Israel (1948-2000)] Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Hebrew University, Jerusalem. //:The other is myself], Jerusalem: The ministry of education (2014). Retrieved from http] האחר הוא אני cms.education.gov.il/EducationCMS/Units/ui/atochnit/ogdan/Ratzyonal.htm //:The other is myself], Jerusalem: The ministry of education (2015). Retrieved from http] האחר הוא אני cms.education.gov.il/EducationCMS/Units/ui/ Todd, S. (2011). Educating beyond cultural diversity: Redrawing the boundaries of a democratic plurality. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 30(2), 101–111. Van Dijk, T.A. (1991). Racism and the press. London, UK: Rutledge. Weber, R. P. (1990). Basic content analysis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Yonah, Y. (2005). בזכות ההבדל – הפרוייקט הרב תרבותי בישראל [In virtue of difference: the multicultural project in Israel]. Jerusalem: The Van Leer Jerusalem Institute. Zameret, Z. (2002). The melting pot in Israel: The commission of inquiry concerning the education of immigrant children during the early years of the state. New York, NY: SUNY Press. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 83 Biographical note Roni Reingold, PhD, is the chair of Master of Teaching program in Achva Academic College. He is the previous chair of department of Educa- tion. He is the organizer and the chair of the EARLI’s 2nd SIG 13-Moral and Democratic Education symposium (2010). He published articles in the fields of multicultural education, moral education and initial teacher education. Sara Zamir, PhD, is a senior lecturer at Achva Academic College and Ben-Gurion University. She serves as the Head of the B.Ed - Educational Ad- ministration program at Achva academic college. She published articles and books in the fields of peace-education, political socialization and educational evaluation. 84 c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 85 Pre-Service Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs about Foreign Language Learning and Early Foreign Language Teaching in Slovenia Mateja Dagarin Fojkar1 and Darija Skubic*2 • The implementation of foreign languages in preschool education has prompted the need for qualified teachers. However, most recent studies report a gap between the supply of qualified foreign language teachers of young learners and the demand for such teachers as foreign languages are introduced earlier and earlier. The authors of this paper present some models of initial and in-service training of preschool foreign language teachers in Slovenia. As learners’ beliefs about language learning have been considered an important variable, like many other individual dif- ferences in language learning, the main aim of the research was to deter- mine pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about early foreign language learning. The research was conducted on a sample of 90 pre-service preschool teachers. The results imply that future preschool teachers are aware of the importance of foreign language learning and their aware- ness raises with the year of study. The results of the survey indicate that it would be beneficial to include early foreign language teacher training in the education of preschool teachers who are willing to teach foreign languages in kindergartens in Slovenia and elsewhere. Keywords: foreign language learning, preschool teachers, preschool teachers’ beliefs, pre-service teacher training 1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Slovenia. 2 *Corresponding Author. University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Slovenia; darija.skubic@pef.uni-lj.si. 86 pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning and ... Prepričanja študentov predšolske vzgoje o učenju in zgodnjem poučevanju tujega jezika v Sloveniji Mateja Dagarin Fojkar in Darija Skubic • Uvajanje učenja tujih jezikov v predšolski vzgoji in izobraževanju je spod- budilo potrebo po usposobljenih učiteljih. A večina študij, opravljenih pred kratkim, poroča o vrzeli med ponudbo usposobljenih učiteljev tu- jih jezikov mlajših učencev v zgodnjem obdobju in povpraševanjem po tovrstnih učiteljih zaradi vedno bolj zgodnjega uvajanja tujih jezikov v vzgojno-izobraževalni sistem. Avtorici tega prispevka predstavita nekaj modelov začetnega izobraževanja in nadaljnjega usposabljanja učiteljev tujih jezikov v predšolskem obdobju v Sloveniji. Prepričanja bodočih vzgojiteljev o učenju jezikov so bila upoštevana kot pomembna spre- menljivka tako kot veliko drugih individualnih razlik v tujejezikovnem učenju, glavni cilj raziskave pa je bil ugotoviti, kakšna so prepričanja bodočih vzgojiteljev o zgodnjem učenju tujih jezikov. V raziskavo je bilo vključenih 90 bodočih vzgojiteljev. Rezultati kažejo, da se bodoči vzgojitelji zavedajo pomembnosti učenja tujih jezikov in da to zavedanje narašča z leti študija. Rezultati raziskave kažejo tudi, da bi bilo koristno vključiti usposabljanje za zgodnje učenje tujih jezikov v študijski pro- gram Predšolska vzgoja za tiste vzgojitelje, ki bi želeli učiti tuje jezike v vrtcih v Sloveniji in drugod po svetu. Ključne besede: vzgojitelji, učenje tujih jezikov, usposabljanje bodočih vzgojiteljev, prepričanja vzgojiteljev c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 87 Introduction For a long time, parents and teachers have been worried that early-age bilingual exposure may impair and delay children’s cognitive development. Yet, modern researchers state cognitive advantages for bilingual children. Research has shown for some time that bilingual children typically develop certain types of cognitive flexibility and metalinguistic awareness earlier and better than their monolingual peers (e.g., Bialystok, 2001; Cummins, 2000; King & Mackey, 2007). The acquisition of two competing language systems creates a particu- larly strong demand for attentional and executive control (Costa, Hernández, & Sebastián-Gallés, 2008). This need to control attention to the target system influences bilingual children both cognitively and linguistically. The study of cognitive styles – specifically, styles of learning and thinking – suggests that bilingualism alters the way that individuals conceptually structure informa- tion (Bialystok, 2001). According to Bialystok (2001, 2007), selective attention is one of the primary cognitive benefits of bilingualism. Bilingual children are less prone to suffer from a context of misleading information and complex- ity compared to monolinguals. Lauchlan, Parisi and Fadda’s study (2012), in which bilingual children were compared to monolingual children in terms of cognitive control, problem-solving skills, metalinguistic awareness and work- ing memory, confirms that bilingual children outperform monolingual chil- dren in each of these cognitive tests. Bilingual children differentiate their two languages and use code-mixing deliberately, already by the age of two (Meisel, 2004). Their ability to adapt to their surroundings and the context in which they use language indicates that code-mixing among bilingual children reflects the development of linguistic and socio-linguistic awareness (ibid.). Theoretical background The spread of foreign languages into early childhood education has cre- ated a need for qualified teachers. However, most recent studies (among them Emery, 2012; Enever, 2011; Enever & Moon, 2009; Garton, Copland, & Burns, 2011; Hayes, 2014; Murphy, 2014; Rixon, 2013) report that there is a gap between the supply of qualified foreign language teachers of young learners and the de- mand for such teachers as foreign languages are introduced earlier and earlier. These studies also emphasise the importance of assuring the quality of early foreign language instruction, despite the general assumption that teachers who teach young children do not need to have high qualifications. Hanušová and Najvar (2006, p. 7) even claim that “the younger the pupil [starting to learn L2], 88 pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning and ... the more significant the qualification of the teacher”. Nikolov and Mihaljević Djigunović (2011) explain that teachers of young learners need to be proficient in both the children’s first language and the foreign language (hereinafter: FL), as well as having an in-depth knowledge of the content and curriculum, and at the same time being experts in teaching young learners and teaching languages in particular. The authors add that many teachers are unable to meet all of these expectations. Children are, however, quite motivated to learn other languages. Bru- men (2011) researched the perceptions of pre-school age children concerning foreign language learning motivation in Slovenia. She confirmed that chil- dren are intrinsically motivated in foreign language learning; they are satisfied with their accomplishments, they seek activities, and they are eager to acquire knowledge. An atmosphere of support is important to them, as is a stimulating environment and a feeling of security and comfort. When these elements are lacking, children typically want to learn less. This research only confirms the crucial role of preschool teachers in the learning process. Teacher training for preschool teachers teaching foreign languages Teacher training for preschool teachers who want to teach foreign lan- guages in kindergarten is not very common in Europe. There are some short in-service programmes in France (Ellis, 2016) and Cyprus (Ioannou-Georgiou, 2015) that attempt to develop both preschool teachers’ FL proficiency and FL teaching methodology, but teachers are largely left to work on these two skills autonomously, resulting in highly varied levels of expertise. Černà (2015, p. 174) describes the situation in the Czech Republic, stating that “qualification requirements remain unspecified for pre-primary teachers of English”, while Portiková (2015) depicts a similar situation in Slovakia, where pre-primary English teachers are not required to have any special qualification in FL profi- ciency and methodology. The situation is, however, slightly different in Poland, where preschool teachers can attend a course in foreign language methodology (Rokita-Jaśkov, 2013). In Slovenia, preschool teachers are required to have a BA degree and can teach children aged from one to five years (kindergarten) and in the first year of primary school (age six), but most preschool teachers are not trained to teach a foreign language. The level of their first FL, which is usually English, should be at B2 on passing the final secondary school leaving exam. Currently, there is an in-service teacher training programme for those who wish to gain a c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 89 formal certificate to teach English to children (preschool and up to 11 years of age). The programme is very extensive, entailing 660 contact hours (60 ECTS) and focusing on both the development of preschool teachers’ language skills and the methodology of teaching an FL to children. With a duration of two years, the programme is, however, very demanding, and therefore only a few preschool teachers have completed it. There is no formal FL training offered to pre-service preschool teachers in Slovenia. During their BA studies, students can only select an elective course of 4 ECTS (60 contact hours) for developing English language skills. Consequently, most preschool teachers are unable to teach English in kindergarten due to their lack of language skills and methodo- logical knowledge. Nevertheless, research shows that in 2009/2010 almost half of Slovenian kindergartens (47.5%) offered children some form of FL teaching, and we can assume that this number has grown in the last seven years. Teach- ers who teach an FL in kindergarten are still mostly FL specialist teachers who come once a week to give an FL lesson; they are typically not acquainted with the preschool curriculum and have not had much training in teaching children. Ideally, FLs would be taught by trained preschool teachers proficient in both the FL and in early language teaching methodology, and integrated into the kindergarten curriculum. Beliefs about language learning Beliefs about language learning belong in the domain of affective vari- ables, such as attitudes, motivation, anxiety, etc. Assessing beliefs that language learners bring to the language classroom is important for both language in- structors and curriculum designers because “beliefs are predispositions to ac- tion” (Rokeach, 1968, p. 113). Educational psychology supports the proposition of the importance of beliefs that learners hold as a defining factor of their learn- ing behaviour. Horwitz (1987, p. 120) defined beliefs about language learning as “opin- ions on a variety of issues and controversies related to language learning”. Wenden considered learner beliefs as metacognitive knowledge from a wider perspective, and defined them as “learners’ acquired knowledge about learning: the nature of learning, the learning process, and humans as learners, including themselves” (1999, p. 435). Gardner (2005) claims that motivation is a multifaceted concept, in- volving cognitive, affective and behavioural components. Gardner’s research (2005), in which the Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) was developed to measure the various components of the socio-educational model of second 90 pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning and ... language acquisition, indicated clearly that if an individual is highly motivated to learn another language, has an open and accepting approach to other cul- tural groups and/or a strong emotional interest in the target language group, and has a positive evaluation of the learning situation, then we might describe that person as being integratively motivated to learn the language. We would probably also find that the person is very successful in learning and using the language. In the past two decades, many researchers have explored language learn- ing beliefs in various studies, covering several groups of learners in different set- tings of learning: foreign language learners and English as a foreign or second language (EFL/ESL) learners (e.g., Bernat, 2004; Diab, 2006; Horwitz, 1987, 1988; Kern, 1995; Loewen et al., 2009; Peacock, 2001; Riley, 2009). The situation reflects the potential impact of beliefs on language learning, and consequently on the outcome of learning (Abraham & Vann, 1987; Mori, 1999; Tanaka & Ellis, 2003). Reseach problem It has been recognised that beliefs about language learning are context- specific, and that learners from different cultures may have different attitudes, approaches and opinions regarding learning a new language. Furthermore, as Fullan (2007) points out, whenever we plan an educational change (in our case, introducing an FL into the preschool period), all stakeholders need to be in- volved. With educational change, the roles and beliefs of teachers need to be researched thoroughly for successful implementation to take place. The main aim of this study was to investigate pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning and early foreign language teaching in Slovenia. Our objective was to determine whether these teachers have a positive attitude to- wards early FL learning, and towards languages and language learning in gen- eral. We wanted to know whether they would be willing to teach FLs and under what conditions. We also enquired about their awareness of early FL learn- ing strategies and the most appropriate methods for teaching FLs to preschool children. Furthermore, we asked the teachers about the importance of the FL proficiency level in teaching preschool children. Research questions The research questions of this study were as follows: 1. What are pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning? 2. Are the beliefs about foreign language learning different between first-, second- and third-year students? c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 91 3. What are pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about early foreign lan- guage learning and teaching? 4. Are the beliefs about the proficiency level required by preschools teach- ers who teach an FL in kindergarten different between first-, second- and third-year students? 5. What are preschool teachers’ opinions regarding the most important at- tributes in teaching FLs to children (e.g., proficient knowledge of the FL, teaching experience, FL methodology knowledge, teacher’s personality)? Sample A total of 90 students of the first-cycle university programme Preschool Education participated in the study. Since we wanted to investigate whether preschool teachers’ beliefs vary with the year of study, we included students from Year 1 (first year of studies) to Year 3 (final year of studies). The study included 43 students (47.8%) from the first year of study, 37 (41.1%) from the second year, and 10 (11.1%) from the third year. The students were all studying at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Their ages ranged from 19 (Year 1) to 21 (Year 3). Instrument The data were collected in June 2015 at the Faculty of Education, Univer- sity of Ljubljana. For the purpose of the study, a questionnaire was developed by the authors, based on a literature review of prevailing beliefs about early lan- guage learning and language teaching. Since the existing instruments mainly explore language teachers’ beliefs rather than those of pre-school teachers, the authors decided to use their own instrument, which is more focused on this specific group. The questions were related to some of the most relevant second language acquisition theories regarding young learners and methodologies on how to teach languages to young learners. Among them, we considered Vygot- sky’s theory on language development and sociocultural theory, which also de- scribes how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact the manner in which instruc- tion and learning take place (1986); Gardner’s theory on integrative motivation (1985); Krashen and Terrell’s natural approach, which focuses on developing communicative skills through extensive exposure to FL input and engaging activities in an anxiety-free environment (1983); the communicative approach with its focus on real interaction (Richards & Rodgers, 2001); language immer- sion theory in which the learners’ FL is the medium of classroom instruction and which fosters bilingualism (Baker, 1993); and task-based learning, where students complete meaningful tasks (Willis, 1996). 92 pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning and ... In addition to drawing on this literature, the authors interviewed pre- service preschool teachers about their beliefs regarding language learning and teaching, and these interviews were used as a further source of items used in the study. Eventually, drawing from these two sources, a 19-item questionnaire was developed, with 17 belief scale items and 2 questions with closed response alternatives. The questionnaire was designed according to two main concepts: pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about FL learning in general (6 statements) and pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about early foreign language learning and teaching (10 statements and 2 questions with closed response alternatives). The questionnaire items were found to be highly reliable (Cronbach’s α = .83). Data analysis After verifying that the data were free from errors, matrix analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics software. The data were controlled ac- cording to the assumptions of normal distribution, homogeneity of variance, and expected counts. In view of the research questions, mainly descriptive (ab- solute frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation) procedures and statis- tical tests (one-way analysis of variance, post-hoc comparison, and Pearson’s chi-square test with adjusted standardised residual) were applied. Partial eta- squared and Cramer’s V were calculated as a measure of effect size (Coolican, 2009). Results The results are presented in two sections. The first section shows the future preschool teachers’ beliefs about FL learning in general, while the second section shows their beliefs about learning and teaching and learning foreign languages at preschool level (ages 1–6). Pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about FL learning Future preschool teachers had to state their agreement or disagreement with statements related to language learning (1 - strongly disagree, 2 - disagree, 3 - can’t decide, 4 – agree, and 5 - strongly agree). c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 93 Table 1 Pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about FL learning Statements x SD 1. Language is the most powerful tool in the development of any human being. It is undeniably the greatest asset we possess (Vygotsky, 1986). 4.32 .67 2. The motivation to learn a foreign language is determined by basic predisposi- tions and personality characteristics, such as the learner’s attitudes towards foreign people in general and the target group in particular, as well as motives for learning and generalised attitudes (Gardner, 1985). 3.59 .96 3. The use of a foreign language can detract from cultural identity. 2.12 1.00 4. Slovenian students of preschool education are aware of the importance of their proficiency level in English. 3.83 .97 5. Slovenian students of preschool education should take English as an obliga- tory course, not just an elective one. 3.33 1.36 6. It is important to be bilingual, i.e., to understand and speak two languages, not necessarily with the same degree of fluency. 4.11 .92 Note. n = 90. Table 1 presents pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about FL learning. The highest level of agreement is demonstrated with regard to the first statement, with 43.3% of all respondents completely agreeing with Vygotsky’s statement on the importance of language (1986). One way analysis of variance showed that there is a statistically significant difference between groups of stu- dents in the beliefs with regard to the first statement (F = 3.481, p = 0.035). The effect size measured with partial eta-squared is medium (η2 = 0.074, p = 0.029). Hochberg post-hoc comparison test indicated a statistical significant difference between second- and third-year students, with third-year students (x = 4.80) agreeing with the statement more than second-year students (x = 4.19).  Most of the students agree with statement number six, that it is impor- tant to be bilingual, and a large number of them completely agree with this idea (40%), whereas none of them (0.0%) completely disagree. One way analysis of variance showed that there is a significant difference between groups of stu- dents (F = 7.940, p = 0.001). The effect size measured with partial eta–squared is medium (η2 = 0.107, p = 0.000). Games-Howell post-hoc comparison test showed that there is a significant statistical difference between first- and third- year students, and between second and third-year students, with third-year students agreeing with the statement more (x = 4.90) than first- (x = 3.91) and second-year (x = 4.14) students. Similarly, most of the students agree with the fourth statement that Slo- venian students of preschool education are aware of the importance of their proficiency level in English (x = 3.83). 94 pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning and ... Gardner’s statement about motivation also gained quite a high level of agreement (statement No. 2), with 20% of all respondents completely agreeing with the statement and none of the respondents completely disagreeing. Some 24.4% of all respondents completely agree with the statement that Slovenian students of preschool education should take English as an obligatory course, not just as an elective course (statement No. 5), whereas 15.6% of all respondents completely disagree with this statement. Further analysis showed that there is a statistically significant difference in the estimates between first- (x =2.77) and third-year students (x =4.00), indicating that third-year students agree with the statement more than first-year students. The effect size is large (η2 = 0.162, Games-Howell test P = 0.050). In general, students disagree with the third statement that the use of a foreign language can detract from cultural identity, with only 4.4% of all respond- ents completely agreeing, and 27.8% of all respondents completely disagreeing. Pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about early foreign language learning and teaching Table 2 Proficiency level required by a preschool teacher who teaches an FL in kindergarten Level F % B1 11 12.2 B2 45 50.0 C1 34 37.8 Total 90 100.0 Table 2 presents students’ beliefs about the proficiency level required by a preschool teacher who teaches an FL in kindergarten. Half of all respondents (50%) think that preschool teachers who teach an FL in kindergarten should have a proficiency level of B2, while 37.8% believe that a C1 level is required, and only a minority of respondents (12.2%) are of the opinion that B1 is an adequate level for FL teachers at preschool level. Surprisingly, further analysis showed that, compared to students of the second and the third years, first-year students think a higher level of FL proficiency is required (51.2% C1 and 39.5% B2). c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 95 Table 3 Preschool teachers’ opinions regarding the most important attributes in teaching FLs to children The most important attributes f % Proficient knowledge of the FL 12 13.3 Teaching experience 19 21.1 FL methodology knowledge 59 65.6 Personality (e.g., an understanding teacher) 0 0 Other 0 0 Total 90 100.0 Table 3 displays pre-service preschool teachers’ opinions regarding the most important attributes in teaching FLs to children. Some 65.6% of all respond- ents selected FL methodology knowledge as the most important attribute in teach- ing an FL to children, while 21.1% chose teaching experience as the most important characteristic and 13.3% regarded a proficient knowledge of the FL to be the most important aspect of teaching an FL to children. None of the respondents judge that personality is the most important quality in teaching an FL to children. In addition, pre-service preschool teachers were asked to state their level of agreement with certain statements regarding early foreign language learning (1 - strongly disagree, 2 - disagree, 3 - can’t decide, 4 – agree, and 5 - strongly agree). Table 4 Pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about early foreign language learning and teaching Statement x S 7. Appropriate strategies for supporting young children learning a foreign language are: reading and telling stories every day, introducing vocabulary, playing word games, connecting words to actions and objects, engaging in conversations, play- ing games, learning rhymes and songs, modelling and expanding conversations. 4.46 .67 8. While using an FL, children develop social skills such as cooperating, helping, negotiating and talking with other students to share messages. 4.00 .79 9. Children will become more tolerant towards other cultures and otherness if they get to know (an)other language(s). 3.64 .96 10. Children’s mother tongue will develop more slowly if they learn foreign lan- guages in preschool. 1.73 .87 11. Learning an FL should be one of the curriculum goals in the Slovenian National Curriculum for kindergartens. 2.91 .99 12. An FL should be integrated into the everyday activities of children at kindergar- ten and not taught as an extracurricular activity once a week. 2.91 .99 96 pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning and ... Statement x S 13. An FL in kindergarten should be taught by a preschool teacher proficient in the FL (at least B2 level). 4.12 .99 14. Children should start learning an FL in kindergarten through game-like activities. 4.90 .30 15. The preschool teacher’s attitude to learning an FL has an effect on children’s learning of the FL. 4.34 .80 16. I would be willing to teach an FL in kindergarten, provided I had the skills to do so. 4.43 .74 Table 4 shows pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about early foreign language learning and teaching. The statement that FL learning should be in the form of game-like activities (statement No. 14) gained the most unanimous agreement among the respondents (x = 4.90): 13.3% of all respondents complete- ly agree with this statement and 8.9% completely disagree. Similarly, 55.6% of all respondents completely agree with the statement that appropriate strategies for supporting young children learning a foreign language include stories, games and songs (statement No. 7), while none of the respondents (0.0%) completely disagree with this statement. Some 55.6% of all respondents completely agree (x = 4.43) with the statement that they would be willing to teach an FL in kinder- garten, provided they had skills to do so (statement No. 16). A high percentage of students also agree that the preschool teacher’s attitudes to learning an FL have an effect on children’s learning of an FL (statement No. 15), with 90.0% of the respondents completely agreeing with the statement, and that while using an FL children develop social skills as well (statement No. 8) (x = 4.00). Most of the pre-service preschool teachers are in favour of the idea of FLs being taught by preschool teachers and not external FL teachers (statement No. 13), with 42.2% of all respondents completely agreeing with the statement and 1.1% completely disagreeing. The participants could not decide whether children will be- come more tolerant towards other cultures and otherness if they get to know other language(s) (statement No. 9) (x = 3.64): 16.7% of the respondents completely agree with the statement and 2.2% completely disagree. Only 1.1% of all respondents com- pletely agree with statement No. 10 that the children’s mother tongue will develop more slowly if they learn foreign languages in preschool, whereas 46.7% completely disagree with this statement. One way analysis of variance showed that there is a significant difference between groups of students (F = 4.318, p = 0.016). The effect size measured with partial-eta squared is medium (η2 = 0.090, p = 0.030). Hoch- berg post-hoc comparison test showed that there is a statistically significant differ- ence in the estimates between first- and third-year students, with third-year stu- dents (x = 1.20) agreeing with the statement less than first-year students (x = 1.98). Pre-service preschool teachers are undecided regarding whether learning c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 97 an FL should be one of the curriculum goals in the National Curriculum for kindergartens (statement No. 11) (x = 2.91): 6.7% completely agree with the state- ment, while the same percentage (6.7%) completely disagree. Further analysis again showed a statistically significant difference between first- (x = 2.77) and third-year students (x = 3.60). The effect size is medium (η2 = 0.090, Hochberg test, P = 0.040). The surveyed participants are equally undecided (x = 2.91) with regard to statement No. 12 that FLs should be integrated into everyday kindergarten activi- ties rather than being taught as an extracurricular activity, with 5.6% of respond- ents completely agreeing with the statement and 7.8% completely disagreeing. Discussion Regarding the first research question (What are pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning?), the present study demon- strates that the surveyed Slovenian students believe in the benefits of know- ing more than one language. The students strongly believe that the preschool teacher’s attitude towards learning an FL has an effect on children’s learning of the FL, and, encouragingly, their beliefs about FL learning are positive. Hayes (2014) stated among his study recommendations that teachers should demon- strate positive attitudes towards English language learning, which in turn influ- ences children’s motivation to learn and their achievements. With reference to the second research question (Are the beliefs about foreign language learning different between first-, second- and third-year stu- dents?), the awareness of the benefits of knowing more than one language in- creases with the year of study. Similarly, third-year students are more in favour of English being an obligatory course during their studies and think that it is important to be bilingual. Apparently, third-year students are more aware of the fact that foreign languages are taught at kindergartens, and that FL teachers are needed at this level of education. With respect to the third research question, (What are pre-service pre- school teachers’ beliefs about early foreign language learning and teaching?), students think that FL teaching at preschool level should be done through game-like activities and with the use of songs, rhymes and stories. This is in line with the findings of other researchers working on early FL learning meth- odology (Enever, 2011; Mourão & Lourenço, 2015; Robinson, Mourão, & Nam Joon Kang, 2015). Learning through play is not merely a cognitive process, but also a cultural, emotional, social and physical process (Hyvönen, 2008). Never- theless, researchers still point to a lack of play and playful methods in schools 98 pre-service preschool teachers’ beliefs about foreign language learning and ... and early childhood education (e.g., Bergen, 2009; Pui-Wah, 2010), with some specifically pointing out the poor integration of play with the curriculum (Lord & McFarland, 2010). Pramling, Samuelsson and Carlsson (2008) are also con- cerned about insufficient integration of play into the curriculum, claiming that, in preschool, the act of learning (how children play) has so far been much more the focus than the object of learning (what children learn). Future Slovenian pre- school teachers also believe that children will gain social skills through FL learn- ing and will become more tolerant towards other cultures. It is unequivocally accepted among experts that children learning languages develop intercultural competence as well as linguistic competence; as Byram, Gribkova and Starkey (2002, p. 10) put it: Language learning prepares [children] for interaction with people of oth- er cultures, it enables them to understand and accept people from other cultures as individuals with other distinctive perspectives, values and be- haviours; and it helps them to see that such interaction is an enriching experience. The students surveyed mostly disagree with the notion of learning FLs being part of the National Curriculum for preschool institutions. Further analy- sis showed a statistically significant difference between first- and third-year stu- dents, with third-year students disagreeing less than first-year students. Among the curriculum goals there are also goals such as: to create opportunities for lifelong learning, to reinforce opportunities for learning, motivation and joy of learning, and to support children’s growth as human individuals and ethically responsible members of society who comply with generally accepted rules and who appreciate other people (National Curriculum for preschool institutions, 1999). Learning other languages and getting to know other cultures is the most appropriate way of achieving these goals. Not only can young children begin to acquire more than one language in their early years, but growing evidence also shows that early bilingualism can provide children with benefits that go be- yond knowing more than one language. As agreed by other preschool experts, an FL would ideally be integrated into the curriculum. Poland, for instance, will commence FL learning from the age of three in 2017; at the moment, 80% of kindergartens already offer some form of FL learning to children (Rokita- Jaśkov, 2015). Similarly, there is rapid growth of voluntary FL introduction at preschool level in countries across Europe, e.g., in Italy, the Netherlands and Spain (Early Language Learning Country Summaries, 2011). However, teachers would have to be trained for performing FL activities and would require a high FL proficiency level. It is possible that the surveyed students are aware of these c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 99 two conditions and cannot imagine this scale of FL implementation. As regards the fourth research question (Are the beliefs about the pro- ficiency level required by preschools teachers who teach an FL in kindergarten different between first-, second- and third-year students?), the study demon- strates that, contrary to the outcome of the second research question, first-year students think a higher level of FL proficiency is required. This shows that younger generations are more aware of the importance of a high level of lan- guage proficiency. Having a high FL proficiency level is a condition stated in other research, as well; for example, Enever (2011) stated in the Ellie Report that C1 is the desirable FL level for teaching young learners, while the Slovenian in-service programme for teaching an FL to young learners aims at teachers having C1 level upon the completion of the programme (Brumen, & Daga- rin Fojkar, 2012). Similarly, Hayes (2014) reports that teachers teaching young learners should have an English level of at least B2, and preferably C1. However, the reality is different from the recommendations. Butler (2004) has revealed that there is a substantial gap between the English proficiency level of primary school teachers in some Asian countries and the level they need to teach. Anal- ogously, Černà (2015) reports about the situation in the Czech Republic, where preschool teachers can teach English despite having reached only B1 or A2 level. With regard to the fifth research question (What are preschool teach- ers’ opinions regarding the most important attributes in teaching FLs to chil- dren (e.g., proficient knowledge of the FL, teaching experience, FL methodology knowledge, teacher’s personality), the study reveals that FL methodology was se- lected as the most important attribute in teaching an FL to children. Indeed, the knowledge of an appropriate methodology for working with children has been emphasised in other studies (e.g., Nikolov & Mihaljević Djigunović, 2011; Hayes, 2014). Furthermore, Kelly et al. (2004) claim that foreign language education in the 21st century should, among others, include training in language teaching methodologies and in state-of-the-art classroom techniques and activities, since “trainee teachers who learn about a number of methodological approaches to teaching and learning are able to adapt to particular contexts, and have a firm foundation for the critical and creative use of teaching theories” (p. 46). Conclusion A platform of international declarations and conventions supports the learning of at least two languages in education – the mother tongue and the language of the larger community – as well as access to international languages. In its 2003 position paper, Education in a Multilingual World, UNESCO (2003, 100 p. 27) espouses “mother tongue instruction as a means of improving educa- tional quality by building on the knowledge and experience of the learners and teachers; bilingual and/or multilingual education at all levels of education as a means of promoting both social and gender equality and as a key element of linguistically diverse societies; language as an essential component of inter- cultural education to encourage understanding between different population groups and ensure respect for fundamental rights”. Language learning brings many pluricultural benefits to children, who will grow up into multilingual and multicultural individuals. However, in order to be exposed to multiculturalism and multilingualism from an early age, children need to be taught by open- minded and well-educated (preschool) teachers. 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Her main research areas include developing pre-literacy skills in preschool children and Slovene as a second/foreign language in preschool institutions and primary schools. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 105 In Search of Teaching Quality of EFL Student Teachers through Teaching Practicum: Lessons from a Teacher Education Program Siti Nurul Azkiyah1 and Amirul Mukminin*2 • This study was intended to investigate the teaching quality of student teachers when they conducted their teaching practicum. Teaching quality is conceptualised based on eight classroom factors (orientation, structur- ing, modelling, application, questioning, building classroom as a learning environment, assessment, and time management) of the dynamic model, which have previously been found to affect student outcomes. The study used a mixed-methods design: a survey on students’ perceptions of the teaching quality of their teacher (student teachers) and classroom obser- vation. The study was conducted in Tangerang Selatan, Indonesia, involv- ing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) student teachers in the English Education Program, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Indo- nesia and 199 students of three different schools. The findings revealed that the student teachers did not yet practice the classroom factors of the dynamic model. Some recommendations include incorporating the class- room factors of the dynamic model in the curriculum or syllabus related to pedagogical skills to better prepare teachers in the future. It is also ben- eficial to study the possibility of sending student teachers to school earlier not only for the teaching practicum but also for other relevant purposes. Keywords: English teacher education program, Indonesia, student teachers, teaching practicum, teaching quality 1 Faculty of Education and Teacher Training, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Indonesia. 2 *Corresponding Author. Faculty of Education, Jambi University, Indonesia; amirmuk06@gmail.com. 106 in search of teaching quality of efl student teachers through teaching practicum V iskanju kakovosti poučevanja prihodnjih učiteljev angleščine kot tujega jezika med pedagoško prakso: program izobraževanja učiteljev Siti Nurul Azkiyah in Amirul Mukminin • Raziskava je nameravala preučiti kakovost poučevanja bodočih učiteljev, ko so izvajali pedagoško prakso. Kakovost poučevanja konceptualizira- no temelji na osmih razrednih dejavnikih (orientacija, strukturiranje, modeliranje, aplikacija, spraševanje, vzpostavitev razreda kot učenega okolja, ocenjevanje in upravljanje časa) dinamičnega modela, za katere je že bilo ugotovljeno, da vplivajo na učne dosežke učencev. Raziskava je uporabila pristop mešane metode: anketo o predstavah učencev o kako- vosti poučevanja njihovega učitelja (bodoči učitelj) in opazovanje v raz- redu. Raziskava je bila izvedena v mestu Tangerang Selatan, Indonezija, in je vključevala bodoče učitelje angleščine kot tujega jezika v programu angleškega izobraževanja na Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic Univer- sity, Indonezija, in sto devetindevetdeset učencev iz treh različnih šol. Rezultati so pokazali, da bodoči učitelji še niso uporabljali razrednih dejavnikov dinamičnega modela. Nekaj priporočil podaja vključevanje razrednih dejavnikov dinamičnega modela v kurikulum oziroma učni načrt izobraževanja učiteljev v prihodnje. Prav tako bi bilo koristno raziskati možnost, da bi bodoče učitelje bolj zgodaj pošiljali na šole, in to ne le za opravljanje pedagoške prakse, ampak tudi zaradi drugih pomembnih vidikov njihovega izobraževanja. Ključne besede: program izobraževanja učiteljev angleščine, Indonezija, bodoči učitelji, pedagoška praksa, kakovost poučevanja c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 107 Introduction A large number of studies have focused on the importance of the teach- ing profession and the quality of teaching. Those conducted by Creemers (1994), Darling-Hammond, (1997), Fullan (2001), Harris, (2002), Harris and Muijs (2005), and Van Der Werf, Creemers, De Jong, and Klaver (2000) for in- stance have shown that teachers are key players in any educational innovation. In other words, teachers facilitate the necessary knowledge, understanding, skills and value for the rewarding lives of their students (Bruinsma & Canrinus, 2012; Kyriacou, Hultgren, & Stephens, 1999; Lortie, 1975; Low, Lim, Ch’ng, & Goh, 2011; OECD, 2005; Richardson & Watt, 2006). Additionally, Richardson and Watt (2006) and the OECD (2005) address the fact that teachers play a key role in developing future generations who are expected to be self-directed learners, able and motivated to continue learning over their lifetimes. There- fore, it is crucial to pay attention to student teachers especially concerning their pedagogical or teaching competencies (to be referred to as ‘teaching quality’) because they are future teachers. In addition, compared to other factors, such as teachers’ beliefs, teachers’ teaching experience, and teachers’ knowledge, teaching quality has been found to explain differences in student achievement (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008; Muijs & Reynolds, 2010). Thus, investigating this competence is significant, also because it provides a fundamental basis for determining some recommendations especially for teacher training institutes to better prepare their graduates, particularly in the context of English as a For- eign Language (EFL) student teachers. Moreover, existing studies on student teachers focus more on professional identity (e.g. Cattley, 2007) and student teachers’ beliefs, attitudes and expecta- tion (e.g. Chan, 2004; Garmon, 2004; Shinde & Karekkati, 2012; Zheng, 2009). In line with classroom activities, previous studies on student teachers have em- phasised the strategies of assessment such as the promotion of reflective teach- ing (e.g. Astika, 2014; Lee, 2007). Thus, information on the teaching quality of student teachers remains unclear. However, based on systematically search in- ternet resources, abstracts and databases including ERIC, academic Search Elite, Libris, Google Scholar, and journal sources such as Emerald, Sage, Science Di- rect, and Open DOAR, to date, in Indonesian contexts, not much research effort has been devoted to examine the teaching quality of student teachers, especially when they take teaching practicum except for Sulistiyo, Mukminin, Abdurrah- man, and Haryanto (2017) who found that teaching practicums ‘provided suitable but limited experience for student teachers to translate their knowledge learnt at university into the real practice of teaching at school levels’ (p. 712). 108 in search of teaching quality of efl student teachers through teaching practicum Additionally, Zeichner (2010) pointed out that the teaching practicum is one of the most critical components of teacher education that affects the quality of teachers. The teaching practicum is important for bridging the gap between what student teachers have learnt in the program and the reality of teaching practice in schools (Darling-Hammond, 2006). The purpose of this study was to investigate the teaching quality of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) stu- dent teachers when they conducted their teaching practicum. The Context of the Study Indonesia, as the context of the study, adopts a 6-3-3-4 school-based ed- ucation system consisting of six years of primary, three years of junior high, and three years of senior high school, and four years of tertiary education (under- graduate degree). As stated in MoNE (2013), the Indonesian government has declared a system of a nine-year basic education since 1994, which stipulates that all children aged between 7 and 15 years should obtain a basic education containing primary and junior secondary school education. Senior secondary schooling and tertiary education have two paths: general and technical/voca- tional school education, while higher education is an extension of secondary education consisting of academic and professional education. To be a teacher, senior high school students, after finishing their studies, should enrol in faculties of education or teacher training institutes, both state and private. All successful candidates will be trained for four years for under- graduate programs (Jalal, Samani, Chang, Stevenson, Bagatz, & Negara, 2009; Mukminin, Kami, Muazza, & Haryanto, 2017; Mukminin, Rohayati, Putra, Ha- bibi, & Aina, 2017). The candidates, who are often referred to a ‘student teach- ers’, have to take various courses, some of which are related to pedagogical com- petence. In semester eight, after taking and passing prerequisite courses such as curriculum development and analysis, lesson plan, testing and evaluation, and micro-teaching, student teachers are required to have teaching practicums in schools for one semester. They can select a junior high school (12/13–14/15 years old) or a senior high school (15/16–17/18 years old); the department will approve their selection. In each school, they can be grouped into three up to five student teachers. The teaching practicum is intended to build student teachers’ pedagogi- cal competence by providing opportunities for them to apply knowledge, skills, and values they have learned in the classroom. In the first two to three weeks, they are normally asked to observe teaching and learning processes to under- stand both the students and situation of the class that they are responsible for c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 109 teaching. Afterwards, they have their own instruction in the classroom for one semester. During the teaching practicum, one lecturer from the teacher train- ing institute and one teacher from the school are assigned to supervise each stu- dent teacher. The teacher is assigned to supervise the student teachers on a daily basis while the lecturer is assigned to provide further assistance, the schedule of which is based on the appointment. The lecturers are obliged to observe their student teachers teaching in schools three to six times. Furthermore, both the teacher and the lecturer must assess and grade the student teachers at the end of the program. Nevertheless, the results of the assessment have been thus far used more to serve administrative purposes, namely to fill in the scoring form, which students need before they graduate. To date, it is difficult to find research that examines the teaching quality of student teachers, especially in their teaching practicum. It is in this context that this study was conducted, i.e. to understand the teaching quality of student teach- ers, the findings of which are expected to offer recommendations on how to improve the teaching quality of student teachers. Literature review on teaching quality Although it is not a simple concept, it is essential to start the discussion by defining teaching quality, which in some literature is also considered to be effective teaching. There are many variables and experts involved in defining teaching quality (Needels & Gage, 1991). Concerning the concept, according to Hanushek (2002), teaching quality is represented by good teachers, ‘who get large gains in student achievement for their classes; bad teachers are just the opposite’ (p. 3). Similarly, using the term ‘effective teaching’, Anderson (1991) stated that ‘[…] an effective teacher is one who quite consistently achieves goals which either directly or indirectly focuses on the learning of their students’ (p. 18). In addition, Ko, Sammons, and Bakkum (2013) consider that effective teaching focuses on teacher behaviours and classroom processes that promote better student outcomes. Furthermore, with respect to the variables studied, they also vary, start- ing from teachers’ beliefs, teachers’ knowledge, and teachers’ actions in the classroom, or teachers’ instructional roles (Harris, 1998; Muijs, 2006). Another factor is the methods used to measure or examine teaching quality such as stu- dents’ and teachers’ perception on factors influencing teaching quality (Money, 1992), classroom observation (Hills, 1991), and a process-product paradigm that refers to teachers’ instructional roles and their relationship with student achievement (e.g., Antoniou, 2009; Borich, 1992; Brophy, 1981). 110 in search of teaching quality of efl student teachers through teaching practicum In this study, the process-product paradigm was used as a conceptual framework in defining teaching quality. This is because the indicators of teach- ing quality resulted from this method have been empirically proved to have a positive relationship with student achievement. This empirical information could serve as a fundamental consideration in deciding what teachers should do to improve their teaching quality, which in the end is expected to have posi- tive effects on student achievement. Following the process-product paradigm, this paper defines teach- ing quality as teachers’ instructional activities which lead to effective learn- ing, which in turn means the thorough and lasting acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values that have been set up. In other words, teaching quality refers to teachers’ instructional activities that are positively related to student out- comes. In this case, it is necessary to highlight that ‘student outcomes’ refer to both cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes. This could be the reason why teaching quality is often referred to as effective teaching, which is concerned with teachers’ behaviours that lead to better student outcomes. Therefore, the term of teaching quality and effective teaching in this paper was interchange- ably used to avoid repetition. In this context, numerous studies, especially teacher effectiveness re- search, have identified various teachers’ behaviours that have been empirically proven to positively affect student outcomes. In their review of studies con- ducted during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, Muijs and Reynolds (2011), for in- stance, found almost 60 different teacher behaviours that are associated with student outcomes. They include the emphasis on setting high expectations and reaching academic goals (Cotton, 1995). Setting high expectations for students is expected to make teachers focus on academic activities to facilitate students in achieving the goals. In addition, Ko, Sammons and Bakkum (2013) conducted a comprehen- sive review of effective or good teaching and found that effective teachers were clear about instructional goals, knowledgeable about curriculum content and the strategies to teach the content, communicate to their students what is ex- pected of them. Furthermore, Ko, Sammons and Bakkum (2013) acknowledged that effective teachers were knowledgeable about their students and were able to adapt instructions according to students’ needs. The conclusion of this re- view is that in order to achieve teaching quality, good subject knowledge is re- quired and skilful use of well-chosen questions to engage and challenge learn- ers is an important feature, as is the effective use of assessment for learning. In line with this conclusion, effective teachers are found to provide sufficient prac- tices and appropriate feedback (Bohn, Roehrig, & Pressley, 2004). According to c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 111 Creemers and Kyriakides (2008), this practice aims at providing students the opportunity to immediately exercise the lesson material. Concerning feedback, it was found that effective teachers encourage especially low-Socio Economic Status (SES) and low-achieving students more frequently in terms of student effort (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2006). Effective teachers also organise their materials in a step-wise man- ner, starting with the easy aspects and/or review of previous lessons (Brophy & Good, 1986; Muijs & Reynolds, 2011; Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000). In ad- dition, effective teachers guide classroom discussions through questioning (Muijs & Reynolds, 2000). In reading, for instance, Kane, Taylor, Tyler, and Wooten (2011) found that questioning had generated higher achievement rates. The questions should vary in terms of the types (process vs product), in which product questions require specific answers whereas process questions require the use of analysis (Muijs & Reynolds, 2011). Next, the questions should also vary in terms of difficulty level: 75% of the questions are expected to be an- swered correctly by the students (Anderson, Evertson, & Brophy, 1982 as cited in Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008). Therefore, teachers should include 25% of high-level questions in each exercise. In addition, classroom management and teachers’ effort in engaging students in the process of teaching and learning have also been found to positively affect student achievement (Muijs & Reyn- olds, 2000, 2011). Furthermore, to contribute to the development of the concept of teaching quality, Creemers and Kyriakides (2008) have developed a dynamic model, which was actually conceptualised for a broader context, namely edu- cational effectiveness. The model has four levels: policy, school, classroom, and student levels. In this model, all levels are argued to have effects on student achievement. However, the emphasis is on the classroom level, and the higher levels are expected to provide necessary conditions for the effectiveness of the classroom level. In this paper, the classroom level is used as the reference in defining teaching quality. There are eight classroom factors defined in the model to determine teaching quality: 1) orientation, 2) structuring, 3) modelling, 4) application, 5) questioning, 6) assessment, 7) time management, and 8) creating the classroom as a learning environment (CLE) (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008). Orienta- tion is about the provision of objectives, which is expected to help students understand the importance of their learning activities. Structuring concerns teachers’ explanations of the series of activities of the lesson. Next, teachers are expected to help students use strategies and/or develop their own strategies through modelling. This activity should be completed with application, which is the provision of immediate exercising of the topics taught during the lesson. 112 in search of teaching quality of efl student teachers through teaching practicum With respect to questioning, research has determined that effective teachers raise numerous questions and engage students in class discussion (Muijs & Reynolds, 2000). Question difficulties vary with context and teachers should promote questions that encourage students’ critical thinking. Furthermore, teachers should identify their students’ learning needs through assessment, which should also enable them to improve their teaching. The seventh is time management, which is essential for maximising students’ engagement and ensuring that they are on tasks throughout the lesson. Finally, CLE includes 1) teacher-student interaction, 2) student-student interaction, 3) students’ treatment by teachers, 4) competition among students, and 5) class- room disorder (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008). For several reasons, these factors are used to conceptualise teaching quality in this paper. Firstly, the above factors involve several teaching ap- proaches, such as constructive and direct or mastery learning. Orientation, for instance, is the main element of the constructive approach, intended to raise students’ motivation in developing their meta-cognitive skills. In addi- tion, collaboration, which is another element of the constructive approach, is also emphasised through teachers’ roles in creating the classroom as a learning environment. Furthermore, structuring and questioning are essential aspects of direct instruction. In the Indonesian context, the above factors are in line with the scientific approach introduced in the 2013 curriculum. The provision of modelling, for instance, is very similar to the process of observation in the scientific approach, in which students see the model before they do some exer- cises during the application period. Secondly, in the last decade, several studies were conducted to examine the validity of the dynamic model especially in Cyprus. In 2004, a longitudinal study was conducted to support the validity of the model at both the school and teacher/classroom levels (Antoniou, Demetriou, & Kyriakides, 2006). Finally, an experimental study was conducted using the classroom factors of the model showing improvement of teaching quality and student achievement (Antoniou, 2009). In other words, the study of Antoniou (2009) showed that when teachers applied the classroom factors of the dynamic mod- el, their students’ achievement improved. Thus, this concept has been validat- ed and proved to be effective in improving both teaching quality and student achievement. Therefore, in this paper, the eight classroom factors of the dy- namic model were used as indicators to indicate the teaching quality of student teachers. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 113 Method As previously indicated, this study was intended to aid in understand- ing the teaching quality of student teachers. For this purpose, the study used a mixed-methods design, in which both classroom observation and a students’ questionnaire were used to gather the data. Seven student teachers of the Eng- lish Education Program of Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Indo- nesia and 199 students of three different schools participated in the study. They were three junior secondary schools (students aged between 12 and 15 years) in the district of South Tangerang, Indonesia. The student teachers were conduct- ing their teaching practicum when this study was carried out. Each student teacher was rated by different numbers of students, which ranged from 25 to 30. Both the classroom observation instrument and student questionnaire were developed based on the classroom factors of the dynamic model (Creem- ers & Kyriakides, 2008). There were two types of observation instruments used in the study. The first one was a high inference observation instrument, which consisted of 52 items and were provided on 1 to 5 (minimum to maximum) points of a Likert scale to indicate the frequency of each activity in the ob- servation instrument. The second was a low inference observation instrument, which was used to note activities taking place during the teaching and learn- ing process with respect to the classroom factors of the dynamic model. The data gathered in this low inference observation instrument were used to answer the items in the high inference observation instrument and provide descrip- tive information on what happens during the teaching and learning process. Furthermore, similar to the high inference observation instrument, the student questionnaire was also provided in the form of a Likert scale and consisted of 34 items. Both instruments, especially the high inference observation instru- ment and student questionnaire, were previously piloted and validated for the Indonesian context (Azkiyah, 2013). The pilot study resulted in good reliability (α > .90) for both instruments. Factor analysis was performed in the pilot study especially for the student questionnaire but not for the observation instrument due to the limited number of participants (N < 15 teachers). The results of the factor analysis of the student questionnaire revealed four instead of eight fac- tors. Three out of these four factors represent the factors of the dynamic model: namely, orientation, questioning, and creating classroom as a learning envi- ronment (CLE). The items in the fourth factor were the combination of sev- eral factors, i.e. modelling, application, and structuring and thus referred to instruction. Therefore, following the study of Azkiyah (2013), this study used 114 in search of teaching quality of efl student teachers through teaching practicum the four factors (scales) of the student questionnaire: orientation, instruction, questioning, and CLE. Concerning the classroom observation, only one observer rated the stu- dent teachers; she was well-trained in using the instrument. She participated in the study of Azkiyah (2013), in which five observers were present and the inter-rater reliability was good (generalised kappa = .72). During the practi- cum, she observed the student teachers three times, and the findings presented in this paper were the final observation, because the first two observations were intended to provide feedback. Furthermore, to improve the analysis, referring to the four scales of the student questionnaire, in this paper the items in observation instruments were also grouped into four scales. The items in three scales (orientation, question- ing, and CLE) remained the same as they are in the original instrument while the remaining items were included in the instructions. Finally, all data from both the student questionnaire and the high inference observation instrument were input into SPSS, and descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data. The data from the low inference observation instrument were descriptively analysed to provide further details of the observation. Findings and Discussion The findings in this study are presented in three parts. The first describes the picture of teaching quality of student teachers in general (the mean score of all items in both instruments). The second demonstrates the quality of the four factors as explained in the research methods. The last part explains the teaching and learning process based on the observation data. The general picture of teaching quality In terms of the general picture of teaching quality, which was the mean score of all items in both instruments, Table 1 shows that there was a different perception between the observer and the students. Although the number of items in the student questionnaire and the high observation instrument was different, both instruments measured teaching quality and, therefore, the re- sults could be compared. This comparison was intended to provide a general overview of teaching quality. It is clear from Table 1 that the students rated that student teacher higher than the observer did. Out of five scales, the mean score of teaching quality re- sulted from the student questionnaire was 3.24 whereas that from the observer c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 115 was 1.94. There was an indication that the observer considered the teaching quality of student teachers to be low. Differently, the students perceived that the teaching quality of their teachers (the student teachers) to be good enough. Table 1 The mean score of teaching quality of student teachers according to the students and the observer Sources of Data Mean Score The Standard Deviation Student 3.24 .53 Observer 1.94 .40 This finding could be influenced by the Indonesian tradition in which teaching is considered to be a good profession that should be highly valued and respected. This is in line with the statement of Maulana, Opdenakker, Den Brok, & Bosker (2011) that many teachers in Indonesia received respect from both students and parents. This finding is not surprising since a similar previ- ous study conducted by Azkiyah (2013) indicated the same findings. Measuring 59 teachers participating in an experimental study, Azkiyah (2013) found that the mean score and the standard deviation of teaching quality in the first obser- vation out of three were 1.87 and .31, respectively. The last two measurements were not compared since they were taken after the experiment was started. With respect to students, Azkiyah (2013) revealed that they rated their teacher as high as 3.30 with a standard deviation of .47. Therefore, it is likely that the students might be hesitant to give lower scores to their teachers. In contrast, the observer could be considered to be more independent because she did not have such a power relation as the stu- dents and the student teachers did. In addition, it could be argued that the ob- server had better relevant knowledge than the students did in examining the quality of teaching. The factors in teaching quality As indicated in the method section, referring to the factor analysis of the student questionnaire and to ease the analysis, four factors were presented in this section: orientation, instruction (the combination of structuring, model- ling, and application), questioning, and creating the classroom as a learning environment (CLE). The mean score of each factor resulting from both the stu- dent questionnaire and the observer is described in Table 2. 116 in search of teaching quality of efl student teachers through teaching practicum Table 2 The mean score of each factor of teaching quality Factor Mean Score and Standard Deviation (SD) Student Questionnaire Observer Mean SD Mean SD Orientation 3.5 .65 1.8 .55 Instruction 3.1 .61 1.8 .48 Questioning 3.3 .53 2.3 .21 Creating Classroom as a Learning Environment (CLE) 3.2 .55 1.9 .33 As mentioned previously, students rated the teaching quality of student teachers higher than the observer did. Consequently, they also rated the four factors higher, as shown in Table 2. For each factor, the students gave ratings higher than 3 whereas the observer rated the factors below 2, except questioning. Table 2 provides other interesting information. First, concerning the findings from the student questionnaire, the difference of the score among the four factors was relatively small. Second, although the students and the ob- server gave different ratings, they had significant similarities. For instance, they scored the factor instruction the lowest in comparison to other factors. This finding indicates that both the students and the observer thought that teachers were likely to have difficulties in delivering structuring, giving modelling, and providing application. Consequently, this finding implied that students’ learn- ing opportunity, which is a crucial part of the teaching and learning process, did not proceed optimally. Furthermore, another factor that both the students and the observer scored quite similarly was questioning. In this factor, the observer regarded questioning to have the highest score in comparison to other factors, and the students rated the same factor to be the second highest. Nevertheless, both the students and the observer also had different perceptions concerning the direc- tion of the score for each factor. Table 2 shows that they had very different perceptions on viewing orientation. The students rated this factor the highest compared to other factors whereas the observer scored this factor as the lowest. There could be different reasons for this difference, one of which is students’ reluctance to give a bad mark to their student teachers. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 117 The teaching and learning process The question then was how did the student teachers teach in the class- room? To answer this question, the data of low observation instruments were presented descriptively, starting from orientation, instruction, questioning, and CLE. Although the dynamic model does not prescribe that orientation should be presented at the beginning of the lesson, it is considered good to start the lesson by providing orientation activities, which are intended to facilitate stu- dents’ awareness of the importance of the lesson and motivate them to learn by connecting the lesson to students’ daily and/or previous lesson. Therefore, orientation begins the explanation in this section. To begin the lesson, it is common in Indonesian culture for teachers to greet and call for students’ attentions. In the observation, this was exactly what happened in the seven observed classrooms. This means that student teachers started their lesson with routine activities as have been practiced by real teach- ers. Unfortunately, the following activities did not show student teachers’ efforts in connecting the lesson to students’ daily life or previous lesson. However, it is necessary to explain that two student teachers reviewed what students learned in the previous lesson. When they explicitly explained the connection between the day’s lesson and previous lessons the results were very good. Consequently, it is possible that students did not really understand the importance of the les- son for their lives. It is also possible that the students learned the lesson only because it happened to be discussed. Concerning instruction, there were several issues. The first concerns structuring activities intended to make the goals and the activities to make the goals clear for the students. The observed structuring activities were limited to asking the students to open their books and providing a brief explanation about the topic of the lesson. More meaningful information such as the explanation of the goals of the lesson or the competencies that the students had to master was not observed. Second, the student teachers did not provide relevant examples and sufficient modelling to students. For example, in teaching reading compre- hension, the old strategy by asking students to read and translate the text and then answer questions provided in the text was dominant. When teaching read- ing comprehension, several strategies, such as semantic mapping (Pittelman, Heimlich, Berglund, & French, 1991), text structure, timeline/sequence (Grabe, 2009), could be introduced to facilitate better comprehension. Nevertheless, the student teachers started to introduce group work al- though they had to learn how to maximise students’ work in the group. It was apparent that only several students seriously worked in their groups whereas 118 in search of teaching quality of efl student teachers through teaching practicum the student teachers did not really give appropriate reactions to this. In ad- dition, some of the student teachers gave too much time for the students to work in the group and some divided the groups without considering students’ background characteristics. It was also observed that one student teacher gave only one sheet of work in each group, which consequently required only a few students in the group to work. Furthermore, concerning questioning, the student teachers raised ques- tions to lead the discussion during the lesson. This activity was even observed in the very beginning of the lesson. The student teachers, for instance, raised some questions to discuss students’ homework and or to review previous ma- terials. However, the questions did not promote students’ critical thinking. The questions raised, for instance, were related to who, what, when, and where, the answers to which could be easily found in the text. Questions concerning why and how, which are expected to encourage students’ critical thinking, were not really introduced. In addition, the response of the student teachers towards the students’ answers should be improved. Several student teachers forgot to praise students who could answer the questions correctly, while others tended to move to other students when one could not answer the questions correctly. Effective teachers are expected to provide hint or clue so that the students could find the correct answers. Finally, in terms of Creating Classroom as a Learning Environment (CLE), it was recognised that the classroom situation was noisy, and not all students were on task during the lesson. Knowing that their student teachers were not their real teachers, it was possible that the students did not seriously pay attention to their teachers. Moreover, a few student teachers had very soft voices, which likely made students in the back row unable to clearly listen to their teachers’ explanations. The good aspect, however, was that almost all stu- dent teachers introduced competition among the students, which to some ex- tent motivated students to learn. Conclusion and Policy Implications The purpose of this study was to investigate the teaching quality of student teachers. Classroom observation was conducted, and a questionnaire on students’ perceptions of their teachers’ teaching quality was distributed to collect data on teaching quality. However, our small sample size may not be representative of Indonesian student teachers across the country, and the gen- eralisability of our findings to other Indonesian student teachers should be un- dertaken with caution. To conclude the findings of the study, however, it should c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 119 be previously noted that only the data of the observer were considered. This was because the observer was regarded to be more knowledgeable and, therefore, professional in judging the teaching quality of student teachers. Based on the observer data, the teaching quality of student teachers was low (1.94 out of 5). This conclusion is not very surprising because it is similar to the situation of the real teachers, not only in the distant past but also in recent years (e.g. DeRee, Al-Samarrai, & Iskandar, 2012; Kaluge, Setiasih, & Tjahjono, 2004; Utomo, 2005). Old studies conducted by both Kaluge, Setiasih, and Tjah- jono (2004) and Utomo (2005) showed that teachers were not able to create active, joyful learning and used whole-class styles of teaching. Recently, the findings of a large-scale study of the World Bank (DeRee et al., 2012) shows that certification has made the teaching profession more attractive but has not yet improved the teaching quality and the student outcomes (DeRee, Al-Samarrai & Iskandar, 2012). Another interesting study, particularly related to EFL stu- dent teachers’ ability to write a final paper, done by Mukminin, Ali, and Ashari (2015), found that although English education student teachers had taken four courses in writing and had done teaching practicum, their ability to write and to teach writing was still low due to the lack of various supports. Regarding the low teaching quality, specifically to the student teachers in this study, there are some possible explanations, which could be considered as institutional and individual. Institutionally, it is possible that the teacher train- ing institute may not yet provide student teachers with enough training espe- cially concerning pedagogical competences. Therefore, examining curricula or syllabi related to pedagogical skills should be conducted to ensure that student teachers have sufficient training before they undergo teaching practicums at selected schools. It is also beneficial to study the possibility of sending student teachers to school earlier not only for the teaching practicum but also for other courses related to their teaching profession so that they will know the real situ- ations at school, such as student-teacher relations, curriculum, classroom man- agement, and teaching materials. Individually, it is possible that the student teachers were nervous when the observer was in their classroom. In her study, Astika (2014) recognised that nervousness was a common problem for the student teachers due to their first experience in teaching. In addition, she found that student teachers tended to have infrequent interactions with both the supervising lecturer and/or teacher mentor due to personal issues such as their feelings when teaching or when being assessed by lecturers and teachers. Therefore, a mechanism to create an opportunity for the student teachers, the lecturer, and the teacher mentor is essential. 120 in search of teaching quality of efl student teachers through teaching practicum In Indonesia, student teachers have just one teaching practicum (about four months) at selected schools, and they have more theories through the courses offered by the programs. This kind of practicum might be insufficient to prepare them to be real teachers after graduation. Educational policymakers at the research site, starting with the head of the program, the head of the depart- ment, and the dean should work together to evaluate and redesign the teacher education curriculum particularly how many theoretical courses should be taken and how long teaching practices should be done by student teachers in order to provide them strong foundations to be better future teachers. The findings of this study should be considered in view of some limita- tions. Despite the fact this study will potentially contribute the sort of evidence necessary for examining the teaching quality of student teachers; there may be differences of student teachers’ teaching quality from one programme to an- other or from one university to another. Future studies should include larger samples and various teacher education programs and compare between the real (permanent) teachers and student teachers in the same classrooms with the same students, and they should be rated with the same two instruments (obser- vation and questionnaire). Acknowledgements We would like to thank the CEPS Journal editors and anonymous re- viewers for their help in improving our manuscript. We would also like to say many thanks for all participants who were willing to be part of this study. References Anderson, L. M., Evertson, C. M., & Brophy, J. E. (1982). An experimental study of effective teaching in first grade reading groups. Phi Delta Kappa, 63(8), 527–530. Anderson, L. W. (1991). Increasing teacher effectiveness. Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning. Antoniou, P. (2009). 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Comparative Education Review, 44(3), 329–356. 124 in search of teaching quality of efl student teachers through teaching practicum Biographical note Siti Nurul Azkiyah is a faculty member at Faculty of Education and Teacher Training, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Indonesia. She earned her bachelor degree in English Education from State University of Ma- lang, Indonesia. She also earned her master degree from the University of York, UK and completed her doctoral degree at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. She is currently the head of the Language Centre at Syarif Hiday- atullah State Islamic University, Indonesia. Scientific Interests: student teachers, teacher education, and English language teaching. Amirul Mukminin, PhD, is a faculty member at Faculty of Educa- tion, Jambi University, Indonesia. He holds a PhD from Florida State Univer- sity, USA in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies and MS in educational sciences from Groningen University, the Netherlands. He received a Fulbright scholarship to pursue his PhD and an Erasmus Mundus postdoctoral research- er, University of Groningen, the Netherlands. He received a 2016-2017 Fulbright Senior Research at Claremont Graduate University, California, the USA. Sci- entific Interests: research and teaching focus on Pre-K to higher education in Indonesia and other countries, student teachers, teacher policy reforms, Islamic schools and pesantren, the standardized exam policy reforms, and English/In- donesian language policy reforms. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 125 Primary School Student Teachers’ Perceived and Actual Knowledge in Biology Yli-Panula Eija*1, Jeronen Eila2 and Nonmanut Pongsakdi3 • Individuals’ perceptions of their knowledge can have an important role in shaping their cognition and influencing their behaviour. However, there has been a scarcity of studies in biology on how perceived knowledge re- lates to actual knowledge. The focus of this article is on quantitative results analysing and interpreting student teachers’ perceived knowledge of bio- logical content in relation to their actual animal and species name knowl- edge linked to the ecosystem in which they live. K-means cluster analysis and ANOVA were used. The results show a high- and low-level perceived knowledge cluster group among the participants. They further indicate that the difference in actual animal and species name knowledge between these cluster groups remained the same during the five years of the study. The student teachers with a higher level of perceived knowledge tended to have better actual animal and species name knowledge than those in the low-level group. The actual animal name knowledge in these cluster groups was similar with regard to the local Finnish ecosystems but dif- fered concerning the exotic species by year. The year that the participants enrolled in the study programme had an impact on their actual animal and species name knowledge. Strategies for coping with work-related de- mands and maintaining engagement in one’s career would be important additions to the teacher education curriculum. Keywords: actual knowledge, biology education, perceived knowledge, student teachers 1 *Corresponding Author. University of Turku, Finland; eijyli@utu.fi. 2 University of Oulu, Finland. 3 University of Turku, Finland. 126 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology Predstava bodočih učiteljev razrednega pouka o njihovem znanju biologije in njihovo dejansko znanje biologije Yli-Panula Eija, Jeronen Eila in Nonmanut Pongsakdi • Predstava posameznika o svojem znanju ima lahko pomembno vlogo pri oblikovanju novega znanja in vpliva na vedenje, vendar na področju biologije ni veliko študij, ki bi preučevale povezanost predstave o znanju z dejanskim znanjem. Prispevek se osredinja na kvantitativne rezultate, tako da analizira in interpretira predstave o znanju študentov razred- nega pouka na področju biologije v povezavi z njihovim dejanskim znanjem o imenih živalskih vrst v povezavi z ekosistemom, v katerem živijo. Pri analizi sta bili uporabljeni klastrska analiza (K-povprečja) in ANOVA. Na osnovi rezultatov analize so bili sodelujoči razdeljeni v dve skupini – skupino z višjo ravnjo predstave o znanju in skupino z nižjo ravnjo predstave o znanju. Rezultati kažejo, da so razlike v dejanskem znanju o imenih živalskih vrst med tema skupinama ostale na isti ravni vseh pet let študija. Bodoči učitelji z višjo ravnjo predstave o znanju so nagnjeni k temu, da imajo boljše dejansko znanje o imenih živali kot tisti, ki so bili razvrščeni v skupino z nižjo ravnjo predstave o znanju. Dejansko znanje o imenih živali v teh skupinah je bilo podobno, ko je bil govor o lokalnem finskem ekosistemu. Razlike pa so se z leti pokazale pri bolj eksotičnih živalskih vrstah. Leto, ko so se udeleženci vpisali v študijski program, je imelo vpliv na njihovo dejansko znanje o imenih živalskih vrst. Strategije spopadanja z zahtevami, povezanimi z delom, in ohranjanjem angažiranosti v individualni karieri bi lahko predstavl- jale pomembna dopolnila kurikuluma izobraževanja učiteljev. Ključne besede: dejansko znanje, biološko izobraževanje, predstava o znanju, bodoči učitelji c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 127 Introduction Species and ecosystems should be sustained not only for their utilitarian service to humans, but also because of humanity’s moral obligations (Taylor, 2011). When building sustainability, the professional competence of teachers is a key factor. According to Kunter, Klusmann, Baumert, Richter, Voss and Hachfeld (2013), teachers’ professional competence includes, among other things, cognitive aspects (e.g., professional knowledge) and beliefs related to learning. Subject content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) form an important part of teachers’ professional knowledge (Appleton, 2010; Shulman, 1986, 1987). PCK represents the blending of content and peda- gogy into an understanding of how particular aspects of the subject matter are organised, adapted and represented for instruction. The success of teaching, studying and learning processes depends, on the one hand, on CK and PCK (Appleton, 2010; Shulman, 1986, 1987) and, on the other hand, on actual and perceived knowledge (Ziegler & Montplaisir, 2014). Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of their own knowledge have an im- portant role in shaping their cognitions. The greater one’s feeling of knowing an issue, the more time one wants to spend working on that issue (Johnson, 1994). Perceived knowledge also has implications for behaviour. Attitudes are more pre- dictive for behaviour when they are associated with high rather than low levels of perceived knowledge of a topic (Davidson, Yantis, Norwood, & Monano, 1985). According Abell and Smith (1994), a significant number of primary school teachers lack sufficient CK and PCK to teach essential scientific ideas in their classrooms. In biology, teachers’ subject content knowledge (BCK) includes, for instance, species identification and ecology knowledge. Student teachers’ (STs) knowledge of species has decreased during the last twenty years (Braun, Buyer, & Randler, 2010; Lindemann-Matthies & Bose, 2008; Randler, 2008). Furthermore, STs’ ability to name animals in different ecosystems is lim- ited, with mammals and birds being best known (Yli-Panula & Matikainen, 2014). The knowledge of species in relation to ecosystems is important in un- derstanding the biodiversity and sustainable development of ecosystems. In Finnish primary schools, species identification and animal knowl- edge in relation to biodiversity and sustainable development are part of biology (The Finnish National Board of Education, 2004, 2014). At the heart of PCK is the manner in which subject matter is transformed for teaching. This occurs when the teacher interprets the subject matter and finds different ways to rep- resent it and make it accessible to learners. In Finnish teacher education, PCK studies therefore include discussions about and practice of teaching methods 128 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology through which student teachers can acquire and create ideas on how to teach species identification and animal knowledge in relation to biodiversity and sus- tainable development (Faculty of Education, the University of Turku, 2014). The issues outlined above demonstrate why species knowledge is an im- portant topic in primary education, as well. To our knowledge, no studies of animal species knowledge other than Yli-Panula and Matikainen (2014) have been conducted until now. In the present article, we describe primary school student teachers’ (PSSTs) perceived and actual knowledge regarding biological themes such as animal and species name knowledge. Research questions The purpose of this study is to interpret and describe (Eskola & Suoranta, 2014) how PSSTs evaluate their perceived knowledge in relation to their actual knowledge. Based on the results, the biology curriculum and instruction in elemen- tary teacher education will be developed. The research questions are as follows: 1. What is the PSSTs’ level of actual knowledge concerning animal and spe- cies names, as measured by the number of animals and species named in four different ecosystems? 2. What is the yearly variation in perceived knowledge in the high-level group and the low-level group concerning a) animal name knowledge, and b) species name knowledge in four ecosystems? 3. What is the PSSTs’ perceived knowledge in biological themes with respect to their actual a) animal name knowledge, and b) species name knowledge? Theoretical framework The Earth’s assemblages of life forms, whether described as biodiversity in general or as species or ecosystems in particular, should be sustained not only for their utilitarian service to humans, but also because of humanity’s mor- al obligations (Taylor, 2011). Greater understanding is needed of how biological systems work, how to stem the continued loss of habitats, and how ecosystems can be restored and managed. Studies Concerning Student Teachers’ Biological Content Knowledge Knowledge of species identification is weak among STs in Nordic and Baltic countries (Palmberg et al., 2008; Palmberg et al., 2015; Palmberg, Jonsson, c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 129 Jeronen, & Yli-Panula, 2016). Although most STs are interested in nature, their knowledge of the connection between species identification and biodiversity and/or sustainable development is unclear (Yli-Panula & Pollari, 2013). Ac- cording to Yli-Panula and Matikainen (2014), marked variation exists between Finnish STs concerning their awareness of the names of the animals living in different ecosystems. The animals of the spruce-dominated coniferous forest were the best known, while the animals of the indigenous Nordic fen were the least known, as evidenced by the low number of names and the high number of falsely named animals. Even though invertebrates are an essential part of biodi- versity, and of several food chains and webs, only few STs named these animals as part of these indigenous ecosystems, as well as of savannahs and rainforests. In Nordic studies of knowledge concerning ecological concepts and processes (such as ecosystem, rainforest, desert, biosphere, succession, and the environmental problems of fish farming), STs provided correct answers in 20–65% of the questions. The least known facts were that the rainforest forms a kind of a belt around the equator and that the biosphere is connected to eco- systems (Palmberg et al., 2011; Palmberg et al., 2016). Concerning the question “What is a seed?”, only 20% of STs could provide a correct explanation, and 27% of the explanations were nonsense. The majority (55–95%) of the participants thought that the ecological issues listed above belong to basic knowledge that teachers should manage while teaching primary students. Issues such as blood circulation and the function of the liver, brain and organs of equilibrium were seen as basic knowledge by the majority of the Danish, Finnish and Swedish STs; however, only 60–75% of them provided correct answers, depending on the theme (Palmberg et al., 2016). Perceived Knowledge, Actual Knowledge and Academic Achievement Perceived knowledge means the amount of persuasive information in a particular orientation one believes one has about a target issue (Tormala & Pet- ty, 2007). Actual knowledge is a direct and clear awareness of something, e.g., facts and conditions. Perceived knowledge is therefore in the metacognitive domain and actual knowledge in the cognitive domain (Dori & Avargil, 2015). In the fields of language education and chemistry education, there are studies of how perceived knowledge relates to actual knowledge (e.g., Dori & Avar- gil, 2015). Concerning biology concepts, Ziegler and Montplaisir (2014) found significant differences in university students’ perceived and actual knowledge, both at the beginning and at the end of the course. At the end of the course, 130 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology female students’ perceived and actual knowledge were more accurate than that of male students. Although in the field of biology education, there are many international studies concerning recall and factors affecting the recall and memory of ani- mal names and knowledge (e.g., Evans, Dixon, & Heslop, 2006; Lindemann- Matthies & Bose, 2008; Randler, 2008; Patrick & Tunnicliffe, 2011; Patrick, et al., 2013), the perspectives of these studies are different from that of the present ar- ticle. To the best the authors’ knowledge, no studies have been published from this perspective in Finland until now. The professional competence of teachers has an effect on the success or failure of education. A teacher should possess a wide range of qualifications, which can be nurtured and developed through initial education and continu- ous training. These include the teacher’s attitudes and beliefs regarding teach- ing, learning and his/her role, all of which affect the way (s)he comprehends, evaluates and chooses the knowledge acquired. These attitudes and beliefs also affect the way the teacher benefits from this knowledge in practice (PCK) (Liakopoulou, 2011). The basic components of professional knowledge include subject knowledge and knowledge of learners, teaching methods and the cur- riculum (Shulman, 1987). In addition, the teacher needs general pedagogical knowledge that relates to pooling resources, learning and pedagogical theories, the organisation of the classroom, and motivating students and retaining their attention. Shulman also referred to knowledge of contexts and knowledge of self (1987). In conclusion, the professional competence of the teacher includes his/her PCK, enthusiasm for teaching and self-regulatory skills in instructional quality, which in turn affect students’ academic achievement (Kunter et al., 2013). In addition to the professional competence of teachers, students’ aca- demic achievement is also affected by other factors, such as the availability of textbooks, laboratory equipment and other learning resources, students’ atti- tudes, and parents’ education and occupation (Ali, Toriman, & Gasim, 2014), as well as learning difficulties concerning concepts in biology (Achor & Agbidye, 2014; Södervik, Mikkilä-Erdmann, & Vilppu, 2014). Ziegler and Montplaisir (2014) state that students struggling with the learning processes can lack metacognitive skills. Metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive pro- cesses. In order to be effective learners, students should therefore recognise what they know and what they do not know; they need to possess the ability to assess and regulate their knowledge. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 131 Biology as Part of the Finnish School System and Teacher Education In the Finnish primary school, biology belongs to environmental stud- ies. The main purpose of these studies is to support students to perceive the nature of science and to learn new scientific concepts and principles in order to develop skills in experimental work. Students are guided to make observa- tions on interactive relationships between mankind and nature, to emphasise man’s responsibility for protecting natural diversity, and to focus on and under- stand natural phenomena (FNBE, 2004, 2014). Certain biological themes are introduced, including the tree of life, systems of organisms, species identifica- tion and species knowledge, biodiversity, sustainable development, and values related to biology content or to special issues, such as sustainable education in biology (FNBE, 2004, 2014). Biology is taught along with other subjects in primary school (grades 1–6) by primary school teachers (class teachers), while subject teachers teach biology at lower secondary school level (grades 7–9). Class teachers are educated at universities in Finland and become qual- ified teachers after finishing a master’s degree. The main components of the primary school teacher education programme are class teachers’ studies in a major in education, supervised teaching practices, and pedagogical studies in 11 different subjects taught in primary school (Niemi & Jakku-Sihvonen, 2006). Pedagogical studies in biology include two ECTS units (European Credit Transfer System). The goal is to collaboratively study teaching in workshops, learning methods, assessment tools, skills, and other matters typical of biology education in primary school. In addition, PSSTs must choose one subject for extended studies to complete a master’s degree. Methods Participants The respondents were PSSTs (n = 439) from one Finnish university. Most of them (95%) were 19–22 years old, and 20.5% were males. This percentage of male PSSTs is normal in Finland; in 2013, for instance, 25.7% of the Finnish pri- mary teachers were males (Kumpulainen, 2014). The animal and species name knowledge was based on the information the PSSTs had obtained in their free time, and on their learning in Finnish basic education and upper secondary schools (FNBE, 1994, 2003). The PSSTs had completed their first year of peda- gogical studies to become qualified class teachers (in the grades 1–6) at primary 132 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology school. The study was carried out in Southwest Finland over a period of five years, and is part of a larger research project aimed at investigating the biologi- cal knowledge of both school students and STs (Yli-Panula & Matikainen, 2014). Instruments In this study, both numerical methods and exploratory approaches (mixed method approach, Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998) have been used. In the present article, we interpret and describe the quantitative results. Perceived Knowledge Perceived knowledge in this study means the PSSTs’ perceptions of their own biological core content knowledge in the seven different biological themes that they are going to teach as primary school teachers. Perceived knowledge was measured using the PSSTs’ self-evaluation estimations. At the very begin- ning, the PSSTs were asked “please evaluate your knowledge in the seven dif- ferent biological learning themes”. The themes were as follows: (a) the structure of living organisms; (b) the vital function of living organisms, such as photo- synthesis, nutrient, energy and adaptation; (c) food chain and food web; (d) species identification and species recognition; (e) the tree of life and systems of organisms; (f) nature and the seasons, e.g., in connection to breeding of spe- cies; and (g) different ecosystems. A 5-point Likert scale was used to gather data regarding the PSSTs’ perceived knowledge of biological themes using a questionnaire (1=inadequate, 2=marginal, 3=fair, 4=good, and 5=excellent). The questionnaire was pre-tested by biology STs prior to the study. No changes were made to the questionnaire. All of the PSSTs (n=439) answered the ques- tionnaire voluntarily, but the answers of eight PSSTs were omitted from the statistical cluster analysis (n=431) due to their failure to respond to all of the themes in the questionnaire. Actual Knowledge In this study, actual knowledge means the knowledge that the PSSTs possessed at the particular moment of the study programme in biology. The PSSTs’ actual knowledge concerning animal and species name knowledge was measured at the beginning of the study programme. Questions concerning the PSSTs’ species and animal name knowledge in relation to the following four ecosystems were used: the spruce-dominated coniferous forest (SCF), the Finnish fen (FEN), the savannah (SAV) and the tropical rainforest (TRF). These ecosystems were all illustrated using pictures. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 133 A middle-aged coniferous forest illustrated the SCF. The FEN was presented in a drawing of a few coniferous trees and a typical field layer, rich with different plant species. A tree savannah was depicted in the picture of the savannah, and the layers of the TRF were clearly drawn. Neither the SAV nor the TRF drawings were labelled with any specific geographical location (Yli-Panula & Matikainen, 2013; Yli-Panula & Matikainen, 2014). Students have shown to prefer to study animals rather than plants, and recalled animals more easily (Balas & Momsen, 2014). Therefore, the PSSTs were asked to write on the pictures the names of ten animals that they thought live in the corresponding ecosystem, and to link the animal name knowledge to the proper ecosystem(s) (e.g., ants live in various ecosystems) or to the food chain/web animals. Placing the right animals in their ecosystem was used as the measure of the students’ animal and species name knowledge. The PSSTs did not ask any questions about the test before starting to name the animals. Data Analyses K-means Cluster Analysis In order to identify individual differences in the PSSTs’ perceived BCK, a K-means cluster was run with two clusters. Discriminant analyses were con- ducted to confirm the resulting two-cluster solution, which placed 97.7% of the participants back into the correct classification. In order to confirm the strength of this classification, the results of the discriminant analyses revealed that three-cluster and four-cluster solutions showed less strength, with 94.7% and 91.9% placed in the correct group, respectively. The two clusters (Table 1) were labelled as High (n = 226) and Low (n = 205) level groups. Table 1 Mean scores of perceived knowledge of biological themes by two cluster groups of PSSTs (high- and low-level cluster groups) Biological themes Cluster High (n = 226) Low (n = 205) a) Structure of living organisms 2.99 2.07 b) Vital function of living organisms 3.25 2.21 c) Food chain, food web 3.30 2.40 d) Species identification and species recognition 3.00 2.17 e) Tree of life and system of organisms 3.19 2.20 f) Nature and the seasons 3.17 2.41 g) Different ecosystems 2.96 1.92 134 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology Species and Animal Name Knowledge Scoring The PSSTs were asked to write the name of ten animal species on the pictures of four different ecosystems (maximum 40 animal names). One point was given for each species name that was placed in the right ecosystem. Zero points were given for an answer that was not on the species level, was incorrect (giving a species name that belongs to a different ecosystem or to a higher taxa), or if there was no answer. The named animals on the species, genus or family level were counted as “animal name knowledge”, and all correct answers gain one point each, while incorrect answers were scored with zero points. Reliability can be thought of as the trustworthiness of the procedures and data generated (Stiles, 1993). Reliability is concerned with the extent to which the results of a study or a measure are repeatable in different circum- stances. There were no difficulties encountered during the present study. At the beginning of the test situation, the PSSTs received detailed guidelines for answering the questionnaire, and they had no problems when answering the questions. The number of answered questionnaires was high (n = 439), and all of the participants answered the inquiry. The result of an inquiry is seen to be reliable if the answered percentage is over 50%. The selected methods were chosen as suitable for solving the research problems (Metsämuuronen, 2009). The validity of the study is based on the conceptions of readers regard- ing how they can apply the presented results and conclusions in their condi- tions (ecological validity, Lincoln & Cuba, 1985, p. 298). The inquiry was carried out only in one Finnish university, and the ecological validity would be better if the study had also been carried out in other Finnish universities and abroad. The research process is described thoroughly (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011) in terms of what supports ecological validity. The validity is also dem- onstrated in the sense that the results support previous studies (Williamson, 2005). The fact that those participating in the research remained anonymous largely guaranteed that they provided sincere answers. However, the attitudes of a few of the PSSTs may have affected their willingness to answer the ques- tionnaire (cf. Olkinuora, 1990). For example, if the PSST did not like species identification and biology, the level of answers may be poorer than it would have been otherwise. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 135 Results Primary School Student Teachers’ Perceived Knowledge Levels of Different Biological Themes Based on the PSSTs’ self-evaluation regarding their perceived knowl- edge, many of the PSSTs (194 out of 439) evaluated their knowledge of the dif- ferent biological themes to be fair (Table 2). Table 2 The levels of the PSSTs´ (n = 439) perceived knowledge (inadequate, marginal, fair, good, excellent) of the seven different biological themes (a-g) Biological themes inadequate1 marginal 2 fair 3 good 4 excellent 5 a) Structure of living organisms 9 39 41 11 0 b) Vital function of living organisms 6 32 45 16 1 c) Food chain, food web 3 28 50 18 1 d) Species identification and species recognition 7 35 42 15 1 e) Tree of life and system of organisms 10 40 38 10 2 f) Nature and the seasons 5 22 51 20 1 g) Different ecosystems 10 43 39 7 1 Mean % 7 34 44 14 1 Over 70% of the PSSTs evaluated their knowledge of “nature and the seasons” (f) as fair (3) or good (4). One-sixth or less of the PSSTs evaluated their knowledge to be good or excellent depending on the biological theme. More than 50% of the PSSTs felt that their knowledge was marginal or even inadequate concerning the biological themes of “different ecosystems” (g) and “the tree of life/systems of organisms” (e). The PSSTs evaluated their knowl- edge of different ecosystems as being the most incomplete. They also evaluated their knowledge regarding “the structure of living organisms” (a) to be rather marginal. The Number of Animals Named by Primary School Student Teachers The animals of the spruce-dominated coniferous forest were correctly named the most often. Some 86% of the PSSTs achieved a good level (8–10 named animals) when naming animals in this Finnish forest ecosystem (Table 3). Almost all of the participants were able to name 5 animals, and 69% of the 136 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology animals were named at the species level. Animals of the Finnish fen were the least known, with only 38% of the PSSTs being able to name only 0–4 animals. However, 65% of all of the animals mentioned were named at the species level. Table 3 The number and percentage of PSSTs (n = 439) who were good (8–10 animals), fair (5–7 animals) or poor (0–4 animals) at naming animals in Finnish ecosystems Ecosystem goodnumber (8-10 names) % fair number (5-7 names) % poor number (0-4 names) % SCF 377 86 53 12 9 2 FEN 161 37 110 25 168 38 TRF 220 50 154 35 65 15 SAV 316 72 97 22 26 6 Total 1074 61 414 24 268 15 Note. SCF = spruce-dominated coniferous forest; FEN = Finnish fen and exotic ecosystems; TRF = tropical rainforest; SAV = savannah. The PSSTs had good name knowledge of exotic tropical rainforest ani- mals and savannah animals. Half of the PSSTs were able to name 8–10 ani- mals from the tropical rainforest, although only 29% of the mentioned animals were at the species level. Furthermore, 72% of the PSSTs achieved the good level when naming animals from the savannah, with 39% of these animals being named at the species level. Primary School Student Teachers’ Perceived Knowledge of Biological Themes in Relation to Their Animal and Species Name Knowledge Expressed Yearly The results showed two cluster groups among the participants indicat- ing a high (n = 226) or low (n = 205) level of the PSSTs’ perceived knowledge of biological themes (Table 1). In order to examine the STs’ perceived knowledge of biological themes in relation to their animal name knowledge, the total num- ber of animal names that the PSSTs had provided for all four ecosystems was used in the analyses. The results of ANOVA revealed that there is no interaction between the PSSTs’ perceived knowledge of biological themes and the year in which they had enrolled in the study programme F(4,421) = .63, p > .05. The dif- ference in the PSSTs’ animal name knowledge between the high- and low-level groups was very similar each year (Figure 1). c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 137 Figure 1. The means of the PSSTs’ animal and species name knowledge (maximum 40 animal names), with a high (n = 226) or low (n = 205) level of perceived knowledge of biological themes expressed yearly Furthermore, the results revealed that the year that the PSSTs had en- rolled in the study programme had an impact on their animal name knowledge, F(4,421) = 5.30, p < .001. The results showed that the level of the PSSTs’ per- ceived knowledge in biological themes also has an effect on their animal name knowledge, F(1,421) = 18.05, p < .001. PSSTs who belonged to the high-level cluster group tended to have better animal name knowledge than PSSTs who had a low level of perceived knowledge in biology. In order to examine the PSSTs’ perceived knowledge of biological themes in relation to their species name knowledge, the total number of spe- cies named by the PSSTs with respect to the four ecosystems was used in the analyses. The results of ANOVA revealed that there is no interaction between the PSSTs’ perceived knowledge of the biological themes and the year that they had enrolled in the study programme F(4,421) = .36, p > .05. The difference in the PSSTs’ species name knowledge between the high- and low-level cluster groups was very similar each year. The results revealed that the year that the PSSTs had enrolled in the study programme has an impact on their species name knowledge, F(4,421) = 7.46, p < .001. Moreover, the results showed that the level of the PSSTs’ per- ceived knowledge also has an effect on their species name knowledge, F(1,421) = 28.13, p < .001. PSSTs with a high level of perceived knowledge in biological themes tended to have better species name knowledge than those with a low level of perceived knowledge in biology. 138 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology The Animal Name Knowledge of the High or Low Level Group of Perceived Knowledge in Relation to the Four Ecosystems Firstly, the PSSTs’ animal name knowledge (in each cluster group for each year) was compared separately for the four ecosystems, and none of the results of the four ANOVAs were significant. This indicated that the differences between the high- and low-level cluster groups’ animal name knowledge in the four different ecosystems were the same for each year (Table 4). Table 4 The high- and low-level cluster groups of PSSTs based on perceived knowledge (PK) of biological themes in relation to the actual animal name knowledge (AAK) and actual species name knowledge (ASK) of four different ecosystems Actual knowledge of animal names (AAK) conceming four ecosystems Actual knowledge of species names (ASK) conceming four ecosystems Perceived knowledge (PK) in high- and low-level groups yearly the differences were the same between the groups in PK and AAK in each year conceming four ecosystems Fs (4, 421) < 2.08, ps > .05, η2s < .02 the differences were the same between the groups’ PK and ASK in each year conceming four ecosystems Fs (4, 421) < 1.24, ps > .05, η2s < .02 Comparison in perceived knowledge between the high- and low-level cluster high-level group of PK had better AAK in all four years in compari- son to lower level group Fs (1, 421) > 8.53, ps < .01, η2s > .02 high-level group of PK had better ASK regarding SCF, FEN and SAV in comparison to lower level group Fs (1, 421) > 4.41, ps < .05, η2s > .01 no difference regarding TRF F (1, 421) = 1.84, p < .05, η2s = .004 The impact of the year the student teachers’ enrolled to the study program on their performance equal AAK each year concerning local ecosystems (SCF, FEN) Fs (4, 421) < 2.00, ps > .05, η2s < .02 however, different concerning exotic one (TRF, SAV) Fs (1, 421) > 6.59, ps < .001, η2s > .05 equal ASK each year concerning the Finnish FEN F (4, 421) = 2.31, p > .05, η2s = .02 different concerning SCF, SAV and TRF Fs (4, 421) > 2.61, ps < .05, η2s > .02 Note. SCF = spruce-dominated coniferous forest; FEN = Finnish fen; exotic ecosystems (TRF = tropical rainforest and SAV = savannah). Secondly, the effects of the PSSTs’ levels of perceived knowledge on their animal name knowledge in four ecosystems were investigated. All four of these ANOVAs were significant, suggesting that the PSSTs who belonged to the high- level cluster group tended to have better animal name knowledge concerning all ecosystems than those with a lower level of perceived knowledge. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 139 Thirdly, the effects of the year that the PSSTs had enrolled in their study programme on their animal name knowledge in the four ecosystems were ob- served. Interestingly, the results revealed that the PSSTs in each year tended to have similar animal name knowledge concerning the spruce-dominated co- niferous forest (SCF) and the Finnish fen (FEN), but different animal name knowledge concerning the savannah (SAV) and the tropical rainforest (TRF). Species Name Knowledge of the High or Low Level of Perceived Knowledge in Relation to the Four Ecosystems Firstly, four ANOVAs were conducted separately for each ecosystem to investigate interactions between the PSSTs’ levels of perceived knowledge in biological themes and the year that the students had enrolled in their study programme. None of the results of the four ANOVAs were significant, indicat- ing that the differences between the high- and low-level cluster groups’ species name knowledge in the four ecosystems were the same for each year (Table 4). Secondly, the effects of the PSSTs’ levels of perceived knowledge in bio- logical themes on their species name knowledge in the four ecosystems were investigated. The results of ANOVAs revealed that the PSSTs in the high-level cluster group tended to have better species name knowledge concerning all ecosystems than those who had a low level of perceived knowledge in biology. However, no difference was found for species name knowledge in the tropical rainforest ecosystem between the PSSTs belonging to the high- or low-level cluster groups. Finally, the effects of the year that the PSSTs had enrolled on their species name knowledge in the four ecosystems were observed. The results revealed that the PSSTs in each year tended to have similar species name knowledge concerning the Finnish fen (FEN), but different species name knowledge con- cerning the spruce-dominated coniferous forest (SCF), the savannah (SAV), and the tropical rainforest (TRF). Discussion The study aimed to investigate Finnish PSSTs’ perceived knowledge of biological themes in relation to their actual animal and species name knowl- edge. PSSTs were asked to link the animal names to the proper ecosystem and, when possible, from one ecosystem to another. They were also asked to show their knowledge concerning, for instance, animals in relation to the food chain/food web. The survey was conducted once per year for five years using a 140 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology questionnaire. Furthermore, a K-means cluster analysis with two clusters and ANOVA were used. Species knowledge means achieving the highest level of conceptual and procedural competence (Weinert, 2002) involving human interaction with spe- cies in real situations and also involving the sustainable management of bio- topes and ecosystems. This kind of idea is included in Finnish primary school teacher education (Faculty of Education, University of Turku, 2014), as well as in the Finnish national core curriculum (FNBE, 2014). The first main result revealed that the level of PSSTs’ self-evaluation of their perceived knowledge did not depend on the year of enrolment. PSSTs with a high level of perceived knowledge in biological themes had better actual animal and species name knowledge than PSSTs with a low level of perceived knowledge in biological themes. The results support Johnson’s (1994) findings that the higher one’s perceived knowledge level, the greater one’s continued in- volvement in the respective activities and subsequent achievements will be. Concerning metacognitive skills (cf. Ziegler & Montplaisir, 2014), the PSSTs evaluated the level of their BCK. The majority of the PSSTs evaluated their BCK as fair, good or excellent with regard to the vital function of living organisms, food chain/web, species identification and recognition, and nature and the seasons. It can therefore be supposed that they will take action to teach these themes in the future. However, less than one-sixth of the PSSTs evaluated their BCK to be marginal or even inadequate with regard to different ecosys- tems, the tree of life and systems of organisms, and the structure of living or- ganisms. They also evaluated their knowledge of these themes as being the most incomplete. Consequently, it seems that they will not dare to use demanding thinking skills or to act to achieve deep teaching and learning goals in these themes. According to Johnson (1994), the greater one’s feeling of knowing an issue, the more time one wants to spend working on that issue. Perceived knowledge also has implications for behaviour. Attitudes are more predictive of behaviour when they are associated with high rather than low levels of perceived knowledge of a topic (Davidson et al., 1985). The results of this study also revealed that the year that the PSSTs en- rolled had an impact on their animal or species name knowledge. Our data were collected at the beginning of the biology course in the university; thus, the differences in each year might correspond to differences in the PSSTs’ prior knowledge, as learning proceeds primarily from prior knowledge (Roschelle, 1995). Prior knowledge forces a theoretical shift in which one views learning as conceptual change (Strike & Posner, 1985); however, conceptual change occurs slowly and involves a complex restructuring of prior knowledge to encompass c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 141 new ideas, findings and requirements. Our results support studies by Klin- genberg and Brönnecke (2011) that show discrepancies in the basic biological knowledge acquired by graduates. The PSSTs tended to have similar species name knowledge concerning the Finnish fen, but different knowledge concerning the spruce-dominated co- niferous forest, the savannah and the tropical rainforest. The animals and spe- cies named in the local Finnish ecosystems were the most common ones, and the same names were mentioned every year. The results support the study of Yli-Panula and Matikainen (2014). The animal names listed for the exotic eco- systems were based on the PSSTs’ prior knowledge; thus, the variation can be attributed to their hobbies, interest in living organisms, and/or school history. Only a few of the PSSTs had good species name knowledge, especially concern- ing the TRF. The result supports the findings of Yli-Panula and Matikainen (2014). The PSSTs’ real animal and species name knowledge was in harmony with their perceived knowledge level concerning the different ecosystems. Further Research Some questions could be investigated further; for example, through the systematic observation of PSSTs during species identification teaching and learning situations. A different methodological approach, such as a case study, would also enrich the data and further develop the conclusions reached. Ethical Issues of the Study At the beginning of the study, every PSST received information of the study, e.g., the goals and confidentiality issues of the study were described. They also had the possibility to refuse to participate in the study (Eskola & Suoranta, 2014). All of the PSSTs were willing to participate and approved the course of action. Implications of the Study One point of departure for environmentally responsible behaviour is en- vironmental sensitivity and knowledge of ecology (Hungerford & Volk, 1990; Jeronen, Jeronen, & Raustia, 2009), and species knowledge is an important part of ecological knowledge and understanding (Weinert, 2002). Teachers have a key role when supporting students in their understanding of scientific informa- tion concerning relations between human beings and the environment (Volet, 142 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology Vauras, Khosa, & Iiskala, 2013). The PSSTs’ low level of species name knowledge gives rise to several questions. How should species identification be taught in order to improve the understanding of students and STs regarding its impor- tance in relation to sustainability? What pedagogical knowledge and educa- tional practices could contribute to the cultivation of the qualifications teach- ers refer to as a prerequisite for success when supporting the self-evaluation processes of students? Kunter and others (2013) state that teacher educators would be ill-advised to focus exclusively on the transmission of content-specific knowledge. The present study supports this finding. 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Volet, S., Vauras, M., Khosa, D., & Iiskala, T. (2013). Metacognitive regulation in collaborative learning: Conceptual developments and methodological contextualizations. In S. Volet & M. Vauras (Eds.), Interpersonal regulation of learning and motivation. Methodological advances (pp. 67–101). New York, NY: Routledge. Weinert, F. E. (Ed.) (2002). Leistungsmessung in Schulen [Education Assesment in Schools]. Weinheim: Beltz. Williamson, G. R. (2005). Illustrating triangulation in mixed-methods nursing research. Nurse Researcher, 12(4), 7–318. Yli-Panula E., & Matikainen, E. (2013). Pre service teachers´ ability to name nesting animals in ecosystems – a perspective of biodiversity. In J. White (Ed.), Proceedings of the Annual International Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education. Retrieved from http://www.aare. edu.au/index.php Yli-Panula, E., & Matikainen, E. (2014). Students’ and student teachers’ ability to name animals in ecosystems – a perspective of animal knowledge and biodiversity. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 13(4), 559–572. Yli-Panula, E., & Pollari, H. (2013). Opettajaopiskelijoiden tietämys käsitteistä lajintuntemus, biodiversiteetti ja kestävä kehitys ja niiden välisistä suhteista [The consciousness of pre-service teachers in the concepts; species identification, biodiversity and sustainable development and their relation]. Finnish Research Association for Subject Didactics, Studies in Subject Didactics, 7, 35–49. Ziegler, B., & Montplaisir, L. (2014). Student Perceived and Determined Knowledge of Biology Concepts in an Upper-Level Biology Course. CBE Life Science Education 13(2), 322–330. 146 primary school student teachers’ perceived and actual knowledge in biology Biographical note Eija Yli-Panula, PhD, Assistant Professor, University Research Fellow at the Department of Teacher Education in the University of Turku, Finland. Her main current research interests are in the field of Subject Didactics and Sustainable Development Education. She has been educating student teachers in Biology and Geography Didactics for more than 30 years. Eila Jeronen, PhD, University Lecturer (emerita), Docent in the Uni- versity of Oulu, in the University of Lapland, and in the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research interests are in the field of Education in Biology, Geogra- phy and Health Science; Environmental Education; and Education for Sustain- able Development. She educated Science subjects in the Institute of Nursing and Health Care of Oulu over 10 years; and Biology, and Biology and Geogra- phy Education in the University of Oulu over 30 years. Nonmanut Pongsakdi, PhD. Her research is focused on teaching and learning mathematical word problem solving in the elementary school and on cultivating future mathematical minds. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 147 Exploring the Link between Achievement Goals, Motivation, and Parental Expectations among University Students in Kosovo Albulene Grajcevci*1 and Arif Shala2 • This paper sheds light on the link between achievement goals, motivation, and parental expectations in a sample of 600 students attending higher education institutions in Kosovo. Aside from exploring the stipulated link between the constructs, the research aims to discover whether cultural differences mediate expected results. The results proved that the mastery of goals positively correlates to intrinsic motivation in addition to which curiosity as a subscale of intrinsic motivation positively predicted prefer- ences for the mastery of goals. As expected, performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals, correlated to extrinsic motivation with ex- trinsic motivation, successfully predict preferences for both types of per- formance goals. The data proved that among students in Kosovo, all types of goals correlated to intrinsic motivation. Achievement goals were dif- ferentiated in extrinsic motivation with mastery goals correlating rather weakly to only one subscale of extrinsic motivation. Keywords: achievement goals, Kosovo, motivation, parental expectations 1 *Corresponding Author. Professional Development Institute-PDI, Prishtina, Kosovo; grajcevci.albulene@pdi-ks.org. 2 Professional Development Institute-PDI, Prishtina, Kosovo. 148 exploring the link between achievement goals, motivation, and parental ... Ugotavljanje povezav med cilji dosežkov, motivacijo in pričakovanji staršev študentov na Kosovu Albulene Grajcevci in Arif Shala • Prispevek osvetljuje povezavo med cilji dosežkov, motivacijo in pričakovanji staršev na vzorcu šeststotih študentov, ki obiskujejo visokošolske izobraževalne ustanove na Kosovu. Poleg raziskovanja povezav med omenjenimi konstrukti je bil raziskovalni namen tudi ugo- toviti, ali kulturne razlike napovedujejo pričakovane rezultate. Rezultati so pokazali, da je obvladovanje ciljev pozitivno povezano z notranjo motivacijo, poleg tega pa je radovednost kot podraven notranje moti- vacije pozitivno napovedovala preferenco po obvladovanju ciljev. Rezul- tati so pokazali, da so bili med študenti na Kosovu različni cilji povezani z notranjo motivacijo. Cilji dosežkov so bili diferencirani v zunanji mo- tivaciji z obvladovanjem ciljev, ki je bil precej šibko povezan samo v eni podravni zunanje motivacije. Ključne besede: cilji dosežkov, Kosovo, motivacija, pričakovanja staršev c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 149 Introduction Achievement goals represent an interesting topic of research. Initially, they attracted attention due to the compelling evidence that linked goals to different outcomes. The achievement goals theory postulates that there are two types of goals that foster achievement behaviour in learners (Dweck & Legget, 1988), namely mastery and performance goals. Mastery goals are reported to endorse learning and understanding while performance goals encourage the demonstration of competences and skills in regard to other learners. Behav- ioural, cognitive and emotional outcomes differ according to the type of goal endorsed by the learner (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Maehr and Zusho (2009) propound the view that learners who are mas- tery approach oriented will be intrinsically motivated, will employ personal standards and will learn from mistakes as much as they learn from successes. In contrast, performance-approach learners will be motivated to perform bet- ter than others. Ultimately, students who endorse performance-avoidance goals will only be concerned with not looking incompetent (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). There is ample evidence from previous studies that mastery-approach goals are linked to better academic competences and learning, compared to performance goals, which correlate to lower learning and competences (Maehr & Zusho, 2009). The current literature on achievement goals abounds with ex- amples of studies reporting that learners who endorse mastery-approach goals will be more likely to experience positive emotions (i.e. pride and enjoyment), and will not experience negative emotions. In comparison, existing research validates the view that learners who report performance-approach goals will be more likely to experience negative emotions (i.e. anger and anxiety) (Lin- nenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Building on the assumption that different outcomes are linked to certain goals the present study explores the link between types of motivation, paren- tal expectations and goal orientations across university students in Kosovo. To that end, the study provides information from a new cultural context, more specifically data from a collectivist culture in which community and family are fundamental. As such, individuality and independence, in contrast to other countries, is not always appreciated and encouraged. Kosovo is underrepre- sented in international research (Shala & Grajcevci, 2017) and the present study is the first of its kind in Kosovo to explore goal orientation among university students. Therefore, the data from this study deliver essential insights to practi- tioners working in the higher education sector in Kosovo. 150 exploring the link between achievement goals, motivation, and parental ... Achievement goal theories: An overview The existing consensus view in literature is that achievement goals are cognitive constructs that direct the behaviour of learners in achievement situ- ations (Hulleman, Schrager, Bodmann, & Harackiewicz, 2010). In other words, goals are essential for every activity, because it is goals that give an activity meaning and purpose (Kaplan & Maher, 2007). To that end, Maehr and Zusho (2009) argue that when a learner states that he or she has the goal to get an A grade then this is an illustration of a goal, but this is not the main interest of achievement goal theories. Instead, achievement goals frameworks are more interested in exploring why a learner wants something, in this example why does a student want an A, and less with what the students want. According to Elliot (1999), understanding what the goal is, is necessary for comprehend- ing whether the learner approaches or avoids the goal itself. As a result, goal theories aim to explain not only the goal endorsed but also in what manner a learner approaches learning situations or avoids not learning a competence. In the example above, achievement goal theories are interested in the behaviour of students (such as completing homework) that would lead to the goal ac- quisition (e.g. the goal of learning and understanding mathematics) (Maehr & Zusho, 2009). According to Dweck and Elliot (2005), the behaviour of learners is motivated by the opportunity to show competence or the lack of it. In other words, students who endorse mastery goals will utilise achievement situations to complete personal standards of excellence. In contrast, performance-orient- ed students will engage in order to outperform other learners. After more than two decades of research, three theoretical frameworks of achievement goals have been developed (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). Under- standably, theoretical frameworks on goals are different from one another ac- cording to what they consider more important, the learner or the situational factors (Dweck & Elliot, 1983). The initial model of achievement goals differ- entiated between mastery and performance goals according to the perceptions that learners have regarding intelligence and competence. Learners will adopt mastery goals when they consider intelligence and competence to be both pre- dispositions and changeable constructs. In contrast, learners will develop per- formance goals if they consider intelligence and competence to be stable traits that do not change (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). The three-goal model distinguish- es between two types of performance goals (performance-approach and perfor- mance-avoidance) and mastery goals. The initial two-goal model developed by Dweck, maintains that students can either be performance or mastery oriented (Dweck & Elliot, 1983). The new model postulates that the learners who adopt c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 151 performance goals can be focused on obtaining positive judgments as well as avoiding negative ones. The new definition of performance goals resulted in the three-goal model that supports the idea that three separate achievement goals exist: performance-approach, performance-avoidance and mastery goals (Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Hulleman, Scharager, Bodmann, & Harackiewicz, 2010). The latest model is the 2×2 model of achievement goals which distin- guishes between two types of performance goals (performance-approach and performance-avoidance) and two types of mastery goals-mastery approach and mastery avoidance. This model, however, is not employed in this study. Mastery-approach goals have traditionally been linked to higher aca- demic competence (Maehr & Zusho, 2009), higher academic interest (Harack- iewicz et al., 2000) and higher achievements (Linnenbrik-Garcia, Tyson, & Patall, 2008). Performance goals, in contrast, have been reported to correlate to higher emotionality and achievements (Elliot & McGregor, 2001) similar to mastery-approach goals (Linnenbrik-Garcia et al., 2008). Finally, the avail- able evidence suggests that performance-avoidance goals correlate with less learning, anxiety, as well as low levels of interest and achievement (Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Maehr & Zusho, 2009). Motivation and achievement goals Motivation has been a significant topic in education over the years, with educators striving to understand what makes students engaged and motivated. According to existing definitions, motivation represents an inner state that in- fluences behaviour by initiating, directing and maintaining it (Lee, McInerney, Liemc, & Ortigad, 2010). Literature distinguishes between intrinsic and extrin- sic motivation which are considered to be opposite poles of motivation (Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar, 2005). According to definitions, intrinsic motivation is the motive that fosters involvement in tasks due to inherent qualities (Lee et al., 2010; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsically motivated students possess character- istics of enthusiasm, openness to experience, goal setting and working hard to improve and others. These learners consider tasks to be interesting as well as important which is why they persist in their efforts and employ strategies to achieve goals (Lee et al., 2010). Extrinsically motivated students remain involved in tasks because of external rewards (Lee et al., 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Extrinsic motivation is primarily concerned with performance, rewards, praise, and feedback. As such, extrinsically motivated learners employ surface learning and do not en- gage in tasks for which they foresee no rewards. To illustrate positive rewards, 152 exploring the link between achievement goals, motivation, and parental ... for example, good grades will give learners feedback that signals success and competence, which in return increases the chance that the learner will continue engagement in the task. To extrinsically motivated students, negative feedback has a very negative impact because it transmits the idea that the learner is not competent or successful (Lee et al., 2010). Types of motivation are discussed along with achievement goals because of the reported correlations between goals and motivation types. Achievement goals influence the degree to which students enjoy achievement-related activi- ties, which establishes the correlation between intrinsic motivation and achieve- ment goals (Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999). Various research studies support the idea that performance and mastery goals exert different impacts and conse- quences on intrinsic motivation (Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999). Since mastery goals emphasise the intrinsic value of learning (Lee, McInerney, Liem, & Or- tiga, 2010), they have been linked to mastery goals in the literature (Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999) and are reported to endorse intrinsic motivation (Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1989). Understandably, mastery goals foster intrinsic motivation by promoting challenge, excitement, task involvement (Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996; Elliot & Rawsthorne, 1999), self-determination, and autonomy in learners (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Dweck, 1986). Performance goals that emphasise outperforming other students and succeeding with little effort (Lee et al., 2010) have been linked to extrinsic mo- tivation (Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999). To put it another way, performance goals limit intrinsic motivation by noting threats, lowering task involvement, as well as increasing anxiety and pressure from evaluations (Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996; Elliot & Rawsthorne, 1999). Unlike mastery goals, performance-avoid- ance goals generally trigger processes that will decrease intrinsic motivation (Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996) because they emphasise anxiety and performance pressure (Harackiewicz, Manderlink, & Sansone, 1984). Elliot and Harackiewicz (1996), who are prominent in the literature about achievement goals, reported that 90% of the studies provided a link be- tween achievement goals and intrinsic motivation, with performance-approach and mastery goals increasing intrinsic motivation. Interestingly, studies con- cluded that student who endorse performance-approach and mastery goals employ similar levels of intrinsic motivation. The same studies revealed that performance-avoidance goals hinder intrinsic motivation (Elliot & Harack- iewicz, 1996; Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999). In contrast, Rawsthoren and Elliot (1999) argue that a number of studies found evidence for the premise that per- formance-avoidance goals do not hinder intrinsic motivation in addition to the argument that performance-approach goals may not be beneficial to intrinsic c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 153 motivation. Unfortunately, the results of studies have been inconclusive, with some reporting negative effects of performance goals on intrinsic motivation (Harackiewicz, Abrahams, & Wageman, 1987; Ryan, Koestner, & Deci, 1991), and other studies failing to support this premise (Harackiewicz & Elliot, 1993; Koestner, Zuckerman, & Koestner, 1989). While achievement goal research has expanded over various topics, few studies have been conducted to assess the impact of different types of intrinsic motivation (Harackiewicz, Barron, & Elliot, 1998) in achievement goals, and no studies exist in Kosovo. To address this gap in literature, the present study explores the link between types of motivation and achievement goals in a new cultural context. The following hypotheses have been developed for this study: H1 Intrinsic motivation will be related to mastery goals and performance- approach goals, while extrinsic motivation will be related to performance- avoidance goals. H2 Intrinsic motivation will predict mastery goal preferences while ex- trinsic motivation will predict performance-approach and performance- avoidance goal preferences. Parental expectations and achievement goals To the best of our knowledge, there is a lack of studies focusing on the role of parental expectations in achievement goal endorsement among under- graduate students. However, research has provided ample support for the asser- tion that parents’ expectations tend to be rather crucial in shaping the achieve- ment experiences of children. The role of parental expectations is fundamental to academic success and, according to Seyfried and Chung (2002), this is a common fact not disput- ed by researchers. The study conducted by Regner, Loose, and Dumas (2009) suggested that students were aware of their parents’ expectations as early as middle school. Given the centrality of this issue, the present research will fill the existing gap in the literature by exploring the impact of parents’ expectations on goal endorsement among undergraduate students in Kosovo. The current hypothesis is that: H3 Parental expectations will be related to preferences for performance- approach and performance-avoidance goals. 154 exploring the link between achievement goals, motivation, and parental ... Method Participants The study included 600 undergraduate students attending higher educa- tion institutions in Kosovo. Participants’ ages ranged between 17 and 37 years old (M = 20.64, SD = 2.39). The sample was comprised of 444 (74%) participants who were attending the public university while a smaller number of partici- pants (156 (26%) participants) reported attending private institutions. Finally, the sample was predominantly male (N=314) and included 286 female students. Table 1 Number of participants according to year of study, gender, and university University F M 1st Year (N) 2nd Year (N) 3rd Year (N) N Public University 218 226 167 188 89 444 Private Colleges 68 88 64 68 24 156 Note. N=600. The table below provides information for participants according to the year of study, university type, and department. To illustrate, the statistics below provide that the sample included more participants from social science depart- ments, and the public university. The sample also included more first and sec- ond years students in comparison to third-year students. Table 2 Number of participants according to field of study and university University type   Department   Year of study (N) 1 2 3 Public Natural Sciences 103 70 48 Social Sciences 64 118 41 Private Natural Sciences 25 28 - Social Sciences 39 40 24 Note. N=600. Exact Sciences: Engineering, Mathematics, Physics etc. Social Sciences: Law, Economics, Sociology, Psychology etc. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 155 Achievement goals Hulleman et al. (2010) reported that two instruments commonly used in achievement goals research are the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (AGS) and Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS). The difference between the instruments is their methodology, with AGQ employing normative compari- son (e.g. ‘My goal in this class is to be better than others’) and PALS employ- ing self-representation (e.g. ‘One of my goals is to show others that I am good at my class work’), thus resulting in different and incomparable results. The present study utilised the PALS instrument, which assesses three achievement goals through 14 items. Performance-approach goals are assessed by five items such as ‘One of my goals is to show others that I am good at my class work’. Performance-avoidance goals were measured with four items, to illustrate ‘It is important to me that I do not look stupid in class’. Finally, mastery goals were assessed with five items, one of which was, for example, ‘It is important to me that I improve my skills this year’. The measurement used a five-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 5 (very true). According to research, PALS, as an instrument, has proven to be reliable and valid (Midgley et al., 2000). The table below shows the internal reliability scores for the scales and subscales, along with the descriptive analysis. Table 3 Descriptive statistics and Cronbach’s α for measures of PALS Variable Cronbach’s a Mean SD Possible Range Skewness Kurtosis Mastery .77 4.47 .44 1-5 -1.04 1.43 Performance-approach .89 2.73 .97 1-5 .33 -.67 Performance-avoidance .72 3.23 .95 1-5 -.19 -.66 Note. N=600. Motivation scales Perceptions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were assessed by the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation scales (Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar, 2005). The instrument included 20 items: twelve of which assessed intrinsic motivation, and eight of which measured extrinsic motivation. The first type of motivation had three subscales: challenge, curiosity, and independent mastery. Challenge was measured with six items, examples of which are ‘I like hard work because it is a challenge’ and ‘I like to go to work that is at a more difficult level’. Curiosity 156 exploring the link between achievement goals, motivation, and parental ... was measured with only three items, one of which was ‘I work on problems to learn how to solve them’. Lastly, the independent mastery subscale was com- prised of three items, an example of which is ‘When I make a mistake I like to figure out the right answer by myself ’. Extrinsic motivation included the three subscales of easy work, pleasing the teacher, and dependence on the teacher. The subscale of easy work included three items; one example of items included in this subscale is ‘I like easy work that I am sure I can do’. In the subscale of pleasing the teacher, items such as ‘I do my school work because the professor tells me to’ were used. The final three item subscale used to measure dependence on teacher included items such as ‘If I get stuck on a problem I ask the teacher for help’. A five-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used for the motivation scales. In the original study of Lepper, Corpus, and Iyengar (2005), this motivation instrument had a very high internal consistency vale for intrinsic motivation (α = .90) and a good internal consistency value for the extrinsic motivation scale (α = .78), which resulted in the authors consider- ing the instrument to be valid and reliable (Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar, 2005). In the present study, the internal consistency for the intrinsic scale was higher (α = .82) compared to the consistency of the extrinsic motivation scale (α = .69). Table 4 Descriptive statistics and Cronbach’s α for measures of motivation Variable Cronbach’s a Mean SD Possible Range Skewness Kurtosis Intrinsic Motivation .82 4.17 .50 1-5 -.77 1.56 – Challenge .80 4.16 .59 1-5 -.93 1.94 – Curiosity .55 4.28 .53 1-5 -.87 1.56 – Independent mastery .66 4.08 .71 1-5 -.87 .85 Extrinsic Motivation .69 3.22 .61 1-5 -.08 .03 – Easy Work .56 2.87 .81 1-5 .27 -.02 – Pleasing the teacher .20 2.88 1.05 1-5 .01 -.83 – Dependence on teacher .66 3.80 .74 1-5 -.66 .50 Note. N=600. Parental Expectations To measure parental expectations, nine items were adopted from the PISA study (PISA, 2003). Example items from the measure included ‘My par- ents expect me to delve deeply into studying’ and ‘Even though I make a great c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 157 effort in my studies, my parents are never completely satisfied with my efforts’. Five of the nine questions that were adopted included the word ‘science’ in the original item; however, in order to be able to use the items, the word ‘science’ was replaced with the word ‘studying’. An example of the initial item is ‘In our family, science is very important’; after the word replacement it was ‘In our family, studying is very important’. As in the previous measures, a five-point scale was used ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The Cronbach α for the interest measure was α = .88 (M = 3.84, SD = .45). Results Hypothesis 1 states that intrinsic motivation will be related to mastery goals and performance-approach goals, while extrinsic motivation will be related to performance-avoidance goals. To test this hypothesis, two Pearson correlation analyses were conducted to separately measure the correlation of achievement goals with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The results showed a positive cor- relation between intrinsic motivation and mastery goals (r = .45, p < .01). The intrinsic motivation scale contained three subscales measuring challenge, curi- osity, and mastery. The endorsement of mastery-approach goals was positively related to the need for challenge (r = .38, p < .01), curiosity (r = .45, p < .01), and mastery (r = .30, p < .01). Performance-approach goals, as expected, were posi- tively related to intrinsic motivation (r = .20, p < .01), and in terms of subscales, also positively related to challenge (r = .19, p < .01), curiosity (r=.17, p< .01) and mastery (r = .12, p < .01). Performance-avoidance goals, in contrast, showed some interesting re- sults because they documented positive correlation with intrinsic motivation as a scale but also with the subscales of intrinsic motivation. Performance-avoid- ance goals were positively correlated with intrinsic motivation ( r = .15, p < .01) as well as with the subscales of intrinsic motivation, namely challenge (r = .12, p < .01), curiosity (r = .15, p < .01) and mastery (r = .11, p < .01). 158 exploring the link between achievement goals, motivation, and parental ... Table 5 Pearson Correlation Matrix between achievement goals and intrinsic motivation 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Performance-approach _ 2. Performance avoidance .62** _ 3. Mastery .13** .21** _ 4. Intrinsic Motivation .20** .15** .45** _ 5. Intrinsic Challenge .19** .12** .38** .91** _ 6. Intrinsic Curiosity .17** .15** .45** .74** .56** _ 7. Intrinsic Mastery .12** .11** .30** .72** .47** .39** Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. The second part of this hypothesis states that extrinsic motivation will be correlated to performance-avoidance goals, which, as expected, showed significant positive correlations with extrinsic motivation (r =.35, p < .01) in general and with the three subscales: extrinsic motivation (r = .23, p < .01), pleasing the teacher (r = .31, p < .01), and dependence on the teacher (r = .23, p < .01). Surprisingly, the correlation analysis showed a positive correlation be- tween mastery goals and extrinsic motivation (r = .15, p < .01), but only with the subscale of dependence on the teacher (r = .24, p < .01). The results of the cor- relation analysis prove that all types of goals positively correlate to all types of intrinsic motivation, but the correlation values for performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals are lower. In contrast, the performance-approach and performance goals strongly correlate to all subscales of extrinsic motivation, but mastery goals correlate only to the subscale of dependence on the teacher. Table 6 Pearson Correlation Matrix between achievement goals and extrinsic motivation 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Perfonmance-approach _ 2. Performance avoidance .62** _ 3. Mastery .13** .21** _ 4. Extrinsic Motivation .45** .35** .15** _ 5. Extrinsic Work .28** .23** .02 .76** _ 6. Pleasing Teacher .37** .31** .07 .78** .47** _ 7. Dependence on Teacher .34** .23** .24** .63** .13** .27** Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 159 Hypothesis 2 states that intrinsic motivation will predict mastery goal pref- erences while extrinsic motivation will predict performance-approach and per- formance-avoidance goal preferences. The results of linear regression analyses revealed that the subscale of curiosity in intrinsic motivation predicted mastery goals while accounting for 21% of the variance in mastery goal adaptation. Table 7 Summary of simple regression analysis for mastery goals Variable B SB(B) β T Sig. (p) Curiosity 0.37 0.30 0.45 12.34 .000 Note. R2 = .21. Extrinsic motivation predicted performance-approach goals, account- ing for 20% of the variance. Table 8 Summary of simple regression analysis for performance-approach goals Variable B SB(B) β T Sig. (p) Extrinsic Motivation 0.37 0.30 .45 12.34 .000 Note. R2 = .20. Additionally, extrinsic motivation was a predictor for performance- avoidance goals, accounting for 14% of the variance. The results of the linear regression analysis have supported this hypothesis. Table 9 Summary of simple regression analysis for performance-avoidance goals Variable B SB(B) β T Sig. (p) Extrinsic Motivation 0.54 0.06 0.35 9.21 .000 Note. R2 = .14. Parental Expectations and achievement goals Hypothesis 3 states that parental expectations will be related to the prefer- ences for performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals. The results, as expected, showed positive correlations between parental expectations and 160 exploring the link between achievement goals, motivation, and parental ... performance goal orientations. Specifically, it is suggested that the higher the parental expectations are, the more performance-approach-oriented the stu- dent will be (r = .40, p < .01). Interestingly the other type of performance goals, the performance-avoidance also showed a positive correlation with parent ex- pectations (r = .34, p < .01). Additionally, a positive correlation can also be observed between parental expectations and the endorsement of mastery goals (r = .35, p<.01). The results documented positive correlations between both types of performance goals and parental expectations. Unexpectedly, the results showed a positive correlation between the endorsement of mastery goals and perceived parental expectations. Table 10 Pearson Correlation Matrix between achievement goals and parental expectations 1 2 3 4 1. Performance-Approach _ 2. Performance-Avoidance .62** _ 3. Mastery .13** .21** _ 4. Parental Expectations .40** .34** .35** _ Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. Discussion The present study focused on assessing the link between parental expec- tations, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and achievement goals in university students in Kosovo. Intrinsic motivation is considered to be the motive which keeps students engaged in a task due to inherent qualities (Lee et al., 2010; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Students who are intrinsically motivated are enthusiastic, open to experiencing adventures, striving for excellence, set goals, as well as work hard to improve. Typically, students who are intrinsically motivated tend to think of tasks as interesting and important, which in return makes it possible for them to persist in their work as well as develop strategies to achieve goals (Lee et al., 2010). A considerable number of research studies on the topic of achievement and motivation argue that mastery and performance goals are different process- es that also have different impacts and consequences on intrinsic motivation (Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999). To date, research has supported the assumption that mastery goals are linked to intrinsic motivation (Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1999; Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999) due to their focus on the intrinsic value of c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 161 learning (Lee et al., 2010). As expected, mastery goals among university students in Kosovo correlated highly to all subscales of intrinsic motivation. It was unex- pected that performance-approach and performance-avoidance also correlated to intrinsic motivation; however, the correlation values were significantly lower compared to the mastery goals. Additionally, curiosity as a subscale of intrin- sic motivation predicted mastery goal endorsement while accounting for 21% of the variance. The results of this study imply that among students in Kosovo mastery goals are linked to intrinsic motivation. To that end, the results support the understanding that other goals, while correlating to intrinsic motivation, ex- hibit low correlation values compared to mastery goals. It is a unique conclusion of this study that among students in Kosovo, curiosity predicted preference for mastery goals which implies that curiosity is a strong determinant of mastery goal endorsement. In addition, the findings of this study imply that students who employ performance goals are the ones who have low levels of intrinsic mo- tivation. To that end, performance-oriented students may benefit greatly from instruction and evaluation that fosters intrinsic motivation. In contrast, extrinsic motivation is the motive that keeps students en- gaged in a task through external rewards (Lee et al., 2010; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Extrinsic motivation is related to worrying about grades, rewards, praise, and feedback. Students who are extrinsically motivated tend to engage in surface learning and will usually not continue in a task when they perceive that there will be no extrinsic rewards. Research studies maintain that performance goals seem to be connected to extrinsic motivation (Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1999; Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999) due to the focus on doing better than others and achieving success with little effort (Lee et al., 2010). Similar to existing studies the results of the present research provided that performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals correlated positively to extrinsic motivation. Mastery goals correlated positively to the subscale of dependence on the teach- er. Furthermore, extrinsic motivation predicted a preference for performance- approach goals as well as performance-avoidance goals. The present study con- ducted on students attending higher education institutions in Kosovo adds to the existing literature by supporting the link between extrinsic motivation and performance goals. However, the present study expands knowledge of the field by documenting that extrinsic motivation predicts performance-approach and performance-avoidance goal preferences. To that end, the results of this study imply that education settings which foster extrinsic motivation will also en- dorse the adoption of performance goals. Consequently, education approaches and settings in Kosovo ought to be altered to ensure that they foster intrinsic motivation instead of extrinsic approaches to learning. 162 exploring the link between achievement goals, motivation, and parental ... Regarding the link between achievement goals and parental expecta- tions, the data provide that the latter exhibit positive correlations to all types of achievement goals. To that end, the strongest link was noticeable between parental expectations and performance-approach goals, followed by mastery goals and finally performance-avoidance goals. This finding implies that par- ents who expect their children to perform well will ultimately ‘teach’ their chil- dren to adopt performance-approach goals. Understandably, this result docu- ments the vital influence that parents have over their children’s approach to learning. Limitations of the study and future research The present study used three self-reporting instruments to assess achievement goals, motivation, and parental expectations in students in Ko- sovo, which may be considered a limitation. 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Retrieved from http://www.haworthpress.com/store/product.asp?sku=J051 Shala, A., & Grajcevci (2017). Digital competencies among student populations in Kosovo: the impact of inclusion, socioeconomic status, ethnicity and type of residence. Education and Information Technologies. Advance online publication. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9657-3 Tamir, M., & Diener, E. (2008). Approach-avoidance goals and well-being: One size does not fit all. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), Handbook of approach and avoidance motivation (pp. 415–427). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Biographical note Albulene Grajcevci, is a Researcher at the Professional Devel- opment Institute in Prishtina, Kosovo. She holds degrees from the Ludwig Maximilians University in Munich (Germany) and the University of Prishtina (Kosovo). Her expertise is in educational psychology, with a special focus on achievement goals, achievement emotions, organizational learning and com- puter enhanced learning. Arif Shala, PhD, is a Researcher at the Professional Development In- stitute in Prishtina, Kosovo. He holds a PhD in Education from the Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich (Germany). His expertise is in educational science, with a specific focus on 21st Century skills, student performance, learn- ing in the new era, online learning and inclusion. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 165 Participation in Decision-making in Class: Opportunities and Student Attitudes in Austria and Slovenia Monika Mithans*1, Milena Ivanuš Grmek2 and Branka Čagran3 • This article focuses on the issue of student involvement in the educa- tion process. The study comprised pupils aged 10-11, 13-14 and 16-17; 322 students were attending school in Austria, and 458 students were in Slo- venia. The data were collected through a questionnaire and processed on the level of descriptive and inferential statistics. The right to participa- tion is among the four main principles set out in the Convention on the Rights of the Child from 1989. However, a study that aimed to identify the areas in which students already have the opportunity to participate in decision-making and areas in which they want more participation showed that they remain insufficiently aware of the right to participation in school. In addition, the study showed that students from Austrian schools have more decision-making opportunities than their peers in Slovenia do. The results also indicate that, despite its proven advantages, legal basis, and the repeated demands for its implementation, participa- tion in the class environment has yet to become common practice. Keywords: effect of student participation, student ability for participation, student desire for participation, student participation in decision-making 1 *Corresponding Author. Primary School Muta, Slovenia; monika.mithans@gmail.com. 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia. 3 University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia. 166 participation in decision-making in class Možnosti in želje učencev v Avstriji in Sloveniji po soodločanju pri pouku Monika Mithans, Milena Ivanuš Grmek in Branka Čagran • V članku predstavljamo problematiko vključevanja učencev v pouk. V raziskavi so sodelovali učenci, stari med 10 in 11 let, med 13 in 14 let ter med 16 in 17 let. 322 učencev obiskuje šole v Avstriji, 458 pa v Sloveniji. Podatki so bili zbrani z vprašalnikom ter obdelani na ravni deskriptivne in inferenčne statistike. Pravica do participacije je v okviru ene izmed štirih glavnih načel zapisana že v Konvenciji o otrokovih pravicah iz leta 1989, a rezultati te raziskave, v kateri smo želeli ugotoviti področja pou- ka, na katerih učenci že zaznavajo možnosti soodločanja, in področja pouka, na katerih bi si soodločanja še želeli, kažejo, da je pravica do participacije učencev pri pouku še vedno premalo prisotna. Nadalje rezultati raziskave kažejo, da imajo učenci, ki se šolajo v Avstriji, več možnosti soodločanja pri pouku kot njihovi vrstniki v Sloveniji. Ključne besede: učinki soodločanja učencev, sposobnosti učencev za soodločanje, želje učencev po soodločanju, participacija učencev c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 167 Introduction Participation is a basic characteristic of democracy and one of the el- ementary human rights of children (e.g. Sturzenhecker, 2005). For this reason, the youth policy in Europe (see EU Strategy for Youth – Investing and Empow- ering, 2009) recognises youth participation as a priority. In a modern school, the teacher is expected to motivate students and create conditions for active learning, with the students taking part in all stages of the education process (Ja- vornik Krečič, 2003). Modern schools differ from traditional ones with respect to the level of democracy; at the same time, modern pedagogical processes are based on a democratic climate and relationships at the level of the school and in class (Kovač Šebart & Krek, 2007). Participation is the objective of general edu- cation (e.g. Reith, 2007), because school, as a state and social institution, plays a key role in the development of democratic values among its future citizens. The notion of student participation, in the case of the present paper, rep- resents active student participation in the planning, implementation, and eval- uation of school work (Kovač, Resman, & Rajkovič, 2008, 2010) and provides new opportunities for quality school work (Kovač, 2008; Kovač et al., 2010). This article deals with the participation of pupils in Slovenia and Austria. It aims to present the prospects and student attitudes towards it in each of the two countries. The results acquired do not provide clear answers about the possibili- ties of students’ participation; they indicate the need for further developmental research monitoring of teaching practice and the formation of guidelines for more active student participation in the educational process. Positive Effects of Pupil Participation School is the space where children should encounter a democratic way of life and learn democracy directly through their experience (see Pereira, Mouraz, & Figueiredo, 2014). Participation is the key to independent learn- ing. In the long run, the involvement of students results in greater motivation for learning and better learning outcomes (Reith, 2007). The positive effect of participation on school work outcomes and personal traits are also emphasised by Eder (1998), who is convinced that children exposed to a democratic edu- cation style that allows them more frequent participation in decision-making develop personal characteristics, such as openness, activity, self-assurance and independence, and encounter new challenges self-confidently and with curi- osity (e.g. Kirby, Lanyon, Cronin & Sinclair, 2003). Additionally, participation prepares young people for active engagement in social life and enables them to 168 participation in decision-making in class develop organisational skills and the skills to respond rapidly to social change (Baumkirher, Bakovnik, Beočanin, & Džidič, 2011; Pereira et al., 2014). Partici- pation also has a positive effect on school life and the learning process. Various studies on school climate and quality have proven that the satisfaction of stu- dents with school and the quality of school work improve if students encounter various opportunities for participation at school and can consider themselves as serious discussion partners (see Baacke & Brücher, 1982; Grundmann et al., 1998; Kötters et al. 2001; Kovač, 2008; Pereira et al., 2014). Participating stu- dents feel better in class and at school; they enjoy going to school more and experience less frustration than their peers do. They also more frequently dis- cover things at school that they like and thus have better motivation (Baacke & Brücher, 1982; Kovač, 2008; Kötters et al., 2001). Hart (1992) emphasises that youth participation must increase with their age and maturity and spread from the private to public spheres because this enables young people to find their position in society and develop their competences in a responsible way. Children’s capacity to participate and formal grounds for its implementation in decision-making Portmann and Student (2005) warn that children are relatively inde- pendent personalities, and their psychological development allows them to participate in the decision-making processes pertaining to them at the age of six years (i.e. Fatke and Schneider, 2008; Sünker, Swiderek, & Richter, 2005; Portmann & Student, 2005). Fatke and Schneider (2008) also emphasise that children possess all the necessary participation competencies and can thus par- ticipate (in a manner appropriate to their age) in decision-making in various areas of their life. It is up to adults to make it possible for children to participate in the implementation of their rights and to accept them as serious partners and provide them with the opportunity to acquire the necessary competencies (Baacke & Brücher, 1982; Bundesjugendkuratorium, 2009). Another important fact for the implementation of participation is that children not only can par- ticipate in decision making but they want to do so and are willing to participate – so long as adults provide them with sufficient opportunities and follow their suggestions (Portmann & Student, 2005). It is thus up to the adults to adapt the content and methodological side of participation to the developmental stage of children (Fatke & Schneider, 2008). In addition to the issue of capacity, legal means are also needed for implementing the right to participation in decision- making. By adopting UNICEF’s Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), both Slovenia and Austria accepted their obligation to protect the fundamental c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 169 rights of children, including participation in decision-making. In Europe, regu- lation on the participation of students is more common at the higher levels of education. Thus, more student participation mechanisms exist at the higher secondary level (ISCED 3) than at the lower secondary level (ISCED 2), and the fewest at the primary level (ISCED 1) (Citizenship Education in Europe, 2012). The situation in Austria and Slovenia is comparable. Participation in de- cision-making is stipulated by law (see Citizenship Education in Europe, 2012); however, according to Bock (2010), the exercising of this right in pedagogical reality depends mostly on teacher orientation, and the orientation of school administrations. Opportunities and Pupils’ Preferences about Participat- ing in Decision-Making Grundmann and Kramer (2001) found that participation in school is not equally possible in all areas. Many opportunities for participation in de- cision-making exist in areas that do not have a direct impact on the life and functioning of the school. In contrast, the potential for participation in deci- sion-making is limited when it comes to making decisions about school rules, norms and teaching. Study results from Grundmann et al. (1998) show that students have the most opportunities for participation in decision-making regarding school life; while students see the fewest opportunities for participation in decision- making that concern grading, as well as adopting or changing school rules and regulations. Their answers showed that teachers do allow pupils to participate in decision-making related to teaching; however, this right usually ends when it comes to grading, because as many as 77.4% of the pupils stated that teach- ers do not include them in knowledge-assessment processes (see also Fatke & Schneider, 2008; Kovač, 2008). A study by Fatke and Schneider (2005) con- firmed previous findings that students most frequently participate in setting up the seating arrangement and arranging the school premises. Only rarely do they participate in areas regarding teachers’ professional work (grading, setting exam dates, choosing topics, defining the class structure, etc.). Grundmann and Kramer (2001) found that pupils are divided regarding participation in decision-making that involves teaching. On the one hand, there are students who see teaching as a tightly regulated process; on the other, there are those who nevertheless see a number of opportunities to participate in decision- making about it. It is also necessary to mention the results of a study conducted by Kötters et al. (2001) because the pupils taking part in it were divided on the 170 participation in decision-making in class issue of participation opportunities with regard to teaching. 38.8% agreed with the option that students can participate in decision-making about teaching; 11.8% completely agreed with that. In contrast, 35.0% disagreed, and 14.4% completely disagreed that they were being given the chance to affect teaching decisions. On the basis of the results of these studies, it is possible to conclude that despite the formal foundations the opportunities for the pupils to participate in decision-making remains very limited in practice. Fatke and Schneider (2005) say that children can participate in decisions in areas that are not directly linked with the interests of adults. Students can thus participate in decision-making about issues that do not relate directly to teaching and the teacher’s professional and pedagogical authority; thus, participation occurs least often with regard to knowledge assessment and grading (ibid., p. 17). In the studies cited so far, pupils had the opportunity to participate in decision-making from their own perspective. However, what are the areas in which students want to participate in decision-making? Eder (1998) provides a few answers to this question. In his study about democracy in Austrian secondary schools, he found that participation was uncommon. When researching students’ preferences for participation, it was shown that students wanted to participate particularly in the area of school life: e.g. planning school trips and school events, the seating arrangement, organising breaks, etc. The desire to participate in de- cision-making regarding class topics and the teachers who should be teaching them were less pronounced. Unfortunately, Eder (1998) did not examine student preferences regarding participation in decision-making in the areas of knowledge assessment and class implementation. The school principals that were included in the study by Grundmann et al. (1998) claim that students do have opportuni- ties for participation; however, students either do not use these or use them very seldom. Grundmann and Kramer (2001), studying the readiness of pupils to take responsibility in school, also came to the same conclusion. Study aims and research questions These results are part of an extensive study whose main aim was to es- tablish how students and teachers perceive the opportunities for participation and its influence on student motivation and the class climate. The study at- tempts to answer the following main research questions: • What are the areas in which students already see an opportuni- ty to participate, and where would they like to participate more in decision-making? • What are the differences regarding the country (Slovenia, Austria)? c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 171 Method Sample The study sample comprises students from Slovenia (n = 458) and Aus- tria (n = 322), aged 10-11 (5th grade); aged 13-14 (8th grade) and 16-17-year-olds (2nd year of secondary school) and their teachers from Slovenian urban, subur- ban and countryside schools that border Austria, and from the Austrian federal states of Styria and Carinthia, which border Slovenia in its southern part and have a resident Slovenian national minority. The collected sample of pupils is a non-random purposive sample, which is defined as a simple random sample from an accessible population on the level of inferential statistics. Instrument A questionnaire was prepared for this research, which was divided into five sections (basic research sample data, frequency of introducing open forms of class, possibility to participate in decision-making in school and during class, possibility to contribute to school climate and familiarity with possible participation in decision-making, as well as the possibility and desire of the students to participate in decision-making). All questions are close-ended with verbal and ascending answers. The validity of the questionnaire was ensured by considering all previous studies, experiment reviews and probing use. The reliability is confirmed by the calculated Cronbach alpha coefficient (α = 0.832). Its objectivity is ensured with detailed instructions and evaluation of answers without subjective judgement. This article will focus on the section of questions pertaining to possibilities and the desire of students to participate in decision making during class. Data processing procedure The data were processed with SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). Frequency distributions (f, f%) and �2 – test of diff erences per coun- try were used. 172 participation in decision-making in class Results and discussion The questionnaire listed various areas of decision-making in class, in order to establish what opportunities and preferences students had regarding participation; the pupils had to decide whether they were allowed to participate in decision-making in this area; if not, whether they would want to. We wanted to establish how the students perceived opportunities for participation and what preferences they expressed regarding class topics, teaching methodology, knowledge assessment, and grading. Table 1 indicates the opportunity and preferences regarding participa- tion in the decision-making process regarding knowledge assessment. Indi- vidual statements are sequenced from those for which the pupils are detecting the most opportunities to participate in decision-making to those for which the pupils detect the least opportunities to participate in decision-making. Table 1 �2 - test result for statements by students about participation opportunities and preferences in decision-making on the knowledge assessment regarding country Statement Students from Slovenia Students from Austria TOTAL χ2 - test results f f% f f% f f% Setting oral exam dates I can participate in my school 187 40.8 169 52.5 356 45.6 �2 = 12.373 P = .002 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school, but I want to 178 38.9 111 34.5 289 37.1 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 93 20.3 42 13.0 135 17.3 Setting written exam dates I can participate in my school 167 36.5 147 45.7 314 40.3 �2 = 6.709 P = .035 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 191 41.7 117 36.3 308 39.5 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 100 21.8 58 18 158 20.3 Decisions about make- up exams I can participate in my school 143 31.2 159 49.4 302 38.7 �2 = 39.519 P = .000 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 214 46.7 137 42.5 351 45.0 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 101 22.1 26 8.1 127 16.3 Decisions about type of exam (written, oral etc.). I can participate in my school 101 22.1 99 30.7 200 25.6 �2 = 8.707 P = .033 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 233 50.9 153 47.5 386 49.5 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 123 26.9 70 21.7 193 24.7 c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 173 Statement Students from Slovenia Students from Austria TOTAL χ2-test results f f% f f% f f% Decisions about exam topics. I can participate in my school 75 16.4 117 36.3 192 24.6 �2 = 43.955 P = .000 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 253 55.2 151 46.9 404 51.8 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 130 28.4 54 16.8 184 23.6 Decisions about grading criteria. I can participate in my school 61 13.3 52 16.1 113 14.5 �2 = 5.448 P = .066 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 241 52.6 185 57.5 426 54.6 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 156 34.1 85 26.4 241 30.9 Assessment of knowledge is an area that is often problematic for the pupils, and that is why their active participation in this field is especially impor- tant (Kovač, 2008). In the field of testing and knowledge assessment, the pupils in our research stated that they are given the most opportunities to participate in the decision-making process when establishing the dates for oral examina- tions and knowledge assessments; 45.6% of participants detect the opportunity to participate in decision-making, while 40.3% detect the opportunity to par- ticipate in the decision-making process when establishing the dates for written tests and knowledge assessments. The pupils are very rarely included in defin- ing the knowledge assessment criteria, since only 14.5% of the participants can participate in this field. We believe that these results are the result of the fact that testing and knowledge assessment is a field of the teacher’s professional autonomy and that pupils, therefore, cannot be equally included in the decision-making process or that they cannot impact the assessment itself (Kodela & Lesar, 2015), while they have the right to be aware of the dates of knowledge assessment pursuant to the law (Rules on testing and knowledge assessment and advancement of pupils in a primary school, 2013; Rules on knowledge assessment in secondary schools, 2010; Decision on Testing and Assessment, 1974). The pupils that do not have the opportunity to participate in the deci- sion-making process wish they could do so. More than half wish they could participate in the decision-making process regarding the content and knowl- edge assessment criteria. Slightly less than half (49.5%) wish to participate in the decision-making process regarding the method of testing and knowledge assessment or methods of improving a poor grade (45.0%). Some students do not want to participate in the decision-making pro- cess. Specifically, 30.9% of the participants do not want to participate in the decision-making process regarding the knowledge assessment criteria; 24.7% 174 participation in decision-making in class do not wish to participate in determining the testing and knowledge assess- ment method; 23.7% do not wish to participate in determining the testing and knowledge assessment content, and 20.3% do not want to participate in estab- lishing the dates for written exams and knowledge assessment. The results of the �2 test show that there is a statistically significant dif- ference between the pupils in Slovenia and pupils in Austria in detecting the opportunity and desire to participate in the decision-making process for all statements except for the statement that pertains to defining the criteria for knowledge assessment. Pupils attending schools in Austria have an advantage in all indicated opportunities for participating in the decision-making process in testing and knowledge assessment. We were also interested in the possible desire for pupil participation in the selection of in-class student grouping and use of tools and media in class. The results are indicated in Table 2. Table 2 �2 - test result for statements by students about participation opportunities and preferences in decision-making on the within-class student grouping and use of tools/media in class regarding country Statement Students from Slovenia Students from Austria TOTAL χ2 - test results f f% f f% f f% Decisions about within-class student grouping (individual, with friends in a group, etc.) I can participate in my school 125 27.3 123 38.2 248 31.8 �2 = 17.832 P = .000 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 235 51.3 162 50.3 397 50.9 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 98 21.4 37 11.5 135 17.3 Which tools/media I want to use in class (textbook, books, computer, internet, TV). I can participate in my school 91 19.9 84 26.1 175 22.4 �2 = 6.794 P = .033 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 252 55.0 178 55.3 430 55.1 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 115 25.1 60 18.6 175 22.4 When selecting the in-class student grouping and use of tools and media in class, 31.8% of the participants are able to participate in the decision-mak- ing process on whether they will work individually or in a group during class. When selecting tools and media that they wish to use during class, 22.4% said that they had the opportunity to participate in decision-making. Pupils who do not have the opportunity to participate in the decision- making regarding the in-class student grouping and use of tools and media in c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 175 class wish that they could. More than half of the participants stated that they wish to participate in the selection of tools and media used during class, as well as whether they will work individually or in a group; 22.4% of the participants stated that they do not wish to participate in the decision-making regarding the selection of tools or media used during class, while 17.3% of the participants do not want to participate in the decision-making regarding whether they should work individually or in a group during class. There is also a significant statistical difference in this field in detecting the opportunity and the desire to participate in the decision-making process. Pupils attending schools in Austria perceive more options to participate in the decision-making process. This result is congruent with the option to partici- pate in the decision-making process provided to pupils by Austrian school leg- islation, because the School Act (1986) specifies that a pupil has the right to participate in class management and the selection of teaching tools within his capacity, and he also has the right to be heard and to express his suggestions and opinions. Furthermore, we wished to review the opportunities and desire to par- ticipate in the decision-making process regarding the selection of teaching con- tent and amount of homework. The results are indicated in Table 3. Table 3 �2 - test result for statements by students about participation opportunities and preferences in decision-making on the selection of teaching content and the amount of homework regarding country Statement Students from Slovenia Students from Austria TOTAL χ2 - test results f f% f f% f f% Choosing seminar paper topics. I can participate in my school 239 52.2 203 63.0 442 56.7 �2 = 10.876 P = .004 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 150 32.8 90 28.0 240 30.8 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 69 15.1 29 9.0 98 12.6 Decisions about the amount of homework. I can participate in my school 76 16.6 67 20.8 143 18.3 �2 = 13.497 P = .001 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 275 60.0 213 66.1 488 62.6 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 107 23.4 42 13.0 149 19.1 Decisions about what will be taught in class. I can participate in my school 55 12 50 15.5 105 13.5 �2 = 20.094 P = .000 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 225 49.1 196 60.9 421 54.0 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 178 38.9 76 23.6 254 32.6 176 participation in decision-making in class The pupils stated that teachers are giving them more opportunities to participate when selecting themes for written papers; 56.7% of the participants observed participation. The pupils perceived fewer options in regard to the amount of homework (18.3%). The possibility of being included in the decision- making process in regard to the topic treated during class is even lower: this is perceived by only 13.5% of the participants. The reasons for such a low percent- age of inclusion of pupils in the selection of topics can be found in specifically determined curricula, in which the majority of the content is compulsory (i.e. Schmidt, 2001). Likewise, the pupils that do not have the option to participate in the decision-making process wish that they did: 62.6% of the participants wish to participate in the decision-making regarding the amount of homework. More than half (54.0%) wish to participate in the decision-making process regarding the treated topics, and 30.8% when determining written paper topics. Again, there are pupils that do not wish to participate in this type of decision-making. Specifically, 32.6% of the participants do not want to be in- volved in the decision-making regarding the selection of topics treated during class. Less than 20% wish to participate in the remaining two topics. The results of the �2-test show that there is a significant statistical difference between the pupils from Slovenia and Austria regarding all three statements. Pupils who are attending schools in Austria have more opportunities to participate in the decision-making here as well, which can be, in our opinion, attributed to more opportunities to participate in the decision-making, which is granted to the pupils in this field by the Austrian legislation (School Act, 1986). Table 4 indicates the results of testing the participation opportunities and preferences in the decision-making on the seating arrangement and the classroom rules. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 177 Table 4 �2 - test result for statements by students about participation opportunities and preferences in decision-making on the seating arrangement and the classroom rules regarding country Statement Students from Slovenia Students from Austria TOTAL χ2 - test results f f% f f% f f% Setting the seat- ing arrangement I can participate in my school 167 36.5 204 63.4 371 47.6 �2 = 61.557 P = .000 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 185 40.4 92 28.6 277 35.5 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 106 23.1 26 8.1 132 16.9 Setting class- room rules I can participate in my school 94 20.5 81 25.2 175 22.4 �2 = 24.837 P = .000 I cannot participate in decision-mak- ing in my school but I want to 204 44.5 181 56.2 385 49.4 I neither can participate in decision- making in my school nor do I want to 160 34.9 60 18.6 220 28.2 The pupils stated that 47.6% of them can influence the seating arrange- ment, while 22.4% of the participants can participate in decision-making in regard to the classroom rules. The majority of the pupils that do not have the opportunity to partici- pate wish that they could; 49.4% of the participants wish to have the opportu- nity to be involved in the decision-making process in regard to the classroom rules, while 35.5% wish to be involved with the seating arrangement. There are also pupils that do not wish to be involved in the decision- making process in regard to determining the classroom rules (28.2%) and de- termining the seating arrangement (28.2%). The results of the �2-test show that there is a statistically significant dif- ference between the pupils in Slovenia and the pupils in Austria. The frequencies show that students from our study see fewer opportu- nities for participation in decision-making in comparison with students from other similar studies (see Grundmann et al., 1998; Grundmann & Kramer, 2001; Fatke & Schneider, 2005; Kurth-Buchholz, 2011). Fatke and Schneider (2005) found that 76.4% of students participated in decision-making about the seating arrangement (47.6% in our study); 51.0% of students participated in decision- making about the choice of topics (13.5% in our study); 50.9% of pupils could participate in setting classroom rules (22.4% in our study); and students from this study also perceived more opportunities (49.0%) for setting written exam dates (40.3% in our study). 178 participation in decision-making in class The �2 - test results show a statistically significant difference between students in Slovenia and Austria in the perception of opportunities to partici- pate and the desire to do so in all statements of the research area, apart from the statement regarding the definition of knowledge assessment criteria. Students attending schools in Austria are ahead in terms of all the given opportunities for participation in decision-making. Such a result is somewhat surprising since the ICCS results (2009) show that Slovenian students attribute greater significance to participation than their Austrian peers do, as well as tak- ing part in various activities within school more frequently (see Schulz, Ainley, Fraillion, Kerr, & Losito, 2010). One of the factors that has a positive impact on the opportunities to participate in the decision-making for pupils who are attending schools in Austria is the legislative foundation for participation since formal presentation or pupil participation in decision-making is regulated bet- ter in Austria. At the same time, the Austrian legislation directly emphasises or ensures the right for the pupils to participate in the class management and selection of teaching methods according to their abilities, as well as for them to be heard and be able to express their opinion. Likewise, the Austrian legisla- tion prescribes to the management that it needs to support all forms of pupil representation. It should also be emphasised that students from Slovenian schools are less interested in participation than their peers in Austria are. In our opinion, students in Slovenia show such low preparedness for participation because they have lacked sufficient opportunities for participa- tion in decision-making, which is why they never developed the skills needed for it (e.g. Baacke & Brücher, 1982). Conclusion The findings of our study suggest that student participation remains a difficult goal to achieve since more than half of the participants only participate in decision-making related to defining seminar themes. Many authors (Bock, 2010; Kurth-Buchholz, 2011; Reith, 2007) state that student participation greatly depends on the teachers and there is a lot of unused potential in their prepared- ness and capability to enable participation. The question is, whether the teach- ers want pupils who actively co-create the teaching process, since Elke Kurth Buchholz (2011) proved in her study that students want more opportunities in class than their teachers think. The literature mentions that students do not wish to participate. There- fore, Reichenbach (2006) states that many students do not feel the need to c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 179 participate in decision-making. Our study reached different conclusions, since more students are opting for participation in decision-making in all defined areas than there are students who do not feel the need to participate. The study’s findings suggest that students attending schools in Austria have more options to participate in decision-making, which does not coincide with the ICCS (2009) determinations. In regard to the results acquired from students attending school in Slove- nia, the majority does not wish to participate in decision-making. In our opin- ion, the reasons for such low preparedness to participate in decision-making among students in Slovenia could be explained by the fact that they were not given enough opportunities to develop their innate participation competences (see Baacke & Brücher, 1982). It needs to be emphasised that the participation of students in class de- pends on the opportunities given to them by the teachers and on the prepared- ness of the students to take advantage of them. If we want student participa- tion to become a permanent teaching practice, teachers need to have quality education and training. The teachers who allow students to participate in de- cision-making in class need to understand what participation is, and not only the theory. They need a deeper understanding of the concepts and teaching methods that contribute to successful involvement of students. Only deeper understanding of this field will allow the teachers to trust their own knowledge and capabilities needed for student involvement. Trained teachers will give the student the option to participate in decision-making and provide the condi- tions to develop participation competences in order to feel competent when taking on participation related responsibilities. We believe that student participation can be improved mainly with planned training and teacher empowerment in this field. References Baacke, D., & Brücher, B. (1982). Mitbestimmen in der Schule: Grundlagen und Perspektiven der Partizipation [Participation in school: bases and perspectives of cooperation]. Weinheim: Beltz. Baumkirher, T., Bakovnik, N., Beočanin, T., & Džidič, S. (2011). Participacija mladih: programski dokument Mladinskega sveta Slovenije [Participation of youngsters: program document of the Youth Council of Slovenia]. Ljubljana: MSS. 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Probleme und Chancen der Partizipation von Kindern und Jugendlichen (pp. 39–61). Zürich/Chur: Rüeger Verlag. Reith, S. (2007). Warum Partizipation in der Schule? [Why participation in school?]. Retrieved from http://ganztag-blk.de/ganztags- box/cms/upload/soz_komp/pdf/2.11.4_Partizipation_in_der_Schule. pdf Schmidt, R. (2001). Partizipation in Schule und Unterricht [Participation in school and classes]. Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 44, 24–30. Retrieved from http://www.bpb.de/system/files/pdf/2PSIIH.pdf Schulz, W., Ainley, J., Fraillion, J., Kerr, D., & Losito, B. (2010). ICCS 2009 International Report: Civic Knowledge, Attitudes and Engagement Among Lower-secondary School Students in 38 Countries. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 183 Amsterdam: IEA. Retrieved from http://www.iea.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/Electronic_ versions/ICCS_2009_International_Report.pdf Sturzenhecker, B. (2005). 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Retrieved from http://www.aba-fachverband.org/fileadmin/user_upload/user_upload%20 2010/fachpolitik/Partizipative_Ansaetze_W.pdf 184 participation in decision-making in class Biographical note Monika Mithans is a postgraduate of Education Studies at Faculty of Education in Maribor and teacher at Primary School Muta. In 2014/2015 she worked as Assistant for Pedagogy and in 2011/2013 as Assistant for Didactics at Faculty of Education in Maribor. In May 2011 she participated actively at the international congress “International Year of Youth: Dialogue and Mutual Un- derstanding” with the project “Early Linguistically and Intercultural Awareness - The Path to Dialogue”. As a postgraduate she is researching child participation at school and at lessons. Milena Ivanuš Grmek, PhD, is Full Professor of Didactics at the Uni- versity of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia. She has 32 years of work experience in different fields of education. Her recent research interests include professional development of teachers, curriculum planning and curriculum development. Branka Čagran, PhD. She is Full Professor of Pedagogical Methodol- ogy at the Faculty of Education in Maribor. She started working for the faculty in 1988 as Assistant for Pedagogical Methodology. In 1993 she was elected Do- cent, in 2004 Associate Professor and in 2011 Full Professor. She has 30 years of work experience in different fields of pedagogical education. She gained practi- cal experience working as pedagogical counsellor in primary school, and also in the counselling centre for young children, adolescents and parents. Pres- ently, she is involved in advising university teachers and researchers on research methodology. She has gained her research experience from active participation in experimental and non-experimental pedagogical research, and in the evalu- ation of national and international school projects. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 185 Changes in Beliefs Regarding Good Teachers and the Characteristics of Child Development of Primary Education Students Helena Smrtnik Vitulič1 and Irena Lesar*2 • In a longitudinal study, we determine the beliefs of primary education students regarding the factors of academic achievement, good teachers, and the developmental characteristics of children, and we present which experiences mostly shape these beliefs. The same group of students (N = 59) completed the same questionnaire at the beginning of their first year and then at the end of their postgraduate studies. At both meas- urements, the students stated that the pupils themselves are the most responsible for their academic achievement (approximately 33%). At the beginning of the study, the students mostly showed idealised beliefs regarding what makes a good teacher, such as he/she is self-controlled and calm in all situations; he/she likes all children equally, etc. At the end, the results showed a reshaping of most idealised beliefs about what makes good teachers towards more realistic ones. Regarding the devel- opmental characteristics of children, at the beginning and at the end of their studies the students had similar beliefs that heredity and environ- ment contribute to an individual’s development. At the end of their stud- ies, the students are significantly less convinced that experience from an early age decisively influences their further development, that there are no major differences in cognitive abilities of pupils of the same class, that a child who knows a lot of information is clever, and that school is not a place for the expression of emotions. According to the students, direct experiences in the classroom have the most significant influence on the beliefs among all the factors that we have examined in the study. Keywords: beliefs, child development, good teacher, primary education, students 1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Slovenia. 2 *Corresponding Author. University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Slovenia; irena.lesar@pef.uni-lj.si. 186 changes in beliefs regarding good teachers and the characteristics of child ... Spremembe prepričanj študentov razrednega pouka o dobrem učitelju in značilnostih otrokovega razvoja Helena Smrtnik Vitulič in Irena Lesar • V vzdolžni raziskavi ugotavljamo prepričanja študentov razrednega pouka o dejavnikih učnega (ne)uspeha, dobrem učitelju in o razvojnih značilnostih otrok ter predstavimo, katere izkušnje po samoporočanju študentov najbolj sooblikujejo ta prepričanja. Ista skupina študentov (N = 59) je enak vprašalnik najprej izpolnila na začetku prvega letnika študija in nato ob koncu njihovega podiplomskega študija. Ob obeh merjenjih so študenti ocenili, da k učni (ne)uspešnosti učenca v največji meri prispeva učenec sam (približno v 33 %), nato starši, učitelji in naz- adnje vrstniki. Študentje so na začetku študija izražali predvsem ide- alizirane predstave o dobrem učitelju: da je miren in obvladan v vseh situacijah; da ima vse otroke enako rad; da zna motivirati vse otroke, tudi tiste, ki jih snov ne zanima; da zna naučiti vse učence, tudi tiste z nižjimi učnimi sposobnostmi. Ob koncu so rezultati pokazali na pre- oblikovanje večine predstav o dobrem učitelju v smeri bolj realističnih. Glede razvojnih značilnosti otrok pa so imeli študentje že na začetku študija bolj usklajena prepričanja z znanstvenimi spoznanji, saj so se le delno strinjali, da dednost določa posameznikov razvoj, da izkušnje iz zgodnjega otroštva odločujoče vplivajo na nadaljnji razvoj otroka, da ni bistvenih razlik v miselnih sposobnostih učencev istega razreda, da je otrok, ki pozna veliko informacij, pameten in da šola ni prostor za izražanje čustev. Stopnja strinjanja z večino trditev se je ob drugem merjenju pomembno znižala. Po mnenju študentov imajo neposredne izkušnje v razredu med vsemi dejavniki najpomembnejši vpliv na nji- hova prepričanja, ki smo jih preverjali v raziskavi. Ključne besede: prepričanja, dober učitelj, razvoj otroka, študentje, osnovna šola c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 187 Introduction In the past ten years, researchers have been paying particular attention to the question of how to design a high-quality study process, which will enable the (future) teachers the acquisition of competencies to effectively stimulate development and pedagogical work in the classroom (Hermans, van Braak, & Van Keer, 2008; Minor, Onwuegbuzie, Witcher, & James, 2002). In this aspira- tion, it is of key importance to answer two basic questions: 1) What are the key qualities of a good teacher? and 2) How can we help students to become good teachers? (Korthagen, 2004). While responding to a question about the key qualities of good teach- ers, we can rely on the theoretical pedagogical concepts (cultural pedagogy, reform pedagogy and socially-critical pedagogy) (Protner, 2000), which em- phasise different opportunities of teacher influence on child development in educational practice – a deductive approach. We can also proceed from the empirical findings of quality pedagogical work of the teacher, which identify the characteristics of a ‘good’ teacher with different research methods – an in- ductive approach (e.g. Doolittle et al., 1993; Sanders, 2002). In this article, we will use the latter. Regarding the beliefs about a good teacher and his/her work, we con- sider the individual’s personal, subjective, implicit constructs or understand- ing and assumptions on the performance of the teaching profession, which are formed on the basis of experience and knowledge of a certain phenomenon (Herman et al., 2008; Valenčič Zuljan, 2012). Personal beliefs lead students to the fact that they filter which content and experiences during the study will be integrated into their knowledge and which will be rejected as unacceptable (Lofstrom & Poom-Valickis, 2013; Pajares, 1992). Individuals form their beliefs about the teacher and the pupils on the basis of early experience, which they gained as pupils in the class. Previous experiences of students entering higher education can be even more crucial for the formation of beliefs, which they maintain in their work as teachers (Korthagen, 2004). One important factor for the creation of teachers’ beliefs is the direct experience acquired by the student in contact with the pupils in the class, for example, practice during univer- sity education (Valenčič Zuljan, 2012). Despite beliefs being unlikely to change (Doolittle, Dodds, & Placek, 1993), they can at least to some extent be changed by the deliberate and systematic construction of new meanings of individual experience or new skills acquired during the education for teachers (e.g. Ko- rthagen, 2004). 188 changes in beliefs regarding good teachers and the characteristics of child ... Beliefs about the characteristics of a ‘good teacher’ The measurement of beliefs about the characteristics of a good teacher is complex, and it is largely based on the self-reporting of (future) teachers. In the research on beliefs about ‘good teachers’, qualitative-quantitative analyses are often combined (e.g. Minor et al., 2002). The most commonly used meth- ods are questionnaires and interviews (e.g. Hermans et al., 2008; Minor et al., 2002), descriptors with the characteristics of teachers (e.g. Sanders, 2002), diary studies with personal descriptions of the teacher’s performance (e.g. Doolittle et al., 1993) and metaphors (e.g. Löfström & Poom-Valickis, 2013; Mishima, Ho- rimoto, & Mori, 2010; Thomas & Beauchamp, 2011). Although many of us have our own ideas about what makes something ‘good’, and how ‘good’ ranks on a scale of poor to excellent, we can accept the definition that ‘good work is work that is excellent in quality, work that is ethical in terms of considering the impact of the work on others, and work that is enga- ging, or personally meaningful, for the individual worker’ (Guidebook, 2010, p. 19). However, the fundamental concepts and organisational frameworks of the theory of the three ‘E’s of Good Work can be thought of, individually, in a number of ways; and that the ways in which the elements are integrated or, alternatively, dissociated from one another is far from self-evident (Gardner, 2010, p. 17). Decades ago, Gordon (1983) queried over one thousand teachers and participants in his training on performance improvement, how to be a good teacher. Most of the teachers described a good teacher as entirely consistent, self-controlled and just, as a teacher who likes all children equally, without prejudice, he/she knows how to motivate all pupils, including those who are not interested in the subject, and if he/she works well, he/she has no discipli- nary problems in the classroom, etc. Similar results about beliefs about good teachers were found in the study with 137 Slovenian primary school teachers (Šimonka & Košir, 2014). Minor and co-authors (2002) summarise the key findings of many stud- ies and recommendations from relevant institutions in the field of teacher edu- cation (e.g. Cotton, 1995; Finn, 1993; Good/Brophy, 1994; National Board for Professional Teaching Standards [NBPTS], 1987; Redfield & Rousseau, 1981; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986; Testing Service [ETS], 1997; Tobin, 1987; Wub- bels, Larry, & Brekelmans, 1997) about good teachers who are also called ‘ef- fective teachers’.3 Good teachers should be able to select and organise contents, 3 In some studies on beliefs, the researchers as a synonym of ‘good teacher’ also used the terms ‘effective’ or ‘competent teacher’ (Fajet, Bello Leftwich, Mesler & Shaver, 2004). In this article we will use a uniform term ‘good’ teacher for the abovementioned terms. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 189 efficiently organise time, adapt teaching strategies to the needs of the learner, creatively encourage pupils, skilfully use questions, encourage critical and creative thinking, give relevant feedback, promote the learner’s progress, fairly evaluate, reflect on their practice, and be ready to learn in their professional development. In a study (Minor et al., 2002) in which 134 students from Georgia (USA) who were educated for the teaching profession were included, the par- ticipants wrote three to six descriptors, which they believed that every good teacher should have. The following most important characteristics of a good teacher which are classified within the individual descriptors, are the most fre- quently identified: 1. student-centred with descriptors ‘love of a student’, ‘supportive’, ‘opti- mistic’, ‘kind’, ‘caring’, and ‘patient’; 2. classroom and behaviour manager that include verbatim examples as ‘authoritative’, ‘leadership skills’, and ‘alert’; 3. competent instructor with descriptors ‘reactivity’, ‘open to new teaching styles’, ‘clarity and teaching subjects’, and ‘ability to spark child’s interest’; 4. ethical with descriptors ‘fairness’, ‘honest’, ‘trustworthy’, ‘impartial’, ‘de- pendable’, and ‘reliable’; 5. enthusiastic about teaching with examples ‘of human subjects’, ‘passion for teaching’, ‘eager to teach’, and ‘dedicated’; 6. knowledge about subject descriptors include ‘efficiently teach and know the material’, and ‘knowledge of subject’; and 7. professional with examples of ‘disciplined’, and ‘good communicator’. The results showed that the majority of students cited the following as the most important factors in teachers: he/she is student-centred (55%), then the effective classroom and behaviour manager (34%) and competent instructor (34%), as well as ethical (30%), enthusiastic about teaching (24%), has knowl- edge about the subject (19%), and he/she is professional (15%). A more realistic conception of the characteristics of a ‘good teacher’ and the characteristics of pupils Given that the results of the aforementioned studies have shown that the teacher should have many attributes, we wonder which teachers are actually able to fully achieve them. Therefore, the previously described notions of a good teacher have been idealised and cannot be fully achieved (Gordon, 1983; Sutton, 2004). A teacher, who has idealised, overly high, and unrealistic expectations of 190 changes in beliefs regarding good teachers and the characteristics of child ... himself/herself, will primarily blame himself/herself for the child’s failure. This failure to meet the expectations will give rise to dissatisfaction, impatience, and fatigue (Bečaj, 1990; Šimonka & Košir, 2014). Failing to achieve such ideals, the teacher will often experience a wide variety of adverse emotions such as anger, shame, sadness, etc., as confirmed by the interaction study of Slovenian teach- ers with pupils (Prosen, Smrtnik Vitulić, & Poljšak, 2011). It is interesting that many teachers have unrealistic notions in the field of their expression of bad feelings, namely, that a good teacher never loses con- trol of their adverse feelings in front of the pupils in the class (Gordon, 1983; Hosotani & Imai-Matsumura, 2011), which means that the intensive experience of adverse feelings that the teacher ‘must not’ show is particularly frustrating for them. In contrast, those teachers with the (false) belief that a good teacher always shows his/her emotions in front of pupils (e.g. Hosotani & Imai-Mat- sumura, 2011), will mostly over-express their emotions or they will even pre- tend to have emotions that they do not (Prosen et al., 2011). In a survey of 109 Slovenian teachers, when observing their emotions in the classroom, anger was shown to be the most common emotion that was expressed by teachers mainly in response to discipline and the learning difficulties of pupils. Furthermore, the teacher’s aim does not lie in the fact that all pupils in the class are happy all the time, but he can offer the conditions that allow the pupils to achieve their learning goals and develop themselves in a pleasant atmosphere (Šarić, 2015). When we look for the key characteristics of a ‘good teacher’, we should proceed from the teacher’s fundamental tasks of the profession, among which it is mainly to ensure the quality of educational work, which includes quality teaching and the creation of favourable conditions for the child’s optimal devel- opment. ‘Pupils should be given support in their struggle for independence and taking responsibility for their actions, and should be guided to the creation of an independent and responsible person who will be willing and able to use their knowledge to contribute to the development of the society as a whole’ (Krek & Metljak, 2011, p. 26). The teacher is responsible for the quality of education and upbringing of pupils in the school context; therefore, it is a process that enables learning and promotes development. For the teachers to do their work well, it is essential that they have sufficient knowledge of the subject areas taught (an expert on the subject), to know the methods of teaching which facilitate the understanding of the learning content and stimulate the child’s motivation to learn (an expert in teaching). It is also important that they promote the development of children in appropriate ways (an expert in how children are raised) (Thomas & Beau- champ, 2011; Seung et al., 2011, in Lofstrom & Poom-Valickis, 2013). c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 191 When creating the right conditions for the development of pupil’s learn- ing and development capabilities, the teacher should be familiar with the basic development features, such as factors of personal development, individual (psy- chological) characteristics of children, capabilities that can be identified in chil- dren, etc. In the past twenty years, researchers (e.g. Howard-Jones, 2010; Plomin, 2004) have emphasised the importance of genetic and environmental factors for the development of most psychological characteristics of people. Psychological characteristics of individuals do not depend only on their innate characteristics, but they should be understood as a function operation of genes and the environ- ment (e.g. Plomin, 2004). The so-called sensitive period exists in the time that is optimal for the development of some of the characteristics (e.g. for the devel- opment of attachment, learning speech, or a language), but this does not mean that later we cannot learn certain things or compensate (Bregant, 2012). For the teacher it is, therefore, necessary to identify a wide range of abilities of their pupils, bearing in mind that the development of them is strongly influenced by the milieu and that they can be very effectively promoted by the teacher. In a school context, the importance of the child’s intelligence is most frequently highlighted and even if the concept of intelligence is a complex one and many different models of intelligence have been proposed, intelligence, in the broadest sense, may be defined as the ability to learn or understand things or to deal with new or difficult situations (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016). For (future) teachers, in addition to the knowledge about the devel- opmental characteristics of a child, understanding the factors that contribute significantly to pupils’ academic achievement is also important. In previous studies, specific (psychological) characteristics of the pupil (personality traits, intellectual abilities, etc.), characteristics of the school/classroom/teachers (e.g. size of the school, school atmosphere, interaction between teachers and pupils, interactions among students, teaching methods), family characteristics (e.g. economic situation of the family, education of parents) and the characteristics of the peer group (peer group values) have proved to be very important (Puklek Levpušček & Zupančič, 2009; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993). It is difficult to precisely predict the effects of individual factors, since the effect of individual factors of academic achievement is not only a ‘summation’ in the sense that eve- ryone ‘adds’ his contribution to academic achievement, but it is interactive (e.g. parental involvement in the school can be considered as an important factor of the academic achievement for low motivated pupils, but not for highly motivat- ed) and/or indirect (e.g. teaching encourages the pupil’s interest in the subject matter, so the teacher will contribute to his academic achievement through the pupil’s motivation) (Puklek Levpušček & Zupančič, 2009). 192 changes in beliefs regarding good teachers and the characteristics of child ... It can be summarised that good teacher should be responsible for the quality of the process of education and for encouraging pupils’ development in the school context. To accomplish this, it is necessary for a teacher to have sufficient knowledge of the subject, to know and use appropriate methods of teaching, and be familiar with the basic development features for promoting the development of children. In the present longitudinal study, we want to de- termine the beliefs of the primary education students on the factors of academic achievement, on a good teacher and developmental characteristics of children, and to explore which experiences primarily shape these beliefs. Research questions Four research questions concerning beliefs of the primary education students were addressed: 1. In what proportions different factors – in the opinions of students at the beginning and at the end of their studies – contribute to academic achievement of the pupil? 2. What are students’ beliefs about good teachers at the beginning and at the end of their studies? 3. What are students’ beliefs at the beginning and at the end of their study about the pupil’s developmental characteristics? 4. Which are (un)important factors that shape students’ beliefs at the be- ginning and at the end of their studies? Method In our longitudinal research, we used descriptive and non-experimental causal methods. Participants The study was based on an initial opportunity sample of 111 primary edu- cation students (95% female) in the beginning of the first year of their study at the Faculty of Education in Ljubljana. The students were aged between 18.6 and 25.1 years (M = 19.8 years old, SD = 0.7 years). Then, we looked for the same group of students four years later, when finalising their postgraduate studies for class teachers. Due to limited enrolment in postgraduate studies (81 of them were accepted) and the possibility that the Faculty of Education in Ljubljana also accepts students from other universities, we only had 70 students available (out c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 193 of those who had participated in the first part of the study). Since 11 of them did not respond to a request to participate again, the sample was substantially small- er in the second part. The questionnaires were completed only by 59 female stu- dents from among those who had been included in the first part of the research. Instrument For the purpose of this study, which is based on relevant literature (e.g. Bečaj, 1990; Gordon, 1983; Hosotani & Imai-Matsumura, 2011) and the education experiences of students of primary education at the Faculty, we developed a ques- tionnaire with the aim of estimating the students’ beliefs about good teachers and their knowledge regarding selected developmental characteristics of children. The questionnaire included some basic demographic data (gender, iden- tification number, year of study), then the question regarding the factors of aca- demic achievement to which the participants added the percentage, followed by a description of five unrealistic (idealised) statements about a good teacher and five false statements about the (developmental) characteristics of children. For each of the following statements, the participants marked the degree of agreement on a five-point rating scale (1 – I disagree, 2 – I mostly disagree, 3 – I partly agree, partly not, 4 – I mostly agree, 5 – I totally agree). At the end, all the participants highlighted what they believed contributed most to forming beliefs included in the questionnaire (they could also select more answers). Procedure All the participants were fully informed about the purpose and methods of this study, and their participation was voluntary. First, data were collected at the beginning of the first year of their primary education studies, during the lectures. Four years later, during the second semester of their postgraduate studies, the students who had already taken part in the study, were again asked to participate. During their lectures, they completed the questionnaire which was the same as in the first year of their studies. In both instances, the comple- tion of the inventory took about 15 minutes. All questionnaires were completely filled in and taken for further statistical analyses. Data analysis First, we wanted to confirm the assumption that for the participation in the second part of the study we did not include a specific group of students, but a group similar to that which did not take part in the second part of the study (47% dropout rate in the sample). The chi-squared tests for the determination 194 changes in beliefs regarding good teachers and the characteristics of child ... of differences between the attributed share of factors and the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test for statements (due to the previously identified abnormali- ties in the distribution; the Shapiro-Wilk tests: all ps < .00) showed that the two groups are similar. Furthermore, we compared only the results obtained by those students (N = 59) who participated in the first and second phases of the research. In their answers concerning the share of the four factors that contribute to a child’s aca- demic achievement, we calculated the average proportions of individual factors at both times of measurements. The difference in the percentage of shares be- tween the two measurements was checked with the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. For each of the two items (the characteristics of a good teacher and the develop- mental characteristics of pupils), we calculated the average value of the results obtained for both measurements. Because of the already proven non-normality of the distribution, we then applied a set of non-parametric statistical proce- dures. With the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, we determined eventual differences between the pairs of the same items at both times of measurement. With the individual factors that have contributed to the creation of beliefs of students, we calculated the frequency for both times of measurement, and the differences in the frequency of selected factors between the two measurements that were determined with Cochran’s Q test (in the case of statistical significance, the McNamar’s chi-square test will be used for paired factors in T1 and in T2). Results and discussion In their answers about what contributes to the pupil’s academic achieve- ment, i.e. children, teachers, parents, and peers (Table 1), the students recog- nised all four proposed factors as more or less important for pupil’s academic achievement. This may indicate students’ beliefs about children’s, teachers’, par- ents’ and peers’ shared responsibilities for the pupil’s academic achievement. In relation to the idea of being a good teacher, this means that the teacher cannot be fully responsible for the students’ academic achievement. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 195 Table 1 The proportions of factors that, in the opinion of students, contribute to academic achievement of the pupil % Mean Rank Sum of Rank Wilcoxon signed rank test Differences Child T1= 32.24 22.00 506,00 Z = 1.49 p = .14 T1 = T2T2 = 34.30 29.29 820,00 Teacher T1= 17.69 15.90 159.00 Z = -3.96 p = .00 T2 > T1T2 = 24.04 24.44 831.00 Parents T1= 29.47 25.71 745.50 Z = -1.94 p = .05 T1 > T2T2 = 26.18 21.25 382.50 Peers T1= 20.58 24.48 710.00 Z = -3.27 p = .01 T1 > T2T2 = 14.82 14.85 193.00 Note. T1 = beginning of the study, T2 = end of the study. The students attributed the largest share of the responsibility for the aca- demic achievement of pupils at both measurements to the child himself (T1 = 32%, T2 = 34%); the differences in proportion between the two measurements are not shown to be significant. Even the results of other studies, in which the factors of academic achievement were determined with various psychological tests, show that the most important factor is the specific pupil’s (psychological) characteristics, among which the strongest predictors were mainly the pupil’s personality traits (es- pecially conscientiousness) and intellectual abilities (Puklek Levpušček & Zupančič, 2009; Smrtnik Vitulić & Zupančič, 2013). This is in line with the understanding of a good teacher as being not mainly responsible for students’ academic achievement; the pupils themselves are more responsible for their academic achievement. During both measurements, the students, among the factors of academic achievement, attributed the second highest proportion to parents (this share de- creased significantly from the initial T1 = 29% to T2 = 26% at the end of the study). In third place, according to the attributed shares, are the teachers (the role of the teacher is significantly increased from the initial T1 = 18% to T2 = 24% at the end of the study). Among all four offered factors of academic achievement, the smallest share was attributed to peers (at the end of the study, their importance has sig- nificantly reduced from the initial T1 = 21% to the final T2 = 15%). It is interesting that during the two measurements the students placed the role of the teacher in the academic achievement of the pupil to the third place of importance. Perhaps the students who are educated for the teaching profession do not want to take too much (shared) responsibility for the pupil’s academic achievement, although 196 changes in beliefs regarding good teachers and the characteristics of child ... they are certainly more responsible for the teaching and learning process than the pupil’s parents, which is also recognised by Wang et al. (1993). However, it is dif- ficult to predict precisely the size of the effects of individual factors since the effect of individual factors of academic achievement can be interactive and/or indirect (Puklek Levpušček & Zupančič, 2009). In this study, we also wanted to determine the beliefs of students on good teachers (Table 2). In the analysis of the results obtained, we consider the following criteria: 2.0 ≤ M ≤ 4 were interpreted as average results, M > 4.0 were interpreted as idealised beliefs of a good teacher, and M < 2.0 as a disagree- ment with an individual item. At the beginning of the study, the results showed mostly idealised beliefs of students about good teachers, but at the end of the study they became more realistic: the teacher is calm and self-controlled in all situations (M1 = 4.27, M2 = 3.85), likes all children equally (M1 = 4.63, M2 = 3.83), has the ability to motivate all children, even those who are not interested in the subject (M1 = 4.78, M2 = 4.17) and is able to teach the students with lower abili- ties (M1 = 4.12, M2 = 3.59). These beliefs of students at the beginning of the study are unrealistic because a teacher is only ‘a person’ who cannot fully realise them (e.g. Gordon, 1983; Sutton, 2004). Table 2 Students’ beliefs of good teachers at the beginning and at the end of the study M Mean Rank Sum of Rank Wilcoxon signed rank test Differences A good teacher is calm and self-controlled in all situations M1 = 4.27 20.80 582.50 Z = -2.82 p = .01 T1 > T2M2 = 3.85 17.95 197.50 It is good that a teacher does not show negative emotions in the classroom M1 = 3.76 26.38 1240.00 Z = -5.78 p = .00 T1 > T2M2 = 2.24 21.50 86.00 A good teacher likes all chil- dren equally M1 = 4.63 17.71 513.50 Z = -4.10 p = .00 T1 > T2M2 = 3.83 11.88 47.50 A good teacher knows how to motivate everyone, even those who are not interested in the subject M1 = 4.78 15.04 376.00 Z = -4.24 p = .00 T1 > T2 M2 = 4.17 10.00 30.00 A good teacher knows how to teach the pupils with lower abilities M1 = 4.12 18.95 549.50 Z = -3.11 p = .00 T1 > T2M2 =3.59 19.19 153.50 Note. M1 = beginning of the study, M2 = end of the study. The results indicate when students start their studies they mainly have ideals about being a teacher that do not allow that teachers to be subjective in c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 197 their experience of children, that the teacher’s task is to motivate all pupils, and that the teacher has complete responsibility to the extent that the pupils will learn the subject. The last finding (that the teacher is entirely responsible for how much the pupils will learn) is inconsistent with the shares of the re- sponsibility for pupil’s academic achievement when students placed teachers’ responsibility only to the third place. A possible interpretation of this is that the differences arise from the use of different types of questions. At the end of the study, the students significantly changed the major- ity of their idealised beliefs, except for the statement that the teacher is able to motivate all pupils, including those who are not interested in the subject (M2 = 4.17), which remained as an idealised belief. This means that through the study, the students maintained the belief that teachers are mainly responsible for the pupils’ learning motivation, which is probably due to the very present thesis in this environment that the external motivation is crucial to stimulate inter- nal motivation. Indeed, school requires pupils to learn about many scientific, cultural and economic fields, so it is/should be the teacher’s duty in particular through real pedagogical eros (Gogala, 2005), to provide enthusiasm for these fields, and the motivation to continue learning. Despite this, there remains the question of where to draw the line between idealism and actual responsibility of the teacher for the pupil’s learning motivation? Since beliefs guide an indi- vidual’s perceptions, understanding, and performance (Pajares, 1992; Xu, 2012), it is therefore possible that in the teacher’s viewpoint, the pupil’s lack of interest in the subject is interpreted in terms of their own failure. Students were initially more inclined to agree that it is good that the teacher in the classroom does not show negative emotions, (M1 = 3.76) than at the end of the study (M2 = 2.24) when they predominantly expressed disagreement with that statement. The obtained results indicate the students’ belief (especially at the end of their studies) that the teacher can express unpleasant emotions in front of the pupils, such as anger, fear, shame, sadness etc., which were also present when observing interactions of Slovenian teachers with pupils in the classroom (e.g. Prosen et al., 2011). Since the teachers also represent a model for the pupils (Bandura, 1997), how they express their emotions is important. In study programmes, it would be neces- sary to encourage students to develop emotion regulation that specifically allows the expression of unpleasant emotions in an appropriate way. These strategies may help the teachers to improve teaching and learning in their classroom (e.g. Prosen et al., 2011). Teacher’s effective emotion regulation may contribute to better teacher-pupil relationships that allow good conditions for learning (e.g. Prosen et al., 2011). The average results regarding the statements of the pupil’s developmen- tal characteristics (Table 3) will be interpreted according to the same criteria as 198 changes in beliefs regarding good teachers and the characteristics of child ... the arguments of a good teacher. From the results obtained, we can conclude that even at the beginning of their studies the students understand that not only heredity contribute to an individual’s development (M1 = 2.31), the abovemen- tioned understanding is similarly reflected also at the end of the study (M2 = 2.05) (e.g. Plomin, 2004). For the (future) teachers, one of the key findings is that the environment, which is provided to a child through instruction and en- couragement, has a significant impact on the expression of genes and contrib- utes to the development of a child. According to the initial partial agreement of the students that early experiences decisively influence the child’s development (M1 = 2.54), we can conclude that at the end of their studies the students are sig- nificantly more aware of the importance of subsequent experiences that have a significant impact on development (M2 = 2.07). Researchers agree that there are sensitive periods in development, representing an optimal time to encourage certain abilities (e.g. language acquisition in early development), but this does not mean that individuals cannot develop certain abilities later, or compensate unfavourable (early) experiences (Bregant, 2012). According to the partial (dis) agreement of students with the assumption that a child who knows a lot of information is clever (they agree less with this statement upon the completion of studies, M2 = 2.53 than at the beginning, M1 = 3.24), one can assume that stu- dents differentiate between the two notions. Researchers also agree with the dif- ferentiation between these notions. Certainly, the knowledge of a large amount of information cannot be equated with intelligence; knowledge of the infor- mation in some intelligence tests (e.g. Wechsler, 2001, in Marjanovič Umek & Svetina, 2004) represents only one of the subsections of intelligence. Table 3 Students beliefs about a pupil’s developmental characteristics at the beginning and at the end of their studies M Mean Rank Sum of Rank Wilcoxon signed rank test Differences Heredity determines the devel- opment of individuals from birth to death M1 = 2.31 18.23 401.00 Z = -1.45 p = .15 T2 = T1M2 = 2.05 17.62 229.00 Experience from early childhood has a decisive influence on child development M1 = 2.54 23.07 669.00 Z = -3.27 p = .00 T1 > T2M2 = 2.07 16.00 192.00 There are no significant differ- ences in cognitive abilities of pupils of the same class M1 = 2.25 23.47 704.00 Z = -3.28 p = .00 T1 > T2M2 = 1.68 16.58 199.00 c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 199 M Mean Rank Sum of Rank Wilcoxon signed rank test Differences A child who knows a lot of infor- mation is clever M1 = 3.24 20.02 660.50 Z = -4.36 p = .00 T1 > T2M2 = 2.53 16.10 80.50 School is not a place to learn how to express feelings M1 = 1.75 15.89 429.00 Z = -4.28 p = .00 T1 > T2M2 = 1.22 12.00 36.00 Note. M1 = beginning of the study, M2 = end of the study. Based on the results obtained when students at the beginning of the study mostly did not agree with the statement that there are no significant dif- ferences in their mental abilities among the pupils of the same class (M1 = 2.25), we assume that students at the entry into the study recognise individual differ- ences in the cognitive abilities of the children of similar age, while at the end of the study they largely disagree with the abovementioned findings (M2 = 1.86). The beliefs of students are consistent with the developmental findings that chil- dren of the same age have various mental abilities (Piaget & Inhelder, 1978). Un- derstanding the individual differences between the mental abilities of children is also a condition that the teacher is willing to adapt the way of teaching to stu- dents’ abilities and thus enable the optimal development of pupils of different abilities. At both times of measurement, students largely did not agree with the statement that school is not a place to learn how to express emotions (M1 = 1.75, M2 = 1.22). We can conclude that students, upon entry into the study and at the end of the study, believe that pupils and teachers can express emotions in the school context, which enables open ‘space’ for learning to express emotions in the classroom. Based on our results, we can conclude that the students reshape their beliefs about the teacher and students during the course of their studies towards more realistic and research-supported findings (Korthagen, 2004). In the last part of the questionnaire, students are offered a choice be- tween the factors that have contributed to their (re)shaping of beliefs about a good teacher and developmental characteristics of the children (Table 4). 200 changes in beliefs regarding good teachers and the characteristics of child ... Table 4 (Un)important factors of shaping students’ beliefs at the beginning and at the end of the study T1 (f) Unimportant T2 (f) Unimportant T1 (f) Important T2 (f) Important Lectures at the faculty 56 30 1 27 Tutorials and seminars at the faculty 54 30 3 27 Direct experience in the classroom 17 4 40 53 Direct experience in the domestic environment 30 29 27 28 Experiences in the family 28 37 29 20 Others 53 54 4 3 Total 238 184 104 158 At the beginning of the study, the students most commonly selected the following factors as important: direct experience in the classroom (40 answers), experience in the family (29 answers) and home environment (27 answers). Upon completion of the studies, the students expressed that the most influential factors were: direct experience in the classroom (53 answers), direct experience in the domestic environment (28 answers), lectures at the faculty (27 answers), tutorial and seminars (27 answers), as well as experiences in the family (20 answers). A comparison of the frequency of answers regarding the factors of es- tablishing their beliefs obtained at the beginning and end of the study showed significant differences between the two measurement times (Cochran’ Q test (11) = 218.92, p = .00). Due to the significant differences between factors during both measurements, we calculated the McNemar’s chi-square test that was used for paired factors in T1 and in T2 (Table 5). Table 5 McNemar’s chi square tests for all 15 paired combinations between 6 factors in T1 and in T2. T1 T2 1 Lecture =Tutorial/Seminars Lecture = Tutorial/Seminars 2 Lecture < Classroom* Lecture < Classroom* 3 Lecture < Domestic* Lecture = Domestic 4 Lecture < Family* Lecture = Family 5 Lecture = Others Lecture > Others* 6 Tutorial/Seminars < Classroom* Tutorial/Seminars < Classroom* c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 201 T1 T2 7 Tutorial/Seminars < Domestic* Tutorial/Seminars = Domestic 8 Tutorial/Seminars < Family* Tutorial/Seminars = Family 9 Tutorial/Seminars = Others Tutorial/Seminars > Others* 10 Classroom > Domestic** Classroom > Domestic* 11 Classroom = Family Classroom > Family* 12 Classroom > Others* Classroom > Others* 13 Domestic = Family Domestic = Family 14 Domestic > Others* Domestic > Others* 15 Family > Others* Family > Others* Note. * significant differences between factors (p = .000); ** significant differences between factors (p = .041). In T1, 10 statistically significant differences between all 15 pairs of factors could be seen; in T2, there were nine differences. The results show that at the beginning of the study students’ experiences in class were the most significant for the creation of their beliefs while the family and domestic environment were less significant. Students at the end of the education emphasise the importance of their direct experience in the classroom, while lectures and tutorial and sem- inars can be seen as equally important as the domestic environment and family. At the beginning and at the end of the study, students chose direct experiences in the classroom as the most important factor, which is in accordance with the findings of various authors (e.g. Korthagen, 2004; Valenčič Zuljan, 2012). The assessed lower influence of lectures, tutorials, and seminars on the transformation of beliefs may be a consequence of a deeper, but widespread be- lief that theory and practice are not strongly related, or that there is a large gap between them, and in this sense (theoretical) lectures cannot have a significant impact on the change in beliefs. However, in the future, we should encourage all those who design study programmes for teachers to consider how, with the change of individual contents and methods of work, they may enable the re- shaping of those beliefs of students about a good teacher and the characteristics of pupils that appear to be less real or effective in the classroom. Conclusions In the longitudinal study, we determined the beliefs of the primary edu- cation students regarding the factors of academic achievement, being a good teacher, and developmental characteristics of children, and explored which experiences mostly shaped these beliefs. During both measurements (at the beginning and at the end of the study), students attributed the largest share 202 changes in beliefs regarding good teachers and the characteristics of child ... of the responsibility for the academic achievement of pupils to themselves (no significant differences found), then to parents (the proportion decreased sig- nificantly from the initial to the final assessment). As third most significant, students attributed teachers as being responsible for pupils’ academic achieve- ment (the role of the teacher is significantly increased from the initial to the end of the study). Among all four offered factors of academic achievement, the smallest share was attributed to peers (at the end of the study, their importance was significantly reduced from the initial to the final). We found that students start their studies with mostly idealised beliefs about good teacher: the teacher is calm and self-controlled in all situations, the teacher likes all children equally, the teacher can motivate all children, in- cluding those who are not interested in the subject, and the teacher is able to teach the pupils with lower abilities. During their studies, students managed to reshape most of these beliefs into more realistic ones, with the exception of the belief that the teacher can motivate all children, including those who are not interested in the subject. Regarding the developmental characteristics of children, during both measurements, students had similar beliefs that heredity and environment contribute to an individual’s development, but at the second measurement the students were significantly more convinced that experience from an early age decisively influences the less development, that there are no major differences in cognitive abilities of pupils of the same class, that a child who knows a lot of information is clever, and that school is not a place for the expression of emotions. During both measurements, the students expressed different factors of influence that contributed to their beliefs. At the beginning of the study, experi- ences in classroom were the most significant for the creation of students’ be- liefs while the student’s family and domestic environment were less important. Students at the end of their education stressed the importance of their direct experience in the classroom, while lectures, tutorials, and seminars were seen as equally important as the domestic environment and family. In the study, the sample of students was somewhat small. Future re- search could involve a larger group of students/teachers from different univer- sities/schools. Furthermore, other ways of gathering data on beliefs might be considered, such as interviews with students and teachers. There are various ways to consider the applicative value of the present study. Students may change many of their ideas about being a teacher and the pupils mostly with particular experience in the classroom which they were giv- en as pupils, as well as through practical teaching education at the university. It c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 203 would be advisable that with direct teaching during the education of students (lectures, tutorials, and seminars), we promote on the basis of a different theory a reflection of students’ beliefs that are of key importance for their future work. Undoubtedly, much attention in the academic process should be given to the raising of awareness of students, that their work in the future will require con- stant questioning of how the beliefs about good teachers in everyday teaching practices should be achieved, and a continuous reflection on how their beliefs are consistent with the values of excellence, ethics, and engagement (‘the 3 E’s’) (Gardner, 2010). References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman and Company. Bečaj, J. (1990). 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Prosen, S., Smrtnik Vitulić, H., & Poljšak-Škraban, O. (2011). Teachers’ emotional expression in interaction with students of different ages. CEPS Journal, 1(3), 141–157. Protner, E. (2000). Pedagogika in izobraževanje učiteljev (1919–1941) [Pedagogy and teacher education (1919–1941)]. Nova gorica: Educa. Puklek Levpušček, M., & Zupančič, M. (2009). Osebnostni, motivacijski in socialni dejavniki učne uspešnosti [Personal, motivational and social factors of school achievement]. Ljubljana: Znanstvenoraziskovalni inštitut Filozofske fakultete. Sanders, S. E. (2002). What do schools think makes a good mathematics teacher? Educational Studies, 28(2), 181–191. Šarić, M. (2015). Čustva učiteljev: pregled raziskav s psihološke perspektive [Teachers' emotions: a research review from a psychological perspective]. Sodobna pedagogika, 66(4), 10–26. Šimonka, Z., & Košir, K. (2014). Odnos med prepričanji in spoprijemanjem z negativnimi čustvi v razredu pri učiteljih osnovne šole [Relationship between primary school teachers`beliefs and coping with negative emotions in the classroom]. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje, 7(3/4), 33–48. Smrtnik Vitulić, H., & Zupančič, M. (2013). Robust and specific personality traits as predictors of adolescents’ final grades and GPA at the end of compulsory schooling. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(4), 1181–1199. Smrtnik Vitulić, H. (2009). Spoznavanje otrok v razredu [Understanding children in class]. Ljubljana: c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 205 Pedagoška fakulteta. Sutton, R. E. (2004). Emotional regulation goals and strategies of teachers. Social Psychology of Education, 7(4), 379–398. Thomas, L., & Beauchamp, C. (2011). Understanding new teachers’ professional identities through metaphor. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(4), 762–769. Valenčič Zuljan, M. (2012). Profesionalne poti pedagoških delavcev [Professional pathways of pedagogical workers]. Vršac: Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača »Mihailo Palov«. Wang, M. C., Haertel, H. J., & Walberg, H. J. (1993). Towards a knowledge base for school learning. Review of Educational Research, 63(3), 249–294. Xu, L. (2012). The role of teachers’ beliefs in the language teaching-learning process, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(7), 1397–1402. Biographical note Helena Smrtnik Vitulić, PhD in psychology, is Associate Professor of Developmental Psychology at the Faculty of Education, University of Lju- bljana, Slovenia. Her major research interests include emotion development and emotion regulation, personality and academic achievement, social devel- opment, deaf and hard of hearing students and Creative Movement as teaching method. Irena Lesar, PhD, Associate Professor, is teaching and researching at the Faculty of Education and Academy of Music, University of Ljubljana. She completed her Honours Degree in Pedagogy and Sociology of Culture (1998), Master of Science (2002) and received her Doctor of Science in Pedagogy (2007) at University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts. In the last decade her re- search is focused on the conceptualization of justice and inclusion, the status of various marginalized groups, in particular Roma, (new) immigrants and SEN students in Slovenian schools through their social participation and academic achievement. More recently, she focuses on the question of the beliefs of (fu- ture) teachers and the possibility of their change through the education process. 206 c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 207 Cooperation between Parents and Preschool Institutions through Different Concepts of Preschool Education Sanja Berčnik*1 and Tatjana Devjak2 • This paper analyses the importance, role, and methods of cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through the different con- cepts of preschool education and different educational approaches and formal frameworks. Through educational approaches, the authors ana- lyse how cooperation affects the implementation of preschool education in alternative educational approaches, such as the Waldorf, Montessori, and Reggio Emilia approaches, and Slovenian public preschool institu- tions. They envisage that different educational approaches in preschool education perceive the importance and role of cooperation with parents differently and conclude that there are various models of cooperation, which can be demonstrated through a theoretical analysis of the afore- mentioned alternative preschool approaches. In their view, partnership promotes a shared commitment to the quality realisation of educational goals; it also develops understanding and an ethos of openness in the relationship between all actors in the process of care and education of preschool children. Keywords: alternative educational concepts, cooperation between parents and preschool institutions, public preschool institution 1 *Corresponding Author. University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Slovenia; sanja.bercnik@pef.uni-lj.si. 2 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Slovenia. 208 cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through different ... Sodelovanje med starši in vzgojitelji v različnih konceptih predšolske vzgoje Sanja Berčnik in Tatjana Devjak • Prispevek skozi različne modele predšolske vzgoje in različne vzgo- jne pristope ter formalne okvire analizira pomen, vlogo in načine sodelovanja med starši in vrtcem. Skozi vzgojne pristope je analizirano, kako sodelovanje vpliva na izvajanje predšolske vzgoje v alternativnih vzgojnih pristopih, kot so: waldorfski, montessori in reggio, ter v slov- enskih javnih vrtcih. Avtorici predvidevata, da različni vzgojni pris- topi na področju predšolske vzgoje različno pojmujejo pomen in vlogo sodelovanja s starši, ter sklepata, da obstajajo različni modeli sodelovan- ja, ki jih prikažeta skozi teoretsko analizo omenjenih alternativnih predšolskih pristopov ter skozi rezultate nekaterih raziskav, izvedenih v slovenskem prostoru za javne vrtce. Rešitev vidita v partnerskem odno- su med starši in vzgojno-izobraževalno ustanovo. Bistvo partnerskega sodelovanja je v izpostavljanju podobnosti in razlik ter prepoznavanju močnih področij – staršev in strokovnih delavcev vrtca. Po njunem mnenju partnerstvo spodbuja deljeno zavezanost za kakovostno re- alizacijo vzgojno-izobraževalnih ciljev, oblikuje etos razumevanja in odprtosti v odnosu med vsemi akterji v procesu vzgoje in izobraževanja predšolskih otrok. Ključne besede: alternativni vzgojni koncepti, sodelovanje s starši, javni vrtec c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 209 Introduction The requirement for cooperation between the educational institutions and parents has a long history. Comenius in the 17th century, Pestalozzi in the 18th century, followed by Dewey and Petersen (according to Schleicher, 1989) highlighted the recognition that the influence of parents is indispensable in the establishment of the care and education of the child. Throughout history, there have been three different views on the cooperation with parents (ibid). First, the right of parents to choose education for their children (private schooling, home schooling) has been at the forefront; second, the active participation of parents (around 1960, a period of democratic reform); third, the cooperation was stressed especially when traditional school methods did not meet the edu- cational requirements (period of progressive pedagogy). There have also been differences in the legal frameworks regarding cooperation with parents and in the organisational structure of cooperation. This paper aims to analyse the importance of the role and methods of cooperation between parents and preschool institutions in different models of preschool education and to determine how cooperation affects the implemen- tation of preschool education in the Slovenian public preschool institutions and alternative educational approaches, such as Waldorf, Montessori, and Reggio Emilia. We assume that the different educational approaches in preschool edu- cation perceive the importance and role of cooperation between parents and preschool institutions differently and, consequently, assume that there are vari- ous models of cooperation. We will present forms and models of cooperation, through a theoretical analysis of the aforementioned alternative educational approaches and through the results of some studies that have been conducted in the area of Slovenian public preschool institutions that operate under the Curriculum for Kindergartens. Models of preschool education The democratisation of society and scientific findings throughout the world led to new approaches in the field of pre-school education. Let us only mention two that have left their mark on organised preschool education. In the early 1960s, the recognition of early learning and socialisation in groups was enforced regarding children’s development (Vonta 2009). Authors (Batistič Zorec, 2003; Devjak, Skubic, Polak, & Kolšek, 2012; Vonta, 2009) note that pol- icymaking about the care and education of preschool children in individual countries has undoubtedly been affected by the perspectives of these countries 210 cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through different ... on the question of who is responsible for the care and education of children: parents (the private sphere) or society (country recognises childcare as a public issue). In countries where the issue of childcare is perceived as a private is- sue of working parents, the policies of institutional care are less developed and targeted only at groups of children from families with low social-economic sta- tus, children from immigrant families, children with special needs, etc. In con- trast, countries that have recognised childcare as a public issue have developed a policy that understands the right to high-quality programmes of preschool education as a universal right. Family policies and the policies of preschool education in the European Union are two areas that are left to the regulation of each Member State; however, at present, certain social problems transcend the borders of individual Member States, and certain decisions or guidelines are also taken at the supranational level, in the framework of the European Union. From the OECD report (2002), a trend towards decentralisation and transfer of powers from the state, to lower levels of government has been observed. The reason for this decision is to approximate the service to the user, better adapt to local needs, the needs of users and increase choice. The report also notes that in some cases this advantage can become a weak area (arbitrariness of local authorities, the question of adequate funding, quality control, etc.). Behind the success of decentralisation, we recognise the political climate and the historical context of a specific system of preschool education (ibid). Three models characterise preschool education. The first is the most important and applies to the vast majority of preschool education: profession- ally and institutionally organised preschool education that puts the child at the forefront. This model of preschool education ensures institutional care in ac- cordance with the tradition of childcare, intervention programmes, and prepa- ration for school in the public preschool institutions. Programmes within this model differ according to the time scale, intensity, duration, teaching methods, curriculum, training of teachers, and the ratio between the number of pre- school teachers and children. This so-called institutional model can be extended further in cooperation with parents, families, and communities, leading to the so-called combined model. The second main model is child-focused, home-based care and education programmes, which are most commonly led by relatively unschooled individu- als, such as parents or paraprofessionals. The third model is a set of parent- or family-focused support programmes that offer a variety of services and activities tailored to the multiple needs of families. The most successful are in fact programmes that consist of several models that run under professional supervision, have sufficient funding to be c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 211 implemented in small groups, a good ratio between the number of children per adult and adequate income for employees. These programmes consist of inten- sive, child-centred preschool education together with intensive participation and parental education, programmed educational home activities and meas- ures to support the family (Devjak et al. 2012; Leseman 2009). To the three presented models, we add some alternative educational ap- proaches, which were developed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries with reform pedagogy. During this time, many new ideas focused on different areas were born. Among them, the most well-known were ‘education for the Arts’ (Lichtwark), ‘the movement of labour school’ (Kerschensteiner), ‘education for spiritual renewal’ (Steiner),‘school of life - for life - with work’ (Freinet), ‘life pedagogy’ (Decroly), ‘scientific pedagogy’ (Montessori), and ‘education for the happiness of man’ (Neill). Some ideas had theoretical and scientific arguments, some not, but most of them remained popular for more than half a century. Some of them remain current as overall concepts (e.g. Waldorf and Montes- sori) or only as individual elements, which are integrated into the life and work of public education, e.g. skill and spontaneous activity as a means of learning, experiential learning, teaching experiment, the importance of walks and excur- sions in nature, the meaning of visits to various institutions, Jena-plan, Dalton- plan, project method, and group lessons (Medveš, 1992). Among these alternative educational approaches, we will, in paral- lel to the Curriculum for Kindergartens, concentrate on Waldorf Education by Rudolf Steiner, the pedagogy of Maria Montessori and the Reggio Emilia educational approach, whose founder was Loris Malaguzzi. Although these ap- proaches, because of their specific directions, are not intended for all children, they still contribute to the diversification of the full range of public preschool education. Waldorf preschool institutions, in the words of Batistič Zorec (2003), represent a good alternative to the teaching-oriented programmes emphasising specific academic achievements, but also the individual elements of Waldorf education, such as the play corners and the divisions that offer the possibility of withdrawal into privacy and unstructured material have been transferred into modern educational approaches. Furthermore, many interpretations and prin- ciples of Montessori pedagogy, which have been neglected for decades, are once again finding a place in the contemporary curricula of preschool education: age heterogeneous departments, pleasant furnishings, and toys on open shelves. As Devjak, Berčnik and Plestenjak (2008) highlight, unlike the Waldorf and Mon- tessori pedagogies, the Reggio Emilia educational approach includes all the es- sential foundations that are common to our concept of preschool education, 212 cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through different ... but differs primarily in the realisation, because in Italy, they have much better objective conditions for realisation than in Slovenia. However, Slovenian pre- school institutions take into account some of their positions, among which we would like to highlight documentation, cooperation, project work, the active role of children, and the sensibility of the preschool teachers. The importance of cooperation between parents and preschool institutions Researchers (Murphy, 1980; Rockwell, 1995; Sallis 1988) highlight the crucial importance of cooperation between parents and educational institu- tions. Murphy (1980) and Duch (2005) note that parental involvement is es- pecially significant for young children, children who are less accustomed to entering preschool institutions or primary school, and children in transition from one level to another. The texts Building parent-teacher partnerships (2006) and School connections (2008) characterise cooperation with parents as one of the key factors for effective education. Sallis (1988), Cotton and Reed (1989), Schleicher (1989) and Ngeow (2006) point out that the involvement of parents affects the conduct and behaviour of children in school, their willingness to learn, and school attendance. Olmstead and Rubin (1982), Cotton and Reed (1989) and Henderson and Berla (1994), note that long-term and more system- atic cooperation between parents and educational institutions impacts child- rens’ school performance. School achievements are not only correlated with the support of the parents and the socio-economic status of families, but also with the participation of schools and parents. That cooperation with parents is a vital task of preschool institutions and schools is also confirmed by a number of other studies (cf. Mrvar, 2008), which also note that the effectiveness of the preschool institution, preschool teacher, school, teacher and the development and success of children, depends on the cooperation and relationship with par- ents. It is important, in cooperation with the parents, to be aware that the value system of parents regarding child education is often different from that of pre- school institutions. This parental value system is the one that allows interpreta- tion, values, goals, and strategies in childrearing, which reduces the uncertainty of parental education and the one that allows parents to lead the child’s devel- opment in life situations. Thus, it is crucial that we ensure respect for diversity, choice, and respect for the family and its values and consideration of conflicting interests, which is possible only if we can establish and protect open space for conversation, dialogue, and cooperation. Such open dialogue with parents in the Slovenian public preschool institutions is ensured by the Curriculum for c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 213 Kindergartens (1999), in which the principle of cooperation with parents states that it is necessary to respect the private sphere of families, their culture, iden- tity, language, worldview, values, beliefs, attitudes, habits and practices and to consistently account for their right to privacy and protection of personal data. It is important to highlight that even though the initiators of the dialogue can be parents, preschool teachers are those who bear the primary responsibil- ity for establishing and maintaining relationships that enable cooperation and co-creation of life and work in preschool institutions (Berčnik, 2014). The basic ‘media’ that help establish a proper relationship between the child and the pre- school teacher in the preschool period is not only emotional warmth but also clearly set and expressed expectations to the child, which are, at least essentially, aligned with the expectations of parents. The ethics of participation focused on the fact that an objective observer (parents) is replaced by cooperation in which nobody has the final word, since the consensus is what constitutes the next step. It is important that the expert (preschool teacher) ‘resigns’ from the position of power and replaces it with a combined search and co-interpretation (Kroflič, 2001). Transferred in the context of preschool institutions, preschool teach- ers, as professionals, are responsible for the establishment of the dialogue and cooperation with parents. Lepičnik-Vodopivec (1996) examines the problem of cooperation when parents and preschool teachers enter into communica- tion with different needs, desires, and goals. The research (Lepičnik-Vodopivec 1996, pp. 51–52) showed that parents mostly want to feel that their child is ac- cepted and understood; they want to be listened to and recognised as good parents. Preschool teachers expect to be accepted and respected by parents and their children; they want to form a partnership to ensure the quality of life at home and in preschool institutions and receive feedback regarding coopera- tion. Needs that guide relationships between parents and preschool teachers are often different, which may cause dissatisfaction and discomfort. Resman (1992) also asserts that the expectations of the preschool institution or school and parents regarding the cooperation are those that influence the motivation of cooperation and affect the effectiveness of this cooperation. Today, therefore, the importance of cooperation between parents and preschool institutions is widely recognised. The organisation of cooperation primarily depends on the traditions and the objectives of cooperation in dif- ferent countries, as well as the social context, legal frameworks, ideological be- liefs and situational needs. Continuity between the family and the preschool institution is one of the principles of the Curriculum for Kindergartens (1999) in Slovenia. Regarding the relationship between parents and educational insti- tutions, diverse authors (Bastiani, 1993; Macbeth, 1993; Meighan, 1989; Munn, 214 cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through different ... 1993; Resman, 1992; Schleicher, 1989; Whalley, 1997) often discuss partnership, as well as client and paternalistic relationships. The client relationship is mainly focused on the right of parents to choose the preschool institution for their child. In the paternalistic relationship experts ‘teach’ parents who are not in an equal position and, therefore, cannot be equally involved in discussions and de- cision-making in situations in which it is necessary to use expertise. A partner- ship involves the sharing of responsibilities, power, showing affection, setting common goals, and working together (Berčnik 2014; Devjak & Berčnik 2009). Next, we will analyse the role and importance of cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through various educational approaches in preschool education and consequently reveal the dominant model of coopera- tion (partnership, client, paternalistic) in an individual approach. Cooperation between parents and preschool institution in various concepts of preschool education In Slovenia, in the Kindergarten Act (1996, 2005) and the Law on the Organisation and Financing of Education (1996, 2007), the articles that deter- mine the cooperation between parents and public preschool institutions and the rights and duties of parents can be identified. The Kindergarten Act (1996, 2005) states that the preschool institution must define cooperation with par- ents in the annual work plan, which must be presented to parents in a special publication (Article 11); three representatives of the parents are included in the Council of Public Kindergarten at the level of public preschool institutions (ZOFVI, 1996, 2007, Article 48). For the organised exercise of parent’s inter- est, the preschool institution establishes the Council of Parents, in which each department has one representative, who is elected by parents at the parental meetings3 (ZOFVI, 1996, 2007, Article 66). The importance of cooperation be- tween parents and preschool institutions in the Curriculum for Kindergartens (1999) has been upgraded with the principle of cooperation with parents, which defines the terms of cooperation, which (in our opinion) include elements of partnership. Parents in preschool institutions not only have the right to receive information about the programmes and their child, but they also have the right to participate in the planning of life and work in the preschool institution and in the department, and they even have the right to active participation in 3 The Council of Parents proposes above-standard programmes, gives its consent to the principal’s proposal of above-standard services, gives an opinion on the programme of development of preschool and the annual work plan, discusses reports on educational issues, deals with complaints from parents, and elects the representatives for the Council of Public Kindergarten (ZOFVI, 1996, 2007). c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 215 educational work (in consultation with preschool teachers). Preschool institu- tions must also systematically inform parents about their rights and responsi- bilities. Cooperation in the Slovenian public preschool institutions is conceived as a central aspect of the quality of preschool education, and the relationship particularly stresses the importance of the division of responsibilities and pow- ers, which is the basis for the development of partnership. According to Bas- tiani (1993), partnership includes sharing responsibility, power, showing affec- tion, setting common goals, and working together. Other authors (Golby, 1993; Macbeth, 1993; Raab, 1993) also write that the partnership consists of equal contributions of something worthwhile on the way to the common goal. The precise balance of power between the two protagonists is of utmost importance. Mrvar (2008) summarised that the partnership consists of the joint efforts of parents and (preschool) teachers for children’s development and learning. Part- nership is primarily intended for children, but it also helps (preschool) teachers and parents to change and improve their attitude towards the child. It is also necessary to emphasise that the cooperation between parents and the preschool institution has the provision of services at the forefront, but not interference in their private spheres. As already mentioned, the public pre- school institution must take into account and respect the child’s parents’ cul- ture, identity, language, worldview, values, beliefs, traditions, and practices, but parents must take into account the limits of their involvement, which should not interfere with the professionalism of the institution. Constructive coopera- tion with parents delivers to the preschool teacher a series of professional ob- ligations but also many professional benefits. Mutual exchange of information and insight into the child’s individual needs and development efforts help both parents as well as preschool teachers and form a basis of joint action and solv- ing of problems in childhood and adolescence (Devjak et al. 2010) In recent years, in the increasingly recognised Reggio Emilia educa- tional approach, the role of parents has become vital, both at the level of de- partment and at the level of the preschool institution. Parents are expected to participate in discussions on a preschool institution’s policies, responsibility for the development of children as well as in the design of curriculum and its evaluation. According to Hočevar and Šebart (2010), some authors who analyse the Reggio Emilia approach point out that this involvement of parents and staff in preschool institutions is an example of cooperation with adults and peers for the children. They also write that parents are actively involved in the manage- ment of the preschool institution: they are included in the implementation of the educational process and help with collecting information. Preschool insti- tutions in Slovenia also organise various forms of cooperation between parents 216 cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through different ... and the preschool institution, and parents participate in various activities that establish a link between the preschool institution and parents and between par- ents, preschool institutions, and the local environment. If we can, therefore, say that the Reggio Emilia educational approach has developed a partnership with parents, it is necessary to point out that Slovenian preschool institutions are ‘on the way’ from client cooperation, in which the emphasis is only on the right of parents to choose preschool institution for their child, to the partnership, which particularly emphasises the already mentioned power distribution. Research (Devjak et al. 2010), conducted in 2009 within the framework of Professional Training for Professionals in the Implementation of Elements on Special Educational Principles of the Reggio Emilia Concept in the field of preschool education, which involved 96 preschool institutions from all over Slovenia, and 1587 parents, showed that 13.6% of parents completely agree with the statement that they are involved in the designing of the rules and regula- tions applicable to the preschool institution; 37.6% of parents agree with this statement, and 21.1% partially agree. There is probably a reason for the slightly lower percentage of agreement with this statement because, in the opinion of parents, adopted legislation, regulations and acts cannot be changed. Regarding the next question (Are they involved in shaping the programme of life and work in the preschool institution?), the trend of agreement can be seen: more than 73% of parents answered affirmatively. This shows that preschool education in Slovenia is on the path to forming a partnership with parents, since similar research (Devjak & Berčnik, 2009), carried out in 2007 showed, that only about a third of the surveyed parents believed that leadership of the preschool institu- tion often take into account their suggestions in drafting the programme. Preschool institutions are increasingly aware that the successful reali- sation of the objectives, principles, and curricula for preschool education de- pends on the active participation of parents. Partnership is not about reducing the autonomy of preschool teachers and preschool institutions, but ‘that extra something in education’, the unification of educational approaches, the open- ness of the curriculum and for democratic pluralism and the education of chil- dren. It is essential to be aware that, as pointed out by Katz (1994), the quality of the cooperation of parents in the Reggio Emilia educational approach results in the quality of experience for their children. The author believes that the en- thusiasm and desire of children to attend the preschool institution and work on projects is what made their parents want to participate. This is a dynamic phe- nomenon in which good work with children arouses the interest and desires of parents for cooperation, their integration effects preschool teachers, who then c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 217 put even more effort into their work, thereby re-attracting parents. It is a kind of virtuous cycle that has a positive effect on all involved. Kroflič (2010) points out that very democratic relations based on the active participation in the relations between the three main actors (children, teachers, and parents) are the founda- tion of the design of preschool institutions in Reggio Emilia. As recorded by Edmunds (1992), the coordination and unification of educational influences of family and preschool education are also of utmost importance in Waldorf pedagogy, which is based on anthroposophy and sees the sense of studying humans in determining the causal link between spiritual- ity and physical development. Particular attention is given to the preschool age, when the environment is organised as an extension of the home. Everything takes place naturally and unobtrusively under the guidance of the teacher. What happens in those first years, in their opinion, conditions individuals’ physical, mental, and moral lives. The main method of learning in the preschool period is imitation; as Steiner (1987) says, that care and education in this period mean that people surrounding the child show him what to imitate. For this reason, preschool teachers, as well as parents at home do everything in the presence of children (dust, wash dishes, sweep, water flowers, etc.) and with their help, when possible. It is crucial, therefore, to coordinate the educational influences of family and preschool institutions, because only this offers the child a sense of security, and close contacts to better understand the child’s needs. As noted on the website of a Waldorf preschool institution from the Gorenjska region of Slovenia (Waldorf Preschool Institution, 2010), parents have the right to respect and take account of their role as the main actors of the responsibil- ity for the child’s upbringing and development, the right to information about the programme and operation of the preschool and active participation in the planned activities, the right to information about the child’s well-being and de- velopment, the right to expert assistance in bringing up the child, and the right to privacy of the family. They also have some obligations, of which we would emphasise acquaintance with the life of the preschool institution and the or- ganisation of work, cooperation with the preschool teachers according to the child’s best interests (information about significant changes in the child and in the family), and adherence to the professional decisions of preschool teachers and an agreed policy on the premises. As highlighted by Edmunds (1992), the Waldorf educational approach desires that parents, while observing developments in the preschool institu- tion, coordinate domestic life in harmony with that which the child receives in the preschool institution, which implies a paternalistic relationship with par- ents. Resman (1992) characterises such a relationship as the experts ‘teaching’ 218 cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through different ... parents and convincing them of the importance of professional decisions, made by preschool teachers, but at the same time not allowing equal participation in the decision-making in situations where expertise is necessary. In the Waldorf educational approach, cooperation between parents and the preschool institu- tion is essential, because the initiative of the parents is a fundamental form of cooperation. Among the forms of cooperation between parents and preschool institutions, there is pairing with the basics of Waldorf pedagogy and the or- ganisation of the preschool institution (publications, information at the first meeting with the preschool teacher); reception talks, which are attended by par- ents and their children (first personal contact, at which the preschool teacher receives basic information and impression of the child); parents’ evenings, dur- ing which pedagogical and other issues are discussed; workshops for making toys and other objects; individual conversations about the child, taking place at the request of preschool teachers and/or parents, visits of children at their home (preschool teacher visits the child if the parents invite her to visit; these visits especially strengthen the bond between the child, preschool teacher, and parents).Parents may visit children in the preschool institution after consulta- tion with the preschool teacher. They are also involved in different celebrations and trips, which can also be promoted by them. They also participate in finding additional financial or material resources for the preschool institution (dona- tions, sponsorships, purchase of materials under favourable conditions, etc.). The preschool institution may also suggest to parents that one of them assume the role of a trustee, which connects the preschool institution and parents, re- ceives and transmits parents‘ proposals to preschool institution and, vice versa, is responsible for maintaining good relations between parents and preschool teachers, helps in organising job actions, excursions, events and resolving other issues (Waldorf Kindergarten, 2010). As highlighted by Serajnik (1994), Waldorf preschool institutions explic- itly expect parents to regularly attend organised activities, although they have no significant impact on them. From this, we can conclude that parents who have decided to enrol their child in a Waldorf preschool institution, are committed to Waldorf pedagogy (education), which must also be taken into account in home education. This can be accurately seen, for example, in the relation to media literacy, in which, according to Waldorf pedagogy, watching television is harm- ful to children’s physical and mental development. It is believed that the child’s soul is dulled by the radio, disc, cassette, video, etc.; therefore, it is expected that parents at home also eliminate watching TV and using other media. If parents do not comply with this, and the child shows the consequent adverse effects (restlessness, aggressiveness, poor concentration, impaired communication c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 219 with other children, etc.), they reserve the right to exclude the child from the preschool institution, because they believe that these highly conflicting influ- ences at home and preschool institution will be an additional burden to the child and hinder the child’s development (Devjak et al., 2008). Kroflič (2004) also discussed the problem of inadvisable monitoring of information via other media, especially because the contact of the preschool with the family is so very tight, which means that the child has no chance of receiving different perspectives on the issues of life. Despite close cooperation, we can see the paternalistic relationship with parents, because the parents must take the educational methods of the Waldorf approach as their own; it is not enough to merely accept them as part of a Waldorf preschool institution: they must also be implemented at home. Unlike the Reggio Emilia educational approach and, in this light, also the Curriculum for Kindergartens and Waldorf educational approach, Montes- sori pedagogy emphasises that the family is the ideal environment for a young child, but this is confined to the first three years a child’s life, when the child, without choosing to, absorbs the feelings, attitudes, and knowledge from par- ents and other adults in his presence, where the security, love and personal at- tention of parents are the major contributors (Lilard, 1973). After the third year of age, when the child is beginning to focus on certain impressions obtained by intentional interaction, it is necessary to prepare a stimulating environment, with the possibility of a free, rich, and deliberate selection of activities. The environment in the Montessori preschool institution is particularly original, because the activities are not selected according to the criteria of adults but according to the criteria of children. In designing such an environment, a Mon- tessori preschool teacher (one could also say Montessori adult) has a major role. The preschool teacher is seemingly passive, because he/she acts merely as a trustee of the environment, as a person who helps the child to interact with materials and resources as well as an observer. The Montessori preschool teacher is, therefore, a vital part of the environment in the preschool institution; his main task is to prepare an environment that will allow the natural devel- opment of the child and not to teach or otherwise dominate him. Montessori (2006) considers that the child is best assisted only when he is well understood. Examination of the Montessori pedagogy reveals that no explicit role of parents is expressed, only that their mission is to protect the child and to care for him in the deepest sense of the word. The main objective of Montessori pedagogy is, in fact, to liberate children from adult pressures, which seek to impose the content, timing, and rhythm of learning and models of behaviour. (Montessori, 2009). In the Montessori preschool institution called ‘Hiša otrok’, it is stated 220 cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through different ... that their mission is to create a suitable environment for the integrated child development and that, as a result, participants in the educational process are children, educators, and parents. Cooperation and integration with parents are regarded as a crucial part of quality preschool education and the creation of the most appropriate environment for the child’s development. The parents partici- pate in different ways, from the open houses to personal conversations before enrolling a child in a preschool institution, to training and lectures for parents and conventional consultation hours and meetings with parents. Parents are also included in the production of Montessori materials and in the issuing of the internal magazine of Hiša otrok (Parents Cooperation, 2010). In a preschool institution called ‘Angelinvrtec’, in addition to the aforementioned ways of co- operation, they also organise the evening with the fathers and mothers, bring- ing flowers at least once a year, picnic at the end of the year, Holy Mass for all families, the possibility of trips with their families, participation of parents in the work of the group (presentation profession workshops), assistance in the supply of certain materials, and the possibility of observation in groups (Coop- eration with the Kindergarten, 2010). Kordeš Demšar (2010) wrote, regarding the first step of Montessori pri- mary school, that it is preferable that parents attend a short, four-day training on Montessori pedagogy, which enables them to understand better when preschool teachers explain what, how, and with what material the child was working. She also wrote that, in principle, parents do not have to be experts on Montessori pedagogy; however, they are expected to participate at different levels. In estab- lishing rules, they require the consent that a child must have limits and that par- ents will respond to the violations of the rules. It is essential to work in the same direction, because they believe that if they do not reach a consensus, the child cannot be calm and happy and does not develop as well as he can. This shows a paternalistic relationship with parents in the Montessori pedagogy, because it is written that if the parents do not agree with their methods, then it makes no sense that a child be included in a Montessori preschool institution. It is believed that the intellectual level is important, but even more important, in this early period of life, is the child as a whole, for which parental involvement is essential. One condition for the entry to the Montessori preschool institution, which is specifically discussed with the parents is that parents are willing to cooperate actively with the preschool institution or school, which means that they are pre- pared to contribute according to their knowledge and skills. They are expected to come to the preschool institution at least once a year and spend a day with the children, to see what is happening, how the dynamics of the group are, who the children with whom their son or daughter is spending his/her time with are. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 221 Looking at the Montessori pedagogy, we can, despite the paternalistic attitude, deduce that the main role of the parents is that of a client, since the choice of pre- school institution and its educational approach is in the forefront. By choosing the Montessori preschool institution, parents must subordinate themselves to its theoretical starting points. There is, however, a fundamental difference com- pared to the Waldorf educational approach: in the Montessori pedagogy, they do not advise parents on how to educate at home. It is clear that one of the main factors is a prepared educational environment in which preschool teacher has an active role. How parents educate or raise their children at home is not their concern if they accept their methods in the preschool institution. Conclusion Cooperation between parents and preschool institutions is central in both the Slovenian public preschool institutions, functioning under the Cur- riculum for Kindergartens, as well as in the Waldorf, the Montessori, and the Reggio Emilia educational approaches. Comparatively speaking, from the view of the theoretical frameworks of cooperation between parents and preschool institutions, we can observe a significant difference among them. These differ- ences are not reflected in the forms of cooperation between parents and pre- school institutions, since in Slovenia, Waldorf and Montessori preschool in- stitutions are subject to the same regulatory frameworks of cooperation with parents as public kindergartens, but they can be seen in the relations towards parents or the relationship between parents and preschool institution. In the Reggio Emilia educational approach, we discern a partnership, because the par- ents are very actively involved in the life and work of the preschool institution and in their so-called ‘emergent’ curriculum. The main advantage, however, is in our opinion, the view of preschool teachers on cooperation. In the Reggio Emilia educational approach, parental participation is not accepted as a bur- den or even a violation of preschool teachers’ professional autonomy but as an element of collegiality and the integration of different skills. Since some (pre- school) teachers in Slovenia public preschool institutions still see cooperation with parents as a reduction and obstruction of their professional autonomy, we claim that we are on the path from the client relationship towards forming a partnership with parents. The results of the aforementioned studies also sup- port this statement, since more and more parents feel that they have an active role in shaping the life and work of public preschool institutions. The client relationship in Slovene public preschool institutions is, how- ever, radically different from that in the Montessori preschool institutions, since 222 cooperation between parents and preschool institutions through different ... the method of work there is at the forefront of the choice of preschool institu- tion. When parents decide to enter their child in the Montessori preschool, they are expected to become acquainted with the Montessori method and accept it as the sole method of work in the preschool. Parents do not have any influence on the organisation of life and work in preschool institutions, since there is focus on the prepared environment in which preschool teachers have the main role. Again, this cooperative relationship between parents and preschool insti- tutions is different from the Waldorf pedagogy, in which a mainly paternalistic relationship can be detected. The parents are expected to accept their educa- tional method as their own and follow it at home. However, they do not expect parents to become acquainted or specially trained in Waldorf pedagogy. They expect a lot from parents, but do not specifically justify why, and they reserve the right to exclude a child from preschool education if the parents do not enact their educational methods at home (e.g. rejection of media). Differences in the relationship with the parents in the aforementioned alternative educational approaches can be attributed to their occurrence and the emergence of their first educational institutions. It is known that the emer- gence of preschool institutions in Reggio Emilia (which form partnerships with parents) was due to the interest expressed by parents of middle-class families, who wanted quality education in an institution for their children. They wanted an institutional care that went beyond the protection function, but later also fought that these preschool institutions came under city administration. The first Montessori preschool institution, called ‘Casa dei Bambini’, also started as an initiative of the parents and homeowners in slums; however, the reason was not quality education, but the withdrawal of children from the streets, where they were destroying property. In comparison with the parents in Reg- gio Emilia, they did not care what kind of education their children received, so long as they were off the streets, indicating a client relationship. Waldorf pre- school institutions and schools are to this day generated on the basis of interest or associations of parents, who have the same views of education and want to make their children more creative and confident individuals in contact with the environment and themselves. This, however, does not imply close coopera- tion between parents and Waldorf educational institutions, but can be seen as a paternalistic relationship, which is reflected not only in relation to parents but also, for example in, as pointed out by Kroflič (2004), the public notion that the Ministry of Education and school inspection cannot interfere with the content of their teaching, whereas in Slovenia there are no ‘experts’ for this particular educational approach. 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Biographical note Sanja Berčnik, PhD, is employed at the Faculty of Education in Lju- bljana, University of Ljubljana. She is an Assistant for theory of education and preschool pedagogy. She took her doctoral degree in the field of pedagogy; her doctorate was titled Parent cooperation as a part of kindergartens and schools educational concept. Her bibliography consists of more than 50 units. She is the co-authoress of books, textbooks, manuals, workbooks, authoress of scientific and professional articles from the field of education and preschool education, partnership betwen faculties, kindergartens and schools which appeared in magazines, monographs and other publications at home and abroad. Tatjana Devjak, PhD, is employed at the Faculty of Education in Lju- bljana, University of Ljubljana. She is an Assistant Professor in the area of the theory of education and an associate professor in the area of pre-school peda- gogy. She took her MSc and PhD in the field of ethical and civic education. Her bibliography comprises of over two hundred units. She is the author of books, textbooks, manuals, workbooks and scientific and professional contributions in the fields of education, ethical, civic, preschool education and the importance of further education and training of educators in education, in magazines, monographs and other publications at home and abroad and bearer and imple- menter of foreign and domestic research projects and projects of the European Social Fund. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 227 Mary Hayden and Jeff Thomson (Eds.), International Schools: current issues and future prospects, Oxford: Symposium books, 2016; 240 pp.: ISBN 978-1-873927- 92-2 Reviewed by Mirko Mrčela1 As repeatedly emphasized in this collection of chapters, international schools are currently experiencing un- precedented growth, and the contribu- tors relate in different ways to aspects of international schools. Although the concept of an international school seems to elude precise definition, the authors agree that the majority of international schools had a similar purpose: to cater for the students away from their home country and whose parents often moved between countries as a result of their oc- cupation. In the Introduction, the editors offer a short overview of the international school movement and point out that with the increased professional mobility in the second half of the twentieth century, the numbers of international schools continued to grow. Around the turn of the century the international schools started accepting the host country nationals, who were attracted by the education offered in international schools for vari- ous reasons: the prestige of an international programme, the desirability of an English-medium education (as most international schools are English-medium schools), or the assumption that an international school education gives chil- dren a competitive edge over peers education in the national education system. The editors find it very difficult to propose a categorization of international schools due to the unprecedented growth in the field and the changes that are taking place at an unprecedented pace. The book is divided into three parts: the first one is focused on the cur- riculum, the second deals with the organization of international schools, and 1 Gimnazija Bežigrad, International School, Slovenia; mirko.mrcela@gimb.org. reviews 228 mary hayden and jeff thomson (eds.), international schools: current issues and ... the third discusses the current trends and future developments in the field of international education. In the first part, Nicholas Tate identifies what he thinks the purposes of an international education are: to meet the needs of the professional expatriate communities as well as to meet the needs of local elites who have seen fluency in English and access to English-language higher education as a means to ad- vancement. Tate raises interesting questions regarding the latter and argues the international education may have quite opposing effects on national elites. He continues to address the question of where international education stands in relation to Enlightenment principles. Tate concludes by identifying three ma- jor strengths of the international education sector that the national education systems might benefit from in the future: the potential to offer consultancy and support in developing “internationally minded” curricula, greater opportuni- ties to experiment with innovative educational approaches, and extensive expe- rience of educating young people in places where there may be a discrepancy between the ideology of the school and parts of its surrounding environment. George Walker, former director general of the International Baccalaureate Organization, aims to identify the features of the curricula of three international schools that pre-date the International Baccalaureate (IB): the International School of Geneva, the United Nations International School, and the United World College of the Atlantic (Atlantic College). Walker traces the history of the three schools with anecdotal insights into their struggles to establish an international curriculum, which (according to him) is characterized by a comprehensive language policy, op- portunities to develop intercultural understanding and a forum for the regular dis- cussion of global issues. All three are identified as components of what the IB terms “international mindedness”. Walker believes the IB Diploma has set the “gold” standard against which other international programmes have been measured. Tristan Stobie questions the idea of international best practice that is supposed to be a model when developing curriculum at school or national level and stresses the importance of the school’s culture and context for the curricu- lum, as one cannot expect beneficial outcomes from a change that is not evo- lutionary and that shows disregard for local realities. The author believes that the new generation of international schools which are more open to indigenous students will necessarily have to show sensitivity to culture and context when implementing curricula rather than expect one model to fit all. Stobie con- cludes by listing some principles that might be useful in building a curriculum that considers and respects both local and global realities. Martin Skelton’s contribution focuses on learning and argues that in many schools learning is neglected because the schools have other priorities, c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 229 e.g. performance or resources, and take learning for granted. The author ac- knowledges that he is writing from what he terms a “Western, liberal tradition” and claims that student learning in international schools should be driven by the questions of what kind of people the international students are hoped to become. The term “international”, Skelton emphasizes, is most helpfully used in schools (regardless of the reasons that they call themselves international) that help their students become positively able to be with an other. International should be perceived as a dispositional adjective and not locational. Judith Fabian argues that international education is best defined by the teaching strategies that are inquiry based, concept driven and contextualized. She claims that such strategies develop students as independent, lifelong learners. These ideas reflect the International Baccalaureate (IB) mission statements, and the author discusses the IB programmes to illustrate her main point: pedagogy is just as important for international education as the teaching of content is. The second part opens with Michael Fertig’s and Chris James’s contribu- tion on the leadership of international schools which the authors find to be a complex matter not least because of the rapid turnover of students and staff in many international schools, which may disrupt self-organization, connectivity, and interdependence. They see international schools as complex evolving loosely linked systems (CELLS) and use that perspective to consider their nature. Margaret Halicioglu examines how a residential facility, where students live together with others in a respectful and supportive place, can foster inter- cultural understanding. She emphasizes the importance of a residential cur- riculum which should take into consideration all the particularities of the stu- dent composition. Halicioglu concludes that the residential setting abounds in authentic learning opportunities and underlines the need for culturally aware staff to facilitate positive intercultural interactions. Central to Neil Richards’s contribution is the idea that there is a com- plete lack of trust in the teaching profession, which leads to curriculum delivery becoming ever more prescriptive. Rubrics and standards, test scores and exami- nation results, Richards claims, do not necessarily enhance learning and that issue should be addressed urgently if we do not want bureaucracy to smother creativity, initiative, and innovation. The acquisition of good test and examina- tion results should not be the central purpose of our schools but a consequence of a good education, he claims. One way to achieve this would be by attributing to the teachers and education the importance they deserve. The third part traces some current trends and future developments in the international education sector. It opens with Sally Booth, Malcolm McKen- zie and Edward Shanahan’s article in which they describe their experience of 230 mary hayden and jeff thomson (eds.), international schools: current issues and ... designing Keystone Academy in Beijing, China. The school is a blend of an American-style boarding school, international education and Chinese tradi- tions and sensibilities and its founders offer their experience as a guide for those who are founding internationally minded schools elsewhere. The authors emphasize the importance of a school’s mission statement and shared values for a new and untested school. They conclude by suggesting that any so-called world school should have a profound interest in the language, history, culture, and identity of its country or region and place it at the heart of its curriculum. Mark Waterson explores the influence of for-profit transnational corpo- rations, whose presence in the international school sector has been increasing in recent years, on international school education. After giving an overview of the international school market, Waterson focuses on the emergence of for- profit international schools, and invites the reader to consider what implica- tions profitability as a driver of international school education might have. The danger he sees in this is that instead of focusing on the “internationalist” inter- pretations of international education, the transnational corporations may take stronger pragmatic, market-oriented positions. Waterson implies that if private international schools that serve a wealthy transnational or local elite become concentrated in the hands of for-profit global corporations, the results might not be in keeping with the original concepts of international school education. Tristan Bunnell discusses the implications that the growth pattern in the international school sector has on international education. He also focuses on the impact the growth pattern has on the English-speaking countries, e.g. teach- er shortage and concludes that growth in international schooling brings with it considerable negative externalities, many of which have not yet been explored. Bunnell invites a wider and more critical audience to the discussion of the field of international schooling and the long-term effects the growth pattern has on it. Most authors in this book give significant attention to the unprecedent- ed growth in the international school sector and try to add their contribu- tion to the categorization of the field as it is characterized by a considerable diversity and constant change. With rare exceptions, they all use the Interna- tional Schools Consultancy Group statistics and focus on the English-medium schools, while the discussions often remain at the level of impressive statistics and unpredictability of the impact of this growth. Since the international school field is relatively under-researched, this collection of articles offers a close ex- amination of its history, current trends, and possible future issues. c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 231 Vivian Cook and Li Wei (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multi-competence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016; 562 pp.: ISBN 978-1- 107-05921-4 Reviewed by Gabrijela Petra Nagode1 Vivian Cook is Emeritus Profes- sor of Applied Linguistics at Newcastle University and Visiting Professor at the University of York. He previously taught Applied Linguistics at Essex University and EFL and Linguistics in London. Li Wei is Chair of Applied Lin- guistics and Director of the UCL Cen- tre of Applied Linguistics, at the UCL Institute of Education, University Col- lege London. He has worked at Birk- beck College, University of London, Newcastle University, and Beijing Nor- mal University. In Chapter 1, Vivian Cook intro- duces the concept of linguistic multi- competence (MC) as ‘the knowledge of more than one language in the same mind or the same community’ (Cook, 2012). The chapter presents the monolin- gual and bilingual perspective of looking at people who speak more than one language. The concept of MC is examined by three underlying premises. First, MC concerns the total system for all languages in a single mind or community and their inter-relationships. Second, MC does not depend on the monolingual native speaker. Third, MC affects the whole mind, i.e. all language and cognitive systems, rather than language alone. In Chapter 2, Goro Murahata, Yoshiko Murahata, and Vivian Cook ex- plore three main research questions generated by linguistic MC. This chapter also introduces fundamental beliefs on research methodologies and experi- mental tasks related to these research questions. 1 gabrijela.nagode@gmail.com. 232 vivian cook and li wei (eds.), the cambridge handbook of linguistic multi-competence In Chapter 3, Lourdes Ortega reflects on the ways in which MC has con- tributed to research in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). The au- thor criticizes any subordination of L1 users over L2 users. She states that there are ideological processes going on in SLA as the mainstream, such as native- speakerism, language purity, linguicism and monolingualism, which should be halted. Further steps in SLA research are suggested. In Chapter 4, Jyotsna Vaid and Renata Meuter try to answer the question of whether the MC metaphor and/or framework has made a difference – con- ceptually and methodologically – in how psycholinguistic research reflects on bilingualism. In Chapter 5, Rita Franceschini sheds light on the impact of multilin- gualism research on linguistics. The research subject of multilingualism (mean- ing the existence of more than one language in one mind) breaks the bounda- ries of traditional methods description. A radical view of MC might put an end to interpreting single languages as autonomous systems. In Chapter 6, Kees de Bot challenges the existence of separate languages stating that languages are in fact cultural artefacts. In our brain, there may be only one merged system of situation-specific utterances. In Chapter 7, Larissa Aronin explains the dominant language constella- tion concept and its relation to the MC perspective. The concepts of multilin- guality and language repertoire are discussed. In Chapter 8, Li Wei presents, from an MC perspective, three central themes of sociolinguistics, language variation, language and social disadvan- tage, and multilingual and intercultural communication, highlighting the con- nections among psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Attention should be shifted from bilingualism or semilingualism with an overtone of underachieve- ment in the bilingual speaker as a deficit model to an MC model. In Chapter 9, Joan Kelly Hall presents MC from the point of view of us- age. She brings together findings from cognitive and ethnographical research. The basic claim of Chapter 10, written by Eva Berkes and Suzanne Flynn, is to support the thesis that bi- or multilingualism is Nature’s standard. The thesis is strongly linked to the way the syntactic development of language oc- curs in the brain of language learners. A bilingual mind is capable of being in multiple languages at the same time. This implies that language theory and the theory of language development must change the research paradigm regarding fundamental issues, such as the relationship among known languages and the unidirectional approach. Chapter 11, written by Leah Roberts, is an overview of sentence pro- cessing from the prevailing monolingual perspective. Researchers attempt to c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 233 identify how L2 learners differ from native speakers, suggesting that the norm of the native speaker could be replaced by multi-competent users. Chapter 12, by Annette M. B. de Groot, starts with a demarcation of the research fields of language and cognition centring on lexical concepts, e.g. the colour spectrum, and focusing on them from a bilingual perspective. The final section suggests a stronger presence of non-verbal tasks, which is in agreement with the presented models of lexicosemantic representation. In Chapter 13, Amanda Brown reviews gesture research in MC from the point of view of frequency, timing, form and semantic composition seeing ges- tures as an integral part of communication. In Chapter 14, I-Ru Su reviews two studies (Su, 2010; Su, 2012) that ad- dress the issue of bi-directional transfer in adult foreign language learners’ pragmatic competences from an MC perspective. The studies are among the first attempts to probe L2 users’ communicative competence from a multilin- gual perspective. The findings suggest that sociocultural rules for appropriate speaking are susceptible to bi-directional influence. In Chapter 15, Tracy Hirata-Edds and Lizette Peter consider endangered language revitalisation from an MC point of view. This view provides a more productive framework for all involved in the revival of endangered languages. In Chapter 16, Bregtje Seton and Monica S. Schmid give an overview of first language attrition in a migration setting, and attempt to integrate those findings into the overall MC framework. The term attrition is used without a negative connotation. Attrition is neither linear nor unidirectional. Proficiency, complexity, accuracy, fluency and how comfortable a speaker is with his/her language fluctuate throughout the language user’s lifespan in all of his/her lan- guages. The chapter concludes with a brief investigation of the importance of neurophysiological models of language processing. In Chapter 17, Panos Athanasopoulus provides a synopsis of empirical investigations of both cognitive-general and language-specific effects of bilin- gualism on cognition. Two main research questions on bilingual cognition are highlighted: Do bilinguals think differently? Does learning additional languag- es change the way humans think? In Chapter 18, Anna Ewert compares three different theoretical perspec- tives in research on motion and spatial cognition. She reviews relevant research with both monolingual participants and second language users. The three theo- retical perspectives are the linguistic relativity hypothesis, thinking for speak- ing and the embodied cognition hypothesis related to motion research. The thinking for speaking approach has produced the largest amount of bilingual research. 234 vivian cook and li wei (eds.), the cambridge handbook of linguistic multi-competence In Chapter 19, Jean-Marc Dewaele relates MC and personality, especially the effects of personality on adjustment and language use, the effect of multilin- gualism on personality traits, and the effects of multilingualism on lower-order psychological and affective variables. In Chapter 20, Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin investigates the relationship be- tween MC and creativity. The final section presents the theoretical groundwork for an educational programme supporting MC and creativity. In Chapter 21, Virginia M. Scott sheds light on MC and language teach- ing. As MC is a state of mind that affects the whole mind, teachers need to ad- dress the whole person intentionally. The mind consists of cognition, affect and motivation, all in constant interplay (Dörnyei, 2010). As MC is a subconscious state of mind, it has to be taught, learned, and modelled. The foreign language classroom is a privileged environment in which to do this. In Chapter 22, Jean-Marc Dewaele deals with MC and emotion. L2 users not only think, but express their feelings differently from monolinguals. The subsections discuss the effects of language and the effects of culture, the ways of how emotions are expressed in terms of grammar, lexicon and language choices of different languages, emotional acculturation and the question of whether multi-competent people are multi-emotional. In Chapter 23, Ian MacKenzie discusses English as a lingua franca (ELF). ELF is defined as any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the only communicative medium of choice, and often the only option (Seidlhofer, 2011). This definition does not exclude native English speakers. ELF researchers tend to write about divergent forms or features, rath- er than errors, interlanguage etc. suggesting that we should stop considering second and foreign language users as eternal learners never reaching perfec- tion. Instead, success should be measured by the ability to use the second lan- guage effectively. Chapter 24 is David Singleton’s critique of MC from a second language acquisition point of view. The author supports Cook’s definition of MC but ar- gues that the idea is not new and that supporters of MC tend too much towards unitariness of language knowledge, which is in contrast to the usual under- standing of how languages operate. According to Cook, total separation of lan- guages is impossible since both languages exist in the same mind. Singleton also argues that, similarly, total integration of two languages is impossible since L2 users can keep the languages apart. Chapter 25 is an interview with Guillaume Thierry on some general questions related to MC, comments on the three premises of MC from Chap- ter 1, the role of the monolingual native speaker in bilingualism research, c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 235 questions on research methods and reactions to statements made by different contributors. Chapter 26 is an epilogue in which Li Wei focuses on MC and the Trans- languaging Instinct. At the end of the handbook, a bibliography of MC is added, composed by Goro Murahata, Yoshiko Murahata and Vivian Cook, as well as an index of the related terms and authors included in the book. The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic MC, written by twenty-nine prominent researchers, is an up-to-date, thorough review of the concept of MC from the psychological, sociolinguistic, and second language acquisition points of view. It attempts to answer the question of how two or more languages are learned and contained in the same mind or the same community. As such, it is a basic reference for every researcher interested in the study of languages from any of the mentioned points of view, not excluding language teachers interested in the concept of linguistic MC to be compared to the traditional monolingual approach. References Cook, V. J. (2012). Multi-competence. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopaedia of applied linguistics (pp. 3768–3774). New York, NY: Wiley-Blackwell. Dörnyei, Z. (2010). The relationship between language aptitude and language learning motivation: individual differences from a dynamic systems perspective. In E. Macaro (Ed.), Continuum companion to second language acquisition (pp. 247–267). London, UK: Continuum. Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Su, I. R. (2010). Transfer of pragmatic competences: a bi-directional perspective. Modern Language Journal, 94(1), 87–102. Su, I. R. (2012). Bi-directional transfer in Chinese EFL learners’ apologizing behaviour. Concentric: Studies and Linguistics, 38(2), 237–266. 236 c e p s Journal | Vol.7 | No4 | Year 2017 237 Ingrid Agud Sintajehu Alemu Dara Andjelković Slobodanka Antić Milica Antić Gaber Tatjana Ažman Barbara Bajd Kristyna Balatova Vesna Bilić Irella Bogut Rajka Bračun Sova Tomaž Bratina Branka Čagran Mateja Dagarin Fojkar Valeria Damiani Iztok Devetak Tatjana Devjak Vlatka Domović Janet Enever Justina Erčulj Saša A. Glažar Marion Händel Penny Humby Vilhelmiina Harju Georgeta Ion Milena Ivanuš Grmek Janez Jerman Ivana Jugović Jens Jungblut Anka Jurčević Lozančić Branka D. Jurišić Jana Kalin Jana Kodrič Kauko Komulainen Andrej Koren Marjanca Kos Živa Kos Joanna Kostecka Dušan Krnel Robi Kroflič Milan Kubiatko Roman Kuhar Vesna Leskošek Miha Lovšin Barica Marentič Požarnik Ljubica Marjanovič Umek Silvija Markič Metka Mencin Čeplak Mariana Moynova Irena Nančovska Šerbec Anne Nevgi Nevgi Hannele Niemi Fani Nolimal Siniša Opić Mojca Peček Čuk Cirila Peklaj Nina Perger Jelena Pešić Romina Plešec Gašparič Rado Pišot Vesna Podgornik Uršula Podobnik Jasna Podreka Alenka Polak Željko Popović Alison Porter Melita Puklek Levpušček Marko Radovan List of Referees in Year 2017 The members of the editorial board would like to thank the reviewers for their professional review of the contributions. 238 list of referees in year 2017 Cveta Razdevšek Pučko Špela Razpotnik Mitja Sardoč Martin Scheuch Irena Selišnik Barbara Sicherl Kafol Darija Skubic Marjeta Šarić Marjan Šimenc Tina Štemberger Damjan Štefanc Darko Štrajn Alenka Švab Victorija Thoresen Beatriz Tomšič Čerkez Iztok Tomažič Anita Trnavčevič Milena Valenčič Zuljan Valerija Vendramin Jana Vlckova Lidija Vujicić Darja Zorc Maver Mitja Žagar Mojca Žveglič Mihelič Editor in Chief / Glavni in odgovorni urednik Slavko Gaber – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Deputy Editor in Chief / Namestnik glavnega in odgovornega urednika Iztok Devetak – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Editorial Board / Uredniški odbor Michael W. Apple – Department of Educational Policy Studies, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, usa Branka Baranović – Institut za društvena istraživanja u Zagrebu, Zagreb, Hrvatska CÉsar Birzea – Faculty of Philosophy, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Vlatka Domović – Učiteljski fakultet, Zagreb, Hrvatska Grozdanka Gojkov – Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Novi Sad, Srbija Jan De Groof – Professor at the College of Europe, Bruges, Belgium and at the University of Tilburg, the Netherlands; Government Commissioner for Universities, Belgium, Flemish Community; President of the „European Association for Education Law and Policy“ Andy Hargreaves – Lynch School of Education, Boston College, Boston, usa Tatjana Hodnik Čadež – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Janez Jerman – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Mojca Juriševič – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Jana Kalin – Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Alenka Kobolt – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Janez Krek - Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Bruno Losito – Facolta di Scienze della Formazione, Universita' degli Studi Roma Tre, Roma, Italy Lisbeth Lundhal – Umeå Universitet, Umeå, Sweden Ljubica Marjanovič Umek – Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Silvija Markić - Ludwigsburg University of Education, Institute for Science and Technology Mariana Moynova – University of Veliko Turnovo, Veliko Turnovo, Bulgary Hannele Niemi – Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Mojca Peček Čuk – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Аnа Pešikan-Аvramović – Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Beograd, Srbija Karmen Pižorn – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Igor Radeka – Odjel za pedagogiju, Sveučilište u Zadru, Zadar, Hrvatska Pasi Sahlberg – Harvard Graduate School of Education, Boston, usa Igor Saksida – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Michael Schratz – School of Education, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria Keith S. Taber – Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, uk Shunji Tanabe – Faculty of Education, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, Japan Beatriz Gabriela Tomšič Čerkez – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Jón Torfi Jónasson – School of Education, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland Nadica Turnšek - Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Milena Valenčič Zuljan – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Zoran Velkovski – Faculty of Philosophy, SS. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Janez Vogrinc – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Robert Waagenar – Faculty of Arts, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands Pavel Zgaga – Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, Slovenija Current Issue Editor / Urednik številke Iztok Devetak Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal issn 2232-2647 (online edition) issn 1855-9719 (printed edition) Publication frequency: 4 issues per year Subject: Teacher Education, Educational Science Publisher: Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Managing editor: Lea Vrečko / English language editor: Neville Hall / Slovene language editing: Tomaž Petek / Cover and layout design: Roman Ražman / Typeset: Igor Cerar / Print: Birografika Bori, d. o. o., Ljubljana © 2017 Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana Instructions for Authors for publishing in ceps Journal (www.cepsj.si – instructions) Submissions Manuscript should be from 5,000 to 7,000 words long, including abstract and reference list. 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Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Vol. 7 | No4 | Year 2017 c e p s Journal c e p s Journal FO CUS Foreign Language Learning and Identity Reconstruction: Learners’ Understanding of the Intersections of the Self, the Other and Power Učenje tujih jezikov in rekonstrukcija identitete: razumevanje presečišča jaza, drugega in moči — Seyyed Hatam Tamimi Sa’d Elementary and Secondary School Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ Classroom Management Competencies Pogledi učencev osnovnih in srednjih šol na učiteljeve kompetence vodenja razreda — Jana Kalin, Cirila Peklaj, Sonja Pečjak, Melita Puklek Levpušček and Milena Valenčič Zuljan Multicultural Education vs. Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentric Education: Text Analysis of a Contemporary Israeli Value Education Program Multikulturna edukacija: implicitna in eksplicitna etnocentričnaedukacija – vsebinska analiza sodobnega izraelskega programa za vzgojo za vrednote — Roni Reingold and Sara Zamir Pre-Service Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs about Foreign Language Learning and Early Foreign Language Teaching in Slovenia Prepričanja študentov predšolske vzgoje o učenju in zgodnjem poučevanju tujega jezika v Sloveniji — Mateja Dagarin Fojkar and Darija Skubic In Search of Teaching Quality of EFL Student Teachers through Teaching Practicum: Lessons from a Teacher Education Program V iskanju kakovosti poučevanja prihodnjih učiteljev angleščine kot tujega jezika med pedagoško prakso: program izobraževanja učiteljev — Siti Nurul Azkiyah and Amirul Mukminin Primary School Student Teachers’ Perceived and Actual Knowledge in Biology Predstava bodočih učiteljev razrednega pouka o njihovem znanju biologije in njihovo dejansko znanje biologije — Eija Yli-Panula, Eila Jeronen and Nonmanut Pongsakdi Exploring the Link between Achievement Goals, Motivation, and Parental Expectations among University Students in Kosovo Ugotavljanje povezav med cilji dosežkov, motivacijo in pričakovanji staršev študentov na Kosovu — Albulene Grajcevci and Arif Shala Participation in Decision-making in Class: Opportunities and Student Attitudes in Austria and Slovenia Možnosti in želje učencev v Avstriji in Sloveniji po soodločanju pri pouku — Monika Mithans, Milena Ivanuš Grmek and Branka Čagran Changes in Beliefs Regarding Good Teachers and the Characteristics of Child Development of Primary Education Students Spremembe prepričanj študentov razrednega pouka o dobrem učitelju in značilnostih otrokovega razvoja — Helena Smrtnik Vitulič and Irena Lesar Cooperation between Parents and Preschool Institutions through Different Concepts of Preschool Education Sodelovanje med starši in vzgojitelji v različnih konceptih predšolske vzgoje — Sanja Berčnik and Tatjana Devjak REVIEWS Mary Hayden and Jeff Thomson (Eds.), International Schools: current issues and future prospects, Oxford: Symposium books, 2016; 240 pp.: isbn 978-1-873927-92-2 — Mirko Mrčela Vivian Cook and Li Wei (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multi- competence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016; 562 pp.: isbn 978-1-107-05921-4 — Gabrijela Petra Nagode i s s n 1 8 5 5 - 9 7 1 9 Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal Revija Centra za študij edukacijskih strategij Vol. 7 | No4 | Year 2017 c o n t e n t s www.cepsj.si C en te r f or E du ca tio na l P ol ic y St ud ie s J ou rn al Re vi ja C en tra za št ud ij ed uk ac ijs ki h str at eg ij V ol .7 | N o 4 | Ye ar 2 01 7 c e p s J ou rn al University of Ljubljana Faculty of Education