THE SLOVENIANS FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES Draga Geít THE SLOVENIANS FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES (Illustrated story of Slovenia) Coordinating Committee of Slovenian Organizations in Victoria First published in 1985 by Coordinating Committee of Slovenian Organisations in Victoria P.O.Box 185, Eltham 3095 Victoria, Australia Copyright DragaGelt 1985 AH rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of private study, research, criticism or review, as pennitted under the Copyright Act, no part may he reproduced by any process without written penrn^jon. Inquiries should be addressed to the publishers. ISBN 95 95 431—20 I1 ririled by Distinction Printing 164 V irtnria Street, Brunswick 3056 Melbourne, Australia CONTENTS I. BEFORE THE SLAVS..................................1 The Impact of Romans on Slovenian Territory...............8 Tribal Migration..................................18 IL ORIGIN OF SLAVS..................................20 Slav Migration....................................21 III. THE NEW LAND....................................22 Decline of The Independent Duchy of Karantanija............27 IV. CHRISTIANITY AND THE SLOVENIANS...................28 Germanization...................................34 V. NEW WAYS FOR NEW TIMES...........................38 The Rulers of Slovenian Territory.......................51 VI. POLITICS, PLAGUE AND INVASION......................54 The Habsburgs Advance Towards The Adriatic..............58 Ottoman Empire and Turkish Invasion...................62 VII. NATIONALISM AND THE STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM.........71 The Reformation..................................75 Maria Theresa and Reform...........................81 VIII. MORE WARS.......................................93 IX. THE HUNGER FOR KNOWLEDGE.......................101 Industry in 19th Century Slovenia.....................104 X. A LIGHT ON THE HORIZON...........................11.9 XI. NEW BEGINNINGS..................................125 XII. MOSAIC OF TRADITION.............................129 Folklore, Songs and Dance..........................141 Folkdances.....................................145 Costumes, Crafts and Customs........................146 Traditional Slovenian Customs and Festivals throughout The Year 154 Sorcery.......................................16-3 Traditional Foods................................164 Traditional Drinks................................164 APPENDICES......................................165 SUMMARY OF SLOVENIAN LITERATURE................170 BIBLIOGRAPHY - FUTURE READING...................176 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - PHOTOS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS INDEX FOREWORD In the years since I migrated to Australia I have often been asked where I came from. When I reply, "Slovenia", I am usually confronted with a blank stare, and I have thought for many years that, given the complexities of the European political situation, there is a need for a publication which explains where and what Slovenia is. It seems to me that this book does just that, and I was, therefore, particularly pleased to be asked by the author to write this Foreword. A considerable amount of time, effort and love has been devoted by Mrs. Gelt to the writing of this book, which as far as I know, is the first, if not the only, book written in English dealing exclusively with the history of Slovenia. /Is an Australian citizen of Slovene birth, I am especially excited that this work has been published in Australia. What impresses me most about Mrs. Gelt's book is that she has presented a great deal of material in such a way as to be of interest to a wide range of people, both Slovenian and Australian. Much time has been spent on researching and then writing about the customs, traditions and folklore of Slovenia. I would imagine that this will be particularly welcomed by all Slovenian migrants around the world as it will provide an important written basis for teaching the history and an understanding of our country and also be a tangible link between Australia and Slovenia. Migration from Slovenia has been taking place since long before the First World War, and today there are about 250.000 Slovenes dispersed around the world. In fact Cleveland, Ohio (USA) was for a considerable time allegedly the largest Slovenian city in the world. To their credit, these people have maintained their cultural heritage wherever they live, as is evidenced by the fact that there are currently more than 52 different publications being printed in the Slovenian language around the world, from Sweden to Spain to the U.S.A. and Argentina. I think this book is a great credit to Mrs. Gelt arid will play an important role in raising awareness of Slovenia and provide a source of information for the future generations of children of Slovenian migrants. Milivoj Emil Lajovic SENA TOR FOR NEW SOUTH WALES 19 June 1985 Commonwealth Parliament Canberra, A.C.T. NOVEMU RODU SLOVENCEV TO THE YOUNG SLOVENIANS I. BEFORE THE SLAVS Archaeological excavation confirms that the land that is now Slovenia was occupied liy human beings as long ago as 2,000 B. C. There is evidence that man lived there in the Mesolithic period (Middle Stone Age), and that he fed himself by collecting fruits and herbs. Later, when people had discovered how to make simple tools and weapons, they caught fish and hunted wild beasts for food, and lived in caves. The women prepared food and looked after the children and fires while the men went hunting. The remains of a Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) man were found at Krapina, today's Croatia (see map 1, p. 1 ), and many remains of tools and weapons of this period were found in caves near Nabrežina and Postojna, in the neighbourhood of Pivka (Parska golobina), at Mornova zijalka near Šoštanj and at many other places. During the Neolithic (new Stone Age) period man began to cultivate the land and to domesticate a few animals. His home was either a shallow dug-out, after 1. Sites of archaeological excavations from Illyr- and Celt- eras. the style of his ancestors' cave dwellings, or a square hut that was frenquently built on the banks of rivers and lakes. He made clay dishes that were often decorated. His tools and weapons were of stone, sharp bones and bones that were sharpened by nibbing on rocks and stones. The Neolithic period lasted until about 1,900 B. C. Towards the end of that era men discovered copper and started to use it to make tools and weapons. With the discovery of copper came mining and primitive foundries. Agriculture and animal husbandry were by then comparatively well developed, and the pottery developed new forms, shapes and decorative designs. Lake-dwelling at Ljubljansko barje. Dagger (bodkin) from Ig - Bronze Age, c. 1600 B. C. Sacrifice — decoration of a situla, found at Vače, near Litija. Askos - clay, horn-formed dish, found in the front yard of modern Academy of Arts, Ljubljana. Anthropomorphic vase from Ig, near Ljubljana, 1900 B. C. Lake dwellings were a common form of housing thought to have been in use during the latter part of the. Neolithic Age. Evidence of these dwellings was found at Ljubljansko barje swamp, which was once a lake, and also on Lake Cerkniško jezero. The huts, built over water on posts and connected to the banks by simple bridges, were usually round, and had a wooden frame covered with straw or ferns. There was a hole in the floor that was used for collecting water or fishing. The lake-dwellers were clothed in animal skins and made hammers, needles from animal bones and curved knives from the teeth of wild boar. The finding of simple spindles confirms that they spun flax. Among the artefacts from Ljubljansko barje are many clay toys, small dishes, mugs, rattles shaped like hedgehogs and owls, and small spindles. Archaeologists believe these huts were eventually all demolished by fire, some accidentally, others deli- Three-legged stool, found at Kranj, 800 B. C. Jlnr p1^- ^ w rip ■w- »i. IkMb Boat-shaped fibula (brooch), found at Sv. Križ, near Mokronog, 650 B. C. - 'J«», 'Aw kf x^&Sfr** Jgr Diadem from Stična, 600 B. C. berately set alight by enemy tribes. By about 1,800 B. C. the lake-dwellers appear to have vanished from the waterways and the first fortified huts were built on high hills. People discovered and worked with bronze (the Bronze Age) and brass, an alloy of copper and tin that was stronger and more resistant than copper. The era of bronze lasted in this region until possibly 1,000 B. C. Excavated ruins of the fortified hill dwellings indicate that the inhabitants were organized in tribal groups which fought between each other, and that a group of huts was used as a refuge and defensive fortification. Work started to be shared among members of a group or tribe, and it was divided into categories. For example, shepherds and field labourers went to work on the surrounding land while others had occupations and duties within the fortifications. Only in time of danger, when a neighbouring tribe attacked tribal territory, did all the men go forth to defend the land and women and children were left within the fortifications. Tribal leaders led their people into battle. In the middle of these fortified settlements, usually in a clear and level place, tribesmen stored and guarded their most valuable possessions such as dishes, jewellery, weapons, food and domestic animals. In some settlements the cemetery was also in the middle, among the valuables, which indicates the reverence with which the dead were regarded. The centre was protected by dikes made of poles rammed into the ground and woven with ferns, and there were sometimes several of these protective circles. The houses, partly dug into the ground and partly covered with dirt, leaned against the dikes and contributed additional strength to the palisade. Zara, found at Most na Soci, 500 B. C. The embossed (pail) Bronze situla from Vace, 500 B. C., said to be the most beautiful treasure of the museum, it is a typical sample of classical situla culture. mmimmmm* 2814 Bronze sacrificial dish, Magdalenska gora, 500 B. C. Brass harness of an lllyr Duke, c. 600 B. C. Brass helmet, side view. The marks were made by an axe, during the battle. Reconstruction of an Illyr Duke in full armour. Ribbed brass bucket with two handles. >z- ".• ti: ' : *" JSMK. 'iv^t t M 7 Scene of a duel, decoration of a brass belt or buckle. Parts of horse's trappings found in the tomb of an Illyr duke. It was customary to bury warrior and horse in a common grave. Decorated small brass bucket (pail). Brass bracelet, decorated with snake heads. Three moulded pottery dishes, kernoi, used for drinking at funeral services. and relatives, and that they would continue to lead 'in the other world' a life similar to that which they had left. The most beautiful relics from that era are the 'si-tulas' (situle), bronze vases that are wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, with a rim on the upper edge to which a handle was attached. The best known is the si-tula from Vace, (illustration p. 4 ) beautifully decorated with engraved battle arid hunting scenes. A considerable amount of jewellery was also found at Vace, including necklaces, bracelets, hair pins, rings, buckles and brooches or 'fibulas' used for pinning dresses. It appears that the most commonly used weapons were axes, swords, spears, arrows and knives, and that helmets were sometimes worn. Sites of the main Slovenian archaeological excavations are shown on map 1, on page 1 . There was significant trading development during this period. Trade routes ran north and east from Italy, and one of the most favoured items of merchandise, particularly in northern districts, was amber (fossilized resin) from which jewellery was made. By 1,000 B.C. iron was also being used, first for decoration and later for tools and weapons. Farming and stock raising had developed considerably, and differences in wealth became evident. Tribal leaders Black vases with lids, decorated with sun symbols in the form of a hooked cross (swastika). The inhabitants of these fortified hilltop settlements worshipped their dead. Some bodies were burned •and others buried in shallow graves. The remains of the cremated dead were stored in kettle-shaped pits, but the remains of the more wealthy members of the community were placed in special earthenware containers (zare), together with food, pots, goblets, bowls, cooking utensils, and jewellery (made of brass, amber and clay) that had belonged to the deceased person. It was believed that the dead remained in contact with living friends Part of a gold diadem found in the tomb of an IUyr duchess. Necklace of large amber beads. A small toy horse of baked clay, found in Celtic tomb. claimed a larger share of worldly goods than their followers, and there is evidence of slavery in some areas. Parts of Slovenia were by this time very heavily populated. There were many Illyric tribes living on Slovenian land, the most prominent among them being the Japodi, Kolappiani and Noricani (see map 2, p. 10). By the third century B.C. the Indo-European Celts had arrived from the west and overrun nearly the whole Balkan peninsula. The Taurican tribe, one of the most powerful, mingled with the Noricans, Japods and Latobics. Celts were mostly farmers but they also greatly developed mining and manufacturing industries. They were skilled in metallurgy and the making of brassware, and mined the Drava River for gold. They built large and immensely strong fortifications mainly along trade routes, tracks and overpasses. In 400 B.C. the Illyric tribes were fighting the Greeks and conquered some colonies on the Adriatic coast which included the islands of Pharos (Hvar), Issa (Vis) and Korkyra Melaina (Korcula). When not fighting, the Illyrs provided the Greeks with wool, cheese, minerals and slaves in exchange for weapons and jewellery. Some Slovenian archaeological sites, notably those around Novo Mesto, are famous for their beauty and historical importance. These excavations have revealed that this part of the country (see map 1, p. 1 ) was A long necklace of amber beads. settled first by Illyr tribes and then by the Romans, and archaeologists continue to find pieces of pottery dating from the Iron Age. The cemeteries of these early settlements were situated in many different places, and graves of the Hallstatt (Iron Age) era were discovered in 1894 by the Vienna Museum and excavated by Jernej Pecnik. They included many graves of noblemen, some elaborately decorated, and those at Kandija (Znanceve njive — Fields of Znanec) were arranged in a circle of which the centre was left vacant. The Celts chose burying places next to those of the Illyrs. Many graves were found but there was evidence that others had been destroyed while the town was being built. By 1967 sixty-three graves had been discovered, together with earthenware containers, swords and knives. By 1 B.C. a new Celtic tribe, the Latobics, was settled in Dolenjska and the lower region of the river Sava, where their place names were retained even after the Romans occupied the country. The Latobics buried the ashes of their dead in containers (slov. hisaste zare) designed to represent the shape of a house, complete with symbolic doors and windows (see illustration p. 4). Zare have been found only in the eastern parts of the region. THE IMPACT OF ROMANS ON SLOVENIAN TERRITORY In 181 B.C. the Romans established a colony named Aquieleia (Oglej) with the object of protecting the Roman Empire from infiltration by neighbouring tribes such as the Celts and Illyrs. However the Empire's northern border was soon extended and in 128 B.C. the Gorica and Tolmin region came under Roman rule. Julius Caesar visited the area in order to get to know the country and its people and this part of the Alps is named the Julijske Alpe (Julian Alps). The overpass near Hrusica is called Statio in alpe Julia (Postaja na Julijski planini — the Station at the Julian Mountain). Celtic coins. In 44 B.C. Octavian, who later became the Emperor Augustus, led his legions against the Japod and Latobic tribes and overran fortifications near Pivka, the ruins of which still exist. Octavian met strong resistance from about 3,000 native people near a town thought by some historians to have been called Metellun (Metlje, in the vicinity of Stari trg — Metlje pri Starem trgu). Octavian was wounded twice but eventually overran and burned the town. Roman forces then proceeded to the Krka river and defeated the Latobic tribe before advancing to Segeste, where the town Sisak (Croatia) was later established, on the Kolpa (Lat. Colapio) river, and defeated the Carni, Norican and Tavriscan tribes. By A.D. 14 the Romans not only ruled the region now known as Slovenia but also the country between it and the Danube River. In Roman times this region included Venetia and Istria extended to the Julian Alps and Snežnik. BAPTIST ERIJ ______/ - -----qRlCOR^'gt'YV- " /i V ' A... BORŠTNIKOV . ---------• -•'IRQ ___-- — Tloris (map) of Emona (now Ljubljana). Ikaros - badly damaged white marble sculpture, A.D. 200, representing death of a youth. Fawn, A.D. 100. Noricum Province, formerly occupied by the No-rican people, included Upper and Lower Austria as far as the Danube and Wienerwald, the country around Li-enz, Koroška (Carinthia) and the western part of Štajerska (Styria) with the town of Celeia — now Celje. Pannonia Province included the eastern part of Štajerska (Styria) with the town of Poetovio — now Ptuj, the Danube river valley and the Sava river valley, as well as the region along the river Sava in today's Croatia and the western part of today's Serbia. In A.D. 102 — 107 the Emperor Trajan divided Pannonia into two separate VRBAHA'IViJ; SAlVi .IS s :: AITMI , J :.. IHK , -f' illfiM . - • ■ • '|3 Inscription on the tombstone of Emona slave, A.D. 100 0' Coin of Magnencius, the Higs Official of Emona, found in Ljubljana A.D. 350-353. provinces: Pannonia Superior (Upper Pannonia) and Pannonia Inferior (Lower Pannonia). Roman provinces were subdivided into districts centred on towns. The former occupants of the country were left with little land because the Romans claimed the major part of it as 'State' land and the small remaining area had to provide taxes on land previously owned by local people. The Romans are famous for the excellent roads they built to open conquered territory to their military and administrative forces and traders. Many twentieth century highways follow trade routes developed during the great years of the Roman Empire. The most important road intersection on Slovenian land was at Aquileia. One main road went to Ko-roska (Carinthia) by way of Villach and Virunum, and a second important route led over the river Aesontius Fl. — now Soca, to Vipava valley, through Ad Pirum — now Hrusica, and Longaticum — now Logatec, to Emona — now Ljubljana, and finally to Celeia — now vimjuM VILLACH SANTICUM STATIC Bn-AOnmoisis MECLA21A CARNI POETOVIO &v/\c/r j (vMsmmmmcoi iiwmmmmmmfm ; t i <; f 1 fm VMmL 2M>iMsiM. mm Old Christian inscription on tomb of the Bishop Gavdencius, A.D. 400, found at St. Pavel, near Prebold. (1) Bolta, L., Kolšek, V., Celjski Muzej. Zavod za spomeniško varstvo SR Slovenije, Ljubljana, 1970, p. 12. (2) Kolšek, V., Šcmpetrska nekropola. Zavod za spomeniško varstvo SR Slovenije, Ljubljana, 1974, p. 9- (3) Kolšek, V., Šempetrska nekropola. Zavod za spomeniško varstvo SR Slovenije, Ljubljana, 1974, p. 24. Vault of Secundianus. Coins from the reign of Diocletian, found at Sisak. Emperor Diocletian, a statue of Roman Emperor in tourth century. Statue of Roman Caesar Augustus, bronze, 18th Century. Poetovio — now Ptuj, another Roman town, is known to have been devastated by Attila (4), King of the Huns, during his wars with the Roman Empire, and again in AD 476 when the power of the Empire was declining. The Avars were one of the many tribes who regularly used a route through Poetovio when engaged in aggressive military missions and ransacked the town as they passed through, but some remnants of the Roman period have been discovered. Archaeological discoveries, excavated comparatively recently, date from Celtic and Illyrian times and were found to have been robbed by the Roman invaders. From such evidence it is possible to obtain a cultural picture of the area from pre-Roman times through the period of Roman occupation, and many valuable artefacts are now in European museums. (4) Attila, King of Huns, A.D. 434-453, known as the Scourge of God. TRIBAL MIGRATIONS. During the latter part of the second century, the Germanic and other nations, collectively described as 'barbarians', who lived beyond the Rhine-Danube border, began to migrate towards the outskirts of the Roman Empire. By thfe third century Goths had overrun Dacia and in AD 375 the Asian Huns overran the Ostrogoths (East Goths). The Western Goths had moved further to the west. Other tribes, Alans, Suevi and Vandals, later settled on the territory of modern Spain, the Franks to the north in Gallia and Anglos and Saxons in what is now England. By the year AD 166 there had already been considerable warfare between the Romans and Germanic people who advanced as far as Veneria before being forced to retreat beyond the Danube. The Romans never tried to regain territory on the left bank of the Danube but built immensely strong fortifications at Lecica in the Savinja River valley. On Slovenian territory, Noricum and Pannonia still belonged to the Roman Empire and suffered from being in the region of much fighting between Romans and the Langobard and Gothic tribes trying to march westward. The first people to settle in Pannonia after the Romans eventually retreated were Germanic Vandals, followed in AD 375 by the Kvads (Cuads). The Roman Hieronium (5) wrote that the Vandals were the cause of more than 20 years of bloodshed on the territory between the Julian Alps and Constantinople. Even the immense Roman fortifications, the 'costells' (It. costello), 'the Alpine Wall', were becoming weaker. Such fortifications are known to have been at Nauportus — now Vrhnika, Ad Pirum — now Hrušica, Castra — now Ajdovščina, and close to the junction of the Krka and Sava rivers. After the Kvads came the Huns, a nomadic tribe living in a tribal union-alliance which included some Slavs. The Romans lost Pannonia about the middle of the fifth century, through an agreement with Attila, who led the Huns to Italy, Germania and Gallia. The towns of Emona, Poetovio and Celeia were devastated many times in the course of these campaigns, and after the death of Attila in 453, and the subsequent decay of the Hun tribal alliance, the Eastern Goths entered Slovenian territory. These invaders were relatively few in number and lived mainly in military camps, remains of which have been excavated at Carnium - now Kranj, north of Ljubljana. In AD 527 Justinian became Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Eastern Empire, centred in Constantinople, included most of the Balkan Peninsula, the territory of modern Turkey, islands of the Aegean Sea, Syria, Palestine and Egypt. The formal (5) Kos, M., Zgodovina Slovencev, Slovenska Matica, Ljubljana, ¡955,p. 20. 3. Tribal migration in the fourth and fifth centuries. language was Latin and, later, Greek. Industry and commerce were well advanced, particularly in manufactured goods such as glassware, fine textiles, weapons and jewellery. The silk industry also flourished, and trade wjth Persia, Arabia, Abyssinia, India, China and Mediterranean countries was brisk and profitable. Justinian set about restoring the Roman Empire to its former glory, both administratively and territorially. He first turned his attention to North Africa where his forces overwhelmed the Vandals, then devastated the Eastern Goths State in Italy before uniting the West Goths' territory in Spain with the Eastern Roman Empire. The Mediterranean was controlled by the fleet of the Eastern Roman Empire and Goths were forced to retreat from territories between the Adriatic Sea and the Pannonian Basin (Flat) because the coastal towns united with the Byzantinians rather than be conquered by the 'barbaric' Goths. The wars with the Goths brought two new 'lords of the land' into Slovenian territory — the Langobards and Franks. The Franks were allies of the Goths and at the time of the Goth-Roman war they occupied Venetia and territory extending to the Eastern Alps. In 548 Pa-nnonia once more became a victim of the fortunes of war when Justinian united with the Franks, rather than the Langobards, and presented them with Panno-nia. The Justinian borders were further extended when, in the second half of the century, the Franks were expelled form Venetia and Trieste became a Byzantinian town. For the next twenty years there was constant tribal fighting in Slovenian territorys. Poetovio and Carnium were strong Langobard camps, and the Byzantinian Empire was threatened in the Danube region by tribes of Slavs, Anteas and Bolgars, as well as Avars and Franks (see map 3, p. 18) The time of slavery was ending and a new system was beginning to develop. It would be called feudalism II. ORIGINS OF SLAVS The best known theories on the place of origin of the Slavs put them in the region bordered in the north by the Baltic Sea, the Garpatian mountains in the south, the river Oder in the west and river Dnjeper in the east (see map 4, p. 20). The Slavs lived in families, which belonged to tribes democratically organized into a tribal union. All problems, decisions and judgements were dealt with at tribal meetings. The leader of the 'family' and tribe took charge in times of danger and led the army, a combination of footsoldiers, cavalry and rowers in special boats made from tree trunks, against the enemy. The army also included women and children. Slavs were peaceloving farming people. Land was cleared by burning the forests and in some areas a simple ploughshare was used for preparing fields. Archaeological findings confirm that they worked with metal, made tools and jewellery, and kept bees (6). The country settled by Slavs was almost completely covered with forests, lakes, marshes and rivers. Since they lived in small groups they felt defenceless against nature's powers and forces. All the changes in nature, such as day and night, seasons and storms, they interpreted as being connected with the works of different secretive beings, separated into 'good' and 'bad' (7). They believed their god Svarog, the creator of light, the leader of everything, lived in a family like themselves. Perun is also mentioned and known among Slav peoples as the god of thunderbolt, lord of the storm, master of lightning. The Slav mythology is described as a catalogue of supernatural powers — a borderline between folk-lore and demonology, which survived almost to the twentieth century. They believed in deities (divine beings) of the fields, forests, waters: the god of cattle was named Vales, Triglav with three heads symbolised dominion over the three realms of sky, earth and places underground. It was also thought that the souls of the dead might return as vampires from which they defended themselves by burning the dead, thrusting a wedge of alder wood right through the corpse, and praying to the souls of the departed. Demons from the souls of young people, especially girls, were called vile. Maidens who died before marriage were particularly feared, and it was believed they would come back and kidnap bridegrooms or babies. The vile were beautiful naked girls who charmed shepherds and young boys, sometimes appearing as swans or falcons, horses and wolves. They helped people and brought rain, but also hail and destruction. The deities connected with the birth of man were called sojenice — the demons of fortune, who told of man's destiny. The Slavs were interested in natural phenomena and believed in a spirit who watched over growth, but they were frightened of water deities, who were very dangerous and lived in pools of deep, still waters in rivers and lakes. They were covered with moss and grass, had big toes, paws instead of hands, sometimes horns and large burning eyes. One water deity appeared as a fish-like figure, with a tail and covered with scales, or as a tree trunk. Another frightful divinity had a human figure, covered with hair — a werewolf. Sacrificial places were located on river banks, near springs and, among the Baltic Slavs, on the triangular land at the confluence of two rivers (7a). The sacrificial offering was mainly field produce, sometimes animals and occasionally even humans. The ceremony was accompanied by dances and plays. rs Baltic \ --^sst \V\ N ' \ i j Black Sca After Dr. M. Kos 4. Approximate Slav territory before migration. (6) Kos, M., Zgodovina Slovencev, Slovenska Matica, Ljubljana, 1955, p. 41. ' ' (7) Cruden, J., Zgodovina slovenskega naroda. Part 1, Družba Su. Mohorja, Celovec (Ger. Klagenfurt), ¡910, p. 31. (7 a) Gruden, J., Zgodovina slovenskega naroda. Part I, Družba Sv. Mohorja, Celovec (Ger. Klagenfurt), 19lo,p. 32. The custom of second interment survived until the nineteenth century, Graves would be reopened three, five or seven years after interment, bones would be taken out and washed, wrapped in new linen and reinterred. The Slavs worshipped the earth and celebrated the changes of season, especially spring when the warmth 'pushed' away the cold of the winter. Games and singing glorified the victory of light over cold and darkness. The 'feast' is still held in one region of Slovenia (Bela Krajina) where, in spring, the people celebrate the 'Jurjevanje', a pagan ceremony that has persisted into Christianity. SLAV MIGRATION The sixth century was one of migration for the Slav people. Their racial characteristics appeared to change, and from being a peace-loving, farming race they became an aggressive and war-like tribe constantly on the move as they attacked great states. The cause of change is unknown. Possibly their territory became too small for a growing population, or they may have moved out in the face of attack from other people. Perhaps they were inspired by the example of neighbours who had already moved into areas of Spain, Gallia and Italy, but the precise motivation will probably remain a mystery. At the beginning of the sixth century the Slavs moved into Wallachia, and in the second half of it crossed the Carpathian Mountains, entered Moravia, Slovakia and Bohemia and proceeded to the Pannonia Flat and the Eastern Alps. By the seventh century, about the year 615, the Balkan Peninsula was under Slav rule and the Roman Byzantinian Empire was experiencing the effects of their aggression (8). A new development in the history of Slav migration came when they settled in parts of the Alps. For a time they even lived in alliance with the Avars, a fierce Mongolian tribe of great horsemen who were capable of spending the night as well as the day on their horses, and their cavalry naturally had many advantages over the Slav foot soldiers. When Avars attacked foreign territory they not only devastated the countryside and razed the settlements but also sought out and killed the inhabitants. An alliance between Slavs and Avars was desirable to both groups: while the Avars pursued the war-like activities for which they were trained from birth the Slavs, reverting to the instincts of their farming forebears, were able to care for the livestock and cultivate the land of conquered peoples. The Avars, however refused to divide the spoils of victory equally so the partnership was doomed to be of comparatively short duration. Alpine Slavs conquered the land along the rivers Sava, Drava and Mura, and the territory of what is now Lower and Upper Austria and parts of the Tyrol. Gradually they spread to Kranjska (Carniola), Koroska (Ca-rinthia) and the northern Adriatic coast. Remains of Slav settlements were found in Pustertall (Austria), Slov. — Pustriska dolina, in Tyrol, the valley of the Enns — Slov. Aniza river, and along the Danube near Czechoslovakia. They also tried to expand to the west, where the names of some towns indicate the Slav presence. The Slav migration and the fighting with the Lan-gobards were described by the historian Paolus Diaco-nus (9), who was born in 752 near the present Slav border. He was tutor to the last Langobard king and retreated to a monastery when the Langobards were conquered by Charles the Great. The following extracts are taken from his Historia Langobcirdorum, the approximate dates of events mentioned are shown in parenthesis. (593) 'In those days, a Duke Tasilo ... advanced into the land of Slovenians and, when he won, with rich loot returned home ... (595) 'Exactly in those days they were to 2,000 men, Bavarian, killed while attacking Slovenians, with the help of "kakak" (possibly Kgakan) an Avar leader', (600) 'Langobards, Slovenians and Avars attacked the land of Istria and devastated everything with the fire and robbing'. (611) 'In that year have the Slovenians, after they killed all the soldiers, terribly devastated Istria'. Dr. Kos has also done extensive research into the origin of Slovenian place names such as: Savus becomes Sava; Dravus, Drava; Aesontius, Soca; Arabone, Rab; Corca, Kokra, and many others. It is interesting that the Slovenian language border today is still the Nadiza River where there was once much fighting between Slovenians and Langobards. (8) See Appendix 1. Procopius of Ceasarea, translated by II. B. Dewing, The Loeb Classical Library fHarvard University Press: William Heinemann). History of ll'ars - Wan with Goths, VII, XIV, 18-33 and XXXVII. 26 - XXXVII5-19. (9) Kos, M., Gestrin, F., Melik, v.; Zgodovinska čitanka, Državna Založba Slovenije, Ljubljana, 1976, p. 25. III. THE NEW LAND There was no class distinction among Slavs and everyone had equal rights. There were no heriditary noblemen, as there were in Germanic and other nations, because Slavs did not consider that noblemen were descendants of Gods whom the lower classes (subjects, bondsmen) had to obey and honour. Some historians suggest that the Slav social structure was one of the reasons that they never achieved a great state or even a kingdom. By the seventh century the family unit, with the father as undisputed master, was still the foundation of Slav society. Relatives lived together in collective settlements, the affairs of which were directed by a council of family chiefs, elders and others of outstanding ability. The land was held as common property, and the whole community joined in the work of cultivation and shared the products. The collective settlement was called a 'župa' and the leader or governor of a group of tribes, or of one or more districts, was a 'župan'. In Limes of danger the districts selected a veliki župan (great župan) or a 'vojvoda' (duke), and sometimes the position of duke remained with one family. In Karantanija (Caranthania) some of the later Slovenian dukes were Valuk (Wallacus), Borut (Boruth), Hotimir and Gorazd. In the year 623 a leader named Samo, who was probably a Frank, led the Slavs in a revolt against the Fibula in the form of peacock, A.D. 600, found at Slav burial ground, Bled. Avars. Territories concerned included Moravia, Bohemia, Lower Austria and possibly Karantanija (Caranthania). Samo had the support of the Franks, and after the defeat of the Avars he was recognized as ruler of the defeated territories. (Sec map 5, p. 23 ). The Slovenians were led by Duke Valuk. Samo soon became a dangerous neighbour to the Franks in the west, where there was much fighting, and between 626-629 he was able to extend his state to the mouth of the Iliver Drava. Bavarians, at thaL time occupying territory near both Slovenians and Franks, asked the Franks for help against the Avars and Slavs, while the Frank King Dagobert wished to extend his kingdom to the borders of Constantinople with the help of the Slav necklace from 11th Century, found at Turnir. Church. He organized the 'missionary action' of St Amandus, the first, and unsuccessful, attempt to increase Christianity among the Slovenians. The Frankish King Dagobert (10) and King Samo (11) met in a great battle, where Dagobert (12) with the help of Alemans and Langobards was overruled by Samo and the Slavs at Wogastisburg. The victory extended the Slav state and brought about the establishment of a little Slovenian ducal state, Karantanija (Caran- (10) Grafenauer, I)., Zgodovina Slovencev. Cankarjeva Zalazba, Ljubljana, 1979, pp. 111-112. (11) King Samo, Slav King, 623-658. (12) King Dagobert I, Frankish King, 605-639. BRATISLAVA LINZ VIENNA Jjike Bataten VIRUNUM MARIBOI LJUBLJANA: AOUILEIA ^SSSfS^äSS^KS&S; »TRIESTE^SSSSS ^ \v (TTIST) Iii Slovenes in 9. century Today's ethnic Region of Slovenes Routes of migration of Slovenes 5. Routes of migration of Alpine Slavs. Adriatic Sea From the book 'History Reader'. Brooch 'Agnus dei', A.D. 1000 (Lamb of God), found at Batuje in Vipava Valley. thania). This information is taken as evidence that at least a section of Karantanija (Caranthania) was part of Samo's 'empire' (see map 6, p. 25). The Alpine Slavs settled at a centre named Civitas Carantana — Krnski grad (Ger. Karnburg). The settlers were known as Karantanci and the territory was Karantanija (Carinthia). This small stale was said to be free of any domination by Avars or Croats, but some authorities consider that the Slovenians were under Avar sovereignty while settling and remained subjects of the Avars until the empire of Samo disintegrated (13). The Karantanci (Carinthian Slavs) then maintained an independent state. The first duke of Karantanija (Caranthania) was Duke Valuk (L. Wallacus Dux) who, at the beginning of the seventh century lived with his small army at Krnski grad (Karnburg, Austria). This group of armed men was known as Kosezi —'the body of armed followers' or Edlingers, from the German word meaning 'noblemen', and it played an important part in the ceremonies of a ducal installation. Details of ducal installation ceremonies have been found in the Schwabenspiegel, a collection of legal customs that was gathered and written probably about 1300 A.D. (14). During the eight and ninth centuries, when Karantanija (Caranthania) was part of the Prankish empire, the dukes were appointed by the Frankish kings but still had to be accepted and enthroned by the people before they had jurisdiction. Installations took place at the Knezji kainen (Prince's Stone) (Ger. Furstenstein) at the foot of the ■vtit Jewellery from various old Slav graves in Slovenia. Krnski grad (Ger. Karnburg). The Prince's Stone is now in the Klagenfurt Laridesmuseum and is the capital of an old Roman column. After the death of the old duke, the Kosezi — Edlinger gathered at a meeting of the Edlinger courts where they elected and swore in their representatives to the Edlinger assembly (German Ding, Diet). The Kosezi — Edlinger assembly first chose the judge of the land, and under his leadership a vote was held whether to accept the suggested new duke. The judge asked all Kosezi — Edlinger and each in particular whether the new duke seemed "useful, good, and welcome" to them and to the land. If they rejected him, the Empire had to give them a new duke, but if a majority agreed, the decision was held to be a unanimous one of the whole assembly, and "rich and poor" betook themselves to the Gosposvetsko polje (Saalfeld) where, at the Prince's Stone near Krnski grad (Karnburg), power was handed over to the new duke on the part of the land. The duke was clothed in peasant dress (i. e. in grey pants, a grey coat with a red belt, his head covered with a grey hat with a grey band and his feet encased in peasant clogs), placed on a mare and was led around the Prince's Stone three times. The people who were standing around (13) Dvornik, F., First Slavic States. (14) Grafenauer, B., Zgodovina slovenskega naroda, Državna Založba Slovenije, Ljubljana, 1963, p. 55. from Seville, has included in his work Selvia de varia le-cion a report regarding the ducal installation. The report was taken from the work of Piccolomini De Europe (1458) and from Sibellicus (Paris, 1528), according to P. Krendl, in an article on Carinthia, 1976, p. 141. The book contains a selection of essays, anecdotes and scientific happenings of the time. The book was published and translated into Spanish in 1540, into Italian in 1544, into French in 1552 and had as many as 40 reprints. It was translated into German in 1564, into Dutch in 1581 and into English in 1571. The English edition had been reprinted six times by 1651. Descriptions of the installations of the Slovenian dukes were therefore available in Mexico by 1576. The Installation of the Dukes of Ka-rantanija was of great interest to Thomas Jefferson, when he was working on the Declaration of Independance (1776), and read the work by Jean Bodin, Les six livres de la republique (1567), (16 a). The history of the (15) Barker. T. M.; The Slovenes of Carinthia a National Minority Problem Studia Slovenica, New York, 1960, p. 30 (from the original by Grafenauer, B-, Ustoiičevanje koroških vojvod in država karantanskih Slovencev, Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti, Ljubljana, 1952, pp. 42-51,565). (16)Barker, T. M.; The Slovenes of Carinthia a National Minority Problem Studia Slovenica, New York, 1960, p. 30 (from the original by Grafenauer, B., Ustoiičevanje koroških vojvod in država karantanskih Slovencev, Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti, Ljubljana, 1952, p 584). (16 a)Savli J., Dr., Novi list - a New Page. Misli, September 19S2, Excavation sites and graves of Slav settlement at Zalavar, near Lake Balaton (Hungary), A.D. 800. sang an old Slovenian song of praise to God (15). Thereby the duke took over all rights which were due to him as duke and lord. Among them was certainly also the right of taking possession of the Knežji kamen (Prince's Stone), the symbol of his power, this feature later becoming the focal point of the ceremony. Professor Ivan Grafenauer (16) concludes that the Slovenian 'Leisen' (songs) sung at the ceremony, were the 'Kyrie eleisons' which the church after the conversion of the Slovenians substituted for the old pagan songs. He has also discovered traces of this first Slovenian liturgical song from the eight century in the Stiski MSS, which is preserved in the University Library of Ljubljana. It contains a fifteenth century copy of a similar invocation still in use in Slovenia. The installations of Dukes of Karantanija was well known all over the Europe. The author of the life story of King Charles V, Pero Mexia, the 'magnifico caballero', I i ! Iron tools — plough, pliers, from 9th Century. Jewellery found in graves. installations were one of the sources that helped Jefferson come to the conclusion that the power, handed over to a leader is not a vision of utopia but a form of government which Karantanci (people of Caranthania) had adapted and lived under, their leaders being selected according to democratic principles. Evidence that the duke is not a ruler by the grace of the king but by the grace of the people, is confirmed also by the use of the Slovenian costume and their supposed appearance at the imperial court, using the Slovenian language to address the Emperor, even though they were later Germans, (17), until the reign of Charles VI (1728). (17a) ...'The special character of the duchy was emphasized by the Spanheim duke Bernhard, when he greeted Ulrich of Lichtenstein in the Slovenian language in 1277. Other tribal duchies fell sooner than Ka-rantanija (Carinthia) did because they did not have special legal rights, their own language, customs and usages. Even the (Germai) nobility took the idea of the special character of Karantanija (Carinthia). The supra-national character of the empire was also emphasized in the Golden Bull of Charles IV (1356). Article XXVI provides that prospective candidates for the imperial throne should learn German and Slavic. However, in the (17) Kuhar, A. L., Slovene Medieval History, Selected Studies Studio Slovenica, New York, 1962, pp 51-54 (17 a) Kuhar, A. L., Slovene Medieval History, Selected Studies Studio Slovenica, New York, 1962 p. 230. 6. Approximate region of Samo's Kingdom. Knežji kamen - Princes' stone (Ger. Furstenstein) from Krnsko polje (Ger. Karnfield), now situated at the Landesmuseum fur Karnten, Klagenfurt - Provincial Museum, Klagenfurt (Austria). (17 b) Kuhar, A. L. Slovene Medieval History, Selected Studies Studia Slovenica, New York, ¡962, p. 230. thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the theoretical imperial system was weakened and eventually destroyed by feudalism and the growing independence of the territorial principalities. As long as the Habsburgs had not became the heredity holders of the German crown, they continued to respect the special rights of Karanta-nija (Carinthia) as a tribal duchy. Even Friderik III insisted his son Maximilian learned Slovenian ...' (17b). The special document Prwilegium maius from the year 1359 gave the Dukes of Karantanija special rights to receive the feud while on horseback instead of kneeling like dukes of other dukedoms. This was evidence of the duke's importance and status - of being the supreme hunting master. Dishes from graves, found near skeletons. DECLINE OF THE INDEPENDENT DUCHY OF KARANTANIJA After the decline of the Empire of Samo in about 658, the Avars once more endangered Karantanija (Ca-rinthia), the territory of the Slovenians, who took refuge in the Alpine region. There their independence lasted for more than a hundred years while the Italian regions were devastated frequently by the Avars. In the middle of the eighth century, during the reign of Duke Borut, the Avars again became dangerous. Slovenians were, according to Prof. M. Kos, (18) living in a friendly alliance with neighbouring Bavarians whom the Slavs had helped in wars against the Francs. When Avar invasions became more frequent the Slovenians sought Bavarian assistance in repelling them, but the 'alliance' ended not only with the loss of Slovenian independence to the Bavarians, but also with the beginning of Slovenian inclusion in the western European social and economic system and their gradual adop- ! 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This extract contains the Slovenian appeal to the Bavarians for help. At the time of conversion and extension of Christianity by the Bavarian missionaries, the 'Confession Forms', written in Slovenian with Latin letters, were (19) Kuhar, A. L., Slovene Medieval History, Selected Studies. Studia Slovenica, New York, 1959, p. 45. Vojvodski prestol at Gosposvetsko polje - Ducal chair (Ger. Herzogstuhl) at (Ger. Zollfield). drawn up. Paleographic analysis has shown the 'fragments' are dated from the year A.D. 1000 and even ear|1Cr The original title is: MONUMENTA FREISIN-GENSIA (21) Slov. Brižinski spomeniki, (Ger. Freisinger Denkmaler, Engl. Monuments of Freising). Christianity spread neither quickly nor smoothly. Organized Christianization began after Charles the Great (742-814), the Frank king who later (763) became the great Emperor, and his son defeated the Avars who were once more endangering Slovenian territory. The Slovenians, at last free of Avar invasion, were permitted to keep their own dukes in Karantanija (Caranthania). The Avars were finally overcome between the years 791803, but they were permitted to keep their own leaders, known as 'khagans'. Christianity was first introduced with indulgent and benevolent instruction, but that approach gradually changed and it became apparent that subject peoples were subservient to the 'protection' of foreign aristocracy. Slovenians began to lose their personal freedom and independent land ownership. (21) For the text of the Brižinski spomeniki (Engl. Monuments of Freising) see Appendix II, Kolarič, Srednjeveško slovstvo, Izbrano delo. Mladinska knjiga, Ljubljana, 1976, pp. 9-19. St. Ciril and Methodius, mosaic at Slovenian church. The two regions that offered most resistance to the feudal rule of Charles the Great were Istria and Pannonia. In Istria the descendants of the Byzantinian Roman were living in the political and economic tradition of Constantinople at its height, and they opposed Charles' settling of Slovenians among them. In Pannonia, a duke from Sisak (Croatia) organized an uprising (828) involving the Slovenians, hoping to gain more freedom, but it had the opposite effect. Until that time Slovenians had been allowed to select dukes of their own blood, but because of their co-operation in the uprising the Slovenian-born dukes were absorbed into the nobility of the Eastern Frankish Empire. According to the research by M. Mitterauer, states H. Dopsch in an article on Carinthia, 1976, page 37. Examples were the Slovenian dukes Pribina and Kocelj in Pannonia (21a), (see map. 7 p.'31). Western and Eastern Christianity was divided by the Western and Eastern Empires in the ninth century when wars involved the Moravians, Slovenians, Croats, Serbs and Bulgars, all of whom were Slavonic ethnographical groups. In the second half of the ninth century the Moravian Prince Rastislav asked for missionaries from Rome but the Pope, who wanted the Bulgarians to join in Western Christianity, allowed the Frankish ruler to invade Moravia. When Franks and Bulgarians formed an alliance to devastate the Great Moravian State, Prince Rastislav found help in Constantinople from Emperor Michael III (838-867). In the letter sent to the Byzantinian Emperor, Rastislav said that Moravia and Pannonia were in fact full of missionaries, who came there from all parts, from Greece, from Italy, from Germany and who taught Gospa Sveta (Ger. Maria Saal) drawing by Merlán. "each in his own different way", but there is no one to explain the Christian truth in our own mother tongue in order that other countries also can imitate our example (22). Such a statement coming from a ruling Prince in an official document reveals a great deal about missionary methods of that period. It is evident that missionaries came from all directions to convert the Slavs but that none of them preached in the language understood by Slovenians, and the Moravian Prince had good reason to turn to the Byzantinian emperor for assistance. Prince Rastislav ruled the territory on the left bank of the river Danube, but in Pannonia there was a Frankish vassal named Kocelj. Kocelj was a son of a Prince Pribina, who previously ruled the territory around Nitra but had been expelled from it, probably because of his devotion to the Franks. Pribina had many churches built, as well as his own centre, Mosapuch, at Late Balaton. His good work in extending Christianity and his general co-operation earned him a great reward from the Franks; all the land which he previously ruled as feudal territory was made over to him on a personal, non-feudal basis. His son Kocelj, later a duke, continued this devotion to the Franks and built many more churches built, (22) Kuhar, A. L., Slovene Medieval History, Selected Studies. Studia Slovenica, New York, 1962, pp. 132-133. states according to M. Kos, one duke of the Slovenians, named Kocelj, presented all his land at Vampaldova, near Lake Balaton, to the Bishopric of Freising (23). The friendship between the Archbishop and Kocelj ended with the arrival of the Slav missionaries Con-stantine and Methodius. The missionaries were sons of a high-ranking officer and they both knew the language of the neighbouring Macedonians. Constantine was a librarian at Constantinople who studied at the University of Constantinople but later joined his brother Methodius at the monastery at Mount Olympus in Asia Minor. Constantine had invented the special alphabet named 'Glagolica' and it was probably he who translated the most essential scriptual and liturgical texts into Slavonic. The Emperor then gave them a letter, exalting the privilege to worship God in one's own mother tongue (24). (23) Kos, 1 v., Zgodovina Slovencev. Slovcnska Matica, Ljubljana, ¡955, p. 93. (24) Kuhar, A. L., Slovene Medieval History, Selected Studies Studio Slovenica, New York. 1962, pp. 138-139. The missionary expedition began in 863 and the first students, nominated by Rastislav, were taught to say Mass in Slavonic despite opposition by German priests. In the year 867 Constantin and Methodius were invited to Rome by the Pope, who granted permission for them to preach in their own language. Constantin, renamed Cyril, died soon after entering a monastery, and became a monk at SS Boniface and Alexius on the Aventine. In 869, when German influence was waning. Duke Kocelj requested the Pope to send Methodius back to the Slovenians. Methodius was consecrated bishop and returned to preach in Slavonic language in Moravia and Pannonia. This concession turned the German bishops against his work and they jailed him until, in 873 the Pope ordered that he be set free. His apostolate met with signal success (25). This situation, however, did not last long. Methodius had to leave Pannonia when the Germans took over the territory. By the second half of the ninth century the slave trade was well established and Magyars, Venetians and Greeks were selling slaves to Mohammedan leaders in Asia, Africa and Spain. The Church condemned slavery and the freeing of slaves was proclaimed a good deed. Landlords could bring slaves to church or to the 'Holy A fragment of Frank J. Lausche's speach of 28 November 1967 in American Parliament, stating that according to research by Dr. J. Felicijan in The Genesis of the Contractual Theory and the Installation of the Dukes of Carinthia (Koroška), Thomas Jefferson initialled a page in Bodin's Republic, describing the Slovenian ritual of the installation of the Dukes of Carinthia. (25) See Appendix III, Kuhar, A. 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Xx itoî*' ab Arce poli defcendere dijnaxufeft tn aluum virjimf. • ■VL' Heinde I» prefii]«o< ttv5 prcfepic in crucent' de cruce 't^A&i« "> fcpuUHira- de fepuldiro .\dxArxarA. deXATXATA redtix ad eïlterA. bintf virtf AtbifmcUiTlf .\dft.\nxtbuf [rtsftAnxtbuf] Ad pol) rcmum re uerferufAd mdieiumunquoiudicto unufquifquequod ■leffir riL,o> uir tnluftrif |iUuftcr] diye WaiorAriorttm Mini ducAXtit [ducA-ruf I mci xrtcefmio. ludiexioiie prima.' mcnrc Tracriui ut de hoc quod midn dommuf dijnaxuf eft conccdcrc. pro memexipfo Alt-quid deo coi;|e'rrem» lSEam bone memo™ [memorie] Anxecefforef met in quanxttm poxuerunx reffu.xf deo dettouerunxi ecclefiAf del conftriycerutiX' e.\fque fuif opibuf dixAUerunx. monAfteriA quo-que ft "due runx conftruerc & «on modtcAf Adcafdem pecuniAf xi'Aderc C|u.\ de re ftiTmquoijuc U ejo in wiimo mcoi ut cum fumnu opixulacione Jefu Chrtft) domtni' in ipfiuf nomine mon.\-fterium edlfieare [edi|'tc.\rem] qui [quod]-ipfo AdiuuAnxe ixa. fAC-riim eft' Nim monafterium conftrujjet luxera fluenx.v nuncu-pAnxc CbnomiiA. [iiuneitpsicsk. CbRSiDiSA] in (lonoreSa-ncx-iSil-UAXortf' quem & deo dicaui' & m dedicActone xrAdidi quod poxup quod fubrer AdnoxAmttf. Qui ectam abb.Nxem confttxut nuncu-panxe[-VroR. cum monadnC'*1 fibi depuxaxif' tir in predtcxo ue-ner.\biii loco' uixAibicommor.\.ncium rejulArirer dueAXur»]Munc er t£txttr TassiI,o uir wlu- ftrtf [illufter] dtyo ur fupr.x Annor.vrum eft Mino xxx™* ducA-Tut [ducAxufJ mci- fimulque dilecxiffimuf filiuf metif "TbecTO» AttnoexiAm ducaxui [ducAxuf] ciufprimoi xrA.dimufa.xque eon-firmAmufAdpredicxummonAftertumSancT)SAluaxorif' tn primif nAmquceof hommefqut tn tpfo loco ftabixanxi & CACuncxAque ibidem cuIxa uidebanxur> de tnculxifuero eje omni pArxc quan-xum uoluermx culxum fActAnx»TrAdimufquoque&Sati«Am que AdSuI^tBAcb [Sut^BAcb] eft' Nxref hommef ibi h Abiranref fA-lem coquenref» Simili modo cctam mcircutxu culxttm fxciAnx1 [ibidem culrumf^cianr] quAnxum ueluixTine omni prolubicione' Ixemtnxercio loconuncupAnxcSlbpAch [SyppAc'oJ ad uxili-xaxcm loci illtuf quanxumcunque fufftetax» Ajrof uel praxaf faciendi licenciant concedimufi 7xem in quarxo loco nuncupanxe l,ivpiUlN€>pAcb" [l,ivp\I,tNpAcb]fimilixer ux m ccxerif locif fu-prAdicxif preccpimufi iXAfiAX'ln ioco uero quod uocaxtir-lppA> quod eft lpfe [eyo ipfe] a die prefenxi defuttre decreui» exxermmif [xcrminif er fulcif] mxerpofui-c a que mxer uxrafquelppAÄ AdiA-cere uidenxur defimuimuf' ubi illafduafipfafflppAS] onunxur- K illud quod(3) mxer illafduaflppAS eft culxum K inculxttm> ufque dumftmilixexiun^unxui"'cuiicXAAbfquculloxerminouel conXTA-rio adprefAXummonAftcriumxrAdidimuf'T^AmKquadrAjinx^cA-faXAf aliunde Adxracxuf [c AfeXAf Aliunde Adxracxof] xrAdimufm linfcomponerclocif»TrAdimuf Auxem KdccAniamfclauorum» cum opere filcAli ibuxribuxo iufto> quod nobtf anxea perfolui confueue- images of saints and could free them in the presence of bishop or priest. In gratitude, the slaves had to pay yearly taxes- to the church. The foundation Charter of the monastery in Krlta (Ger. Gurk) in modern Koroska (Carinthia) decreed that every firstborn in monastic territory could buy his freedom, and the Patriarch in Aquileia also freed many slaves. The invasions of the Magyars had a terrible effect on Slovenian life. The Magyars originally lived in territory beyond the Ural Mountains that extended south to the Caspian Sea. At the time of Methodious' mission to Moravia the Magyars had sometimes attacked and devastated Slav settlements, but they were strongest and rAnxi't)o<"omnefpredicxoffclAuofquoffubillof.\cxoreffunxqui ito-canxur TiLivn K SpAnUNA- quof mfrA rermmum mancnx que coniurauixille ¡opan qui uocaxurpbysso. t£ condiyeix per ¡Jirum-lllof nommanxef pATSIt AbbAxem H archiprert>rxer> [abbaf exJ^IiN prefbrxœr] K CbvNipKsbT [CburopORnl*] iude>:> K 1)l,6o'a!io comef. NK.6n.piiebT' [<2|AeRpsTi.bT] mfîi a fummo principe ç>iÎ,ong» defmiredecrcuerunri Hxermmum pofuerunx» xoxumex înxejrum [e>c inxeJro] Ad eum xrAdimttf loeum> K XXX» (clauof adTo"oicbA cum opere fifeaIi feu xribuxo tufto. Tradimufauxem Kxerram quam illl fclaui culxam fecerunxjine confenfu noftro. infra qui uccaxur forfti Ad TotnlcViA K ad SlB-Nlc^A- Traxiimuf au- Tcm .\d uillam publicam mincupAnrem -A.l,L,iNcHb dcilloxerminoadplAjAm'me-ndiAtiAmmfra monxe qui dicixur\%.Rrovsjc["WknmiNch]' K infra | mxer | flume ii qu.x. fupr.\ dpeimuf ^.L,niNA. ufque xermmum [no-ftrum [ quod eft tifque tn ALpA Ad profeexum îllorum pecudum jiAfeere K eutxi.m facere abfque ull.% conxradlcxionc-Xraciimuf ■vurem .\r>'.\m|TL'rrAiFi| m loco quidiciTuropoRGSTAL,(jVopoRC--.'••rat.J' queS.\l,tinlw|sa[.tibbo|&'v%NiL,o K KcRpitc-liT[G/ac-ii-pcuh-C | itiffi A ftitnmo principe Xa.i»iSiI,onC defmire decreuerunx t'% rermmum pofiiorunx- K deillafiluA Adpredicxum locum Qrpo-KC.i'r.vl Ip^llv'.v[\v[,j ouLrtim facere cjuanxum uoluermx fine iillo unpeclimetirO'*lV.\dimuf uero adJ^scbA duAfumeaf>K.\dRA-oe-riiI ,v |U Ao'i'til.a | xrepKxondem tuniToref' Kduofapium cul-rorof' iX fe„v f.vbrof- K ad c-vmpof aI.uoni [al,Uomi] pifcAXoref duop £C At! JVI.npcilu-b coeIefiaflleAIecejefiaftlcam I pecumam que ibidem .vdeffe uKlerur. juideiirur| ad ipfum predicxum monafterium Hire quo port« eoneeffi. Similixer K inStil.nip.vcb |S"I,t;pAcb] (il rem i|>fam eeelefiam perrmenrem> fimilirer ur d^imuf ad ipfum moiiaflerium conceffimuPiSimilirer rradimuf ad NoiC&pi-!.<(*. A ipfam pevumam eeclefiAÎljcAmr 7nf.vltnA uero mai ore umim homutem f.vlem ooquenrem eoneeffimufDe pafcuif uero illorum quof vvljuf iiomtuAxpoiliiT'm omnibufpafcuifquoltbexpecodum ubi iioftriaeeeffuinliabtiennx'communixaxem fimilirer m oinnibuf urnoftrif coneedimuf' nullo conrradicenTU» k ad CrvnxINWITcM |CnvNSWlTiroJ Wl fcL\uum iinnm cum lufto mbuxo>'l5ec Auxem omnia que fupra diximuf per finJulAf locaf [fmjulA Ioca] omnia eje mxejro domof S curref ferttof N AiicillAf K lioiiiinefxriburalef K quicqutd illorum eft mobile ÉC immobile» culxum uet mculxum» ruref praxafcampoffiluaf aquarumque decurfufi uel quicquid ad iplAf pecuitiAf perxinere uiderur» xr.\.do Axque coiifirmo ad pre-diexum aenerabilem locum' ux ab hodterna die & demcepf ibi fir Extracts from the 'The Kremsmunster Charter', in which it is written that the duke Tassilo tried to contain the Slovenians in a restricted area, where the Slavs lived in their own social groups under their own laws and customs. At Kremsmiinster the first pure Slovenian names appear (topographical) — "ad Todicha", "ad Sirnicha". The first Slovenian chieftains are mentioned here "hos predictos Sclauos qui uocantur Taliup et Sparuna ... et ille jopan qui uocantur Physso'. Here we learn that Slovene villeins worked there and were transferred from the Crown estates on to the monastic grant "XXX Sclauos at Todicha". Here we are told that land, where Slovenians had worked, had been confiscated from them and donated to the monastery "terram quam illi Sclaui cultam fecerant sine consensu nostro". Here we are also informed of special moderate taxes which the Slovenians had to pay" as Grunzinwitten Sclauum unum cum justo tributo". Here, finally, is contemporary evidence that the Slovenians lived there on the Traun in their own organized social and economic units "decania Sclauanorum" headed by a Župan "jopan ille Physso" with two assistants to help him in the administration of the decania "Taliup et Sparuna" and that the transfer of "decania" was made in accordance with Slavonic legal and customary tradition. most aggressive between the years 894-898, when they devastated the whole of Pannonia. They finally reached Italy, where they destroyed farms, burned towns, wrecked churches and killed the inhabitants of the countryside. Only girls were left alive, to be taken for the invaders' pleasure and for slavery. In 955 the Magyars were finally defeated by the German Emperor Otto I (26) in a three-day battle at Lechfield. The Magyars were obliged to become farmers and years later, when the territory of modern Slovenia was again under German rule, the people remembered the Magyars and the speed and ferocity of their attacks. There were many stories in which the Magyars, because of their great horsemanship, were depicted as having a human upper body and an equine lower body, and sometimes they were described as dog-headed creatures who chased Christians, drank their blood and tore the hearts out of their bodies. During the Magyar invasions Bavarians and Slovenians of Karantanija (Carinthians) fought together. The Germans were so impressed by the fierce fighting of Karantanija (Carinthia) that the territory was given a special role as a leader in the reconquest of the Frankish Eastern provinces, which had been lost during the invasions. Karantanija (Caranthania) became, in 976, a separate Dukedom, with the right to supervise the border marches named Riedmark, Ostmark, Drava, Kranjska (Carniola), Istra, Friuli and Verona. The Karantanija (Caranthania) dukedom, including all the marches, became a formidable defence against further dangers menacing German territory from the south-east. The dukes of Karantanija were now all of German origin and there was no hereditary succession to the position. In order to prevent the concentration of power in one family the king appointed the dukes as he pleased, and there were many disagreements as a result of this arrangement. The borders, formed as organized by the German king Henrich III in 1002, were the foundation for today's regional divisions in Slovenia: Kranjska (Eng. Carniola, Ger. Krain), Štajerska (Eng. Styria, Ger. Steyermark) and Koroška (Eng. Carinthia, Ger. Kärnten). (See map 8, p. 32). GERMANIZATION During the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries the German rulers divided Slovenian land among families of the German nobility and the Church. Among the best known and most powerful ecclesiastical beneficiaries to receive feudal grants of Slovenian property were the Patriarchs of Aquileia and the Archbishopric of Salzburg. Many other large estates were in the hands of the monasteries, and other prominent families to benefit from the new arrangements were the Orlamundis, the family of Hemma of Gurk, the Spanheims, the Bavarian Traungavs, the Andechs and the ancestors of the Counts of Gorica (Ger. Gortz). German farmers were settled on territory in which Slovenians were already well established, particularly in areas around the Vrbsko jezero (Worther Lake) and along the Drava, Mura and Aniža (Enns) rivers, where place names were changed to German equivalents. For example, Breze and Krka became Freising and Gurk. Germanization continued into the territory of Štajerska (Styria), along the Mura River and further to the south where, at that stage, only counts and priests, not German farmers, had been sent. The best known "Bishops' churches" to acquire great estates were Freising, Regensburg, Passau and Bra m berg, Brixen and Krka (27) (Ger. Gurk) Germans also moved into Istra and Friuli. Slovenian farmers, most of whom were freemen, were having most of their land taken for German settlement and were then unable to make a living on the little that was left to them. They were forced to accept land on feudal terms from the nobles, so lost their own personal freedom and were obliged to pay high taxes. If unable to pay tax, Slovenians frequently sold the remainder of their own land to the overlord and thus lost all remnants of independence. The struggle for supremacy between King and Pope began in the eleventh century. After the German King's death the Papacy was in the ascendance, so noble families supporting the Pope, such as the Spanheims, became the 'righteous successors' in the occupation of Slovenian lands. ' h ISM Grand Portal at Kremsmünster monastery; in the centre is Duke Tassilo, founder of the Kremsmünster monastery in 777; on his left is Karl der Grosse (Charles the Great) and the right Emperor Heinrich II (Henry II). (26) German King Olto I, The Great, Holy Roman Emperor (912-973). H (27) Kos, M., Zgodovina Slovencev. Slovenska Malica, Ljubljana, 1955, pp. 190-193 (In search of Slovenian nobles). Charles the Great - Karl der Grosse with his family. Medieval Slovenian castles were built on high hills and used as fortifications against invaders. In early times the buildings themselves were quite small but were protected with dykes and rocks. In later years towers were usually used for observation. Nobles lived in the castles, the ladies occupied with handcrafts and the men with fighting, hunting and songs and tales of gallant deeds. In later centuries, tournaments were held at which knights in full armour tested their skills as warriors. There were not many castles on Slovenian territory between the years 900 and 1000, and few records of their existence, but one of the earliest was at Ptuj, another near the Adriatic and one near Friuli which the Friuliati nobles tried unsuccessfully to conquer. Most Slovenian castles-were built between 1150 and 1200. The castle of Bled, mentioned in documents in 1011, is still standing. Other castles mentioned are: Oslrovica (Ger. Osterwitz) ninth century, Breže (Ger. Freising) 860, Worther 888, Trebnje 1163, Podklošter 1060, Rajhenburg (Countess Hemma) 895, Pilstain and Krnski grad (see map 9, p.35). The first Slovenian monasteries were founded at the time of the Bavarian Duke Tassilo. Kremsmunstcr and Innichen were established for Slovenians in the year 777. A very interesting discovery was made by Dr. J. Gruden who found the 'Štivanski — Čedadski evangelij' (28) a copy of the Gospel of St Mark written on (28) Gruden, J., Zgodovina slovenskega naroda. Družba Sv. Mohorja, Celovec, 1910, pp. 85-86. JJ5MOHOR OsojeQ čk KARNBURG KRNSKI GRAD AUSTRIA PodkloitorÖ „ JŠROŽEK O*«'''?! amoldslenj^_ jl_ ftv**'nm BERSTAJN. HUMPERK rc"—^ /focfcKbT»ÜZ MOSTROVICA ) + GRIFFEN Kl Q Griffen i Gosp-Jfaria Grobini IVNtK Sveto ^-^DRAVOGRAD 'Ó' i M. GOR. LENDAVA ARVEZ ' ¡ERNOZ J&to V MARENBERK V« L TUS KRANJ« (5 Velesovo J ŠOŠTANJ ' GORNJI GRAD \ JLO CMJREK J JL MARIBOR VURBERK HOMPOS a VITANJE ^KONJICE SLOVENSKA pTUJ BISTRICA "RADGONA s HUNGARY ~ N M M P—"DOi- LJUTOMER■ LENDAVA ) HORMOŽ Z0™EK VO JHIKJLh M. H CELJE|3. Žice LAŠKO ) Stüde ^JtBORL ZBEL0V0-ROGATEC PODČETRTEK .■"Hi VIPAVA . i {g PLANINA '¿HoihhjL P0S~JNA MLOŽ TRIESTET$ J. m SVARCENEK \ M KAMNIK SHLEOWK GAMBERK& LJUBLJANA___. ^-^Jutkloiter* MPLAMNAV i« X/SVIBNOJU^X ^ ^ ^PILSTAJN Bistra V&UA. JL^^'« JWpERK i GORA^ Stična ' iis^. M RAJHENBURG TURJAK n -P-,Jl-_ MOKRONOG H KRSKOM^: ZUZEM- M* - CUŠPERK ÍKLEVEVZ ^^ Í f KOSTANJEVICA ORTNEK SOTESKA • BERK ^~7^SMKOSTANJ£ ajl y t" CROATIA A d rta tic S e a ¿Í Koper*^ jl MOM JAN MOHOVO PREM jt/*" M.zy»BERAK MENOVO'*} Lx METLIKA j) NOVI GRAD n v. -H /~\ I * GOTNIKj \ j>»».îv r.-.K ikXifV'»ni Uni rrtl-' inltb rdir f» wn( ru^^ccm/ hibuj 4drt»ri al «tjlAu^jiuit fif rn« pmrtzn futtc&hj tktr ur port lint mirmic rirmtr mtbr tcUnu i.«-.iii.oùrn dtn wum ««sfi pWrrc adNmftcui ur ftipn Iv. mfcuKvui, Mià rrtK inbb' rifir >» . "pufa nfcw n nil? ttnr&tmr nmu ^nu ^frp«ndtnfJl iWtidh ttoi ud 4ni k-ml« *•"*>» -oUmçpi twri tfurttflni /i fcjij ctlh'inbhv ¿hr kihnr' fvnnrr .vl/hfuvf.eu*|\iromt> ift * rwit j*î un iki.v" diclji.mj r «mirt-jn qiUftlUntO IWlt KlITp^T tVCCfQl dc V» Tlt'cilUlhi qi^lltii «'111 NtcUlllf \YJt\i orni .VI. J LU) 4i< ^ qv nu l'cM» V »kri »< %-n » k vc qiu Kvhi l«r o'. ieint hinriikiftmirini-n.i.--t.«v invult ifik ^t* iiuawj1 jlix iii m'rni'in14 w un ( y 1 '.tn 1' .1 • ill 111" .»Nf c ^n 11 r«n < n j»ni irtn^rrcnt "lapùm tie itunt firnirr rradidrr ht oji i ttti joik" j n w 1 u»1 fu p "uiifjr.jilrnnn^ »bi d«Kit «1+1 ru»' »vrjKTi qui tli rr Kx ùihi c .iniio îiic.inî Wi.iyct Ivj IIINCK tiii:-i»lltt*r biico rrofpinu. mt*u i Hcia rdV mt: K |cnt lir attitbt' mfaiLMiicA piu»a.v <<>» rtrnmj'ifa,pii>a nir nent ktçio ntii^r.^ al 1>m mu|iA>i) let nune mlo 1 uum niirtn u«r »n» iiixab» tuntčtt' m'rtf n?ra »imvnî n n*t« k«TTCir m^. r^P.. V . rH^finni urn finirt >Vdr crrefam mij^rt niir thruo. mv-K Jui liij^jotimrt fu tiK) cnT'o'4i*Rfi(iu adfKixK'h^ujiu Ktbuir fiintP.A-«p»ipff JML; KiHnr irrf^-fli* 'nrr'TThdrr ituHarr I« nunt tîmilrr'd kiinh^H lU pm" tj'lt'iibjf tinurr r" didrrirrAbhadKniodit ipt'c ntl'ptt' nfi'ppvmUtr firuiicrc»r..v>d^iiu let 1 runt .uhtlî>i«î-.1 Hh jJu*4niftJC'r' Jmonfl' lufct^niiir i-u ptKr A uii nudmrrtf njhf cvthru r .vluloi c^ yv^iit- îruin It J uc; • -tt^tr-i ftitfi ■ S pvs ti dufi h\frrrrr iniffv- Uro uni «to Vé^ilî l'jdmtr dt itt"f« mnrd iitnjnfl*< lui r>4>în iioUur iii^iiirtrtrr om uaciip ftt trunc tt^Ïwv CifTffadtrj'ih ^ô'eomrnnofr wnrdutrf rcquiuirar T J fip-.i iif^. jtidi« g "Inpii itlKinhlT mit Ki&nir" vJmir>ûhfvc vuvuutCfpltA ceclifh j hew ofričutm - illaruîn qui bac iAtui c-vizbt-aximt w ^ i iiU- ii-rre non iuIîi tf iedf rtpttt utf; uvnfttri -, mw iigtur -xnci-û- L.<* uenvr.%ltiltf x&n epî luuAumHiii'i ¿.*.Uiir-ui*:t.(' njtaLticxzzm^pi cAelr&im In^afV^ !• iitieniamf twmta.....maiht-urv uccvtto- i : t ' I ' i , i ci aoa tta ?»ccrfiîï .¡w, .ou* p,ta -{ko p-'!uin?u oc£ifkri*trr- Àstvjur 1 eh? offiuvim ùHe-LrAUiz .tccltÛAi'hcum- fftïui-.-r.zcnu ¿1,s h{ r ■ i.4i Methodius was sent by the Pope to preach religion in Slav language. The members of the monastery were called 'black monks' or Benedictines. The group demanded great skill in handcrafts from their followers and the monks excelled in copying manuscripts that had been specially prepared for the monastery schools. Other well known Benedictine monasteries were at Osoje (Ger. Ossiach), Podkloster (Ger. Arnoldstein) and Gornji grad in the Savinja valley. In the twelfth century the Benedictines (29) Gruden, J., Zgodovina Slovenskega naroda. Družba Sv. Mohorja, Celovec, 1910, pp. 100-101. Uj~LJ Magyars attacking a fortified town. established a new branch the Cisterians or the 'white monks'. The founder was St Bernard, of French origin, and two abbeys were founded in Slovenian territory, Vetrinje (Ger. Viktring) in the year 1142 and Stična (Ger. Sittich) even earlier in 1136. The members of the order and their followers were great fanners. They obeyed a rule of silcnce during working hours and communicated with others in sign language rather than speech. In 1234 another abbey was established in Kostanjevica. The third monastic order in Slovenia was that of the Carthusians and the founder, St Bruno, was also from France. This was an extremely strict order; its members lived as solitaries each in his own cell, were not permitted to speak to each other, worked very hard and ate no meat. In their solitary existence they thought, prayed and copied books. The first Carthusian mo- Church in Krka (Ger. Gurk), drawing by Matthaeus Merian. nastery in Slovenia, at Zice, was presented with many estates that had belonged to nobles. The second was built at Juijevo in 1172: it was ruined and rebuilt in 1200 and later named Jurkloster, and was particularly well known at the time of the Counts of Celje (Cilli) at the beginning of the fifteenth century. Other Carthusian settlements were at Bistra, near Vrhnika (vicinity of Ljubljana) and Pleteije (Dolenjska). The Bistra monastery also received land and other gifts from the Counts of Celje (Cilli) and was almost ruined at the time of the Turkish invasions. It was closed by Joseph II in the eighteenth century'when the orders were prohibited. The monastery of Pleteije was built in the fifteenth century (See map 9, p. 35 ) and is since 1900 again in existance in hands of Carthusians. Y. NEW WAYS FOR NEW TIMES In the tenth and eleventh centuries, very few peasants or farmers were freemen. The vast majority were forced to work as servants or hired men, farm labourers and maids, on estates of a landlord. By the end of the twelfth century landlords had realized that the peasants worked better if they believed they owned the land they worked, so the great estates were divided into small farms and given to farmers who then paid taxes. The farmers and peasants were not free to leave the land that had been given to them for temporary use or 'usufract'. Not all taxes were paid in money: some of it was- 'dnina' or 'working tax', a compulsory villeinage service. With better conditions, the number of small farmers increased. In return for service to the landlord, the Church or ecclesiastical lords, farmers were supposed to receive some protection and shelter, and their taxes were recorded in special documents called 'urbars'. The urbars were land registers which showed the names of the farmers and the taxes due from each, and these were in use from the middle of the thirteenth century. The urbars also revealed the organization of large estates. The official who supervised payment of taxes in either money or goods also managed the compulsory peasant labour. For his services this official received 'payments' of work from the farmers or peasants, and the landlord sometimes gave him farms for himself. Clerks, foresters and hunters were classified as lesser officials. Servants or hired men were no longer regarded as tools for personal aggrandisement: they were 'svobodi-ni' (Ger. Freileute, meaning 'free people'), and were placed on the farms to live according to the rules of the 'ius liberum' or 'free law of tiie lord'. The landlord managed the estate as he wished, and he controlled the number of people settled on the farm and also the life a Devi [jsnOtht/us _ h .Vice iku cJ)as7\a.inhciut dlculsck :Haus "lie 'Thum blire h enS NicoOß ill Sec Ocju CnUe^um v -anciscaner £Cojter CJ'OSter i.C apuctner ClosXtsr K ui+rQeriuhi?* S-pitalL Ltyy-'irlichsjfriall Castle Ljubljana (Ger. Laibach). Coin of Duke Bernard (1202-1256) made in year 1225 in Ljubljana. Castle Polhov Gradec Castle yard (Ptuj), completed by the counts in the 15th Century. they led. The svobodin was not in fact a free man, and the landlord had complete control over the disposal of land. When a farmer died the landlord decided on the farm's new occupant. It was not until many years later that land leases were introduced which enabled individual farmers to inherit property. There were then two types of land tenure: one lease (Lat. ius civile. Ger. Burgrecht) was given only to personally free citizens, and the other type (Lat. ius entitium, Ger. Kaufrecht), which involved some fees and taxes and permitted the new owner to sell the property. In some districts, an agreement between the landlord and the farmer who worked the land with his own working animals ensured that the farmer rcccivcd a share of the profits. The landlord also represented the law: he became the judge and law enfringements were strictly punished. Punishments included hanging for theft, beheading for robbery or brigandage and beheading with a board for rape (for rape of a virgin the rapist was buried alive). For forging money the guilty were roasted in an iron Castle Grebinj (Ger. Griffen). net over a fire, and lesser crimes were punished by blinding and cutting off ears and tongue. Some were tied to a post in the centre of a town and exposed to public abuse. The village župan (Slov.) was a leader selected by the farmers but approved by the landlord, who acted Knight's hall, collection of weapons, castle Ptuj, as a mediator between landlords and the farmers and peasants. The most common form of tax payment was in many types of corn (30). All other goods such as grits, bread, cakes, fruit, vegetables, beer, honey, meat, fish, game and flax were called 'small taxes' or 'kitchen rights'. In mountain regions sheep, goats and pigs were paid in tax. Other products used for the purpose were poultry and eggs, cheese, wood for building, hay, pottery, tools, and manure to fertilize the fields. The millers had to pay taxes and needed permission to use the mills, and inn keepers had to have permission to sell wine. Peasants had to pay a special tax for the acorns eaten by pigs while grazing in the oak forests. Other taxes were jevied for fishing, hunting, wood cutting and hay making, and special taxes marked particular events such as a Court sitting, a death or upon tire receipt of a farm. The landlord could also claim compulsory labour such as field cultivation and harvesting, hay making and vineyard work. In addition, peasants had to transport goods, work on roads and in the castles, and the farmer-peasants were required to use their own animals and tools. Compulsory work varied in length from three to twenty days a year and was ordered and organized by the landlords. The duke of the district claimed taxes in money from the peasantry, and the Church took a tenth part of everything the peasant was able to produce in the fields, the vineyards or by stock farming. (30) See Appendix IV for sample of taxes. Tombstone of Friderik III of Ptuj, who died 1438, the last of noble family of Ptuj. Tombstone is of red marble, now located in the lower castle's wall.. ( Castle Vrbovec (Ger. Altenburg). Castle Bogensperk (Ger. Wagensberg). Castle Devin (Ger. Tybein) - fortified establishment. Castle Žužemberk (Ger. Seisenberg). Benedictine monastery Osoje (Ger. Ossiach). Castle Bori (Ger. Ankherstefn). iljf «£ iptfUnQ^* i-JH.'> apimti 2 1-4 Kartuzian monastery Žiče (Ger. Seitz). t»{Vitra:, ; - - ¡««lai • iif .. i " i Ji!-'?-»» f«'« fp» pi,..« fMffc *7f; Strap made from human skin, cut from thumb on a hand, across the shoulders and back to the big toe on a leg, 16th Century. Beginning of an Easter song in Slovenian - Manuscript 141. itHFffVt* ,T«iC mkcttnipiiurfu out) tri- i jus icyh£ HUirt pjttn ¡in«" Itwi i iJti Ibl'üm'.! r Cfn(-«löii«uf «pjai i-q.ldufi? itcfli an cufiir' tutömi it« twtpc q: mni n citvilitv wnou <5 idmisiti Jinrir pfra^ir ' Off t&K lllflwiiS'V^.JJtmlTF.r tttatrf&fc ßCufili» eiftqin säiww o«ws fctvtriitf fiäoT fib t«-'c ::to ¡trite c- (fcyt in.tyi »"»Hh «nsA v x:ii 11 frih r«iMjmb>,fb t-pir:lo njifnm ¿iH. I nuMC frlucrrf .»Mas rtl.1 u*«n tilrt fife- »i««a l- fö. f^ . Äilriäscttr.fiiajöirts ': ^mctcfcappß »t-tJ!< 5j«mf.pui&si!i «toit4»« r3iiyc C5sn-'j«a« ftes« ««»ks^. CTOTWI? iiR? C'Kti'iwP i^ramcaÄi^tufWip «gpiiwöftWf taau lüHi-TÄts i| t^iR!(iiiWmSstMfS'n;«5tiili!sC ^ jit fildf a IT OS urisni^ • I utitei.qfa nil^ifilitÄrs^iTiflpro pnrVtiliVfliöic RtiiiJifs ppÄitiut l;ar m?»ti fpbs rtRsf- f» >tf 5*** ' 1 ii \ ■ y .ii« ^»ft-wnstoru "iitrf «ns ri> jiLs -i.stiJi initriTiiru* 5VT.01 hif « 'J v .AlrmuMtlii« fv<"<■•>:' {nii <"it<'0 ctvr? (vi.'Vinirtir M-Ioift"» ^¡t>. &nvT ? nt;£i r>j thittüi rufrjiisv ruibbft!" C« ^ Otis strlc;n tUR-.m; f tu1 «Sl f« 0 I f S a n t h i ) e- R A h i Ml P a f 4 * i re- * Ü. IntioTi niJiiMiinr r MIT41-I.C. AUrr^ö» fmtinfir..».ufW fti,!^ ] ffrfr njy JWijnr inv rvjf'ct iifirtf, t u fuititmV <«»»ra)"tJtrro- J. aJ«»^»»»^ Iri^ar? fr <<«n»n irutGrn 4i«r Ji^fjmtifi,ir.iV|c^ &tuiEmi.ir»fupfr». y cotvir u ivrr Ji' Ja luirrr^yin ■ a. SSatSi jv4r>»tr. «r lir „\. JtsjT-.fi.^Jxvi^fü nun« to «ill liVtnr .iffTurrrr yatftifiu («ii almcninrjiniifli /air omfi» T7111 minu-ir iitiiium «tlc tijrt JiejvrtfiuMn . j^lurt; ^ja^p/icrtTrtnf^' ni^Mfi tMh - irw.iiytttrart fcr. p&rM.r^It nfj- Auur rmjUrjiJufifcfu (kiim n<- ftrfrrrjl^fpi/ fiUrHtif J»)iru ^jwmrrtifp ul U fii unnr Cuint t*-Mur$jftn*t: (¡cJur um ftlCn^JÖu lipfiq .IUUKU (fTB'KlJt ihu. "T- ^.figlllt itp inj^SMK-.y UH jihiiiiii«i pjamtjiranr(«nvlwu^im. •nil*: lifim oTiro >filin fa, «»Un™-™ L.r^Lr "ifi'-'inr».. vf, Iv^-i'ÜI.. tCjrfi. B.-lMnlTAU; L^'W-iirmrff.^J^jTir-iitl. Monastery Jurkloster (Ger. Geirach). Extract from the manuscript, Codex 688, fol. 183, describing the architect Michael of Sticna ".....homo nomine Mihael natio- ne letimus arte vero cementarius, tempore antecessorum nostro-rum de longinquis provintiis adveniens iam arte sua nostro monasterio plurium profuit.....". ■ The reason for the change to taxes being paid in money rather than goods can be attributed to the general growth of the economy and trade. Trading with countries of the East had a great influence on the development of different trades, particularly the silk and metal industries. Already the Arabs were using compass and paper; the Arabian numerical system was introduced to Europe and this hastened the development of mathematics. Life in the castles became more luxurious and the landlords' need for money became greater. In the territory of modern Slovenia, most towns had been built on the ruins of Roman towns but never on the ruins of villages. Ptuj was formed on the ruins of Poetovio, which was designated 'civitas' as early as the ninth century. It was devastated many times by the Magyar invasions and was many times rebuilt. A similar development was found to have occured at Kranj (Car-nium), Celje (Celeia), Ljubljana (Emona) and a number of other places. Most of the towns and markets on Slovenian territories were formed later than in other parts of Europe and were administrative centres rather than trade or social centres. Traders and merchants, with permission of the landlords, had settled near the most important intersections and trade routes, and their work and social life was completely different to that of country people. The real 'town people', the people with the rights of the town, differed from the traders and merchants in that they had personal freedom and also owned estates outside the town. Other town settlers were manual workers, merchants' assistants, servants to the 'middle class', priests and noblemen and personal guards of the Counts, many of whom were serfs. 1248 Proclaimed as a 'Market' >365 Proclaimed as a'Town' ,— Boundary of modern Slovenia 10. Development of the towns in Slovenia. Patrician families also lived in towns, but their accumulated wealth was a barrier between them and the other townspeople. Two such families were the Porgers of Ljubljana and the Ebenharts of Maribor. By the end of the thirteenth century towns were governed by officials legally appointed according to established statutes and regulations. The responsibilities of townsmen included the maintenance of defensive walls, payment of taxes and military obligations. The statute of Kostanjevica was drawn up between 1295 and 1307, that of Gorica in 1307, and those of Brezice and Ptuj in 1353 and 1376 respectively (see map 10, p. 45). Monastery Studenica (Ger. Stutenitz). © t v m Cer «T'M m bu> Ici'lbu fo ; ATiim'tm^j'^io 4«f v 1 Oitf tone ttaliujtttis ituTMttuts tc fectttromur't w ♦ ♦'V ♦ „ ^ ♦ ♦ 4 V 4 • tmtsfc <$ionfimtmts tc .igimi«? frbt^j Abbot Folknand of Stična in the Initial "O" in the manuscript, ^ *fV ♦ * „~ . t ^ i. , • , , Pages from selection of choral missal songs, possibly 15th Century - Smolnikar, M., Dr., (Notes by). Calendarium portatile ad annum 1415 MS 150. Syrmticr c ff b fUrb ffhr b f j rb ffcörbjfff1 i j Jt bhscfff i'ticf j l'Cöftg. |!f&ii Vri-.trttM- ■ ,. tj-MM I f Calendarium portatile ad annum 141S, MS 160. Woodcarving from 15th Century of Mary's Annunciation. Woodcarving of the Tree of Jesej with Jesus' ancestors, 15th Century. n offiao flol.ln- /îhrt^itc aquc Çvinmï avwtmiV fîmr"&nc bî'tbc mite-»arqaichbî (ôbitt- «trmiçim gulitl 011cm n frftp btt epir+mfyth^ m^lic; h m |lnnfiranonc btr l'^mie^ftabitlo ¿Hfinrfih /hi* •1-iUWin ftflo Ètti Gemiljjb In * [ "trif • ic m ¿Hfi» -fîi i ten ■ dTffè âr&adrfcn -fi-ilH^u. fi jecheta jilYnu-rftrt term« iti tio rcmflnFtt" umncG l'f-a mobiles tpi^tp^ir-nenr iic Antcfl m Officio-ftu} rtm firmlir rtV- f^mi ■ & fr^i^rit^ tmo ^jo fimtnr ait i cnrtiibi «tr» coqiimam ft*- ras ftShitn bn o?rirrm\ ^ Jflmxl^r-fliic"' mj-tnf'Vi paii >1 \rniT Qirmuj éTftt™ -car ¿»crtpulrtfl mo ilto* quciD «onw ^Trrftrûl^r -finir™ |h>»r«i tiffin o fuitt-ri r*-|îffins nrntiTirr' ^/Jttm m ifluoffîno -mi lluf^fp mn lRt-*nft??-fpAb Wmta ofHoahs-qui u Icr^fVrîr fobicr-1* dWnflhs ai ter th t'trmo tfrfbfllmluoG rtrain- ^r oitir ms flb n8 C|>>oT> iïptiï cft- ni é. jtern fblimr .âtciiivfni â- |f qiulibt r-rft7irnniï -m 3 Vcn inn? icnair roliigtfnr. |L Clie ti-rTt^bc wt M fntnir cmett {a Sctlsi t ¡»m aba Ut- pmrt«r A page from Urbar for Loka, for 'Officio Polan' (Poljane), the owners of the estates were the Bishops of Freising - Document HL Freising, 541, foi. 11. Monastery Pleterje (Ger. Pletariach). Town and castle Škofja Loka (Ger. Bischafflackh). The law-court of the Middle Ages and various death sentences. utim0r$o ¡[tirfau ia^irgt wtttitef Quuprrauu tuteiii) uflgnmdjutttiimuatmijr aukuuoityojiwiditi'dimuf tili gatyib mire »uuilH|afirnr|ilEuvjmj GtiuUc HirMiCwrtcumiiCiiiiiitcfii mid|uurIcjiaiibtoHarem SttWtt^Muta gcicfrn- gmij liflisiulrqiu fltrtwqjiff i:> at ixnt s&ruiuflhi imw imuKdir- BjmaMiKdjaiiaiialJw^i« 4l;awu}jccmfeu3 tUuituwc ijirtiimixi fiui ui ¿llj ji.inicti luimiMmmtlxlklirSiiiid^i fuiS' urn tiui tl jtiiivH' teruuUi wees l|duj$ c$ ijufiij tMumdljgmigw; ¡#msr idjrfimftutdaim'ibtfuwmic armdSiKmdjrdjuUKgslflf umutii&iuit«--i,nma!ir ■mnacwica'iMbftutiigcfdi &Ityolduriid^uuwgcuji di&itciuuiiatTjij ucj'oliste icujcliciuiBi yutfi quts ¡¡a Uktiiiitmunir-mm» ripuK Miuodi uawtMafiiialdfu ncl qiuTOitrfl Icfou&foi ilbti«iiOan rt&it an metfhse en fttwi Plague plaque at Ljubljana. associating 'black' with the 'death' must have contributed to give it general currency. In France it was called the Morte bleue. The superior dreadfulness of the accepted phrase is obvious and today no other style would be acceptable ... '... in men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumors in the groin or the armpits, some more, some less, which the common folk called gavocciolo. From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propa- Burning of infected clothes, illustration from the manuscript Ms Bodley 264, f. 83. gate and spread itself in all directions; after which the form of the disease began to change, black or livid spots making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, sometimes few and large, sometimes minute and numerous... 'That the Black Death, in its original form, was bubonic plague has been commonly accepted for many years. Bubonic plague is endemic to certain remote areas of the world; those which have been identified with reasonable certainty are Uganda, Western Arabia, Kurdistan, Northern India and the Gobi Desert. From time to time it erupts there in the form of minor, localised epidemics... A plague chapel at Lesnica, near Ormoz, from year 1691. + y ^p^mimtsmirnwoifusu jfr. ->r \ fffniKaRnMuputt j£| hMtutntritgnnuismiltttttel • - -"2 c3m Hitctttagaimis ¡mot no? 9 J|| tltirnrltgnmueaubincB. ffl 3iui5tui)iucolltfr|Xttntn jitun&ipMtnotosimnmf. J- J||jpi$ ittqm wlUsjnrata iiKioiiuiifJi iuisttiiiiu tollts jXOTim Procession of Flagellants with scourges, manuscript Ms Douce 144, fol. 110 r. 'There is certainly no doubt that the rapid spread of bubonic plague was greatly helped by the presence of infected rats ... probably having been imported originally in the boats of the returning Crusaders (see map 12, p. 56). '... According to Agnolo di Tura in the city of Siena, only a small number of people were left alive ... The church waxed fat from inheritances and gifts from frightened citizens; so much so that, in October, (1348) all annual appropriations to religious persons and institutions were suspended for two years ...' About this time of distress and horror a special sect, the Flagellants (Slov. Bicatji, Ger. Geisselungen) was formed. The 'Brotherhood of the Flagellants' or 'Brethren of the Cross' was the most powerful religious group in Germany, suggesting that the German people had had their religious sensibilities stirred by the papal inderdict against Louis of Bavaria and the recent earthquakes. 'They moved in a long crocodile, two by two, usually in groups of two or three hundred but occasionally even more than a thousand. Men and women were segregated, the women took their place towards the rear of the procession ... The Bethren threw themselves to the ground - each man tried to outdo his neighbour in pious suffering, literally whipping himself into a frenzy in lil VILLACH KLAGENFURT 11 MARIBOR KRANJ TOLMIN fflUMHB Silil LJUBLJANA »ilillli II8&1I1 NOVO MESTO JM POSTOJNA ČRNOMELJ TRIESTE . ' ^ cV K ^f f i psa™ p i After Dr. M. Kos Diocese of Salzburg Diocese of Krka Diocese of Freising Diocese of Brixen Diocese of Bamberg Habsburgs Church Property Venice Counts of Gorica Trieste Tolmin Region Croatia - Hungary Counts of Celje which pain had no reality. Such scenes were repeated twice by day and once by night when one of the Brethren died.'(34) THE HABSBURG ADVANCE TOWARDS THE ADRIATIC. After some years of spasmodic territorial peace Venetian control of most of the towns on the Adriatic Sea blocked the Habsburg ambition to possess coastal trading outlets, and war between these two great powers was inevitable. Hostilities commenced about 1369 over possession of Trieste, which remained the centre of contention for the next ten years until it was eventually taken over by the Habsburgs under heir Duke Leopold III. Ernest, the son of Leopold, is known to have fortified Ljubljana against the Turks. When the nobles in the surrounding districts refused to co-operate in the work of preparing defences and denounced Ernest, the town became an official town with rights for the citizens. Throughout Slovenian territory noble families, among them the Bishop of Salzburg, the Bishops of Brixen, the Archbishop of Krka, the Ortenburgs and the Counts of Celje (Cilli) battled for power (see map 13, p. 58 ). 13. Feudal Lords on Slovenian territory. The Ortenburg nobles were the owners of many great estates in Slovenian territory in Kranjska (Carniola) and Dolenjska (Lower Carniola), where the town's coat of arms still shows the presence of their strength and wealth, which was also shown by the establishment of many monasteries (Radovljica, Velesovo, the Augustin (34) Ziegler, P., The Black Death. Collins Clear-Type Press, London, 1969, p. 18. 24, 26, 59, pp. 88-89 (from the original Boccaccio - Decameron, translated byJ.M. Rigg, London, 1930, p. 5). Town and castle Celje (Ger. Obercillia). monastery in Ljubljana, and Ribnica). Until their family became extinct through lack of an heir, the Counts of Celje (Cilli) were prominent as owners of enormous estates, as the plan shows, and became dangerous rivals to the Habsburgs. The family of Celje (Cilli) was first mentioned in documents of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as owners of the estate of 2ovnek (Ger. Sanneg) in the Savinja river valley By careful marital and martial alliances the family gradually increased in wealth and power until, by the end of the thirteenth century, Frederick I of Celje (Cilli) became a useful ally of the Habsburgs. In 1341 Frederick and his family became known as the Counts of Celje (Cilli). The most prominent member of the family was Herman II, who really established the family's position of prestige and strength. Herman bypassed the Habsburgs to fight against the Turks with Sigmund of Luxemburg. and also established valuable family estates in Croatia, Bosnia and Hungary. His daughter married Sigmund, and when Sigmund became the German king in 1410, the Counts of Celje (Cilli) were known as the Nobles of the German State. Herman's, son Frederick II acquired a foothold on the Adriatic Sea through marriage with Elizabeth of the Frankopan family from the island of Krk. Although the marriage was a disaster, this did not seem to affect the fortunes of the Counts of Celje (Cilli). Barbara fatfcr €5*g numbs tfcmaljcl Count Herman II's daughter, Barbara; woodcarving, 1493. Seal of Cetfe, 1465. Rudolf of Habsburg, paintedby A. Filippi in 1888. OAANF.CKM - Castle Zovnek (Ger. Sannegg), engraving. Count Friedrik II of Celje, present at the Council at Constance, an illustration in the Chronicle of Ulrich of Richenthal. Katarina of Celje, 1437, stone relief. In the year 1436 the Counts of Celje (Cilli), including Frederick II and his son Ulrich, became the 'State Dukes of the Holy Roman Empire'. This honour carried considerable legal advantages, the establishment of the family's own 'noble law court', mining rights and the right to issue their own money. The great power and territorial advancement of the Celje (Cilli) family meant that the Habsburgs lost all hope of ever reaching the Adriatic. The progress of the house of Celje (Cilli) continued ruthlessly. Count Ulrich directed his interests to the East and made his intentions known to the Hungarians. In 1440 the Habsburg Frederik became the German king and continued to recognize the Counts of Celje (Cilli). Indeed, there was even an 'inheritance agreement', by which the Habsburgs promised their territory in Slovenia to the Counts if they, the Habsburgs, were to remain without an heir. The new Hungarian king Ivan Hunjadi, was an enemy of Count Ulrich, but the Turks were again endangering both countries so the Hungarians and the Counts of Celje (Cilli) fought them side by side. After the death of Ivan Hunjadi the Habsburgs selected Count Ulrich as his heir. This was contrary to the wishes of the dead king's son, Ladislav Hunjadi, and presumably also to the wishes of the Hungarian people. The Turks, however, were once more advancing, and in 1456 a great army under the command of Ladislav and Ulrich headed towards Belgrade to repel the Turkish attack. Once within fortified Belgrade expediency gave way to murder, and Ulrich was killed by thé Hungarians. Coats of Arms of Celje. villach maribor kranj ljubljana novo mesto v® trieste Adriatic Sea -t^KOPER ^vj; piran;./.^ After Dr. J Habsburgs I Venice Croatia - Hungary tfc SUr #5.„nSfd ■ • w Sic ©«¡«ftiA / <*»» «if^Cm-Wwi /Sybi1 ijo&tA r>v>v «ifa» «« »*>»• '/oorvS/j'->v-/v>VV f; « /■ wi i -»H w ^ -v^flw 4,nt -Sovii 8vlifc'/YVrtC/»-«fiWoo^. twcn y rfJ'®?^ quishabcr'iiujci!y fruf>cettibs- bif} fluff ccn eC6cnt»tt?mC> c€>hv I llli ¡¿H A propaganda pamplet of the Turkish invasion of the White Mountain in November 1620. les, but although they promised to help the peasants, who paid a special tax for the purpose, this help was seldom available when required. Frederick III tried to build a 'fortification line' along the Croatian-Hungarian border. The Church contributed 'help' with certain litanies and services, and collected a tax to stop the Turks attacking Christians, but when the Turks arrived the nobles and clergy were quick to save themselves and left the farmers and peasants to find their own hiding places. Ljubljana felt the full strength and cruelty of the Turks for the first time in 1469, when the country was invaded as far as Kranjska (Carniola), the River Soča and Trieste. Other towns such as Maribor and Celje had already suffered; Štajerska (Styria) had also been invaded, and in 1478 Koroška (Carinthia) was attacked. It was in Koroška (Carinthia) that the peasants revolted against their rulers for unfulfilled promises of protection. Turkish camp before Vienna, drawing by Bartholomeus Beham, 1529. I IimM lY'SUi Battle at Mohacks in 1526, a Turkish artist illustrates the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent's victory over Hungarians. Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, the legendary 'Kralj Matjaž'. It was not until 1483, when an agreement was made between Bayezid II and the Hungarian King Mathias Corvinus, that there was any real respite from Turkish aggression. Mathias was an able and just king who, owing to the usual changing alliances among powerful neighbours, had acquired great estates deep in Slovenian territory near the Sava River, Ptuj and in Koroška (Carinthia), which was Habsburg territory. He had also blocked Habsburg ambitions to obtain possessions in the Adriatic area, so by 1483 a great part of Slovenia was under his rule. In 1489 Mathias came to an agreement with Emperor Frederick HL Captive Christian families put up for sale in the slave market at Constantinople, from het Ellendigh Leven Der Turcken, 1663. Turkish mace, 16 th Century. Mathias died in 1490 and his land reverted to the Habsburgs. He was named Kralj Matjaz, and greatly mourned by the Slovenian people. Not only had he governed their country peacefully and efficiently, but he had protected it from the Turks with a well-disciplined army that did not pillage and steal. In the eyes of Slovenians, King Mathias was their one great hope for peace and justice, and many stories and legends are remembered about him. There are also many tales about the cruelty of the Turks and of the great hardships the years of terror imposed on Slovenians. A poem by Anton Askerc (39) tells of a young janissary who, returning from a mission of robbing and killing, recognizes his native village and kills himself because he could not bear to murder his own family. A similar story (40) describes a janissary, the son of a wealthy man, who was sold to the Turks by a gypsy. He returned years later to his father's house and was not recognized until the bad conscience of the gypsy revealed the truth. Father and son were reunited, the only barriers being those of language and years of foreign training. y (39) Aikerc, A., (1856-1912), a Slovenian poet of epic poems jj; and balads. See Appendix VI. (40) Jurčič, J., (1844-1881), a Slovenian writer, See Appendix 1 % Title page of Treaty of Karlowitz, 1699. There were, however, other views of the Ottoman invasions. The author of The Ottoman Impact on Europe states that the Turks' approach to slavery was completely different to that of Europeans. Although it is obvious from the Chronicles that people dreaded Turks and were horrified by their actions, many nations (among them the Balkan states) preferred the rule of the Ottoman Empire to that of Western monarchies. '... Turkish slavery did not in the least resemble the slavery which Europeans imposed upon field workers in the plantations of the New World in the course of the sixteenth century; nor was it in most cases as onerous as the serfdom which was inflicted upon the peasant class of eastern Europe during the same period. The comparatively mild character of Turkish slavery derived from the fact that the slaves were not valued primarly for the economic utility of the labour. They were used instead to satisfy the ambition of Ottoman notables (often slaves themselves) to accumulate a large household of attendants as a public expression of their personal wealth and power ... When the Grand Vizier Rustem Pasha died in 1561, it was recorded that his household included 1,700 slaves; that of the sixteenth century sultans, excluding the janissaries and the ruler's personal bodyguards, contained between 20,000 and 25,000 ... The sultan himself was almost always the son of a slave mother. The royal a i 'Jm wm^ik Prince Eugen of Savoy, the victory man over the Turks at Zenta on the River Theisa in Transilvania, painting by Jacob van Schuppen. slave-family administered the secular side of the sultan's government and furnished the corps d'elite of his army. All this is far removed from our normal assumptions about what enslavement implies ... . The slave population of the barracks, arsenals, chancellories and palaces of Constantinople were utterly different from the brutalised Negro slave-hands of the Americans, who constitute the European archetype of an enslaved people. ... Slaves of the royal household were the wealthiest and most powerful men of the empire; they commanded Ottoman armies, governed the provinces and framed the policy of the state' (41). In the year 1697 the Turks were defeated in a great battle along the River Zenta by an army led by the Habsburg Prince Eugene von Savoy. A peace treaty was finalized in 1699, as a result of which the Turks lost their conquered territory in Hungary and Transylvania to the Habsburgs. (41) Coles, P., The Ottoman Impact on Europe. Thames and Hudson, London, 1968, pp 51-52, 53-54. ■ VIL NATIONALISM AND THE STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM The many years in which the Turks ravaged Central Europe were a period of great social and economic disorder which was escalated by the constant fighting and destruction. In country districts a steadily increasing population meant that already small farms were further subdivided until they were quite unable to produce sufficient food to meet the basic requirements of the people. Many countrymen left rural areas in an attempt to make a living in cities, or as mercenaries in the armies and navies of foreign powers. Because the value of money had fallen, the remaining independent farmers were unable to pay the extra taxes demanded of thiim, and either walked off their farms or lost their freedom in a reversion to the feudal state of peasants. Peasants were accustomed to paying heavy taxes and dues, particularly for the purpose of building fortifications against the Turks, but after many years of increasing oppression it became obvious that taxes were not always applied to the purpose for which they were levied and were frequently used to meet the needs and pleasures of the noblemen. At length the peasantry banded together to demand that standard rates of taxation should be legally established and written down, so that landlords would be unable to change or increase taxes at will. Eventually a !law guide' was drawn up in the hope that it would be Town and castle Brežice (Ger. Rhain), where the peasants 'beheaded' the nobles, impaled their heads on poles and left the bodies unburied. Battle between the peasants and the nobles, drawing by A. Durer. Possible weapons used by the uprising peasants. Town and castle Krško (Ger. Gurckfeld), engraving. Castle Mehovo (Ger. Maichau) in Dolenjska, one of the first castles, taken by militant peasants in the revolt of 1515. adhered to in Slovenian and other territories. It was against this fifteenth century background of general disruption and unrest that the first 'unions' were formed among the peasants in an effort to regain stara pravda (old rights) and help withstand increasing pressure from the nobility. There were many peasant uprisings in Germany, and the first significant rising on Slovenian territory took place between 1474 and 1476. In 1478 there was much trouble in Koroška (Carinthia), where the peasants threatened to refuse to pay taxes for fortifications against the Turks on the grounds that the money collected was not used for that purpose. Some landlords even formed an alliance with the Turks in an attempt to crush the peasants. (See map 15, p. 74). Battle near Krško. 2Jiii nciDcclicbvon ben hrasti' ncrifcl)cn b.mrcn. ^)>!tvouftbec jul bcr&ttittt vnntel rbct (id) fo f< t mts piftittfT- tfn ftirg' ev j«f 511 fctcg vnbfimfl t S)«iji niamgtfb« roiuvcmcn. 2iits trcrget in.iiit rbctnfyfd)tcicii@t«riiptmil>iVifii",tbc[ gitcr Vtiifa fi-cycnt ni itrtl tljct ficb tiar (Inrcf miff fctj-re>j'n peni re 111.id)tb.iopofrnw mrber lttjfamitvcdiriiviib mini iigfii tetivnim fdjariTO.isnicffciitiiir.ŠMrrtpiniitJii&ie Iflinjfitcdjrtbctrtiipi.-rigtii mirfpic|yciiBn&mit|Uiigcn.!IciiFb»p.l.l.l.n'03(igmniiiiiibcc6siricit piiiunv.io scvrrciiMctb.iiiicravcfiviiibbnBciitr. &.t Pivtrnlifi mrttt nitvtrgip'jii(iii£I5Hfrf>Ki6(i» iit irem miti i^:ixlpli!cr'ertmd)tn fvjiiucrtrciGfii fy fcb.-arat foi'yclcnpcrycintrI (¿5i.it.! pMiib.i t>fii gci|?!idi» nit fcbciicfcit'ir rtiitjvii giri» 511 6cOcinE> c^iciiftiiip.I.LI.tu^g.ignt.iiii.iirfbiiiitci-foIiiGivciitjciijcrmfillocit fncgi>o;cnbcri. 'Dcrtorcitratig,ii i>fffviti5t>;igiii,imii[ruiirticl!cii8fi;[firl)lirij V.ibtllillt 1 th.iiricliSnrui IcScnlilli. 2i:n<< Mgs Liitwm iiiirft vc|p.T|i.tr niMHKtftiict vcnn.itiitfibic ltiFc;iriiigcii!itiifiKtm(idit| irbcrnMtfl.idit. ©Mr.ipi'.iiib.a p.il&ivasiiicirrgcpiipr.iitnnngfad) fv.inffpcriv.iili.ir iJaii.V.cnth Lip.M.l.iuogii tjniiiiim.apiid>(7eutx>Oi< b.iifi.icbcn Av?rpil\v;lf!d)imKi)iti. 0?,n-p,il&tMrlMdi .1111 fpiltc» gfcbfldilgar mniitgcr nvuS ct(Tc>d)ctil ir6.«ir£!i|ivr iiiH.niicricir «■•hfiniiioibtirpiiditnlttlitbmis 71 It betreu fl.1111 gcivnr. ©mim p:,iui,1. ©yh.iGcnbic fihnitrtvciloiitf ni.inb.it uihiicFcii gfdiotcn.Uoufhiip. I.M.tfC>|W0m(im«lSiird)j(t: f.ilfdi (iim vrib.irglt|lcil>uigcn onSand) gcfpijT. Pamplet from 1515 - first printed text of Puntarska pesem -Song of the Uprising Peasants. Leader of the Hungarian peasant revolt Georgius Zekel, being crowned with red-hot iron crown. A comrade lies impaled at his feet; woodcut by J. Stauromachia, Vienna 1519. Sword of land-tenants, 16th Century. J Carinthian uprising in year 1478 (Koroska) The "Whole Slovenian" uprising. 1515 Croatian - Slovenian uprising, 1573 Slovenian uprising. 1635 Uprising of Slovenes in Region Gorica - Tolmin 1731 15. Peasant uprisings on the Slovenian territory. Pedlar, drawing by Amann, 1568. Merchant in front of the store. Uprising peasants, woodcut. The peasants continued the struggle for many years, but with no means of communication between their widely dispersed leaders, and without proper weapons, there was no possibility of success against the well organized and well equipped forces of the landlords. In 1575 the Slovenian peasants were involved. The uprising was crushed, the leaders severely punished or killed and even greater taxes were imposed on the peasants. The fate of the leader of this Slovenian-Croatian revolt is the subject of many legends and poems. Ambroz Gubec, also known as Matija Gubec, was taken to Zagreb, the capital of modern Croatia, where he was crowned with a hot iron crown while seated on a hot iron throne and was forced to hold a hot iron sceptre — a ferocious warning to any peasant planning future rebellion. As elsewhere in Europe, the Slovenian Church was also facing a crisis. The Synod formed in 1448 described the life of religious persons. It told of priests devoted to worldly pleasure, and of priests who were innkeepers, hunters and gamblers; the behaviour of many was corrupt and scandalous, and some did not even live in their parish. Sometimes people were forced to pay before receiving the sacrament. Emperor Frederick III tried to resolve the problem by founding the Bishopric of Ljubljana in 1463, but the churchmen already in office at Ljubljana dismantled the monastery and fled with the contents before the the new Bishop arrived. The Slovenian people, together with the other nations of Europe, had to wait for new ways of thought to improve their lot. THE REFORMATION The development of the great intellectual movement known as the Renaissance gradually spread a new way of life and thought throughout the whole of Europe. With it came the philosophy of Humanism which, for the first time in the history of the continent, studied and considered human rights and dignity. For the Church, change came in the form of the Reformation. People began to think back to the original principals of Christianity, which, over the centuries, had become buried in secular intervention, political expediency and material wealth at the expense of individual salvation. The problem of venality within the Church was one of the greatest obstacles to religious reform. Clergy made huge fortunes by the sale of remissions and indul- ak Qnatuor Voc: A J zqualcs. X. Tenor. BliEllM^ESmi ' mm, foltcmcj fjmoso- limnm. îWmmmm^^mmi: obuiiiKtuni l)o- mlitrt ilwiiStctA: rficentei Oûom moctllu, mç ice Hit I p — .. - . j - i.;««lKin- JV%». jihVima Itljo Djw>A U'ncJtcluktiuivc mr innomme Do- mi*u. Jacobus Petelin — Gallus, known for his 474 songs, Opus Musi-cum, composed for the chorus of 4-24 voices, fragment from the second book. gences, and temporal rulers frequently selected and appointed clergy without consultation with the Pope. In Germany the Emperor had no power because he was at odds with the Church, which owned one third of the country and was also the largest and most powerful feudal landlord. Maximilian II, emperor of Holy Roman Empire (1527-1576). Reform of the Church was a gradual movement over many years but it received its first great impetus in 1517 when Martin Luther, fighting against the sale of indulgences, nailed his '99 Theses' to the door of the church in Wittenberg. Luther claimed that the Pope had no power or right to give remission for sins - sins could be forgiven only by faith and faith alone. Luther translated the Bible from Latin into German. About this time, a great peasant revolution was taking place in Germany. In Switzerland Zwingli and Calvin stated that the future of human beings lay in faith; everyone should surrender to the will of God. There were movements for reform in France, Scotland, Holland and England. The 'Protestant' reformation spread quickly in Slovenian territory where the writings of Martin Luther were forbidden and had to be studied and discussed in secret. The Reformation was particularly important for the Slovenians because it assisted in the development of the Slovenian language. The new religion brought the Bible to the Slovenians in their own simple vernacular instead of Latin, the language of the educated minority, which was used in the Catholic Church. The most prominent Slovenian leaders in the Reformation movement were Primoz Trubar (Primus Trubar), Jurij Dalmatin, Sebastian Krelj, and Adam Bohoric. The first printing house was established in Ljubljana between 1575 and 1580, and the Slovenian language was introduced to primary schools which were to be open to all people. The first libraries were established, every parish was to have a teacher and everyone was to have the opportunity to learn to read and write. In Ljubljana Slovenian was to be taught at the High School ( the Gimnazium). The Austrian Habsburgs and other foreign nobles had not permitted the Slovenians to have their own language taught at schools: people were brought up to respect only the German, Latin and Italian languages and Slovenian, 'the language of the peasants', was despised by noblemen. jjit i>cr IDmfciftfce'in f^praci)/ fambt ctncr Fiinjcu 2lu(jlojuiu$ in£cf em prciu^ vem rccj? ten 0Uubcii/0cftcit/i>m\£ pbtkprttrtburo ^Utrtcum* 2t h u f rathi p o fc u ujfymc fTc rim vfiift more vo ncbupryti. P/Ut>t tnu prcprotfi ©ioucnct njogo ktjfu vfratftm jbafè blati iMuujbttt / ^rtb fo tu&l iîttft te fcrfjt>4itfft *Oerc um attie ¿4 £eryattU ^ f«l? loucnjoi*. Rom. xtttl; Btofe lingua confuebiturDs®» The first Slovenian printed book, Abecednik — The Primer title page, printed in IS SI. Primož Trubar (Lat. Primus Trubar). (or 'first reader') with which Slovenians could help themselves learn to read. Trubar's books were written in a dialect from Dolenjska, south of Ljubljana. He used Gothic (German 'broken' writing) and, later, Roman letters. SEBASTIAN KRELJ is important because of the improvements he made to the letters used in the Slovenian language. He wrote the Otroska biblija (Children's Bible) and Postila slovenska (Slovenian Postilla). JURIJ DALMATIN translated the Bible into Slovenian. The work took him ten years and was published in 1584 at Wittenberg, Germany. It continued to be used even after preachers forbade the use and discussion of reformation literature, and after The Reformation period was over, it continued to be used in Slovenian Catholic churches. The Slovenian Grammar, Zimske urice or The Winter Hours, was written in the Slovenian language only thirty-three years after publication of the first Slovenian book, and its Introduction gained scientific recognition for the existence of the language. The Emperor was not against the followers of the Reformation, but in his Will he ordered that only the Catholic religion should be permitted within the Empire. The Pope regained power during the reign of Ferdinand with the establishment of the 'inquisition', a much-feared system of interrogation used to reveal heretics, and the absolute devotion of the order of Jesuits. The Catholic Church was a power in most of the coun- Title page of Jurij Dalmatin's Bible. EVANGELI S K VSI S, Matteusha sapiflàn. I* CAPITVL, B Ifen* ihi.l.1 IIJLL» ¡.tu, HA C ETV SO BVQVE OD IESV. foviga Criihiiovigarojihra, DavidovigiSynu»Abf; hamoviga Synu. * Abraham jc rodil Itaaka. * I-taak jc rodil Jacoba. 1 lacob jc rodil Juda inu njegove Brate.r Juda jc rodd Pha/da inu Sarama,od Tamare. Pharei jc rodd Hezrona. H«r on jc rodil Rajna. Run jc rodil Amisudaba. Aminadab je rodil NahaiTbn*. Nabafion je rodd Salma. Salma je rodil Boala,od Ra-ha bc.1 BoaJ jc rodd 0 bcda,'od Rutc.0 bed je rodil IcC fa.TIeilc jc rodd KrajlaDavida. Kraji David jc rodd Salomon >>od Vriave Sbetic.^Salomon je rodil Roboama, Roboam je rodil Abia. Abia je roJil Afla. Aflijerodd losaphata.Io»pbat je rodil !orami. lorani jc rodi! Oiia. Oiia je rodd Jtana. lota n je rodd Abaia. Aha» j« rodil EzeKia.^Ezcbia jc rodil ManaCa.1 M in aflc jc rodd Amcna. Amon jc rodil Iotia.*I olia jc rodd Ichonia, inu njegove Brate, ob tem zhaflu Bibdoniikcjczhc. * Po Babilomflu j«!ht jc lehomaa rodd Scalrid*. SeJtid j« rodi! Zoroba-bda,Zorobabd je rodil Abiuda.* Abiudjc rodd EliaJuina. Ehakin» je rodil Afera. Afor jc rodil Zad o!ca- Zidok jc rodd Ahi oa. Abin jc rod il Eliti da. Hliud je rodd EJe-aCm. Elcaiar jc rodil M atana.Matan jc ro Al Jacoba> lacob jc rodil Io$epha, Maric Moiba, od katere jc lesu* rojcn,kif je imenovan Criikli. Vleb rodou od Abrahama do Davida, je A tiri naj ftrodou: Od Davida do Babjfonifkc jeibc jc ftoriiujft n». dou: Od BabyloniOie jeihe do Cnfluft, jefliririnajftrodotj, FHiufovu CriiHlfevurojftvu pat je letaku bdu. t Kadar je Maria njegova Mirilo-■Ijcphu bila Mroibcna, prejden je on njo kTebi bil «d/e jeiniftlu»dc jco/u nofli-zba bila od fvaiga Du hi. loseph pak nje Moih jc bil brumen, inu jc nej boril - rei-glaiiui ,tcmu*h je mi/lil njo ikrivajc NMlflfct» Mej tfro pak ker je on talcu mifliUo-Jyn GOJPODNI Angel fc je njemu rtajl» [¿rkasal, trni jcrekal: Io«j>h : Davidou lyn,nibujfeManotvojothenokfebi «en.Sakajta,karjernjejrojeau,*odfven- rktim Xtfißtii A brinju Dv- umtj{ JtU¿cnt!i:t*mtXÍnn>Lnt¡. '* """í""»» J«>irf«w Mo&NV»r, ' ' ¿yv/liív .txlLvr*. BC. I1A lil* iiiiniitMifK f-t" O.HM. ime^ai Anol ff» I'M SKIH.WJÍÍA Latus, i. lí •^■■P"'- íítW Olr.i^M»/ fcof-c MW, U. tuji .►{.«»,>. iwjt«. HJ i^jfru '"■-t t-lt:¡;. L,!*,.,. Lattuncuji. Loi lurku»!i.(t¡. »=5 sfartr* La 11 un cu lis, tMJ-C «11 ill teotrítfvl' titï^up. „s - M.L., lit.. ljCUí.C L\r .■.fr.; tit ¿t» J.-iV Ji I t.iuj.uui Two pages from Dictionarum Multi lingue, by Megiser, 1603, kept at Seminary Library, which includes Slav among 18 other languages. Ä6tn ojbrt« proffímo •Üicfufciitmjmcitt fíní tî'm buljum t>( boöcmo ©riigiijb fpet poiiculciii *Otitt0rt Qyiut DcrcunlL Öcbiga my vft flitfl>«lt "Ccbi jl?ircrircbc'fciiilo/iicbu/uer6ti Cíflrt fí but / íiiu is feria [ubi a » Page from the Catechismus. ' . , *Vk ..... . i v-v ,V 1 I » ^ ' I ■■ • \ Leopold I, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, 1640-1705, drawing by Sebastian von Dryveghen, 1674. The years after the Thirty Years War are known as the time of the 'Counter-reformation', during which the Catholic Church fought back to regain the influence it had in earlier centuries. Parallel with the Order of Jesuits, and founded a few years earlier, was the Order of Capuchins, a branch of The Franciscan order, founded by St. Francis in thirteenth century. Both orders maintained schools for noblemen, and the Capuchins started schools for 'simple people'. The Jesuits had bought a house near the Church of St. Jakob (St James) in Ljubljana for poor scholars and they also arganized plays, mainly of religious content, acted in the German language. By 1670 some were performed in the Slovenian language. With the development of schools there was an increase in Catholic literature. Bishop Tomaž (Thomas) Hren had saved some of Dalmatin's bibles which had created great interest, but the nation also needed schools for Catholic priests. It was fifty years before another Slovenian book was written. Of great importance in Slovenian history is the scientist JANEZ WAJICARD VALVAZOR, who wrote, in German, a book that introduced Slovenian territory to the world. He had his own engraving workshop and printing press at his castle, and in studies in the fields of geography, history, economics and transport he presented a clear picture of the province of Kranjska (Carniola). As the result of his investigative work regarding Cerkniško jezero (Lake near Cerknica) he was elected a member of the English Royal Society, of which the scientist Isaac Newton was also a member. After Valvazor's death an 'Academie of the Working' (Accademia operosorum) was established, whose members included lawyers, doctors and theologians among whom were some Jesuits. A Ferdînando III AVGV'STrSSÎMG Imi'f.patoii de Romani il. Ferdinand III. Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire. Janez (Ger. Johann) Weichard Valvasor, the owner of the castle Bogensperk and its estates, a scientist and founder of the first printing house on Slovenian territory. £>eß erfr^ron* Cratu: £M6 i(i/ Ja^ce/ grönMidje/ unD r«fj£ eigenblicfa ^deaetb unt> 58efd)üffenf)ci£ bfefcö/ in mandjert alten unb neuen ©eftfi fäu ©udjern j»ac riibmlicb btrubrttn/bocO biö&tro nieannoeb reeijt t>tiri)ci(i)nitii Wegen |gr&fonbt#; SDcrmtttclft einet 6oiffommcnetumi> attefüfjHtcßcrt Dg^c^ung oll« ferner ¡¿anblafften/^ifeiit/^clixr/ fömev / S&er$e/{Heftete itniirfniwc EOmiitr.ScÄMicb ritrounSrtl.djtclEroirfii/iinSsifl anöt« nit«m«wrrl tiiritDunifc/imsliicbm ötcfficrpäcbfi/tTliiTrcjlitniattgcDcrcFci l&tlmnnt/Jarm.^i tllarclWcSrrngiäaiiltr unt> jTc(Iunao[ ¡¡«lici tn ííupffc» gijawn/ nuiaettreircw »wi Ho&ann Rigati) üafóafoc/ ^cejg^ean/ ©net I)ocf)íDí>I¡d)cn grtnbfcßafft !tt Cm»! ígiuiptmauu itn Utttcm SDicnfytiC/ uní) fcerSóntgíic^; fórtgíiTcíjm ©octetdc tit j£ng(etj ©olfäAtia OTori? ¡hne, finale inu Sdbua.le,&c. Sdai perui^b Vte Slouenskfi lefik lftolr.ta^hcnjnu kratkfifa-\ Jhjrntt Ifloshen, sk.ufi PRIMO» '. ^ SHA TRVBER1A í* Cra"ix.a' " bie tVinbiffi .V | <3p:a$ jftm crffcn rml perbolmcrfdjet / tmnb & • imcjfiy^cn ccrftcnbi^i ¿It-ßumetuen * , , ynb Q^olten "C I v ■ ' í ÄBthSTY f" ' PSAL- ^«N.WOEO.ci.ÉRiaE f>, Increpa feramarundinís^cotjgrcAáefoa^X^* 1-jj rorum incer vítulos, populos coí^cánf«*pfOT-V¿ Argencuin, Dilsipagcnccs qux-bellayalunu /Ir . '.■['y i< V VTIBJNG L0-. a/. 2). ixyi, ' éa -C.. "¡ .. Trubar's translations of the Psalms, 1566 (copy in Seminary Library). grafit 3 IF ft fr IPS' 1P3I&3. ?3, 2. ifelEcŠSHtalfir. a ji v 3 it 3 E Diaétó Jtaifti. a A TD ílfedis ®m¡ftTOasü3 a®» ^sgtij « nnwnrfrra m,ifi 39a Diaif/ii i^atftrti (SapsHDaiiirfiiftB & Hrn>fwE7„iPj8 . 3b3 ra®mitr s ffifliMi)i®ar3 ©nE^i DB3S3KI O0pfi!iiBimauis «snnmsmfiffoaJ mrJu^j, tiufi sou liEGDnsifireaA, emufiínnl, am uist?a« m,B>ifti,s[n, aoosAi (firftms/či BaJbisA,! , Jfä g inatfjfi ma? tforh stménu©ifitraiia. utaeroA fliftim «Asrh?!, QufKHphr s ffiriiiifiati usA, m»ift ©a niDnntfiK rs |5rfmJ ps BififnmMPa am. TPasa mrifiS^ft, nn0rfiDüa iPaoTfrfiba fEsbß ? aoorf tft jSauiii CBjrvrg/ni übt3M , «3 trwoM acdith^misrfif 1 Oiramn faifobi psi TDjnf 8 4 tros íDjfirt:rijirft{n,ía s ffapgaiiB« ffi/iiAs t S ami V « <9»Zb©tnfttDifi ftrfii e A&iftiDrtth i 8« 5 »rfi-s» HOttlB I foBtft B S£rt>b8iiJiA HCl. ßflCrfrfcirfi ^BiíbA ,r Slu ire if bi iti al a^is/ba « A page from Trubar's Glagolitic Articules, 1562. Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (1793-1875). Fragment from Gallus's Missal Super Elisabeth Zachariae - Ms 341. The Slovenian economy still depended mainly on farming and, in some parts, vineyards. In regions near the Adriatic olives were grown for oil, and in the central region, in the Ljubljana basin, there were vast wheat fields. Mining was well developed, the most profitable being at Idrija (for mercury), and in Javornik, Jesenice, Kropa, Železniki, Mislinja and Borovlje (for iron ore). The ovens and hammers used to precess the ore were po- Etching and printing works at Bogenšperk. wered by water. The smelting furnance was used for the first time on Slovenian territory in the eighteenth century. Salt was the largest item of trade and. came from territory under Venetian dominion. No Slovenians were able to establish a trade or business with the strength of a great monopoly, but there were many foreigners such as the families of the Codeli, Rigoni and Zois, who added to their wealth through property within Slovenia. MARIA THERESA AND REFORM. Following the death of Karel (Charles) VI in 1740, his eldest daughter, MARIA THERESA, became the ruler of central Europe. She soon added Galicia and Bucovina to the regions under Habsburg rule, but plans for further expansion were foiled by opposition from Bavarian, Prussian and Saxon leaders who refused to recognize her right to the throne. Maria Theresa, like her contemporaries King Frederick II of Prussia and Tsarina Katarina II of Russia, was known as an 'enlightened despot', not only because of the new ideas she welcomed and permitted to be put into practice, but also because she ruled her territory as an absolute state established on the principle that unrestricted power and authority resided in, and flowed from, the monarch. The practical effect of such political philosophy, supported by vast improvements in the efficiency of the armed forces, could not fail to attract the attention and respect of lesser rulers, and the period became famous for the rise in Europe of three great absolutist states — Austria, Prussia and Russia. Road-making in Slovenia in year 1753. Karl VI, Holy Roman Emperor, who died in 1740. Successful rulers of absolute monarchies were, above all, practical, and Maria Theresa, like her fellow despots Frederick II and Katarina II, set about imposing adequate controls on the State treasury simultaneously with the extension of sources of financial resources. The immediate results of these stringent economic measures appeared in the enlargement and improved efficiency of the army. Until this time the army had been manned by volunteers who were paid for their services to the Empire, but from 1770 Maria Theresa introduced compulsory recruitment in all regions of the territory under her control. Conscription was usually for life service, but there were many dispensations for the privileged and military duties fell most heavily on the peasants. A special 'Vojaska krajina' (military territory) was established at the south-eastern boundary of the Empire, involving the southern region of Slovenia, the territory adjacent to Croatia. Company leadership was given to Austrian officers of German origin and the German language, not the Slovenian, was to be used in the army. A uniform and national costumes were worn until they were exchanged for the imperial uniform. Maria Theresa tried to eradicate differences between separate regions and to strengthen the power of the central government. The Directorium in internis Maria Theresa, the ruler of Bohemia, Hungary and Austria (including Slovenian territories), died 1780. (Directory for internal affairs) was the highest administrative body. The governors of Crown lands were subordinate to it, but 'provincial prefects' were appointed in Koroska (Carinthia) and Kranjska (Carniola). The 'kre-sija' (Ger. Kreisamter), or district officers were appointed to supervise and implement the orders of the Crown and provincial officials, and also the work of 'zupani', priests and teachers . In addition, they supervised trade and the correct use of weights and measures, maintained Coin of Maria Theresa, 1780. order at market times and at meetings and were responsible for the maintenance of roads and the standards of merchandise. The "kresije" were to take the complaints of peasants, and act in their best interests when they complained about unjust treatment by the landlords. Kresije were stationed in Graz, Maribor, Celje, Ljubljana, Novo Mesto, Postojna, Beljak — Villach, Celovec — Klagenfurt and Velikovec. The peasant was to have the opportunity to earn a living for himself and his family on the farm but he was to pay taxes in both war and peace. This meant that the urbar, the document which included the land The Royai castle Schönbrunn near Vienna, 1750, A souvenir picture of Maria Theresa. Inscription: to the school youth in remembrance of celebrating 600 years of dependence of Kranjska to the highest ruling house of Habsburgs - from the Provincial Committee of Kranjska. Medal of Maria Theresa, 1764. register, a written statement of the legal relationship between the overlord and the possessor of the land and instructions regarding the court competency on intervention in any conflict, was no longer used. Compulsory service to overlords continued until 1778 but was for only 156 days a year — a heavy duty, but for the peasants even that number gave considerable relief. A new division of taxation provided for taxes to be paid KM/JM j dot use a ¡ram. Joseph II. son of Maria Theresa, died in 1790. Iron Baroque money chest, 18th Century. also by landlords and nobles. Between 1747 and 1748 a general register was drawn up to catalogue the possessions of both overlords and peasants, that is, the property of all classes of people. The compilation and accuracy of the inventories were supervised by specially appointed inspectors, and taxes were to be based on the information gathered. By 1819 the cadaster, the register of assessments, had been formed, and this was used as the foundation for taxation allotment. Sun-clock and compass, 18th Century. L starts fâMit cl y ¿dis cfcc te 6 i<£ Labacejnsis S.- kitobio Ardu éfiiJCOpQ ^ Mprensi Jarret. en. cktvn¡téj\itlí«" fflpl? vei Koku fe iema jemenuateX-*" tu dette. Pattinus refpondet; N. vc! N.--«cerdos N. cxfrimimr mmtnmfantis. Quid petisab Eeclcfia D EI ? vcl ;Jö,i6 kgrfirft im uan Der Á'rífxil ÖptffBiä vcl Kai felisch od tc Ccrlcuc Bosbic ? Pat.-inus rcipo.Kvj:: Fiiiem. ©eil öliUl&m / to viro. Ssccr-do*. Fides quid tibi prsííac:3 vel gi6t 6ir £>(r ©fou6m ¿ vcl Kai tebi da ra v'cra. Pjciiimi refpondc:; Vitamscternam, ve Otó flvijc ßeiim. vt! To'vezhnu SHivleine. S'acerdos Si igitur visad vitam ingredi,fer. va mandata;- DiiigesDominum DEUVltuum ex toto cordetuo, & ex tota anima fia, &ex tota mentetua j &f>roximum tuumficuttcipfum,. Otincietei ei!umei itntio jn iacicminrsius, & c: romr. Cr.-, Iciv.ei: Exi ab eo, ab ea, immunde Spiritus, &dalocumSpiritui(anélo paráclito, Kiu; p :>•;•« ti;¡at ÚL-nurr. Crtrcií in íro:¡rt & p-.-. , ' f- . _ _ I Rtiffiw ctort n:an;i!,. o>:c3Si Accipe fignum Crucis, tamin'""i« fronteiji quam in corde ¡X,., lume fidem coeleftium«"'"'' praeeptorum, &talisefto moribus, uttcmplum Dei jam tfie poílis. B 2 Ore- re* fur-K>i turn miiM. MARCI GERBEZIL PhíL &C Mcd. Do&. Labaccnfís , Inclytormn Gimió!ix Sracuum Phylici S¿ McJíd Ocdmarii , Sacri Rom. Impcrii Academia: Imperial i s Leopoldiox Nat. Curioforum Collfgx, difti AGESIL AI,& Opero-forum Lntijcciiíiiim Prxfidis,ífi¿tt 1NTENTJ, CHRONOLOGIA , MEDICO-PRACTICA, Exactam temporil m , aura? , tempeífcatum, Se humanonim corporum imk orrarum altcrationnm Dcfcripcionem cum fu» JuílornsMedicis.caufif&cuttttombus ¡lotiflimum id Modcinotum mencein adumbram) continenr, * In quinqué Anuos diftin¿h. Huir ¿nntxum tft EJUSDEM AUTORIS INTRICATUM EXTRICATUM MEDICUM, TRACTAT US DE MORBIS CO M PL ICA Ti S: Jn que Iniricatitôma quarque in Proxi Medica occurrcntia breviter pcicraflantur,& dilucidé rcfolvutiiur vel propicrca If<2u utiîiiTîmjs", Cum Indicifaa rerton & veriorum accuratijírnis, nec non Appcndicc, Dc.moderno Pccorum intcricu, «m » c & Franeofurti ad Marnttm» SuttSumribtM excutíi curavit JOHANNEÜ ADOLPHUS ©focf. Tffa JOHA\,\'IS HERÍ■ Anoj MDCCXIII. ____ Canmhrr. \lsdii-ns or,C~XR Í. Arcrmi ©enrraícit / tmt» gommenDímfeii / ínÓfllmrttKnunB&íKinrc/ fscrpeti obf'úfjrd! múffetj. 21 up Sftorea feijrtDBirf^iCmt é.d)ifí/ mit Ocl unb nníortn SBañren angclnttgrt/ imPiricfuofv leit/lc íang fluff t>cr íKafp / 6ring<» ftc níc^f^ ur¿ mít. Síucf) bife 'Poft fajnD Currf) 2¡3írnii / au|} ¿011« fliinfínppí ®rirff eíngcJcffrii / icrícf>cfmdCfii / Dftfipa-Silrcfiftí)f K«t)frrrcfo!mcrcf/rii£igjij írben/tint) Don Dnti .ftrieg nict>f Dcré ger¡rtgífkf;drciiít)íil. «oiipamm (»at man/ Sa|}Pie íidtwiot ©ikiihuv tícru&ipferl, nflt>PrcHffifcí;c Syiannfctxi/ft/jii ^nCcDrp ANNO 1707. bftf 21. Srptemb. Num, 1. SBodjeiJíh'dk ©rbmarí < ftipfacfccr < Sctfungcti/ __ ' Dütt £rfraef-©d)rcí6en fon witcrfcf)iPlidjcn £)rff)cn/ (ene! fotec&í bit f)ti»6l)iilici/t ©raffctta-uoit 2D¡cmi/'a¡s auá¡ Dte Dit>inari< aufi 3iiili(n niii8¡bror(/t / JU|omm:n flrtwgtn / un¡> p«lMtin íte Sut|ll. £«¡!>|ljDr fai)hadi / ijurcb 3o1)""" ®tcrijin ®aijt / Citut tóM-ltonOfd)«|ft ih Crain iJ5ud)acuif .JáiiDIfrn. CUM LICENTIA SUPERIORUM. SSHam/ Pen 14. September. fcSfPcnbttrgrr ^rteft gekn/ Pajj Da inferí. gclp.^ar« ¿sH fd)all©raff ©mPoeon €5fa(jren6crg/ganij tinuermii' t^Ct/mít fítKin DeraehementPonj-ooo pfc.rpf Ctl flUPfl Mr» 6cy psílírf/ au/f (in Corpo SScbcUcnlofougríirti/njelcfjíabtr gd^lfiig Pie Jlucfer gmommcit. 2luf>C)6tr 'Zíngarnf)at man/ me CíisíSabutitnfífjc Corpo femeti SSÍard) grgen Qtbtiu bíirgeu ofjnc giiiPimg einiger íptnPtrnité fortfcQctt/imb í)áu te iii(t>í !t>emgerPer©nitralT¡-ge alie Pagagc6tfl«uí6rfd3t. > Eodcm revenirte altyicr 3(>ro ffrecíl. ty. ©raff pon tíslau / iícldjf r feiiier T?i'rn:í;rni!g íuegen/ gleirí) f>rrnac^ Jet. nru "Sf ríct>r Í)rí> 5?titj|icr(. Síía/. abgefratfrt/unp ten boitt •^íiilg|nfecf)iDcpc!iratifi krtcn'Srrgleíífj rnitgrbracf). 'Sen gutluorf ttírt Íüfiftr linfcriij currentis brrittxct/ Dné 3(iro Crccll.*?». 0cnrr.il g(IO'»?arf^alI ©raff íSabuím/ mit fti> ncm C irpoanbcnicltcuíag allM voríags angerurfet/ ti»5 ír» pároli mit iingrfdí>r6ooo.Sy?.mti/|o obigtnOrtf) frfjon bi(j 1 Sy?onat[)blogu'Krtcrgff)altcii/ími](roffai/'!tKUt)rraiiff SltrnáíifVimguiiftrcr'íroiippcii mit Dcr glutfcf ftcf) lalviemi tt'ollcn/ ffi !Í;me abtr 0011 Brmfdbcu Per Pafj abgcfJ)ttittti¡/ uuD mit ¿crlurft200. Per 3^iáflI/1» Picglmtít ge(c(>Ingcn/ 3 mor The oldest examples of the German newspaper in Ljubljana, from the years 1707 and 1708, kept in Dolnicar's collection at Seminary Library. Pages from the De Werth's catalogue from year 1770, when the library was open to the public. L1BR0RUM IMPRESSORUM BIBLIOTHECA^ H.w ¿FE9C0MIJ Al» USUM n'BI.JCUM I . ru:sTi\A"r,\ \.s.st:k\'.\TX)nrM oriuA NE ALHfARETICW REATA MK'niUCHl £ CONriNATUS. Q CLARISSIMO DOCTORE lO.SKI'HO J'KA.VC'I.S'C'O NOBILl JHJJIhNO ni-: wkkth S.R.I.E. OFFICII EPISCDPA1JS NO' TARI0.ET B1BLI0THECARI0 UlAfCKJi . •« /^x-v^x r l>. Apes Academicae Opesorum — the Academy booklet of 1701 with the coats of Arms and motto of G. Dolnicar and A. Dolni-car, the Decan, kept at Seminary Library. TE N T AME M P H Y S I C U M E X ASTRONOMIA PHYSICA v v • » JLN AULA ACADEMICA ARCHIDUCALIS SOCIETATIS JESU COLLECIt LADACT A y NO M. D CC. L XX11 T. ' Sl'fR^frlICYTnW-tYW»- R. P. GREGOR, SC1IOTTL c-Scc. Jcfti ri.yf. Prof. PrtL & Ord. 3 u li~l ji u ji—ti"*-"—~ ñSiaTTTcnaíNJBONNES, CamTTolmih. ' Pirdoa D. AKT. PREVODNIG, Cara. Mofeta. Pcrjloa. D. THOM. SEDEY, Civ. Crm. taline. Pcrdoa D. JOS. VKRWEGA, Auflr. Viran. rMUf»pt>i» (K m d» A »sns« AsJitvlrl. cet» «M L A D A C I, Tvpis JOANNIS FRIDEIMCI KGKR, lj»'yt- Provinc; Cue. Tj-pojnpü -š X Example of the Discution Thesis of Prof. Jurij Schottl about the astronomical physics, 1773, the proof of the establishment of the Philosophical Faculty in Ljubljana. Catholish Kershanskiga Vuka PEISSME, Kiltrc ft Per Kershánskimo vukos Boshyh potyh, per fvétimu Milfiónu ; I?iu slaßiperfuétirno Na Stjashe Gómiga Gradu parc j« " nuznu poyo. jKír k 'vfaki dan Ja vfáíiga Re-, mirit Popólnomt oJpaßit enkret-,., t>' Um. t . q@Bl Pogmerane inu na fvitlótóSíílHS , V NemsbAim Grad&u Per Widmanftadianskih Erbizhah. Anno 1729. ■WEC 84 Ta ßyrnaißa Peijfem. . iÚsdihvanie eniga greshni-kapruti Divizi Marie. i4** -LJ -»•■rfc-- Ma-ria poliu gnatk » -1—JS2—__ - IpAz: :Z3 JJ Maü vcihnc mi-Io - fti ílíililliÜp Po.'- glej koku grelnikpa-dc pjÉpIll ! tl fcttrcnu ihj-li - tli Ah üJ- ^ Ah^ zics me,ii-'»i-|i f* iü •3 ■?M»-ti Bo-shia Vïo® ü mí- O Maria polna gnade - • Mati vezhne mílofti: > ■ ■> Poglei koku greshnik padc. 'f Vie reve nu shálofti. ■ - i-:'-' Ah zhes me, vfmili fe Mati Boshia proffi ía me! j 2. Jcft vbogi greshnik fe iokam Tvoie gnade potrében, . Ufemi me gor ktvoim otrókam Akulih nifem ureden. F 3 Ah Song book by Sterzinar, 1729, kept at Seminary Library. cS'caqlic dtc?.cA\ Ui kMmmM® •,i,i""" iltiW Vi" ■ 1 ^ V .Li».IM.-t^JVt-n^ii^T ^¡Mm^,. • > jgaasfea if?"?^"' J^^'^xaxapedariim' ffanjfienslvinO . 1 • ' I'----------iiij h—:; i '' t.„t, 7-r- Detaila of a big lithographical map of Slovenia by Father Flor-jancic of Sticna, 1744, kept at Seminary Library. JOSEPH II followed Maria Theresa as the next Habsburg ruler and continued to implement some of her reforms, although his policy of centralized Germa-nization met with considerable resistance in Hungary and Belgium. The Church was disturbed by his liberal attitude towards religion. Although Joseph greatly preferred Catholicism, he permitted the Jewish, Lutheran and Calvinist communities to worship in their own churches. In the year 1781-1782 the abolition of serfdom, which allowed the peasants to change landlords and to marry without the prior permission of a landlord, followed other reforms. The children of peasants were allowed to choose their own profession, go to high schools and on to further studies. At the same time, new orders for publishing meant that all books used for studying had to be passed by the censor at Vienna. The provincial rulership was able to give permission for the publishing of prayer books and newspapers and some new libraries were established as well as theatres, readingrooms, scientific societies and concert theatres. Schools were developed and newspapers and printers encouraged. Unpopularity of the feudal lords and clergy forced Joseph II to retract some of these reforms but the majority remainded. His reforms, however, achieved an end very different to that which he wished. As scholarship developed in places outside Germany, other peoples recognized the cultural worth of their own nations. Problems also arose because the middle class wanted back its freedom, which the peasants opposed, and the church wanted the right to build new monasteries, but the Emperor kept a close watch over the clergy and its property. I L TAMERLANO Tragedia ptr Mujic.i DA RAPPRESE NTARSI ÍN LUBiANA Ncl Palanodel Vice Dominato l'Anno 17$:. Dedícalo a Sun EcctHrn\a il Si*' FRANCESCO ANTONIO SIGIFRIDO DEL SACRO ROMANO IMPERIO, CONTE DELLA TORRE, £ VALSASSINA, Libero Baronc di Crocc , Sígnore di Plaiburg , EÍattmanftoríf, Anchen, c Plonchcníbin, Mag-giordomo rmggiore Ercditario ncl Ducaco di Carniola, e delli Marca di Slavoiiia , Marclcial-lo Maggiore Ercditarjo neüa Comea di Goriaia , Camericre, e Conííglicre Intimo di Sua Macfti Ctfarca, e Cattolica, c fuo Vicc-Ooino ncl cacq di Carniola ce. INVENEZIA. MDCCXXXII* Predb Girolamo iavioni. COK L1CSN 2.A DE' ¡Vl'ERlQRl- \¡islr>vini •lr¡ui Mliri'lii /.i ii|M-m 1.«111^r1.1H■' EUR1S TEO DRAMMA PER MUSICA Da rapprefentaríi in LUBIANA del Da-cato di Carniola. Nel Carnevale del!'— Anno 1733. IN VE N E Z I A Fer Garlo Buonarrigo Con Licenzade'Sup, !.(«!»!jiiii^-l»¡« ¡¿vrcUni "»peri- J'tiri-H-i» ^^ / DIDON E ABBANDONATA, DRAMA PER MUSICA, DA RAPPRESENT/iRSl NELLA SALA DEL PALAZZO PROVINCIALE IN LUBIANA, DEDICATO ALL ECCELSA PROVINClA DEL DUCATO DI CRAGNO. NEL CARNEVALE 1742. Lubiina, nclf* Siamparu rfi Atfamo Federico Rctchirdc. ! ihri'i'» /-» Ijiil»! j;in*Kn i/%i-tlhn ■»pi-rt« Diiluin- .ilili.iiuUm.iM Samples of opera librettos for the performances in Ljubljana, part of Jos. Thalmeiner's Collection, 1732, 1733, 1742. í)i'í)j,l)\'.S ]]. , s iíaVi.OlBKR.VrOK m, ,. LEOPOLD II, who followed Joseph II, was a great traveller, so the newspaper of Ljubljana The Laibacher Zeitung described the celebrations at the time of his visit to that town. He was succeeded by FRANZ I (1792-1835), a reactionary ruler who forbade everything in any way connected with progress. He even forbade the books which had been allowed at the time of Maria Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, painted by J. Kreutzinger. The Emperor visited Ljubljana and the contemporary newspapers described the ceremony at the time of the Royal visit. Theresa (Shakespeare, Voltaire, Kant, Lessing, Goethe, Schiller), and he withdrew many reforms. The church was once more placed in charge of schools, and church officials decided which students might continue with their education. Social development had taken a step backwards, but there was no time to correct it before news arrived of the outbreak of a revolution in France. VIII MORE WARS It was not only within the Austrian Empire that the winds of change brought improved conditions for workers in both town and country. During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries England and most of continental Europe were swept by a demand for more efficient methods of farming, better systems of transport and improvement in manufacturing industries. Progress frequently came in the form of machines which performed work normally done manually. It was discovered that steam could drive engines to do much of the work in spinning and textile mills and, later, a 'steam engine' was invented that eventually revolutionized transport and with it, trade. The growth of industry led to the development of a capitalistic economy and a working class that began to leave rural occupations in search of better paid and less arduous work in the towns. The gradual drift towards mechanization was later described as the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU started to write Du Contract Social in 1762. In it he stated: '... people are the only bearer of authority, power and the creators of the statutes ... equality is equality before the law ...' The existing situation in France in no way conformed to the philosophy of the Social Contract. King Louis XV, with the assistance, and to the advantage of, the nobles and high church officials, ruled the country without the advice of parliament or people. The Court became increasingly demoralized and was despised and hated by the mass of the population. In May, 1789, the king was eventually forced to call a meeting of the Etats Generaux, the 'national parliament' consisting of the nobles, clergy and 'third estate' which represented 90% of the French nation. It was many years since the Estates General had been permitted to meet (or to govern the country). But the King delayed too long. The people of Paris were desperate, and weary of the venality and corruption of the upper classes. A blood-thirsty revolt broke out in the streets of Paris and quickly spread to other towns throughout the country. Events moved quickly; the King was beheaded the next year and France, governed by a new bourgeois parliament, was proclaimed a republic. From the maelstrom of revolutionary ideals and bloodshed arose a new, and disciplined, French army that was based on compulsory military service for all male citizens. Led by a captain of artillery named Napoleon Bonaparte, it soon displayed its efficiency by defeating the English at Toulon in 1793. Thus commenced the Napoleonic era, almost a decade of dictatorship based on military success. As a result of the fears engendered in absolutist powers by Title page of the newspaper Lublanske Novize - News of Ljubljana, 1797. ——= i s V ? i J- •i l. ' ! V < • I '■■!>■■ i . I : u ) A ..'¿,.3 :..:;.-•: Napoleon, a sketch drawing by David, showing Napoleon's self-coronation, with the Pope sitting in the background. ------• -/- — - ■■Yiiiicrir ('ral? bt-tonnt/ bei S&ttl ÄrMijiin, uni iibrt■ ^auf t oQt tut Sänbit tsclijji Uni auf cm tt$ttn Ufer btr Sou jujcfjQni fsi, Dalsiajitn unb ftinc Gnftln nit t)(r ¡Btmnnunj: 3liirjftft« ?tt" pinjtn, brjtiiJ.itt trttitn. 3n tnfttm {aifcrlitficn Säger ¿u e^fnlsrun Kn i i tili JOilpbrr >809. Blifhki Kralii», I&A^fta shčlj, rftrjjnu Iftm, (Iran« uiti Terfl, Primorjt, a dql Hro vifhkija inu vTa sna!» asm p«r-pufhena da rtrfnin kraju Sira, D»lmi2i» inu nji otdlri bodo asa-prej jmrovine UirCke Dobila, V' oafhinm fhotor» Vere-deoz 14. dan Kosaperfka 1809, li.Hrtjtl^tu! : S? a p o 11 o n. Podpiftn: Napoleon. Proclamation of Provinces Illyriennes, 14th October 1709 at Schonbrunn, Vienna, in German and Slovenian languages, kept at the Archives of the National Museum, Ljubljana. General Bernardotte, painting by Kinson. 9i ap o leon &atfcr fctr granjcffti, Jfiiij con Oto'Kn, Stftfciijtt txi OTfjiinif^t!) ©tin&fl. EScr btfofjlm, unb kfttyra. NAPOLEON Zefar Franzosov, Krai Italie, varih rajnfke svese. Smo rkleoili inn IWenetoo oJfo: DIVISIONS - GENERAL BERNA-DOTTE, NA KRAINZE INU DESHELAKE BLISHNEH DESHEL. De Franzosi naprej gredo, ni namejneno, ne na vafhe pershone , ne na vafhe premoshenje : Oni vofhyo, oni ozluo de bi vi v'miru, inu bres flraha dobizhke vafhiga dfla, inu vafbih trndov vshivati mogli. Leto je povejle vikfkiga generala Bonaparte, kalfri je meni naro/liH-, njegovo volo v'letjm dopolniti. To hudo sadersiarye, inu flrafboo potrenje, katere [te vi od zefarfkih foldatov v'qjih nasaj - potfgoenii prefbli, fo naf vam Aorebit sh? sa naprej perfludili mogle; poveriiite fe nas^j od tega vafhiga perviga trepeta; jefl inu ti drugi Ge-natali, Poglavarji, inu Oifairji, kateri pod mojim napel u-vanju , ifiu povelju ftojf, vam ponudijo brambo, inu mozh zhes vfe forte hudiga i* vami okrog - hojenija. Ne bojte fc, de bi pofhtenju vafhih fh?n kaj fturiii, al vafhi vfri kaj supemiga delali ; mi zhallimo dobro sa-derthanje, inu navade vfih ludi, slaili pak vafbe. Nafbi foldatje bodo ojilro v' fvoji doishnofti dersha-ni, de nebodo finali vam nizh kriviga (¡uriti, inu vlaki foldat bo per ti prizhi s' mertjo pofbtrafan, kaifri fe v' vafbe prebivalifha s'filo vrine, inu na tako viiiio ropanja dolsban Buri. Mi nitmo obdivjanim premagavzam enaki, nafho sa-dershanje inu perludnoll vaf bo moglo previshati, de mi zhes nadloge,-katjrc vojfka s'feboj peraefse, sdihujemo ; mi jih bomo loslyi flurfli; pridite, inu ne sapuflite vafhe ogoiCha. BERKADOTTE. The proclamation of General Bernardotte, stating that life for the Slovenians under the French occupation will be safe, because the French will respect the customs and the religion of the settlers; dated 29 March 1797 at Logatec, original at Museum at Ljubljana. Marshal Junot, the third Governor of Provinces Illyriennes, painting by Raverat. KERSHANSKI NAVUK > & ILLIRSKE DESHELE vest is Katchisma sa vfe zerkve Franzoskiga Zesarftva. niti, kakor je treba, de bo ta fklep do. polnjen. Ttetji ihltn. Ta fklep bo natifnen, ino fpredsj poftavlen v" dednih bukvah kernianfkiga navnka, ino djan med »apiC vfih poflav. Zheterti ihlen.Nafh Mini»ter»nihe fleiije Bo«bje je dolihen ispolniti ta fklep Napoleon. Na Zefarjovo povelje Zefarfki fkrivni Pifar- H u g. B. Marct »a podoben prepif Sdiniflec ihefhenja Bofhjiga. Portalii. Sgödbe fvete na kratkim. 1. Bog flvari fvct ino ihlovika. B„ ■Se najde per H. W. Kom Bukvspiodajavzo. > S I I. ■ing vezlini ino vfiga mogoiftni, Bog fam v' treh 1'erflionah, Oiha, Sin ino fveu Duh je Iharil vleto, karjetvuuaj njega, kar vidimo in» ne vidimo. tm> djanje njegove volje je Hv.uiiii vi« bitja duhovne ino telel-ne is ut7.h. Pu ltvarj.:iiju Angelov je hotel tu.ii l'vec narediti v' 1'heit dneh, to je: Svitlubo, iiJhi, svcsdc, «enilo, morje, »d liflia, ihivali, ino flielli drtn moiha ino" sheno, de bi ta dva thivelH freihna ino uevinecjnzna, ako bi bla oltala njemu fvt-flt ino nedoUliud. I I. Adam iuo Eva grtfhita. Bog oblabi Odrelhenika. Bog da moshu im<< Adam ino iheni E v a; ta je pervi sakon, ii ktirga po Boib-ji volji vel'lhlovefhki rod iivira. Poftivi oba v' en. vefelja polni vort, J po iminu The title page and pages from Vodnik's Catechism for the Illy-rian regions of the French Empire, 1811. Auguste Frederic Marmont, Duke of Dubrovnik, the first Governor of Provinces Illyriennes, painting by Pauiin Guerin, Musee Du Versailles. Slovenian territory. The commanding officer, Massen, came to Ljubljana and did not keep the previous promise; he expected the people to pay taxes as well as provide food for the army. After the victory over the Austrians and Russians in Moravia, Napoleon became the ruler of Dalmatia, which was united with the Italian Kingdom. Many Slovenian towns began to prepare for war with the French. Emperor Franz II himself tried to gain Governor Henri Gratien Bertrand, painting by Delaroche. the trust of the Slovenian nation by promoting Slovenian folk literature and songs — marching songs were written for the men being trained for the Austrian army. These traineess were called 'Brambovci', but they were disorganized and had insufficient weapons to put up any resistance against the French when they returned to Slovenian territory. Napoleon reoccupied the country and burned and pillaged homes. 16. Provinces Illyrennes with the capital at Ljubljana Napoleon established and organized the Provinces Illyriennes on the 14th October 1809, his object being that the Provinces would prevent Austria and other central European countries from reaching the Adriatic Sea. The Provinces were controlled directly by the French Ministry or State Department, and were under the authority of the Highest War Office (Court) and in close communication with France. They were divided into six civil provinces and a seventh (see map 16, p-97) was the military province. The capital was Ljubljana where the Governor-General, General Commissary for Finance and General Administration of Justice were stationed. The Commissaries were in charge of individual provinces. The French brought the Slovenians equality before the law and built many roads in order to improve trade routes with Constantinople. Most important for the Slovenians, the French re-established Slovenian schools which had been unsuccessfully introduced under Maria Theresa. The Slovenian language was used in primary schools and the lower forms of High schools, but there were not many teachers able to teach in Slovenian. A well known Slovenian poet, priest, VALENTIN VODNIK, wrote many Slovenian books for use in the schools. The French administration lasted for four years and then the Slovenian language once again gave way to the German. Marshal Marmont (1774-1852), the personal friend of Napoleon, lived in Ljubljana; he had settled the military affairs and abolished the special rights of tradesmen A pistol of a horse-soldier, 18th Century. «¿Jïfi^t» S v'—i Dragoon at the time of Austrian-French wars. Austrian foot-soldiers. © t (IMfti'I be; © t a t> i f c^ e n i a Ärain/ Ädrntea unb (Stepermarfc UiU^f lep Wilhelm ÄPtn, i I o The title page of the Grammatic der Slawischen Sprache — The Grammar of Slovenian Language by Jernej Kopitar, 1808, at Seminary Library. "5594 v «i • A-R TIK E L N I - ^ Ti ga ta 9. dan fedijniga mpfza V" Luneville fldeneniga, iatfsa pO» . terjenje podpliaasga m¡¿k-: j ——-- . \HUSE15£/ •JOjel» -VeWWftW žeftr, !im trajl- ttS XN Ogcrfkitif^ inuPomffcim ,inn ta Vik«, fhi Uonsol FrsnzBflciEa SvojobodRVa V* ji. meni Frinzoski^a naroda tkusi obodvojn« ibelo, ti nadlogi (c vojike en konzilurftij fta fe saltopfl» k' ITclenejtl enijji ttrdniga Difrti inn prijasnofli rolif podati: > •"--Njch sgorej rezlieno Zefarfko-krallevo Vclizhathro , kir ravno takti sfceli, de Njm-». fku zcfcrfcvo dobrote tipa m;ru Jdfihncf: . bilo^ini:, kir,- kokef .io idej. »C2hiv «i' . toliko zhafa , kofccr poTr^ba , zefarflvtt ss: fvei par.iitatr. inrt" njeja pdfhinit, V, po-gsvoru pe"rvsfti , sraven pik lil leto gle-i "dati, kar je shp na ra?rnim ibfraliflii V • - . Kaftadi od zcfarftvija poflanftia pt?voleflo<. fo fklenili tudii v'jimcni Nemfkiga zefarfl.-: va mer fturili. Si-*«» - Tedej fta oba m?r delovna talji sa fvoi-: ga polnit-povlaftnika. poftavfla, natrmzh:» Njeh -/efarfko ftajlevo'Velizheftvo: Gof- ' "" pod L«dowika fvetiRa tliiVifkiga zefaiftva-Grofa Kobenzelna, kojniks tlate bvzMne velki kriiVianika krijleviga OrdiiS S. Ste'-, piana, inu S. joanesa v'jeruialerti ^ Kiifis - MljH ind fkrivnigi Svctvavia, iffil igoifej lezntnigi: žtfarfkiga- fcrajfe^Ki Veliihcftj« Konfcrtnfc Mniniflra>.in\) dvoiliiga .pifiu-. Sftinif;» Viže - Kamlcija. Inu: ta .'VtklTu lionjiil HrahibsViga.natoda', iufUtianaV jite," plia Bonapatf fianltnigi.Svetvavis,: Into Slovenian language translated Peace Treaty of Napoleon and Emperor Joseph II, dated 9th February at Luneville. This unique document is kept at Museum Library of National Museum, Ljubljana. The Order of the Honourable Legion, established in 1802, with which Governor Marmont honoured the Bishop Kavčič of Ljubljana for spreading 'free thoughts' among the Slovenians and The last Governor of Provinces Ulyriennes, J. Fouche, former for calming down the Christians of Dolenjska. police minister in Paris, painting by Dubufe. From the History Atlas, by dr. J. Lucic and dr. Z Dugacky. Zagreb. 1977 Napoleon's Empire Kingdom of . Sweden f" Kingdormof Denmark Empire of Russia VIENNA ,LJU BLJ AN A 51 MADRID CONSTANTINOPLE Kingdom of Spain Mediterranean Sea IIIIII Territory depended upon Napoleon j j Austrian Empire 17.Europe at the height of Napoleon's succession and after the Holy Alliance. and merchants in an effort to develop 'home industry'. During this period Napoleon divorced Josephine and married the oldest daughter of the Austrian Emperor Franz II, who gave him his long-awaited son. When news of the birth of the 'King of Rome' (as Napoleon called him) reached Ljubljana, shots were fired at the castle and bells were rung at churches. Marshal Marmont was succeeded by Henri Gratien Bertrand (1773-1844) in in 1811; he later accompanied Napoleon to his exile in St. Helena. Bertrand was followed in the Provinces Illyriennes by a relative of Napoleon named Andoche Junot (1771-1813), who died early and was succeeded by former Police Minister in Paris, Joseph Fouche (17581820). Fouche was governor for a very short time and after the battle at Waterloo gained a senior position in the temporary government. Following the defeat of Napoleon, the Austrian army took over the Provinces Illyriennes (1813), and after the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) they once more came under Austrian rule. The old feudal rights were resumed and few French reforms were retained (see map 17, p. 99). With France finally vanquished, the victors met in Vienna to reorganize Europe. The feudal-absolutist forms of government were re-established and the middle classes were pushed aside. Fear of the consequences of the French revolution and of the ideas it fostered led to the rulers of Russia, Prussia and Austria establishing the 'Holy Alliance', an alliance which, with the notable exceptions of England, the Ottoman Empire and the Pope, was later joined by many other countries and allies. The main object of the Holy Alliance was to maintain absolutism on the grounds of Christian principles. In the words of the Constitution of the Alliance, 'these three rulers will stay united ... they are as fathers to the bondsmen and the armies, they will lead them in the spirit of brotherly love, which they themselves are possessed with, to protect their religion, peace and justice ...' The Provinces Illyriennes became the 'Kingdom of Illyria', and although part of the southern region was soon detached and united with Croatia-Hungaria (1822), the regions of Koroška (Carinthia), Kranjska (Camiola), Gorica-Region, Trieste and Istria were known by the name 'Austrian-Illyrian Littoral' until after the first World War (1914-1918). IX. THE HUNGER FOR KNOWLEDGE Towards the end of the eighteenth century a small group of Slovenian intellectuals and priests decided to work towards improvement of the Slovenian language and the establishment of a secular literature. For the first time in Slovenian history poetry and drama was written that did not have a religious content. The Augustinian monk, MARKO POHLIN, was one of the earliest of these writers. His Kraynska Gram-matika, (Gramma — written in German) and published in 1768, used the Slovenian language. He told Slovenians not to be ashamed of their language because it was the 'language of peasants' and, in an attempt to awaken interest in Slovenian poems, his book contained instructions for writing poetry. In 1792 Pohlin published a small dictionary in three languages and a 'Glossarium slavicum'. For the most simple readers he wrote (1778) a booklet called Kratkočasile uganke inu čudne kunste iz bele šole Petra Kumrasa (Riddles), which not only contained riddles but also instructions for health, games and first aid for simple sicknesses. A few years earlier, in 1789, Pohlin had published a book for peasants and fanners, encouraging them to live and work according to the philosophy of the Physiocrats, a popular school of political economists who regarded land as the basis of wealth and taxation and advocated free trade. He also hoped to write a history of Slovenian literature so that foreigners could learn something of the work of Slovenians. As part of his plan he published, eleven years after the Gramma, a collection of poems entitled Skupspravljanje Kraynskih pissaniz od Lepeh Umetnost. The bright poems he selected were printed in the form of an almanac, in the same way that poetry of Germany and France was presented. Among poets whose work was included in the Almanac Pisanize were Janez (John) Damascen Dev, Mihelič (Janez), Martin Maglič and Valentin Vodnik. An important writer, OŽBALT GUSTMAN, lived in Koroška (Carinthia). He was well known for his Gramma, Windische Schprachlehre, written in German, wherein he states that Slovenians have many relatives between the North Sea and the Adriatic, and that the Slovenian language is beautiful, even when it is spoken 3J.O v /V F1ATIIÄ LEITO!^ I %M Nova Pratika, 1814. only among the lower classes. Gustman's German-Slavonic Dictionary was in use for a very long time. Another well known Slovenian was BLAZ KU- MERDEJ, who became the director of the newly established elementary school. He studied the Slav language and wished to revive the Academy of the Working Peop-ple. In 1779 he established a Kumerdejeva jezikoslovna akademija (private academy of linguists). Kumerdej later became the librarian of Baron Sigismund Zois. Jansenists made a great contribution to Slovenian literature by producing prayer books, song booklets, a new catechism and a new translation of the Bible. Leading members of the sect were JURIJ JAPELJ, DR JAKOB ŽUPAN and MATEVŽ RAVNIKAR. Jurij Ja-pelj knew Italian, French and English and, together with Blaž Kumerdej, published a new translation of the Bible P o z h é t k i GRAMATIKE 1o je Pifmenofti Fràn. zoske GOSPODA mOMOKDA Isflusljenign vuzlienika per cilokih fjiolah V* P A R I S L'. 34 SA LATINSKE FRANZOSKE SHOLE V ILLIRII. P re ft a v i i Vodnik. y L U B L A N I, ptr Janesu Retzerju Nalifkaviu, i 8 » J. Deleshja. Rtidjno, Étant, bio zb. Prcit-lo/ ayant été, biv_/ii. tribodna, Devant être majoib biti, ali boàizb. PERVA VPREGA, s cr Snanivi n a k 16 n. S d a j n i s b a f. J'aime, Mbit» Tu aimes, lubifb J1 aime, iiibi. Nous aimons, iûbimo Vous aimez, Jùbnc. J is aiment, lubio. N eiav erfb en. J' aimois, fin j Tu aimois, fi ¡> Mil, a, o; JE aimoit, je ) Nous aimions, ¡ma ) Vous aimiez, fie > iubili, t, t. Ils airnoient, fa J fret ekli Joinib», J'aimai, fim, ) Tu aimas, fi (lubil/ ar ot J1 aima, je ) fcous nim;i Vous aimâtes, Jls aimèrent, l*t„ ) fi' > t» ) 35 Pretekli «iioionzban, J'ai aimé, Tu as ainié, Il a aimé fi m ) S- \ i Nous avons aimé, fwo ) Vous avez aiiuéj ¡te S lis ont aimé, fa ) ptefekll prijfltnî, , o i J'eus aimé , fjn Tu eus aimé, 'fi ][ eut aimé , > je Nous eûmes a'wi, J~,no ) Vous e.'ites aimé, j(c f luLili, t ! Ils eurent aimé, fo ) Franznski jesik ¡ma ei zbtlcrti prctelli xbaf, atir^u le pa matokr.li poflustno, ta je : J'ai eu aimé, ta Te ne d.i dmgazlii pretolma. Chili, kakor ufco: kader fim'en-jol lubiti, ali lodor fim doUûd Tu as eu aimé, i«Jor fi dotal il. Il a eu aime., kajor je dolubit Nous avons eu aimé, Vous avez eu .mué, lia ont eu aimé , kadar fina doIvbili kn.inr ¡le ilaiubili kadar fa dolubiti, between 1784 and 1786. Japelj was among the first to use the name 'Slovenians' in his works. Although the Working People's Academy did not survive very long, it had an important influence in the establishment of the Society of Žiga Zois (Sigismund Zois) and the Society for Agriculture and the Advantageous Arts, of which the Breton, BALTAŽAR HACQUET, was the secretary. Hacquet was interested in botany, mineralogy and geology, and travelled widely throughout Slovenia observing the people and nature. He was a doctor and became a lecturer in surgery, anatomy and obstetrics, and established the Anatomy Museum. Hacquet published 32 works in Latin, German, French and Italian; They were dissertations on medicine, veterinary science, geology, mineralogy, botany, chemistry, metallurgy, economics and ethnography. In his work 'Orycto-graph-is carniolica' I - IV, 1778-1789, he describes the land of the Slovenians and their language. This work, written after he had left Slovenia, describes the customs of the Slovenians and also of the other Slavs, and it' stated that Slav languages should be recognized as official languages because the Slavs represented one-third of the population of the Austrian Empire. The Society of BARON ŽIGA ZOIS EDELSTEIN (Sigismund) was created and inspired by the Baron, a man of considerable wealth and influence. Through his work as a banker he found favour with the Empress, who created him a baron by virtue of his economic assistance to the Empire. His step-mother was a Slovenian, and the Baron spoke six languages in addition to many Slav languages and Old Slavonic. He corresponded with international scientists and accumulated a valuable library of both ancient and current literary writings. One of his ambitions was to systematise the structure of the Slovenian language by gathering information on vocabulary, syntax and grammar from all Slav group nations so The title page and two pages from Vodnik's. Posnetki Gramatike to je Pismenosti Franzoske — Beginners French, Gramma, 1811, at Seminary Library. VELIKA A L I SA TU LE]TU A L î M. DCC, XC. V. Sriffc» per Jm. Fridr. Egerju, Je najJe par Wilhcl. Ileinribu Kornu. Velika Pratika (type of illustrated Calendar) 1795. that the material assembled could be used eventually as the foundation of a new, more comprehensive, Slovenian grammar and dictionary. Members of his Society, among whom were Japelj, Kumerdej, Anton Tomaž—Linhart and Valentin Vodnik had access to his fine library. The school commissar, ANTON TOMAŽ-LIN-HART, was a well known playwright as well as a poet and historian. His comedies such as Zupanova Micka (Mayor's Mary), written in 1778, and Ta veseli dan ali Matiček se ženi (This happy day or The Maticek's Wedding), after Beaumarchais' The Wedding of Figaro, depicted the craftiness of simple people and made fun of the nobles. They were not allowed to be performed until the year 1848. He also wrote a tragedy which was never produced, and a selection of poems, Blumen aus Krain (Flowers from Carniola). Linhart's most important work is a history of Kranjska written in German, Versuch einer Geschichte von Krain und der übrigen Südlichen Slaven Osterreich. It was published in two parts between 1789 and 1791. Another distinquished member of the Society of Žiga Zois was the priest (former Franciscan) VALENTIN VODNIK. Vodnik, a writer of both poetry and prose, was director of the Gimnazium or High school in Ljubljana and a school inspector during the time of Napoleon. When the Austrians returned he was punished for his Napoleonic enthusiasm. As a poet Vodnik represents Slovenians with Pesmi za pokušino (Trial Poems), and as a writer he is known through his entertaining and educational calendars, Velika pratika and Mala pratika (The Big Calendar and The Small Calendar). He was editor of the newspaper Lublanske Novice (News of Ljubljana), in which he explained the origin of the Slovenian language and also wrote some school books and collected over 30,000 words for a dictionary that was never published. Parallel with Lublanske Novice Kranjska Pratika, 1797. žc&rflcbflu&c 6l0tDenifc()cn6prö£i)e i m S o ni $ r c i d) c S i i t; r i e n uni> in Den benachbarte« ^comnjcn. &tm if^rgc6aitbc fctr Scfmt. ©pratfce bei i>tn. AliLc ^pbipivffp. 106 ^ifeung iti ^ciireKliS. 107 93 c n $ r o n j <3 c r o p Si? c t c 1 f o, f. f. ^rmffor tir Q loa-tn i feiert ^(ilologit am Cgcnim ;n , £>omiatfq ©{(Vtlföjfi iri foain. ?oi bftifr , i62 5. 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(vi, S|tivj«l t i'jb l«F 1 d ii i iu blttril. e. ii.tji, m|iil, iuj«i. nj]ui?iiiiX.t^l^bti iii'ljinfn. t. jajincm, 3;iH'i 3i,llit » » M)0il'ni. f. .......tu, oul, uut, <>uu, rrdrit. t)iatl> £*lina1tn aud; »jmcin, diiÄnrfjmnt. I.nr. 6, 4'. P. vjinittm, vjkl, \j. i tifljntrii. ^ MMincin, muI , suit t siki?, hrr«ibiirhnirn. f, Jilirnl , vwj.il, \*r\i\% \rrjwl?, glitibfii iul yrp> f jnen Ämitr, £ ft .m» uit» jet^ ¿ufjuiiiuii^f|'r(}[. c. ^rafrits *tr. ^ui'i'iur» f&Ittufoort -n. f, dim, (Lil, ihn, «tat? , nrbrri. 3nitn> 3n "iI , 31MU» 31131?, fruntil, nj rlj.Mn se, 11 jiljal, lu.ljiii, iiad|4t?)C, fiilj Ufrtrčflftt. jtujiin, »Inf, Mjn-je, st.il?, Orijrii. bojim », ImI» — Lau sc, fur^iun. Sic jred) Irgirii gt^&rfn iitt ^rnfrrts ¿ur briftcii Scntt / »nb nsiljji? sc t|l i!u4 njilc|jt«f so (5. ¿orni) cciurj^ut t «itb titfjrc 0B)'(lft((IV. 2>ir fc(>i\.ir? fvu^flt. '¿ni Urbrr.vt">i ¿ur jicrnun jt>riu 111 j.licit : r. tUnrin, »Ijj «1 » [hitu, aufirr ^lairii? tiui4ii.-.n, si.it?, itcijfit, tojlf»: ni>- i.-*k«i simr, f? i omilit mir |\l)w ig 19 Grudna. there was at the time of the French occupation also an official paper, Telegraphe Officiel, the editor of which was CHARLES NODIER, a librarian at the Grammar School (Lyceum). Dr. J. Mai has found the following in Nodier's description of the land of the Slovenians: 'This was the nation of no murderers, without robbers, without bad people, you could - as the Venetian proverb says — travel through the six provinces with money on your palm. This was the nation which was to be taught to use the lock and the bolt, but the nation, which, with unshakeable fearlessness, refused the guillotine; in general, the best collection of good people, that God put on Earth; among them I would wish to die ... 5 Charles Nodier lived among the Slovenians, the Illyrs, for a short time and remembered their peaceloving aid devout ways (Mes chers Illyriens de la bonne, paisible et pieuse Carniole) (42). But his beautiful words apparently did not greatly move the Slovenians, because after the fall of Napoleon there was a great celebration on the river Ljubljanica. Baron Latterman and his wife were present, and the crowd decorated a portrait of the Emperor with flags and flowers. The development of Slovenian art encountered the same economic and social problems as literature. Art reached the stage of baroque, with roccoco and classicism also being accepted, and the best known artists were FORTUNAT BERGANT and ČEBEJ. In architecture the roccoco is represented in some church buildings. The best representatives of the classic period among Slovenian artists are JANEZ POTOČNIK, and three painters who found a fruitful territory for their creavity in Vienna: LOVRENC JANŠA, FRANC KAVČIČ and LEOPOLD LAYER. Tfdnu ali Jauuar. ni Luni Sonzu inu Dtifvu, P?ttk Sabb. inu novisfa Icjta dan. Mnkar, Pufbavnik Gcnovefa, Diviza I V?tr Sn?g Poned. Srr-h /.•■ serf. Pfiit Sabb. Titus, Sltkof Tel es tor, Papes!], M. inu Sv?ti Kraili. Valentin Sli kot* Severin Opit. , Julian . Martern. 10!Pavi, Piifisavii. mras megla mras Poned. Turk Srcla Zíierer. Pftík ínbb. nI Misiii. Pap. M. Isis ti Krneli Sbkof 13! Hilar Sbkof UiT'-iix Nohiifk.Mafb, 15 Maurus Op» t6¡Mavz<íll, Pip. M. fc& n'Antnn, P'ifli if mras vftr meifa Poned. Turk Sreda Zlieter. Penk Sabb. 18I I i. Pet.Sfdesh v'Rim. ig'Kanut, Kraji M. 20 Fab. inu lioshfian M 21 Neslia Div. Mart. Vinzenz, i. A nad M S3 Poroka Div. Marie 34 Timotheus Slikof ¡¡3! lepu iSj^Mtob IU, k«^ sjutra; in?? Poned. Tork Sr?Ja Ziieter. Pftik Sabb. 151 Preoh. S. Pavla I Hi 26 Pnlikarp, Slikof M. Ufl 27'Jan. Krisoßiitn, Slik. ä^ 2$ I Karl ta Velki. idS 29,Franz Sales, Shk, [5?$ :¡oj Adelgunda D. 3) Pftr Nnlnfbk. I?« I 1.'-. Difg Icpu ob IC ¡yU.sefZ Ii. v;tr IÍ1Í3 ntras I m j ra. 53 0 C, j» p Š- s 7 — 9 S — 10 t) — ti 9 t u 10 I u ti I 12 — i .'T H — l(> 14 — »7 iS t r, _ U, — <9 16 : 20 '7 i 21 iS i 22 — 23 .0 — 24 21 — 22 — 26 — 2? i -8 -4 i 29 =.T ! So 26 — 27 — 32 28 — 33 29 — 34 3' — 3> "0 1 3'1 3t I 37 32 I 38 33 — 39 24 — 40 35 ssg Pa^e from Velika Pratika by V. Vodnik, 1795. In the middle of the eighteenth century 'folk' painting was very popular and was used to decorate furniture, glassware and beehives. In music, representatives of the baroque period-were JAKOB FRANČIŠEK ŽUPAN and JANEZ NOVAK. After the closure of the Academiae Philoharmoni-corum Ljubljana there was no one to organize and encourage the composers. INDUSTRY IN 19TH CENTURY SLOVENIA The development of industry in the countries of the Austrian Empire was far behind the rest of Europe. Industrialization was more rapid in parts of Czechoslovakia and southern Austria than in other regions, including Slovenian territories. The first steam engine was noted in Trieste in 1818, but not until 1835 was a steam engine used in Ljubljana for sugar refining, water pumping and factory work. They were soon used in other towns, in the textile industry, soap factories, mines, glass foundries and steam mills. The production of iron ore was still Slovenia's leading industry. There were many iron ore mines, but the quantity produced was still much lower than in the other countries, especially England, which could sell cheaper products. The main iron works belonged to foreign capitalists and the best known were at Javornik (now Jesenice), Bohinjska Bistrica, Železniki, Zagradec in Dolenjska (Lower Carniola), Mislinje in Štajerska (Styria), Primož and Železna Kapla. Coal mining was well developed elsewhere, but Slovenian territory had (42j Mal J. Zgodovina slovenskega naroda. Družba Sv. Mohorja, Celje, 1928, pp. 190-1. coal mines at Kočevje, Šentjanž, Zagorje. Trbovlje and Hrastnik. There were also smaller mines with a capacity, in 1829, of 1270 tons, which increased to approximately 45,000 tons in 1848. The number of Slovenian miners varied. Most worked near Prevalje where there were up to 600 men, but in other mines there were only 30 — 100 employees. The mercury mine in Idrija was still the largest in Slovenia, and lead was mined at Mežica, Črna and Medvode. The only Slovenian shipyards were in Trieste, and the owners were foreigners: Lloyd and Strudhoff. The largest factories were in the textile industry — cotton spinning mills. One of the first was at Ajdovščina which started to use the steam engine in 1828. The next largest were in Ljubljana and Kamnik, then in Prebold. Drapery was first developed as a home trade at Bled and Radovljica, then at Kranj and Celovec (Ger. Klagenfurt). Linen making was also a home trade, as well as silk manufacturing, developed close to the Adriatic Sea. The processing of horsehair was very interesting. The sieve weaving at Stražišče, near Kranj, started in the eighteenth century. At Stražišče horsehair was procured, cleaned, sorted and dyed. There were also many glass foundries. The best known operated at Pohorje where the production of beautiful glass displaced the imported glass from Venice. There were some paper mills and many sugar refineries. The shoe industry and leather works were mainly at Tržič. The first banks opened in Ljubljana in 1820, and the 'Share Association' (Slov. delniška družba) was also established. Ljubljana in 1800, the coloured etching by Ferdinand Runk and Carl Postl. Factories and mines employed women and children as well as men. Children, sometimes only seven years old, had to work for long hours. The work was easier than that of an adult, but the pay the children received was very low, their health and physical development suffered and they received almost no schooling and education. Iron (glass) from foundry of Pohorje, 1770. Mercury mine at Idrija, etching by F. Runk and C. Postel. With increased industrialization came a demand for improved transport. Water traffic prospered, and steam boats were used on the big rivers, particularly on the route from the Danube to Istanbul and the Adriatic Sea. Railroads were built, the largest and most important being the line from Austria to Trieste. The viaduct at Borovnica, near Ljubljana, was for many years the largest of its type in the Austrian Empire. Mortar. Rolling pin from glass foundry of Pohorje, 1770. Celje, lithography by Z. Wachal, 1832. Lasko; engraving by Z. Wachal, 1832. In towns the guilds were still active in bringing together and protecting the interests of tradesmen in their respective industries. Farmers started to cultivate and concentrate on producing potatoes, corn and other food crops which were an essential support for towns and industrial centres. Improved organization of agriculture and distribution of products meant that henceforth there would be fewer people suffering from hunger, or periods of acute famine, than there had been in past centuries. Bell foundry at Ljubljana, 1888 Vi Railway Station, Ljubljana, plan drawn by Reihman, 1848. Old smelting works, Kropa, photo by J. Kotar. Invitation to. the opening of the section of the railway Ljubljana -Trieste, dated 27.7.1857. Invitation is from Kaiser Franz Josef I. Sawmill at River Unec, 1800, etching by F. Runk and C. Posti. Overpass at Ljubelj, 1800. Kranj, picture by Wagner, 1892. Kamnik, drawing by F. K. von Goldenstein, 19th Century. Prevalje, Koroška, zinc foundry, 19th Century. v- 'iiMäML.. ÍY¿ ; - . :: Zidani most, Bridge over River Savinja, 1846. Koper, 1844, lithography by G. Reiger and A. Tischbein. Postojnska jama (Postojna Cave) by A. Schaffenrath, 19th Century, Iron works and castle of Baron Sigismund Zois at Bohinjska Bistrica, 1847, drawing by Karinger. .A. i Maribor, c. 1800, etching and aquarel by F. Runk and J. Ziegler. Large river canoe (able to convey livestock) on River Sava. Mining works. •3 rrSSATi DH WD iMOlTTÄD-i'IIi DER 0AM Mil ERSTELLUNG !H IA18ACHER MOORBODEN I« 4ir fci.rntwli* AjiU^- »iriuJiin Inner Giirixxu und Tmwrbi-rji Geological cross-section of Ljubljansko barje — Initial survey of the swamp. Viaduct at Borovnica - Section of Vienna-Trieste railway, a technical wonder of the era; 561 metres long and 38 metres high. X. A LIGHT ON THE HORIZON The Habsburg monarchy, with Chancellor ¡Vletter-nich, (1773-1859) was the main pillar of the Holy Alliance. His police regime guarded the nobles, bureacracy and church from revolutions. Bourgeois development was slowed but could not be stopped, even by a strict police regime which was finally broken and devastated in the bourgeois revolution of 1848. France was among the first countries in which people dissatisfied with the feudal system revolted. Francc was proclaimed a republic with general voting rights, freedom of the press and freedom to unite in groups and associations and to hold meetings. Slavery was abolished in French colonies, working hours for the proletariat were reduced to 10 or 11 hours daily. The middle and lower classes were restive in Prussia and Germany as well as in France. However the bourgeosie feared the proletariat and took the side of the king. The main object of the bourgeois-democrat revolution in Germany (Berlin) was to unite Germany under the leadership of Prussia, without Habsburgs. Only a small percentage of the democrats were in favour 'The Great Germany' which would involve the union of all German states under the leadership of Austrian Habsburgs. In Frankfurt in 1849 it was decided that Germany Title page of children's book by A. Slomšek Blashe ino Neshiza v nedelski sholi - Blaz and Nezica in Sunday School. Jesuf je rafl il v' modrofIi ino ft ar op i, ino v mi lopi per Bogu in per IjtuUh. ,Mv. I.uH. 2. 5». V* NEDELSKI .SHOLI. UZHITEIjAM IN® VZMB2NZAM SA P&S£V.SMNO .SPI.SAIj äKM ^MSlll^ V08EII.SHKI FiJJIO.SllTER. f BiBLIOTHECA " [SEMI!!. DIOFC. GLFRIC. [ lahaci V • ZELI 18 4». NA PRODAJ V NBW.SHRIH .8 ti OL AH. Preljubi Bratje ino Prijatcll! Slovenci so po navadi dobriga serca; kar imajo, radi dajo, de eden drugiinu pomagajo. Tak je prav; zakaj keršanska ljubezen ravno to nar liolj terdo zapoveduje. Dober Bog jc vsakimu dal mero svojih darov: enimu čedno besedo, drugimu lepo pesni, treljimu kak dober nauk — vsakimu nekoljko, nobenimu vse; pa je vender za vse razdelit svoje duliovske ino telesne darove, naj bi si pomagali po mčri prijetih dobrot Efes. 4, 7. „Kdo neki je zvest ino razumen Jilapec, kateriga je postavil njegov Gospod ¿rez svojo družino, de jim daja občasi živeža?" vpraša Jezus. Mat. 24, 25. Bog daj, naj bi bili vsi, ki nas je Oče nebeški učitele svoji družini postavil, delioci božjih dobrot! „Dajte, ino se vam bo dalo." Luk. 6, 38. Podam vam sa novo leto liekoljko drobtinc du-bovske hrane, ki so iz moje ino iz ptujih krušenc pobrane, de se ne zgubijo ino ue potratijo, ampak ohranijo za vsakdanje potrebe. Mislim, de je vsaka taki duhovska reč, naj si bo pridga alj keršanski nauk, lepa pesm alj lična pripovest ravno tak božji dar, kakor Slomsek's children's book Drobtinice za Novo leto 1846 — Short stories (lit. crumbs) for year 1846, was to become a united state under the leadership of the Prussian dynasty, but parliament was dispersed and with it the union of the German states. At that time Marx and Engels (43) were demanding a united German republic, general voting rights, nationalization of the feudal states and the separation of church and state. Revolution started in Sicily and spread over almost the whole of Italy. A repubhc was formed, but it was not long before the Papacy was restored with the help of French, Austrian and Spanish Armies. A movement to be called Illyrism or the Illyric Movement, was formed to unite the Slovenes with the other south Slavic states. The main Slovenian representative was LJUDEVIT GAJ, who published Narodne Novine (National News) with the literary supplement Danica (The Morning Star), and among other follower the Slovenians was Stanko Vraz. The movement achieved little. The restless period of the 1848 revolution stirred the national patriotism of the Slovenians. At that time one of Slovenia's best poets appeared, FRANCE PREŠEREN (1800-1849). Educated in Vienna as a laywer, he knew German and European literature well and adopted its poetic forms to the Slovenian language more masterfully and skilfully than anyone else has been able to do. He was the master of the sonnet, and in his poems the love for a beautiful Julia Primic equalled his love for his native land. Later poets followed his steps in poetry and prose, explaining their love for the oppressed Slovenian nation and people as well as for Slovenian language. At the time of Preseren's great poetic work, another Slovenian, I. FRIDERIK BARAGA (1797-1868) achieved a great humane success. Baraga was a priest, sent by Vienna's Leopoldine Mission Society to North America, where he became a great apostle of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians and wrote many books in both languages. In 1853 he was elected Vicar Apostolic of Upper Michigan and soon after became the regular Bishop of Sault Ste. Marie, whence he transferred the Bishop's See to Marquette, Michigan. For the Slovenians, the March Revolution at Vienna, which removed Metternich, was of great importance. French revolutionary ideas began to percolate throughout the multicultural Austrian Empire which included South Germans, Hungarians, Italians of north Italy, Ruthenes, Czechs, Wends, Slovaks, Tziganes, Croates, Poles, Slovenians, Bosnians who were Moslems, and Romanians who were Orthodox, a confusion of cultures which created an ever-growing problem for the Habsburg rulers. When Franz Josef took over in 1848, Chancellor Metternich had already been dismissed, and the new emperor set out to curb the tough Hungarians, against whom his predecessor, Ferdinand, had been unsuccessful. But Franz Josef, crowned in 1867, was still not recognized by the Hungarians as the king of Hungary. He held the title of His Apostolic Majesty, the King Emperor of Austria-Hungary, and soon after the coronation his wife, Elizabeth, became the Queen of Hungary. (43) Marx, Karl (1818-1883), Engels, Friedrich (1820-1895). 1Í It A J N tS K A H B B L Ii A. SA V* IJUJlLJANt "4 A T I(S S I L J O 3 M E 1' B L AS >f I K. 1830. Title page of first booklet of Kranjska Cbelica - The Bee of Krain, 1830. / Ul Portrait of Dr. France Prešeren. Two German bourgeois currents developed; one wished to unite Austria with the German States, the other was anxious to stay in the circle of the Austrian monarchy, but both wanted the inclusion of Czech and Slav States, and both welcomed the expansion of Germany to the Balkan Peninsula — which must have caused friction among Slavs supporting the monarchy. The Hungarian revolutionaries ignored the rights and wishes of other non-German nations within the GETE DIBADJIMOWIN, d/ ^ , , tU: ¿tt^v « «««Ht /fÄ s. ^ ^, M J/tU^. jk « JJi w silt J. J J tf rf ^ ltt4CA , ' 1 O C*. C0 d'.-Ti »^„¿^ Jb-j ¿.te i / ' ffLtJ. ¿¡fnj'c^j M*/ b-tei " - v û .// ^ ^ ¿JbC J/oin^ "^Ji^ .Handwritten sonnet Vrbi (To Vrba) by F. Preseien, now translated in all major languages. monarchist faction by supporting LAJOS KOSSUTH, whose parliament was loyal to Vienna until October 1848. The year 1848 has been called the 'Spring of Nations'. During this brief period, various programmes appeared and all unequivocally voiced a demand for the national freedom of Slovenians in Austria. On 28th March 1848, Matija Majar wrote in Novice, a Ljubljana paper, about the importance of a revolutionary period for implementation of national rights and aims. 'While gple doch Nitarn mum ogagUiivenlnlmrRn. [suffw : eg ..-i C. &AIBÂC8U {UljTie, Autriche.) JO S Ei*If BIK A S.VI Bi ogîinasinalùsan mflndan nustnoigan. icadjig gaie Jesnsan. Apegich tveweni nissiioiameg minik waiabandameg oma masinaiganing. Hichpm dach gego nissiloiansiiveg, kagwtdjimig ki me-kale - okwanaiemiwa. Ochki anamiewinan, ochki naga-mowinan gaie anind alewan oma masinaiganing. Kakina sa go mino inabaichiloiog, nin nid/anissidog, tchi mino - i/iwebisiieg oma aking uoenib'ih bimadisiieg, wedi dach kagige bima-disiwin ichi gachkitoieg gijigong. FRÉDÉRIC BARAGA, Mekate-okwsnale. M îilndawlchfg, nln nidjsnissidog, M gawindamonînim gaijiwebak waiechkat. Apilchi waiechkat kawin bapich gego gidagossinon; «ki, gijig gaie kawin gidagossinon; win eta Kije-Manito nesso-bejigod kaginig giaia. Minawa dach ningoting taichkwa-akiwan, kawin dach bapich gego tadagossïnon ; akî, gijig gaie kawin tadagosslnon; win ela Kije-Manito Debeniminang kaginig ta-ftia; anjeniwag, ki tchitchagonanig dach gaie takagige-bîmadîsiwag. Kije-Manito kakina gego ogigiji-ton, aki, gijig, kakina gaie mînik en-dagog aking, gijigong gaie. Kawin bnpich gego ogiaiossin wi-gijitod kaki-naj odikitowin eta mi gaaiod. Apitchi nitam Kije-Manito ogigijîan Anjeniwan; mino-mnnitowiwag Anjeniwag. Kitchi nibiwa ogigijian, kakina Title page and a page from Bishop Baraga's book to the American Indians whilst he was a missionary Gete Dibadjimowin, gaie dach Nitam Mekate—Okwanaieg, 1843. Maj Slovenes terjamo ? Slavrnxka n ar o dnu nI ( Valionililäi) in ! 1» «r pravi: ali *r nr «i¡Iih¡mu< kili nulia, s»ir«dau»l in »v;»j jrrik nlaj ubrnian, jr v»r do h m; tla bi b»b nabraa druga zelja nr KBtfoila kakar Jeta. - je (nliku, kakor podero: «ko bodrio pa «jriiinjroi, na» bede bliro poldrugi ■>-lijaa. ■. naša brseda b" veljala in povsod tehkn obtfala; dobičrk boj cm o pa ¡rarll val. .Mi varano ¡neti jedra xb»r cele Sloveni/;, li kterinu norajo prili Alalia j ia poslaniki i« v»ih »loveaaktt krajev ta Mboj priaeati v*e pravice, ktere do «daj trna j n. S tem «stanen« prej is potlej verni narotl tvojega cesarja; Jt. Stn ven« k i jraik mora ineli v tlovenskili krajih popolnoma lo pravico. klern ina imiili v nrnšlil,, i I u I ijaftski v tlalij a n>kih... To jr nlrat mi; vsaki nmrnil ljubi »v..j |r*ik , »a|o Indi ni. J.e po ftvojtn jesiku x aura »»rod izobrazili ia povzdignili; ako *e naleriatki uncairi, umira nt rod, aku jezik utihne, ixunerje atroá; tais li. nnra nan bili »vobodao (frrij upiljati »lavrnščtno » vae piaarnter la a«Ie viaje ia «iíjc v Slovenii... akn hoccam, kadar liučeno m kakor liočeno. Kdor jr količkaj panelea in pravice», bode «poznal, «ta nt« to pred Uogani« pred celin «tetam pa pravici «li«i... ali pa kdo drugači »isli, nu xa xio nimamo, pa nr «nene ia roer» poiluaati. k masj pa aba'fati. Mi dopustimo vtakimu narodu, da ini piurnicf in šote v ntojrn jeziku, ni pa lerjtmo, da te U v naših kraiili ludi nan na voljo pust». Mi uvčrno drugih narodov barafi hodil, kake bode"» v »J« v p n 1 k i k krajih pi.Mrnicr in ¿ote poravnati: vte kar naš jraik m natu na rod ne nt, niše píaaraiee, «ole ta •ndaike v Stoveai'i xadrne, tioeeno pu «voji volji poravnali, ni ccilno »»»i eaj bolj veae, kje >u ¿rtvelj liáei; ni « len nikoiaur krivice ne «luríwo, avojiVa jesika in «voje nareilnouli nikonur ae tillae v njegove kraje, v Slovrnii mor« pa naša volja in nata brWa vrtjaci. Kaj bi rekli, pJtlavin, Xe«ci ali Ila-lijtal ak» bi jih kdo tioirl prisiliti, ptuj jexik v ajili pitarnire in tele upeljili?... Oni bt rekli: taka aliaje v nebo \ pij ur j crrli: lak t nrho vpijoči grel« bi pa Indi bil. ako bi kjo na« hotel v len aililt. Mi nentčinr nr bndemo na vrat na noi saputltti, ni je ii pitaraíc ia áo| pri ti priči Udi aprtviti ae norena, ako ravno bi iioteli; ni &aao lerjano, da nan je .«vobodno v tea atorili, kakor a« b«de aan naj bolj prav xifelo. 4. vnaki uradnik (Hramtrr) v »lovenskih krajiFi, kteri «e aa naprej bode poatavll v > t v i b o nora popnlaama -t i u v e n « L <■ anali. Ua tnurtju urailtnki v tlnvrnskili krajih pnpolftj«a stoveaako znali, jr že davno sapovedaao 1« «karano, pa la ukae ve je č«lu xanrmaril. ra naprrj ae nora nilanjko apelauvati. Vaaki traed »•• Mj aa L» pravico pati, da .te npiilatije. — EFa uradnik v Slovenii »loveniko popolnana ma, ae po vat pravici terjati nore. Kaj bi , po«tavin, Nemci ali Italijani rekli, ako bi ae jin uradniki, jetik naredi aeaaajoci, v pNarntce poslavitif Spoditi bi jih! Ako uradnik v Slovenii našega jezika ae aaa, je kartan ciato prav ve(ika iVeda, Kmrt «e po nenšiku ne nore tako pogovoriti r urarfnikan, kakor bi rad; eiata rarome aakonc io poplave, v plii|i'n jerika pitane, n* opat, ali erlo nič, ia, ako jih preto»t «r vendar p« nedolčnin kar.ni: qekdaj ne ra nrkaj podpisali, da sam nr ve prav kaj in k čenu, taJaj i¿ le le ■rkako ave ia »e nora aacell prav da ti. Kriv je aevedea uradnik, »kodo teepi pa acdolf.nt knrt. Pliur-aice in uradniki no ravnijo naroda, nr narod Kavcijo pi.tarnie in uradnikov, na uvelu; kdn hoče r Sloveti! iradovati «-nnt |»r' \vrIJmni t rs.irju in naši ustavnrj (rontliiutionrl) vladii, ai herrno i> otlati v prijatrUkim r.vrxu r v*e«i narodi natrga resaral»«, ludi n Nenrl, s otialo na vxak» pravilen potegnili: mi »v n budno morrao tr oblatiti, ker je rdaj ravno čan, da potrebe »lovca-«kega »»roda rarodenrmo; vii narodi svoj jetik in *vo|o nirodsoit branijo, «akaj bi ni tega ae *t«ril/; ustava ni tamo drugim narodam dana. lenoč tudi r.a ntt, da ¡tvoj nili jexik in avojo narodno*! pevsdignr-ni horrno v s»«jih tlovrnskili krajih glrdr narodnauli in jerik« m» (o doneči, kar Kenri v aen-ških. Italijani v italijanskih d;t« vzeti nr more. šr nanjr pa branili; mi »■•> «vobndcn nirod, ni «■« av-ftlrijantkln na mil a m jrdnaki, nobenenu iznrd njih podložni, ubo nišrao prctvetlrmu ceurja i« nasi «itfa^nrj vladjK V.si narodi vkup stečejo, \enri, llalijani ... naj potrebniši je pa nan Sleveacan, . .. an-r.imii sami xa svojo slvar poganjali: ali ni «aai xa ae, za avojo narodno »reč«, «a jrrik in n.irodnosi nr pi-ski-rhimn. drugi naravno ar manjr. Ali bndrao čakali, da bodo pluji narmli ■as rbudjali 111 n|mnrnjali. nam >l-ivi-f.skr pisarnirr in ¿olr ponujati, dmgi ta nit govorili? - Tako ai tonra na nrbn. tu niurrmii rik ili do .sodnrga dnr. (Jo 3SWer, «1 «I»i h»jlt». \ali»nLl .luivf ilia'.nil; * IJu/'tjani. Pamphlet by M. Majar, dated 27th April 1848, explaining the rights of the Slovenians as a nation. &>¿iffvnafezfha kriftjane, kteri sheli v* duha in refniii Bog a moliti* ,Spifal Friderik Barag«,>^ lupita *' Metliki. f' V' sulif tih bniev fo £oiIoftl>f\H:fct Ce/pcJ Gefrei JNTON AL O J S, Ljabljtnfi; .Shkof 30. jrudrift >3a8 dovolili. V LJUBLJANI i S 3 o. ffatifnil Joihtf SatJtnbdrg. Na pmiaj per Jan em &!exientti, bakfotMU. Title page of Bishop's Baraga's book Dushna pasha sa kristjane Food for the Soul, dated 22.12.1828. Kmetijske in rokodelske ilovice. Na svlllobo dane oil c. k. hrajnske kmetijske dražbe. I* »redo i-J. ki morca Í54H. I .¡m ar. Mi FerdiiiHinl S^ervi, uMauiS Cewar ATHÍrlJanskl, kralj O^crski ia* Češki, leg:» imen*. I»éii. kralj Lomlwryki in DeittekU Dalmatinski, in Tiroljski i. t. d. t. t. d. Smo po naklepu Svojih nieiiatrav soglatuo z uiln irnica deržaroin cboran .sklenili in ukaženo kakor sledi: Per v i č. 1'odložtvo in za vera med gruntniai gosposkani in podložnini sle t vsini postavami, ki |o zavezo zadevajo. neli»le. Drugič, (»runt ati ictnljise je v*ih dolžnost od vezan; rsi razločki med gosposkinimi in kmrc-kini zeoiljisi imajo nehati. Tretjič. Vse dgltnosti. deta in davki vsake haie, ktere iz podloživa izvirajo in podložno ¿raljise zadevaju. rdšiltmal nehajo: ravno lako tudi nehajo vte odrajtvili v hlagu (Nalural). v delu io dmarjih. kteri izvirajo iz govpo5kami in med njih dozdanjtmi podložnimi imajo z odškodovanjem nehati — .sose>kimh gospodstrv pravice {Uorfobrigkcit) pa cvetlice iskati (Blumcnsuch) in pastj (WeiiJeicrhO» kakor pasa na prahi in «lernisu imajo brez odškodovanja jenjati. Osmič. Komisija iz pnslancov vsi h dežel« ima poslavno obnovo izdelali in deržavniau zboru podložili, klrra mora zapopasii pravila: a. kako so ima odškodovanje nakodovanja plačali, in kako se ina iz premoženja zadetih dr/el» denar-fiiri napravili, iz ktere »e ho samo za zadrto deželo prerajtano od>kodovinje poplačalo, pri kttri reči bo derzavno vladarstvo «rrdnik : e. ali sr bn za davšine in dela. klere imajo po drugim, tretjim razdelku, in po eerki b. osmig.t razdelka nehali, ki pa v petim in sest i a razdelku niso imenovane . kako odškodovanje plaetlo in kolikšno. Title page of the newspaper Kmetijske in rokodelske Novice-The news for the farmers and tradesmen, dated 13th October, 1848, setting out rules and regulations pertaining to land and ownership. the sun shines, there is no more significant time for all Slovenians; God only knows whether a similar opportunity will ever come for the Slovenians. We have only a few weeks. We must not miss this golden opportunity! If we do not express our wishes, or if we express our desires incorrectly, we have already dug a grave for our people (44). On 20th April of the same year, a small group of Slovenians living in Vienna formed'a national club called 'Slovenija'. Similar associations came into existence in Graz, in Ljubljana and in Celovec (Ger. Klagenfurt). The main purpose of these associations was to unite Slovenian intellectuals in order to help them take advantage of the newly-won political freedom, and hence to present the political claims of the Slovenians to Austrian political bodies and to the authorities. At the same time, Slovenija — a new Slovenian political paper — made its appearance. The Viennese association called Slovenija sent a memorandum, signed by forty-four members, to the Assembly of the Province of Kranjska (Carniola), urging it to demand rights for the protection of the Slovenian nationality. Slovenija wished the central Austrian government to grant such rights and reiterated and explained the programme in a pamphlet titled 'What will (44) Arnez, J., A., Slovenia in European Affair Studia Slovenka, New York, 1958, pp. 4448. we Slovenians ask of the Emperor?', distributed by members of the Viennese Slovenija in Ljubljana in May 1848. Essentially the whole programme consisted of the following: 1. Administratively divided Slovenians in Kranjska (Carniola), Koroška (Carinthia), Štajerska (Styria) and Primorska (Littoral) should be invited to unite as one kingdom bearing the name of Slovenia and having its own separate national Parliament. 2. The Slovenian language should have precisely the same rights in Slovenia as those accorded to the German language in German-speaking regions. 3. Slovenia should be a composite part of Austria, and not the German Empire. No representatives should be sent to the Frankfurt German Parliament to represent Slovenians in that political body. The German Parliament was to represent Slovenians in that political body. Demand for home rule can be summarized in the following sentence: only those laws would bind us which would be given to us by the Emperor, but in co-operation with our own representatives. Under pressure from the revolutionary movement, the Austrian Government permitted the election of political representatives from the Austrian Provinces. The new Parliament held its first session on 10th July 1848. It again convened, in Kremsier instead of Vienna because of further political unrest in October, on 22nd November. When the Government regained sufficient strength, it dissolved Parliament, and on 7th March 1849 granted the constitution. Franz Josef I. Emperor of the Austrian Empire being crowned Emperor of The Austro-Hungarian Empire in the cathedral at Budapest on 8th June 1867. Lithograph by Vincent Katzle. In the 1848-1849 Parliament, Slovenians had only fourteen deputies. Among them were Jožef Kranjc, who later became a professor of Civil Law, and Dr. Franc Miklošič, later professor of Slavic Philosophy at the University of Vienna. The German Frankfurt Parliament promised the Slovenians twenty deputies if they would agree to attend it, but the Slovenians refused this Pan-German invitation. The Slovenian deputies Michael Ambrož, Anton Gorjup, Matija Kavčič and Jožef Kranjc were elected to the constitutional committee when the Parliament in Kremsier began to discuss a future constitution for the Habsburg Empire. The position of the Slovenians in constitutional matters differed from that of other national representatives. While Czechs, Croats and Poles insisted upon historic rights, Slovenians could never use similar methods. Their only alternative was to enter discussions solely on the basis of ethnic principles. Matija Kavčič submitted another significant proposal — that Austria should be a federal multinational state, but his proposal was not supported because the majority of the representatives defended the principle of historic rights. Many other constitutional programmes had also been presented for discussion in Parliament. After long but inconclusive debate the Czech, Palacky, desisted in advocating the historical rights principle and agreed to accept the principle of nationality. He later proposed the division of Austria into eight crownlands, one of which, 'Illyrian Austria' would include all of Slovenia and Slavonia (part of Croatia), and another unit would be 'Yugoslav Austria', consisting of Croatia, Dalmatia and Vojvodina. He probably considered the Slovenians and the Croats from Slavonia as being of one and the same Slovenian ethnic group. The Slovenian delegates also attended the Slav Congress in Prague in 1848 and advocated: 1. Establishment of a Kingdom of Slovenia uniting Kranjska (Carniola), Primorska (Littoral), and the southern part of Štajerska (Styria) and Koroška (Carinthia); 2. That the Slovenian language be granted full recognition — that it be introduced into schools, public administration and courts; 3. Establishment of a Slovenian University in Ljubljana. A Slovenian, Peter Kozler, prepared a special map of united Slovenia which anticipated a change in the then-existing structure of the administrative division of the State. When the map was printed, it was declared treasonable and confiscated by Austrian authorities. Public officials continued to ignore Slovenia as being a constituent region of the State and Kozler's map was not allowed to be used until 1861. Karl Renner (45), who later became a President of Démocratie Austria, regarding Slovenian demands for cultural rights freedom and equality stated: 'Should the Slovenians desire and need a University, they may find one and pay for it; then, they should also employ their graduates and thus leave the Germans, as well as the Slate, undisturbed.' Although Germany had not recognized the Slovenian language and did not give it the same official status as German, the continuous attacks caused Slovenian in- tellectuals to realize the necessity of improving the language. Scholars commenced the work of restoring it to its original purity by ridding it of foreign influences and adaptations accrued in the course of centuries, and concentrated on the development" of a purely Slovenian literature (46). The beginning of the movement known as 'clericalism' is ascribed to Slovenians L. JANEZ BLEIWEIS, LUKA JERAN and Bishop ANTON MARTIN SLOMŠEK (1800-1862), who had written several books in the Slovenian language. Bishop Slomšek, especially in his Sunday schools, expressed the need for the language, even though lie gave most emphasis to religious education. He was a poet also, and did invaluable work as an educator. As the founder of Mohorjeva Družba (still existing), he was responsible for a vast distribution of books among Slovenian people. Other Slovenian movements at that time included the formation of a Liberal Party, the members of which were drawn from the bourgeoisie, rich farmers and the intelligentsia, and the Socialist-Democrat Party, which published the Rdeči Prapor (Red Flag) and urged the formation of a new social system which, unlike the existing capitalist system, would be fair for all the people. Both parties held public meetings, which, in later years, were banned. Apart from a group called Preporodovci ('Revivers'), whose members were mainly young students, all parties wanted the Austria-Hungarian monarchy to become a union of nations with equal rights. (45) Arnez, J. A., Slovenia in European Affairs. Studia Slovenica. New York, 1958, pp. 4448. {46} See Appendix VI - Short Summar}' of Slovenian Literature. XI. NEW BEGINNINGS Inevitably, the great dynasty of Habsburgs was nearing its end. Some authorities ascribe its demise to the exceptionally long life of Emperor Franz Josef, who ruled from 1848 until the end of 1916, by which time a World War was in progress and leaders of other nations, such as Woodrow Wilson, Clemencau and the Russian Bolshevik leaders, were becoming influential. The Emperor's brother Maximilian of Mexico was shot while attempting to create a Habsburg Empire in Mexico, and his son and heir, Rudolf, committed suicide together with his mistress. His nephew Franz Ferdinand, who succeeded Rudolf as Crown Prince, had been slain by the Serbian nationalist conspiracy that touched off World War I and caused the disintegration of Europe's three leading imperal dynasties: the Habsburgs, the Hohenzol-lerns and the Romanovs (47). The German-minded leaders of Austria were deaf and blind to the rights of non-German speaking nationalities, and completely lacking in political wisdom. Therefore, when the 1914-1918 war started, Dr. Janez Evangelist Krek, a priest, — the most important and convincing political leader the Slovenians had — realized that any 'Yugoslav solution' would give the Slovenians more chance for national freedom than they could ever hope for under Austrian domination. Krek's political heir, another priest, Dr. Anton Korošec, as Chairman of the Yugoslav Club, read the following declaration to the Austrian Parliament on 30th May 1917: 'Those deputies, members of the Yugoslav Club, demand that — according to the principles of national selfdetermination and Croat state-rights - all territories of the monarchy inhabited by Slovenians, Croats, and Serbs should be united into one autonomous state based upon democratic principles. They will put forth every effort to implement this demand. They participate in parliamentary work with this reservation,' (48) under Habsburg's Crown. The only reaction that this statement created on the German-Austrian side was that when, and if, war ended, these nationalities would be treated even more severely than they had been before the war. One of the first federalist propositions was offered by Emperor Charles (Ger. Karl), at the time when the Austrian army was in complete disintegration and the various nationalities had already set up their own governments. 'Majesty, it is too Kaiser Franz Josef 1, 1900 - Code Nd 511.601. late', stated Dr. Anton Korošec to the Emperor when he called upon him for the last time. On 20th July 1917 the Corfu Declaration proclaimed the unity of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenians in one state (49a). When the war ended, a new 'state' was formed, composed of Serbia, Črna Gora (Montenegro), Croatia, (471 Sulzberger, C. L„ The Fall of Eagles. Crown Publishers. New York, 1977, pp. 164-166. (481 Arnez, J. A., Slovenia in European Affairs. Studia siovenica, New York, 1958, pp. 62-63. (49 a) Clissold, J., The Slovenes Want to Live. (Former Attache to the British Consulate in Zagreb, Yugoslavia). The Yugoslav Information Centre, New York, p. 21. Slovenia and Dalmatia, a state which was, by the Serbs, considered as the new 'enlarged Serbia', (49b), given to them as a reward for their part in the First World War. In 1918 Narodno Vijece (Croatian), a National Council representing all three nations of Austria-Hungary, was set up in Zagreb under the leadership of Dr. Anton Ko-rosec, a Slovenian delegate (50 a). On 1st December 1918, the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenians was formally proclaimed. The Slovenians rejoiced — at last they had been freed from the tyrany of the Habs-burgs and the German ruling classes. In the state which they entered as equal partners, they could expect to develop a full national life. But soon they met with disappointment. When the stipulations of diverse peace treaties became known it appeared that no less than one third of the total Slovenian population was to be surrendered to Italy and Austria (50 b). Prince Alexander of Serbia accepted the regency of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians. On 5th January 1929 King Alexander proclaimed a dictatorship and dissolved the Croat and all other parties. In 1931 he introduced a 'new constitution' (two chamber parliament). The government named most of the candidates and won with a great majority. On 9.10. 1934 King Alexander was assassinated at Marseilles and Prince Paul, Alexander's cousin, became chief regent, with two others: Stankovic and Perovic. The Slovenians received many promises that their nationality would be respected, but the process of Battle at Doberdob — front line where a great majority of Slovenians died fighting for the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Coin of Franz Josef I, 1909. (49 bJArnez, J. A., Slovenia in European Affairs. Studia Slo-venica, New York, 1958, pp. 63-64. (50 a) Clissold, J., The Slovenes Want to Live. The Yugoslav Information Centre, New York, p. 22. (50 b) Clissold, J., The Slovenes Want to Live. The Yugoslav Information Centre, New York, p. 24. systematic Germanization continued unabated as it had under the Habsburgs, and Italy, even before the rise of Mussolini, launched a campaign of ruthless denationalization and persecution against Slovenians. Slovenian schools were closed, cultural societies smashed and the Slovenian language was banished from courts, schools, public and private life — even family names in cemeteries were changed to obliterate any evidence of Slovenians having lived and died there (50 c). At the outbreak of the second World War, Yugoslavia remained neutral, but on 25th March 1941, Prince Paul announced his country's adherence to the Berlin — Rome Axis pact. The government was overthrown and the young king, Peter II, fled to England. (50d) By an agreement reached between the German and Italian so-called governments at the beginning of July 1941, Slovenia was cut up into three parts and that was intended to be the end of the Slovenian nation — extermination was the aim of the conquerors. On 25 June, the Reichs Commissioner stated in s speech delivered in Maribor: 'The Fuehrer himself has been in Maribor and from him I received the order to remake this land German. This order will be strictly carried out. We shall plant in Spodnja Štajerska a new peasantry, a German one. It will be the bulwark of Germany in this part of Europe. All who do not join the German organization called 'Heimatbund' shall be expelled from here (50e). The Reich will look after children from their second year of age and see to it that they receive a full Germanic education. Spodnja Štajerska must became a Germanic land in less than five years ... Only those will be allowed to stay here who are of German language. All the rest will have to go away ...' (50f). Anti-Nazi and anti-Fascists groups were formed and Slovenians continued their passive and active resistance. The savage terror of the occupation did not (50 c) Clissold, J., The Slovenes Want to Live. The Yugoslav Information Centre, New York, p. 29. (50 d) Clissold, J., The Slovenes Want to Live. The Yugoslav Information Centre, New York, p. 30. (50 e) Clissold, J., The Slovenes Want to Live. The Yugoslav Information Centre, New York, p. 31. (50 f) Clissold, J., The Slovenes Want to Live. The Yugoslav Information Centre, New York, p. 32. Delegation from Kranjska Province to see Emperor Karl and Empress Cita in Vienna, 1917. Advocate Ivan šušteršič, last Governor of Kranjske Province. break their will and determination to win freedom. Many Slovenians choose Communism — in its ideals it promised the nations of the world freedom and the RIGHT OF EXISTENCE, THE RIGHT OF EACH NATION TO HAVE ITS OWN NATIONAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT. The Yugoslavian Assembly proclaimed, on 29th November 1943, a Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, its leader being Marshal Josip Broz Tito (1892-1980), who had led the Communist Party and its followers during the war. Yugoslavia now consists of five major nations, two autonom regions (Vojvodina, Kosovo — Metohija), and many national minorities. The Slovenians are the fourth largest nation. Yugoslavia is a federation of six republics: Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bosna and Hercegovina, Črna Gora (Montenegro) and Macedonia, and according to the Statute of Yugoslavia, EACH NATION WITHIN YUGOSLAVIA IS TO HAVE ITS FREEDOM OF SPEECH, SCHOOLS, LITERATURE AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ITS OWN LANGUAGE, WITH NO FORCED UNIFICATION INTO ONE YUGOSLAV NATION (50g). (50g) Vidmar, J., Slovensko pismo. Založništvo Tržaškega Tiska, Trst and Založba Drava, Celovec, 1984, p. 17. XII. MOSAIC OF TRADITION The simple art and crafts of the countryside tell as much about the early history of a race of people as do folklore, songs and traditional customs. That Slovenian art reached an advanced stage of development several centuries ago is revealed in the decoration of peasant or farmers' houses, the architecture of the houses; the style of the buildings surrounding the farm houses, such as the barn, apiary, stables, cellars, wine cellars and cottages of dairymen (Alpine dairies) ... llie construction of the village, the decoration of furniture, the road signs, tombstones and pictures on beehives. The most interesting parts of each village, or sometimes only a group of houses or crossroads, are the kapelice or znamenja (little chapels), nicely painted and decorated with fresh flowers and pot plants, and the giant 'lipa' (linden tree). This tree, surrounded by a heavy table and benches, was usually situated close to churches and inns, so that the village people could rest and talk after a Sunday Mass or the village fair. Like the farm houses, most other buildings varied in style, size and decoration according to the region in which they were situated. Each region in modern Slovenia developed its own unique style of farm houses, barns, sheds for storage and hay-racks. Distinctive styles of farm houses were found in Kranjska (Carniola), Koroška (Carinthia), Štajerska (Styria), Primorska (Littoral), Dolenjska (Lower Carniola), Prekmuije (Transmuraland), Bela Krajina (White March), the Savinja Valley and Slovenian Istra. The interior of the peasant or farmer's house in Kranjska (Carniola) was described by the historian J.W. Valvasor in Die Ehre des Herzogthums Krain (The Glory of Duchy Kranjska — Carniola), published 1689: 'From the road one enters by a few steps to the house door, leading into the entry hall. The back part of the entry hall is also used as the kitchen, where the great farmer's hearth is being used for baking bread and, in winter, also for warming the house and sometimes for cooking. From the entry hall one can enter the main room, the 'izba' (living room). Most of the room is taken up by the giant 'kmečka peč' (Kiln) of green ceramic tiles, next to which is a storage for cracks, used for lighting up the house at night. Above the 'kmečka peč' a few bars had been placed, used for drying clothes in winter, and around it is a bench, a good and warm place to chat in long winter evenings. Typical house of Gorenjska. Typical house of Bela Krajina. The other corner of the 'izba' was occupied by a large table of maple wood with benches, and a cross was hanging above it in the corner. On the walls were pictures of saints, painted on glass. There was not much furniture in the 'izba' - usually a large chest, nicely Typical house of Dolenjska. Typical house of Primorska. Typical house of Štajerska. decorated on the sides and on the front with pictures of saints or floral ornaments. The same ornaments decorated the bedheads and bedends in the bedroom, next to the kitchen, and even the spinning wheels and other craft materials were decorated. The most beautiful piece of furniture was a cradle, ornamented with flowers and hearts (51). Typical house of Koroška. Fireplaces — hearths were built differently in different regions, and some of them were still in use in the early years of the twentieth century. Three major types of hearths have been identified on Slovenian territory: 1. The low open hearth of the Mediterranean type, found in Slovenian Primorska (Littoral) and Bela Krajina (White March). The oldest form is believed to be the type of hearth situated in the middle section of the house into which the entrance leads from the courtyard. Later the hearth was moved further back or into the corner. A special type was used fo the houses built on a slightly elevated place, and the hearths were slowly being raised to cooking height — the height of a cooking range. Until the end of the nineteenth century the open hearths were used for baking bread in special containers made of earthenware or tin. 2. The high open hearth, combined with the shelf in front of the opening into the oven, were used in the northern and border area of modern Slovenia. The high open fireplace was not used for heating and was built (51) Gruden, J., Zgodovina slovenskega naroda. Druzba Sv. Mohorfa, Celovec, 1910, pp. 1064-1065 (from the original in German language by J. W. Valvasor, Die Ehre des Herzogthums Krain, 1689. of stone. It was usually in an area separated from the entrance hall. 3. The best known and most widespread, was the enclosed fireplace, in which the fire burned in the furnace and cooking was done in the oven. It is known to have been used throughout Slovenian territory, apart from in those regions where the Meditteranean type was used (52). Slovenian houses divided vertically into two sections, so that when open hearths are used without chimneys, the smoke escaped through the door. The form and the size of the fireplace at one time indicated the social status of the occupant of the house, and the type of hard daily work a woman was expected to do. Kmečka peč - kiln, usually located in main living quarters, fed from furnace in the kitchen, used for cooking, baking and drying clothes. The Slovenian 'kozolec' (hay-frame or hay rack) is very simply built — it consists of horizontal bars placed parallel one above the other and supported by wooden pillars. On the top is a small roof to protect the hay or grain that is put between the bars for drying. Some areas have adopted an extended hay-frame made from two frames and forming a sort of barn. The 'kozolec' was not mentioned in the historical records until the second half of the seventeenth century. J. Stabej could not find any reference to the word 'koselz' before 1688 when it first appears in a text by the author Matija Kastelec. The author of the present study succeeded in discovering three earlier references to Spinning wheel, dated 1842-1855. this word in the archives of the feudal estate at Šentjernej in Dolenjska (Lower Carniola) which was owned by the Ljubljana cathedral chapter: in 1672 'Harpfenstan-gen' (Ger. bars for kozolec); in 1665 'Hortus penes Ar-pham' and in 1659 'Coslez'. This, so far the earliest reference to 'kozolec', occurs in the Latin inventory which was made when Matija Kastelec handed over the administration of this estate to its new tenant Michael Wurzer. The need for hay-frames was explained by the short summers which meant that harvest had to be removed from the fields to ripen in the frames. The architectural Letnik XVI-XVIL Vrste og-stanie. Slovenski etnograf-■363. Cradle kept in izba. Kozolec — hay rack maturity seen in the hay-frames is due to the considerable ability of the builders and not a result of a preliminary development (53). PAINTINGS ON BEEHIVES were only found in some regions of Slovenia — Koroška (Carinthia), Kranjska (Carniola) and also Štajerska (Styria), which is well known for its own painting workshop and artists. The beehives showed scenes from everyday life and religion. Secular motifs included comical pictures of women being traded in for younger ones, the innkeeper driving his great stomach on wheels, the devil carrying children in his basket, a devil sharpening a woman's tongue, hunting scenes, butchers, illustrations Large chest dated 28.6.1836, held at Slovenski etnografski muzej. of historical events and cruel Turks and French soldiers. Sometimes, particularly in Kranjska (Carniola) there were pictures of people in national costumes attending weddings or dances. Religious motifs included such topics as Adam and Eve, various saints, Christ's crucifixion, stories from the Bible and many others. Over 118 religious and 55 secular motifs were noted as having been used to decorate beehives. The painters of Štajerska (Styria) had also worked on chapels and private houses. (53) Pirkovič, /., Slovenski etnograf, O nastanku žitnega kozolca. Slovenski etnografski muzej, Ljubljana, ¡964, p. 304. Typical bedroom furniture, carved and decorated bedhead Most Slovenian buildings which are decorated with FRESCOES are churches, built on hills as bulwarks against the Turks or on roads connecting Slovenia with northern and southern Europe, and sometimes on the river banks or fertile plains of eastern Slovenia. 'Kapelice' oz 'znamenja' by the roadside or crossroads were usually painted with the fresco of a saint, perhaps the village patron saint, or a picture from lives of the saints. Only a few frescoes have been preserved and these, sometimes up to ten metres long, often cover the walls of churches. The best known are in the church at Hras-tovlje in Slovenian Istra, painted in 1490 by Janez of Kastav (John of Castua). These display great imagination and iconography and cover the whole interior of the church. The subject motif is chiefly derived from biblical stories such as those of Adam and Eve, the Apostles and the Three Kings. Of greatest importance in the lives of simple people are the frescoes showing Adam and Eve, after they had left the garden of Eden, working and living the everyday life of middle-aged people (the life of simple people of Istra is depicted very clearly),and this is followed by scenes in the lives of their children (54). The second group of frescoes represents Christ and his suffering (Passion). There is the Dance of Death', which represents equality before death, the only justice that is awaiting everyone; everyone has to go with 'Her', 'she' is laughing in everyone's face if bribed and leads them towards the freshly dug grave, where the shovels are full of dirt. Everyone is represented - the kings, the monk, the rich merchant, lively youth, an old beggar, and a child. Other areas depict the months of the year and the expedition of the Three Kings from Jerusalem to Bethlehem. Wardrobe The church at Hrastovlje is an example of the late Gothic style of painting in which the whole interor comes alive as a harmonious colourful treasure which simple people are able to understand and appreciate. The frescoes decorating the facade of the church at Crngrob near Škofja Loka, date from 1460 and are the work of the studio of John de Laybacco. There is a picture of Christ, risen from Death and known as 'Sveta nedelja' (Holy Sunday), where Jesus is shown against a background of instruments of torture. Surrounding pictures show the work people should not do on Sundays or holy days. Some 50 original scenes were destroyed and painted over, and those that remain show the local fifteenth century method of making textiles. The interior of the church of Sveti Primož, near Kamnik, also illustrates textile making. The frescoes were probably painted about 1520 and show a series of scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary. The best known is a picture of the Virgin with her handmaidens, painted by aa unknown artist. The Virgin Mary is working at a plaiting frame, and the girls are putting the final stitches to the fabric while one is winding yarn into a ball. The frescoes also show other activities and working methods, some of which are illustrated on page 139. (54j Zadnikar, M„ Hrastovlje. Zavod za spomeniško varstvo SR Slovenije. Ljubljana, 1973, p. 78. Types of open fireplaces. Ljubno, Savinja River Valley Watermill on Mura River. Water well at Kras. Water well at Lož, Water well at Idrijca River Valley. Zidanica - wine cellars in vineyard. Barn m m WML msm Znamenje at Kropa. Apiary Farming equipment Burkle, type of fork, used to transfer pots from and to kiln. Cepec - flail for grain threshing. L. j-..... Znamenje at Stranje. Cart St. Nicholas giving presents to the maidens, Church at Ptuj. Paintings on beehives Zrmlje and metrga — a stone hand mill and dough kneading table. Babji mlin — Old woman's mill, trading place where old wives were traded in for young girls, assisted by Devil. Pegam and Lambergar — two historical (legendary) heroes. Frescoe from church at Hrastovlje, depicting the Dance of the Death. Frescoe showing Mary with maidens at work Church at St. Pri- Frescoe depicting textile-making technique among Slovenians Church at Crngrob, near Skofja Loka. Frescoe from at Ptuj. W—Bm^CT A -«TV ■> Main Altar, Baroque, includes also Gothic group of Mary, the Patron, protecting the Emperor, Pope, Cardinals, King Sigismund of Hungary and Count Herman II of Celje (notes by Pokrajinski muzej, Ptuj). Zeleni Jurij, S^ifiTriifdÎi^âliiT i«|ra j«rfàm mirworr.uii «¡fir JBÎSJIU jic4|>»rjî' dslaiT diiiTiti tingifcrntoliJp V^nT ilît-Kiii.