Volume 23 Issue 4 Thematic Issue: The Economic and Social Impacts of Covid-19 Article 4 12-2021 Exploring Consumer Resilience during COVID-19: Demographics, Exploring Consumer Resilience during COVID-19: Demographics, Consumer Optimism, Innovativeness and Online Buying Consumer Optimism, Innovativeness and Online Buying Ivana Kursan Milaković University of Split, Faculty of Economics, Business and Tourism, Split, Croatia, ikursan@efst.hr Follow this and additional works at: https://www.ebrjournal.net/home Part of the Marketing Commons Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Kursan Milaković , I. (2021). Exploring Consumer Resilience during COVID-19: Demographics, Consumer Optimism, Innovativeness and Online Buying. Economic and Business Review, 23(4), 260-272. https://doi.org/10.15458/2335-4216.1291 This Original Article is brought to you for free and open access by Economic and Business Review. It has been accepted for inclusion in Economic and Business Review by an authorized editor of Economic and Business Review. ORIGINAL ARTICLE Exploring Consumer Resilience During COVID-19: Demographics, Consumer Optimism, Innovativeness and Online Buying Ivana Kursan Milakovic University of Split, Faculty of Economics, Business and Tourism, Split, Croatia Abstract This study investigates the predictors and outcome of consumer resilience given the Covid-19 pandemic and retail context. Predictors are represented by demographic characteristics and underexplored protective factors of consumer optimismandinnovativeness,whiletheoutcomevariableincludesonlinebuying.Empiricalresearchwasconductedon the convenience sample of 400 Croatian consumers. Research results show that, given demographic characteristics, gender plays an important role in consumer resilience. In terms of the individual protective factors, both consumer optimism and innovativeness positively influence consumer resilience. In addition, consumer resilience negatively impacts online buying. Findings also have practical implications for companies’ marketing strategies. Keywords: Consumer resilience, Optimism, Innovativeness, Demographics, Online buying, Covid-19 JEL classification: M20, M30, M31 Introduction T he Covid-19 pandemic has strongly impacted our ways of living and buying, thus posing many challenges for both consumers and com- panies. Tough situations can make consumers vulnerable,buttheycanalsostimulateconsumersto be proactive, that is, to learn to adjust to a crisis situationordisasterfindingthewaysofbuildingthe resilience (Lorenz & Dittmer, 2016; Maurer, 2016). Resilience represents a dynamic process of positive adaptation given the adverse circumstances, whereby it is dependent on two conditions: the presence of stressful context and an individual's ability to adapt and recover (Ang et al., 2018). Resilience is important in terms of both consumers' and firms' perspective. Namely, understanding resilience is important for marketers, since they aspire to the consumer perseverance, and also for the consumers who strive to achieve their con- sumption goals, whereas consumer resilience rep- resents an important, but unrecognized, factor in positive consumption experiences (Ball & Lamber- ton, 2015). Furthermore, it is reasonable to expect thatthedisruptionwillcontinue,alongwiththefear and anxiety, and thus the resilience will remain to be essential for making the future decisions, facing the reality and recovering from obstructions (Shra- gai, 2020). While resilience helps companies to un- dergo crises and achieve sustainability in order to successfully deliver products and services to their consumers (Ortiz-de-Mandojana& Bansal, 2016), in insecure market circumstances resilience plays a vital role in consumer attitudes formation and improvement of consumer well-being that are crucial for decision-making process (Rew & Minor, 2018). In addition, resilience helps consumers to returntoearlierstatusthatwascommonpriortothe crisis (Rew & Minor, 2018). These notions suggest the importance of resilience as a vital indicator of consumer's proper functioning and self-efficacy. A lot of resilience research has focused on liveli- hoods and climate change adaptation (Smyth & Sweetman, 2015). However, researchers point out that the concept of resilience is underexplored in Received 21 December 2020; accepted 25 May 2021. Available online 23 December 2021. E-mail address: ikursan@efst.hr. https://doi.org/10.15458/85451.1291 2335-4216/© 2021 School of Economics and Business University of Ljubljana. This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). social research and theory (Maurer, 2016; Mayntz, 2016), and especially marketing disciplines (Rew & Minor, 2018). In addition, it is crucial to stress that causes of resilience may differ depending on the context and specific challenges (Ungar, 2008). The past literature suggests that resilience studies con- cerning marketing and consumer experience are scarce (Ball & Lamberton, 2015; Maurer, 2016; Mayntz, 2016; Rew & Minor, 2018). However, when investigating resilience, it is important to consider the notion of an individual interacting with the environment(Waller,2001),whichiscoveredwithin our study in terms of the Covid-19 and retail context/environment. Furthermore, given Covid-19, new studies stress consumer resilience as being a major area for the academic research (Sheth, 2020). Therefore, these notions represent strong reasons for researching consumer resilience within the purchase context tied to the Covid-19 crisis that might result in novel findings explaining the con- sumers' responses to threat and their coping mechanisms given their individual characteristics when facing unexpected events. In order to adequately explore these impacts, we apply Kumpfer's (2002) theoretical resilience framework thatcapturesbothprocessesandoutcomevariables. Namely, this theoretical framework explains the resilience, i.e. threat coping, given the interaction of environmental stressors, personal processes and internal self-characteristics (e.g. protective factors) andadaptation(outcome)thatcan comeinavariety of forms, including resilient and/or maladaptive reintegration (Kumpfer,2002).Protectivefactorscan serveasfacilitatorsintheprocessofovercomingthe adversity (Smokowski et al., 1999), while denoting thepossibleinsulationfromthenegativeeffectsand representing the effects that can influence and alter an individual's response to environmental impact- ing(mal)adaptiveoutcome(Fletcher&Sarkar,2013). Inaddition,thevarietyoffactorscanbeperceivedas protective factors, such as individual characteristics, familytiesandexternalsystemsupport(Smokowski et al., 1999), including the positive emotions and extraversion (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013) that are perceived as important for our study. Namely, our study focuses on consumer optimism (as positive emotion) and innovativeness (as extraversion) in a form of protective factors vital for consumer resil- ience. Furthermore, adaptation can be positive/ successful (resilient reintegration) and/or less posi- tive, i.e. lower state of reintegration (maladaptive reintegration) (Kumpfer, 2002). Hence, by utilizing Kumpfer's resilience framework, we aim to explore whether consumers decided, or not, to adapt to online buying with respect to their resilience affected by their personal characteristics of con- sumer optimism and innovativeness as protective factors that might help in overcoming the adversity and building their resilience. In this way, we add novelty to this resilience framework encompassing new environmental stressor, new protective factors and outcome variables. First, given the stressor/ challenge,Covid-19providesanovelenvironmental context that would explain the interaction of indi- vidualcharacteristicsandresilienceprocesstowards the adaptation within the retail setting (online buying). Second, the exploration of consumer opti- mism and innovativeness as important predictors adds novelty to Kumpfer's resilience framework in terms of the protective factors in general and with respect to the Covid-19 retail setting. Third, the ef- fect of resilience on online buying will explain the type of an adaptation in terms of the pandemic, i.e. resilient integration or maladaptive reintegration. To the best of knowledge, no prior study has assessed the consumer resilience in terms of the retailsettinggiventhepandemiccontextinasimilar way. 1 Literature overview and hypotheses development Pandemic has not avoided any country or con- sumers. However, currently it is unknown how resilient consumers are; what the relevance of de- mographics and individual traits of consumer opti- mism and innovativeness is for their resilience and its further impact on their behavior (online buying) asawayofhandlingthepandemicchallenge.Thisis important, because consumers respond differently tothreat(Berger,2020),whichmightdeterminetheir further behavior. In addition, personality traits are relevant for individual's protection given the adversity, since they might result in positive adap- tive behavior (Rutter, 1987). Furthermore, since an individual interacts with an environmental stressor, internal self-characteristics (e.g. different cognitive and affective competencies/strengths), also known as protective factors (Rutter, 1987), are necessary for handling difficult tasks and/or personal environ- ments (Kumpfer, 2002). Concerning the resilience literature, many factors are considered to be pro- tective factors, such as positive emotions, extraver- sion, self-efficacy, spirituality, self-esteem and positive affect (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013), suggesting the crucial role of individual factors for one's resil- ience, i.e. response to adversity. Further reasons for researching the impact of consumer optimism and innovativeness on resilience lie within the notions that an optimism is important when facing ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2021;23:260e272 261 difficulties in real life that require critical thinking (Pintore,2020;Taggart,2020),wherebyinnovationis also seen as crisis-critical (Bar Am et al., 2020)asis the case with the research context of adversity (Covid-19). Therefore, optimism and openness to changes (innovativeness) are crucial in navigating the crisis, while Covid-19 represents a crisis that calls for researching the resilience and adaptive behaviors. In addition, the notion that ties the researched variables of optimism, innovativeness and resilience is the concept of one's psychological capitalthatplaysanimportantrolewhenfacedwith challenges and problem-solving situations (Bas- karan & Rajarathinam, 2017). Moreover, the variety ofpersonaltraits,suchasoptimism,innovativeness, self-efficacy, perceived risk and resilience, are considered important for adaption behaviors in different contexts (Magotra et al., 2016). This strengthens the positioning of our research around the proposed model of researching the influence of personal characteristics on the resilience and its further impact on online buying adaptation behavior within the Covid-19 and retail setting. Hence, by utilizing Kumpfer's (2002) resilience framework, we aim to research the impact of de- mographicandpersonalvariables/protectivefactors of optimism and innovativeness on consumer resilience and its effect on online buying (adapta- tion) within the Covid-19 and retail context. 1.1 Demographic characteristics and consumer resilience General consumer behavior notions indicate that female and male consumers differ based on their shopping patterns, information processing, evalua- tions, and responses to different stimuli (Cleveland et al., 2003). Given these differences, it sounds reasonable to explore gender's potential relevance for the current context, as it might provide addi- tional insights with respect to the pandemic expe- rience, information processing and responses. Scholars argue that resilience might differ with respect to demographic characteristics, such as age, gender and education (Ang et al., 2018; Connor & Davidson, 2003). Researchers (Hirani et al., 2016) stress the importance of gender for resilience exploration due to its interaction with other factors, for instance, social expectations, perceptions and environmental factors, which differently influence female and male experiences and responses to adversity. In other words, men and women face the influence of different types of risk due to the eco- nomic, biological and cultural factors, including the gender roles, thus exhibiting different abilities to handle the risk and cope with stressors (Kumar & Quisumbing, 2014). Previous studies have found that the demographic characteristic of gender could be used for predicting the stress and resilience, primarily in the context of security threats (Kimhi et al., 2020). Studies indicate that females are likely to show lower levels of resilience than males (Ang et al., 2018; Hirani et al., 2016; Rodriguez-Llanes et al., 2013; Yu & Zhang, 2007). In addition, Smo- kowski et al. (1999) argue that in disadvantaged situations, female individuals might be more resil- ient before adolescence and male ones after adolescence. Following the previous notions, it could be assumed that male consumers might be more resilient given the pandemic circumstance. Hence, H1: Male consumers tend to be more resilient than female consumers. When it comes to age, no evidence was found to support the exploration of age in terms of the pandemic setting. Nevertheless, some general no- tions could be considered when discussing the researched context. For instance, it seems that age influences protective factors that predict resilience whereby younger people might feel more resilient (Wasongaetal.,2003).Inaddition,paststudies(Sun & Stewart, 2007) suggest that resilience is tied to self-esteem, which is lower in young individuals, and thus the latter might seem less resilient. Given the current lack of pandemic insights, this notion calls for additional reasoning about the role of age when it comes to a new perspective, such as pandemic, especially since Covid-19 brought changesinshiftingtoonlineenvironmentandusing technology, for some of the consumers for the first time. It seems that both younger and older con- sumers might be vulnerable considering the situa- tion (Jourova, 2016) and that, besides age, resilience may differ depending on one's maturity (Southwick et al., 2014). Some scholars who focused on researching the resilience and youth found that the more resilient children have an ability to get adults to help them out and that resilient youth is often talented (Coutu, 2002). Other researchers deter- mined that people aged 65 years seem to be more resilient than those aged 18e24 (Ang et al., 2018). According to some researchers (Kimhi et al., 2020), age might be helpful in predicting the stress and resilience when faced with security threats. In addition,Windleetal.(2008)arguethatolderpeople might exhibit higher levels of resilience due to their higher self-esteem, skillfulness and optimism. Drawing the analogy from the previous notions and 262 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2021;23:260e272 applying them to the pandemic setting for novel insights, the following can be proposed: H2:Olderconsumersshowhigherlevelofresilience. Accordingtoresearchers(e.g.Krasnyetal.,2009),a little attention is paid to the role of education for adaptive behavior and resilience literature. It was found that educational programs for secondary and universitystudentsmightenhanceresilience(Krasny etal.,2009).However,nodirect connection between theeducationallevelsandresiliencewasfoundinthe past literature. Therefore, additional exploration of this relationship might provide novel findings. Another study shows that people with a college de- gree had a higher resilience level than those less educated(Bonannoetal.,2007).Inaddition,drawing from the findings that high achievers are strongly internally motivated and exhibit higher resilience (Jackson&Martin,1998),andthathighereducational choicesdiminishvulnerability,whileincreasingone's efficiency (Ringold,2005),thusincreasingresilience, the similar analogy can be applied in terms of the researched relationship. Namely, if individuals who advance on the educational level are perceived as highachieversandmoreefficient,educationmightbe relevant for their higher resilience level. A study exploring the role of education for the susceptibility and resilience to memory aging stereotypes deter- mined the important role of education, whereby it wasfoundthatindividualswith ahigherconfidence in their own abilities are those more educated ones, because higher educated people tend to have a greater sense of control (Andreoletti & Lachman, 2004). Although this finding does not represent a directinsightfortheresearchedimpactofeducation ontheresilience,itdoestellaboutone'scapabilities. Thus,ifmoreeducatedpeoplehaveagreatersenseof control and confidence in their abilities, it could be assumed that they could be more resilient as well. Hence,itisassumed: H3: Higher educational level positively influences consumer resilience. 1.2 Consumer optimism and resilience Optimism can be defined as ‘an individual differ- encevariablethatreflectsthe extenttowhich people hold generalized favorable expectancies for their future’ (Carver et al., 2010). It is pervasive in every aspect of human lives (Lim et al., 2011) and plays an important role in adaptation to stressful conditions (Souri&Hasanirad,2011).Thus,itreflectsindividuals' positive attitude towards difficult situations and therefore is highly important for resilience (Yu & Zhang,2007).Togetherwithself-acceptanceandself- esteem, optimism is important for maintaining and restoring healthy and efficacious functioning (Sumi, 2014). Some studies indicate that, when faced with a challenge, optimists can show a higher level of resil- ience, even if the situation is difficult and slow in progress(Synder& Lopez,2002).Studiessuggestthe positiveinfluenceofoptimismonhealthandrecovery, although it is unknown why people feel optimistic when facing a health challenge (Briley et al., 2017). However, individuals with higher positive outcomes perceptionmightshowmoreeffectiveself-regulation when faced with a particular event (Nenkov et al., 2008).Therelevanceofoptimismforresilienceliesin notion that optimism can build resilience. Namely, optimism may help reduce the sense of helplessness that occurs when individual feels like being out of control, which consequently helps in motivating in- dividuals to take the constructive action (Mills & Dombeck,2020).Furthermore,Arampatzietal.(2020) arguethatoptimismand consistentpositiveexpecta- tionscanbeasourceofresiliencethatmighteasethe coping and fasten the adaptation to difficult events. Ball and Lamberton (2015) claim that more resilient individualsarelesslikelytohidetheiremotionsorfeel negativeemotions(e.g.anger),andhaveahigherlevel of optimism. In addition, scholars (e.g. Fletcher & Sarkar,2013)notethatindividualswhoscorehighon self-esteemandoptimismarelesslikelytoperceivean event as stressful. Furthermore, Smokowski et al. (1999) argue that optimism, along with other factors (e.g.hope,self-controlandintelligence)canbeseenas an important predictor of resilience among younger population. Moreover, positive emotions represent important protective factors within the resilience framework(Fletcher&Sarkar,2013),therefore,itdoes make sense to explore whether consumer optimism (as positive emotion) might drive higher resilience. However, no studies regarding consumer optimism and consumer resilience relationship within the cur- rent pandemic context were found, thus our study mightshednewlightwhilecontributingtoKumpfer's resilienceframeworkinthisregard.Hence, H4: Consumer optimism positively influences consumer resilience. 1.3 Consumer innovativeness and resilience Innovativenessisapersonalitytraitthatreflectsan intrinsic propensity to search for new information, encouragements and experiences (Hirschman, 1980; ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2021;23:260e272 263 Triwijayatietal.,2020),whileencompassingcognitive and sensory aspects, which refer to the consumer's tendency to be open to new things and activate in thought, including the level to which they actively participateinchange(Triwijayatietal.,2020;Venka- traman& Price, 1990). Understanding motivation in innovation while facing a change helps to compre- henddecisionmakinginadversetimes(Soleas,2020). Thisstrengthenstheroleofinnovativenessinfighting the hardship and protecting oneself. Furthermore, since resilience entails necessary motivation and psychological capability to recover from a tough sit- uation, it is greatly dependent on an individual's capability to innovate and accomplish success (Raq- shin & Nirjar, 2012). In addition, some studies (e.g. Baskaran & Rajarathinam, 2017) indicate that inno- vative behavior is positively associated with other different dimensions of psychological capital, including self-efficacy and resilience. Moreover, somescholarssuggestthatresilientindividualstend to be those who are more open toward change and more innovative (Roberts, 2016). Smokowski et al. (1999) claim that individuals who strive to find different ways of perceiving things tend to be more resilient. Furthermore, consumer innovativeness is animportantdriverintermsofaneconomicprogress, includingtheacceptanceofinnovations,aswellasin situationswhenindividualstakenewviewpointsand makeinnovativedecisionsasawayofaddressingthe change (Triwijayati et al., 2020). These findings strongly indicate the potential relationship between theprotectivefactorofconsumerinnovativenessand resilience, which is aimed to be explored within our study given the pandemic and retail context. There- fore,consideringthepreviouslydiscussednotions,it could be assumed that higher individual innova- tivenesscouldbeseenasanimportantcharacteristic andprotectivefactornecessaryforachievingahigher resilience level as a way of responding to a change, that is, pandemic. As such, it adds novelty to the Kumpfer's resilience framework in terms of the relevant protective factors given the new environ- mentalstressor.Hence, H5:Consumerinnovativenesspositivelyinfluences consumer resilience. 1.4 Consumer resilience and purchase decision making Consumerresiliencecanhelpconsumerstobetter handle the adverse experience when it comes to behavioral actions and choices (Glandon, 2015). It can define consumer's relationship towards the company (Eisingerich et al., 2011) that might be improved through consumer's willingness or intention (Rew & Minor, 2018). This suggests that consumer resilience might be relevant for making better purchasing decisions, including the possible adaptation in a form of online buying. In addition, Ball and Lamberton (2015) argue that more resilient individualsweremorelikelytocontinuetostaywith the service provider as a way of finding the adequate solution, or to return to that same pro- vider. This indicates the positive relationship be- tweenresilienceandbehavioraloutcome.According totheexistingfindings,consumerresilienceimpacts an individual's actions (Maddi, 2012), including the decision making and everyday functioning (Conelly et al., 2017; Skondras et al., 2020). In addition, since consumer resilience represents an important factor in adapting the behavior to adverse circumstances andreachingone'sempowerment(Fordetal.,2019), it seems plausible to explore whether consumers feel empowered with a possibility of buying online during the pandemic. Moreover, one's resilience, perceived as self-efficacy, represents a vital precondition for behavioral processes (Thakur, 2018). Therefore, perceived as self-efficacy, resil- ience might be relevant for consumer's decision making. Furthermore, consumers change their behavior when experiencing difficulties (Voinea & Filip, 2011) as a way of coping with the adversity. In addition, Kumpfer (2002) argues that when consid- ering outcomes, resilience can result either in posi- tive adaptation (positive or resilient integration) or maladaptivereintegration(negativeorlowerstateof adaptation). In the context of our research, it means that resilient consumers might be prone to online buying, but it also means that they might show lesser proclivity to online buying as a way of mal- adaptive behavior. Due to the mixed findings of prior literature, and thus refraining from positive or negative influence of consumer resilience on online buying, the following more exploratory hypothesis is proposed: H6: Consumer resilience influences online buying. Given previously discussed relationships, research model is shown in Fig. 1. 2 Research methodology 2.1 Sampling and data collection Survey was conducted on a sample of 502 Croa- tian consumers. For this purpose, a convenience sampling method was used, while the online 264 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2021;23:260e272 questionnaire was developed in Qualtrics and distributed through emails and social network ap- plications (Viber, WhatsApp, Facebook). Prior to survey, the questionnaire was assessed by three marketing professors in order to develop the research constructs more adequately given the research setting. In addition, the questionnaire was pretested on ten respondents (questionnaire filling and one-to-one approach) and included more orig- inal items that were excluded upon pretesting due to the reported confusion, similarity, clutter or lack ofclarity.Finally,atthebeginningofthesurvey,the respondents were introduced to the purpose of the study as well as the context, whereby they were instructed to respond regarding their habits, atti- tudesandpurchasingdecisionsduringtheCovid-19 pandemic. The empirical research took place from 05/25 to 06/04/2020. Data was checked for missing values (94) and outliers (8) and was purified by excluding these respondents. Thus, thefinal sample is N ¼ 400. Data was further analyzed using confirmatory factor (CFA) and multiple regression analyses in SPSS23. Demographic variables included gender (codes: female-1, male-2), age (codes: 1 for 18e24, 2 for 25e34, 3 for 35e44, 4 for 45e54,5for55e64,6for65e74and7for75e84)and education (codes: elementary school-1, high school- 2, college-3, university and higher-4). The sample structure is visible in Table 1. 2.2 Measurement scales Measurement scales were adapted from the existing scholar's studies and were modified to a certain degree tofit the research context better. The modifications refer to wording and formulating the whole sentences out of shorter scale items (e.g. in terms of resilience scale, instead of an original shorteritem ‘Incontrolofmylife’,theitemsforthis research were prolonged into complete sentences, such as, ‘I think I am in control of my life’). This approach was done for all items, where needed. Consumer resilience was measured with seven itemsfromConnorandDavidson's(2003)Resilience scale (2003).Theitemswere: I think I can easily adapt to changes., I can handle all upcoming events., When things look hopeless, I never give up., When under pressure, I can focus and think clearly., I think of myself as a strong person., I can handle unpleasant feelings., I think I am in control of my life. Consumer optimism was measured with four items adapted from Nen- kov et al. (2008), part on elaboration on potential outcomes EPO (positive outcome focus dimension), and Briley et al. (2017), Optimism (General) scale. Theusedoptimismitemsare:Ialwayshave apositive attitude that eventually everything will be all right., I Fig. 1. Research model. Table 1. Sample structure. Characteristic N % Gender Female 286 71.5 Male 114 28.5 Age 18e24 74 18.5 25e34 111 27.7 35e44 140 35 45e54 45 11.3 55e64 19 4.7 65e74 10 2.5 75e84 1 0.3 Education Elementary school 2 0.5 High school 165 41.2 College 89 22.3 University and higher 144 36 Total 400 100 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2021;23:260e272 265 rather think about good things that might happen than about the bad ones., When I think about my decisions, I am more focused on their positive outcomes., I am opti- mistic about my future.Consumerinnovativenesswas assessed through five Manning, Bearden and Mad- den's (1995) items within the scale on Consumer innovativeness (CNS items: I often search for infor- mation about new products and brands., I like to visit places where I am exposed to information about new products and brands., I frequently search for different situations in which I can be exposed to new and different sourcesofproductinformation., Ioftenseek new product/ purchasing experiences., I will use the first available opportunity to find out about new and different prod- ucts.). All items for the researched constructs were rated on Likert scale of seven degrees (1-completely disagree, 2-disagree, 3-somewhat disagree, 4- neither agree or disagree, 5-somewhat agree, 6- agree, 7-completely agree). Online buying was measured with the item ‘This pandemic situation forced me to buy products online’, whereby the re- spondentswere able to choose among the following answers: not at all, to a lesser degree, to a higher degree, completely. 3 Results The research results show that consumers score higher on optimism and resilience, and moderately on innovativeness constructs. Mean and standard deviations are shown in Table 2. 3.1 Confirmatory factor analysis The measurements scales were tested for reli- ability, whereas Cronbach alpha values show that all measurement scales have high reliability: con- sumer optimism (0.853), consumer innovativeness (0.909) and consumer resilience (0.792). For addi- tional reliability and validity scales’ assessment, a confirmatory factor analysis was performed. The results (Table 3) show that the measurements scales exhibit adequate reliability and convergent validity. In addition, due to the square roots of the AVE being higher than the correlation values, it can be concluded that the measurement scales also show the characteristics of discriminant validity (Table 4). 3.2 Regression analysis In order to test the proposed hypotheses, the hi- erarchical regression analysis was performed for H1eH5 hypotheses and the simple regression one for H6 hypothesis. The p-value of 0.05 or lower was set as a significant cut off point for hypothesis confirmation along with the proposed hypothesis direction. Provided p-values represent two-tailed tests, since the possibility of the relationships in both directions is tested regardless of the hypothe- sized ones. The regression results are shown in Tables 5e10. Fortestingtheimpactofdemographic(gender,age, education) and individual (consumer optimism and innovativeness) characteristics, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used. The first step included demographic variables, while the sec- ond one encompassed individual variables, which explained21%ofthetotalvariance,F(5.394)¼20.485, p<0.001;r 2 changedfor¼0.20andF(2.394)¼49.970, p < 0.001. The final model indicates three significant predictors of consumer resilience:gender (b¼ 0.095, p < 0.050), consumer optimism (b¼ 0.400, p < 0.001) and consumerinnovativeness(b¼0.141,p<0.001). In order to test the influence of consumer resil- ienceononlinebuying,asimpleregressionanalysis wasused.Theresultsarevisibleinthetablesbelow. Table 2. Main constructs. Variable Mean St.dev. Consumer optimism 5.59 1.01 Consumer innovativeness 4.21 1.34 Consumer resilience 5.27 1.03 Table 3. Confirmatory factor analysis. Factor/items Factor loading CR AVE Consumer optimism 0.854 0.594 CO1 0.786 CO2 0.773 CO3 0.743 CO4 0.780 Consumer innovativeness 0.901 0.648 CI1 0.666 CI2 0.841 CI3 0.900 CI4 0.798 CI5 0.803 Consumer resilience 0.778 0.479 CR1 0.786 CR2 0.867 CR3 0.536 CR4 0.510 Table 4. Discriminant validity. CO CI CR CO (0.770) CI 0.198** (0.804) CR 0.419** 0.218** (0.692) Note: ** correlations are significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 266 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2021;23:260e272 The results show that consumer resilience signif- icantly and negatively impacts online buying (b¼ - 0.131, p < 0.050). In addition, a two-way ANOVA analysis was conductedfortestingthepotentialdifferencesinthe effectsofconsumeroptimismandinnovativenesson consumer resilience for males and females. The insignificance of interaction effects indicates that there are no significant differences in the effects of consumer optimism and innovativeness on con- sumer resilience for males and females. 4 Discussion 4.1 Theoretical contributions The main purpose of this research was to explore consumer resilience within the retail pandemic setting given the consumers' demographic and in- dividual characteristics, that is, protective factors of optimism and innovativeness, and the impact of resilience on online buying. This was explored through the lens of Kumpfer's resilience framework that stresses the importance of environmental context, individual protective factors and outcome variables for resilience. The research findings show that Croatian consumers do not perceive Covid-19 as a huge threat, that is, they feel quite resilient and optimistic, and also innovative to a certain degree. Results show that gender (male) plays an important role for consumer resilience, thus, hypothesis H1 is supported. These results are in accordance with the previousfindings (e.g. Ang et al., 2018; Hirani et al., 2016; Rodriguez-Llanes et al., 2013; Smokowski et al., 1999; Yu & Zhang, 2007), indicating that, un- like female, male individuals show a higher level of resilience. Since age and education seem to be insignificantforconsumerresilience,hypothesesH2 and H3 are rejected. The reasons for insignificance Table 5. Predictors and consumer resilience: model summary. Model Summary c Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Change Statistics R Square Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change 1 .093 a .009 .001 1.03219 .009 1.145 3 396 .331 2 .457 b .209 .199 0.92421 .201 49.970 2 394 .000 a Predictors: (Constant), Education, Gender, Age. b Predictors: (Constant), Education, Gender, Age, Consumer optimism, Consumer innovativeness. c Dependent Variable: Consumer resilience. Table 6. Predictors and consumer resilience: ANOVA. ANOVA a Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 3.661 3 1.220 1.145 .331 b Residual 421.908 396 1.065 Total 425.569 399 2 Regression 89.027 5 17.805 20.845 .000 c Residual 336.542 394 .854 Total 425.569 399 a Dependent Variable: Consumer resilience. b Predictors: (Constant), Education, Gender, Age. c Predictors: (Constant), Education, Gender, Age, Consumer optimism, Consumer innovativeness. Table 7. Predictors and consumer resilience: coefficients. Coefficients a Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients T Sig. Correlations Collinearity Statistics B Std. Error Beta Zero-order Partial Part Tolerance VIF 1 (Constant) 4.913 .269 18.279 .000 Gender .127 .114 .056 1.111 .267 .054 .056 .056 1.000 1.000 Age -.017 .043 -.020 -.394 .694 -.010 -.020 -.020 .984 1.016 Education .087 .059 .075 1.491 .137 .072 .075 .075 .984 1.017 2 (Constant) 1.981 .380 5.206 .000 Gender .217 .103 .095 2.109 .036 .054 .106 .094 .991 1.009 Age -.002 .039 -.002 -.041 .968 -.010 -.002 -.002 .961 1.040 Education .092 .053 .080 1.757 .080 .072 .088 .079 .978 1.022 Consumer optimism .409 .047 .400 8.725 .000 .419 .402 .391 .954 1.048 Consumer innovativeness .109 .036 .141 3.050 .002 .218 .152 .137 .934 1.071 a Dependent Variable: Consumer resilience. ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2021;23:260e272 267 of age and education for consumer resilience might be sought within the convenience sampling and thus unequal sample distribution. Therefore, addi- tional exploration on the representative sample would be required in order to capture the potential significance of age and education variables for consumer resilience. The obtained results contribute to Kumpfer's resilience framework by adding the relevance of personal demographic fac- tor for resilience within the new environmental (pandemic) context. Given the protective factors, consumer optimism positively influences consumer resilience and thus hypothesis H4 is supported. This finding is aligned withtheresearchresultsofSumi(2014)arguingthat optimism is vital for maintaining and restoring efficacious functioning and those of Synder and Lopez (2002) who argue that optimists can exhibit high level of resilience when facing difficult and enduring stressors. In addition, our result corrobo- rates thenotionsofArampatziet al.(2020),whereby optimism represents a predictor of resilience that enables coping and adaptation to difficult events. It seems that optimism can reduce the feeling of helplessness, thus enabling the feeling of taking backthecontrol(beingresilient),whichisnecessary for one's further actions, as suggested by Mills and Dombeck (2020). Our result also confirms that more resilient consumers are those who feel positive emotions, as claimed by Ball and Lamberton (2015), andthatconsumeroptimismcanbeperceivedasan important protective factor driving higher resil- ience, which adds novelty to the Kumpfer's resil- ience framework when it comes to the role of relevant protective factors and personal processes. Furthermore, our study shows that consumer innovativeness is positively associated with the consumer resilience signaling that the higher the innovativeness, the higher the consumer resilience. Thus,hypothesisH5issupported.Thegainedresult can be explained in a sense that more innovative consumersaremoreopentowardsnewexperiences, new situations and changes, including challenges, such as pandemic and purchasing experience. Such explanation can also be seen in Triwijayati et al.’s (2020) study indicating that innovative individuals can be more open to new experiences and changes as a way of addressing a particular change. Furthermore, our result is in accordance with Raq- shin and Nirjar's (2012) findings that an individual's capability to recover from a tough situation (being resilient) is dependent on one's capability to be innovative, and with Baskaran and Rajarathinam's (2017) and Robert's (2016) findings showing that innovative behavior is positively associated with resilience. Our finding suggests that consumer innovativeness can be seen as an important pro- tective factor explaining the consumer resilience, Table 8. Consumer resilience and outcome: model summary. Model Summary b Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Change Statistics R Square Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change 1 .131 a .017 .015 .674 .017 6.983 1 398 .009 a Predictors: (Constant), Consumer resilience. b Dependent Variable: Online buying. Table 9. Consumer resilience and outcome: ANOVA. ANOVA a Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 3.177 1 3.177 6.983 .009 b Residual 181.063 398 .455 Total 184.240 399 a Dependent Variable: Online buying. b Predictors: (Constant), Consumer resilience. Table 10. Consumer resilience and outcome: coefficients. Coefficients a Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. Correlations Collinearity Statistics B Std. Error Beta Zero-order Partial Part Tolerance VIF 1 (Constant) 2.075 .176 11.818 .000 Consumer resilience -.086 .033 -.131 2.643 .009 -.131 -.131 -.131 1.000 1.000 a Dependent Variable: Online buying. 268 ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2021;23:260e272 thus providing the novelty to the utilized Kumpfer's resilience framework in terms of the protective factors and personal processes. Lastly,ourresearchresultsindicatethatconsumer resilience is negatively associated with online buying. Thus, hypothesis H6 is supported. This result suggests that when consumers are more resilient, they are less prone to adapting their behavior to online buying. This might also suggest that consumers are not greatly intimated by Covid- 19 and tend to buy in physical stores instead of switching to the online mode. On one side, this resultisincontradictionwithsomeexistingfindings suggesting that resilience might work for positive consumer's intentions (e.g. Rew & Minor, 2018)or reaching the empowerment through adaptation behavior (Ford et al., 2019). Our finding is also contrary to the one of Voinea and Filip (2011) sug- gestingthatconsumersmightchangetheirbehavior whenexperiencingdifficultyasawayofcopingwith anadversity.Ontheotherside,ourfindingsupports Maddi's (2012) notion that consumer resilience im- pacts one's actions and Thakur's (2018) insight that one's self-efficacy is a precondition for a particular behavioral process. More importantly, our finding corroborates Kumpfer's (2002) results that resilience can take either the way of positive reintegration/ adaptation or maladaptive reintegration, i.e. nega- tive/lower adaptation, which is the case with our study. Therefore, this result contributes to Kump- fer's resilience framework by addressing a novel outcome variable of online buying maladaptive behavior given the new environmental setting (pandemic). Considering the obtained results, the main contribution of our study is the enhancement of Kumpfer's resilience framework by adding the new environmental stressor (Covid-19) and explaining the resilience relationships with new protective factors of consumer optimism and inno- vativeness, as well as the new outcome online buying variable that turned out to be an example of maladaptive behavior. 4.2 Managerial implications Given the exploration of demographics and con- sumer resilience, the research indicates that male consumers are more resilient, suggesting also that femalesaremorevulnerable.This resultmeansthat companies should be careful when advertising gender roles. Namely, when promoting their ser- vices, companies should provide reassuring mes- sages especially towards female consumers in order to build their resilience. This suggestion can also be supported by recent Unicef's (2020) proposal advising that due to the Covid-19 impacts, com- panies should strive for socially beneficial commu- nications, while avoiding gender stereotypes. In order to do so, the emphasis should be put on including both genders and diverse personalities within the messages. Therefore, when advertising their products, retailers should depict the scenarios of both genders. Considering the personalities and the obtained results, our study suggests that in order to build consumer resilience, the messages should appeal to optimism and innovativeness. Namely, it is neces- sary to communicate an optimistic approach as a path towards overcoming the challenge, while waiting to return to normal. This notion is corrob- orated by the Financial Express (2020) analysis claiming that global brand companies decided to use the optimism (positive thoughts, thank you notes, values of kindness, hope and generosity) as anappealforstayingconnectedwiththeconsumers, while looking at the brighter side of life during the pandemic. A similar approach can be seen in an Adidas campaign that appeals to joy, optimism and resilience (Stewart, 2020), whereby Adidas commu- nicates optimism as a necessity for handling the unknown future events, showing respect for every chance,whilebeing ‘readyforsport’.Intermsofthe established connection between the consumer innovativeness and resilience, marketers might ap- peal to consumer innovativeness by developing personalized messages. For instance, they can develop creative messages inviting consumers to explore the variety, to seek for new products and experiences while maintaining the control in tough circumstances. They can stimulate consumers to embracethenewnormalandtobeopen,asawayof building their resilience. An example of a campaign that acknowledges the pandemic adversity while appealing to openness is Coca-Cola's campaign ‘Open like never before’, whereby it is suggested to be open to the various things in order to get back to normal, i.e. to be resilient. In addition, while appealing to optimism and innovativeness as a way of building consumer resilience, companies might consideraddinghumorappealstotheirpositiveand creativeads,duetothefactthathumormightbetter grab the consumers' attention while sharing the positive feelings. Therefore, given the adversity context, today the companies need to take an inno- vative and creative positive approach in their communication strategies even more than before. Lastly, our study established a negative relation- ship between consumer resilience and online buying. This finding suggests several things to marketers.First,itshowsthattheymightbedoinga ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW 2021;23:260e272 269 good job in communicating the social distancing measures and safety of shopping in physical stores. Second, it suggests that marketers should continue stressing the importance of safety measures via ads, and on the spot through safety signs and labels. However, one of the suggestions still might be to start or continue shifting the consumers to online buying as an additional safety measure. Namely, although consumers might feel quite resilient given the Covid-19 threat, it might also mean that con- sumersarestillnotfullyawareofthethreatseverity and benefits of online buying in fighting the pandemic. Therefore, the companies should stress the safety and easiness of online buying as their additional benefit and as an added value for resil- ient consumers as well, thus enhancing the overall consumer buying experience. 4.3 Limitations and future research This study is not without limitations. Namely, the used sampling method was the convenience sam- pling, which possibly resulted in age and education being insignificant. Thus, the future research could bebasedonaprobabilitysamplingmethodinorder to get a representative sample considering de- mographic variables and also the income role that was not part of our study at this point. In addition, anotherlimitationcouldbetheinclusionofonlytwo personal traits, i.e. protective factors, whereby some other individual characteristics might reveal addi- tional information regarding the consumers given the pandemic context. 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