International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies issn 1855-3362 (printed) issn 2232-6022 (online) The aim of the International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies is to promote intercultural dialogue and exchanges between societies, develop human resources, and to assure greater mutual understanding in the Euro-Mediterranean region. L’objectif de la revue internationale d’etudes Euro-Méditerranéennes est de promouvoir le dialogue interculturel et les échanges entre les sociétés, développer les ressources humaines et assurer une compréhension mutuelle de qualité au sein de la région euro-méditerranéenne. Namen Mednarodne revije za evro­mediteranske študije je spodbujanje medkulturnega dialoga in izmenjav, razvoj cloveških virov in zagotavljanje boljšega medsebojnega razumevanja v evro-mediteranski regiji. ijems is indexed in Scopus, International Bibliography of the Social Sciences, Directory of Open Access Journals, Index Islamicus, oclc, and Summon by Serial Solutions. editor-in-chief Jaka Vadnjal, Euro-Mediterranean University, Slovenia, editor.ijems@emuni.si associate editors Barbara Gornik, Science and Research Centre Koper, Slovenia Karim Moustagh.r, Al Akhawayn University, Morocco Chahir Zaki, Cairo University, Egypt editorial advisory board Abeer Refky, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Egypt Francesco Martinico, University of Catania, Italy Mona Esam Othman Fayed, University of Cairo, Egypt Claudio Cressati, University of Udine, Italy Lola Bañon Castellón, University of Valencia, Spain Nataša Uroševic, Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Croatia Boštjan Udovic, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Maysoun Ibrahim, Palestinian Syndicate for Information Sciences and Technology, Palestine Péter Kacziba, University of Pécs, Hungary Lot. Ben Romdhane, University of Sousse, Tunisia Mejjad Nezha, UniversityHassan ii of Casablanca, Morocco International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies Table of Contents 5 Navigating Global Disruptions: Migration, Education, and Labor Markets in a Post-Pandemic World Jaka Vadnjal 9Morocco’s Contribution to the Consolidation of Intra-African Migration: An Analysis through the Prism of Gabonese and Cameroonian Student Migration Flows in the City of Fez Pierre Oyono Mvogo and Sanae Kasmi 33 Internationalisation at Home: Intercultural Engagement of Students in Extracurricular Activities; med2iah Case Study Nada Trunk Širca, Anica Novak Trunk, Karim Moustagh.r, and Dorsaf Ben Malek 63 The Use of Analytic Hierarchy Process for Measuring National Interests: Demonstrating the Case Study of the Changing Relevance of Libya for Italian Foreign Policy between 2011–2021 Lili Takacs 87 Case Studies of covid-19Pandemic A.ecting Early-Career Scientists’ Mobility within the Mediterranean Blue Economy Sector Jihene Nouairi, Alice A.atati, Giorgia Rivoira, Sergio Rejado Albaina, and Mounir Ghribi 115 The E.ects of Job Retention Schemes on Employment Preservation during the covid-19Epidemic in Euro Area Countries Anton Rop 141 The Positive Impact of the covid-19Pandemic on the Slovenian Economy Pierre Rostan and Alexandra Rostan 171 Résumés 175 Povzetki 179 ã 184 Building Bridges Across the Mediterranean: emuni’s Vision for the Future information for authors Manuscripts are accepted on the understanding that they are original and not under simultaneous consideration by any other publication. Submitted manuscripts may be subject to checks in order to detect instances of plagiarism. All manuscripts are double-blind peer reviewed. Manuscripts should be prepared following The Chicago Manual of Style. For submissions and detailed instructions about the style and content of papers, please see https://ijems.emuni.si. copyright notice The International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies is an Open Access Journal distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Copyright for all articles published in ijems is held by individual authors. No author fees are charged. published by Euro-Mediterranean University Trevisini Palace Kidricevo nabrežje 2 si-6330 Piran, Slovenia https://ijems.emuni.si ijems@emuni.si Print run: 250. Printed in Slovenia by Demat d.o.o., Ljubljana Mednarodna revija za evro-mediteranske študije je namenjena mednarodni znanstveni in strokovni javnosti; izhaja v anglešcini s povzetki v slovenšcini, francošcini in arabšcini. Izid je .nancno podprla Javna agencija za znanstvenoraziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Slovenije iz sredstev državnega proracuna iz naslova razpisa za so.nanciranje domacih znanstvenih periodicnih publikacij. Revija je brezplacna. ijems | editorial Navigating Global Disruptions: Migration, Education, and Labor Markets in a Post-Pandemic World jaka vadnjal Euro-Mediterranean University, Slovenia jaka.vadnjal@emuni.si https://emuni.si/ISSN/2232-6022/17.5-8.pdf In recent years, global challenges have demanded that academic re­search adopt multidisciplinary approaches to address increasingly com­plex societal issues. This issue of our journal brings together articles that explore the intersections of migration, education, labor markets, and the socioeconomic shifts caused by the covid-19pandemic. To­gether, these studies provide critical insights into how global crises re­shape local and international experiences of mobility, education, em­ployment, and economies. The collection of articles o.ers fresh perspectives on intra-African migration, internationalization within higher education, job retention schemes, and the mobility of early-career scientists in the Mediter­ranean region. They re.ect on the responses to challenges brought about by covid-19and assess the socioeconomic impact of these changes. Through these insights, the authors contribute to ongoing discussions about policy-making and future research in an evolving global landscape. The .rst article, authored by Pierre Oyono Mvogo, titled ‘Morocco’s Contribution to the Consolidation of Intra-African Migration: An Anal­ysis through the Prism of Gabonese and Cameroonian Student Mi­gration Flows in the City of Fez,’ addresses the underexplored issue of intra-African migration. While much literature focuses on African migrationtoEurope, Mvogo shiftsthe focustoMorocco, which has emerged as a hub for student migration from Gabon and Cameroon. The article emphasizes the role of student migration in fostering eco­nomic, political, and cultural integration within Africa. By examining the migration of students to the city of Fez, the study illustrates Mo­rocco’s importance in consolidating African unity and development. Mvogo’s .ndings o.er a nuanced understanding of migration as a driver of regional collaboration, economic growth, and political inte­gration in Africa. In the article ‘The Internationalization at Home: Intercultural En­ [6] gagement of Students in Extracurricular Activities; med2iah Case Study,’ Nada Trunk Širca (Slovenia), Karim Moustagh.r (Morocco), Dorsaf Ben Malek (Tunisia) and Anica Novak Trunk (Slovenia) ad­dress the concept of ‘internationalization at home’ in higher educa­tion. As physical student mobility became severely restricted during the covid-19pandemic,thefocushasshiftedtohowstudentscanen­gage with diverse cultures in their own domestic educational settings. Their work explores how extracurricular activities create opportunities for intercultural engagement and dialogue among students, which may play a crucial role in post-pandemic education. With international stu­dent exchanges largely disrupted, this study argues that meaningful intercultural experiences can still be fostered through intentional, lo­calized programming. This model of internationalization may rede.ne how universities approach cross-cultural learning in the future, par­ticularly in a world still adapting to the constraints and opportunities brought about by covid-19. In Lili Takacz’s (Hungary) article, ‘The Use of Analytic Hierarchy Pro­cess for Measuring National Interests: Demonstrating the Impact of Multicriteria Decision-Making Models on Foreign Policy Formulation,’ the focus is on decision-making tools for prioritizing national interests in complex geopolitical environments. The study introduces the Ana­lytic Hierarchy Process (ahp) as a way to evaluate and measure con.ict­ing national objectives. Takacz shows how ahp can assist policymak­ers in navigating competing priorities in a structured manner. By ap­plying the model to current geopolitical scenarios, the article provides insights into how governments can balance short-term and long-term national interests e.ectively. This method not only advances the theo­retical understanding of decision-making in international relations but also o.ers a practical tool for policymakers facing a rapidly evolving global landscape. The article ‘Early-Career Scientists’ Mobility in the Mediterranean during covid-19: Transforming Crises into Opportunities for Blue Economy’ by Jihene Nouairi, Alice A.atati, Giorgia Rivoira, Sergio Re­jado Albaina and Mounir Ghribi (Italy) examines the impact of the pandemic on academic mobility, particularly for early-career scientists in the Mediterranean region. With travel restrictions, halted research projects, and fewer networking opportunities, early-career researchers faced considerable challenges. However, the article also points to the opportunities that arose from the crisis. By embracing digital tools and remote collaboration, early-career scientists adapted to new forms [7] of engagement and cooperation. The authors argue that this shift to­ward virtual collaboration and digital research tools is likely to have long-term bene.ts, democratizing access to international academic networks. This study highlights how adversity can spur innovation and foster new ways of academic collaboration. Anton Rop (Slovenia) examines the impact of job retention schemes in the article ‘The E.ects of Job Retention Schemes on Employment Preservationduringthe covid-19Epidemic.’ Governmentsworldwide introduced these schemes to prevent mass unemployment during the pandemic, but the e.ectiveness of these measures remains a topic of debate. Rop’s analysis of various job retention schemes reveals that while they were e.ective in keeping workers employed in the short term, there were unintended consequences, such as wage stagnation and limited job mobility. The article emphasizes the need for govern­ments to consider the long-term e.ects of such schemes, particularly in terms of economic recovery and workforce .exibility. Rop calls for a balanced approach that not only preserves jobs during crises but also fosters a dynamic labor market in the long run. In their article, ‘The Positive Impact of the covid-19Pandemic on the Slovenian Economy,’ Pierre Rosta and Alexandra Rostan (usa) chal­lenge conventional narratives that depict the pandemic solely as a nega­tive economic force. The authors explore how Slovenia managed to turn the crisis into an opportunity for economic growth, particularly in the healthcare, information technology, and manufacturing sectors. The article attributes Slovenia’s resilience to pre-existing policies, swift gov­ernmental interventions, and the adaptability of key industries. The pandemic accelerated digital transformation and innovation, which has positioned Slovenia for long-term economic growth. This case study of­fers valuable lessons for other countries seeking to build economic re­silience in the face of future global disruptions. To conclude, this issue brings together diverse perspectives on how migration, education, and labor markets have been a.ected by global crises, particularly the covid-19pandemic. The articles underscore the importance of adaptability, innovation, and resilience in respond-ing to the challenges posed by these disruptions. By examining these key areas through a global lens, the contributions in this issue o.er valuable insights for scholars, policymakers, and practitioners. As the world continues to grapple with the long-term e.ects of the pandemic, [8] these studies will play a crucial role in shaping future research and pol­icy aimed at fostering socioeconomic recovery and sustainable devel­opment. ijems | scientific article Morocco’s Contribution to the Consolidation of Intra-African Migration: An Analysis through the Prism of Gabonese and Cameroonian Student Migration Flows in the City of Fez pierre oyono mvogo Euromed University of Fès, Morocco p.oyonomvogo@ueuromed.org sanae kasmi Euromed University of Fès, Morocco s.kasmi@ueuromed.org This article brings further light on the enhancement of intra-African migration, which hardly makes the subject of in-depth research, be­sides irregular migration to Europe. This study highlights Morocco’s involvement in the consolidation of migratory processes of African students from the perspective of African Cameroonian and Gabonese students in the city of Fez. Semi-structured interviews revealed mixed opinions regarding their integration into the host country, both in the university environment and in their living place. The study .nds that Fez is an ideal place to study even as one student community (Gabonese) bene.ts from all the facilities to the detriment of the other (Cameroonian), in relation to the agreements pre-established by their governments, which will lead to an imbalance in the integration rela­tionship, and which gave rise to a comparison between the two stu­dent communities. This analysis led to questions about the involve­ment of the home states but also about the reactions of the host coun­try to this policy of the Kingdom to attract more of the students to study in Fez. This study aligns with contemporary studies on inter­national migration, constitutes a perspective for the expansion of le­gal migration channels and an invitation for the African Union to pro­mote ‘intra-African’ migration. Key Words: Intra-African migration, Morocco, Gabonese students, Cameroonian students, Fez https://emuni.si/ISSN/2232-6022/17.9-32.pdf introduction Morocco’s return to the African Union (au) in 2017 has rede.ned the face of African multilateralism. For long, the Kingdom remained in the background in the formulation of African policies, but it is now going to [10] reappropriate African social life and participate naturally in its trans­formation and socio-economic development. As a result, Moroccan-African cooperation improved the Kingdom’s political position on the continent (Barre 1996) and Morocco is now a major actor in African mi­gration policy. Despite its low score in the African regional migration index on free movement,¹ Morocco participates massively in strength­ening migration within the African continent. It is through the im­pulsement of His Majesty King Mohammed vi that the kingdom is assuming the responsibility of African leader on migration issues.² As Mr. Nasser Bourita said during the 35th ordinary session of the au summit, three Africans out of four moves within African borders, to neighbouring countries, whereas only one African envisage going to Europe, where most of the debate on African migration takes place.³ This con.rms the density of intra-African migration (Tametong and Oyono 2022, 35). Since 2000, the Moroccan government’s policy for African stu­dents has welcomed about 15,000 students, including 7,000 scholar­ship holders, which aims to make Morocco an African regional hub for university studies (Dkhissi et al. 2012, 84). Morocco is considered welcoming and has welcomes thousands of African students (Crétois 2020; Mahamadou Laouali and Meyer 2012), most of whom come from sub-Saharan Africa (Nzamba 2015). As Mr Chakib Mounsif said in his remarks: ‘Today, much more than before, Morocco is increasingly a preferred destination for students from sub-Saharan Africa.’4 The re- ¹ See https://www.integrate-africa.org/fr/classements/dimensions/libre-circulation -des-personnes/. ² Upon its reintegration into the African Union in 2017, Morocco was designated as the spokesperson for migration issues in Africa, and the kingdom will o.cially present the African migration agenda at the 30th African Union summit in 2018. ³ The Minister of Foreign A.airs, African Cooperation and Moroccans Living Abroad, Mr. Nasser Bourita, represented the Sovereign of Morocco at the 35th Ordinary Session of the Summit of the Pan-African Organization and recalled the predominance of intra-African migration. 4 Interview with Mr Chakib Mounsif, advisor to the President of the Euromed University of Fez, in charge of communication and partnership with Africa, 13 February 2023. port forthe 2019–2020 academicyearfrom the Moroccan Ministry of Higher Education, Scienti.c Research and Innovation and the Mo­roccan Agency for International Cooperation (amci) estimates that there are 14,500 foreign students in Moroccan public higher education universities, including 12,500 students from 47 African countries.5 It [11] is di.cult nowadays for this agency to provide the exact number of African students enrolled in private universities. Nevertheless, for the academic year 2020–2021, the Kingdom was not able to welcome new sub-Saharan students, due to the Covid-19pandemic. Created in 1986, amci encouragesAfricanmobilitythroughstudiesinMorocco. Within this proportion of students, there is a very large number coming from Central Africa. Minister Younes Sekkouri visited this region on 17 and 18 November 2022,6 with a priority given to Gabon and Cameroon, he declared: ‘Review the excellent relations between the Moroccan people and these two countries. There exists a close academic cooperation be­tween Morocco and Gabon7 but also between Morocco and Cameroon.’8 This is the reason why we are analysing the migratory .ows of students to Morocco from these two countries belonging to the same geograph­ical area. In the past, foreign students only attended Moroccan public universities on the basis of agreements and scholarship programmes, but Gabonese and Cameroonian students can now enrol in private universities. Moreover, beyond the academic framework, Morocco is currently the leading African investor in the Economic and Monetary Community of Central African States (cemac) (Fihri 2014). As a result of this perceptible cooperation, the migration of Africans in general from south of the Sahara to Morocco remains marked by prej­udices and preconceptions. In its foreign policy, for African countries, Morocco contributes signi.cantly to the expansion of intra-African 5amci awards a number of Moroccan scholarships to international higher education students. In the 2019/2020 academic year, more than 12,000 international students have received scholarships from the Kingdom of Morocco through amci, and 85. of amci scholarship students are African. 6 The Minister Younes Sekkouri in charge of economic inclusion, small business, employ­ment and skills of Morocco toured Africa on 17, 18, and 19November 2022 to deliver messages from the King of Morocco to the leaders of speci.c Central African countries such as Gabon, Cameroon and the drc. 7 Trade relations between Morocco and Gabon are governed by a trade agreement signed in Rabat on 6 November 1974. 8 Morocco-Cameroon Trade Agreement signed in Marrakech on 15 April 1987. academic migration. This is characterised by a regional and continen­tal movement of ‘African students’ to Africa, further strengthening and maintaining intra-African migration. African student immigra­tion to Morocco brings a positive wind to the intra-African migration [12] (Abourabi 2022; us Department of State 2022) The United Nations de­.nes a long-term migrant as a person who leaves their country of origin to settle in another for a period of at least one year (Tarran 2017, 12). It is through this de.nition that it is important to characterise students coming from Gabon and Cameroon to Morocco, but also the analysis of this article is done through the term migratory .ow which charac­terisesthe movement of people betweenthe placeoforigin(Gabonand Cameroon) and the place of destination (Morocco-Fez) (De Hass and Frankema 2022, 13). There are about 3000 Gabonese students in Morocco, representing the largest community of students in Sub-Saharan Africa. Meanwhile, the president of the Association of Cameroonian Students in Morocco (casam). reports that there are approximately 300 Cameroonian stu­dents with scholarships, and 150 students in private universities in Mo­rocco. To allow Cameroonian students to migrate, Morocco through the Ministry of Higher Education of Cameroon, has for years been launch­ing a call for applications for scholarships. Gabon, for its part, has de­veloped a strategy between the Gabonese National Scholarship Agency (anbg) and smart Africa consulting for the supervision of scholar­ship students in Morocco. For the year 2022–2023, 50 Cameroonian stu­dents bene.ted from this intra-African academic cooperation; while for the neighbouring country there were 150 new scholarship hold­ers. This inequality of .gures also allowed to insist on the comparison of intra-African academic migration conventions that Morocco devel­ops with each of these two neighbouring countries taken individually, which each have a di.erent cooperation approach with the Cheri.an kingdom. Very often concentrated and accustomed to the main Moroccan cities of Casablanca and Rabat, there are nowadays a large number of Gabonese and Cameroonian students in the spiritual and cultural city of Fez, regardless of whether they are scholarship holders or not. The choice of this city is therefore strategic, as were some researchers . Interview with the president of Cameroonian students’ association in Morocco, De­cember 2022. who studied the migration .ows of sub-Saharan migrants in this area in the past (Ennaji et al. 2021, 2). In 2021, nearly 400 Gabonese students were counted in Fez according to the census sheet of the secretary of the Gabonese Union of Morocco (ugm)¹° and nearly 35 Cameroonian students, according to the representative of Cameroonian students in [13] Fez.¹¹ Although the scienti.c literature is not su.ciently referenced on the issue of African student immigration to Morocco (Berriane 2012, 2), it is considered a non-negligible part in the study of intra-African migration. It is not a question of aggregating irregular and regular mi­grants in Fez as in previous migration studies (Ennaji et al. 2021). This analysis provides a new perspective on student immigration in Mo­rocco. The aim is to renew the study of migration by focusing on neglected subjects, such as student migration, while formulating new and original questions in relation to existing studies on African student migration. In addition, the objective is to highlight the major role of Morocco in the promotion of intra-continental migration. theoretical approach It seemsappropriate to adoptanendogenousAfrican re.ectiononmi­ gration, with reference to the theory of the démarginalisation,¹² which is linked to the ned to re.ect African ideas (Pondi 2011) while mobilising the issue of intercultural di.erence (Hampden-Turner and Trompe­ naars199 7; Lewis 2006) which will allow ustounderstand the social phenomena that link Cameroonian and Gabonese students in Morocco (Morrissette, Guignon, and Demazière 2011, 4). This will lead to the overcoming of national cultural speci.cities in order to integrate inter- cultural competence in the context of ‘expatriation’ (Wiseman and Koester 1993). This sociologically inspired study highlights the so-called universal values and the way in which the main actor (Morocco) and the protagonists bene.ting from the policy (the Gabonese and Cameroo­ ¹° Interview with the secretary of the Gabonese union, Fez section, in December 2022. ¹¹ Interview with the president of the Cameroonian student’s section in Fez in December 2022. ¹² La démarginalisation is a theory of international relations developed by Jean-Emmanu­el Pondi in a book entitled Repenser le développement à partir de l’Afrique (2001); he notes the marginalization of African ideas, to ultimately .nd African solutions to African problems. nian students) behave with regard to the contrasting nature of the society (macrosocial level) and the interactions between the di.erent nationalities (microsocial level) (Frame 2019). Very often, immigrant easily resists integration operated by the host society (Reitz 2002). The [14] .rst step consists of highlighting the cultural di.erences and to see to what extent they can be managed. It is therefore a normative ap­proach to interculturality, which will help to identify the a.ective, be­havioural and cognitive qualities (Ang and Earley 2003) that will help students to become more ‘e.ective’ in international communication and management. At the same time, it will challenge the governance model of study migration, both at national and regional levels through the African Union. The starting point of this study is the observation that, most researchers focus mostly on irregular migration to Europe (de Haas and Frankema 2022, 4) and the attempts to reconstruct the long-term models of African intra-continental migration remain in­adequate (p. 8), neglecting the positive aspect of South-South African migration(GuillmotoandSandron2003; unctad 2018).Previously,a large proportion of students from sub-Saharan Africa had a tendency to pursue their studies on the old continent, but this seems to have changed. Morocco’s excellent academic performance in Africa attracts many students from sub-Saharan Africa. This study takes into account both political and sociological considerations. methodology To achieve these results, we proceeded with a methodological trian­ gulation, through an ethnographic approach that combined observa­ tory sessions and forty open-ended questionnaires, addressed to both Cameroonian and Gabonese students. Thirty-three interviews were conducted with the Gabonese students as opposed to only eleven for Cameroonian students who were very reluctant and di.cult to ap­ proach. Similarly, a series of 10 semi-structured interviews were ad­ ministered; 5 to Gabonese students, 3 from private universities in Fez and 2 from the public university of Fez. We proceeded in the same way for Cameroonian students. In order to guarantee the anonymity of the interviewees, we preferred to use the gender variable in the form of a pie chart to represent the protagonists. These di.erent interviews were conducted face-to-face in month of December 2022 and an online ques­ tionnaire was administered between December 2022 and January 2023. The overall aim is to mobilise a comparative method to analyse the dif­ Country Male Female Total Cameroon . . .. Gabon .. .. .. [15] table 2 Categorisation of Interviewed Cameroonian and Gabonese Students Category Cameroon Gabon Home country scholars . .. Home and host country scholars . . Host country scholars . . Non-scholarship holders . .. Total .. .. ferent socio-political considerations and views of the actors involved in the study. We also categorised the students interviewed according to whether they were scholarship holders or not, and used the life story approach with one Cameroonian and one Gabonese student. It should be noted that students who had spent less than six months in Fez were not included in the questionnaire, even though they were asked for their opinion on their situation as new students. Finally, we conducted semi-structured interviews with the person in charge of de­velopment, communication and partnership in Africa at the Euromed University of Fez, the secretary general of the Gabonese Union of Mo­rocco, Fez section, the national president of students and trainees in Morocco, and the representative of Cameroonian students, Fez section. These interviews took place from December 2022 to February 2023, in person and online. Despite a sometimes-di.cult cultural adapta­tion, Gabonese and Cameroonian students in Morocco and a very pro­nounced presence of sub-Saharan Africans who have set foot on Mo­roccan soil in an uncontrolled manner, including few from Gabon, but several Cameroonians. The Kingdom, through its African policy, con­tinues to play its role in intra-African academic cooperation and wishes to position itself as the main actor of the African erasmus.¹³ ¹³ Erasmus (European Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students) is a pro-gramme for the exchange of students and teachers between European universities, colleges and institutions worldwide. The programme is part of the European Higher Education Region. Implementing a similar programme in Africa remains di.cult. Unlike Gabonese students who bene.t from a bilateral agreement¹4 on free movement between Morocco and Gabon, Cameroonian stu­dents are obliged to obtain a visa before their arrival in Morocco. It is therefore through the presence of students from these two neighbour­ [16] ing Central African countries that we analyse Morocco’s contribution to the process of accentuating and e.ectively implementing intra-African migration. This study highlight on the implication of Morocco’s attrac­tiveness as a hub for intra-African neo-migration (1), and will be based on the dichotomy of migration paths between Gabonese and Cameroo­nian students in Morocco (2). This comparison will lead to the impact of intra-African migration from Morocco, perceived by Gabonese and Cameroonian students in the city of Fez (3), which will underline the need for the establishment of an extended intra-African student net­work in Africa, based on Morocco’s academic exchanges with the coun­tries of the continent (4). morocco’s involvement in the rethinking of intra-african migration The gap between migrating for studies in other parts of the world and African migration remains deep, and this gap must be bridged and caught up by increasingly conducting studies on intra-African migra­ tion (de Haas and Frankema 2022, 4). It is in this perspective that this study is placed in the continuity of interpretative approaches to intra- African migration, by analysing Morocco’s participation in the realisa­ tion of African migration, under the prism of the migration of students from Gabon and Cameroon, and mainly to the city of Fez. Morocco has become in few years a reference for students from Francophone Africa, it has gradually switched from being a country of emigration to a country of destination (iom 2017, 1; Alioua, Ferrié, andReifeld 2017). The students are attracted to the .elds like engineering, medicine, and more recently, arti.cial intelligence. The partnerships that some Mo­ roccan schools have established with French and American schools, as well as the excellent rankings of Moroccan universities in Africa in terms of academic performance, further contribute to their interest in Morocco.¹5 As King Mohammed vi emphasised in 2015, ‘Morocco will ¹4 Agreement on the abolition of visas for nationals of both countries (Gabon-Morocco) signed in September 2013 in Rabat. ¹5 Euromed university of Fez attracts students from sub-saharan Africa with one of the training courses in digital engineering and arti.cial intelligence. always be a welcoming place for its guests who come there legally.’ It is within this framework of legality that our study is simply positioned, relating to the regulatory migration of the category of ‘students mi­grants’ as Johara Berriane call them, migrants among others (Berianne 2009). [17] In order to be in line with international and regional migratory agreements, Morocco has put in place and strengthened existing le­gal frameworks on migration to facilitate the hosting of students from abroad, including Gabonese and Cameroonian students. It should be recalled that Morocco has long prioritised the aspect of bilateral re­lations in its foreign policy, especially for the period 1999–2015 (Ha­rastani Madani 2020, 16). This aspect of cooperation was marked by the signing of a free movement agreement with Gabon, but not with Cameroon. Although the Kingdom of Morocco is not a signatory to African conventions on migration, such as the Protocol on the Free Movement of Persons, the Right of Residence and the Right of Estab­lishment, and is to date the only African country that is not a party to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, it does make a sig­ni.cant contribution to maintaining and enhancing intra-African mi­gration. The country continues to develop a set of internal regulations to direct and diversify the internal composition of migration, which constitutes its migration policy (de Haas and Vezzoli 2011; Czaika and de Hass 2013). It also relies on Law No. 02-03 (on the entry and stay of foreigners, irregular emigration and immigration) (borm No. 5162, 11/11/2003), as well as the 2013 migration policy, which regularised a good number of irregular migrants, among whom were former stu­dents. According to the Ministry of Higher Education, Scienti.c Re­search and Innovation, the presence of foreign students in Morocco is guaranteed by the Kingdom’s Constitution, the Royal High Guide­lines, the Framework Law No. 51.17 relative to the system of education, teaching, training and scienti.c research, the Government Programme 2016–2021 as well as the Ministry’s Action Plan for the years 2017– 2022. In terms of access to public education at the university level, migrants with a residence permit have the same status as Moroccan citizens (iom 2019). Today, the mobility of African students is increas­ing in Morocco (Marichalar, Piron, and Tétard 2022), Gabonese and Cameroonian students are boosting the number of foreign students in Morocco every year. In Morocco, the increase in mobility of students is particularly strong for those coming from Gabon (Marichalar, Piron, and Tétard 2022, 14). So far, they have not been granted any o.cial scienti.c literature, although their presence in Morocco is not insigni.cant. The city of Fez is currently the third largest university city in the Kingdom with nearly 15 higher education institutions o.ering approximately 230 [18] study programmes. This diversity of programmes attracts Cameroo­nian and Gabonese students, especially in the private sector, as the public university Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah only accepts students with scholarships, and the number of places is very often mentioned. Morocco, unlike other countries of the continent, integrates African students as a non-negligible variant in the accentuation and promotion of intra-African migration of the continent. This is a way of adding pos­itivity to the speech on African migration that remains tainted by Euro-centric perceptions (Mvogo 2022). In this spirit and to further attract Cameroonian and Gabonese students to study in Morocco and espe­cially in the city of Fez, private higher educational institutions are trav­elling to these central African countries, and to present their schools, but also the main programs and the numerous advantages of studying in the cultural city of Fez. For example, the Euromed University of Fez and the private university of Fez, never miss an opportunity to make themselves known, whether in Gabon or Cameroon, during study sa­lons organised by France (sef). ‘I got to know the Euromed University of Fez after the announcement of the Baccalaureate results, during a study salon in Libreville in 2021,’ says a young Gabonese student, now in his second year of political science in the named institution. In addi­tion, the Kingdom of Morocco enjoys a certain political and economic stability, and the city of Fez in particular is known for its cultural attrac­tiveness and its calm to study in all serenity. ‘A friend with whom i was in contact praised the city of Fez both for its sustainable environment for studies and that before the fact that it is di.cult to be distracted’ says another young Gabonese student. Fez has the merit of being a university city that contributes to the blossoming of both Gabonese and Cameroonian students, but also of other sub-Saharan African stu­dent communities. It is therefore a more or less advanced contribution to the intensi.cation of intra-African migration from these two cate­gories of student nationalities to Fez that Morocco has included in the objectives to be achieved by the African Union, con.rming the need to take advantage of intra-African migration (Union africaine 2017). Fez participates in the diversi.cation of the presence of students in Morocco and allows for a mosaic of students from sub-Saharan Africa where we .nd Gabonese, Cameroonians, Senegalese, but also Malians (Niandou 2016). Even though it is true that Morocco, through the di­versi.cation and spread of foreign students from Black Africa on its territory, participates to the growth of South-South migration, there is sometimes a di.erence in the modes of arrival, treatment and in-[19] tegration in the host city for these students from Central Africa. The following paragraphs provide an insight into the sociological charac­teristics of Gabonese and Cameroonian student-migrants. dichotomous migratory pathway between gabonese and cameroonian students The city of Fez has become in some few years a coveted space for stu­dents coming from Gabon, as well as those coming from Cameroon. Their presence can explained by the new changes in the Moroccan higher education and the diversi.cation of programs o.ered, as well as the numerous advantages of studying in Morocco (Niandou 2015). But what is striking is that unlike Cameroonian students, who are few in number in the private universities of Fez, Gabonese students form a very large community within these private universities. The Euromed University of Fez has about 200 Gabonese students, which constitutes the largest community of sub-Saharan African students in the school, followed by Senegalese and Ivorians. In the same school in 2018, there was only one Cameroonian, this .gure has changed signi.cantly in 2021 with the arrival of four new phd students, and in 2023 there are about 9Cameroonian students at the Euromed University of Fez. The other Cameroonian students are concentrated in the main public university of the city, Sidi Mohamed ben abdellah. How this disparity in .gures be understood, when Morocco is resolutely committed to welcoming foreign students, mainly those from the same continent. The Intra-Africanity of Academic Links between Gabon and Morocco The continuous increase in the number of Gabonese students in Mo­rocco in general and in Fez in particular is due .rst of all to the his­torical and secular links that exist between the two nations, as well as from the special and privileged cooperation existing between Gabon and Morocco. These Gabonese students bene.t from the free move­ment agreement signed between the two countries, which provide a free entry into the Moroccan territory for a period of 90 days before taking the decision to settle in Morocco (Nguema 2015). This facili­tates their immigration to the Kingdom, unlike Cameroonian students, who fall under the Moroccan category of facilitating entry, stay and establishment (Nguema 2015). Moreover, the concretisation of these friendly relations will be operationalized with the increase of Moroccan [20] scholarships o.ered to Gabonese students from 130 in 2016 to 150 since 2020. This makes Morocco the .rst destination for Gabonese students (‘Le Maroc est la première destination des étudiants gabonais’ 2020). In addition, the higher education institutes of the city of Fez travel to recruit Gabonese students, and present all the diversity of existing programs, and the advantages of settling in Fez. There is therefore a partnership between anbg, Smart Africa, and the universities of Fez, which facilitates their arrival in Morocco. This is why these Gabonese students of Fez, of Euromed University, of the private university of Fez or sup ‘Management of Fez bene.t from a certain .exibility in terms of administrative procedures and registration. The Proportion of Intra-African Migration of Cameroonian Students in Fez It should be noted that, Cameroonian students in Fez are part of the representative minority of sub-Saharan African student communities settled in this city. Indeed, Morocco and Cameroon do not have an agreement on the freedom of movement for their citizens, despite the excellent diplomatic relations existing between the two countries since 1965. Even from a multilateral point of view, the two countries are not signatories to the African protocol on free movement, signed by Gabon but not rati.ed. As a result, Cameroonian students, unlike Gabonese students, sometimes face long procedures, which goes beyond their expected date of arrival in Morocco, while others arrive months after the start of the academic year. For Cameroonian students interviewed in Fez, those in the public universities, who receive scholarships from both the Cameroonian government and amci, bene.t from some of the same administrative and registration facilities as their Gabonese classmates. In previous years, for student from private university, he was asked by the embassy to provide the homologation recognising of his school by the Kingdom of Morocco.¹6 This delayed his arrival in Mo­rocco, and several other students were in the same situation. ¹6 Interview with a former Cameroonian student of the Euromed University of Fez, Jan­uary 2023. perception of the gabonese and cameroonian student presence in the city of fez It is worth mentioning, after the involvement of the state actors in the smooth running and conduct of intra-African migration, particularly [21] that which concerns academic migration, the e.ects on the main re­cipients of this student migration policy. It is necessary to recipients impression of Gabonese and Cameroonian students in Fez and to ques­tion the system of reactions of both the country of origin and the host country in which these international students are immersed, in order to bring out the meanings that foreign students attribute to their sur­rounding environment. Socio-Cultural Interactions of Gabonese and Cameroonian Students in the City of Fez: The Point of View of the Bene.ciaries of the Intra-African Migration Policy Far from their land of origin, these Central African students sometimes su.er from what can be described as homesickness. However, what we found through the interviews is the continuity of cultural exchanges between these students both in Fez and in their country of origin. Most of them still feel linked to their homeland through the presence of as­sociations regrouping their community of origin. This is why Morocco remains open to sharing and discovering other cultures, to facilitate the integration of these Cameroonian and Gabonese students, but also for all other international student communities. ‘At the beginning, I was a bitlost,Ididn’t .ndmyselfatall, but astime wentby, Iman­aged to getusedtoitand aboveall Idiscoveredanewculture,’ says a Gabonese student. Cameroonian students in Fez meet at least once a month to share memories of their country through their main asso­ciation (casam) and organise a so-called integration day when new students arrive in the city, as does the Gabonese student community. 63.6. of the Gabonese students interviewed reassured us that their current universities participate a lot in the propagation and promotion of their culture by ‘organising meetings with other students, where we often have rather rich conversations during which each one promotes his mother country,’¹7 but also by ‘exchanges, of ethnic performances ¹7 Interview with a former Gabonese Supmanagment student, January 2023. table 3 Response of Cameroonian and Gabonese Students in Fez on the Involvement of Their Universities in Their Socio-Cultural Development Country Yes No Cameroon (n = ..) .... .... [22] Gabon (n = ..) .... .... notes In percent. during certain activities.’¹8 On the Cameroonian side, opinions on the propagation of their culture were mixed, as 54.5. of Cameroonian stu­dents interviewed said that their current universities support them in promoting their culture, compared to 45.5. who said the opposite. These students give di.erent meanings to the social environment around them. However, the living quarters of these students are very often located not far from the universities they attend. For those in the universities of the new city,¹. including the public university, they have chosen to live in the Atlas district, for those who sometimes do not want to live in the university residences. It was found that most of the students interviewed prefer to live with their compatriots. A minority have national students as roommates. Even if everything is done so that ‘the student does not feel out of place,’ as Mr Monsif re­minded us, it is still true that they encounter di.culties in their so­cial development. But these di.culties often come from the environ­ment in which the student lives, or even just the di.culty of adapt­ing to the climate, because both the Cameroonian and the Gabonese students are familiar with an equatorial climate, as this Gabonese stu­dent explained: ‘We have di.culty adapting to seasonal variations, as Africans from below the Sahara region.’ Although 36.²° of the Moroc­can population is currently French-speaking, most of the students in­terviewed reported di.culties in understanding the territory’s main language. Even though there are centres in the university dedicated to learn the local language, the space of study does not allow students to attend these courses regularly. Intra-African migration from the aca­demic perspective of Gabonese and Cameroonian students must in­ ¹8 Interview with a former Cameroonian student of the Euromed University of Fez, Jan­uary 2023. ¹. The new city is the name given to the new constructions of the city of Fez, very di.erent from the old city. ²° See https://www.francophonie.org/maroc-974. table 4 Response of Cameroonian and Gabonese Students in Fez on the Involvement of Their Country of Origin in Solving Their Di.culties Country Yes No Sometimes Sometimes Cameroon (n = ..) ... .... ... ... Gabon (n = ..) .... .... .... ... [23] notes In percent. clude the authorities of the countries of origin of these students. How­ever, when asked about the implication of the home countries’ o.cials in the resolution of the di.culties encountered in the host country, on both sides it has appeared from both sides that given that Morocco makes great e.ort for an e.ective integration of foreign students, the countries of origin facilitate the arrival of Cameroonian and Gabonese scholars in Morocco. Both categories of students do not really feel the implication of their countries of origin. As demonstrated in table 4, when asked whether Gabonese and Cameroonian students in the city of Fez feel that their country of origin is involved in solving their di.­culties, especially regarding administrative matters, the two categories of students are not quite favorable to this question. This is typical, considering that students are apparently not account­able to their home countries, but students on scholarship in their coun­try of origin face di.culties, especially with regard to the payment of their scholarships. An observation made in November 2022, revealed that Gabonese students in Morocco in general and those in the city of Fez in particular have complained about the delay in the payment of their scholarships, creating a petition to claim their right.²¹ Some of the students interviewed spoke of their feeling of abandonment by their home countries. A similar situation concerning Cameroonian stu­dents inMorocco happenedin2020. Wheninterviewed in2017, the head of the diplomatic corps in Morocco, the Cameroonian ambassador to the Kingdom of Morocco, said: ‘We are trying to solve their problems within the limits of our means’ (‘Etudes au Maroc’ 2017) The month of January 2023 marked another signi.cant cultural links between Mo­rocco and Cameroon. The king of a Cameroonian community called ‘Bamoun’ was invited to the international conference of the academy ²¹ See https://www.thepetitionsite.com/en-gb/379/905/507/obtenir-le-paiement-imm .C3.A9diat-des-bourses-qui-nont-pas-.C3.A9t.C3.A9-pay.C3.A9es-depuis -4-mois-pour-tous/?taf_id=71809188&cid=fb_na. of theKingdom of Morocco,²² scheduled to take placeinRabat,hewas keen to visit the spiritual city of the Kingdom and was welcomed by the Cameroonian student community of Fez, proudly showing a part of the Cameroonian culture to the citizens of Fez who were present, and to [24] some of their Moroccan classmates who assisted. But the relationship with the city of Fez is completely di.erent in the diplomatic context. The Gabonese ambassador of Gabon to the Kingdom of Morocco visited the Euro-Mediterranean University of Fez in January 2021, and was very proud of the quality of education that Gabonese students receive. This university has recently been re.ecting the ‘intra-African’ cooper­ation between Morocco and Gabon. These consolidating elements of intra-African migration allow us to understand the link between stud­ies and culture, especially in an e.ect of disparity that will bring the community of origin and the host community closer together. Since moving can cause a clash of civilisations (Huntington 1996). In this case, what does the host community do? The Moroccan Response System for the E.ective Integration of Gabonese and Cameroonian Students in the City of Fez In recent years, migration pathways have shifted to people’s strategies to achieve their ambitions in a context of disparity or variance (de Haas and Frankema 2022, 12). Most newly arrived students in Fez project themselves in this perspective. They have to rely on the commitment of the local authorities to facilitate their arrival, their establishment and their integration, so that they can eventually have professional goals in Morocco. The proportion of students interviewed who had completed their studies expressed the fact that it was di.cult to .nd a job in the city of Fez and that they wished to move to other Moroccan cities. With regard to this, the advisor to the president of the Euromed University of Fez mentioned that ‘progressively, mechanisms are being put in place for the socio-professional and socio-economic development of interna­tional students,’ which is currently marked by the creation of start-ups and companies by former foreign students in Morocco. The motivations for departures not clearly stated, it sometimes happens that these in- ²² The Royal Academy of Morocco organised an international colloquium from 18 to 20 January 2023 under the theme: ‘The invention of writing and the state of the narrative in African languages’ and the Sultan King of Bamoun, sm Nabil Mbombo Njoya of Cameroon, was the guest of honour at this prestigious event. table 5 Response of Cameroonian and Gabonese Students in Fez on Their Professional Goals in Morocco Country Yes No Maybe Cameroon (n = ..) ... .... .... Gabon (n = ..) .... .... .... [25] notes In percent. ternational students have doubts about their post-study period in Mo­rocco. The purpose of intra-African migration should be bene.cial to both the host country and the home countries. But in the context of an African country, can we talk about brain drain? Not really, because it is considered a win-win act, by staying in Morocco, they participate in the economic development and the socio-economic development of their family from a distance. Moreover, they develop sme economic activities in their countries of origin. As far as these scholars from the two Central African countries covered by this study decide to live in Mo­rocco for their social and professional well-being. This is probably due to the positive working environment. When asked whether these stu­dents had professional goals in Morocco, here are the responses gath­ered from the Cameroonian and the Gabonese side (table 5). By looking more closely at the facilitation of the arrival of Gabonese students in Fez, a lot of work is conducted from the country of ori­gin, particularly through the participation of public higher schools in the study salons. Out of three Moroccan schools present in these study salons, two are from the city of Fez, among which the Euromed Univer­sity of Fez. According to Mr. Chakib Mounsif, the Gabonese students of this university form the largest community of foreign students, di­vided between the .rst and second cycles. And these students bene.t from their government’s policy of sponsorship of their studies, and the partnership established between the two entities, namely anbg and the Euromed University of Fez, which allows students to bene.t from both free accommodations within the university, as well as preferential rates. And he underlined that ‘the majority of Gabonese students met during thesestudy salonsoptforthe uemf (Euro-MediterraneanUni­versity of Fez) as their .rst choice.’ It is a very di.erent migratory path­way for Cameroonian students. Most of them are enrolled in the main public university of Fez, as they bene.t from the scholarship agree­ment between the amci and the Cameroonian government, and the city of Fez is imposed on them by the territorial distribution provided table 6 Elements That Encouraged Cameroonian and Gabonese Students to Study in the City of Fez Element Cameroon Gabon n . n . [26] Smart Africa – – . ... Internet . ... . ... Study education fair . ... . .... Home country scholarship program . .... . .... Home country government . .... . .... Friends . .... . .... Family . .... . .... for scholarship holders on their arrival in Morocco, as the table 6 shows. Cameroonian students who come to study in Morocco prefer big cities like Casablanca and Rabat, while most of those who are in Fez are there because of their governments of origin. The Euromed University of Fez has only eleven Cameroonian students currently enrolled in un­dergraduate, graduate and postgraduate programs. The four phd stu­dents encountered bene.t from the Moroccan Scholarships for African Youth (msfay) academic program launched in 2021 by the King of Morocco to truly expand Moroccan intra-African academic diplomacy. However,theadvisortothepresidentof uemf reportedthathehasre­ceived nearly 4000 applications from Cameroonian baccalaureate stu­dents for the 2022–2023 academic year, but they did not complete the registration process because they thought they could bene.t from the scholarships. In reality, there is not yet a cooperation agreement be­tweenCameroonandthe uemf,knowingthatthiscountryhasalotof potential and that the diversity of programs o.ered by this school could be to the advantage of these future Cameroonian students in Fez. The socio-cultural development of Gabonese and Cameroonian students is strongly encouraged in their respective universities as mentioned above. As an illustration, the creation of clubs within the university institutes such as the Afro dance club of the uemf managed by a Gabonese student who ‘.nds a way to promote and teach others the dance steps and music of her country.’²³ Moreover, this university is the very symbol of interculturalism with the presence of around forty nationalities coming from all over the world, as this Gabonese student so clearly stated, ‘I in my class, I meet students from di.erent origins, ²³ Interview with a Gabonese student at the Euromed University in Fez, January 2023. which means that by being in Morocco, I communicate with other con­tinents.’²4 The university in Fez is also at the heart of the integration of the Gabonesestudents,andfortwoyearsconsecutively,the uemf hasheld an integration day for the Gabonese student community. It is therefore [27] clearly the Moroccan soft power (Iraqi 2019), which could also give a whole new look to African migration on the continent and inspire the necessity to establish a global student migration policy for all African countries. towards the establishment of an extended ‘intra-africademic’ network from morocco Following the example of Morocco, and its speci.c city of Fez, which welcomes Gabonese and Cameroonian students, but also a number of other African students, other countries should more or less copy this model of migratory cooperation. The kingdom does not restrain from conveying a welcoming image towards other African countries, through the implementation of African cooperation policies such as the one concerning the academic aspect (Abourabi 2022, 18). This tends to le­ gitimate the presence of these foreign students on the Moroccan terri­ tory (Abourabi 2022). In fact, there is no regulatory text on students’ migration in the world and in Africa. It is possible in some countries that these students are not included in the category of migrants (Tar­ ran 2017). Nevertheless,thisisanareaofregular Africanmigration that hasre­ceived little attention but has positive e.ects for the home and the host countries. The speci.c case of Gabonese and Cameroonian students liv­ing in the city of Fez has made it possible to identify the need to copy models of South-South cooperation, to integrate them into the process of African regional integration, or to reshape this cooperation, this time taking into account sociological considerations. The model of coopera­tion based on studies that unites Morocco with Cameroon and Gabon through amci and any other participating body such as the angb, should be able to inspire the African Union to rely more on the promo­tion of study-based migration policies. This will facilitate part of the free movement of people in Africa. In addition, it could be a corridor for intra-African trade. The city of Fez could inspire more than one African city to adopt ²4 Interview with a Gabonese student from the Euromed University in Fez, January 2023. the same approaches to attract students from Africa. There is in fact a need to diversify the establishment of foreign students in a coun­try, and this is the case in Morocco. Most of the students interviewed had never heard of this city before their arrival, and they also noted [28] that after their arrival the positive advantages of studying in Fez, the ideal setting for their studies, and the university infrastructure, which is similar to that of the major occidental universities, were ev­ident. Sub-Saharan African students living in other cities in Morocco said that students in Fez are very studious. Even if in comparison to Gabonese students in Fez, the penetration ratio of Cameroonian stu­dents in the same city remains low, one should not neglect the contri­bution they have to the participation of student activities in Fez. But much remains to be done as in the past when there was a signi.cant number of Cameroonian students in Fez, as indicated by Mr. Moun­sif, also former president of the High School of Commerce (hec) of Cameroon, which had to close. The positive factors linked to the in­stallation of Gabonese and Cameroonian students in Fez must be part of the African co-development initiative. The students trained are a potential workforce for the future. Very often the country of origin relies on the expertise that the student would have acquired for the development of the country. But very often Morocco o.ers opportu­nities for these students at the end of their studies, this is why some of thestudents inthesurvey above gaveamixedresponsefor their professional settlements, as they sometimes have positive testimonies from former students who have successfully settled in Morocco. Al­though it sometimes happens that some of them .nd themselves in irregular situations at the end of their studies, not being able to renew their visa. The African Union should certainly, like Morocco, estab­lish a framework for the promotion of ‘intra-African’ migration, which would allow these young Africans to share the experiences of other countries and to become aware of the immense potential that can be found in another city other than the capital of the country they are studying in, in order to pursue their international studies, in an African context. conclusion Morocco, through the presence of Gabonese and Cameroonian stu­ dents in the city of Fez, contributes to the intensi.cation of intra- African migration. This study is a contribution to .ll an important gap in the study of international migration, particularly that related to the African continent. Moreover, it has highlight on the biased perceptions of cooperation between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. Migra­tion for Studies plays an important role in consolidating this relation­ship, and Morocco relies more on its political stability to attract more [29] students from Africa, particularly those from Gabon and Cameroon. The city of Fez, with its spiritual and cultural side, no longer attracts only tourists, but also students. The di.erent sociological experiences of the Gabonese and Cameroonian students have made it possible to highlight the pathways of their journey, from departure, to arrival, through settling and integration. The universities of the city of Fez also play a signi.cant role in the social and academic development of these students, as well as the community associations. This view of African migration should stimulate an initiative of the continental or­ganisation to expand and promote ‘intra-African’ migration. Already the creation of legal migration for studies, by facilitating visa proce­dures, because there is reason to note the disparity between a Gabonese and Cameroonian student. Cooperation in academic exchanges should not only concern the movement of students from sub-Saharan Africa to Morocco, but in both directions. Currently, Morocco in its African foreign policy encourages African nationals to settle in Morocco as part of a ‘win-win’ cooperation, such as the Fez smart factory (fsf) initia­tive, hosted at the uemf, which encourages young foreigners, espe­cially Africans, to create innovative businesses. Just as it encourages its nationals to go and invest and get to know sub-Saharan Africa. De­spite the di.culties encountered by these students, most of them are satis.ed with the study programs in the various universities of the city of Fez. 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Los Angeles: Sage. ijems | scientific article Internationalisation at Home: Intercultural Engagement of Students in Extracurricular Activities; med2iah Case Study nada trunk širca karim moustaghfir University of Primorska, Al Akhawayn University, Morocco International School for Social k.moustagh.r@aui.ma and Business Studies, dorsaf ben malek emuni University, Slovenia Virtual University of Tunis, trunk.nada@gmail.com Tunisia anica novak trunk dorsaf.benmalek@uvt.tn International School for Social and Business Studies, emuni University, Slovenia anica.novak@mfdps.si This study explores the role of extracurricular activities in enhancing students’ intercultural abilities, using the med2iah Erasmus+ cbhe project as a case study. Conducted between 2020 and 2023 across 12 higher education institutions in non-eu Southern Mediterranean countries, the project aimed to integrate international and intercul­tural aspects into local education. The concept of ‘Internationalisation at Home’ (iah) is highlighted, emphasizing the inclusion of global learning opportunities within the curriculum and campus life for all students. The study .nds that speci.c extracurricular activities, such as digital storytelling, intercultural events, and the friends Tea-Houses, signi.cantly contribute to iah by fostering intercultural en­gagement and understanding. The research concludes that these ini­tiatives e.ectively promote intercultural competencies, enhance com­munication and teamwork skills, and provide valuable insights into managing cultural collaborations, thereby supporting the internation­alisation goals of higher education institutions. Key Words: intercultural activities, diverse-university atmosphere, internationalisation within a domestic setting https://emuni.si/ISSN/2232-6022/17.33-62.pdf introduction The idea of internationalisation has spread beyond geographical bound­ aries in today’s connected society and is now present in educational institutions worldwide. The main focus is to encourage the develop­ [34] ment of intercultural competence and foster understanding between domestic and international student groups. The concept of ‘Interna­tionalisation at Home,’ which seeks to provide inclusive and culturally diverse university environments that facilitate cross-cultural learning opportunities for all students, has arisen as a result of this transforma­tion. This paper examines the impact of intercultural participation in ex­tracurricular activities on the development of students’ intercultural competencies. Further on, we provide a concise overview of the dis­tinctions between curricular, co-curricular, and extracurricular activi­ties. Curricular activities are essential components of a student’s for­mal education, comprising the necessary educational experiences. Co-curricular activities enhance the curriculum by o.ering practical expe­riences that are relevant to it, focusing mainly on learning skills and literacy skills. Extracurricular activities refer to volunteer pursuits that take place beyond the formal curriculum, focusing mainly on develop­ing the intangible elements of a student’s everyday life (Dermol et al. 2023; Mishra and Aithal 2023). The initial section of the paper explores the theoretical foundation of internationalisation at home and the notion of intercultural compe­tence. Expanding upon the theoretical basis, the methodology section introduces our case study and describes the strategy used to analyse the positive impact of extracurricular activities on internationalisation at home and on intercultural interaction. The case study focuses on the Erasmus+project med2iah (MediterraneanCountriesTowardsInter­nationalisation at Home), which was executed at 12 higher education institutions(heis)innon-eu SouthernMediterraneancountriesfrom 2020 to 2023. The empirical section of the article showcases results that illustrate the concrete impact of med2iah’s extracurricular programmes in fos­tering internationalisation at home and improving the intercultural skills of the students involved. The essay examines the various ad­vantages of these programmes in promoting cross-cultural awareness, communication skills, and cultural sensitivity among students, using both qualitative and quantitative analysis. internationalisation at home and students’ intercultural competencies Internationalisation at Home (iah) The focus of internationalisation in higher education has changed over the past few decades from only encouraging outbound mobility to in-[35] cluding Internationalisation at Home (iah). Regardless of a student’s mobility status, the global education landscape has come to realise the signi.cance of helping them develop international and intercultural abilities.Highereducation institutions (heis),originallymotivated by the goal of sta. and student mobility abroad, have shifted their focus to iah becauseofitsinclusivenessandwiderscope.Thisshiftacknowl­edges that international exposure should not be limited to those able to participate in study abroad programs (Sercu 2023). In Europe, the idea of iah was .rst presented as an alternative to traditional mobility programs in the late 1990s. The concept was de­.ned by Crowther et al. (2001) as ‘any internationally related activ­ity except outbound student and sta. mobility,’ and later re.ned by Beelen and Jones (2015) as ‘the purposeful integration of international and intercultural dimensions into the formal and informal curriculum for all students within domestic learning environments.’ This evolution marks a signi.cant expansion in the scope and intentions of iah ini­tiatives. iah initiatives considerably increased in recent years, which is also reportedinthe eaie Barometer:56.ofuniversities inEuropehavein­cluded iah in their policies, while 64. of European universities claim that they undertook activities for iah (eaie 2015). Additionally, .nd­ings in the last few years show that iah is clearly identi.ed by heis as an important area of internationalisation (eaie 2018). However, at the same time, .ndings from eaie 2018 show that, although interna­tionalisation at home was highly on the priority of heis, undertaken activities related to internationalisation at home were fewer (46. in 2015 vs 21. in 2018). Themaingoalof iah istogivelocalstudentsessentialopportunities to gain international experiences crucial for their future employability (SlotteandStadius2019).Therefore, iahstrivestoequiplocalstudents with the same success factors as those in more privileged regions. To achieve this, iah incorporates international elements into curricula, campus life, and faculty, promotes intercultural dialogue, and fosters a global mindset within universities (Leask 2009). Ben Malek (2023) highlights that adopting iah provides heis with additional tools and methods of internationalisation to promote a modern, equitable, and inclusive global society. This approach allows students and sta. to gain international experience without leaving [36] their home universities. Consequently, iah ensures that all students receive global perspectives within their study programs, regardless of their physical mobility. It also engages all sta. members, not just aca­demics and international o.cers, supported by informal (co-)curricu­lum activities across the institution (International Association of Uni­versities 2007). iah e.ectively utilises classroom cultural diversity for inclusive learning, teaching, and assessment practices. Additionally, it fosters intercultural encounters within the local community by en­couraging purposeful engagement with international students (Beelen 2011; Leask 2009). To maximise its bene.ts, iah should be integrated into the univer­sity’s strategic plan rather than treated as an additional activity. This integration requires intentional e.orts from policymakers, manage­ment, and sta. to embed the international dimension into the institu­tion’s overall policy. According to Ben Malek (2023), this process should be deliberate and translated into actions across various levels (manage­ment, academic, administrative sta., students) and areas (education, research, society). iah should serve as a tool to enhance the quality of teaching and learning, addressing the needs of every society. Con­sequently, every university should develop a strategy for internation­alisation at home, rooted in intercultural sensitivity and communica­tion, valuing diverse cultures for their contribution to global citizen­ship (Elkin, Farnsworth, and Templar 2008). It is a comprehensive pro­cess involving all institutional stakeholders, ensuring inclusiveness as a foundation foranysuccessful iah strategy andguaranteeingthesus­tainability of its outcomes. Previous research (Bocanegra-Valle 2015; Planken 2005; Shaw 2006) emphasises the need to focus more on the expansion of international­isation in higher education. For instance, in Bologna, there is a recent trend to review academic needs and update syllabi (Bocanegra-Valle 2016). Aguilar (2018) notes that popular practices to internationalise education in Europe and globally include English-medium instruction (emi) and developing intercultural communicative competence (icc). Internationalisation in higher education has already transformed class­rooms into ‘small international spaces,’ where local students can de­velop intercultural skills (Aguilar 2018). Aguilar argues that profession­als need to be interculturally and linguistically competent due to the increasingly globalised world. Therefore, developing these crucial skills is widely accepted within courses designed to prepare professionals for a globalised environment (Aguilar 2018). [37] Teekens (2003) observes that university classrooms have evolved into spaces for exchange between local and international students and sta., creating fertile grounds for internationalisation. However, Lantz-Deaton (2017) argues that developing icc should not be left solely to the e.orts of local and mobile students in international academic pro-grammes. Universities should also contribute by providing intercul­turalcurricula,extra-curricularactivities, research, scholarly collabora­tion, and other external relations (Knight 200 in Aguilar 2018, 28). Sev­eral studies (Aguilar 2016; 2018; Bocanegra-Valle 2015; Planken 2005; Shaw 2006) recommend that educators, decision-makers, and textbook designers base their teaching practices on icc theories and models to integrate icc as a learning outcome. In this vein, there is a range of tools that is useful in achieving di.er­ent levels of internationalisation at home. The tools include, for exam­ple, international literature, case studies, guest lecturers, short-term study visits, virtual mobility, incoming student mobility, etc. (Beelen and Leask 2011). Nevertheless, iah has several drawbacks despite its bene.ts. iah’s e.cacy and acceptance are hampered by misconceptions, like confus­ing it with English language training or seeing it as a less desirable al­ternative to mobility programs. Furthermore, the lack of readiness by academics to implement iah frequently hinders its integration into teaching and learning methods (Beelen and Leask 2011). Students’ Intercultural Competencies Cultivating students’ intercultural competence has shifted from an added-value side e.ect to an all-persuasive motive in a market-driven and globalised educational sector. The .rst issue to consider is how to create intercultural learning opportunities that bene.t all students. Thisisimportant becauseall graduates, whethertheyseekacareer in the communities they originate from or move away, must be equipped to function in a globalised world as a professional and global citizen (Hermans 2017; Trunk et al. 2022). AccordingtoLeask(2009), iah isconsideredanopportunitytohelp develop intercultural competencies for all students, not only for those participating in mobility or for incoming international students. While many students hope to study abroad to develop intercultural skills, not everyone can. Fortunately, educational institutions are realising how [38] critical it is to develop intercultural abilities in students by utilising var­ious techniques that bring global experiences to the students’ doorstep. Internationalisation of curricula, foreign guest lecturers, international face-to-face and virtual classes, and intercultural collaborative learning are some ways through which internationalisation can be achieved at home. Intercultural competencies encompass a spectrum of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enable individuals to engage successfully with people from di.erent cultural backgrounds. Scholars like Erdei and Kodácsy (2020) emphasise the importance of contextual knowledge about various cultures, which is integral to e.ective communication and collaboration. Deardor. (2006; 2009) de.nes intercultural com­petence as the capability to act both e.ectively and appropriately in intercultural situations, underpinned by speci.c intercultural knowl­edge and attitudes. Leeds-Hurwitz (2017) pointed out the importance of acknowledging and celebrating cultural variety. Furthermore, em­ployers prioritise intercultural abilities over speci.c academic majors, demonstrating that the capacity to handle cross-cultural relationships is not only a good academic skill but also a vital employability aspect (Hart Research Associates 2015). icc expands Hymes’ concept of ‘communicative competence’ by adding an intercultural dimension. According to Byram, Gribkova, and Strakey(2002), icc aimstodeveloplearnersintointerculturalspeakers or mediators who can navigate complexity, embrace multiple identities, and avoid the stereotyping that comes from viewing someone through a single identity (p. 9). The necessity for icc arises from the ‘accelerated interconnected­ness’ (Dewey 2007) among cultures and the essential need for commu­nication between them (Patil 2014). Achieving icc involves students acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to communi­cate e.ectively across cultures (Parmenter 2003). The importance of fostering icc alongside linguistic competence stems from learners’ need to develop intercultural skills for cross-cultural communication, where they might face linguistic and cultural barriers. This development aims to make them both interculturally and linguistically competent. Ben Malek (2016) emphasises that educators must transition from traditional approaches to an intercultural per­spective to cultivate both linguistic and intercultural competences in learners (Kiet Ho 2009). Despitethe recognized valueof icc, there arestill alot of obsta-[39] cles to overcome before it can be fully integrated and utilised in ed­ucational frameworks. One of the questions related to icc is how to assess whether students possess these critical competencies. In addi­tion, assessments are needed to determine whether the abilities and skills underlying icc improve during the student’s university tenure. According to Fantini (1999), the lack of a single agreed-upon de.nition for icc highlightsnotonlythecomplexityofteachingandlearning icc but also the need to approach the concept from a multidisciplinary per­spective. icc shouldbeunderstoodinrelationtothespeci.cdiscipline, .eld, or context in which it is applied. Consequently, the assessment of icc must adapt to these varying factors. The learning objectives of thetargetlearnersplayacrucialroleinevaluating icc. Toachievethis, esp teacherscanemployassessmentmethodssuchasjournalsandstu­dent portfolios. These methods allow for data triangulation, enhancing both validity and reliability (Yu 2012). Focus groups, cultural autobi­ographies, and re.ective essays are also examples of qualitative assess­ments; culturally sensitivity ratings and pre-and post-tests are exam­ples of quantitative measurements (Luo and Chan 2022; Gri.th et al. 2016). These tools support educators and administrators in evaluating the success and e.ectiveness of intercultural education initiatives. research methodology: case study Presentation of the Case Study (med2iah Project) Within the contribution framework, we set out the research approach of the case study, which applies to the Erasmus+ med2iah project. The Erasmus+ project Mediterranean Countries Towards Interna­tionalisation at Home (med2iah) was held in the period from 2020 to 2023, in cooperation with four Higher Education Institutions (heis) and one n g o from Programme Countries from Europe (two from Slovenia, one from France, one from Spain, and one from Italy) and twelve Partner heis from Mediterranean Partner Countries (three from Morocco, three from Tunisia, two from Egypt, two from Jordan, and two from Lebanon). The main objectives of the project included: to outline international-isation landscapes of non-eu Southern Mediterranean partner coun­tries universities (pcus); to identify the levels of integration of in­ternational and intercultural dimensions into their formal and infor­mal curriculum; to improve their capabilities for internationalisation [40] through sta. training, and to translate general awareness of the iah concept into streamlined institutional strategies and Action Plans, while also transforming partner countries heis’ International Rela­tionsO.ces (iros) into vibrantmulticultural focal pointstobuild students’ intercultural knowledge and sensitivity to cultural diversity. Our research focuses on extracurricular activities aimed at estab­lishing an intercultural university environment and promoting inter­nationalisation at home. These have been achieved at 12 he institu­tions from non-eu Southern Mediterranean countries through di.er­ent extracurricular activities and events organised on or outside the campuses. Brief presentation of activities: • friends TeaHouses:MeetingtheCultures. friends TeaHouses, i.e. university intercultural environments, were established at each pcu and were intended to be a space where local and inter­national students could meet, gather, create, share, interact and learn from each other. It was also a space that supported various educational,cultural,andsocialprograms. friends TeaHouses’ main aim was to strengthen the internationalisation capabili­ties of universities from non-eu Southern Mediterranean coun­tries, and particularly to enhance the international experiences of both local and international students and sta. by engaging them in several activities of friends TeaHouses initiatives. In the project med2iah, each partner provided a social place for friends TeaHouses in the frame of university infrastructure, presumably near the International Relations o.ce. Each pcu also prepared a code of conduct for each established friends TeaHouse. Digital storytelling activities, small intercultural ac­tivities, and intercultural festivals, which are presented further on, were also considered to be part of the university intercultural environment of pcus. • Production of Intercultural Digital Stories. The process of digital storytelling was carried out over 12 months. Digital storytelling activities were carried out at each pcu, resulting in a total of 94 digital stories being created. The primary topics addressed in the digital stories were the signi.cance of honouring intercultural disparities, rejecting cultural stereotypes, depicting the intercul­tural encounter while journeying to a foreign nation, and show­casing the cultural abundance of one’s native land. Every digital [41] story was meticulously assessed at each pcu using standardised criteria. The winners of the top three digital stories from each pcu were chosen and then invited to participate in the Student Boot Camp in Slovenia. • Student Boot Camp: International Summer School. The Student Boot Camp (sbc) took place in Piran, Slovenia, in the summer 2022. The camp brought together students from partner univer­sities in the Southern Mediterranean region who produced the most exceptional digital narratives on interculturalism. It was at­tended by students from all 12 pcus; students from 9pcus at­tended the activity in person, while students from other 3 pcus joined remotely, due to obstacles in obtaining a visa. Throughout the two-week programme, students participated in a series of seven modules that focused on interculturalism, innovation, cre­ativity, leadership, art, and event management. In addition, they assisted in the development of strategic documents pertaining to the internationalisation of their respective universities. The Boot Camp gathered a total of 34 students and 20 lecturers. • Implementation of Small Intercultural Activities and the Multicul­tural Festivals. Universities arranged intercultural activities (small intercultural activities and large intercultural festivals) to aug­ment students’ multicultural consciousness via extracurricular events. The majority of activities were held at friends Tea-Houses, which were established as part of the med2iah project to facilitate the promotion of internationalisation within local communities. Between June 2021 and June 2023, a total of 60 small intercultural activities took place at 11 institutions, with each university organising a minimum of two activities. The ac­tivities encompassed linguistic tea exchanges, cultural di.erence explorations, digital storytelling, Arab day, virtual exchanges, African week, English conversation cafés, musical events, the­atrical performances, movie days, Japanese days, and cultural diversity seminars. Between June 2022 and June 2023, institu­ tions organised a multicultural festival that included exhibitions, activities for both national and international students, and de­bates on intercultural topics. In total, 11 multicultural festivals were carried out at 11 pcus. [42] Research Design: Data Collection Method Theresearchdesignisaqualitativecasestudyof med2iah.Withinthis study, we primarily analysed the following activities: friends Tea-Houses, Student Boot Camp, small intercultural activities, and multi­cultural festivals. The research questions of our study are: (1) how did extracurricu­lar activities implemented within the med2iah project contribute to internationalisation at home? (2) how did these activities enrich the development of intercultural competencies of all students? The development of interculturally competent students should be the anticipated outcome of internationalisation e.orts in higher ed­ucation institutions. Therefore, besides curricular activities, interna­tionalisation can be promoted via extra-curricular and co-curricular ac­tivities. Extra-curricular activities are an e.ective way to help students de­velop intercultural competencies and to promote internationalisation at home. Extra-curricular activities o.er chances for global awareness, leadership development, cross-cultural communication, cultural expo­sure, and personal growth – all of which are crucial elements of a well-rounded and globally competent education. We used the following methods to collect data: • A survey with closed and open questions for the Student Boot Camp (sbc): The research was not sampled. Although all partici­pants were invited to participate in the survey, only 41 out of 54 participants responded to it. With the survey we wanted to re­ceive answers from Boot Camp participants on the following top-ics:theinnovativelearningandteachingapproachesat sbc com­paredtostudiesattheirhomeuniversities;theimpactof sbc on the development and enhancement of competencies, skills, and knowledge observed at sbc, and the impact of sbc activities on internationalisation at home. • Documentation analyses: Reports about the implementation of small activities and intercultural festivals. All institutions re­ ported their small activities (in total, 60 small activities and 11 large intercultural festivals were reported). With the reports we mainly expected to receive answers from the organisers of inter-cultural activities on the kind of impact these activities had on students and their institutions. [43] • Documentation analyses: Institutional reports about friends TeaHouses functioning. Institutional coordinators of friends TeaHouses reported their views on the functioning of friends TeaHousesandhowinterculturalactivitiescanpromote iah and encourage the development and enhancement of students’ inter-cultural competencies. For data processing, we used the following methods: • For the survey, we processed quantitative data with descriptive statistics, while qualitative data were processed with text analy­sis, speci.cally creating categories. • For documentation analysis, we applied text analysis to the re­ports received from coordinators on the implementation of in­tercultural activities and friends TeaHouses functioning. Chatgpt was employed as an analytical instrument to scrutinise the contents of sections ‘Analyses of the Survey with Closed and Open Questions on Student Boot Camp’ and ‘Documentation Analyses: In­stitutional Reports about friends TeaHouses’ Functioning,’ which entailed the analysis of surveys and documents in the research study. In the the .rst the Chatgpt was utilised to analyse surveys and clas­sify qualitative data obtained from survey responses. This facilitated the identi.cation of important categories and valuable insights derived from the participants’ input. The latter section involved the utilisation ofChatgpt toexaminedocumentation pertainingtotheoperations of friends TeaHouses. This entailed examining reports submitted by university coordinators and extracting noteworthy themes and .nd­ings. A limitation of this research is that some participating pcus did not o.er information about the operations of Friends TeaHouses and their intercultural programmes and festivals. Submitting only a por­tion of the data may result in incomplete .ndings. Students who par­ticipatedinthe sbc onlinefounditchallengingtoevaluatetheimpact of the sbc as e.ciently as those who attended in person in Slovenia. This discrepancy in participation modemay result in varied perceptions and experiences, potentially leading to biased or inconsistent .ndings. Another constraint is the subjective character of certain data gathering techniques, such as surveys and reports, which depend on self-reported data that can be impacted by human biases or interpretations. [44] empirical part Analyses of the Survey with Closed and Open Questions on Student Boot Camp Below, we present analyses of the feedback survey that participants in sbc were invited to .ll in. Of the 54 participants, 41 completed the questionnaire. Among the respondents, there were 28 students and 13 teachers. 26. of all the re­spondents were male, and the rest (74.) were female. The majority of respondents were from heis in Lebanon (12), followed by Tunisia (8), Jordan (5), Egypt (4), Morocco (3), Slovenia (2), and Spain (1). Six re­spondentsdidnotdeclarethenameofthe hei theywerefrom.Accord­ing to the collected data, the questionnaire was completed by partici­pants from 11 out of 12 heis from Mediterranean Partner Countries. The majority of respondents (28) attended activities in Slovenia over a two-week period. A portion of the participants (7) travelled to Slove­nia for a limited duration and participated in activities that were con­ducted both in-person and online. Another group (6) faced visa-related challenges and could only engage in the activities remotely. In the open questionnaire, we asked the participants about the most valuablelessonslearnedduringthe sbc. Wegatheredthelessons learned into the following themes: • Innovative teaching and learning enhancement; • Impactof sbc onthedevelopmentandenhancementoncompe­tencies, skills, and knowledge; •Impact of sbc on iah. Innovative Teaching and Learning Enhancement The sbc o.ered a profound opportunity for participants to engage in innovative teaching methods and improve their learning abilities. Par­ticipants praised the individualised and nurturing learning and teach­ing method, which cultivated a favourable classroom environment and promoted open dialogue and innovation. The professors’ pro.cient and dynamic involvement inspired students and enhanced the enjoyment ande.ectivenessoflearning. sbc’sutilisationofinnovativetechniques and widespread integration of technology starkly diverged from con­ventionalapproachesinhighereducation.The sbc programme o.ered interactive sessions and workshops that fostered dynamic engagement and encouraged active involvement. Students valued the pragmatic ap-[45] proach, which urged them to think creatively and to adjust to diverse cultural contexts, greatly expanding their outlooks and abilities. Gra­jcevci and Shala (2016) highlight the signi.cance of individualised in­struction and the integration of technology in education, asserting that these factors are essential for educational transformation and contin­uous learning. Their observations align with the sbc experience, illus­trating how customised learning tactics and the incorporation of tech­nology can foster more captivating and e.cient educational settings. Todaro (1995) argues that non-formal education is more suited to meet­ing students’ needs and to fostering a profound comprehension of one­self and the world. Non-formal education typically places the student at the forefront, providing a .exible and customisable approach that caters to their own needs and interests. It also quickly adapts to the changing demands of individuals and society. Within this topic, we can highlight the di.erent roles of teachers in formal and informal curricula, as perceived by the study participants. These di.erences mainly relate to: • Teachers’ approach in terms of personalisation and support (Cat­egory 1) • Teaching methods and teachers’ professional engagement (Cate­gory 2) To support this, we present some interesting responses regarding Category 1: • ‘I am very satis.ed with my experience with the sbc teachers. They continuously check on us if we are happy with our learning experience, have any questions, or if there is anything that we need to discuss.’ • ‘Honestly, they treated us as friends, which is important to create a good vibe inside the classroom for better communication and results. The way of explaining, their trust, and enthusiasm for us was great enough to invent many things and break the barrier of fear and hesitation. Their orders were a relaxed way to .nish our tasks. It was based on a friendly approach.’ • ‘Teachersatsbcsupportedmemorethanmyteachersinmyuni­versity, they gave me support, respecting my di.ering opinions and point of view.’ We also present some responses regarding Category 2, Teaching [46] methods and teachers’ professional engagement: • ‘I found teachers very professional; they were very excited to teach us.’ • ‘In the sbc classes were more interactive and had more focus on the students.’ • ‘The sbc atmosphereencouragedmetocreategoodideasandin­volve myself in projects that could help future students. The Boot Camp is based on practical parts and workshops, and I needed to think out of the box. Besides, the mode of study was distin­guished to break any barriers of traditional education.’ • ‘I learned new digital, technical, hard and soft skills that helped me develop my skills and knowledge.’ Impact of sbc on the Development and Enhancement on Competencies, Skills, and Knowledge The most valuable skill obtained was intercultural communication. This skill enabled participants to pro.ciently engage with others from many cultural backgrounds. Through immersing themselves in the lives and professional environments of people from many cultural backgrounds, they successfully dismantled preconceived notions, fostered tolerance, and gained a genuine understanding and admiration for the distinc­tions across cultures. The sbc environment fostered increased trans­parency, .exibility, and reverence. These experiences cultivated self-awareness and the capacity to excel in multicultural environments, in­structing participants to appreciate variety and gain a deeper under­standing of others. Theories on intercultural communication and com­petence, such as Bennett’s (1993) Developmental Model of Intercultural SensitivityandDeardor.’s (2008)ProcessModelofIntercultural Com­petence, argue that being exposed to and actively engaging with diverse cultures promotes higher levels of intercultural sensitivity and compe­tence. These theoretical frameworks emphasise the signi.cance of ex­periences such as sbc in fostering the capacity to traverse and value cultural disparities, ultimately leading to personal and professional ad­vancement in a globalised society. Thecollaborativeatmosphere andjointendeavourat sbc wereseen as signi.cant catalysts for personal and professional growth. Despite encountering cultural misconceptions and variations in communica­tion approaches, the collaboration among participants was deemed successful. Participants acquired the skills to pro.ciently communicate [47] ideas and collaborate towards common goals, despite encountering ini­tial obstacles. Their learning experience was enriched by exposure to a range of so­cial and cultural contexts, which stimulated more creativity and open­ness to diverse perspectives. The skills and information obtained from sbc, such as managerial expertise, excellent communication, strong leadership abilities, and cultural adaptability, equipped students with the self-assurance to actively participate in many settings. These inter­actions are expected to have a lasting impact, improving their future career prospects and personal connections by fostering a global per­spective and an appreciation for cultural diversity. Within this topic, we can highlight how sbc helped participants in improving and enhancing several competencies and skills, and con­tributed to their personal and professional growth, as perceived by the participants of the sbc activity. The competencies, skills and knowledge that students mainly im­proved during sbs refer to: • Intercultural competencies (Category 1) • Communication skills (Category 2) • Teamwork, collaboration (Category 3) • Personal and professional development (Category 4) Further on we present some responses regarding Category 1, Inter-cultural competencies: • ‘Intercultural skills, the importance of diversity, communication skills, etc., all of which are essential in the 21st century.’ • ‘Understanding others’ cultures.’ • ‘The sbc taught me not to stereotype cultures.’ • ‘Understanding di.erences, being a .exible person.’ • ‘I now know more about my value towards others, for instance, honesty, loyalty, generosity, passion, and punctuality.’ • ‘This was the .rst time I worked in an intercultural group. At .rst, it was hard: we had many di.erences, either culturally or person- ally. We ended up becoming very good friends and cooperated successfully.’ • ‘It made me more tolerant, patient and not afraid to ask ques­tions about other cultures.’ [48] Further on we present some responses regarding Category 2, Com­munication skills: • ‘I improved my communication skills in general and active listen­ing skills.’ • ‘I am more comfortable speaking English with other students and with teachers.’ • ‘For me, the most important competence that I learned was in­tercultural communication. I learned how to communicate with anyone, no matter where they are.’ Further on we present some responses regarding Category 3, Team­work, collaboration, openness: • ‘Working in a group was very successful. However, our weakness was communication. Some had a harsh and direct way of commu­nicating, while others preferred an indirect one.’ • ‘The overall cooperation in the group was good. The cultural mis­understanding that happens is the only weakness that I faced, which was not a barrier to communication and interaction.’ • ‘The strengths are that we used to share ideas to achieve the best work, the weaknesses is that some students wanted only their ideas to be displayed.’ • ‘Working with people from di.erent environments and cultures makesusmore creative and helps usto be more opentodi.erent ideas.’ Lastly, we present some responses regarding Category 4, Personal and professional development: • ‘I learned all of the good things, such as management, communi­cation, leadership and the culture.’ • ‘I improved my organisational and management skills, such as organising and managing activities of TeaHouses. I improved my communication and presentation skills. I have become more or­ganised and more self-disciplined.’ • ‘I have acquired new skills that allow me to communicate cross-culturally and internationally.’ • ‘The knowledge I learned will de.nitely help me in my future ca­reer.’ Impact of sbc Activities on Internationalisation at Home The sbc experience signi.cantly in.uenced participants’ comprehen-[49] sion and execution of internationalisation within their own country. Students acquired excellent skills in event organisation and cultural initiative, which they intended to utilise at their universities by arrang­ing cultural activities and implementing smart internationalisation ini­tiatives. They acquired knowledge on how to improve student involve­ment and empowerment, by sharing their sbc experiences to inspire andengagetheirclassmates. The sbc alsoexpandedtheirculturalcon­sciousness and worldwide outlook, highlighting the signi.cance of ac­cepting diversity and openness in their respective nations. In addition, the participants were acquainted with sustainability e.orts and activ­ities that foster social unity, while also acquiring knowledge of innova­tive teaching techniques and collaborative prospects to assist interna­tional students. These experiences and talents are anticipated to have a positive impact on both their universities and countries, promoting greater inclusivity. Some students joined activities online, and their main point stressed viasurveywasthattheylikedthe sbc anditswayofdelivery,butthey did not have such an intercultural experience as the students who par­ticipated in activities in Slovenia. The sbc signi.cantly enhanced student competencies through in­teractive learning modules, fostering communication, teamwork, and leadership skills. Through a focus on intercultural comprehension and the provision of hands-on experiences, sbc successfully equipped stu­dentsforglobalinvolvement.Furthermore, sbcactivelysupportedthe internationalisation objectives of individual universities by involving students in creating strategic documents on home internationalisation and encouraging cultural variety inside their home universities. In the same vein, research on short-term mobility programmes em­phasises the signi.cant bene.ts of studying abroad, such as gaining exposure to diverse people, cultures, ideas, attitudes, and learning and working methods. Additionally, studying abroad can greatly contribute to enhancing iah by promoting global competencies and intercultural understanding among students who may not have the chance to study abroad (Jones 2013). Thistopicexploreshow sbc experienceshaveenhancedstudentin­volvement at their home universities and the potential impact of these experiences on the internationalisation process at their home institu­tions. [50] The impact on iah, based on feedbacks by respondents, mainly re­lates to: • Enhancing Student Engagement and Empowerment (Category 1) • Cultural Initiatives, Cultural Awareness and Global Perspective (Category 2) • Sustainability Initiatives and Social Cohesion (Category 3) Below are some typical responses on the three types of impact on iah.EnhancingStudent Engagement and Empowerment (Category 1): • ‘I received valuable knowledge and skills, which will help me to engage in friends TeaHouses activities at my home university actively.’ • ‘I share my experience with my other colleagues who did not go to Boot Camp.’ Cultural initiatives, Cultural Awareness and Global Perspective (Cat­egory 2): • ‘I learned how to deal with students with di.erent backgrounds and cultures.’ • ‘Being an open country that accepts di.erences is very impor­tant.’ • ‘I learned about cultural activities that could be done in the uni­ versity.’ Sustainability Initiatives and Social Cohesion (Category 3): • ‘New perspective on teaching, possible collaboration opportuni­ties.’ • ‘Good practices on how to interact with international students and how to o.er them help.’ The examination of the sbc survey responses highlights the sig­ni.cance of the programme in improving inventive pedagogical ap­proaches, in fostering cross-cultural skills, and in promoting interna­tionalisation within the local context. The sbc o.ered an opportunity for participants to gain crucial skills, expand their horizons, and ac­tively contribute to the internationalisation initiatives at their respec­tive institutions. The programme’s e.cacy in cultivating intercultural engagement and establishing a global attitude among students under­scores its importance in equipping them for an interconnected world. Documentation Analyses: Reports about the Implementation of SmallActivities and InterculturalFestivals [51] Feedback on the delivery of intercultural activities were gathered thro­ugh an online survey .lled in by university coordinators. Reports were submitted by 11 out of 12 pcus. Reports show that most of the small activities had a duration of 1 day, and some of them were held in a few weeks or few months. In total 60 small activities were organised at 11 pcus. Each university organ­ised, on average, 5–6 intercultural activities, with a minimum of 2 small activities. The majority of the small activities were attended by 20–30 participants. Multicultural festivals were considered as larger activities, attended by 200–300 participants per institution. In total 11 multicultural festi­vals were organised at each pcu in the frame of med2iah project. According to the observations of coordinators, all the intercultural activitiesgreatlycontributedto iah andtotheinterculturalcompeten­cies of students. Each university is also eager to organise such activities in the future. On the question of impact of intercultural activities on students, the main feedback was: • ‘Students learned about the culture in a fun and e.ective way.’ • ‘Raised awareness about di.erent cultures.’ • ‘Students developed attitudes: openness and curiosity towards diversity; tolerance of ambiguity.’ • ‘Skills: empathy; dealing with con.icts.’ • ‘Students developed attitudes: openness and curiosity towards diversity; tolerance of ambiguity.’ • ‘Knowledge of cultural di.erences in communication.’ • ‘Strengthening link between international and home students.’ Concerning the impact of activities on home institutions, the main feedback was: • ‘Activities contributed to capacity building at the level of institu­tions.’ • ‘Activities contributed to ttrengthening links between interna­tional and home students.’ • ‘Activities contributed to developing iah.’ The examination of the documentation reveals that the implemented activities have enhanced cultural comprehension and empathy, as well as increased institutional capacity and student involvement. The re­[52] sults align with the research objective of creating an educational set­ting that is inclusive and culturally varied, emphasising the importance and e.cacy of extracurricular intercultural initiative. Documentation Analyses: Institutional Reports about friends TeaHouses’ Functioning pcu (institutionalcoordinatorsof friends TeaHouses)wereaskedto re.ect ontheimpact ofintercultural activitiesin friends TeaHouses on iah,aswellasonhowtheyperceivetheoperationof friends Tea-Houses at their universities in the future, and how intercultural activ­ities can impact the development of students’ intercultural competen­cies. Feedback reports were .lled in by 9out of 12 pcus. We divided feedback into the following themes: • ImpactofinterculturalactivitiesinfriendsTeaHousesoniah; • Perception of future friends TeaHouses operation for iah; • Impact of the intercultural activities in friends TeaHouses on the development of intercultural competencies of students. Impact of Intercultural Activities in friends TeaHouses on iah Vibrant intercultural environments provide an opportunity to develop global competences and to internalise cultural values at home (Dermol et. al. 2021; Earley and Ang 2003). The friends TeaHouses serve as crucial facilitators in fostering intercultural awareness and competency among professors and students through the organisation of a wide range of activities that both celebrate di.erence and promote .exibil­ ity and empathy. Language learning sessions and the encouragement of multilingualism are crucial elements that improve students’ linguistic aptitude. The informal curriculum, enriched by interactions with per­ sons from other cultures, extends beyond mere learning of knowledge to include genuine discourse and active engagement. Participating in activities such as multicultural sta. and student training sessions is essential for cultivating intercultural awareness and pro.ciency. These activities also foster relationships between educators and learners from around the world through the use of online resources. This topic explores friends TeaHouses as important drivers of iah, and as promoters of interculturalism. Below are some typical re­sponses: • ‘Possibility of getting global competencies, and achieving cultural [53]bene.ts without crossing borders.’ • ‘International aspect within informal curricula, though not only knowing about other cultures but also through communicating with members of other cultures.’ • ‘Experience of multicultural sta. and students training.’ • ‘Celebrating diversity and calling for inclusiveness through the wide number of activities set through friends Tea-Houses.’ • ‘Support and enhance broader internationalisation e.orts within the universities.’ Thedocumentationstudyof friends TeaHousesemphasisestheir crucial function in bolstering universities’ internationalisation goals, cultivating inclusive and intercultural atmospheres, and preparing stu­dents for a globally interconnected society. Perception of Future friends TeaHouses’ Operation for iah friends TeaHouses have a crucial role in promoting and boosting universities’ internationalisation e.orts, especially in connection to a comprehensive internationalisation at home. They can play a crucial role in fostering a worldwide perspective among the academic commu­nity and facilitating the broader internationalisation strategy of educa­tional institutions. Particular focus should be on constantly assessing and gathering feedback from participants to track the successful ex­ecution of activities in friends TeaHouses and their e.ect on iah (Luo and Chan 2022; Gri.th et al. 2016). friends TeaHouses should function as primary gathering places for both local and international students, who are tasked with coordinating and executing intercultural activities. Furthermore, friends TeaHouses should serve as training centres for intercultural communication, promoting the involvement of international students and encouraging their interaction with local students. This topic explores the future role of friends TeaHouses in pro­moting iah through intercultural activities and engagement. Typical responses include: • ‘Forming a nucleus of local and international students who are mainly responsible for preparing and conducting intercultural ac­tivities within friends TeaHouses.’ • ‘Celebrating regular monthly and yearly intercultural events with­in friends TeaHouses.’ [54] • ‘By o.ering diverse intercultural programs.’ • ‘friends TeaHouses as an environment for training students and sta. in intercultural communication.’ • ‘Evaluating activities regularly and gathering feedback from par­ticipants and students is also important.’ Impact of Intercultural Activities in friends TeaHouses on the Development of Intercultural Competencies of Students Intercultural competence is the ability to communicate e.ectively and appropriately in intercultural situations, drawing on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Deardor. 2006). Intercultural activ­ities in friends TeaHouses help develop intercultural competencies through practical engagement and re.ection. Participating in these non-formal activities allows students to re.ect on their cultural iden­tity and biases, leading to a deeper understanding of di.erent values, beliefs, and customs. This process enhances students’ awareness of di­verse cultures, thereby fostering a more inclusive and globally pro.­cient academic environment. This topic explores how engagement in non-formal activities of friends TeaHouseshadanimpactonthedevelopmentandenhance­ment of students’ intercultural competences. Some of the feedbacks include: • ‘An opportunity for students to re.ect on their own cultural iden­tity and biases.’ • ‘Activities o.ered students the opportunity to gain a deeper un­derstanding of di.erent values, beliefs, and practices.’ • ‘Students had the opportunity to meet with international stu­dents, which helped them become aware of other cultures.’ • ‘friends TeaHouse is a platform for students from di.erent communities to interact, learn, and understand each other’s cul­ture, promote tolerance, mutual respect, and understanding be­tween students, and appreciate the diversity.’ discussion The .ndings of this study underscore the signi.cant impact of extracur­ricular activities on internationalisation at home (iah) and the devel­opment of intercultural competencies among students. The med2iah project, through various initiatives such as friends TeaHouses, Stu-[55] dent Boot Camp, and multicultural festivals, has demonstrated the potential of such activities to enhance intercultural engagement and awareness in higher education settings (Nikolic and Dermol 2022). Main Research Findings The analysis revealed several key outcomes: • Enhanced Intercultural Competencies. The students who partici­pated in the extracurricular activities exhibited a marked im­provement in their intercultural skills. This was evident from the qualitative feedback and survey responses, where partici­pants noted a greater ability to navigate and appreciate cultural di.erences. Similar to med2iah, various studies on the Eras­mus+ programmes have shown that students participating in Erasmus+ mobility projects exhibit signi.cant improvements in intercultural competencies. For instance, a study by Teichler and Janson (2007) found that Erasmus students developed greater intercultural understanding, adaptability, and openness, which were attributed to their exposure to diverse cultures during their exchanges. • Positive Impact on Internationalisation at Home. The initiatives promoted by the med2iah project have signi.cantly contrib­uted to iah by creating inclusive environments that encourage cross-cultural interactions among students. The friends Tea-Houses, inparticular, played apivotalrole by servingashubsfor intercultural dialogue and activities. In this vein, isl programs, which combine community service with intercultural learning, have also demonstrated enhanced intercultural competencies among participants. Research by Tonkin and Quiroga (2004) on isl programs highlighted that students who engaged in these programs showed increased cultural empathy, improved intercul­tural communication skills, and a better understanding of global interdependence. Another relevant project is the Global Perspec­tives Project, which integrated intercultural learning modules into the curriculum and extracurricular activities. Research con­ducted by Deardor. (2006) on this project revealed that students who engaged in these modules displayed enhanced intercultural communication skills and a better understanding of global is­ [56] sues. The project’s combination of classroom learning and ex­tracurricular engagement was key to these outcomes. • E.ective Use of Innovative Teaching Methods. The Student Boot Camp (sbc) provided a platform for innovative teaching and learning methods, which were highly appreciated by partici­pants. These methods not only enhanced learning experiences but also fostered a more engaging and interactive educational environment. This goes in line with the outcomes of programmes that provide cultural immersion experiences, such as cultural ex­change camps and international volunteer opportunities, which have consistently reported positive outcomes in intercultural competency development. A study by Jackson (2008) on a cul­tural immersion program in Hong Kong found that participants experienced signi.cant growth in their intercultural sensitivity and ability to engage with people from diverse cultural back­grounds. Equally e.cient is the use of virtual collaborative learning through providing online modules for students from di.erent cultural back­grounds during the sbc. It contributed to the enhancement of their cultural awareness and intercultural competencies. coil projects, which involve online collaborations between students from di.erent countries, have also shown similar results. A study by Rubin (2017) indicated that students participating in coil activities developed in­tercultural competencies comparable to those gained through phys­ical mobility. The virtual interactions and collaborative tasks helped students navigate cultural di.erences and improve their intercultural communication skills. Implications The .ndings have several important implications for heis: • Integration of iah into institutional strategies. heis should con­siderincorporating iah morecomprehensivelyintotheirstrate­gies. This involves creating opportunities for intercultural en­gagement that go beyond traditional mobility programs, making international and intercultural experiences accessible to all stu­dents. • Support for extracurricular programs. The success of the med2­iah project highlights the importance of supporting extracur­ricular activities that foster intercultural competencies. Institu-[57] tions should allocate resources and provide institutional support to such programs to maximise their impact. • Promotion of inclusive environments. Creating inclusive environ­ments where all students, regardless of their background, can participate in intercultural activities is crucial. This promotes a sense of belonging and enhances the overall educational experi­ence. Future Research Avenues To build on the .ndings of this study, future research could explore the following areas: • Longitudinal Studies. Conducting longitudinal studies to track the long-term impact of iah initiatives on students’ intercultural competencies and career outcomes would provide valuable in­sights into the sustained bene.ts of these programs. • Comparative Studies. Comparative studies across di.erent re­gions and institutions could help identify best practices and the most e.ective strategies for implementing iah. This would en­able a better understanding of how contextual factors could lead to the success of such initiatives. • Broader Impact Assessment. Expanding the scope of impact as­sessments to include not only students but also faculty and local communities would provide a more comprehensive understand­ing of the bene.ts of iah. This would help in designing more holistic programs that engage all stakeholders. In conclusion, the med2iah project has demonstrated that ex­tracurricular activities can signi.cantly enhance intercultural compe­tencies and support iah. By integrating these .ndings into institu­tional strategies, heis can create more inclusive and globally aware educational environments. Future research should continue to explore and expand upon these foundations to further the e.ectiveness and reach of iah initiatives. conclusion The surge in internationalisation initiatives within educational institu­ tions marks a signi.cant shift towards fostering intercultural engage­ ment among students. Universities are increasingly recognising the sig­ [58] ni.cance of promoting internationalisation within their campuses to enhance the intercultural competencies of all students, including those who do not take part in exchange programmes. The med2iah project exempli.es the establishment of a diverse university atmosphere through innovative initiatives such as the fri­ends TeaHouses gathering space and a diverse array of extracurricu­lar activities. The di.erent range of programmes, which include small intercultural activities, multicultural festivals and digital storytelling, have garnered positive feedback from both organisers and participants, highlighting their crucial role in fostering internationalisation within the local community. The key .ndings suggest that these activities have improved stu­dents’ understanding of di.erent cultures, their ability to empathise with others, and their communication skills, therefore equipping them for active participation in the global community. The friends Tea-Houses play a crucial role in facilitating cultural interaction and edu­cation, e.ectively connecting domestic and international students and promoting a strong feeling of community. Engaging in extracurricular activities enables students to improve their intercultural skills. By engaging in social interactions with class­mates from various cultural origins, students develop tolerance, re­spect, and appreciation for di.erences. Also, they acquire knowledge about various values, perspectives, and traditions, fostering attitudes of curiosity and empathy towards cultural di.erences. Incorporating extra-curricular activities is a non-formal means of promoting intercultural engagement on campus, while supporting larger university-wide internationalisation initiatives. It emphasises how crucial it is to develop intercultural abilities in students as a de­cisive part of their educational path, equipping them to prosper in a world that is becoming more and more interconnected. Overall,the med2iah projectserves asaprimeexampleofhowex­tracurricular intercultural activities can successfully promote interna­tionalisation within a domestic setting. The project increases students’ global competence and strengthens the institutions’ skills to provide a culturally rich and inclusive academic community by integrating in­ternational and intercultural components into the university experi­ ence. 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Yu, H. 2012. ‘Intercultural Competence in Technical Communication: A Working De.nition and Review of Assessment Methods.’ Technical Communication Quarterly 21:168–86. ijems | scientific article The Use of Analytic Hierarchy Process for Measuring National Interests: Demonstrating the Case Study of the Changing Relevance of Libya for Italian Foreign Policy between 2011–2021 lili takacs University of Public Service, Hungary takacs.lilii@gmail.com The study employs the Analytic Hierarchy Process (ahp) to quantita­tively assess the Italian national interests over a 10-year period (2011– 2021) within the context of .ve states along the southern Mediter­ranean coast. By adopting a longitudinal approach, this research in­vestigates the dynamics and relative signi.cance of each state, thereby shedding light on potential shifts in Italy’s foreign policy. The study introduces a comprehensive methodology for visualizing and ana­lyzing national interests, o.ering valuable insights into the evolving geopolitical landscape of the Mediterranean region. The .ndings high­light the changing patterns and relative importance of these interests over the examined period, uncovering subtle shifts in Italy’s strate­gic outlook. By o.ering a detailed examination of the Mediterranean region, this study presents a detailed understanding of the complex interplay between Italian national interests and the geopolitical dy­namics of neighboring states. The visualization of this data provides an overview of the evolving relationships and power dynamics, facili­tating informed decision-making and policy formulation. Key Words: national interest, Italy, Mediterranean, foreign policy, Analytic Hierarchy Process https://emuni.si/ISSN/2232-6022/17.63-85.pdf introduction This paper investigates the strategic signi.cance of advocacy and power projection in the Euro-Mediterranean region as drivers of Italian na­ tional interests and the subsequent enhancement of the country’s in­ ternational in.uence. While the measurement and prioritization of national interests have long been explored in foreign policy research, there is a lack of widely disseminated methodologies providing quan­titative outcomes crucial for informing strategic decision-making. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (ahp) is a method that incorporates both qualitative and quantitative factors, making it suitable for analyzing [64] national interests and assisting decision-makers in setting priorities and allocating resources. This paper utilizes the ahp methodology to examine Italian na­tional interests in the Euro-Mediterranean region, with a speci.c fo­cus on Libya. Within the study’s framework, an assessment is made of the evolving signi.cance of Libya in Italian foreign policy within the Mediterranean context, encompassing .ve nations along the south­ern shores of the Mediterranean (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, and Egypt). The objective is to identify the areas of Italian interests in this region and to evaluate the progression of these interests over time. The outcomes of this analysis will enhance the comprehension of interna­tional policy choices and contribute to a more e.ective formulation of the Italian foreign policy in the Euro-Mediterranean region. theoretical background The concept of national interest has emerged alongside the formation of nation-states, a development closely linked to the Peace of West­ phalia. According to Carl Schmitt, states engage in con.icts not pri­ marily driven by abstract values but by their own interests. Values, in Schmitt’s view, are pursued by states only when they align with their respective interests (Gaiser 2005, 17). De.ning national interest can be as challenging as attempting to de­.ne the abstract concept of ‘good’ in philosophy. Its complexity stems from various factors, primarily due to the close association between national interest and the dynamics of the nation-state-international system. Di.erent schools of international relations (ir) o.er diverse interpretations of national interest. In liberal theories, it is argued that national interests should be oriented towards fostering peace and har­mony among states (Burchill 2005, 125). According to liberalism, the state is not monolithic, as in realist theories, because it involves a myriad of di.erent actors and di.erent interests (Morgan 2007, 25– 26). However, Morgenthau’s realism, which emphasizes the primacy of power and security in international relations, provides a contrasting perspective. In Morgenthau’s view, states prioritize their own survival and the maximization of power in an anarchic international system. This perspective highlights the competitive and con.ictual nature of international politics, where national interest is fundamentally rooted in the pursuit of power and security (Morgenthau 1978). The realist school of thought emphasizes that the dynamics of in­ternational politics are fundamentally shaped by the competition be-[65] tween national interests. Realists de.ne national interest in terms of the preservation of a state’s territorial and political integrity. Survival becomes the paramount national interest, with all other interests con­sidered subordinate to it. Realists argue that without ensuring the state’s existence and security, no other interests can be e.ectively pur­sued or guaranteed. Thus, the preservation of the state’s survival forms the core foundation of the realist understanding of national interest (Dunne and Schmidt 2005, 164). The realist approach does not take into account the changing na­ture of interests independent of power factors. In this perspective, for­eign policy, based on the state’s capabilities, is seen as a continuous process aimed at ensuring survival, with interests considered constant (Robert and Sørensen 2003, 82). However, the determination of na­tional interest goes beyond considerations of power and geography; it is also in.uenced by political traditions, ideals, internal forces, decision-makers, and historical experiences within the state. This perspective aligns with the neoclassical realist school of thought, which adopts a dual approach. According to this approach, the concept of national in­terest comprises two components: the (essential) elements inherent in the state’s capabilities and the (changing) elements shaped by contex­tual factors. To e.ectively allocate resources, it becomes crucial to dif­ferentiate between the essential and changing elements of national in­terest. The necessary elements often encompass variable elements, the pursuit of which is deemed essential for national survival (Ho.mann 1995, 5). These interests are not mutually exclusive, they compete for attention and resources, and their intensity depends on the situation. According to Glasier, a state’s political, economic, military and cul­tural goals, which are necessary to preserve the integrity of the state, can be considered national interests (Jean 2008, 69–70). As demonstrated, the de.nition of national interest encompasses various perspectives due to its inherent complexity. However, a com­mon thread among these de.nitions revolves around the preservation of the nation-state. In the 21st century, the concept of national interest has evolved beyond its traditional, rigid interpretation of territorial in-tegrity and political independence, taking into account the characteris­tics of political, social, and economic structures. Nevertheless, regard­less of the speci.c de.nitions, the acquisition of an international posi­tion and the pursuit of state objectives remain key elements shared by [66] di.erent conceptions of national interest, ultimately aiming to achieve political and economic advantages. Considering these aspects, I employ the concept of national inter­est as follows: I perceive national interest as persistent goals applicable across various sectors that the state strives to safeguard. In cases where these interests are compromised or endangered, the state uses available coercive means to protect them. These interests are not exclusive to any particular domain and may vary in their intensity. sectors of security The conclusion of the Cold War unveiled previously overlooked dimen­ sions of security that had been overshadowed by a predominant focus on the military aspects of a bipolar confrontation. This limited empha­ sis on security threats beyond the traditional military realm began to shift in the 1990s. During this period, a sectoral perspective on security emerged, championed by scholars like Barry Buzan, associated with the Copenhagen School. This perspective highlights the societal, economic, political, and environmental dimensions of security alongside military factors. By broadening the understanding of security, this approach rec­ ognizes the interconnectedness and interdependencies of various sec­ tors in shaping the overall security landscape (Buzan and Wæver 2003). Buzan’s classi.cation divides security threats in .ve distinct sec­tors: military, political, economic, societal, and environmental. While conceptually separate, these sectors are not independent entities but instead interact intricately, resembling the interwoven structure of a spider’s web. Similar to the approach outlined in the Helsinki Final Act, Buzan’s conceptualization of security adopts a comprehensive un­derstanding that extends beyond a narrow emphasis on the military domain. It recognizes the need to consider multiple dimensions and sectors of security holistically. As a result, highlighting the interde­pendence between these dimensions and sectors becomes crucial for a comprehensive analysis of contemporary security challenges (Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde 1998). • National interests in the military sector of security: safeguarding sovereignty and territorial integrity, protecting the state’s citi­zens, enhancing deterrence capabilities, and fostering coopera­tive and neighborly international relations. These interests are vital for ensuring the autonomy and integrity of the nation, pri­oritizing the safety and well-being of its people, establishing a credible deterrent against external aggression, and cultivat-[67] ing collaborative partnerships with other countries. By pursuing these objectives, states strive to maintain a secure environment that upholds their national interests and contributes to regional and global stability. • National interests of the economic sector: ensuring economic pros­perity and stability. • National interest of the political sector: establishing a stable rule of law, guaranteeing the full respect of the law, creating a solid ba­sis for the rule of law, protecting the constitutional order, pursu­ing an e.ective domestic and foreign policy, maintaining internal stability and the functioning of state institutions. • The national interests of the societal sector: socio-political stabil­ity, maintaining the regulability of social processes, guaranteeing self-identity, ensuring the sustainability of language, culture, na­tional traditions, values, religious and national identity, harmon­ising the rights and duties of the individual, society and the state, enforcing social justice, and generally protecting values that the members of society commonly share. • National interests of the environmental sector: ensuring and pre­serving the environmental elements necessary to ensure social well-being (e.g. access to drinking water) (Gazdag 2007, 3–6). Building upon Buzan’s security theory and the aforementioned lit­erature on national interests, I have identi.ed Italy’s interests in Libya through a comprehensive analysis: • Military sector: protecting Italian citizens in Libya, preventing the in.ltration of jihadist terrorism into Italy. • Economic sector: ensuring stability of trade relations, guarantee­ing energy security and contributing to diversi.cation of supply. • Societal sector: curbing illegal migration to Italy, reducing social tensions within Italy. • Political sector: maintaining internal order and stability in Libya and a functioning institutional system. • Environmental sector: preventing the spread of epidemics to Italy. These de.ned interests re.ect Italy’s strategic priorities in Libya, encompassing a range of sectors that are critical to its national secu­rity, economic prosperity, social cohesion, political stability, and public health. By understanding and addressing these interests, Italy aims to [68] protect its own welfare while contributing to the overall stability and well-being of the region. methodology: analytic hierarchy process To facilitate decision-making, policymakers rely on models to allocate resources e.ectively. Qualitative methods like the Delphi technique and the Cross Impact Analysis have been used for decades. The Delphi method involves gathering expert input through questionnaires and it­ erative feedback rounds, while the Cross Impact Analysis examines in­ terdependencies between variables. While these methods provide valu­ able insights, there was a growing need for quantitative approaches to enhance precision and data-driven decision-making. As a consequence, hybrid models combining qualitative and quantitative elements were developed for a more robust policy analysis (Norman-Helmer 1951). In a changed international environment by the end of the Cold War, the de.nition of national interests has become more complex and com­ plicated (Jean and Napolitano 2005). Compared to the methods men­ tioned above, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (ahp) allows for decision making based both on qualitative and quantitative criteria. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (ahp) is a methodology developed by Thomas Saaty in the 1980s for addressing multi-criteria decision problems. ahp was speci.cally designed to achieve a synthesis of sub­jective and objective elements by integrating both quantitative and qualitative methods. Its primary objective is to provide a structured framework for decision-makers to prioritize and evaluate alternatives based on a hierarchy of criteria. By incorporating the preferences of decision-makers and considering their relative importance, ahp en­ables a comprehensive and balanced analysis, enhancing the e.ective­ness and accuracy of decision-making processes. Saaty’s development of ahp introducedacomprehensive, logical,andstructured system for better comprehending decision problems. ahp achieves this by break­ing down the problem into its components and organizing them hier­archically. This methodology proves particularly e.ective for address­ing problems involving decision elements that are challenging to quan­tify and that require comparison. By employing a systematic approach and considering both qualitative and quantitative factors, ahp pro­vides decision-makers with valuable insights and facilitates informed decision-making processes (Duleba 2006, 1). Since the model was de­veloped, it has become one of the most widely used multi-criteria de­cision methods among decision makers and researchers alike. Applica-[69] tions relevant to this study include the selection of the best alternative, the allocation and optimisation of resources, and the modelling of con­.ict resolution options (Vaidya and Kumar 2006). In the ahp model, the decision problem is represented through a multi-level tree structure. The top level depicts the goal, while the sub­sequent levels consist of criteria, sub-criteria, and alternatives. This hi­erarchical representation helps to organize and visualize the various components of the decision-making process, thus facilitating a system­atic analysis and evaluation of alternatives. The ahp model provides support for decision-making in situa­tions involving competing objectives, making it suitable for evaluating national interests. Comprehensive assessment and measurement of all decision aspects, encompassing both quantitative and qualitative factors, is necessary when choosing between competing objectives. National interests, being inherently challenging to de.ne, require a methodology capable of addressing non-quanti.able elements. Unlike the Delphi and the Cross Impact Analysis approaches, the ahp model enables the consideration of both measurable and less measurable fac­tors by employing relative weights to establish a numerical relationship between elements within the hierarchy. In ahp models, the decision process involves the following steps: • Establishing the relative weights of the criteria. • Evaluating alternatives based on the speci.ed criteria. • Weighting and aggregating the evaluations. In the ahp model, pairwise comparison involves systematically comparing each criterion or alternative against every other criterion or alternative in order to determine their relative importance or pref­erence. These comparisons are then used to derive priority weights, al­lowing decision-makers to quantify and prioritize the elements within the hierarchy. In terms of national interests, the ahp method enables the es­tablishment of a hierarchy among themes, sectors, and areas, facil­itating decisions for resource allocation. Building upon the work of Bozzo, Simon-Belli, and Batacchi (2005), who quanti.ed Italy’s na­tionalinterestsusingthe ahp methodology,thisstudyaimstoanalyze the evolving signi.cance of Libya in Italian foreign policy within the Mediterranean region. The analysis encompasses .ve countries (Mo­ [70] rocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, and Egypt) situated along the south­ern shores of the Mediterranean. Employing the same methodology, a longitudinal study will be conducted using data from 2011, 2016, and 2021 to assess potential changes in these states’ relative importance to Italy. To maintain methodological consistency, the weighting scheme developed by Bozzo, Simon-Belli, and Batacchi (2005) for criteria and sub-criteria will be adopted. Within the framework of the Analytic Hierarchy Process, this study examines Italy’s interests in the Southern Mediterranean from three perspectives: socio-cultural, economic, and politico-military. These per­spectives encompass the economic, political, and military sectors out­lined in Buzan’s concept of security. Since no hierarchical relationship exists among these di.erent sectors, equal weight will be assigned to these three major aspects in the analysis. This approach avoids signif­icant distortions in the results that could arise from weighting broad categories di.erently. Moreover, assigning equal weight to these as­pects allows for a more accurate representation of the relative impor­tance of each area. In essence, it facilitates a clearer understanding of whether Italy’s connections to a particular country are primarily eco­nomic, cultural, or military in nature. The following criteria and sub-criteria are used in the analysis (their weight – relative importance – is indicated with the percentage): 1 Societal-cultural aspects • Communication networks: extent and intensity of communica­tion and information .ows between Italy and the other coun­try – relative importance 28.. • Italians living abroad: number of Italian citizens living in the country (this aspect is important because since 2006 Italians living abroad can vote, have a certain number of representa­tives in the legislature and are dealt with separately within the government) – relative importance 28.. • Migration: including both legal and illegal migration, as both types of migration require the Italian government to de­velop policies and allocate resources. Due to changing societal attitudes towards migration, illegal migration has a higher weighting (90–10.) – relative importance 21.. • In.uence on Italy: cultural in.uence of another country on Italy – relative importance 11.. • In.uence by Italy: cultural in.uence of Italy on the other coun-[71] try – relative importance 11.. 2Economic aspects • Raw materials: this includes raw materials (oil, natural gas) necessary to guarantee energy security, taking into account Italy’s dependence on strategic resources – relative impor­tance 50.. • Finished products: Italian exports of .nished products – rela­tive importance 25.. • Investment: Italian foreign direct investment (fdi) destina­ tions – relative importance 25.. 3 Politico-military aspects • Strategic-military relevance: this sub-category includes sev­eral factors: degree and intensity of threats originating from the respective country (e.g. presence of terrorist groups in the area, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, etc.), strategic-military weight in a narrow sense, existence of a (strategic) partnership, etc. – relative importance 50.. • Historico-political relevance: existence and depth of historical links, diplomatic relations – relative importance 25.. • Governmental relevance: the importance that a government gives in its foreign policy to a given region – relative impor­tance 25.. In conducting the ahp analysis, I followed the aforementioned stepsasoutlined below: 1 Determination of the relative weights of the criteria: For this analy­sis, I utilized the weights from the Bozzo, Simon-Belli, and Bat­acchi (2005) study, as mentioned earlier. 2 Evaluation of alternatives according to the given criteria: This step involved collecting and determining source values. While some values were easily quanti.able, such as those pertaining to eco­nomic sub-criteria, others were more challenging to quantify. To address this, I sought to identify as many quanti.able sub-cat­egories as possible and aggregated them to obtain sub-catego­ry values. For non-quanti.able factors, the relative strength of countries was determined by referencing the scale used to estab­lish the weights. An example of this mixed calculation approach [72] is the sub-criterion of strategic-military relevance, which incor­porated several sub-categories. The country’s current terrorism index (Global Terrorism Index) provided a quanti.able measure, while the strength and equipment of its military were assessed on a scale of 1–9based on the Military Balance rankings. Ad­ditionally, a scale was utilized to evaluate the depth of strate­gic partnerships. A similar mixed calculation method, involving scales and absolute values, was applied to determine historico­political relevance. Factors such as the establishment of diplo­matic relations, periodic interruptions in diplomatic relations, the number of Italian diplomatic missions in the country, and the number of active international treaties between the two coun­tries were taken into account. Colonialism was also considered within this sub-category. In de.ning the values, an e.ort was made to incorporate as many quanti.able elements as possible to minimize subjectivity. 3 Summary of the weighting and assessments: Following the extrac­tion and sorting of source values, the data series were normal­ized. The normalized values were then weighted, and the per­centage distribution of the weighted normalized values was cal­culated. By following these steps, I aimed to systematically assess and quan­ tify the di.erent aspects of Italy’s national interests within the Analytic Hierarchy Process methodology. By implementing the aforementioned ahp methodology, I have es­tablished a suitable approach for measuring the changing signi.cance of national interests over time. It is important to note that I tried to minimize the impact of human decision-making and the potential for errors. However, it should also be considered that subjective and hu­man factors still play a role in the decision-making process. The study’s .ndings are presented as percentages, re.ecting the relative impor­tance of the assessed factors. Furthermore, the inclusion of diverse as­sessment criteria enables to balance the di.erences in size regarding the countries under examination. As a result, the employed method­ology serves as an appropriate, but not exclusive, means of measuring and evaluating national interests. The availability and reliability of data pose potential limitations in the application of the ahp methodology for measuring national inter­ests. While Italian state-provided data are typically reliable, data avail-[73] ability and reliability in other countries may be more limited, emphasiz­ing the importance of using data from consistent sources within each category/subcategory to prevent distortion. identifying italy’s national interests in the mediterranean using ahp methodology In 2005, Bozzo, Simon-Belli, and Batacchi employed the ahp model to de.ne Italy’s national interests and their geographic signi.cance. De­spite being conducted in 2005, the analysis continues to yield pertinent outcomes, assuming the validity of Glasier’s notion of the enduring na­ture of national interests. The study encompassed various geograph­ical units, including the Middle East, the North Atlantic region, the .fteen-member European Union, the Balkans, Russia, North Africa, the new eu member states (referring to those joining after the initial .fteen), Latin America, China, Turkey, the Horn of Africa, and the ex-Soviet territories. Socio-cultural, economic, and politico-military cri­teria were considered, each further subdivided into sub-criteria. The socio-cultural domain naturally exhibited a European and Atlantic re­gional emphasis, while the economic and politico-military sectors re­vealed the prominence of the Middle East and North African regions. The analysis revealed a comparable pattern regarding politico-military indicators. The strategic-military subcategory exhibited a relative im­portance of national interests pertaining to the Middle East and North Africa, accounting for 50.. The historical and political signi.cance sub­categories each obtained a score of 25., resulting in a cumulative total of 38.9. for the three subcategories (Bozzo, Simon-Belli, and Batacchi 2005, 83). The .ndings of the analysis support the signi.cance of the Mediter­ranean region. Considering all the indicators and the geographical ar­eas examined, Bozzo, Simon-Belli, and Batacchi’s (2005) research con­cluded that Italian foreign policy should primarily concentrate on four regions: the North Atlantic, the mena region, the ‘Europe of the Fif­teen,’ and the Balkans. Notably, two of these regions, mena and the Balkans, are situated within the broader Mediterranean context. table 1 Italy’s National Interests in the Southern Mediterranean 2011–2021, from a Politico-Military Perspective Country .... .... .... Algeria ..... ..... ..... [74] Egypt ..... ..... ..... Libya ..... ..... ..... Tunisia ..... ..... ..... Morocco ..... ..... ..... notes In percent. To ascertain the speci.c geographical focus of Italian national inter­ests within the narrower con.nes of the Mediterranean, I conducted an evaluation using the ahp methodology outlined earlier. By examining .ve coastal countries in the Mediterranean – Morocco, Libya, Algeria, Egypt, and Tunisia – I sought to determine the location of Italian na­tional interests. While acknowledging the assumption of relative con­stancy of national interests, I employed the ahp method in a longitu­dinal study to account for possible shifts in emphasis. In addition to the years 2011 and 2021, which mark the endpoints of the study period, I also incorporated data from 2016 as an intermediate year. Further­more, it was essential to include data from 2010, the last complete year preceding the Arab Spring, for comprehensive analysis. The data from 2011 revealed substantial shifts in the economic and socio-cultural domains, primarily in.uenced by the events of the Arab Spring. Although these aspects have not fully returned to their pre-Arab Spring levels, the inclusion of 2010 data compensates for the ex­ceptional circumstances of 2011. The application of the ahp method is suitable for analyzing national interests because it allows for the consideration of potential changes through the use of weights. It is important to recognize that certain (sub)aspects, such as historico­political relevance, tend to remain relatively stable, while others (such as economic factors and migration dynamics) have undergone signi.­cant transformations. Based on the ahp-based analysis of the economic, socio-cultural, and politico-military dimensions discussed earlier, the following re­sults were obtained. The politico-military aspects of Italian national interests have not experienced as pronounced shifts as the economic ones. Notably, Libya and Egypt have stood out in this regard. The distribution of interests related to Egypt remained consistent between 2011 and 2016, while Libya’s relative importance slightly declined initially but surpassed its 2011 level by 2021. Over the study period, the .ve countries exhibited divergent trajectories in terms of political, economic, social, and secu­rity development, with varying degrees of sustainability in achieving [75] stability after the Arab Spring. The resurgence of Libya’s relative impor­tance can be attributed primarily to the increased relevance of its cur­rent government (as re.ected in increased rates of government com­munication on Libya) and the in.ow of modern weaponry from foreign sources due to the internationalization of the con.ict. One of the main reasons for Libya’s decline in relevance in the military and political aspects after 2011 was the poor equipment and weakened strength of the Libyan army, which was assessed under the strategic-military relevance sub-criterion. This sub-criterion held the highest importance in determining relevance. In contrast, the Global Terrorism Index, which measures the threat and spread of terrorism in a given country, increased for all countries. In 2011, Libya had the lowest terrorism risk among the .ve surveyed countries, but by 2016, it had risen to the top of the list, and by 2021, it was the second most at-risk country among the .ve, trailing behind Egypt. Libya’s signi.cance stands out in the sub-criteria of historico-political relevance, where signi.cant changes were not expected. However, Libya does not score highly in other factors within this sub-criterion. For instance, com­pared to Italy’s 21 international treaties signed with Libya up to 2011, Egypt had signed 102 treaties. Between 2011 and 2021, Italy signed new international treaties with all countries, but the pace of treaty sign­ing with Libya was slower compared to other countries due to various reasons, such as the absence of a monopoly in power for several years. While the number of treaties signed with Tunisia increased from 77 to 103 between 2011 and 2021, the number with Libya only increased from 21 to 25. The methodology employed allowed me to assess the signi.cance of the contracts that were established, taking into account both the pres­ence of a strategic partnership and its contents. Among the .ve North African countries bordering the Mediterranean, Italy has entered into such treaties only with Egypt and Libya, although their contents dif­fer. The treaty with Egypt primarily focuses on social and cultural is­sues, while the one with Libya places greater emphasis on military and security measures in the classical sense, making it more signi.cant in table 2 Italy’s National Interests in the Southern Mediterranean 2011–2021, from an Economic Perspective Country .... .... .... .... Algeria ..... ..... ..... ..... [76] Egypt ..... ..... ..... ..... Libya ..... .... ..... ..... Tunisia .... ..... ..... ..... Morocco .... .... .... .... notes In percent. the scale used for evaluation. Within the sub-criterion of current gov­ernment relevance, which also falls under this criterion, Libya’s im­portance in terms of government communication was prominent in 2011. Although it maintained its leading position in 2016, the gap nar­rowed signi.cantly. However, by 2021, the gap had widened once again in favour of Libya. The .uctuating importance of Libya and Egypt underscores the .uid nature of geopolitical dynamics in the region, which necessitates con­tinuous recalibration in the priorities of the Italian foreign policy. De­spite Libya’s decline in certain factors, such as military strength, its in­creased signi.cance in government communication re.ects an under­standing of soft power dynamics and the strategic value of diplomatic engagement. Furthermore, the slower pace of treaty signing with Libya highlights potential challenges in forging robust bilateral relations, sig­naling the need for strategic patience and adaptive diplomacy in navi­gating complex geopolitical landscapes. In terms of the economic aspects, a comprehensive examination of three major factors was conducted using the previous weightings. Within the economic sector, Libya holds paramount importance for Italy due to its signi.cant trade in energy resources, placing it along­side Algeria as a standout among the studied Mediterranean countries prior to the Arab Spring. However, the 2011 data reveal a substantial de­cline in Libya’s relevance, primarily attributed to the collapse of its oil and gas exports, as well as the decline in Italian exports and foreign di­rect investment (fdi) towards Libya. In contrast, none of the other four countries experienced such a signi.cant decrease compared to the 2010 levels, and some even displayed slight increases (e.g., Algeria exhibited an increase across all three indicators, including fdi towards Egypt). From an economic perspective, Algeria’s prominence further inten­si.ed in 2016, demonstrating divergent trends in national interests concerning the other countries. While Tunisia and Egypt experienced a growth in importance during the years following the Arab Spring, they had largely reverted to their 2010 levels by 2016. Conversely, Libya started a recovery after its collapse in 2011, albeit with all indicators [77] remaining well below their pre-Arab Spring levels. Notably, Algeria’s increased signi.cance throughout this period is not solely attributable to the expansion of Italian economic interests within the country, but rather due to the decline in values observed in the other countries, particularly Libya. A signi.cant observation is that by 2021 Algeria’s relative importance compared to the other examined countries had di­minished, while the relative importance of the other countries (Egypt, Morocco, Libya) had increased, with the exception of Tunisia. These shifts can be attributed to several factors, such as the surpassing of Italian exports to Algeria over those to Egypt and a notable increase in the share of energy imports sourced from Libya (rising from 12.5. to 22.84.). The primary factor contributing to the decline of Italian national interests in Libya following 2011, speci.cally the decrease in energy imports, is presented in table 3. It depicts the comparative decline of Libyan exports in relation to Algerian exports, followed by a subse­quent recovery. The decline in Italian national interests in Libya following 2011, par­ticularly in energy imports, re.ects the vulnerability of economic ties to geopolitical instability, highlighting the need for strategies of di­versi.ed energy sourcing and of diplomatic engagement to mitigate risks. Additionally, the observed shifts in relative importance among Mediterranean countries underscore the dynamic nature of regional economic landscapes, requiring agile policymaking to capitalize on emerging opportunities and to navigate evolving challenges. The percentages shown in table 3 represent the proportion of Ital­ian oil and gas imports sourced from each respective country. While my analysis focused on measuring Italian foreign direct investment (fdi) using the ahp methodology, it should be mentioned that, in the case of Libya, the Libyan Investment Fund made signi.cant investments in strategically important Italian companies, including Unicredit Bank and Fiat (Lombardi 2011). The socio-cultural aspects encompass a multifaceted sub-catego­ry, wherein the relative importance of Libya has slightly decreased. Lili Takacs table 3 Italian Energy Imports from the Southern Mediterranean 2011–2021 Country .... .... .... .... Algeria ..... ..... ..... ..... Egypt .... .... .... .... [78] Libya ..... .... ..... ..... Tunisia .... .... .... .... Morocco .... .... .... .... Total ..... ..... ..... ..... notes In percent. table 4 Italy’s National Interests in the Southern Mediterranean 2011–2021, from a Socio-Cultural Perspective Country .... .... .... Algeria .... .... .... Egypt ..... ..... ..... Libya ..... ..... ..... Tunisia ..... ..... ..... Morocco ..... ..... ..... notes In percent. Notably, signi.cant di.erences were observed in the migration sub-criteria, where Libya stands out primarily due to the high number of illegal maritime arrivals in Italy, which were the largest among the countries studied during the entire period. It is important to highlight that the migration sub-item includes both legal and illegal migration, thereby reducing the relative importance of Libya, as nationals from the other four countries enter and reside in Italy legally in much larger numbers, whereas the number of Libyan nationals in this context is negligible. Although the migration sub-theme accounts for ‘only’ 21.4. of the socio-cultural aspects according to the ahp weighting, its sig­ni.cance lies in the fact that the issue of immigration has risen to the top of the Italian political agenda and has become a prominent topic in public discourse. This is primarily due to the wave of illegal migration that ensued after the Arab Spring, as well as the migration and refugee crises of 2014–2015. While the Lampedusa disaster in October 2013 and the Mare Nostrum operation had a humanitarian impact on the Italian population, the refugee crisis in 2015 and the record number of illegal immigrants arriving by sea in 2016 shifted the mainstream narrative and intensi.ed the anti-immigration discourse (Hermanin 2019). The Use of Analytic Hierarchy Process table 5 Italian National Interests Related to Mediterranean Migration 2011–2021 Country .... .... .... Algeria .... .... .... Egypt ..... ..... ..... Libya ..... ..... ..... [79] Tunisia ..... ..... ..... Morocco ..... ..... ..... notes In percent. table 6 Illegal Maritime Migration to Italy 2011–2021 Country .... .... .... Algeria .... .... .... Egypt .... .... .... Libya ..... ..... ..... Tunisia ..... .... ..... Morocco .... .... .... notes In percent. Table 5 illustrates the extent of Italian interests in migration among the .ve countries along the southern Mediterranean coast. Libya emer­ges as the country with the highest relevance in terms of migration. By 2021, Libya’s relative importance had become comparable to Tunisia and Morocco, primarily due to changing trends in illegal migration. In 2011, the Libyan-Tunisian share of sea arrivals stood at 56. and 43., re­spectively, but this dominance by Libya diminished by 2016 when over 95. of sea arrivals originated from Libya. The number of sea-crossers from Tunisia and Libya .uctuates from year to year, depending on in­ternal instability inside the two countries. In the case of Libya, two factors contribute to a reduction in depar­tures: either the coastal militias exert total control, therefore prevent­ing departures (which was the objective of the Gentiloni government in supporting the coastal militias), or the opposite scenario of complete anarchy, where high levels of insecurity deter migrants from reach­ing the departure points. In 2021, Libya found itself in a transitional phase: a new government came into power, which was a positive devel­opment, but it has not yet been able to establish full control over the entire territory. Consequently, migration to Italy increased during this period. Applying the ahp methodology, the analysis revealed that the sig­ni.cance of the considerable illegal migration to Libya is counterbal­anced by the inclusion of legal migration as measured through the num­ber of granted residence permits. Despite the Italian Ministry of Inte­ [80] rior issuing residence permits for Libyans at a negligible rate (less than 5,000), the number of permits issued to Moroccans exceeded 370,000. This disparity explains why Libya’s relative importance in the migration sub-perspective does not signi.cantly surpass that of the other exam­ined countries. The prominence of Libya in illegal migration shows the challenges posed by irregular migration .ows and their implications for domestic politics and public opinion in Italy. Furthermore, the .uctuating dy­namics of migration from Libya highlight the need for comprehensive and adaptive migration policies that address both humanitarian con­cerns and national security interests. By considering the broader socio­cultural implications of migration to Italy, voters expect – without suc­cess – from Italian policymakers to develop more e.ective strategies for managing migration .ows and to address the underlying drivers of irregular migration. Upon examining all the major criteria and sub-criteria, it can be concluded that migration is the primary area where Italian interests are most concentrated in Libya. Both in 2011 and 2016, Libya’s relative importance exceeded 50. when considering illegal migration alone, and the proportion is even higher when excluding legal migration. In 2016, it reaches particularly high levels, exceeding 95.. While migra­tion forms an extremely strong link between Italy and Libya compared to the other countries studied, it is not the sole aspect connecting the two nations. There are other areas, such as historico-political rel­evance and strategic importance, where Libya emerges as the country of greatest interest for Italy. However, the intensity of this connection is signi.cantly stronger in the .eld of migration compared to other areas. Overall, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (ahp) methodology allows us to draw comprehensive conclusions regarding the territorialization of Italian national interests based on a comprehensive set of crite­ria. Within the three broad criteria examined (socio-cultural, politico-military, and economic), it is evident that a signi.cant portion of Ital­ian interests is intertwined with Libya. In terms of economic interests, Algeria emerges as a focal point, primarily due to its substantial role in table 7 Relative Changes in the Italian National Interests Linked to Libya 2011–2021 National interest .... .... .... Economic .... ..... ..... Politico-military ..... ..... ..... [81] Socio-cultural ..... ..... ..... notes In percent. the production of oil and gas. Throughout the studied period, Italian ex­ports andforeign directinvestments (fdi)toAlgeriahave consistently surpassed those of the other countries. However, when considering the percentage of national interests attributed to Libya alone, its eco­nomic signi.cance, in contrast to socio-cultural and politico-military aspects, experienced a signi.cant decline in 2011 following the Arab Spring. Subsequently, from 2011 onwards, Libya’s relative importance in the economic sector gradually increased, but it is unlikely to regain its pre-Arab Spring signi.cance in the near future. Nevertheless, the role of oil and gas ensures that Libya remains relevant for Italy within theeconomicdomaininthe medium to long term. Regarding politico-military indicators, the slight percentage de­crease observed in 2016 does not signify a substantial change. By 2021, Libya’s relative importance in the political and military sectors has slightly exceeded its signi.cance during the Arab Spring. In contrast to the economic and politico-military aspects, socio-cultural interests linked to Libya have experienced a slight but consistent decline over the analyzed period. Notably, the migration sub-objective exhibited a distinct change in trajectory, diverging from the 2011 trend in 2016, and eventually stabilizing around the levels observed in 2011 by the end of the period in 2021 (see migration statistics). In the case of Libya, migration, a socio-cultural aspect, intersects spectacularly with security concerns, especially regarding irregular mi­gration, which poses challenges to Italy’s territorial integrity and so­cietal stability, and it has contributed to the changing Italian political landscape (e.g. see Lega’s results in the 2018 parliamentary elections). Additionally, the economic dimension, highlighted by Libya’s role in en­ergy production, re.ects both power and wealth considerations, align­ing with Morgenthau’s emphasis on power and economic prosperity as essential components of national interests. Furthermore, the politico-military realm underscores Italy’s strategic calculations and geopoliti­cal positioning in the Mediterranean region, emphasizing the impor­tance of Libya in shaping regional security dynamics. summary [82] Euro-Mediterranean advocacy and power projection form a rational strategy for promoting Italian national interests and enhancing the country’s international in.uence. This approach encompasses a geo­graphically de.ned area of prime importance, serving both economic and strategic objectives that have signi.cant implications for both do­mestic and foreign policies. Given the fragmented nature of the en­larged Mediterranean region, which Rome considers strategically vi­tal, a cooperative stance among the central powers of the region is es­sential. Italy, constrained by limited resources and internal challenges, cannot single-handedly provide a comprehensive response and thus re­quires a di.erentiated approach. Utilizing the AnalyticHierarchy Process (ahp)methodology, which encompasses both qualitative and quantitative aspects, this study ex­amines Italian national interests within the Mediterranean region. Drawing from the theoretical underpinnings of ahp, which enables the synthesis of subjective and objective elements, the research aims to discern the evolving dynamics of Italian foreign policy priorities. By applying the ahp framework to a longitudinal analysis spanning from 2010 to 2021, the study seeks to capture shifts in emphasis and relative importance across various sectors and countries, thereby pro­viding a comprehensive understanding of Italy’s strategic imperatives. This analysis is grounded in the theoretical framework of national in­terests, where the concept of sectors of security put forward by Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde (1998) (encompassing economic, socio-cultural, and politico-military dimensions) serves as the guiding lens through which Italy’s strategic imperatives are examined. Previous .ndings underscore the signi.cance of four key regions – the North Atlantic, the Middle East and North Africa (mena), the ‘Europe of the Fifteen,’ and the Balkans – as focal points of Italian national interests. Within these regions, mena and the Balkans, sit­uated within the extended Mediterranean, have a particular promi­nence, justifying the adoption of Mediterraneanism as a distinct for­eign policy for Italy. Applying the same methodological rigor to the narrower Mediterranean context and speci.cally examining the .ve states along Italy’s southern shores, Libya emerges as the keystone state for Italy from a politico-military perspective. While Algeria com­mands more economic interests compared to the other countries, the signi.cance of Libya cannot be overlooked. Despite economic ties be­tween Italy and Libya not fully reverting to pre-Arab Spring levels, the uptick in energy imports from Libya signals a resurgence in the relative [83] importance of this country. In the realm of security dimensions within the societal sector, a slight decline in Libya’s relative importance is noted. However, when scrutinizing the sub-sector of illegal migration, Italian national inter­ests linked to Libya emerge as the most robust throughout the studied period. Insummary,thestudy’smeticulousapplicationofthe ahpmethod­ology sheds light on the intricate dynamics of Italian national interests within the Mediterranean, underscoring the multifaceted nature of for­eign policy priorities. Through a detailed analysis integrating both qual­itative and quantitative elements, the research highlights the strategic imperatives guiding Italy’s engagements in the region, emphasizing the pivotal role of Libya while recognizing likewise the dynamic interplay of economic, socio-cultural, and politico-military factors in shaping the objectives of the Italian foreign policy. Future studies could build upon this research by looking into the evolving nature of national interests over time within the Euro-Medi­terranean region. This could entail conducting longitudinal analyses in extended periods as a way to capture shifts in the priorities of the Ital­ian foreign policy and their implications. Furthermore, exploring the role of other countries in the Euro-Mediterranean region, particularly those with emerging in.uence or undergoing signi.cant political tran­sitions, could provide valuable insights into the broader geopolitical dy­namics shaping the region. If reliable data is available from other coun­tries, ahp analysismakesobjectivecomparisonpossible.Additionally, investigating the impact of external actors, such as international orga­nizations or non-state actors, on Italian national interests and regional stability would o.er a comprehensive understanding of the complex in­terplay of forces in the Euro-Mediterranean arena. acknowledgments This research has been realised in the framework of the tkp2021­nva-16 research program implemented with the support provided by the Ministry of Culture and Innovation of Hungary from the Na- [84] tional Research, Development and Innovation Fund, .nanced under the tkp2021-nva funding scheme. references Bozzo, L., C. Simon-Belli, and P. Batacchi. 2005. ‘Metodologia per la de.nizione degli interessi nazionali: le matrici.’ In Interessi nazion­ali: metodologie di valutazione, edited by C. Jean and F. Napolitano, 53–90. Milano: Franco Angeli. Burchill, S. 2005. The National Interest in International Relations Theory. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Buzan, B., and O. Wæver. 2003. Regions and Powers. Cambridge: Cam­bridge University Press. Buzan, B., O. Wæver, and J. de Wilde. 1998. Security: A new framework for analysis. London: Lynne Rienner. Duleba, S. 2006. A közép – és felso vezetoi döntéseket támogató ahp­módszer, és alkalmazása logisztikai szolgáltatók kiválasztására. Vezetéstudomány – Budapest Management Review 37 (9): 54–58. Dunne, T.,andB.C. Schmidt.2005. ‘Realism.’ In The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, edited by J. Baylis andS.Smith,101–15. Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress. Gaiser, L. 2005. ‘Interessi nazionali: genesi storico-politica.’ In Interessi nazionali: metodologie di valutazione, edited by C. Jean and F. Napoli­tano, 23–35. Milano: Franco Angeli. Gazdag, F. 2007. Magyarország érdekei és ezek érvényesítésének lehetoségei anemzetköziszervezetekben(nato, eu). http://www.grotius.hu/doc /pub/UIVMVC/83.20gazdag.20ferenc.20.20vita.20a .20magyar.20kpol.pdf Goldstein, J.S., andJ.C.Pevehouse. 2008. International Relations. New York: Pearson Longman. Hermanin,C.2019. Immigration in Italy between Two Elections: Between Myths and Reality. Rome: Friedrich-Ebert Stiftung. Ho.mann, S. 1995. The European Sisyphus: Essays on Europe, 1964–1994. Boulder, co: Westview Press. Jean, C. 2008. ‘I contenuti degli interessi nazionali.’ In Geopolitica eco­nomica, edited by C. Jean, 27–25. Milano: Franco Angeli. Jean, C., and F. Napolitano, eds. 2005. Interessi nazionali: metodologie di valutazione. Milano: Franco Angeli. Lombardi, B. 2011. ‘The Berlusconi Government and Intervention in Libya.’ The International Spectator 46 (4): 31–44. Morgan, P. 2007. Security in International Politics: Traditional Approaches in Contemporary Security Studies. Oxford University Press: Oxford. Morgenthau, H. 1978. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. 5th ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Norman,C.D., andO.Helmer. 1951. The Use of Exports for the Estimation of Bombing Requirements. Santa Monica: rand Corporation. Robert, J., and G. Sørensen. 2003. Introduction to International Relations: [85] Theories and Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Vaidya,O.S., andS.Kumar. 2006. AnalyticHierarchy Process: An Overview of Applications. European Journal of Operational Research 169(1): 1–29. ijems | scientific article Case Studies of covid-19 Pandemic A.ecting Early-Career Scientists’ Mobility within the Mediterranean Blue Economy Sector jihene nouairi National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics – ogs, Italy InternationalCentreforTheoreticalPhysics – ictp,Italy Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence on Sustainable Blue Economy, Euro-Mediterranean University, Slovenia jnouairi@ogs.it alice affatati National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics – ogs, Italy Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence on Sustainable Blue Economy, Euro-Mediterranean University, Slovenia Department of Mathematics, Informatics and Geosciences, University of Trieste, Italy aa.atati@ogs.it giorgia rivoira National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics – ogs, Italy grivoira@ogs.it sergio rejado albaina Independent Consultant, Spain sergiorejado@gmail.com mounir ghribi National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics – ogs, Italy Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence on Sustainable Blue Economy, Euro-Mediterranean University, Slovenia mghribi@ogs.it The covid-19pandemic has profoundly impacted scienti.c interna­tional mobility, particularly for early-career scientists (ecss). This pa­per aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the challenges faced [88] by ecss in the Mediterranean region during the pandemic, specif­ically focusing on scienti.c mobility. Additionally, the study will ex­plore the implications of the pandemic on the career trajectories of ecss and the long-term e.ects on scienti.c research and academia in the Mediterranean. We incorporate individual experiences of three researchers, providing .rst-hand insights into the challenges and im­pacts of the covid-19pandemic. These personal experiences which will enrich the paper by o.ering a nuanced understanding of the prac­tical implications and emotional aspects associated with the discussed issues. Key Words: scienti.c mobility, early-career scientists, Mediterranean region, blue economy, covid-19pandemic https://emuni.si/ISSN/2232-6022/17.87-113.pdf graphical abstract introduction Early career scientists (ecss) are researchers who are in the initial stages of their professional careers after completing their formal educa­tion, such as undergraduate or graduate studies (ecnp n.d.). ecss are often characterised by their relatively limited experience in their .eld compared to more established scientists, and they may still be working towards establishing themselves, building their research portfolio, and developing their expertise (Papin, Keim-Malpass, and Syed 2015). The covid-19pandemic (covid) had far-reaching e.ects on var­ious research .elds worldwide (Korbel and Stegle 2020; Aziz et al. 2021; Squazzoni et al. 2021; Lobe, Morgan, and Ho.man 2020). The blue economy, a sector encompassing sustainable marine and mar­itime practices and economic activities, has been signi.cantly impacted by the pandemic, leading to disruptions in scienti.c mobility and re­search activities, especially in the Mediterranean (European Commis­sion 2021). The Mediterranean region is a hub for interdisciplinary re­search, and attracts scholars, scientists, and researchers from diverse .elds and other geographic locations (European Commission n.d.a). [89] During covid, the mobility of researchers, especially ecss, faced unprecedented challenges due to widespread travel restrictions and safety concerns (Zabaniotou 2021). International collaborations were hinderedas ecss encounteredbarrierstotravellingabroadforattend­ing conferences, .eldwork, collaborative projects, and other research opportunities (Falk and Hagsten 2020). ecss had to adapt to remote work and virtual collaboration tools, which, while enabling some level of continued scienti.c activity, presented communication and produc­tivity challenges. Despite these obstacles, the pandemic prompted in­novative solutions, such as virtual conferences and remote data col­lection methods, fostering new modesofscienti.c collaborationand knowledge exchange, arrangements that have persisted and remain in place today. This paper aims to provide an analysis of shared challenges that ecss face during mobility and to highlight the tools that can be cru­cial to improving any reduced mobility situation. Scienti.c mobility is essential for disseminating scienti.c knowledge, making informed de­cisions in science management, and training quali.ed personnel (Ack­ers 2005; Gureyev et al. 2020). It is a form of cultural exchange hence bringing academic communities closer through collaboration. Wediscusstheadaptationstrategiesthat ecss usedduring covid and the resulting impact on scienti.c collaborations and knowledge dissemination. By examining the shifts in research activity patterns during the pandemic, we seek to elucidate the evolving landscape of scienti.c mobility in the blue economy sector in the Mediterranean. Analysing the impact of circulation of highly skilled scientists and re­searchers and the corresponding knowledge transfer within the Euro­pean Research Area requires understanding the direction of the .ows and the nature of scientists’ movement. early-career scientists’ international mobility during covid and main related issues International scienti.c mobility refers to the movement of researchers, students, and professionals across borders to engage in scienti.c activ­ities such as research collaboration, training, and conferences (Ackers 2005). It is driven by the desire to access expertise and resources not readily available in one’s home country (Aman 2020). ecs design their career path by joining selected research groups to acquire specialised [90] knowledge or by conducting studies contingent on access to instru­ments or research infrastructures or in areas that feature unique nat­ural, cultural, and historical attributes (e.g., biodiversity hotspots, ge­ological formations). Scienti.c mobility may involve short-term visits, long-term stays, or relocation to another country or institution. The policy brie.ng New Concepts of Researcher Mobility (European Science Foundation 2013) distinguishes among four types of mobility: • Physical international mobility among countries denotes the cross-border movement of individuals for travel, work, study, or relocation. • Intersectoral mobility across academia, industry, and public sec­tors includes the dynamic movement of individuals between academia, industry, and public sectors, facilitating employment opportunities and knowledge exchange initiatives. • Interdisciplinary mobility is characterised by the movement of individuals across disciplinary boundaries. • Virtual mobility acknowledges the collaborative nature of re­search facilitated by digital communication technologies. InEurope,themobilityof ecss forresearchpurposesincreasedsig­ni.cantly before the start of the pandemic in 2020 (Lambert and Mer­riman 2020; Skakni 2018; Yang 2020). The impact of the pandemic on research productivity, the job market, and funding has been a cause for concern for ecss (Termini and Traver 2020). The closure of universi­ties and laboratories at the beginning of the pandemic has halted most of the research not directly focused on covid, leading to a substan­tial and long-lasting impact on the productivity of the scienti.c work­force worldwide (Subramanya, Lama, and Acharya 2020; Riccaboni and Verginer 2022). A study by the National Institutes of Health (2020) found that 63. of early career investigators anticipated a negative im­pact on their career trajectory at a higher proportion than contributed to mobility of senior-career investigators. Thus, ecss’ ability to travel internationally has been dramatically hampered by the covid pandemic, which, through lockdowns, quar­antines, and social isolation, has impacted their career development plans, networking opportunities, and chances for international coop­eration (Harrop et al. 2021). The mobility restrictions that hampered access to laboratories, especially impacted sea and maritime specialised infrastructures and .eldwork (Korbel and Stegle 2020; Termini and Traver 2020). Korbel and Stegle’s (2020) survey con.rmed that twenty-[91] .ve percent of respondents reported losing from 1 to 6 months of work due to laboratory shutdown (wet lab – 73., and dry lab – 31.). ecs had to adapt to working remotely, exploiting online forums and meet­ing platforms that became the only space to share ideas (Lopez-Leon, Forero, and Ruiz-Díaz 2020; Mendrika et al. 2021). Results from on-line surveys sent to 704 academics indicated that working at the of­.ce boosts brainstorming ideas with colleagues (Aczel et al. 2021). Yang (2020) argued that information processing workers undergoing social distancing at a technology company experienced a decrease in the num­ber of connections among di.erent working groups in the same .rm and a negative impact on the spread of information among workers. According to Harrop et al. (2021), 149out of 150 ecss stated that the pandemic had a detrimental e.ect on their study and 85. of ecss re­ported low productivity. In addition, at the beginning of the lockdown period, ecs were inundated with new issues related to slow internet connections and other technical challenges, such as not being able to analyse big data from home (Yoose. Lebni et al. 2023). As argued by the European Commission (n.d.b), women generally published less than male researchers, increasing the work-related gen­der gap. In the ecs career stage, female researchers .nd it more ar­duous to reach a stable academic position (Murgia and Poggio 2018; Carreri and Dordoni 2020). Korbel and Stegle (2020) reported less pro­ductive working hours for female scientists (70. of females in wet labs versus 60. of male respondents work primarily experimentally). Re­searchers with caregiving responsibilities or children had an additional disadvantage, struggling to reconcile work and domestic commitments and producing fewer publications (Ipe et al. 2021) The pandemic has also resulted in the cancellation or postponement of scienti.c events, including national and international conferences, workshops and training programmes (Subramanya, Lama, and Acharya 2020), further hindering the exchange of scienti.c knowledge. Con­ferences are critical for sharing the newest scienti.c discoveries and building networks (Neuilly and Stohr 2016). The discussions that spark during co.ee breaks or social dinners bring invaluable opportunities that cannot be planned remotely. Sugimoto et al. (2017) showed the physical proximity’s importance in enhancing research and scienti.c advances. During the pandemic, less contact with people led to the loss of brainstorming opportunities and of social exchanges in the work [92] environment (Duede et al. 2024; Korbel and Stegle 2020). ecss who were able to move to another country during the pandemic had prob­lems integrating because of fewer social events, quarantine, di.culty with bureaucracy, and less administrative support (Duede et al. 2024). A higher percentage of exchanged ecss lived alone, as argued by Korbel and Stegle (2020) in their survey, compared to respondents working in theirhomecountry. Inaddition,exchanged ecss mighthavefacedad­ditional problems with understanding updates to local guidelines and regulations during the emergency (Korbel and Stegle 2020). Finally, the emergency triggered by the coronavirus pandemic has increased the focus on health issues and the importance of mental health, which is now a central issue regarding personal health in work environments (Venkatesh and Edirappuli 2020). Chrikov et al. (2021) argued that 32. of graduate and professional students su.ered from major depressive disorder (two times higher in 2020 compared to 2019). In contrast, and according to the same study, more than a third of un­dergraduate and graduate students reported experiencing generalised anxiety disorder (1.5 times higher than in 2019). ogs deep blue mobility programme for young professionals in the marine and maritime fields The Deep Blue Fellowships and Programme TheNationalInstituteofOceanographyandAppliedGeophysics – ogs coordinated the Deep Blue (Developing Education and Employment Partnerships for a Sustainable Blue Growth in the Western Mediter­ranean Region) project for the period 01.01.2019–30.06.2021. Deep Blue was funded by the European Maritime and Fishery Fund (emff) and the European Agency for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (easme) within the framework of the Sustainable Blue Economy Call 2017.¹ The project’s core aimed to foster talent circulation across the Mediterranean region by o.ering innovative training paths to young ¹ easme/emff/2017/1.2.1.12/s3/02/si2.789633, https://blueskills.inogs.it/projects /deepblue. figure 1 Key Initiatives to Enhance Researcher Mobility and Collaboration professionals in the blue economy sector through increased interna­tional scienti.c cooperation. With the support of local stakeholders, partners from Italy, Spain, and Tunisia collaborated to develop training paths to share knowledge among Blue Economy’s key sectors while fostering North-South and South-South cooperation in the Mediterranean area (.gure 1). The lack of research opportunities in the countries of the South Mediter­ranean poses signi.cant challenges to scienti.c advancement and so­cioeconomic development in the region. Limited infrastructures and resources hinder the researchers’ ability to conduct high-quality re­search and address funding pressing local and global challenges. Euro­pean .nancial support is crucial in bridging these gaps by providing resources, expertise, and collaboration opportunities. Case-Studieson ecss MovingintheMediterraneanduring covid Threecasestudiesfromthree ecss whowonDeepBluemobilitygrants to relocate to another Mediterranean country during the pandemic are presented below. These case-studies testify to the importance of inter­nationalmobilityfor ecss andshowtheopportunitiesforprofessional development, skills transfer, networking, and transcultural learning that these programs o.er to their participants, even in challenging cir­cumstances such as covid. ecs1 Female, 35 years old, intern at ogs, Trieste Italy – Exchange at Labo­ ratory of Applied Bioacoustics (lab), Vilanova i la Geltrù, Spain. Fellowship duration 6monthsfrom2nd Marchto2nd September2020. [94] Project title ‘Using Machine Learning Methods for Wildlife Conserva­tion.’ Topic Cetacean Bioacoustics and Underwater Noise. Home Institution The National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics – ogs (Italian: Istituto Nazionale di Oceanogra.a e di Ge­o.sicaSperimentale – ogs),commonlyreferredtoas ogs,isanItalian public research institution under the supervision of the Italian Min­istry of University and Research. It specializes in conducting research in the .elds of earth science and oceanography on an international level. Host Institution The lab creates technical and interdisciplinary solu­tions to reduce anthropogenic noise’s impact and contribute to the sus­tainable development of human activities.² The proposed research ac­tivity contributed to enriching the current knowledge on a cutting-edge topic relevant to marine ecology, oceanography, conservation, and ma­rine policy (Moretti and A.atati 2023). A Brief Introduction to the Scienti.c Topic The ocean is not a silent place. Marine organisms, especially marine mammals, have learned to ex­ploit sound as a primary cue for underwater communication and sens­ing (A.atati 2020; Madsen, Siebert, and Elemans 2023). Anthropogenic noise sources are increasing in number, changing the ocean soundscape and elevating noise levels (Duarte et al. 2021; A.atati and Camerlenghi 2023). Scienti.c Activities and Personal Experience After the .rst two weeks of in-person work at the lab, starting on 16th March 2020, a strict lock­downwasimposedbythegovernmentofSpain,andthelab members started working remotely. Working from home poses speci.c, di.erent challenges compared to working in a lab or an o.ce (Catayoc 2019). There is a need for additional structure and routine and a lack of so­cial connections, both being crucial even in work environments. Part of ² https://michel-andre.squarespace.com/lab. the .rst challenges of the experience was focused on succeeding in set­ ting work timetables, improving time management skills, and learning this di.erent work modality. Along with the lab co-workers, internet connection problems were solved, and professional and human bonds weredeveloped.Inadditiontodailystudysessionswithlabmembers [95] and numerous Skype meetings per week, project video conferences and general lab meetings were scheduled. For her project, ecs1 studied dolphin vocalizations and ship noise using a Controlled Acoustic Repository, which stores data and manual annotations in a structured way and allows training and validation al­ gorithms for Machine Learning. Long-term monitoring is essential for gaining information about animal conservation (Gitzen 2012). How­ ever, a large amount of data is di.cult to handle manually, possibly leading to biases and subjectivity (Gibb et al. 2019). The data were col­ lectedin theProvidenceProject framework, oneofthe lab’sprojects developed during .eld work in the South-American Amazons.³ Target sound types were used to train models that allow the calculation of activity indicators. Vocal activity can be used to estimate long-term changes in the behaviour and presence of the animals (Parks, Clark, and Tyack 2007; Bautista Parra et al. 2023). Oceanic dolphins produce vocali­ sations that have been relatively well characterised for most species (Au 1993). Less is known about the vocal structure and behaviour in taxa such as Amazon river dolphins, boto (Inia geo.rensis)and tucuxi (So­ talia .uviatilis), animals living in the reserve (Podos et al. 2002). Start­ ing from the literature, ‘buzzes,’ ‘burst pulses,’ and ‘squeaks’ were de­ .ned in terms of acoustic characteristics, waveforms and spectrograms. Similar sounds were found in the Amazon recordings through the la- belling campaign, and this activity served as a crucial .rst step in de.n­ ing the main sounds produced by these elusive cetaceans. ABrief Look atPros andCons The negative side of this experience mainly revolved around the lockdown and the social distancing. However, this enabled the fostering of friendships with colleagues faster than usual. The beginning of the remote work sessions was not easy either, mainly because long meetings online were more tiring than those in-person. Furthermore, the big monitor, the proper chair, and the desk make a di.erence in the o.ce. Another aspect to be considered is the impor­ ³ http://www.providence.listentothedeep.com, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/998. tance of a team in research .elds, and a team is not only built to share the same professional goals but also to have lunch and small breaks to­gether. The social part was di.cult to maintain during the lockdown, but the lab team gave great support. Apart from the team, some of [96] the many positive aspects of the six months with the lab were the continuous training in marine bioacoustics, coding, and digital signal processing and the focus on transdisciplinary research activities. ecs2 Female, 31 years old, post-doctoral researcher at Analyses and Applied Processes to the Environment apae ur17es32 issat-Mahdia, Uni­ versity of Monastir, Tunisia – Exchange at University of Aveiro, Geo- BioTec Research Centre, Portugal. Fellowship Duration 3 months from 1st January to 31st March 2021 (Distance cross-border online traineeship). Project Title ‘Mining By-Products as Low-Cost Materials for Heavy Metals and Antimicrobial Water Treatment.’ Topic Waste recycling and water treatment. Home Institution Analyses and Applied Processes to the Environment (apae)isaspecialisedResearchUnitur o.eredbytheHigherInstitute of AppliedScience andTechnology ofMahdia(issat-Mahdia), which is part of the University of Monastir in Tunisia. apae main activities focus on environmental science, technology, and engineering, empha­sizing the analysis and application of processes to address environmen­tal issues. Host Institution The GeoBioTec Research Centre, Geology Dep., Aveiro Campus, Aveiro-Portugal was created in 2007 by merging two pre­existing research units (elmas – Evolução Litosférica e Meio Ambi­ental de Superfície, and mia – Minerais Industriais e Argilas). geo­biotec has a mission to explore the geological, biological, physical, and chemical processes that shape the Earth’s environment, empha­sizing the role of humans as an agent of change aiming for sustainable development. geobiotec isnowthelargestPortugueseresearchunit in the .eld of Earth sciences. A Brief Introduction to the Scienti.c Topic The mining by-products and wastes from the processing of raw materials are often a problem for manufacturers (Nouairi, Rocha, and Medhioub 2019; Nouairi et al. 2021; Yildiz 2024). In recent decades, the focus has been on recycling the waste in order to reduce its e.ect on human health and the envi­ronment. Nowadays, the relative scarcity and the rising costs of raw geomaterials in the global markets require the valorisation and recy-[97] cling of non-conventional materials as alternatives. Recent studies fo­cused on recycling of mining by-products in construction materials for a sustainable pathway (Nouairi et al. 2017). Geopolymers, for exam­ple, o.er several environmentally and economically attractive features: they are materials requiring low energy for their production, and they can be obtained for highly available by-products within a vast panoply of industrial activities. Depending on the physical, chemical, and me­chanical properties, geopolymers can be used in civil engineering to immobilise toxic materials and metal pollutants from water. The main goal of this project was to build a new geopolymer for water treatment purposes from low-cost mining residues. Scienti.c Activities and Personal Experience The onset of the covid­19pandemic signi.cantly impacted the planned research activities for ecs2, which were initially scheduled to take place in Aveiro Campus, Portugal, over a period of 6 months. The implementation of travel re­strictions and safety precautions meant that she had to quickly adapt to the new reality of remote working for only 3 months. This shift brought about a unique set of challenges, particularly in adjusting to the limi­tations on in-person collaboration and the unavailability of certain re­sources that would have been accessible in a traditional on-site research setting. However, the circumstances also presented unexpected oppor­tunities. The team and colleagues at GeoBioTec lab o.ered to conduct all the lab work and experiments that ecs2 was supposed to do dur­ing her Deep Blue internship. All the steps, from the formulation of geopolymers to the physical, mineralogical, and mechanical characteri­sation, were conducted by the GeoBioTec team. With the collected data, ecs2 and GeoBioTec colleagues managed to participate in several in­ternational conferences and they publish their work in peer-reviewed journals. This experience not only demonstrated the resilience, adaptability, and solidarity of the research community but also provided valuable in­sights into the future integration of remote work practices within the .eld of research. It sparked important conversations about the poten­tial for increased .exibility and work-life balance, as well as the role of technology in ensuring the continuity and e.ectiveness of scienti.c work, even in the face of unprecedented global challenges. ecs2 and her supervisor, Prof. Fernando Rocha, were also asked to give feedback [98] on her internship experience on 25th May 2021 during the Deep blue-round table-.nal event via Zoom. ABrief Look atPros andCons The shift to online research experiences during the pandemic presented both advantages and challenges for esc2. On the positive side, the ability to continue scienti.c work and to pursue project milestones provided a sense of continuity, productiv­ity and purpose, which helped reduce stress and improve mental well­being. However, the lack of hands-on laboratory or .eldwork experi­ence hindered the acquisition of essential practical skills and knowl­edge, potentially diminishing the depth and quality of the research. Additionally, the reduction in funding by half for the Deep Blue Cross-Borders online traineeship adversely a.ected ecs2, potentially result­ing in prolonged rami.cations for productivity. ecs3 Male, 32, Freelancer, exchange at the Mediterranean Information Of­ .ce for Environment, Culture, and Sustainable Development (mio­ ecsde) – Athens (Greece). Fellowship Duration 6 months from 16th March to 17th September 2020. Project Title ‘Streamlining Blue Economy Aspects in the mio-ecsde Work Programme.’ Topic Regional cooperation for environmental protection and educa­tion. Home Institution Freelancer. Host Institution mio-ecsde4 is a non-pro.t Federation of 134 Medi­terranean Non-Governmental Organizations (ngos) working in the .elds of Environment and Development across 28 countries in the Euro-Mediterranean region. Their mission is ‘to protect the Natural Environment and Cultural Heritage and promote Sustainable Develop­ 4 https://mio-ecsde.org. ment in a peaceful Mediterranean by bringing together the e.orts of environmentalanddevelopmental ngos.’mio-ecsde aimstoachieve this by playing an active role in furthering synergies and strengthen­ing public participation in the Mediterranean region and its countries, in close cooperation with governments, international organisations, [99] other socio-economic partners and networks. Scienti.c Activities and Personal Experience The placement was mark­ed by the onset of the global covid-19pandemic. The appointment was meant to begin on 16th March 2020. However, the mio-ecsde Director decided on the very same day to take the precautionary ap­proach and decreed that everybody should work from home that week. The Greek Government declared a national emergency later the same week, enforcing a strict lockdown nationwide. Lockdown measures be­gan to be relaxed on 4th May, with people being allowed to walk freely in the street once again and some organisations returning to the of­.ceonarotatingbasis. Nevertheless, mio-ecsde employeeswerenot fully back in the o.ce until 8th June, only after the Government fully eased the lockdown measures for most activities. Full return to normal activity began on 15th June, 2020. mio-ecsde leads the celebration of Mediterranean Action Day ev­ery year. Aside from their own campaign, they support their partner organisations through the provision of small grants for the celebration of their events. mad2020 was originally meant to take place mainly in May, with the topic ‘Marine and coastal Natura2000 Sites.’ Due to the covid-19emergency, this was no longer the case. Sergio contributed to the organisation and coordination of the campaign, including manag­ing the call for proposals for the events and providing technical support to the organisations implementing them. However, the actual events took place between September 2020 and March 2021. ecs3 provided expert input to strengthen the mio-ecsde’s po­sition and contribution to the ‘Union for the Mediterranean (ufm) consultation on the future of the blue economy in the Mediterranean regarding environmental governance, .sheries and agriculture, green and circular economy, and sustainable development’ (Union for the Mediterranean 2020). He also coordinated mio-ecsde’s contribution to the First Mediterranean Assessment Report by Medecc (2020). ABrief Look atPros andCons Although the pandemic was far from over, there were no more lockdowns in Greece until the Autumn, and [100] figure 2 Map with member countries (Algeria, France, Italy, Libya, Malta, Mauritania, Portugal, Spain and Tunisia); partners in dark gray: Italy, Spain and Tunisia; arrows show ecss case-studies movements from home country to host country the placement could, therefore, continue with relative normalcy (there was still rotation of personnel in the o.ce, together with other pre­cautionary measures such as the use of masks). However, even after the lockdown, caution measures were mostly lifted in Greece in June, but the covid-19global emergency continued to limit the workplan implementation. Despite this, mio-ecsde satisfactorily managed the crisis. They reacted with proactiveness and precaution in the early days of the pandemic, taking social distancing measures and telework and implementing a progressive return to o.ce and social distancing mea­sures for the work in person. These behaviours allowed, in the end, for a successful placement, characterised by the support and understanding of the colleagues and the collaboration for the implementation of the chosenactivities. mio-ecsde isanorganisationwitharegionalvision and purpose, and most of its work requires travel and the celebration of training, courses, workshops, and conferences. None of these were possible. Whereas some of these could be run remotely (such as the cel­ebration of the Mediterranean Action Day, which was changed to be run locally by each organisation in their city at their best timing between JulyandOctober,without mio-ecsde providinganythingbutremote support and advice), some other proved just impossible to take place (such as the Asterousia Summer University, which was transferred to a hybrid modality, and the dates postponed to 30th November – 20th December 2020, well beyond the duration of the placement). international mobility in scientific research as a tool for early-career scientists In today’s globalised world, international collaboration is critical in the scienti.c sector, and international quali.cations are highly valued for early-career scientists (Bauder, Hannan, and Lujan 2017; Radlo. 2016; [101] Rodrigues, Nimrichter, and Cordero 2016). It has been proven that mobility leads to better science (Edler et al. 2011; Aman 2020). For example, a study by Sugimoto et al. (2017) re­ports 40. more publications for mobile researchers, i.e., enrolled in an exchange-mobility programme than sedentary/physically inactive people. Creating a global network is essential for addressing complex scienti.c challenges and it can lead to opportunities for joint research projects and funding initiatives. International collaboration can foster a sense of community among scientists, helping to build networks of knowledge and exchange, promoting understanding between di.erent cultures and enhancing dialogue amongst scientists as an instrument of science diplomacy (John et al. 2023). Challenges Associated with International Mobility for Early-Career Scientists and General Strategies and Recommendations to Facilitate and Enhance International Mobility in the Blue Economy Sector Challenges Navigating the international scienti.c mobility as an ecs presents multifaceted challenges. Firstly, stringent visa regulations and immi­gration policies can hinder the free movement of researchers, leading to delays in collaborative e.orts and limitations in attending conferences or collaborating with colleagues from di.erent countries (González 2022). The process of obtaining visas can often be lengthy and com­plex. Secondly, international research collaborations may encounter language and cultural barriers, which signi.cantly hinder e.ective communication, a critical aspect for the success of any collaborative project in academic organisations (Chevan, M’kumbuzi, and Biraguma 2012). Language di.erences can result in misunderstandings, misin­terpretations, and delays in decision making processes, while cultural disparities can impact problem-solving approaches, decision-making, and interpersonal interactions (Kalra, Szymanski, and Alike 2023). Thirdly, administrative complexities, including securing funding, ob­taining necessary permits and logistical arrangements, can pose sig­ni.cant challenges to mobility (Dewhirst 2013). Moreover, concerns about brain drain, referring to the displacement of highly skilled in­dividuals seeking better opportunities elsewhere, highlight the poten­tial loss of valuable expertise within local communities (Johnson and [102] Regets 1998). This complex scenario calls for a delicate balance between encouraging international opportunities and ensuring the retention of expertise within home countries, highlighting the crucial role of poli­cymakers in enhancing the scienti.c appeal of nations globally (Ackers and Gill 2005). General Strategies Providing opportunities for ecs to engage in international research collaborations and mobility is crucial for fostering a globally connected scienti.c community and enabling the exchange of ideas, skills, and knowledge across borders. Some general strategies that can help facili­ tate and enhance international mobility include: • Promoting collaborative programmes. Establishing joint research programmes, exchange agreements and institutional partner­ships may encourage mobility and collaborative projects. Re­searchers’ circulation and interaction at the international level can boost the creation of dynamic networks, improving knowl­edge and technology transfer. • Introducing mobility as a positive asset in evaluating universi­ties, research institutes, researchers, and integrating mobility into existing funding schemes. • Simplifying administrative procedures. Implementing more ef­.cient regulations for issuing visas and residence permits, im­proving bureaucratic processes, and adopting strategies to sim­plify and expedite application procedures for eu and non-eu re­searchers could help facilitate international mobility in science. • Implementing cultural and language training. Training program-mes on cross-cultural communication and collaboration can pro­vide ecss with the skills to navigate cultural di.erences e.ec­tively. • Instituting support for returning researchers. To address this concern, it is essential to implement incentives that encourage researchers toreturn totheir homecountries after completing their international collaborations. These may include funding opportunities for research projects, career development pro- grammes, and establishing research centres or institutes that provide attractive working conditions and resources. Amidst thechallenges facedby ecss working in theblueeconomy sector during covid, several tools could serve as opportunities to [103] transform crises into paths for growth and innovation. The European Commission provides funding to support the mobility of researchers in the Mediterranean region through various initiatives. Overview of International Mobility Programmes Oceans are crucial for global sustainability and climate regulation, pro­viding vital resources. To maintain ocean health under increasing hu­man impact, advanced understanding of marine processes and human e.ects is essential. E.ective conservation relies on strong research, but there is a shortage of skilled researchers, especially in developing coun­tries, which need to build capacity for marine science (Morrison et al. 2013). A comprehensive review of internationally funded programs, fel­lowships, exchange funds, contradictions in pacing systems, and in­ternship platforms for the blue economy and other relevant marine-related areas could provide valuable information to support the current and future professionals (Charles 2017). For this, a set of substantial international mobility initiatives available across two marine-related areas, such as the blue economy and the broader marine-related area, were reviewed and analysed. The purpose of the study is to provide the universities and training institutions with the necessary information they need to adapt and promote future international programmes and to graduates of the blue economy .eld, or of the wider relevant marine-related industries, to facilitate their participation in them. Despite constraints, graduates from the marine-related industry, including the blue economy sector, tend to have a highly developed international professional network because of their internships and job opportunities in maritime-related international projects. Assem­bling the pro.le, the increase in popularity in the impressive inter­national knowledge and information exchange initiatives, which have been launched to attract future young professionals from both devel­oping and developed countries, is conveniently situated in the increas­ingly international focus of higher educational institutions. An inter­national perspective in higher education not only enables students to become more mobile, understand internships, discover fellowships and scholarship programs, but also helps to develop the important critical thinking, linguistic, problem-solving, and social skills that all graduates need to be competitive in an increasingly knowledge-based and glob­alised job market (Öztabak 2022). [104] Opportunities for Mediterranean Blue Economy Mobility Tenders and Funds Furthermore, two major .agship initiatives were launched in the frame­work of the Union for the Mediterranean and play a pivotal role for the Mediterranean region: the ufm-labelled project ‘BlueSkills4Med’ funded through the Erasmus+ Capacity-building in Higher Education (cbhe) programme and focused on the development of Marine Data Technicians and Blue Data Specialist skills, thereby contributing to the implementation of the Blue Economy agenda in the Mediterranean; the ufm-labelled project ‘BlueGreenFacts: Multiplying Employment Opportunities for a Sustainable Economic Development in the In­dian Ocean Area,’ funded by the European Neighbourhood Instrument (eni) and aimed at fostering new business opportunities for young people in the environmental economy in the Indian Ocean Area with a focus on the blue and green economy (Battarra, Gargiulo, and Zucaro 2020). Project Coordination Mechanisms (pcm) aiming at enhancing mobility across theMediterranean in theblueeconomy sector arein­creasingly available (Cañibano, Otamendi, and Solís 2011). Some are de­signed speci.cally for the blue economy sector, while others are aimed at enhancing cross-sector interaction and exchange. Among the avail­able European .nancial instruments that foster mobility programmes in the blue economy, Erasmus for Young Entrepreneurs seems to be a noteworthy case. In the maritime .eld, the bene.ts for both the Mediterranean and the European regions are generated by interreg funding. These e.orts highlight the European Commission’s commitment to fostering research collaboration and mobility in the Mediterranean, ul­timately contributing to the advancement of scienti.c knowledge and the blue economy in the region. In this context, European scholarships play a crucial role in support­ing scientists from the Mediterranean area. The European Union’s ini­tiatives address the obstacles to regional integration, including those related to research and innovation, thereby o.ering valuable support to scientists in the Southern Mediterranean (European Commission table 1 Summary of the Main Programs and Funding Schemes Available for Mediterranean Countries and Main Features Program/ Description Eligibility Funding Application Fund Amount Deadline eni cbc Med Supports cooperation Public and pri-Varies per Calls for pro­ [105] Programme across the Mediter-vate entities project; typi-posals periodi­ranean to address com-from eligible cally, up to e. cally. mon challenges. countries. million. Horizon Eu­rope (Cluster .) Focuses on research and eu member innovation for food, states and as­bioeconomy, natural re­sociated coun­sources, agriculture, and tries. environment. Up to e.. million per project. Varies; several calls per year. Blue Econ­omy Window (emff) Funds innovative smes and projects contributing to other enti­theblueeconomy,in­ties in the blue cluding technology de­economy sec­velopment. tor. Up to e... million per project. Annual calls for proposals. Interreg med Promotes sustainable Public bodies, Varies per Calls for pro- Programme growth in the Mediter-smes, ngos, project; typi-posals periodi­ranean area through in-and universi-cally, up to e. cally. novative practices and ties. million. cooperation. prima (Part­nership for Re­search and In­novation in the Mediter­ranean Area) Supports projects in wa-Public and pri-Up to e. ter management, farm­vate entities million per ing systems, and agro­from partici­project. food value chains. pating coun­tries. Annual calls for proposals. BlueInvest Grants Supports innovative smes estab-Up to e... smes intheblueecon­lished in an eu million per omy to develop and member state project. scale up. or associated country. Varies; several calls per year. Continued on the next page n.d.b). These e.orts are essential for promoting knowledge exchange, capacity building, and sustainable development in the region, high­lighting the importance of European assistance for scientists from the South Mediterranean. International Mobility Exchange Programmes (imeps) o.er a uni­que chance for ecss to broaden their perspectives, to learn from dif­ferent cultures, and to collaborate with international colleagues. By participating in an imep, early-career researchers can develop a global Jihene Nouairi et al. table 1 Continuedfromthepreviouspage Program/ Description Eligibility Funding Application Fund Amount Deadline Life Pro-eu’s funding instru-Public and pri-Up to ... of Annual calls gramme ment for environmen-vate bodies. eligible costs; for proposals. [106] tal and climate action varies per projects, including ma-project. rine projects. Mediterranean Facilitates cooperation Regional au-Varies per Calls for pro-Cooperation among Mediterranean thorities, project; typi-posals periodi-Programme regions to tackle shared ngos, aca-cally, up to e. cally. (medcop) challenges. demic institu-million. tions. European Supports sustainable Fisheries, Varies per Continuous Maritime and .shing and coastal com-aquaculture project; typi-intake; varies Fisheries Fund munities. producers, cally, up to e. by country. (emff) public authori-million. ties. ufm Grant Supports projects en­ ngos, local Varies per Calls for pro- Scheme hancing regional coop- authorities, project; up to posals periodi­ eration and integration educational in­ e. million. cally. in the Mediterranean. stitutions. Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions (msca) Provides grants for all stages of researchers’ careers and encourages transnational, inter-sectoral, and interdisci­plinary mobility. Researchers and institu­tions world­wide. Varies; typi­cally e..,... to e...,... per year per researcher. Varies; multi­ple calls annu­ally. Sustainable Supports transforma-Public and pri-Varies per Annual calls Blue Economy tive solutions for a sus-vate entities project; typi-for proposals. Partnership tainable blue economy, from partici-cally up to e. (sbep) addressingeconomic, patingcoun-million. environmental, and so-tries. cietal challenges. network of contacts and build relationships that will serve them well throughout their careers. Moreover, imeps o.er a chance to access funding opportunities that may not be available in their home coun­try or institution, especially for ecss with limited research resources. imeps enable young researchers to work with leading experts in their .eld and to gain exposure to cutting-edge research methodologies and techniques. This experience can be invaluable for those looking to launch their research projects or pursue an academic career (Netz, Hampel, and Aman 2020). conclusions The experiences of ecss in international mobility vary, and more re­search is needed to understand their motivations and the long-term e.ects of mobility on their careers. In summary, the covid-19pan­demic had a signi.cant and potentially long-lasting impact on early ca-[107] reer scientists, a.ecting their research activities, career prospects, and overall well-being. International mobility exchange programmes o.er many opportunities for young researchers in Europe. Participating in these programmes, allows researchers to gain valuable experience, ex­pand their networks, and enhance their career prospects. These pro-grammes o.er a unique opportunity to gain new perspectives, broaden horizons, and build a brighter future for the global community of schol­ ars. The illustrated three case studies vividly demonstrate the poten­tial for transforming crises into opportunities within the blue econ­omy sector. These examples serve as compelling evidence that even in the face of adversity, innovative solutions and strategic actions can lead to signi.cant scienti.c and technological advancements and ca­reer growth. These transformative endeavours not only mitigate the impacts of crises but also contribute to the long-term prosperity and resilience of the blue economy sector. Overall,the covid-19pandemichashighlightedtheimportanceof resilience, adaptability, and innovation within the scienti.c commu­nity as researchers navigate challenges and continue to pursue scien­ti.c advancement in an evolving global landscape. acknowledgments aa is currently funded by the National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics – ogs, the University of Trieste, and JASCO Ap­plied Sciences. jn is currently funded by Training and Research in Italian Laboratories Program (tril) at ogs and ictp. DuringtheCasestudychapterofthismanuscript, aa, jn and sra were funded by the Deep Blue project coordinated by ogs icap – Devel­oping Education and Employment Partnerships for a Sustainable Blue Growth in the Western Mediterranean Region (European Maritime and Fishery Fund and European Agency for Small and Medium-sized enter­prises within the framework of the Sustainable Blue Economy Call 2017 (easme/emff/2017/1.2.1.12/s3/02/si2.789633). 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Zabaniotou, A. 2021. ‘The covid-19Lockdowns Brought to Light the Challenges That Women Face in Mediterranean Universities.’ Global Transitions 3(2): 119–25. ijems | scientific article The E.ects of Job Retention Schemes on Employment Preservation during the covid-19 Epidemic in Euro Area Countries anton rop rop.anton@yahoo.com In this paper, we analyse the e.ects of di.erent job retention (jr) schemes take-ups on the preservation of employment during the co­vid-19pandemic in euro area countries. We .nd that jr schemes in euro area countries helped reduce job losses during the pandemic. The most e.ective in preserving employment were take-ups of the most extensively updated pre-existing short-time work (stw) schemes that were more generous and included nonstandard workers. However, the impact of jr schemes was less than the overall employment preser­vation achieved. In contrast to the Great Recession, macroeconomic measures of economic support also helped preserve jobs during the pandemic as well. Corresponding di.erences in sectoral employment preservation e.ects show that such macroeconomic support led to more jobs being kept, especially in the group of vulnerable service sec­tors. Key Words: covid-19pandemic, job retention schemes, short-time work schemes, macroeconomic measures https://emuni.si/ISSN/2232-6022/17.115-140.pdf introduction Job retention (jr) schemes feature among the key instruments for mit­igating the e.ects of the lockdowns on employment and social hard­ship introduced or extended by di.erent countries in response to the crisis. Such schemes provided strong income support to workers with reduced working hours, reduced income losses, bolstered aggregate de­mand, and signi.cantly lowered the number of jobs at risk of being ter­minated due to liquidity constraints (oecd 2021). jr schemes can take the form of short-time work (stw) schemes that directly subsidise hours not worked, such as Germany’s Kurzarbeit or France’s Activité partielle. They can also include wage subsidy (ws) schemes that subsidise hours worked, and can in addition be used to top up the earnings of workers with reduced hours, such as the Netherlands’ Emergency Bridging Measure (Noodmatregel Overbrug­ging Werkgelegenheid, now) or the JobKeeper Payment in Australia. [116] A crucial aspect of all these jr schemes is that employees keep their contracts with the employer even if their work is fully suspended. Ac­cordingtoan oecd assessment(oecd 2020a),inthesecondquarterof 2020,whentake-upratespeaked, jr schemeswerebeingimplemented in almost all oecd countries, covering around 60 million workers. In comparison, during the Great Recession, jr schemes only included some 6 million workers, even though 16 oecd countries launched jr schemes or had implemented the schemes already early on in the crisis and7 oecd countrieshadintroducednewschemesduringthatperiod (Hijzen and Venn 2011). However, research on the impact of jr schemes on employment preservation in the pandemic has brought mixed results. Adams-Prassl et al. (2020) .nd that in Germany, with a well-established short-time work (stw) scheme, 34.of employees inwork at the onset of the pan­demichadbeen askedtoreducetheir hourstobene.tfromthisscheme. In April 2020, only 5. of German workers had lost their jobs compared to the usa and the uk where the respective .gures were 20. and 17. of individuals (Adams-Prassl et al. 2020). Similarly, the JobKeeper Pay­ment scheme in Australia is estimated to have saved one in .ve jobs (Bishop and Day 2020). In contrast, oecd analysis based on the take­up¹ of jr schemes in oecd countries shows jr schemes had a rela­tively small e.ect on employment (compared to data on employment in hours decline), according to which removing the jr schemes would haveledtoadropinemployment ofbetween6.and11. (oecd 2021). Besidesthehighcosts,anintriguingaspectofrunningintensive jr schemes might be the ‘deadweight e.ects,’ namely, the risk of support­ing jobs that actually do not need support (oecd 2021). Thus, govern­ments could be reluctant to use the existing support schemes once they discovertheirlimitedreach.Thismightexplainwhyinmost eu (devel­oped) countries scheme cover grew strongly in the second quarter of 2020 but eased considerably already by the next quarter to fall behind the second quarter level in almost every country. This was also seen ¹ Take-up rates refer to actual use and are calculated as a share of total employees in short-time work (oecd 2020a). during the second and third waves of epidemic when the pick-up in eco­nomic activity continued, even though in the most of these countries scheme cover remained available until the middle of 2022. Inadditionto jr schemes, eu countriessoughttoreducetheharm­ful e.ects of the lockdowns on economic activity, employment, and [117] social hardship by launching other powerful .scal and monetary mea­sures, which had strong and di.erent e.ects in various sectors of eco­nomic activity and hence also on employment. Given that jr schemes were simultaneously operating alongside those policy measures, eval­uating the e.ects of jr schemes by only considering .rm-based em­pirical evidence on the pure take-up of jr schemes’ cover could be bi­ased. Moreover, while evaluating the employment preservation e.ects of such take-ups, one must also consider the sectoral di.erent inten­sity of the impact of the economic support measures. Sectoral use of jr schemesduringthe covid-19pandemicisquiteunlikethatseenin the Great Recession. During the .rst three waves of the epidemic, jr schemes a.ected employment across many sectors and types of .rms, whereasintheGreatRecessionalmost80.of jr schemetake-upswere concentrated in manufacturing (oecd 2020a). In this paper, we analyse the e.ects of di.erent job retention (jr) schemes’ take-ups on employment preservation during the covid-19 pandemic in euro area countries considering the complete portfolio of policy measures and sectoral e.ects as a crucial non-policy-related fac­tor. We .nd that jr schemes in the euro area countries helped reduce job losses during the pandemic. The most e.ective in retaining em­ployment were take-ups of the most extensively updated, pre-existing short-time work (stw) schemes that were generous and includednon­standard workers. However, the impact of jr schemes take-ups was less than the achieved level of employment that was preserved. Corre­sponding di.erences in sectoral employment preservation e.ects show that macroeconomic support eased the loss of employment especially in the group of vulnerable service sectors. Our study complements previous research (Hijzen and Venn 2011; Aiyar and Dao 2021) since assessments of what determines the size andquarterlydynamicsof jr schemestake-upssupport,andtheirem­ployment preservation e.ects by sectors and based on macroeconomic data are rare or only partial. The study contributes to the literature on the implementation and e.ectiveness of various jr scheme take-ups indi.erentcountriesregardingseveral covid-19wavesandsectors.In addition, the e.ects of other macroeconomic (non-jr schemes) mea­sures on employment as well as potential sectoral di.erences in such macroeconomic employment support are also presented. [118] literature review Although in the Great Recession jr schemes covered ten times fewer workers than in the recent pandemic, their implementation and e.ec­tiveness soon became a subject of academic research. As early as 2011, the oecd conductedadetailedanalysisof jr schemes’ impactandrole during the Great Recession (Hijzen and Venn 2011). The study describes the characteristics of the schemes implemented (albeit, it deals solely with stw schemes)andevaluatestheire.ectivenessinpreservingem­ployment in the short and long run (in bust and recovery). It underlines two important potential shortcomings of these schemes. First, it as­sessed that the impact on jobs was smaller than the potential number of jobs saved, indicating weak targeting and, second, that the schemes led to greater labour segmentation if limited to workers holding per­manent contracts. Similar ambition and results may be seen in a study by Boeri and Bruecker (2011). They found that stw helped reduce job losses during the Great Recession. Still, according to their macroeconomic estimates, the number of jobs saved was less than the full-time equivalent jobs in­volved in these programmes, in some cases pointing to sizeable dead-weight costs entailing the same moral hazard problems as those arising with the provision of unemployment insurance. Workers and employ­ers might collude to extract payments from the state even when incen­tives for reductions in hours would not be required to avoid layo.s as the .rm was no longer facing a negative demand shock. The performance of jr schemes during the recovery period of the Great Recession episode was analysed in by Hijzen and Martin (2013). They found that stw raises the output elasticity of working time and helps preserve jobs in the sizeable context of a recession by making em­ployment less elastic with respect to output. A key .nding was that the timingof stw wascrucial. One can also .nd several papers dealing with jr schemes’ per­formance during the Great Recession in speci.c countries. See, for example, Bellmann, Gerner, and Upward (2015) regarding Germany, Calavrezo, Duhautois and Walkoviak (2009) analysing the situation in France, and Siegenthaler and Kohl (2019), describing the Swiss expe­riences with jr schemes during the Great Recession and afterwards. As the pandemic developed, many studies tracked the initial impact ofthe covid-19inducedcrisisonthe usa andEuropeancountriesre­garding employment, hours worked, and income (International Labour Organization 2020; 2021; Zimpelmann et al. 2021; Cotofan et al. 2021; [119] Anderton et al. 2020). Gangopadhyaya and Garrett (2020) compared the levelofunemploymentinbothcrises:theGreat Recessionand covid­ 19. They found that during the Great Recession unemployment in the usa reached 10., while during the pandemic unemployment spiked at 12.8.. Anderton et al. (2020) analysed the covid-19pandemic’s impact on the euro area labour market from the perspective of the cu­mulative contribution of four speci.c economic shocks to changes in total hours worked and the labour force: a technology or productivity shock, a shock in the labour supply (via a shock to labour force partic­ipation), a shock giving rise to an increase in the demand for labour, and a wage bargaining shock. The oecd (2020a) analyses the jr schemes that oecd countries reliedonduringthe(.rst waveof)the covid-19pandemic. The oecd estimates that stw schemes typically allow reduced working time at zero cost to .rms, while ws schemes generally permit larger reduc­tionsinlabourcoststhan stw schemes,yetareassociatedwithgreater .scal costs or weaker income protection for workers. Due to the bet­ter targeting of stw subsidies to .rms likely to experience .nancial di.culties, they are probably more e.ective at saving jobs than ws schemes. According to oecd simulations based on the single-hit sce­nario, stw subsidies reduce the share of jobs at risk by 10 percentage points from 22., whereas this is only 7 percentage points under ws. A smaller section of the study also discusses the sectoral dimension of the jr schemes’ e.ects. Another study for g20 countries (oecd 2020b) .nds that diverse working arrangements o.ered less security and were concentrated in a.ected sectors. Workers in a range of employment forms that vary from a full-time wage and salary work under a permanent contract – such as self-employed workers, those on temporary, on-call or part-time contracts, and informal economy workers – have been very vul­nerable to the job and income losses triggered by the pandemic. An oecd (2020c) study stresses that the sectors most directly af­fectedbythe covid-19containmentmeasuresaccountforaround40. of total employment and these sectors employ a large share of nonstan­dard workers, i.e., part-time workers, self-employed, and workers hired under .xed-term contracts. Relative to permanent employees, tempo­rary workers have a higher risk of losing their jobs and less chance of being enrolled in short-time work schemes. [120] The oecd (2021) devotes a separate chapter to the jr schemes in place during the .rst three waves of epidemic. The paper tackles the size and volatility of the jr schemes take-ups, deals with sectoral dif­ferences in take-ups, as well as the dependence of employment support on thesizeofworkers income. Several studies of jr scheme e.ectiveness have looked at pro-grammes in particular countries, yet their results are also inconclusive. Smaller estimates than expected are also evident in an imf study for Germany (Aiyar and Dao 2021), whereas estimated e.ects of the Job-Keeper Payment scheme in Australia show just the opposite – much higher e.ects, with the jr scheme being estimated to have saved the job of one in .ve employees (Bishop and Day 2020). Results also di.er signi.cantly for studies of the same scheme and country, such as stud­ies of the Paycheck Protection Program (ppp) used in the usa (Autor et al. 2020; Hubbard and Strain 2020). data, descriptive statistics of main variables and hypotheses Data We can generally capture the observations made in the previous sec­tions in the following equation: Job preservation = f (jr schemes, macroeconomic e.ects of the portfolio of .scal and monetary measures, sectors) (1) We explain the sources of data and construction of the main variables below. Our analysis is based on quarterly data from the .rst quarter of 2019 until the second quarter of 2021 (q1 2019–q2 2021) for 19 euro area countries and 9sectors. For each sector and euro area country, we take seasonally adjusted data on employment in hours and employment in persons from Eurostat (https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat). We normalise employment data by setting the average employment level achieved in 2019for each country as 1. This allows us to construct the employment preservation indicator as a ratio of employment in persons and employ­ment in hours, which serves as the main dependent variable in the re­search. With the employment preservation indicator, for each quarter, country and sector, we measure the level of employees per number of hours used relative to the average in 2019so as to capture the relative [121] level of employees who remained in employment despite the decline in the number of working hours. For instance, in the second quarter of 2020,i.e.duringthe.rst covid-19wave,theratioforGermanyis1.10. This indicates that in this quarter Germany recorded a level of employed persons that was 10. higher than the level observed in working hours. It is thus evident that the number of employees in Germany dropped considerably less than the number of working hours. This was actually the case for all euro area countries. To assess the impacts of di.erent jr schemes, we use the oecd classi.cation whereby countries use .ve types of jr schemes, name­ly, besides the four stw schemes also ws (oecd 2020a). According to the oecd study,23countrieswithapre-existing stw schemerapidly adjusted their stw scheme to cope with the covid-19crisis (oecd 2020a). They applied di.erent combinations of three key changes: (1) simplifying access and extending coverage; (2) extending coverage to non-permanent workers; and (3) making them more generous. Boeri and Bruecker (2011) argue that making the bene.ts more generous pro­vides the subject workers with stronger support while granting access for nonstandard jobs means that better targeting can be achieved since workers holding nonstandard jobs – i.e. the self-employed and workers with temporary or part-time dependent employment – are very vulner­able to job and income losses.² However, employers have little or zero incentivetouse stw fornonstandardjobsastheyknowtheseworkers can be .red at little or no cost, meaning access for nonstandard jobs should probably be combined with more generous stw bene.ts. A number of countries have introduced temporary ws in response tothe covid-19crisisthatcanbeusedby.rmsforhoursworked(like standard wage subsidies) as well as for hours not worked (like stw ²On average, across the oecd countries, the sectors most directly a.ected by the covid-19containment measures account for around 40. of total employment. These sectors employ a large proportion of ‘nonstandard workers,’ i.e. part-time workers, self-employed and workers hired under .xed-term contracts. This proportion is generally highest in entertainment industries, hotels and restaurants (oecd 2020c). table 1 Types of jr Schemes Used during the covid-19Pandemic in the Euro Area Stw.,Leastupdated,pre-existing stw scheme:Increased Austria,Belgium,Luxem­access and coverage with more generous bene.ts bourg, Slovak Republic Stw.,Updated,pre-existing stw scheme:increasedaccess Italy,Portugal [122] and coverage and access for workers in nonstandard jobs Stw.,Mostextensivelyupdated,pre-existing stw scheme: Germany,Spain,Finland, increased access, coverage, bene.t generosity and access France for workers in nonstandard jobs Stwn,New(notpreviouslyexisting) stw scheme Greece,Lithuania,Latvia, Slovenia, Cyprus Ws, New wage subsidy scheme Estonia, Ireland, Netherlands, Malta notes Based on data from oecd (2020a). schemes), e.g., Australia, Canada, Estonia, Ireland, New Zealand. ws are reserved for .rms experiencing a signi.cant decline in revenue. In some countries, the size of the actual subsidy only depends on the wage bill (before programme participation) and not the decline in business activity (oecd 2021). Table 1 presents di.erent types of jr schemes used during the covid-19crisis in the euro area. It reveals important cross-country di.erences in the jr schemes used: 10 countries that adjusted their pre-existing stw schemes;5countrieswithnew stw schemes,and4 countries with wage subsidy schemes. Data on the total portfolio of economic support measures were collected from the Oxford covid-19Government Response Tracker (GitHub 2022). The Oxford covid-19Government Response Track­er (oxcgrt) provides a systematic set of cross-national, longitudinal measures of government responses for more than 180 countries since 1st January 2020 (Hale et al. 2021). At present, it includes 19policy indi­cators covering closure and containment, health and economic policies. To make it easier to describe government responses in aggregate, ox­cgrt calculates simple indices that combine individual indicators to provide an overall measure of the intensity of government response across a family of indicators. These indices are: (1) gri (all categories); (2) stringency index (containment and closure policies sometimes re­ferred to as lockdown policies); (3) chi (containment and closure and health policies); and (4) esi (economic support measures). The esi in­dex is composed of economic policy response indicators which include income support, debt/contract relief for households, .scal measures and giving international support indicators.³ We used the esi index as an aggregate measure of the economic support for the period q1 2019–q2 2021 for 19 euro area countries. To be able to determine how much the macroeconomic e.ects of the [123] portfolio of .scal and monetary measures (used to mitigate the dam­ age caused by the lockdown measures) helped preserve employment in addition to the actual jr scheme take-up e.ects, we must control for macroeconomic e.ects and their sectoral dimension on the trajectory of jr take-ups. Lockdown e.ects and the corresponding employment lossvaried considerably between sectors. Hence, we use employment dataforthe a10sectionsofthebroad nace structure of eu countries. Lockdown measures were quanti.ed by using the corresponding stringency index which embraces all indicators on containment and clo­ sure policies (school closure, workplace closure, cancellation of public events, restrictions on the size of gatherings, halting of public trans­ port, stay-at home requirement, limitations on internal movement, restrictions on international travel), constructed and published on the Oxford covid-19Government Response Tracker (Hale et al. 2021). Speci.c npi indicators (restrictions on the size of gatherings and school closure) used while constructing the instruments are collected from the same source. Descriptive Statistics of Main Variables and Operative Hypotheses Table 2 presents descriptive statistics of the most important model variables for euro area countries: employment preservation ratio, nor­ malised employment in persons, normalised employment in hours, government’s economic support measures, and government’s contain­ ment measures for each quarter from q1 2020 until q2 2021. The levels of employment in persons and employment in hours in euro area countries were at their lowest in the second quarter of 2020, and while the maximum drop in the average level of employment per person per country did not exceed 7.6. (Spain), unemployment in hours dropped substantially more, notably on average by 12.7. com­ pared to the average for 2019, to reach a maximum decrease of 27.2. in the case of Greece. For the entire period under observation, the nor­ malised level of employment in persons was higher than the level of ³ The way composite indices are calculated is described in Hale et al. (2021). Anton Rop table 2 Descriptive Statistics Item .... .... .... .... .... .... q. q. q. q. q. q. Mean Employment preservation ratio ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... [124] Employment in person .... = . ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... Employment in hours .... = . ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (a) Economic support measures stwn_take-up ws_take-up stw._take-up stw._take-up stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (b) stringency gatherings school ..... .... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... .... sd Employment preservation ratio Employment in person .... = Employment in hours .... = . ..... . ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (a) Economic support measures ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... stwn_take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ws_take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (b) stringency .... .... ..... ..... ..... .... gatherings .... .... .... .... .... .... school .... .... .... .... .... .... Continued on the next page employment in hours. This di.erence is most pronounced in the sec­ond quarter of 2020 and shrinks slowly afterwards. The employment preservation ratio was at its highest during the peak of both epidemic waves. Still, there is quite a high cross-country heterogeneity in the preservation ratios, re.ecting di.erences in the intensity of policy responses to the pandemic and the sectoral compo­sition of the economies (Anderton et al. 2020). The jr supportmeasureswereattheirlowestin q12020,increased considerablyin q2 2020andremainedatelevatedlevelsfortheremain­ing quarters of the observation period. For all types of jr schemes, Item .... .... .... .... .... .... q. q. q. q. q. q. min Employment preservation ratio ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... Employment in person .... = . ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... [125] Employment in hours .... = . ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (a) Economic support measures ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... stwn_take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ws_take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (b) stringency gatherings school ..... .... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... .... ..... .... .... max Employment preservatiEmployment in person Employment in hours on ratio ..... .... = . ..... .... = . ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (a) Economic support measures ...... ... ... ... ... ... stwn_take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ws_take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... stw._take-up ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (b) stringency ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... gatherings .... .... .... .... .... .... school .... .... .... .... .... .... notes Row headings are as follows: (a) government’s support measures, (b) gov­ernment’s containment measures. Based on data from Eurostat (https://ec.europa.eu /eurostat), oecd (2000a), and Oxford covid-19Government Response Tracker (GitHub 2022). Employment variables are normalised on the basis 2019= 1; index of economic sup­port variable, Stringency index, School closing and Gatherings are used as de.ned in the Oxford covid-19Government Response Tracker (GitHub 2022). Types of jr schemes de­.nedassuggestedinthe oecd (2020a)study. the highest level of take-ups was reached in the second quarter of 2020 while afterwards they declined and stayed quite stable. In the second quarter of 2020, the level of scheme use (take-ups) reached a maximum level of 31. (Italy) for scheme type stw2 (a pre-existing stw scheme with updated access and coverage as well as access for workers holding nonstandard jobs) with a mean value of 25. of scheme take-ups. The lowest level of take-ups was reached in all quarters in those countries with new stw schemes (stwn), even though they had an average level (7.8.) of take-up in q2 2020 with a corresponding minimum level of almost 2.8. (Latvia). [126] The containment and closure policies index (stringency, measured from 1 to 100) is at its lowest in q1 2020 and its highest in q2 2021. Overall, the mean value increased after q3 2020 and remained high through the other periods. A similar pattern occurred with the indi­cator Restriction on the size of gatherings (ordinal values, 1–5), while the indicator School closure (ordinal values 1–5) was at its highest in q2 2020 (2.37), but later relaxed. Against this background and the literature reviewed, we test the fol­lowing hypotheses: 1 Changes in the employment preservation ratio over time can be to a larger degree explained by changes in jr scheme take-up rates. 2 Changes in the preservation indicator over time are also in.u­enced by changes in other support measures (.scal and mone­tary) that governments have implemented during the pandemic. 3 Among di.erent jr schemes, the most e.ective at preserv­ing employment levels were take-ups of already existing stw schemes that had been most extensively updated. model In normal times, Okun’s law4 suggests that employment in persons depends on employment in hours, the cyclical phase of economic ac­ tivity (Burggraeve, de Walque, and Zimmer 2015), as well as sectoral and country characteristics (Crivelli, Furceri, and Toujas-Bernaté 2012). However, in the pandemic, policymakers have supported employment preservation (our dependent variable) directly by using jr schemes and indirectly through macroeconomic policy support to the economy. We start the description of the equation composing our model of employment preservation with the equation for employment to appro­priately encompass the relationship between employment in persons and employment in hours (Burggraeve et al. 2015). Explanatory vari­ables of the model for employment in persons are therefore employ­ 4 Okun’s Law is an empirically observed relationship between unemployment and losses in a country’s production (Prachowny 1993). ment in hours, jr scheme take-up rates, economic support measures, and time .xed e.ects. To encompass large di.erences in the potential e.ects of economic support between sectors, economic support vari­able e.ects are speci.ed separately for .ve groups of sectors. Corre­sponding explanatory variables are de.ned as a product of the sectoral [127] group indicator variable and economic support variable. Time .xed ef­fects are included to account for any other time-speci.c e.ects on the employment in persons variable that might have a.ected penetration rates in the countries under study. If epijt is employment in persons and ehijt employment in hours, jrit·dum_jrik the take-up of jr scheme k (for country i take-up jrit and scheme dum_jrik), esit·dum_esil sectoral economic support (for country i economic support esit and sector dum_esil), dumt time indicators em­bracing potential other (undisclosed) yet systematic factors’ e.ects on persons employed dynamics, Ui unobservable country e.ects, Uj un­observable sector e.ects and eijt the error term, then the conceptual version of the model for employment may be formally written as epijt = F(ehijt,jrit · dum_jrik,esit · dum_esil, dumt, Ui, Uj, eijt), (2) where index i stands for country, j for sector, t for time, k for type of scheme and l for sectoral group. Regarding the speci.cation of the function F,itisassumedthat there is a linear dependence of epijt on the elasticity of ehijt and the in­crements of other variables stated such that the complete speci.cation of the estimable operative version of the model for epijt is the follow­ing:  epijt = eha ijt · exp( ßkjrit · dum_jrik + .lesit · dum_esil kl  + dtdumt + Ui + Uj + eijt). (3) Sectoral groups are de.ned by sectors of the a10 sections of the broadest nace sectoral classi.cation. These groups of sectors are de.ned according to the potential extent of their lockdown expo­sure (manufacturing, construction, utilities, vulnerable services, non-vulnerable services, public sector). Types of jr schemes are speci.ed according to the classi.cation used in oecd (2020a). We analyse the period q1 2019–q2 2021. The period is extended to the beginning of 2019to identify the e.ects of modi.cations made to jr schemes at the start of the epidemic (14 euro area countries mod­i.ed an already existing stw scheme in q1 2020, as well as potential other systematic (but undisclosed) time-speci.c impacts on employ­ [128] ment during the epidemic episode (parameters st)aswellastoincrease the accuracy of the estimated dependence of the employment preser­vation indicator. Since for estimated relation (3) parameter a did not signi.cantly dif­fer from 1,5 the estimable starting operative version of the model spec­i.cation for employment preservation is de.ned as follows:  epijt log = ßkjrit · dum_jrik + .lesit · dum_esilehijt kl  + stdumt + Ui + Uj + eijt, (4) t where index i stands for country, j for sector, t for time, k for type of scheme and l for sectoral group. This starting version of the model is estimated and analysed in three steps; in each step, speci.cation of the previous step is further simpli­ .edtoallow speci.c characteristicsofthe modeltobe analysed. In step one, the starting version of the model speci.cation (4) is used to check the potential existence of speci.c time e.ects in.uencing employment preservation in the epidemic episode. In step two, the model is estimated in its basic speci.cation as  epijt log = ßkjrit · dum_jrik + .lesit · dum_esilehijt kl +Ui + Uj + eijt. (5) Notably, the basic speci.cation di.ers from the starting speci.ca­tion only in (missing) time dummies. Since it encompasses both theo­reticallyimportantfactors –thetake-upofdi.erent jr schemee.ects as well as the sectoral macroeconomic e.ects, a discussion of the basic model estimates represents the core of the analysis in this paper. A robustness check of the main basic model conclusions is made in step three when the model is estimated without any explicit speci.­cation of the sectoral di.erences, therefore formally in the following speci.cation: 5 Corresponding estimates are available from the author upon request. Model .2 P Starting model Asymptotic assumptions violated Basic model .... .... Robust model .... .... [129] notes Hausman test values and signi.cance; the data for the starting model violate the asymptotic assumptions of the test.  epijt log = ßkjrit · dum_jrik + .lesit + Ui + Uj + eijt. (6) ehijt k The presented stepwise simpli.cation of the model speci.cation en­ables the explicit focusing on (testing of) the crucial questions (hy­potheses) of the study embraced in the stated paper research question. results The model (4) is estimated on panel data (where the observation unit is country, sector in a quarter) for 19euro countries and 9sectors in the period q1 2019–q2 2021.Duetomissingdata,thereare1,330complete observations. Because of the high possibility that unobservable individual e.ects for country and sectors are present,6 a .xed e.ects estimator should be used as it excludes country and sector time-invariant variables’ im­pacts and gives consistent parameter estimates. Nonetheless, Haus­man’s test is conducted to test for the presence of .xed e.ects and whether the more e.cient random e.ects estimator could also be used. Table 3 presents values of Hausman’s test for all three model speci.ca­tions analysed (starting speci.cation, basic speci.cation, robust spec­i.cation). Hausman’s test does not enable the use of a random e.ects estimator in any model variant and thus all three models are estimated with .xed e.ects. The possible endogeneity of economic support measures as well as the jr schemetake-upratesleadsustorunaninstrumentalversionof the.xede.ectsregression(theinstrumentalestimator gmm isused).7 6 Crivelli et al. (2012) suggest a set of determinants of cross-country variations of employment growth consisting of the following variables: (a) Structural and Policy Variables (labour market policies, product market policies, and government size), (b) Productmarketregulations, likelabourmarketregulations, (c) governmentsize,(d) macroeconomic variables, and (e) demographic variables. 7Economicsupportmeasuresandtheassociated jr schemetake-upsarehighlyendoge­Anton Rop table 4 Starting Model Estimates Explanatory variables Coe.cient t-stat P support(–.) ....... .... ..... support_con(–.) –....... –.... ..... [130] support_vul(–.) .......*** .... ..... support_nvul(–.) –....... –.... ..... support_uti(–.) –....... –.... ..... support_pub(–.) –....... –.... ..... takeup_ws .......*** .,.. ..... takeup_stw. .......*** .... ..... takeup_stw. .......*** .... ..... takeup_stw. .......*** .... ..... takeup_stwn .......*** .... ..... dum_stwo .......*** .... ..... dum_....q. ....... .... ..... dum_....q. ....... .... ..... dum_....q. ....... .... ..... dum_....q. –....... –.... ..... dum_....q. –....... –.... ..... dum_....q. –....... –.... ..... dum_....q. –....... –.... ..... dum_....q. –....... –.... ..... dum_....q. –....... –.... ..... _cons –.......*** –.... ..... Continued on the next page The instruments used are a stringency index, lockdown variables for public gatherings and school closures, dummies for sectors and the type of jr schemesaswellasthecombination(products) ofthesevari­ables. We used instrument variables representing pandemic contain­ment measures as they are de.ned in relation to the state of the pan- nous to labour market conditions since they were mainly used to alleviate the short-term e.ects of the covid policy measures constraining social mobility on employ­ment and temporary unemployment (Bole, Prašnikar, and Rop 2021). For instance, .rms tend to place workers in jr schemes when the underlying conditions are poor and, correspondingly, reduce the share of the workforce in jr schemes when business conditions improve. Such pro-cyclical behaviour strongly biases the estimate of our variable of interest because the unobservable business conditions would be part of the residual and negatively correlated with the jr scheme take-up variable (for Germany, see Aiyar and Dao 2021). Explanatory variables P Anderson canon correlation test of under identi.cation ..... Sargan Hansen test of over identi.cation ..... notes Calculations based on Eurostat (https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat) and Oxford [131] covid-19Government Response Tracker (GitHub 2022). The dependent variable is em­ployment in persons per employment in hours, normalised so that the average in 2019is 1. Explanatory variables are: support_con(–1) – economic support policy index multiplied by a dummy for construction, lag1; support_vul(–1) – economic support policy index mul­tiplied by a dummy for vulnerable, lag1; support_nvul (–1) – economic support policy index multiplied by a dummy for non-vulnerable, lag1; support_uti (–1) – economic support pol­icy index multiplied by a dummy for utilities, lag1; support_pub (–1) – economic support policy index multiplied by a dummy for public sector, lag1; takeup_ws – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for a ws scheme; takeup_stw3 – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for an up­dated stw scheme (increased access and coverage; increased generosity; increased access for workers in non-standard jobs); takeup_stw2 – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for an updated stw scheme (increased access and coverage; increased access for workers in non­standardjobs);takeup_stw1 –take-upsmultipliedbyadummyforanupdated stw scheme (increased access and coverage; increased generosity); takeup_stwn – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for a new stw scheme; dum_stwo – a dummy for a pre-covid stw scheme. Sargan-Hansen over identi.cation test (signi.cance); Anderson test of under identi.cation (signi.cance). ***, **, * signi.cant, respectively at 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1. demic and not the state of the labour market and the economy, but may well impact the level of the government’s economic support measures and jr schemes. Table 4 presents estimates of the model in its starting speci.cation (5) for euro area countries. The Sargan-Hansen and Anderson tests con­.rm that the instruments’ quality is acceptable. The coe.cients of jr scheme take-up types are signi.cant and have the expected sign, while among the sectoral economic support variables only the support for vulnerable sectors is signi.cant. Others have the expected sign but are not signi.cantly di.erent from the corresponding e.ect of manufac­turing, which represents the basis of the sectoral economic support variables comparison and which in itself is non-signi.cant. Given that all time dummies in the covid-19period are non-signi.cant and are not signi.cantly di.erent from the time dummies in the pre-covid­19period,8 there are no other decisive factors mitigating employment losses during the lockdown episode. Table 5 displays estimates of the model in its basic speci.cation. It 8 Corresponding estimates are available from the author upon request. Anton Rop table 5 Basic Model Estimates Explanatory variables Coe.cient t-stat P support(–.) ....... .... ..... support_con(–.) ....... .... ..... [132] support_vul(–.) ....... ....*** ..... support_nvul(–.) ....... –.... ..... support_uti(–.) –....... –.... ..... support_pub(–.) –....... –.... ..... takeup_ws ....... ....*** ..... takeup_stw. ....... .....*** ..... takeup_stw. ....... .....*** ..... takeup_stw. ....... .....*** ..... takeup_stwn ....... ....*** ..... dum_stwo ....... ....*** ..... Cons –....... –....*** ..... Anderson canon correlation test of under identi.cation ..... Sargan Hansen test of overidenti.cation ..... notes N = 5130. The dependent variable is employment in persons per employment in hours, normalised so that the average in 2019is 1. Explanatory variables are: support (–1) – economic support policy index, lag1; support_con(–1) – economic support policy index multiplied by a dummy for construction, lag1; support_vul(–1) – economic support policy index multiplied by a dummy for vulnerable, lag1; support_nvul (–1) – economic support policy index multiplied by a dummy for non-vulnerable, lag1; support_uti (–1) – economic support policy index multiplied by a dummy for utilities, lag1; support_pub (–1) – economic support policy index multiplied by a dummy for public sector, lag1; takeup_ws – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for a ws scheme; takeup_stw3 – take-ups multiplied by a dummy foranupdated stw scheme(increasedaccessandcoverage;increasedgenerosity;increased access for workers in non-standard jobs); takeup_stw2 – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for an updated scheme stw (increased access and coverage; increased access for workers in non­standardjobs);takeup_stw1 –take-upsmultipliedbyadummyforanupdated stw scheme (increased access and coverage; increased generosity); takeup_stwn – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for a new stw scheme; dum_stwo a dummy for a pre covid stw scheme. Sargan-Hansen over identi.cation test (signi.cance); Anderson test of under identi.cation (signi.cance); ***, **, * signi.cant, respectively at 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1. di.ers from the model’s starting speci.cation in the absence of time dummies. The model is estimated with instrumentalised .xed e.ects. In estimating the basic model, the same instruments are used as for estimating the starting model. The coe.cients of the jr scheme take-up rates are highly signif­icant and have the expected sign. A positive impact was especially strong in pre-existing stw schemes with increased access and cov­ Period Actual values All model measures Macroec. measures q. .... ..... ..... ..... q. .... ..... ..... ..... q. .... ..... ..... ..... [133] q. .... ..... ..... ..... q. .... ..... ..... ..... q. .... ..... ..... ..... Average ..... ..... ..... notes Employment preservation; basic model simulation of employment preservation e.ects; actual values; total simulated e.ects; simulation of the e.ects of only the macroe­conomic support measures. erage, increased generosity, and increased access for workers holding non-standard jobs. The e.ects of the macroeconomic economic support by way of mit­igated sectoral employment loss are positive for manufacturing, con­struction, vulnerable and non-vulnerable services, but only signi.cant for the group of vulnerable sectors. To reveal the structure of policy contributions to the retained em­ployment levels, table 6 presents actual values of employment in per­son per working hours, model-simulated common e.ects of the jr schemes and the macroeconomic support measures, as well as the con­tribution of only the macroeconomic support measures. Average values for all sectorsand countriesare given. Employment preservation e.ects were quite volatile in the .rst three waves of the epidemic. They reached their peak in q2 2020 when slightly more than 10. of the employed were not working. The biggest contribution to such employment preservation e.ects was made by the takingupof jr schemes. Still,thecontributionmadebythemacroeco­nomic measures to curbing employment losses was also not negligible. It was small only in the .rst two quarters of the covid-19pandemic. After that, the contribution was quite sizeable; in the whole period of the .rst three epidemic waves, it accounted for around one-quarter (0.011/0.048 = 0.23) of the total mitigation e.ects. Overall, it may be concluded that in line with hypotheses 1 and 2 changes in the employment preservation ratio over time can be to a larger degree explained by changes in jr scheme take-up rates and by changes in other government support measures. table 7 Macroeconomic Support E.ects on Employment Preservation – Sectoral Di.erences Sector support_con support_vul support_nvul support_uti support_pub support_man ..... .....*** –...... –..... –..... [134] support_con .....*** –..... –..... –..... support_vul –.....*** –.....*** –.....*** support_nvul –.....* –..... support_uti ..... notes Di.erences in macroeconomic support e.ects on employment preservation; sec­toral di.erences (column sector less row sector item) are multiplied by 1,000; macroeco­nomic support e.ects on employment preservation in: manufacturing (support_man), con­struction (support_con), vulnerable service sectors (support_vul), nonvulnerable service sectors (support_nvul), utilities (support_uti), and public sector (support_pub); ***, **, * sig­ni.cant at 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1, respectively. The estimated e.ects of macroeconomic support on sectoral em­ployment preservation presented in table 5 also enable a comparison of those e.ects between sectors. Corresponding di.erences in sectoral employment preservation e.ects are given in table 7. Macroeconomic support is shown to have mitigated employment loss by far the most in the group of vulnerable service sectors. The employment-preservation impact of economic support measures for the vulnerable service sec­tors is several times (signi.cant at p = 0.00) larger than in the other sectors. However, as shown in table 7, the e.ects of those sectors (with one exception) did not signi.cantly exceed the e.ects in any other sec­tor; only the e.ects in non-vulnerable service sectors di.er from the e.ects in utilities by the lowest margin of signi.cance (p =0.10). We may conclude that the evidence presented in table 8 con.rms that the impact of economic support measures on employment preser­vation varies across sectors, especially between vulnerable sectors and others. Estimates of the basic model (in table 5) also indicate that the e.ec­tiveness of di.erent types of jr scheme take-ups varies considerably. To enable a more detailed comparison, table 8 presents di.erences in the e.ects on employment preservation of the analysed types of jr scheme take-ups. The evidence presented in table 8 shows that the most successful countries have been those with a previous stw scheme which they ex­tended most extensively by applying all three key changes to it (the most extensively updated stw schemes – denoted by takeup_stw3): • simplifying access and extending coverage; table 8 Employment Preservation E.ects – Di.erences between jr Schemes Take-Ups takeup_stw... takeup_stw.. takeup_stw.. takeup_stwn dum_stwo takeup_ws .....*** .....*** .....*** ..... –.....*** takeup_stw. –.....*** –.....*** –.....*** –.....*** [135] takeup_stw. .....*** –.....** –.....*** takeup_stw. –.....*** –.....*** takeup_stwn –..... notes Di.erencesinemploymentpreservatione.ectsfortypesofjr schemetake-ups; e.ect of jr scheme take-ups in column less the e.ect of a jr scheme in row item; anal­ysed types of jr schemes: takeup_ws – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for ws scheme; takeup_stw3 – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for an updated existing stw scheme (in­creased access and coverage; increased generosity; increased access for workers in non­standardjobs);takeup_stw2 –take-upsmultipliedbyadummyforanupdatedexisting stw scheme (increased access and coverage; increased access for workers in non-standard jobs); takeup_stw1 – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for an updated existing stw scheme (in­creased access and coverage; increased generosity); takeup_stwn – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for a new stw scheme; dum_stwo a dummy for a pre-covid stw scheme; ***, **, * signi.cant, respectively at 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1. • extending coverage to non-permanent workers; and • making their bene.ts more generous. The take-ups of this jr scheme had the strongest impact on em­ployment preservation, outperforming other types of jr schemes in the covid-19pandemicby25.–70..Theloweste.ectonemployment preservation was seen for take-ups of the jr scheme ws, which sup­ported employment by subsidising all employees in the .rm (denoted by takeup_ws). For every 1. of take-ups, this type of jr scheme re­duced employment losses almost four times less e.ectively than the most successful stw scheme. One may conclude that the empirical evidence given in table 9val­idates the last (3rd) research hypothesis, namely, that among the dif­ferent jr schemes in the covid-19pandemic the most e.ective at preserving employment levels were take-ups of already existing stw schemes that had been most extensively updated. robustness test To check the robustness of the estimated basic model with regard to its estimates, consistency and lessons, the model is also estimated in the robust speci.cation (6). The model is estimated in a simpli.ed version without an explicit sectoral dimension. Again, we employed an instru­mental version of the .xed e.ects regression (instrumental estimator Anton Rop table 9Robust Model Estimates Explanatory variables Coe.cient t-stat P support(–.) .......*** ..... ..... takeup_ws .......*** .... ..... [136] takeup_stw. .......*** ..... ..... takeup_stw. .......*** ..... ..... takeup_stw. .......*** ..... ..... takeup_stwn .......*** .... ..... dum_stwo .......*** .... ..... Cons –.......*** –.... ..... Anderson canon correlation test of under identi.cation ..... Sargan-Hansen test of over identi.cation ..... notes Thedependentvariableisemploymentinpersonsperemploymentinhours,nor­malised so that the average in 2019is 1. Explanatory variables are: support (–1) – economic support policy index, lag1; takeup_ws – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for a ws scheme; takeup_stw3 –take-upsmultipliedbyadummyforanupdated stw scheme(increasedac­cess and coverage; increased generosity; increased access for workers in non-standard jobs); takeup_stw2 – take-ups multiplied by a dummy for an updated stw scheme (increased ac­cess and coverage; increased access for workers in non-standard jobs); takeup_stw1 – take­upsmultipliedbyadummyforanupdated stw scheme(increasedaccessandcoverage;in­creasedgenerosity);takeup_stwn –take-upsmultipliedbyadummyforanew stw scheme; dum_stwoadummyforapre-covid stw scheme.Sargan-Hansenoveridenti.cationtest (signi.cance); Anderson test of under identi.cation (signi.cance); ***, **, * signi.cant, re­spectively at 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1. gmm). Instruments used in estimating the robust model are again con­structed according to the same principles as for the previous model variants. The estimated model is presented in table 9. The macroeconomic e.ects on employment preservation are highly signi.cant and larger than the simple average of the corresponding sec­toral e.ects in the basic model. Namely, the simple average of the sec­toral e.ects in the basic model (see table 5) was 0.00016 (p =0.06) ver­sus 0.00019(p = 0.00) in the robust version of the model. This fact further con.rms the sectoral di.erences in the economic support measures e.ects and, in particular, the size and importance of the vulnerable service sectors support for the success in limiting the loss of jobs during the covid-19pandemic, as already seen in table 7. conclusion The covid-19pandemic has had an unprecedented impact on the labour market across world economies. The key instruments for mit­igating the e.ects of the lockdowns on employment and social hard­ship that di.erent countries introduced or extended in response to the crisis include di.erent job retention (jr) schemes. jr schemes were implemented in all euro area countries, although di.erent countries in­troduced or extended a range of jr schemes. Using data for euro area [137] countries, this paper has analysed the e.ects of various jr scheme take-ups on employment preservation during the covid pandemic. Toassesstheimpactsofdi.erent jr schemes,weusedthe oecd clas­si.cation whereby the countries use .ve types of jr schemes (oecd 2020a). Our paper supports literature .ndings (Hijzen and Venn 2011; Boeri andBruecker2011;HijzenandMartin2013; oecd 2020a;2020b;2020c; 2021) that jr schemes have been the most important instrument for reducing the loss of employment following the impacts of the nonphar­maceutical interventions during the covid-19crisis. Such schemes were able to relatively successfully limit excessive layo.s in the situ­ation of a temporary reduction in business activity. Our results also show that countries (France, Germany, Spain, Finland) which extended a previous stw scheme by increasing its access, coverage and generos­ity, and also integrated workers holding non-standard jobs (denoted by takeup_stw3) into the scheme had the most successful jr scheme take-ups. Our study reveals that jr schemes contributed less than the over­all employment preservation achieved during di.erent epidemic waves, and that other macroeconomic measures (non-jr schemes) contrib­uted around one-quarter to the employment preserved. Correspond­ing di.erences in sectoral employment preservation e.ects show that macroeconomic support mitigated the loss of jobs by far the most in the group of vulnerable services sectors, where the corresponding non-pharmaceutical intervention (npi) losses were the highest, and which was the crucial driver of the high indirect net e.ects in other sectoral groups(Bole,Prašnikar,andRop2021).Bettertargetingbyusing stw for non-standard jobs (i.e. self-employed workers and those in tempo­rary or part-time dependent employment) and providing more gen­erous bene.ts have no doubt helped to improve the situation (oecd 2020b). Still, since employers have little or zero incentive to use stw for non-standard jobs when they know that these workers can be .red at little or no cost, and governments are reluctant to subsidise these jobs due to the moral hazard problem (Boeri and Bruecker 2011), other macroeconomic measures (non-jr schemes) might also do a good job at preserving jobs, in particular, in these sectors of the economy. references [138] Adams-Prassl, A., T. Boneva, M. Golina, and C. Rauh. 2020. ‘Inequality in the Impact of the Coronavirus Shock: Evidence from Real Time Surveys.’ Journal of Public Economics 189:104245. Aiyar, S., and Dao, M. (2021). The E.ectiveness of Job-Retention Sche­mes: covid-19EvidencefromtheGermanStates(imf WorkingPa­per No. 2021/241). Washington, dc. Anderton, R., V. Botelho, A. Consolo, A. D. Da Silva, C. Foroni, M. Mohr, and L. Vivian. 2020. ‘The Impact of the covid-19Pandemic on the Euro Area Labour Market.’ ecb EconomicBulletin (8). Autor, D., D. 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J. 1993. ‘Okun’s Law: Theoretical Foundations and Re­vised Estimates.’ The Review of Economics and Statistics 75 (2): 331–6. Siegenthaler, M., and D. Kopp. 2019. ‘Short-Time Work and Unemploy­ [140] mentinandaftertheGreatRecession.’ kof WorkingPapers19-462, kof Swiss Economic Institute, Zürich. Zimpelmann, C., H. M. von Gaudecker, R. Holler, L. Janys, and B. Si­.inge. 2021. ‘Drivers of Working Hours and Household Income Dy­namics during the covid-19Pandemic: The Case of the Nether­lands.’ econtribute Discussion Paper 093, University of Bonn and University of Cologne. ijems | scientific article The Positive Impact of the covid-19 Pandemic on the Slovenian Economy pierre rostan American University of Iraq – Baghdad (auib), Iraq rostan.pierre@gmail.com alexandra rostan American University of Iraq – Baghdad (auib), Iraq millelys@gmail.com The objective of the paper is to assess the resilience of Slovenia’s econ­omy during the covid-19pandemic that hit the global economy in q4 2019, in years 2020, 2021 and 2022. To assess the resilience of Slove­nia’s economy, two sets of forecasts are generated: forecasts using his­torical data including the pandemic (from q4 1997 to q2 2022) and not including the pandemic (from q4 1997 to q3 2019). The com­putation of the di.erence of their averages is an indicator of the re­silience of the economy during the pandemic, the greater the di.er­ence the greater the resilience. Eurozone and Germany are used as benchmarks. By subtracting the average forecasted q3 2022–q4 2050 Eurozone quarterly gdp growth rate (annualized) obtained with the q4 1997–q2 2022 data, +0.68., by the one obtained with the q4 1997–q3 2019 data, +0.57., the di.erence is +0.11., whereas with Slovenia the di.erence is 0.10. [+1.20. – (+1.10.)] and with Ger­many the di.erence is –0.12. [+0.89. – (+1.01.)]. Thus, Slovenia’s economy shows an almost equal resilience (+0.10.) than the Euro­zone’s (+0.11.) based on q3 2022–q4 2050 forecasts and a stronger resilience than Germany’s (–0.12.). In addition, the authors pointed out that the average of the q3 2022–q4 2050 quarterly (annualized) growth rate forecasts of Slovenia is expected to be +1.20. with the q4 1997–q2 2022 data whereas it is expected to be only +0.68. for the Eurozone and +0.89. for Germany. Slovenia’s economy shows better prospects than the Eurozone’s and Germany’s economies. Key Words: gdp, spectral analysis, wavelet analysis, forecasting, Slovenia, Eurozone, Germany https://emuni.si/ISSN/2232-6022/17.141-169.pdf introduction Overview The objective of the paper is to assess the resilience of Slovenia’s econ­omy during the covid-19pandemic and its 2050 projections. For [142] this purpose, an innovative diagnostic test is used. Diagnostic tests in health statistics are used to di.erentiate between those with and with­out disease. The diagnostic test of this paper assesses the resilience of Slovenia’s economy by generating two sets of forecast estimates of real gdp using a wavelet analysis forecasting model: forecast estimates us­ing historical data including the pandemic (from q4 1997 to q2 2022) andnotincludingthepandemic(from q4 1997to q3 2019).Thecompu­tation of the di.erence of their averages is an indicator of the resilience of the economy during the pandemic: the greater the di.erence the greater the resilience. This paper focuses on Slovenia benchmarked to Germany and the Eurozone (19countries). Some Facts About the Slovenian Economy Slovenia is a miniature country of 20,273 km2 and 2 million inhabitants, located in southern central Europe, bordered by the Julian Alps and Austria to the north, Croatia to the south, Italy to the west and Hun­gary and Serbia to the east. It is a place of passage and the privileged destination of many tourists for the beauty of its countryside and cities. The economy of Slovenia is tiny, ranking 84th in the world in size of gdp equal to 61,749million usd (2021 estimate, World Bank 2023). The gdp composition by sector of origin is represented by services (65.9. of gdp, 2017 est.), including tourism (source of 10.8. of gdp in 2019, 7.2. of gdp in 2020, 7.7. of gdp in 2021, World Travel and Tourism Council 2022), industry (32.2. of gdp, 2017 estimates) and agriculture being marginal (1.8. of gdp, 2017 estimates). The impor­tance of tourism to the economy must be mentioned since tourism was heavily hit by lockdowns and travel bans during the pandemic. Its main exports partners are Germany (18.), Italy (11.), Croatia (8.), Austria (7.), France (5.) and Switzerland (5.), as of 2019estimates, while its main imports partners are Germany (14.), Italy (12.), Austria (8.), Switzerland (8.) and China (7.9), as of 2019 estimates. Slovenia’s economy projections and resilience will be benchmarked to the Eurozone’s economy (19countries including Slovenia) and Ger­many. The Eurozone has added one member in 2023, Croatia, and re­mains the monetary union of 20 out of 28 European Union member table 1 Correlation Coe.cient Matrix between Quarterly Real gdps of Slovenia, the Eurozone and Germany between q4 1997 and q2 2022 (99 quarters) Region Eurozone Germany Slovenia Eurozone ... Germany .. ... [143] Slovenia .. .. ... notes In percent. table 2 Economic Indicators of Slovenia, the Eurozone, and Germany Item Slovenia Eurozone Germany Nominal gdp in .... (ranked in ..,... ..,...,... .,...,... the world) Millions of us dollars gdp at Purchasing Power Parity ...,... ...,... ...,... (ppp in us.)percapitain.... .... gdp annualGrowthrate .. +.... –.... (year to year) Continued on the next page states, all of whichhaveadopted theEuro astheir single currency and sole legal tender. The monetary authority of the Eurozone is the Eu­rosystem. Eurozone members are Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Slovenia, Cyprus, Malta, Slovakia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The other eight members of the European Union continue to use their own national currencies, although most of them have un­dertaken to adopt the Euro in the future. The choice of Germany and the Eurozone as benchmarks is backed by table 1 illustrating the cor­relation coe.cient matrix between their three real gdps between q4 1997 and q2 2022 (99 quarters). The correlation coe.cient assesses the robustness of the relation­ship between the three economies: assuming that real gdp is a good proxy of an economy, Slovenia’s economy has a strong and positive re­lationship with the Eurozone (98.) and Germany (93.). Slovenia, the Eurozone and Germany real gdps evolved in sync over the histori­cal period under study, between q4 1997 and q2 2022. Table 2 gathers some economic indicators of the three economies under study. According to the gdps per capita, the economies of Slovenia, the Eurozone and Germany are considered as high-income, Germany rank­ing 17th worldwide in terms of gdp per capita, Slovenia 31st and the Pierre Rostan and Alexandra Rostan table 2 Continued from the previous page Item Slovenia Eurozone Germany [144] Main exports partners Germany ..., Italy ..., Croa­tia .., Austria .., France .., Switzerland .. (.... est.) Eurozone: n/a. European Union: usa with a share of ... (... billion us.), China with a share of ..... (... billion us.), Switzerland with a share of ..... (... billion us.), United Kingdom with a share of ..... (... billion us.) us .., China .., France .., Netherlands .., uk .. (....) Main imports Germany ..., Italy ..., Eurozone: n/a. European Union: China with a share of ... (... billion us.); China ..., Netherlands partners Austria .., usa with a share of ..... (... billion ..., Poland Switzerland .., China .. (.... us.); Russia with a share of ..... (... billion us.); Switzerland with a share of .., France .., Italy .. (....) est.) ..... (... billion us.) notes Based on data from World Bank (2024), Statista (2024), Worldometers (2024b), and The World Factbook (2024). Eurozone 36th (Worldometers 2024b). Slovenia’s economy was ranked 15thinsizeofthe gdp amongthe19membersoftheEurozonein2021. According to Statista (2024) data, the top 5 economies based on gdp annual growth rate in 2023 (year to year) were Malta (+3.8.), Greece (+2.5.), Spain (+2.5.), Portugal (+2.3.) and Cyprus (+2.2.) when the 5 laggers were Germany (–0.5.), Luxembourg (–0.4.), Lithuania (– 0.2.), Finland (–0.1.) and Austria (+0.1.). Slovenia (+2.) was ranked seventh behind Romania (2.2.), on par with Ireland (+2.). One in­teresting fact is that the largest economy of the Eurozone, Germany, was the worst performer in 2023 with –0.5. of annual growth rate when the Eurozone had an annual growth rate of +0.7.. ‘When Ger­many sneezes, the Eurozone catches a cold!’ According to The Irish Times (‘When Germany Sneezes, the Euro Zone Catches a Cold’ 2024), Germany’s sheer size within the Eurozone and its economic strength makes it a bellwether for the European economy. If, as the German Central Bank mentioned, the German economy is already in recession with production falling for a second consecutive quarter in q1 2024, due to weak external demand, consumers remaining cautious and do­mestic investment held back by high borrowing costs (Koranyi 2024), Germany could drag Eurozone members into recession as well. Slovenia is particularly vulnerable, as Germany is its .rst economic partner. The following section will discuss the meaning of wavelets analysis inspectralanalysisthatwillbeusedtoforecast gdps inthispaperand explore the ways signal processing has been applied in the literature. literature review Introduction The assumption in this research is that gdps propagate through time in waveforms. Wavelet analysis captures the dynamics of these waves. Wavelet analysis expands functions in terms of wavelets generated in [145] the form of translations and dilations of a .xed function called the mother wavelet. The resulting wavelets have special scaling properties, localized in time and frequency, permitting a closer connection be­tween the represented function and their coe.cients. Greater numeri­cal stability in reconstruction and manipulation is ensured (Lee and Ya­mamoto 1994, 44). By extending the analysis to the complex behavior of economic signals, the originality of this paper lies in the application of waveletanalysistoeconomicvariables subjecttocommon dynamics such as gdp time series. Since late 2019, the covid-19 pandemic is present since late 2019 and has spread to the .ve continents in 2020, killing people by the mil­lions and plunging the world economy into severe recession. This un­expected and dramatic event has forced governments to introduce un­precedented measures such as lockdowns of populations to contain its spread. By March 3, 2024, the recorded number of Coronavirus cases in the world was 703,872,042 people, with a death toll of 7,003,527 (Worl­dometers 2024a). The lockdowns have paralyzed economies across the .ve continents, shutting down factories and bringing manufacturing to a halt, with service sectors contracting on a massive scale, forcing millions of workers to leave the labor force. Globally, the economic ac­tivity has contracted at a rapid pace and put economies into recession. Wavelet Analysis versus Traditional Economic Forecasting Methods Traditional economic forecasting methods include causal methods (re­gression analysis, logit, probit), time series methods (moving aver­age, exponential smoothing, trend and seasonal decomposition, Box-Jenkins arima used as a benchmark in this paper; Box and Jenkins 1976; Box, Jenkins, and Reinsel 1994) and qualitative methods (Delphi Method, Jury of Executive Opinion, Sales Force Composite, Consumer Market Survey) (Faculty of Economic Informatics 2019). In this paper, signal processing used to forecast the Eurozone’s, Germany’s and Slove­nia’s gdps belongs to time series methods. Signal processing, a .eld of physics, focuses on the analysis, synthesis, and modi.cation of sig­nals. The basic assumption of this paper is that economic time series behave like signals propagating through time instead of propagating through space as do the phenomena studied by physics such as audio, video, speech, geophysical, sonar, radar, medical and musical signals. Wavelet analysis is a signal processing tool. In physics, wavelets as­ [146] sume the practical applications of modeling physical phenomena such as electrical, audio or seismic signals, which propagate through space in waveforms. Wavelets have speci.c properties that mimic signals, which makes them useful for signal processing. Signal processing fo­cuses on the analysis, synthesis, and modi.cation of signals. Spectral (or spectrum) analysis focuses on the data analysis of signals. More speci.cally, from a .nite record of a stationary data sequence, spectral analysis estimates how the total power is distributed over frequency. In meteorology, astronomy and other .elds, spectral analysis may re­veal ‘hidden periodicities’ in data, which are to be associated with cyclic behavior or recurring processes (Stoica and Moses 2005). Regarding wavelet analysis, forecasters have focused on the Discrete Wavelet Transform (dwt, explained at step three of the methodol­ogy), directing attention to several non-tractable properties of contin­uous wavelet transform (cwt), such as highly redundant wavelet co­e.cients (Valens 1999), the in.nite number of wavelets in the wavelet transform and the absence of analytical solutions for many functions of the wavelet transforms. A wavelet-based forecasting method using the redundant ‘à trous’ wavelet transform and multiple resolution signal decomposition was presented in Renaud, Starck, and Murtagh (2002). Challenges involved in forecasting day-ahead electricity prices based on thewavelettransformand arima modelshavebeendetailedinConejo et al. (2005). Schlüter and Deuschle (2010), capturing seasonalities with time-varying period and intensity, incorporated the wavelet transform to improve forecasting methods. Tan et al. (2010) proposed a price fore­casting method based on wavelet transform combined with arima and garch models. Kao et al. (2013) integrated wavelet transforms, multivariate adaptive regression splines (mars), and support vector regression (svr called Wavelet-mars-svr) to address the problem of wavelet sub-series selection and to improve forecast accuracy. Ortega and Khashanah (2013) proposed a wavelet neural network model for the short-term forecast of stock returns from high-frequency .nan­cial data. Kriechbaumer et al. (2014) showed the cyclical behavior of metal prices using wavelet analysis to capture the cyclicality by decom­posing a time series into its frequency and time domain. They pre­sented a wavelet-autoregressive integrated moving average (arima) approach for forecasting monthly prices of aluminum, copper, lead and zinc. He et al. (2014) proposed an entropy optimized wavelet-based forecasting algorithm to forecast the exchange rate movement. Berger (2016) transformed .nancial return series into its frequency and time [147] domain via wavelet decomposition to separate short-run noise from long-run trends and assess the relevance of each frequency to value-at­risk (var) forecast. Rostan and Rostan (2018a) illustrated the versatil­ity of wavelet analysis to the forecast of .nancial time series with dis­tinctive properties. Choosing two market indices with divergent prop­erties of their time series – the s&p 500 Composite Index being non­stationaryandthe vix (volatility)indexbeingstationary –theyproved that using wavelet analysis combined with the Burg model o.ers high accuracy in terms of forecasts of their time series, thus demonstrating the versatility of this model. Rostan, Belhachemi, and Rostan (2015) ap­praised the .nancial sustainability of the Spanish pension system, and Rostan and Rostan (2018b) applied the same methodology to the Saudi pension system using spectral analysis. Extending the analysis to the complex-behavior of economic signals, the originality of this paper lies in the application of wavelet analysis to economic variables subject to common dynamics such as gdp time series that were used to forecast the Spanish economy (Rostan and Rostan 2018c), as well as Greek (Ros­tan and Rostan 2018d), Saudi (Rostan and Rostan 2021a; 2024b; Rostan, Rostan, and Wall 2024), Austrian (Rostan and Rostan 2020), Persian Gulf (Rostan and Rostan 2022a), Turkish (Rostan and Rostan 2022b), uk (Rostan and Rostan 2022c), Australian (Rostan and Rostan 2024a), South Korea’s (Rostan and Rostan 2023b), Cyprus’ (Rostan and Rostan 2023c), Brazil’s, Mexico’s and Argentina’s economies (Rostan and Ros-tan 2024b), Iraq’s (Alami, Rostan, and Rostan 2024) and the Eurozone’s (Rostan, Rostan, and Nurunnabi 2023) economies. Interest rates were forecasted with wavelet analysis due to their valuable property of prop­agating through time in waveforms (Rostan, Belhachemi, and Racicot 2017). In addition, fossil fuels price estimates (Rostan and Rostan 2021b), solidwasteof oecd countries(RostanandRostan2023d),andpopula­tion estimates (Rostan and Rostan 2017) were forecasted with wavelet analysis as well as global temperatures (Rostan and Rostan 2023a). Berger and Gençay (2020) presented evidence that the application of wavelet-based covariance estimates from short-run information out-performs portfolio allocations that are based on covariance estimates from historical data. Assessing the Resilience of the Slovenian Economy [148] after the covid-19 Pandemic Out of a total Slovene population of 2.1 million in 2021, the number of cases and deaths from the covid-19pandemic have been 1,328,673 cases and 7,071 deaths by March 2, 2023 (Worldometers 2024a), which represent about 63.03. of the Slovene population in terms of cases and 0.33. in terms of deaths. Using the total of 48 European countries as benchmark, the number of cases and deaths from the covid-19pan­demic have been 246,371,491 cases and 2,017,562 deaths by March 2, 2023, out of a population of 748,845,084 which represent about 32.9. of the population in terms of cases and 0.26. in terms of deaths. It shows that the Slovene population was 91. more infected by the covid-19 pandemic than the European population (63.03. versus 32.9.) and was 26. more impacted by death than the European population (0.33. ver­sus 0.26.). The Slovenian population seemed less concerned about pro­tecting themselves against the covid-19pandemic and less resistant to death after contracting the covid-19disease than the European population. Following the covid-19pandemic, Slovenia’s recovery and re­silience plan was endorsed by the European Commission in July 2021 and implemented by its government to respond to the urgent need of fostering a strong recovery and making Slovenia future-ready (Euro­pean Commission 2021). To this end, the plan consists of 55 invest­ments and 33 reforms, supported by e 1.8 billion in grants and e705 million in loans, 42. of the plan supporting climate objectives and 21. of the plan fostering the digital transition. The plan is expected to foster economic growth and create jobs. It should lift Slovenia’s gross domes­tic product by 1.1. to 1.7. by 2026. This boost to the economy should bring up to 6,000 people into jobs. As a highly export-orientated econ­omy, Slovenia will bene.t also from the recovery and resilience plans of other Member States. These spill-over e.ects should account for 0.6 percentage points of gross domestic product in 2026. By the end of 2021, the Slovenian economy posted a strong, broad-based, post-pandemic recovery (International Monetary Fund 2023). Followingthephasingoutof covid-19containmentmeasuresandthe implementation of the recovery and resilience plan, gdp rebounded by +8.1 percent in 2021 – above the euro area average (+6.22.) and surpassing its pre-pandemic level (+2.77. average of Slovenia’s growth rates between 1996 and 2019). Exports and private consumption were the main drivers of growth, the latter re.ecting supportive policies, ris­ing incomes, and lower household savings rates. Investment also picked [149] up signi.cantly, helped by higher public capital spending. On the sup­ply side, activity recovered in most sectors apart from those services signi.cantly a.ected by the epidemiological restrictions (travel and en­tertainment). In 2022, Slovenia’s gdp was projected to have expanded by +5.1., mainly supported by the strong carry-over from 2021 (European Com­mission 2023). Over q1 to q3 2022, private consumption continued to increase, and investments proved robust. Imports increased signi.­cantly faster than exports, leading to a negative contribution from net exports. In q3 2022, the economy contracted quite strongly. Slowly improving economic sentiment over the last months suggests that this trend could be partly reversed in q4 2022. Employment remained strong and the industrial production indicator also improved. In.ation in q4 2022 was slightly lower than in q3. However, energy in.ation was the only component that decreased, with the prices of industrial goods, food and services increasing faster than before. Overall, in.a­tion averaged 9.3. in 2022. With global energy prices easing and growth remaining weak, headline in.ation was projected to decrease to 6.1. in 2023. Core in.ation was expected to remain elevated on account of more generalized price and wage growth. In 2023, in.ation remains one of the main challenges for the Slovenian government, as for most governments around the world. methodology The objective of the paper is to identify, using a wavelet analysis fore­castingmodel,theresilienceofSlovenia’seconomyduringthe covid­19pandemic that hit the global economy in q4 2019, in years 2020, 2021and2022.Quarterlygrowthrates(annualized)ofthereal gdps of Slovenia,theEurozoneandGermanyareforecastbetween q3 2022and q4 2050. Two sets of forecasts are generated: forecasts using historical data including the pandemic (from q4 1997 to q2 2022) and those not including the pandemic (from q4 1997 to q3 2019). The computation of the di.erence of their averages is an indicator of the resilience of the economies during the pandemic: the greater the di.erence the greater the resilience. The wavelet analysis forecasting model used in this re­search has 4 main steps: 1 De-noising and Compression of the quarterly real gdp growth rate (annualized) time series of Australia and of Canada; [150] 2 Wavelet Decomposition; 3 Burg extension of approximations and details; and 4 Wavelet Reconstruction, i.e., forecasting. These steps are explained below. De-noising and Compression of the Quarterly Real gdp Growth Rate (Annualized) Time Series of Slovenia, the Eurozone and Germany Each series is de-noised using a one-dimensional de-noising and com-pression-oriented function using wavelets. The function is called ‘wden­cmp’ in Matlab (Misiti et al. 2015). The underlying model for the noisy signal is of the form: s(n) = f (n) + se(n), (1) where time point n is equally spaced, e(n) is a Gaussian white noise N(0,1) and the noise level s is supposed to be equal to 1. The de-noising objective is tosuppressthe noise partofthe signal s and to recover f . The de-noising procedure proceeds in three steps: • Decomposition. Choose the wavelet sym4 and choose the level 2-decomposition. Wavelet analysis breaks a signal down into its constituent parts for analysis, in this case with a level 2­decomposition (the decomposition method is explained in the section on Wavelet Decomposition). Wavelet analysis is the break­ing down of a signal into shifted and scaled versions of the origi­nal mother wavelet. Sym4 is a Symlets wavelet of order 4 used as the mother wavelet for decomposition and reconstruction. It is a nearly symmetrical wavelet belonging to the family of Symlets proposed by Daubechies (1994). Wavelets are de.ned by the wavelet function, also naming the mother wavelet and the scaling function, the latter also named the father wavelet in the time domain. The wavelet function is in e.ect a band-pass .lter and scaling that for each level halves its bandwidth (Mallat 2009). Wavelets are mathematical func­tions that cut up data into di.erent frequency components and then study each component with a resolution matched to its scale (Graps 1995). The wavelet decomposition of the signal s is com­puted at level 2. • Detail coe.cients thresholding. For each level from 1 to 2, a thresh­old is selected and soft thresholding is applied to the detail coef-[151] .cients. • Reconstruction. Wavelet reconstruction is computed based on the original approximation coe.cients of level 2 and the modi­.ed detail coe.cients of levels from 1 to 2. Like de-noising, the compression procedure contains three steps: (1) Decomposition. (2) Detail coe.cient thresholding. For each level from 1 to 2, a threshold is selected, and hard thresholding is applied to the de­tail coe.cients. (3) Reconstruction. The di.erence with the de­noising procedure is found in step 2. The notion behind compres­sion is based on the concept that the regular signal component can be accurately approximated using a small number of approx­imation coe.cients (at a suitably selected level) and some of the detail coe.cients. The de-noising technique works in the following way: ‘When a data set using wavelets is decomposed, .lters act as averaging .lters and others that produce details. Some of the resulting wavelet coe.cients correspond to details in the data set. If the details are small, they might be omitted without substantially a.ecting the main features of the data set. The idea of thresholding, then, is to set to zero all coe.cients that are less than a particular threshold. These coe.cients are used in an inverse wavelet transformation to reconstruct the data set’ (Graps 1995, 12). Wavelet Decomposition Wavelet analysis breaks a signal down into its constituent parts for analysis. Signals are decomposed after being di.erentiated, de-noised and compressed at step 2. The signals, i.e., the quarterly time series of Slovenia’s, the Eurozone’s, and Germany’s real gdps, are decomposed into decomposed signals cAs, named approximations, and cDs, named details. To understand this process, a quick review of wavelet theory is presented. A wavelet dictionary (Mallat 1999) is constructed from a mother wavelet . of zero mean: +8 .(t)dt = 0. (2) -8 To analyze a non-stationary signal, wavelet analysis identi.es the correlation between the time and frequency domains of this signal [152] (Wavelet.org 2019). The wavelet transform allows exceptional localiza­tion in both the time domain via translations of the mother wavelet, and in the scale domain, also called frequency domain via dilations. The translation and dilation operations applied to the mother wavelet are performed to calculate the wavelet coe.cients, which represent the correlation between the wavelet and a localized section of the signal. The wavelet coe.cients are calculated for each wavelet segment, giving a time-scale function relating the wavelet correlation to the signal. The mother wavelet . represented by equation 2 is dilated with a scale parameter b, and translated by a:   1 t - a D = .a,b(t) . (3) b b a.R,b>0. The present methodology uses Sym4, symlets wavelet of order 4, as the mother wavelet . for decomposition and reconstruction. It is a nearly symmetrical wavelet belonging to the family of Symlets pro­posed by Daubechies (1994). In this paper, many di.erent wavelets in­cluding the ones belonging to the Daubechies family were tested with equal or lower performance. The discrete form of the wavelet (Mallat 1999) is de.ned as: j 11 - nt0s 0 .j,n(t) =  . , (4) j nj s 0 s 0 with j and n integers, s0 > 1 is a .xed dilation step and the translation factor t0 depends on the dilation step. The continuous wavelet transform of a signal s at any scale b and position a is the projection of s on the corresponding wavelet atom: +8  1 t - a Ws(a,b) == s(t) . dt. (5) -8 bb The reconstruction of the original signal s(t)isobtainedbyinverse wavelet transform (Mallat 1999, 111): +8 1 +8 db s(t) = ws(a,b).b(t - a) da. (6) C. 0 -8 b2 The scaling function and the wavelet function of a discrete wavelet transform (dwt) are de.ned as: n  .(2jt) = hj+1(n).(2j+tt - n), (7) i=1 [153] n  .(2jt) = gj+1(n).(2j+tt - n). (8) i=1 The signal s(t)isexpressed as: nn  s(t) = .j-1(n).(2j+tt - n) + .j-1(n).(2j+tt - n). (9) i=1 i=1 The discrete wavelet transform (dwt) is evaluated by passing the signal through lowpass and highpass .lters (Corinthios 2009), dividing it into a lower frequency band and an upper band. Each band is subse­quently divided into a second level lower and upper bands. The process is repeated, taking the form of a binary, or ‘dyadic’ tree. The lower band is referred to as the approximation cA and the upper band as the de­tail cD. dwt decomposes the signal into mutually orthogonal set of wavelets. The model produces two sequences called cA and cD,which aredown­sampled. The signal is decomposed after being di.erentiated, de-noised and compressed. The signal, i.e., for the q4 1997–q3 2019 period the 87-quarter (for the q4 1997–q2 2022 period the 98-quarter) time se­ries of Slovenia’s, the Eurozone’s and Germany’s real gdp quarterly annualized growth rate transformed at step 1, is decomposed into de­composed signals cAs named approximations and cDs named details. The Discrete Wavelet Transform is a kind of decomposition scheme evaluated by passing the signal through lowpass and highpass .lters (Corinthios 2009), dividing it into a lower frequency band and an up­per band. Each band is subsequently divided into a second level lower and upper bands. The process is repeated, taking the form of a binary, or ‘dyadic’ tree. The lower band is referred to as the approximation cA, and the upper band as the detail cD.The two sequences cA and cD are downsampled. The downsampling is costly in terms of data: using mul­tilevel decomposition and at each one-level of decomposition, the sam­ple size is reduced by half (in fact, slightly more than half the length of the original signal, since the .ltering process is implemented by con­volving the signal with a .lter. The convolution ‘smears’ the signal, in-troducing several extra samples into the result). Therefore, the decom­position can proceed only until the individual details consist of a single sample. Thus, the number of levels of decomposition will be limited by the initial amount of data of the signal. [154] For a better understanding of signal decomposition using discrete wavelet transform, refer to the methodology section of Rostan and Rostan (2018a). Burg Extension of Approximations and Details Burg extension is applied to cA and cD. To run the Burg extension, an autoregressive pth order is applied to historical data. In this paper, the pth order is equal to the longest available order when forecasting. For instance, in q3 2019, when forecasting Slovenia’s, the Eurozone’s and Germany’sreal gdp growthratesforthesubsequent31yearsuntil2050 (4 × 31 + 1 = 125 quarters), the longest pth order available is 86 out of 87 historical data. Given x the decomposed signal (which is cA or cD), a vector a of all-pole .lter coe.cients is generated that models an input data sequence using the Levinson-Durbin algorithm (Levinson 1946; Durbin 1960). The Burg (1975) model is used to .t a pth order autore­ gressive (ar) model to the input signal, x, by minimizing (least squares) the forward and backward prediction errors while constraining the ar parameters to satisfy the Levinson-Durbin recursion. x is assumed to be theoutputofan ar systemdrivenbywhitenoise. Vectoracontainsthe normalized estimate of the ar system parameters, A(z), in descending powers of z: ee H(z) == . (10) a(z)1 +a2z-1 +···+ap+1z-p Since the method characterizes the input data using an all-pole model, the correct choice of the model order p is important. In alast step, the In.nite Impulse Response (iir).lter extrapolates the index values for each forecast horizon. iir .lters are digital .lters with in.nite impulse response. Unlike .nite impulse response (fir) .l­ters, iir .lters have feedback, which is a recursive part of a .lter, also known as a recursive digital .lter. Wavelet Reconstruction The forecast signals are recomposed/reconstructed after Burg exten­sion. In this paper, the second-level decomposition/reconstruction is applied, being most of the time the optimal level con.rmed in the lit­erature. results The objective of the paper is to assess the resilience of Slovenia’s econ-[155] omy towards the covid-19pandemic that hit the global economy in q4 2019, in years 2020, 2021 and 2022. To assess the resilience of Slove­nia’s economy towards the covid-19pandemic, two sets of forecasts are generated: forecasts using historical data including the pandemic (from q4 1997 to q2 2022) and not including the pandemic (from q4 1997 to q3 2019). The computation of the di.erence between their av­erages is an indicator of the resilience of the Slovenian economy after the pandemic, the greater the di.erence the greater the resilience. In this section, Slovenia’s 2050 gdp and growth rate quarterly forecasts are illustrated and the resilience of the Slovenian economy after the covid-19Pandemic is assessed. The Eurozone’s and Germany’s gdp and growth rate quarterly forecasts are used as benchmarks. Presentation and Analysis of Historical Data Figure 1 illustrates the historical quarterly gdp time series of the Eu­rozone economy (19countries, not including Croatia which joined in 2023), Germany and Slovenia from q4 1997 to q2 2022. It shows two almost identical patterns – down and up – at the start of 2020 when the two economies, Slovenia and Eurozone, entered recession following the economicshockfromthe covid-19pandemicthathittheglobalecon­omy. Because of the choice of the scale, the down and up pattern is not clear for Germany in .gure 1. Since 1998, the gdp of Slovenia seems to have grown at a more rapid pace with a steeper slope than the gdp of the Eurozone economy between 1998 and 2020, the two economies seem to have declined at an identical rate in 2020 and Slovenia seems to have recovered at a more rapid pace in 2021 with a steeper slope. Figure2illustratesthehistoricalquarterlyreal gdp growthrate(an­nualized) time series of the Eurozone economy (19countries), Germany andSloveniafromq11998toq2 2022. Betweenq11998and q3 2019, the quarterly Real gdp growth rate (annualized) of Slovenia was most of the time above those ones of the Eurozone (19countries) and Ger­many. Between q1 1998and q3 2019,Sloveniahadanaveragequarterly growth rate (annualized) of +2.64. versus +1.43. for the Eurozone and +1.34. for Germany. f igure 1 Quarterly real gdps time series, Seasonally Adjusted for Euro area (19 countries), and Germany, Millions of Chained 2010 Euros (left axis) versus Slovenia (right axis), Millions of Chained 2010 Euros from q4 1997 to q2 2022 (based on data from Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, https://fred.stlouisfed.org) f igure 2 Quarterly real gdp growth rate (annualized) time series of the Eurozone economy (19 countries), Germany and Slovenia from q1 1998 to q2 2022 (based on data from Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, https://fred.stlouisfed.org) f igure 3 Quarterly Real gdp Growth Rate (Annualized) Time Series of the Eurozone Economy (19Countries), Germany and Slovenia from q2 2019 to q2 2022 (based on data from Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, https://fred.stlouisfed.org) Figure3isazoomof.gure2between q22019andq22022. Itillus­trates the historical quarterly real gdp growth rate (annualized) time series of the Eurozone economy (19countries) and Slovenia from q2 2019to q4 2021. As illustrated in .gure 3, at the beginning of the pandemic, in q4 2019the three economies started a decline of their quarterly annu­alized growth rate (–5.69. for Germany, –13.46. for the Eurozone and –19.62. for Slovenia), which extended in q1 2020 (–37.92. for Germany, –45.80. for the Eurozone and –39.55. for Slovenia). Then the three economies rebounded in q2 2020 (+36.02. for Germany, +49.40. for the Eurozone and +50.47. for Slovenia). During the pan­demic, between q4 2019(2020-01-01) and q2 2022 (2022-07-01), the quarterly real gdp growth rate (annualized) of Slovenia was most of thetimeabove thoseofthe Eurozone (19countries) andGermany, with an average growth rate of +2.48. for Slovenia versus +1.37. for the Eu­rozone and +0.45. for Germany. It con.rms the historical relationship between the three economies observed between q1 1998 and q3 2019. In conclusion, the 2050 projections of these 3 economies are ex­pected to respect this relationship, displaying a stronger and more resilient economy in Slovenia than in the Eurozone and Germany in terms of real gdp growth rate. However, we need to keep in mind that the size of the Eurozone’s economy (19countries) was about 235 times the size of Slovenia’s in 2021: Slovenia’s gdp represented about 0.42. [158] of the Eurozone’s gdp, while Germany’s economy was about 68 times the size of Slovenia’s and Slovenia’s gdp represented about 1.46. of Germany’s gdp in 2021. In the Eurozone, the growth of its economies varies widely. For ex­ample, based on Statista (2022) data, the top 5 economies based on the gdp annual growth rate in 2021 (year to year) were Ireland (+13.5.), Malta (+9.4.), Greece (+8.3.), Estonia (+8.3.) and Slovenia (+8.1.) when the 5 laggers were Germany (+2.9.), Slovakia (+3.), Finland (+3.5.), Austria (+3.5.) and Latvia (+4.5.). The average annual gdp growth rate for the 19economies of the Eurozone was 6.22. in 2021. Besides, as illustrated in .gure 4, the largest economy of the Eurozone, Germany, was the worst performer in 2021 with +2.9. of annual growth rate. Slovenia’s economy was the .fth top performer of the Eurozone in terms of 2021 annual growth rate (+8.1.). Ranked in increasing gdp, the 13 smallest economies, from Malta to Ireland, had an average 2021 annual growth rate of 6.56., while the 6 top largest economies, from Belgium to Germany, had an average 2021 annual growth rate of 5.46.. The correlation coe.cient between the size of the 2021 gdp and the growth rate of the 19countries is –20.. This is not a strong relationship between the two variables, but the correlation is still negative, and it showsthatsmalleconomieshavecopedbetterwiththe covid-19pan­demic crisis than large economies of the Eurozone. This rule applies to Slovenia, since as a small economy (ranked 5th in order from smallest to greatest gdp), it was the 5th top performer of the Eurozone, with a growth rate of +8.1. in 2021. Forecasts of q3 2022 to q42050 of Slovenia and the Eurozone Quarterly Annualized Real gdp Growth Rates Figure 5 illustrates 114 forecasts with spectral analysis of Slovenia and the Eurozone quarterly annualized Real gdp growth rates from q3 2022 to q4 2050. Based on the 114 forecasts for the period q3 2022–q4 2050, Slove­nia’s forecasts are more optimistic than the Eurozone’s, with an average quarterly (annualized) growth rate of +1.10., using forecasts generated with the q4 1997–q3 2019 data, versus +1.20. with those generated f igure 4 2021 gdp in usd Billion (Left Axis) and 2021 Annual gdp Growth Rate in . (Right Axis) of the 19Eurozone Economies Including Slovenia’s Economy (based on data from Statista 2022 and Tradingeconomics 2022) withtheq4 1997–q2 2022data. TheEurozone’sforecastshaveanaver­age quarterly (annualized) growth rate of +0.57. with the q4 1997–q3 2019data, versus +0.68. with the q4 1997–q2 2022 data. In an addi­tional exercise (not illustrated in .gure 1) as the largest economy of the Eurozone, Germany’s forecasts have an average quarterly (annualized) growth rate of +1.01. with the q4 1997–q3 2019 data, versus +0.89. withthe q4 1997–q2 2022data.ItshowsthatSlovenia(+1.20.withthe pandemic data versus +1.10. without the pandemic data) and the Eu­rozone (+0.68. versus +0.57.) bene.ted from the pandemic when Ger­many’s economy was hurt by the pandemic (+0.89. versus +1.01.). As represented in .gure 4, small economies of the Eurozone had in 2021, on average, a higher gdp growth rate than the larger economies of the Eurozone. The forecasts of the 2050 growth rates in this paper con.rm that a small economy like Slovenia has been more resilient to the pan­demic and has a better future outlook than the largest economy of the Eurozone, Germany. Table 3 gathers the descriptive statistics of historical data of quar­terlygrowthrates(annualized)between q1 1998and q2 2022andfore­casts estimates between q3 2022 and q4 2050 obtained with q1 1998 f igure 5 114 Forecasts with Spectral Analysis of Slovenia and Eurozone Quarterly Annualized gdp Growth Rates from q3 2022 to q4 2050 and q2 2022historicaldataandthewaveletanalysisforecastingmodel. Comparing the 114 growth rate forecast estimates over the period q3 2023–q4 2050 using Wavelet Analysis (obtained from 99 histori­cal data from q4 1997 to q2 2022) to 98 historical data from q1 1998 and q2 2022, the forecast estimates for the Eurozone, Slovenia and Germany are more pessimistic on average (+0.68. versus +1.43. in the Eurozone, +1.20. versus +2.62. in Slovenia and +0.89. versus +1.24. in Germany). Slovenia’s economy shows better prospects than the Eurozone’s and Germany’s economies for the next 28 years (+1.20. in Slovenia versus +0.68. in the Eurozone and +0.89. in Germany). Policymakers need to be aware of the reduced growth rate expected from these three economies over the next 28 years compared to the past 24 years. In addition, based on table 3, the volatility of real gdp growth rates should decline in the next 28 years for both the Eurozone (+2.12. future standard deviation versus +7.43. past standard devi­ation), Slovenia (+3.67. versus +8.55.) and Germany (+1.74. versus +6.37.) o.ering more opportunities for investments by institutional investors, if we assume that lower gdp volatility has a positive impact on investment. When higher volatility leads to lower rates of invest­ment, output and consumption, the result will be a slower economic table 3 Descriptive Statistics of Historical Data of Quarterly Growth Rates (Annualized) between q1 1998 and q2 2022 and Forecasts Estimates between q3 2022 and q4 2050 Obtained with q4 1997 to q2 2022 Historical Data and the Wavelet Analysis Forecasting Model Item Eurozone Slovenia Germany [161] (.) (.) (.) (.) (.) (.) Mean ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... Standard Error ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... Median ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... Mode n/a n/a n/a n/a ...... n/a Standard Deviation ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... Sample Variance ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... Kurtosis ....... ...... ....... ...... ....... ...... Skewness –...... –...... ...... –...... –...... ...... Range ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... Minimum –...... –...... –...... –...... –...... –...... Maximum ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... Sum ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... Count .. ... .. ... .. ... notes Columnheadingsareasfollows:(1)descriptivestatisticsofhistoricaldataofquar­terly growth rates (annualized) between q1 1998 and q2 2022; (2) descriptive statistics of forecasts estimates between q3 2022 and q4 2050 obtained with q4 1997 to q2 2022 his­torical data and the wavelet analysis forecasting model. growth and lower levels of welfare for the society at large (Carneiro, Minh, and Odawara 2016) and vice versa. Forecastsof q3 2022to q42050ofSlovenia,Germany, andtheEurozoneQuarterlyReal gdps Figure 6 illustrates 114 quarterly real gdp forecasts with spectral anal­ysisofSlovenia,Germany,andtheEurozonefrom q32022to q4 2050. Figure 3 shows a rebound of the three economies in q2 2020 (+50.47. in Slovenia, +49.40. in the Eurozone and +36.02. in Germany), fol­lowing a huge contraction in q1 2020 (–39.55. in Slovenia, –45.80. in the Eurozone and –37.92. in Germany). This observation may ex­plain the fact that the 2050 projections of the three economies show a positive trend, spectral analysis forecasting model being more sensitive to recent data. In addition, as explained in section ‘Presentation and Analysis of Historical Data,’ the pandemic bene.ted Slovenia and the Eurozone’seconomies,butGermany’seconomywashurt,its q32022– f igure 6 Historical Data and Forecasts with Spectral Analysis Until q4 2050 of Slovenia, Germany and Eurozone Quarterly gdps (Annualized) q4 2050 projections obtained with data including the pandemic being consistently below the ones obtained with data not including the pan­demic. In this section, the resilience of the three economies towards the pandemic is formally assessed. Assessing the Resilience of Slovenia’s Economy after the covid-19 Pandemic To assess the resilience of Slovenia’s economy towards the covid-19 pandemic, two sets of forecasts are generated: forecasts using historical dataincludingthepandemic(from q4 1997to q2 2022)andnotinclud­ing the pandemic (from q4 1997 to q3 2019). The computation of the di.erence between their averages is an indicator of the resilience of the economies during the pandemic: the greater the di.erence the greater theresilience.Bysubtractingtheaverageforecast q3 2022–q4 2050Eu­rozone quarterly gdp growth rate (annualized) obtained with the q4 1997–q2 2022 data, +0.68., by the one obtained with the q4 1997–q3 2019data, +0.57., the di.erence is +0.11.. With Slovenia the di.er­ence is 0.10. [+1.20. – (+1.10.)], while with Germany the di.erence is –0.12. [+0.89. – (+1.01.)]. Thus, Slovenia shows an equal resilience (+0.10.)thantheEurozone(+0.11.),basedon q3 2022–q4 2050fore­casts, and a stronger resilience than Germany (–0.12.). In addition, the authors pointed out that the average of the q3 2022–q4 2050 quar­terly (annualized) growth rate forecasts for Slovenia is expected to be +1.20. with the q4 1997–q2 2022 data, whereas it is expected to be only +0.68. for the Eurozone and +0.89. for Germany. [163] conclusion and discussion This paper assesses the resilience of Slovenia’s economy towards the covid-19pandemic that hit the global economy in q4 2019, in years 2020, 2021 and 2022. The paper presents Slovenia’s 2050 real gdp and growth rate quarterly forecasts before (between q4 1997 and q3 2019) and during the pandemic (between q4 1997 and q2 2022) by using spectral analysis. Slovenia’s economy is benchmarked to the Euro-zone economy (19countries) and Germany. Wavelet analysis can an­alyze changing transient physical signals. Extending the analysis to complex-behavior economic signals, the originality of this paper is to apply Wavelet analysis to economic variables subject to common dy­namics such as gdp time series. The forecasts cover 114 quarters from q3 2022to q4 2050andderivefromhistoricalquarterlydataextending from q4 1997to q2 2022and125forecastquarters from q4 2019to q4 2050fromhistoricalquarterlydataextendingfrom q4 1997to q3 2019. Wavelet analysis methodology follows four steps that lead to real gdp quarterly (annualized) growth rate forecasts: the quarterly real gdp growth rate (annualized) time series of the Eurozone, Slovenia and Germany are de-noised and compressed, then decomposed in simpler signals called approximations and details in the framework of the one-dimensional discrete wavelet analysis. Thirdly, the decomposed series are extended with the Burg (1975) model, which .ts a pth order autore­gressive (ar) model to the input signal by minimizing (least squares) theforwardandbackwardpredictionerrors,whileconstrainingthe ar parameters to satisfy the Levinson-Durbin recursion. Finally, the series are reconstructed, the extensions being the forecasts. Asillustratedin.gure3,duringthepandemic,between q4 2019and q2 2022, the quarterly real gdp growth rate (annualized) of Slovenia was most of the time above those ones of the Eurozone (19countries) and Germany, with an average growth rate of +2.48. for Slovenia ver­sus +1.37. for the Eurozone and +0.45. for Germany. It con.rms the historical relationship between the three economies observed between q1 1998 and q3 2019 (+2.64. for Slovenia versus +1.43. for the Eu-rozone and +1.34. for Germany). To formally assess the resilience of Slovenia’s economy to the covid-19pandemic, two sets of forecasts are generated: forecasts using historical data including the pandemic (from q4 1997 to q2 2022) and not including the pandemic (from q4 [164] 1997 to q3 2019). The computation of the di.erence between their av­erages is an indicator of the resilience of the economies during the pan­demic: the greater the di.erence the greater the resilience. By subtract­ing the average forecast q3 2022–q4 2050 Eurozone quarterly gdp growth rate (annualized) obtained with the q4 1997–q2 2022 data, +0.68., by the one obtained with the q4 1997–q3 2019 data, +0.57., the di.erence is +0.11., whereas with Slovenia the di.erence is +0.10. [+1.20. – (+1.10.)] and with Germany the di.erence is –0.12. [+0.89. – (+1.01.)]. Thus, Slovenia shows an almost equal resilience (+0.10.) than that of the Eurozone (+0.11.), based on q3 2022–q4 2050 fore­casts, and a stronger resilience than Germany (–0.12.). In a last exercise, comparing 114 growth rate forecast estimates over theperiod q3 2023–q4 2050usingWaveletAnalysis(obtainedfrom99 historical data from q4 1997 to q2 2022) to 98 historical data from q1 1998 and q2 2022, the forecast estimates for the Eurozone, Slovenia and Germany are more pessimistic on average (+0.68. versus +1.43. in the Eurozone, +1.20. versus +2.62. in Slovenia and +0.89. versus +1.24. in Germany). Slovenia’s economy shows better prospects than the Eurozone’s and Germany’s economies for the next 28 years (+1.20. in Slovenia versus +0.68. in the Eurozone and +0.89. in Germany). Policymakers need to be aware of the reduced growth rate expected from these three economies over the next 28 years compared to the past 24 years. In addition, based on table 3, the volatility of real gdp growth rates should decline in the next 28 years for both the Eurozone (+2.12. future standard deviation versus +7.43. past standard devi­ation), Slovenia (+3.67. versus +8.55.) and Germany (+1.74. versus +6.37.), o.ering more opportunities for investments by institutional investors, if we assume that lower gdp volatility has a positive im­pact on investment. When higher volatility leads to lower rates of in­vestment, output and consumption, theresultwillbeslowereconomic growth and lower levels of welfare for the society at large (Carneiro, Minh, and Odawara 2016) and vice versa. Further research may focus on additional economic indicators of Slovenia to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the Slovenian economy and how to improve them. references Alami, S. N., P. Rostan, and A. Rostan. 2024. ‘Analysis and Projections of Foreign Direct Investments in Iraq.’ Journal of Emerging Economies Policy 9(1): 166–78. 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[169] Résumés La contribution du Maroc à la consolidation de la migration intra-africaine : une analyse sous le prisme des .ux migratoires estudiantin gabonais et camerounais de la ville de Fès pierre oyono mvogo et sanae kasmi Cet article apporte un éclairage supplémentaire sur le renforcement de la mi­gration intra-africaine, qui ne fait guère l’objet de recherches approfondies, en dehors de la migration irrégulière vers l’Europe. Cette étude met en lu­mière l’implication du Maroc dans la consolidation des processus migratoires des étudiants africains à partir de la perspective des étudiants africains ca­merounais et gabonais dans la ville de Fès. Des entretiens semi-structurés ont révélé des opinions mitigées concernant leur intégration dans le pays d’accueil, aussi bien dans l’environnement universitaire que dans leur lieu d’habitation. L’étude relève que Fès est un lieu idéal pour les études, même si une communauté étudiante (gabonaise) béné.cie de toutes les facilités au détriment de l’autre (camerounaise), en relation avec les accords prééta­blis par leurs gouvernements, ce qui entraînera un déséquilibre dans la rela­tion d’intégration, et qui a donné lieu à une comparaison entre les deux com­munautés d’étudiants. Cette analyse a conduit à s’interroger sur l’implica­tion des États d’origine mais aussi sur les réactions du pays d’accueil à cette politique du Royaume d’attirer plus d’étudiants à Fès. Cette étude s’inscrit dans la lignée des études contemporaines sur les migrations internationales, constitue une perspective pour l’expansion des canaux de migration légale et une invitation pour l’Union africaine à promouvoir la migration « intra­africaine ». Mots clés : migration intra-africaine, Maroc, étudiants gabonais, étudiants ca­merounais, Fès ijems 16 (1): 9–32 Internationalisation à domicile : engagement interculturel des étudiants dans les activités parascolaires; étude de cas med2iah anica novak trunk, nada trunk širca, karim moustaghfir et dorsaf ben malek Cette étude explore le rôle des activités parascolaires dans l’amélioration des capacités interculturelles des étudiants, en utilisant le projet med2iah Eras­mus+ cbhe comme étude de cas. Réalisé entre 2020 et 2023 dans 12 éta­blissements d’enseignement supérieur des pays du sud de la Méditerranée non membres de l’ue, le projet visait à intégrer des aspects internationaux et interculturels dans l’éducation locale. Le concept de « l’Internationalisation à Domicile» (iah) est mis en avant, soulignant l’inclusion des opportuni­tés d’apprentissage global au sein du programme et de la vie universitaire pour tous les étudiants. L’étude révèle que des activités parascolaires spéci­.ques, telles que la narration numérique, les événements interculturels et les [172] friends TeaHouses, contribuent de manière signi.cative à l’iah en favo­risant l’engagement et la compréhension interculturels. La recherche conclut que ces initiatives favorisent e.cacement les compétences interculturelles, améliorent les compétences en communication et en travail d’équipe, et o.rent des perspectives précieuses pour la gestion des collaborations cultu­relles, soutenant ainsi les objectifs d’internationalisation des établissements d’enseignement supérieur. Mots clés : activités interculturelles, ambiance universitaire diversi.ée, inter­nationalisation dans un cadre national ijems 16 (1): 33–62 L’utilisation du Processus d’Analyse Hiérarchique pour mesurer les intérêts nationaux : démonstration de l’étude de cas de la pertinence changeante de la Libye pour la politique étrangère italienne entre 2011 et 2021 lili takacs Cette étude utilise le Processus d’Analyse Hiérarchique (pah) pour évaluer quantitativement les intérêts nationaux italiens sur une période de 10 ans (2011–2021) danslecontextedecinqÉtats le long de la côte suddelaMé­diterranée. En adoptant une approche longitudinale, cette recherche exa­mine les dynamiques et l’importance relative de chaque État, éclairant ainsi les éventuels changements dans la politique étrangère de l’Italie. L’étude in­troduit une méthodologie complète pour visualiser et analyser les intérêts nationaux, o.rant desperspectivesprécieusessur le paysage géopolitique évolutif de la région méditerranéenne. Les résultats soulignent les schémas changeants et l’importance relative de ces intérêts au cours de la période examinée, révélant de subtiles évolutions dans la perspective stratégique de l’Italie. En o.rant un examen détaillé de la région méditerranéenne, cette étude présente une compréhension approfondie de l’interaction complexe entre les intérêts nationaux italiens et les dynamiques géopolitiques des États voisins. La visualisation de ces données fournit un aperçu complet des relations et des dynamiques de pouvoir évolutives, facilitant une prise de dé­cision éclairée et la formulation de politiques. Mots clés : intérêt national, Italie, Méditerranée, politique étrangère, Proces­sus d’Analyse Hiérarchique ijems 16 (1): 63–85 Études de cas sur l’impact de la pandémie de covid-19 sur la mobilité des scienti.ques en début de carrière en Méditerranée jihene nouairi, alice affatati, giorgia rivoira, sergio rejado albaina et mounir ghribi [173] La pandémie de covid-19a profondément impacté la mobilité internatio­nale scienti.que, en particulier pour les scienti.ques en début de carrière. Cet article vise à fournir une analyse complète des dé.s rencontrés par les scienti.ques en début de carrière dans la région méditerranéenne pendant la pandémie, en se concentrant spéci.quement sur la mobilité scienti.que. De plus, l’étude explorera les implications de la pandémie sur les trajectoires de carrière de ces scienti.ques et les e.ets à long terme sur la recherche scien­ti.que et le milieu académique en Méditerranée. Nous incorporons les ex­périences individuelles de trois chercheurs, o.rant ainsi des perspectives directes sur les dé.s et les impacts de la pandémie de covid-19. Ces ex­périences personnelles enrichissent l’article en o.rant une compréhension nuancée des implications pratiques et des aspects émotionnels associés aux questions discutées. Mots clés : mobilité scienti.que, scienti.ques en début de carrière, pandémie de covid-19, économie bleue, région méditerranéenne ijems 16 (1): 87–113 Les e.ets des programmes de rétention d’emploi sur la préservation de l’emploi pendant l’épidémie de covid-19 dans les pays de la zone euro anton rop Dans cet article, nous analysons les e.ets des di.érents taux de recours aux dispositifs de maintien de l’emploi (dme) sur la préservation de l’emploi pen­dant la pandémie de covid-19dans les pays de la zone euro. Nous consta­tons que les dispositifs dme dans les pays de la zone euro ont contribué à ré­duire les pertes d’emplois pendant la pandémie. Les plus e.caces pour pré­server l’emploi étaient les taux de recours aux dispositifs de chômage partiel (dcp) pré-existants les plus étendus et mis à jour, qui étaient plus généreux et incluaient les travailleurs non standards. Cependant, l’impact des disposi­tifs dme était inférieur à la préservation globale de l’emploi réalisée. Contrai­rement à la grande récession, les mesures macroéconomiques de soutien éco­nomique ont également contribué à préserver les emplois pendant la pandé­mie. Les di.érences correspondantes dans les e.ets de préservation de l’em­ploi par secteur montrent que ces mesures de soutien macroéconomique ont permis de conserver davantage d’emplois, de loin les plus nombreux dans le groupe des secteurs des services vulnérables. Mots clés : pandémie de covid-19, dispositifs de maintien de l’emploi (jr), dispositifs de chômage partiel (stw), mesures macroéconomiques ijems 16 (1): 115–140 [174] L’impact positif de la pandémie de Covid-19 sur l’économie slovène pierre rostan in alexandra rostan L’objectif de cet article est d’évaluer la résilience de l’économie slovène pen­dant la pandémie de Covid-19qui a frappé l’économie mondiale au quatrième trimestre 2019, en 2020, 2021 et 2022. Pour évaluer la résilience de l’économie slovène, deux séries de prévisions sont générées : des prévisions utilisant les données historiques incluant la pandémie (du quatrième trimestre 1997 au deuxième trimestre 2022) et n’incluant pas la pandémie (du quatrième tri­mestre 1997 au troisième trimestre 2019). Le calcul de la di.érence de leurs moyennes est un indicateur de la résilience de l’économie pendant la pandé­mie, plus la di.érence est grande, plus la résilience est grande. La zone euro et l’Allemagne sont utilisées comme points de référence. En soustrayant le taux de croissance trimestriel moyen du pib de la zone euro prévu pour le troisième trimestre 2022 au quatrième trimestre 2050 (annualisé) obtenu avec les données du quatrième trimestre 1997 au deuxième trimestre 2022, soit +0,68 ., par celui obtenu avec les données du quatrième trimestre 1997 au troisième trimestre 2019, soit +0,57 ., la di.érence est de +0,11 ., alors qu’avec la Slovénie, la di.érence est de 0,10 . [+1,20 . – (+1,10 .)] et avec l’Allemagne, la di.érence est de –0,12 . [+0,89. – (+1,01 .)]. Ainsi, l’écono­mie slovène montre une résilience presque égale (+0,10 .) à celle de la zone euro (+0,11 .) sur la base des prévisions du troisième trimestre 2022 au qua­trième trimestre 2050 et une résilience plus forte que celle de l’Allemagne (– 0,12 .). De plus, les auteurs ont souligné que la moyenne des prévisions de taux de croissance trimestriel (annualisé) pour le troisième trimestre 2022 au quatrième trimestre 2050 de la Slovénie devrait être de +1,20 . avec les don­nées du quatrième trimestre 1997 au deuxième trimestre 2022, alors qu’elle ne devrait être que de +0,68 . pour la zone euro et de +0,89. pour l’Alle­magne. L’économie slovène montre de meilleures perspectives que les éco­nomies de la zone euro et de l’Allemagne. Mots clés : pib, analyse spectrale, analyse en ondelettes, prévision, Slovénie, zone euro, Allemagne. ijems 16 (1): 141–169 Povzetki Prispevek Maroka h konsolidaciji migracij znotraj Afrike: Analiza skozi prizmo gabonskih in kamerunskih študentskih migracijskih tokov v mestu Fez pierre oyono mvogo in sanae kasmi Clanek osvetljuje krepitev migracij znotraj Afrike, ki so poleg nezakonitih migracij v Evropo redko predmet poglobljenih raziskav. Raziskava izposta­vlja sodelovanje Maroka pri krepitvi migracijskih tokov afriških študentov na primeru afriških kamerunskih in gabonskih študentov v mestu Fez. Pol­strukturirani intervjuji so razkrili razlicna stališca o njihovem vkljucevanju vdržavogostiteljico, tako vuniverzitetnemokolju kot vnjihovem življenj­skem okolju. Študija ugotavlja, da je Fez idealen za študij, ceprav ima ena skupnost študentov (gabonska) koristi od vseh zmogljivosti na škodo druge (kamerunske), zaradi sporazumov, ki so jih predhodno sklenile njune vlade, kar bo povzrocilo neravnovesje v odnosu vkljucevanja, in je spodbudilo pri­merjavo med dvema študentskima skupnostma. Ta analiza je pripeljala do vprašanj o vpletenosti maticnih držav, pa tudi o odzivih države gostiteljice na to politiko Kraljevine, ki želi privabiti vec študentov na študij v Fez. Razi­skava v skladu s sodobnimi študijami o mednarodnih migracijah, predstavlja perspektivo za širitev zakonitih migracijskih poti in Afriško unijo poziva k spodbujanju »znotrajafriških« migracij. Kljucne besede: znotrajafriške migracije, Maroko, Gabonski študenti, Kame­runski študenti, Fez ijems 16 (1): 9–32 Internacionalizacija doma: medkulturno vkljucevanje študentov v obštudijske dejavnosti; študija primera med2iah anica novak trunk, nada trunk širca, karim moustaghfir in dorsaf ben malek Clanek obravnava vlogo izvenšolskih dejavnosti pri krepitvi medkulturnih sposobnosti študentov, pri cemer kot študijo primera uporablja projekt med2iah Erasmus+ cbhe. Projekt, ki je potekal med letoma 2020 in 2023 na 12 visokošolskih ustanovah v državah južnega Sredozemlja, ki niso clanice eu, je bil namenjen vkljucevanju mednarodnih in medkulturnih vidikov v lo­kalno izobraževanje. Poudarek je bil na konceptu »internacionalizacija doma« (iah), ki poudarja vkljucitev globalnih ucnih priložnosti v kurikulum in ži­vljenje v kampusu za vse študente. Študija ugotavlja, da posebne zunajšolske dejavnosti, kot so digitalno pripovedovanje zgodb, medkulturni dogodki in cajnice friends, pomembno prispevajo k iah s spodbujanjem medkultur­nega sodelovanja in razumevanja. Raziskava zakljucuje, da te pobude ucinko­vito spodbujajo medkulturne kompetence, izboljšujejo vešcine komunikacije in timskega dela ter zagotavljajo dragocene vpoglede v upravljanje kulturnih [176] sodelovanj, s cimer prispevajo k internacionalizaciji visokošolskih institucij. Kljucne besede: medkulturne dejavnosti, raznoliko univerzitetno vzdušje, in­ternacionalizacija v domacem okolju ijems 16 (1): 33–62 Uporaba analiticnega hierarhicnega procesa za merjenje nacionalnih interesov: prikaz študije primera spreminjanja pomena Libije za italijansko zunanjo politiko v obdobju 2011–2021 lili takacs Clanek obravnava strateški pomen zagovorništva in projekcije moci v evro­sredozemski regiji kot gonilni sili italijanskih nacionalnih interesov in po­sledicno krepitve mednarodnega vpliva države. Medtem ko sta merjenje in dolocanje prednostnih nalog nacionalnih interesov že dolgo predmet razisko­vanja na podrocju zunanje politike, je izraženo pomanjkanje široko razširje­nih metodologij, ki bi zagotavljale kvantitativne rezultate, kljucne za spre­jemanje strateških odlocitev. Analiticni hierarhicni proces (ahp) je metoda, ki vkljucuje tako kvalitativne kot kvantitativne dejavnike, zaradi cesar je pri­merna za analizo nacionalnih interesov in pomoc odlocevalcem pri dolocanju prednostnih nalog in dodeljevanju virov. V tem prispevku je metodologija ahp uporabljena za preucitev italijanskih nacionalnih interesov v evrosre­dozemski regiji, s posebnim poudarkom na Libiji. V okviru študije je ocenjen spreminjajoci se pomen Libije v italijanski zunanji politiki v sredozemskem kontekstu, ki zajema pet držav ob južni obali Sredozemskega morja (Maroko, Tunizijo, Alžirijo, Libijo in Egipt). Cilj je opredeliti podrocja italijanskih inte­resov v tej regiji in oceniti razvoj teh interesov skozi cas. Rezultati te analize bodo izboljšali razumevanje mednarodnih politicnih odlocitev in prispevali k ucinkovitejšemu oblikovanju italijanske zunanje politike v evrosredozemski regiji. Kljucne besede: nacionalni interes, Italija, Sredozemlje, zunanja politika, ana­liticni hierarhicni proces ijems 16 (1): 63–85 Mobilnost znanstvenikov na zacetku kariere v Sredozemlju med covid-19: spreminjanje krize v priložnosti za modro gospodarstvo jihene nouairi, alice affatati, giorgia rivoira, sergio rejado albaina in mounir ghribi [177] Pandemija covid-19jemocnovplivalanamednarodnoznanstvenomo­bilnost, zlasti pri znanstvenikih na zacetku kariere (ecs). Namen tega pri­spevka je zagotoviti celovito analizo izzivov, s katerimi so se med pandemijo soocali ecs v sredozemski regiji, s posebnim poudarkom na znanstveni mo­bilnosti. Poleg tega študija preucuje vpliv pandemije na poklicno pot mladih raziskovalcev ter dolgorocne ucinke na znanstveno raziskovanje in akadem­sko sfero v Sredozemlju. Vkljucujemo individualne izkušnje treh raziskoval­cev, ki zagotavljajo neposreden vpogled v izzive in ucinke pandemije covid­ 19. Te osebne izkušnje obogatijo clanek, saj ponujajo niansirano razumevanje prakticnih posledic in custvenih vidikov, povezanih z obravnavanimi vpraša­nji. Kljucne besede: znanstvena mobilnost, znanstveniki na zacetku kariere, pan­demija covid-19, modro gospodarstvo, sredozemska regija ijems 16 (1): 87–113 Ucinki programov ohranjanja delovnih mest na ohranjanje delovnih mest med epidemijo covid-19 v državah evroobmocja anton rop V prispevku analiziramo ucinke razlicnih shem ohranjanja zaposlitve (jr) na ohranjanje delovnih mest med pandemijo covid-19v državah evroobmocja. Ugotavljamo,dasosheme jr vdržavahevroobmocjapomagalezmanjšati izgubo delovnih mest med pandemijo. Najucinkovitejše pri ohranjanju zapo­slenosti so bile sheme skrajšanega delovnega casa, ki so bile najbolj posodo­bljene in so bile bolj velikodušne ter so vkljucevale nestandardne zaposlene. Vendar pa je bil ucinek shem jr manjši od doseženega splošnega ohranjanja zaposlovanja. V nasprotju z veliko recesijo so makroekonomski ukrepi go­spodarske podpore pomagali ohranjati delovna mesta tudi med pandemijo. Ustrezne razlike v sektorskih ucinkih ohranjanja delovnih mest kažejo, da je takšna makroekonomska podpora omogocila ohranitev vec delovnih mest, zlasti v skupini bolj ranljivih storitvenih sektorjev. Kljucne besede: pandemija covid-19, sheme ohranjanja delovnih mest, sheme skrajšanega delovnega casa, makroekonomski ukrepi ijems 16 (1): 115–140 Pozitiven vpliv pandemije covid-19 na slovensko gospodarstvo pierre rostan in alexandra rostan Cilj prispevka je oceniti odpornost slovenskega gospodarstva v casu pande­ [178] mije covid-19, ki je svetovno gospodarstvo prizadela v cetrtem cetrtletju 2019, v letih 2020, 2021 in 2022. Za oceno odpornosti slovenskega gospodar­stva sta izdelana dva sklopa napovedi: napovedi z uporabo zgodovinskih po­datkov, ki vkljucujejo pandemijo (od 4. cetrtletja 1997 do 2. cetrtletja 2022), in napovedi brez pandemije (od 4. cetrtletja 1997 do 3. cetrtletja 2019). Izra­cun razlike njunih povprecij je kazalnik odpornosti gospodarstva med pan­demijo, vecja kot je razlika, vecja je odpornost. Kot referencni vrednosti se uporabljata evroobmocje in Nemcija. Ce od povprecne napovedane cetrtle­tne stopnje rasti bdp (anualizirane) za evroobmocje v obdobju od 3. cetr­tletja 2022 do 4. cetrtletja 2050, dobljene s podatki za obdobje od 4. cetrtle­tja 1997 do 2. cetrtletja 2022, +0,68 ., odštejemo tisto, dobljeno s podatki za obdobje od 4. cetrtletja 1997 do 3. cetrtletja 2019, +0,57 ., dobimo raz­liko +0,11 ., pri Sloveniji je razlika 0,10 . [+1,20 . – (+1,10 .)] in pri Nem­ciji –0,12 . [+0,89. – (+1,01 .)]. Tako slovensko gospodarstvo na podlagi napovedi za obdobje od 3. cetrtletja 2022 do 4. cetrtletja 2050 kaže skoraj enako odpornost (+0,10 .) kot gospodarstvo evroobmocja (+0,11 .) in ve­cjo odpornost kot gospodarstvo Nemcije (–0,12 .). Poleg tega so avtorji po­udarili, da naj bi povprecje napovedi cetrtletnih (anualiziranih) stopenj rasti za Slovenijo na podlagi podatkov za cetrto cetrtletje 1997 in drugo cetrtletje 2022 znašalo +1,20 ., medtem ko naj bi za evroobmocje znašalo le +0,68 ., za Nemcijo pa +0,89.. Slovensko gospodarstvo ima boljše obete kot gospo­darstva evroobmocja in Nemcije. Kljucne besede: bdp, spektralna analiza, valovna analiza, napovedovanje, Slo­venija, evroobmocje, Nemcija ijems 16 (1): 141–169 ã ..... ....... .. .... ....... ... ....... . : .... .. ..... ..... ..... .... ...... ........... ............ ... .... ... . ..... . .... ... ...... .... .. .. ..... ... ..... ...... ....... ... . ........ ..... .... .. .... ..... ... ..... ........ ...... ... ........ ... ....... . ... ... ....... ..... ... ...... ...... .. ..... ....... .... ... ... ........ ...... .. ........... . ....... ............ ........... .. ..... ... . .... ..... ......... ... ........ .. .... ....... .... ..... ......... .. ..... ....... .... .. ...... ........ .. .. .... ........ . ..... ....... ... .. ... .... ..... ........ ... ..... .. .. .... ....... .......... . ).......... ( ..... .. .... ...... . .. ...... .. ...... . )............ 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Erasmus+ CBHE .... ..... . . ... ....... ... ... . 2020 . 2023 . . 12 ..... ..... .... ... .. .. .... ..... ...... ....... ... ....... .. ....... ......... .... ...... .. .. ... ....... ....... ......... .. ....... ......... ....... . . . ... ....... ..... . "...... .. ....... (IaH) .... .... ....... ....... .. ....... ........ ..... . .... ........ ....... ...... ......... ...... ... .... ...... ..... ... ... ... ..... .. ...... ........ . . ... ... ....... .......... ... ....... .. ....... (IaH) ..... . .. .... .. .... ..... ....... ....... ...... ... ........ ... .. ... . . .... ... ....... .... . [180] .... ...... ........ ..... ..... ........ ...... ....... ... ....... .... .... ... ....... ....... ....... ....... . .... ....... ...... ..... ....... ...... ...... ......... 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[182] . ... ....... .... ...... ....... ..... ..... .. ...... ........ ... ...... ... ....... .... ..... ...... 19 . ... ..... ...... . ... .. ..... ........ . ........ .. ... ..... ...... ..... .. ..... ..... ....... .... ....... ..... ....... ...... ...... .. ...... ... ....... .. ... .... .. ....... .... . . . .. .... . ..... ... .. ..... ..... .... .... ........ .... ..... .... .. ...... ... ......... . ... .... ... ..... ..... .. ...... ........ ... .. ...... ...... ... ....... .... .. ...... . .... ... ...... ....... ..... ........ . .......... ...... ..... .. ....... .. ...... ... ....... . ... ....... .... . .... ........ ........ .. ....... ...... ... ....... .. ........ .. ... ..... ......... ..... ... ... ...... ... ...... .. ........ ...... .... .. ...... ........ ....... ..... . ...... ........ . :.... ..... . 19. ..... ........ ........ . ..... .... .... ..... ........ . .......... ..... . .... ..... ...... -19 ....... .... ........ ........ . ..... . .... .. ... ...... .. ..... ..... ...... ........ .... ..... ...... 19 ... ..... ........ ....... .. ..... ...... .. ... . 2019 ... ....... . 2020 :. 2022...... ..... ...... ......... .. ..... ........ .. ........ . 2021 ..... ........ ........ ......... .... . ... .... ....... . (. ..... ...... . 1997 .. ..... ...... . ) 2022...... .... .... ....... . (. ..... ....... 1997 .. ..... ....... 2019).. .... .... ..... ... ......... ..... . ... ..... ......... .... ........ ..... ... ..... ..... .... ...... .... . ... ....... .... ...... ........ ....... . .. .... ... ..... .... ... ...... ...... .. ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... ...... .. ..... ....... 2022 .. ..... ...... ........ ...... .. ..... ....... 1997 .. ..... ...... . 2022 ..... ... . 2050 .. ... ..... ....... ........ ...... .. ..... ....... 1997 .. ..... .. +0.68% ..... . 2019 ..... ... . %0.57+ .... ..... . %0.11+ .. ... .. ..... .. . %....... ... (+1.20% [+0.10%)]1.10% ... ....... ..... .. . 0.12 ........ .... ...... ........ ..... ..... ..... . (+1.01%)].[+0.89% .... ...... . %) 0.10(+..... ...... ...... . %) 0.11(+.... . .. ...... .. . ..... ....... 2022 .. ..... ....... 2050 ..... .... .. ....... . %)0.12( ....... ... .... .... ........ ... .. ..... .... ..... ...... ...... ....... . %. ..... ....... 2022 .. ..... ....... 2050 ........ .. .... .. .... . 1.20+ ....... ...... .. ..... ....... 1997 .. ..... ...... . 2022 .. ... .. .... .. .... ... . % 0.68+ ..... ...... . . % 0.89+ ........ . . ... ...... ........ ..... . .... .. ........ ..... ...... ........ . ...... ......... . :..... ....... ........ ........ ....... .... ......... ....... .......... .... ........ ...... . [183] Building Bridges Across the Mediterranean: emuni’s Vision for the Future Since the assumption of o.ce by our new president prof. dr. Rado Bohinc, emuni University has embarked on an exciting path of ex­pansion, development, and increased engagement across the Euro-Mediterranean region. In recent months, we have witnessed signif­icant progress shaping the future of our institution and enhancing our academic and professional networks. The president’s administra­tion has prioritised strengthening relationships between the Euro-Mediterraneanacademicandprofessionalsectors. emuni hasactively engaged with diverse partners through forums, conferences, and bi­lateral meetings to create new opportunities for collaboration. These e.orts have expanded our network and fostered opportunities for joint research projects, student exchange programmes, and shared aca­demicinitiatives.Asaresult,the university’s role as a hub of Euro-Mediterranean cooperation is becoming increasingly prominent, and these collaborations are crucial to the sustained success of our mission. Among emuni’smostnotableacademicachievementsisthelaunch of .ve newly established study programmes. Each programme is de­signed to address the evolving needs of the region through a mul­tidisciplinary approach and research into pressing global challenges. These courses, spanning topics from intercultural communication to sustainability, underscore the university’s commitment to providing advanced, research-based education that prepares students for a glob­alised society. Newly o.ered phd programmes include Kinesiology and Comparative Corporate Governance, while Master’s programmes cover Comparative Business Law, Digitalisation and Human Rights, and Sports Management. This diverse range of programmes re.ects emuni’s strategic focus on fostering innovation and equipping stu­dents with relevant knowledge for a dynamic global environment. In a continuing e.ort to enhance access to our academic programmes, emuni hasproudlyestablishedascholarshipfundtosupporttalented and deserving students from diverse cultural, social, and economic backgrounds. This initiative not only signi.es our strong commitment to diversity and inclusion but also highlights our belief in education’s transformative potential to e.ect lasting change in individuals and communities. By alleviating .nancial barriers and enabling more stu­dents to bene.t from our unique educational o.erings, we aim to cul­tivate a more inclusive and vibrant academic environment. In doing so, we empower students from all walks of life to realise their full poten­tial,acquire essentialskills,and make meaningful contributions tothe [185] social, economic, and cultural development of the Euro-Mediterranean region and beyond. Through this endeavour, we rea.rm our dedication to fostering diversity, encouraging collaboration, and creating a future where education is accessible to all. The ongoing creation of the Euro-Mediterranean Student Empower­ment Fund (emsef) represents another signi.cant achievement. This crucial project aims to support and promote innovative social entre­preneurs across the region. Building on the framework of the Euro-Mediterranean Students’ Empowerment Fund, emsef further ad­vances emuni’s commitment to enhancing educational and business opportunities in the Mediterranean region. It provides .nancial sup­port, mentorship, and scholarships to students, researchers, and edu­cators from diverse backgrounds, with a particular focus on individuals from politically and economically unstable areas. emsef seeks to de­velop projects addressing societal challenges, drive economic growth, and achieve a positive social impact by empowering social entrepre­neurs and promoting academic collaboration. Through intercultural communication, sustainable development, and regional cooperation, this programme reinforces emuni’s role in fostering a more resilient and united Mediterranean. emsef transforms challenges, such as mi­gration, into opportunities for education, innovation, and growth, in­volving over 109participating higher education institutions from the Middle East, North Africa, and med9countries. Furthermore, thoughtful preparations are underway for a presti­gious conference scheduled for October. This event will provide a vital forum for discussion and knowledge sharing. Prominent scholars and experts from across the Euro-Mediterranean region will convene for the conference which will take place in Piran between 9-11th October. This event aims to address key issues facing the region and highlights emuni’s leadership in fostering insightful dialogues. By hosting this conference, emuni demonstrates its commitment to supporting col­laborative initiatives that advance the region. Additionally, emuni is excited to introduce the emuni Knowl­edge & Innovation Centre (ekic), an innovative project designed to propel institutions to new heights. By establishing an ekic in part­nershipwith emuni,institutionswillbene.tfromenhancedacademic standards, expanded international engagements, and a dynamic envi­ronment for innovation and knowledge exchange. Collaborating with [186] emuni through ekic o.ers access to a global network of universities and institutions, opportunities for joint study programmes, and sup­portfor phd andMaster’sprogrammes. ekic alsopromotescollabora­tive research e.orts, strengthens marketing campaigns with strategic support, and leverages branding to enhance reputation and visibility. In conclusion, emuni University’s growth and development have accelerated signi.cantly under the direction of our new president prof. dr. Rado Bohinc, whose leadership has had a profoundly transform­ing e.ect. His forward-thinking strategy and remarkable e.ectiveness have improved our academic programs, promoted diversity, and forti­.ed regional collaboration. These developments highlight his steward­ship’s e.cacy and his dedication to furthering the goal of our institu­tion. With his motivating leadership and strategic guidance, we hope to build on this momentum and accomplish more innovations and suc­cesses that will further establish our leadership in higher education. Emna Jbara emuni Marketing