A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms English-Slovenian Janez Skela & Lara Burazer Ljubljana 2024 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms English-Slovenian Avtorja: Janez Skela in Lara Burazer Lektorica za angleški jezik: Kirsten Margaret Hempkin Oblikovanje in prelom: Metka Žerovnik Založila: Založba Univerze v Ljubljani Za založbo: Gregor Majdič, rektor Univerze v Ljubljani Izdala: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Za izdajatelja: Mojca Schlamberger Brezar, dekanja Filozofske fakultete Ljubljana, 2024 Prva izdaja. Tisk: Birografika Bori, d. o. o. Naklada: 50 izvodov Publikacija je brezplačna. To delo je ponujeno pod licenco Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 4.0 Mednarodna licenca (izjema so fotografije). / This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (except photographs). Prva e-izdaja. Publikacija je v digitalni obliki prosto dostopna na https://ebooks.uni-lj.si/zalozbaul/ DOI: 10.4312/ 9789612974558 Kataložna zapisa o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani Tiskana knjiga COBISS.SI-ID 215033091 ISBN 978-961-297-459-6 E-knjiga COBISS.SI-ID 214924547 ISBN 978-961-297-455-8 (PDF) A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms A accuracy → pravilnost Accuracy describes the learner’s use of grammar, vocabulary and phonology, and the ex- tent to which this is free from mistakes. [cf. fluency] accuracy activities → dejavnosti za razvijanje pravilnosti, v pravilnost usmerjene dejavnosti Language learning activities which are designed to foster accuracy as its only or main aim. achievement test, achievement assessment → test uspešnosti, ocenjevanje uspešnosti An instrument designed to measure what a learner has learned within or up to a given time. The content of achievement tests is a sample of what has been in the syllabus dur- ing a certain period of time. Thus, they differ from proficiency tests, which measure overall ability, irrespective of the teaching process. [cf. proficiency test] acquisition → usvajanje The process of ‘picking up’ language, usually without formal instruction but with high exposure to language in use and high motivation / great need to communicate, as when learning one’s mother tongue (as opposed to learning which is usually considered a more conscious and formal process). [cf. learning] action research → akcijsko raziskovanje Action research is a form of teacher-driven research, the twin goals of which are to im- prove classroom practice, and to ‘empower’ teachers, i.e. to give them greater control over their working lives. It involves cycles of action and reflection. Having identified a problem, the teacher, either alone, or in collaboration with colleagues, follows an expe- riential learning cycle of planning → acting → observing → reflecting, which in turn leads to another research cycle. affective activities → afektivne dejavnosti, čustvene dejavnosti These activities are designed to involve students’ feelings, opinions, desires, reactions, ideas and experiences. They have to do with expressing and finding out emotional at- titudes. [cf. cognitive activities] anticipation questions → napovedovalna vprašanja, vnaprejšnja vprašanja Pre-listening and/or pre-reading questions which are used to make learners think about the text they are going to read and/or listen to. Their aim is to increase motivation and involvement with the text and aid comprehension. applied linguistics → uporabno jezikoslovje (1) The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching. (2) The study of lan- guage and linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as lexicography, translation, speech pathology, etc. Applied linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design, language planning, stylistics, etc. approach → pristop General theories related to language teaching and learning. Language teaching is some- times discussed in terms of three related aspects: approach, method, and technique. 3 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms Different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned (the ap- proach) imply different ways of teaching language (the method), and different methods make use of different kinds of classroom activity (the technique). [cf. method, technique] aptitude test, language aptitude test → test nadarjenosti, test jezikovne nadarjenosti An instrument to measure the extent to which a learner possesses specific language learning ability. It measures a person’s aptitude for second language or foreign lan- guage learning and can be used to identify those learners who are most likely to suc- ceed. Language aptitude tests usually consist of several different tests that measure such abilities as sound coding ability, grammatical coding ability, inductive learning ability and memorization. assessment → ocenjevanje A systematic approach to collecting information and making inferences about the ability of a student or the quality or success of a teaching course on the basis of various sources of evidence. Assessment may be done by test, interview, questionnaire, observation, etc. The term ‘testing’ is often associated with large-scale standardized tests, whereas the term ‘assessment’ is used in a much wider sense to mean a variety of approaches in test- ing and assessment. assessment procedure → postopek ocenjevanja A procedure for making judgements about the quality and/or level of learners’ perfor- mance. audibility → slišnost An important feature of spoken language in a language learning classroom; poor audibil- ity results in learners/teacher not hearing the speaker or recording well. [cf. voice] audio presentation (of new vocabulary items) → slušna/zvočna predstavitev (novega besedišča) Playing to or performing for learners a sound or a complex stretch of auditory input which directly illustrates the meaning of a lexical item (e.g. the sound of a cuckoo for the word ‘cuckoo’ or a recording of a verbal argument for the phrase ‘argument’ and its synonyms ‘fight, row’). audiolingual method, audiolingualism → avdiolingvalna metoda, slušno-jezikovna metoda Audiolingual teaching is based on the behaviourist theory of learning and on structural linguistics. This method emphasizes the formation of habits through the practice, memo- rization, and repetition of grammatical structures. audiovisual aids → avdiovizualna učna sredstva, avdiovizualni pripomočki Aids such as televisions, films and video equipment which allow the learners to see a situation as well as listen to the language used in it. [cf. realia, teaching aids, visual aids] audiovisual method → avdiovizualna metoda A method of foreign language teaching which (a) teaches speaking and listening before reading and writing (b) does not use the mother tongue in the classroom (c) uses re- corded dialogues with film-strip picture sequences to present language items (d) uses drills to teach basic grammar and vocabulary. The audio-visual method was developed in France in the 1950s. authentic materials → avtentična / pristna / izvirna gradiva Language materials which are originally produced to be used for communication among 4 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms native speakers and not for language teaching. Authentic material is real-life material, such as a newspaper or brochure. It has not been altered for classroom use, but the accompany- ing tasks will make it appropriate for the level and needs of the class. Authentic language is real, unscripted and ungraded language, such as a news broadcast from the radio. B blackboard layout, boardwork → tabelska slika The organization of information on the blackboard and the use of size, neatness and col- our of text and drawing. bottom-up processing → pristop od spodaj navzgor Decoding the smallest elements (phonemes and graphemes) first, and using these to decode and interpret words, clauses, sentences, and then whole texts. [cf. top-down processing] C chant → ritmična pesem, recitativ A song with simple and repetitious lyrics which is recited in a rhythmical fashion or sung to a simple melody. choral repetition, chorus repetition → ponavljanje v zboru, ponavljanje s celim razredom When a teacher asks a whole group or class of students to repeat an example together. class discussion → razredna diskusija/razprava An exchange of information and/or ideas on a certain topic conducted in lockstep in which all of the learners (are invited to) participate; should not be confused with elicitation – ide- ally, learners respond to each other’s contributions and the teacher does not dominate but merely moderates the discussion. classroom dynamics [atmosphere, climate], group dynamics → razredna dinamika [učna klima, učno vzdušje], skupinska dinamika The atmosphere that somehow builds up in the class and the chemistry of the group; the way the students in the class relate to each other. A successful group dynamic is a vital element in the teaching/learning process. In present-day EFL classrooms, where pairwork and groupwork have become the norm, relationships within the group become more important: it is fundamental to the success of these activities to have support and co-op- eration from the group and a harmonious relationship between its members. A positive group atmosphere can have a beneficial effect on the morale, motivation, and self-image of its members, and thus significantly affect their learning, by developing in them a posi- tive attitude to the language being learned, to the learning process, and to themselves as learners. [cf. rapport] classroom language → razredni jezik, jezik vodenja/upravljanja razreda Utterances or/and phrases which are typically used in classroom situations (e.g. to open/ finish a lesson, set homework, give instructions, respond to a learner’s error, praise learn- ers, etc.). 5 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms classroom layout, classroom arrangement → prostorska ureditev učilnice Organization of space and furniture in a classroom (esp. seating arrangement). [cf. seating arrangement] classroom management → vodenje/upravljanje razreda Techniques and procedures employed by the teacher in the classroom to control student behaviour, including setting up different kinds of tasks, dealing with disruptive behav- iour, using audiovisual aids, etc. CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) → celostno vsebinsko-jezikovno učenje Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an approach where students learn a subject and a second language at the same time. A science course, for example, can be taught to students in English and they will not only learn about science, but they will also gain relevant vocabulary and language skills. It’s important to note that CLIL is not a means of simplifying content or reteaching some- thing students already know in a new language. CLIL courses should truly integrate the language and content in order to be successful – and success is determined when both the subject matter and language is learned. closed pairs, closed pairwork → zaprti pari, zaprte dvojice In closed pairwork, students talk privately in twos, with all the students in the class work- ing simultaneously. [cf. pairwork, open pairwork, public pairwork] closed questions, closed-ended questions → vprašanja zaprtega tipa Questions to which there is a single correct answer, usually yes-no questions or questions which require short factual answers or reproducing information. [cf. open questions, open- ended questions] cloze, cloze procedure → test dopolnjevanja (vrzeli) A gap-fill exercise with regularly-spaced gaps (e.g. every seventh word). Initially, it was developed as a technique for measuring the relative ‘readability’ of a text by asking read- ers to fill in the gaps left by deleting every nth word. Modified forms of cloze do not involve the deletion of every nth word, but the selective deletion of words or phrases which will create a text-based problem-solving exercise. cognitive activities → kognitivne dejavnosti, miselne/spoznavne dejavnosti Activities which require learners to think, e.g. try to work out the rule for using a structure, analyse a text. Bloom’s Taxonomy is one of the best-known taxonomies of cognitive skills. It consists of six levels of thinking (or six cognitive levels: (1) knowledge (remembering facts/information); (2) comprehension (understanding facts/information); (3) application (using facts/information); (4) analysis (explaining facts/information); (5) synthesis (creat- ing something new by using information); (6) evaluation (making judgements based on a criterion). The first three levels are considered basic for all students; the last three are critical in developing thinking skills for higher ability students. Tasks at the top three lev- els incorporate creative, critical, logical thinking, and problem solving. The taxonomy can be applied to units of study at any grade level across all disciplines. [cf. affective activities] communicative activities, communicative practice → sporazumevalne dejavnosti, komunikacijska/prosta vadba Activities in which real-life communication is approximated by providing learners with a desire and/or need to communicate without limiting the language to be used. 6 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms communicative approach, communicative language teaching → komunikacijski pristop, komunikacijsko poučevanje The term covering a variety of approaches that all focus on helping learners to com- municate meaningfully in a target language. The Communicative Approach – or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) – is based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are in- volved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language. communicative competence → sporazumevalna zmožnost Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is based on the idea that the ultimate goal of foreign language learning and teaching is communicative competence; i.e. the ability to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals. Communicative competence, however, is not a unitary concept but consists of several different competence areas: linguistic competence (e.g. grammar, phonology, and lexis), sociolinguistic or sociocultural competence (e.g. formal/informal registers, different types of speech acts), and pragmatic competence, consisting of discourse competence (some- times considered part of sociolinguistic competence – that is knowing how to begin and end conversations), functional competence (i.e. the learner’s knowledge of the principles according to which messages are used to perform communicative functions), and stra- tegic competence (i.e. knowledge of communication strategies that can compensate for weakness in other areas). The recommendations for second language pedagogy are that all components should be included in second-language curricula, instruction and teach- ing materials. The construct of communicative competence has been subject to constant evolution in the past five decades, and continues to be so. Globalization has namely presented language teachers and learners with the challenge of coping in all the more frequent intercultural situations. The most frequent term to describe this type of com- munication and competence is intercultural communicative competence. communicative tasks → sporazumevalna opravila A communicative task is an activity in which a person engages in order to attain an objec- tive, and which requires the comprehension and/or production of meaningful messages. Communicative tasks engage students for the purpose of exchanging information and ideas, meeting one’s needs, and expressing and supporting opinions through speaking and listening or writing and reading. These tasks are at the heart of language learning. They are the vehicle through which learners build relationships and develop intercultural competence. Through communicative tasks, learners engage with language in prepara- tion for real-life interactions. These tasks increase learners’ ability to interact socially and engage learners in authentic and meaningful scenarios. These tasks rely on natural language functions (e.g. requesting information or expressing preferences), emphasize meaning-making and focus less on accuracy, are rooted in the intended proficiency outcomes of the learners, and align with learners’ desires to com- municate in social and professional contexts. competence → zmožnost Competence is what we intuitively know about a language in order to be able to use it. It stands for underlying knowledge of a language (cf. performance), an internalised sense of a particular language and, by extension, culture. This is realised concretely through specific performances. [cf. performance] 7 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms comprehensible input, roughly-tuned input → razumljiv vnos, približno naravnan vnos The term refers to language that is intelligible but just a little more advanced than the student’s current ability to understand it. This means that the overall message of the lan- guage is clear even though some words and grammatical structures might be unfamiliar. This concept is from one of five hypotheses in linguist Stephen Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition developed in the 1980s. According to Krashen, language learning is the process whereby a student actively tries to gain understanding. This is different from language acquisition, which is the process whereby a student naturally (passively) gains understanding. From his research, Krashen explains that comprehensible input is neces- sary for language acquisition. comprehension, comprehension skills → razumevanje, spretnosti razumevanja Mental processes through which learners make sense of spoken or written text. Comprehension involves extracting meaning from a text, from participating in a conver- sation or from listening to a person or people speaking. The kinds of meaning which are ‘extracted’, and the ways in which they are ‘extracted’ will depend on the purposes which underlie the reading, interacting or listening. Since these purposes vary considerably, ‘comprehension’, thus, can mean rather different things. comprehension check → preverjanje razumevanja (1) A strategy used by a speaker to make sure that the listener has understood his utter- ance. (2) A procedure used in language learning to evaluate learners’ comprehension of language input. It can take the form of various types of questions, true/false statements and/or other tasks (e.g. drawing a map). computer assisted language learning (CALL) → računalniško podprt (tuje)jezikovni pouk, (tuje)jezikovni pouk s pomočjo računalnika Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is an approach to teaching and learning for- eign/second languages in which computer, computer-based resources and information technology are used to present, reinforce and assess material to be learned. concept questions → pomenska vprašanja, pojmovna vprašanja Questions you ask students to check whether they understand the concept (meaning) of a language item. Asking students whether or not they understand an item of language does not necessarily test whether or not they understand it. Concept questions are a more reliable way of testing this. They also serve to highlight the key features of meaning. These are short questions or prompts, usually requiring very short and simple answers (example: selfish – Do selfish people enjoy giving things to other people?). context → kontekst The situation in which an utterance is used. To understand the context you need to have information about the setting, the topic and the roles and relationships of the partici- pants in the interaction. The context is often referred to as the situational context to dif- ferentiate it from the linguistic context (or co-text). contextualized presentation → kontekstualizirana predstavitev Presentation of a language item within linguistic and situational context. continuous assessment → sprotno ocenjevanje An assessment procedure in which the final grade is some kind of combination of the grades the learner received for various assignments during the course. In this approach to assessment, students are assessed regularly throughout the program rather than being 8 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms given a single assessment at the end. This is thought to give a more accurate picture of student achievement. contrastive analysis → protistavna analiza, kontrastivna analiza The comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages. Contrastive analysis was de- veloped in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of structural linguistics to language teaching. controlled practice, guided practice → vodena vadba, vodeno urjenje Language practice in which learners are told exactly what to do and how to do it, with closely defined answers and/or outcomes and close monitoring. The teacher restricts the students’ language so that the target language is used a lot. criterion-referenced test → kriterijski test These tests are designed to give test-takers feedback on specific course or lesson objectives, that is, the ‘criteria’. Classroom tests involving smaller numbers, and connected to a curricu- lum, are typical of criterion-referenced testing. Here, more time and effort on the part of the teacher are usually required in order to deliver feedback. One could say that these tests may consider practicality as a secondary issue in the design of the test; teachers may sacrifice time and effort in order to offer students appropriate and useful feedback (i.e. ‘instructional value’). Using this method, the teacher does not curve the scores. He merely determines the percentage of correct answers on the test. Those students who have received a predeter- mined score receive an A, a B, etc. The emphasis in this type of test is not on comparisons, but on achievement. The stress is placed on learning, and the possibility exists for all stu- dents to do well or to do poorly, as the case may be. [cf. norm-referenced test] cross-curricular links → medpredmetne povezave Making direct links between English language learning and the school curriculum. This happens in two ways: (1) Links with broader educational aims, such as developing prob- lem-solving abilities, autonomy, questioning, cooperative learning, etc. (2) Direct links with school subjects, such as Science, Geography, Language, etc. cross-grouping → navzkrižne skupine, navzkrižno oblikovanje skupin, križanje skupin This form of grouping learners is used in jigsaw listening and reading activities where the first group works with texts which provide only part of the information necessary to complete a task. The members then move to form new groups containing at least one person from each of the previous groupings and information is shared so that the task can be completed. curriculum → kurikulum, učni program Curriculum refers to the totality of content to be taught and aims to be realised within one school or educational system – all elements and processes in the planning, imple- mentation, and evaluation of learning programs. Curriculum includes syllabus design, methodology, and evaluation. [cf. syllabus] 9 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms D declarative knowledge → deklarativno znanje Knowledge that can be stated or ‘declared’, such as grammatical rules. It contrasts with procedural knowledge, which has to do with the ability to use the knowledge to get things done. [cf. procedural knowledge] deductive approach, deductive learning, ‘giving’ approach → deduktivni pristop, deduktivno učenje An approach to language teaching in which learners are taught rules and given specific information about a language. They then apply these rules when they use the language. This may be contrasted with inductive learning, in which learners are not taught gram- matical or other types of rules directly but are left to discover or induce rules from their experience of using the language. [cf. inductive approach] deep-end approach → pristop ‘za plavalce’, pristop ‘splavaj ali utoni’ (1) One of the two schools of thought behind the Com muni cative Approach. The first – or shallow-end approach – might be summed up as the view that you learn a language in order to use it. That is: learn the rules and then apply them in life-like communication. The more radical line, however, is that you use a language in order to learn it. Proponents of this deep-end approach take an experiential view of learning: you learn to communicate by communicating. (2) This approach can also be applied to a more micro level, i.e. the level of a lesson or teaching techniques – doing a language learning activity that does not include a prepa- ration stage (e.g. reading without pre-teaching vocabulary). Traditionally, a lesson is ap- proached in three stages: presentation – practice – production. The ‘deep-end’ technique begins with a ‘free’ or communicative activity, allowing students to use any language they have at their disposal; on the basis of how students manage in this phase, the teacher diagnoses what language needs to be presented for the successful fulfilment of the task. descriptive assessment → opisno ocenjevanje The reporting in prose of learners’ abilities, rather than representing them as scores (marks/grades). [cf. marking, grading] diagnostic test → diagnostični test An instrument designed to identify test takers’ strengths and weaknesses, by testing what they know or do not know in a language, or what skills they have or do not have. [cf. placement test] dictation → narek The conventional dictation procedure, going back to grammar/translation, involves read- ing a text three times at a slow pace, with pauses on the second reading to allow students to write the text down. Traditionally, the texts used are short narrative extracts. Dictation began to regain some of the popularity it had lost in the seventies. Dictation is, in fact, a flexible and highly expressive form of language use, and it requires little preparation. [cf. dictogloss, dicto-comp] dictogloss, dicto-comp → narekospis A procedure for teaching grammatical structures in context. The procedure involves the teacher in reading a short passage at normal speed. Learners note down all the words they hear, and then work in small groups, pooling their resources to reconstruct the origi- nal text. [cf. dictation] 10 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms direct method → direktna metoda The Direct Method aims at establishing the direct bond between thought and expres- sions and between experience and language. It is based on the assumption that the learner should experience the new language in the same way as he experienced his mother tongue. All teaching is done in the target language, grammar is taught induc- tively, there is a focus on speaking and listening, and only useful ‘everyday’ language is taught. The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact the conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different. display questions [test questions, pedagogic questions] → navidezna/pedagoška vprašanja Display questions are questions asked by teachers in order that learners can ‘display’ their knowledge. They are questions to which the asker already knows the answer. Display questions contrast with real questions (also called referential questions), which are mo- tivated by the need to find out something that the person asking the question doesn’t know. DOGME ELT, teaching unplugged → DOGME poučevanje, ‘odklopljeno’ poučevanje Dogme ELT is considered to be both a methodology and teaching movement whose pro- ponents challenge a perceived over-reliance on materials, coursebooks and the gram- matical syllabus. The Dogme approach emphasises conversational communication in the classroom. The Dogme approach is also referred to as ‘teaching unplugged’, the name itself suggesting that there should be fewer teachers wired to a prescribed coursebook as the holy grail of teaching. dotting about → naključno klicanje (učencev) A method of calling on students that seems random; calling on different students in no particular order. drama activities → dramske dejavnosti These include sketches, mime and plays (theatrical activity in the traditional sense) but do not necessarily lead to a performance. Drama in EFL also includes improvisation, role- play, simulation and a wide variety of game-like activities involving the emotions, physical activity and the exercise of the imagination. Drama activity sensitises the learner to voice, movement, facial expression and gesture, and its open-endedness makes it a valuable approach to adopt in the class, rewarding to both learners and teacher in the long-run. dyslexia → disleksija A serious disturbance in the ability to read. The term is used for children who encounter special difficulties as they try to learn to read. Several other terms have been used for the condition, such as ‘word blindness’, ‘alexia’, etc. [cf. language learning disorders] E echoing errors → posnemati napake, ponoviti napake Repeating a learner’s utterance or part of an utterance that contains an error, usually us- ing emphatic facial expression and intonation. [cf. error correction techniques, peer correc- tion, reformulation] 11 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms eclectic, eclecticism, principled eclecticism → eklektičen, preudarni eklekticizem Choosing and accepting freely from various sources. It means that teachers don’t follow any single method, but rather that they use a selection of techniques. It is an approach which adopts any technique or procedure, so long as it can be shown that it results in suc- cessful learning. But this is not a random approach: picking and choosing at whim from a hotch-potch of methodologies. Eclecticism must be principled. Selecting from a wide range of often contradictory approaches must be a rational process, informed by experi- ence and a personal understanding of relevant theories. elicitation, eliciting → izvabljanje, pridobivanje Eliciting is when the teacher brings out student knowledge, suggestions and ideas. By eliciting the teacher helps learners take responsibility for their own learning. It gives members of a class the necessary and motivating feeling of being encouraged to invest part of themselves, give some of their opinions so that what happens seems to depend partly on the students themselves. By eliciting the teacher gets crucial information about what the students already know and can use in relation to the language we are focusing on. Elicitation techniques are designed to extract from students information which might otherwise have been provided by the teacher. Usually eliciting consists of giving clues and prompts in order to get the students to make an appropriate contribution. Try to get the students to tell you as much as possible, rather than you telling them everything. error → sistemska napaka (neznanje) As opposed to ‘slips’ or ‘mistakes’, errors occur regularly or systematically. Errors usually result from incomplete knowledge, whereas mistakes are caused by lack of attention, fa- tigue, carelessness, or some other aspect of performance. [cf. accuracy, error correction, interlanguage, mistakes] error correction, error correction techniques → popravljanje napak, tehnike/ načini popravljanja napak Making learners aware of their errors; techniques used for achieving this (e.g. echoing, paraphrasing, reformulation, etc.). ESP (English for Specific/Special Purposes) → angleščina za posebne namene; angleščina kot jezik stroke, poklicna angleščina ESP (English for Specific Purposes) – an approach to language teaching and learning which is based on learner needs and in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s specific and apparent reasons for learning. executing a lesson → izpeljava/izvedba učne ure Progressing through the stages of the lesson (starting the lesson, teaching steps, smooth- ness of flow and sequencing, transitional periods, timing, pacing, ending the lesson). Lessons are events which are fairly easy to recognise. They take place in a particular set- ting, they normally involve two kinds of participants, and they normally consist of rec- ognisable kinds of activities. Lessons also have a recognisable structure. They begin in a particular way, they proceed through a series of teaching and learning activities, and they reach a conclusion. This pattern of structure or organisation is a result of the teacher’s attempts to manage the instructional process in a way which will optimise the amount of learning that can take place in the time available. How lessons are organized into se- quences and how the momentum of a lesson is achieved is referred to as structuring. 12 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms executing didactic principles → izvedba/izvajanje/izpeljava učnih/didaktičnih načel Teaching/performing in a clear and systematic way with suitable materials and methods for level and type of class and acknowledging gradation principles (from the simple to the difficult, from the familiar/known to the new/unknown). extensive reading/listening → ekstenzivno branje/poslušanje, obširno branje/ poslušanje Reading or listening to fairly lengthy texts (e.g. a novel, a radio program) without neces- sarily achieving a hundred per cent concentration or comprehension; the main aims are to increase the learners’ exposure to language in use, to develop language skills and to stimulate motivation through a sense of enjoyment and achievement. external assessment → zunanje/eksterno preverjanje An assessment procedure during which all learners write the same test/exam at the same time, under the same conditions and are assessed by other teachers or experts (e.g. ‘matura’). F feedback → povratna informacija, odziv (Oral or written) information that is given to the student/learner about their performance of a learning task, usually with the objective of improving this performance. Feedback has two main distinguishable components: (1) assessment (the student/learner is in- formed how well or how badly they have performed) and (2) correction (some specific information is provided on aspects of the learner’s/student’s performance). feedback stage, report-back phase → poročanje, faza poročanja, poročevalska faza An activity following groupwork. A feedback stage usually takes place in the context of full-class interaction after the end of the groupwork. Feedback on the task may take many forms: giving the right solution, if there is one; listening to and evaluating suggestions; pooling ideas on the board; displaying materials the groups have produced, etc. The main objective here is to express appreciation of the effort that has been invested and its results. flashcard → (slikovna) učna kartica A card with words, sentences, or pictures on it, used as an aid or cue in a language lesson. fluency → tekočnost The ability of an individual to speak or write without undue hesitation. Fluency describes the learner’s ability to convey (or to understand) a message as it is intended. Accuracy is a component in this, but so too is the ability to organise ideas over a substantial stretch of language. Fluency is sometimes contrasted with accuracy, which refers to the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences but may not include the ability to speak or write fluently. [cf. accuracy] fluency activities → dejavnosti za razvijanje tekočnosti, v tekočnost usmerjene dejavnosti Activities which focus on effective and smooth communication without perfect grammar or pronunciation. 13 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms foreign language → tuji jezik A language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country. English is described as a foreign language in Slovenia. formative test, formative assessment → formativni/sprotni test, formativno/ sprotno ocenjevanje A test which is given during a course of instruction and which informs both the student and the teacher how well the student is doing. [cf. summative test] free practice, [creative/communicative practice] → prosta vadba Practice in which the students use language (perhaps newly introduced items) more free- ly, with little or no control by the teacher; they can express their own ideas and opinions. [cf. communicative activities, communicative practice] functions, language functions → jezikovne funkcije, sporočilni nameni The things people do through language, for example, apologizing, complaining, instruct- ing, etc. Functions should be illustrated via context. G global questions, ‘gist’ questions → vprašanja splošnega razumevanja, celostna vprašanja Comprehension questions requiring general understanding of the passage as a whole. graded reader, simplified reader → stopenjsko berilo, poenostavljeno/prirejeno berilo Graded readers are books that have been specially prepared for language learners – shor- tened, simplified, abridged and adapted. They provide supplementary reading material, mainly for out-of-class use, and for the purpose of reading for pleasure. The language of each reader is usually graded by level. This means that the range and complexity of its language, particularly its vocabulary and grammar, is controlled in order to ensure readability. They are made to cater for all levels from beginners through to advanced. Many readers are adaptations of existing books, such as English language classics. But, increasingly, readers are purpose written. They cover a range of genres, both fiction and non-fiction. Readers may include a glossary, comprehension questions, and often come accompanied by an audio recording. grading questions, graded questions → stopnjevanje vprašanj (od lažjih k težjim), stopnjevana vprašanja Questions on a comprehension passage, ranging from easy to difficult. grammar-translation method → slovnično-prevajalna metoda A method of language teaching which concentrates on the memorization of grammatical rules and translation of (usually literary) texts. group work, teams → skupinsko delo, delo v skupinah Independent work carried out simultaneously by groups of three or more students on a task or tasks. The need to encourage a natural use of language has also made group- and pairwork indispensable, as talking at someone is very different from talking to them. [cf. pair work] 14 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms grouping arrangements, student groupings → učne oblike The use of varied patterns of response and interaction (e.g. individual work, whole class, pairwork, groupwork). One of the major changes to the dynamics of classroom interac- tion brought by student-centered teaching has been an increasing emphasis on pair and group work. While learners may have individual preferences for the kind of interactional style they favour in the classroom, the interactional dynamics of a classroom are largely a product of choices the teacher makes about the learning arrangements he or she sets up within a lesson. [cf. interactive patterns, ‘pyramid’ technique, ‘snowballing’ technique] guided practice (exercises), controlled practice → vodena vadba, vodeno urjenje, vodene naloge/dejavnosti The teacher decides on the language areas to be practised but gives the students a cer- tain amount of freedom; the materials chosen should allow the students to make differ- ent language choices, although these choices may be fairly limited. [cf. controlled practice] guiding questions, pre-questions → vodilna vprašanja, usmerjevalna vprašanja, predvprašanja, začetna vprašanja General questions given before reading/listening, asking the learners to find out a piece of information central to the understanding of the text. [cf. pre-questions] H halo effect → haloefekt, halo efekt The effect of a feature which is not being tested, but which changes or influences the re- sults. For example, a teacher who is rating a child according to ‘interest in learning English’ may give the child a higher rating because he or she is well behaved in class. handling a text → delo z besedilom, obravnava besedila Ways to exploit texts in order to develop the students’ listening, speaking, and reading skills. Exploitation is used in a broad sense to refer to what is done in the three phases in- volved in reading and/or listening: the pre-, while- and post-reading/listening phases. When handling a text, there are usually three major stages, each with several possible phases: (1) introduction and task setting; (2) reading and/or listening; (3) exploiting the text fur- ther. Good listening/reading skills need to be explicitly developed and fostered through a range of appropriate activities which provide learners with a purpose and guidance in coping with texts. The text is a major resource, permitting the teacher to vary the learning activities from lesson to lesson. However, texts in textbooks are frequently very long and can be very tiresome to work through from beginning to end if you just go ploughing through the text. One of the first things to be done with a very long text is to split it up into shorter, more manageable parts. hidden curriculum, latent curriculum → skriti kurikulum, kurikulum z vzgojnimi vsebinami The idea of a ‘hidden curriculum’ within teaching refers to learning outcomes apart from those intended in the ‘manifest curriculum’. Many authors see a ‘sub-surface’ element to teaching or teaching materials, and they argue that a curriculum is not neutral but reflects a particular view of social order, implicitly or explicitly. According to some, this hidden curriculum is far more effective than the manifest, planned curriculum. Much curriculum development seems to proceed on the rather simplistic assumption that there is a direct 15 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms equation between planning, teaching and learning. Recent studies produce evidence from a variety of sources to suggest why there might be mismatches between teaching and learning. In the first place, learners may simply be unaware of the ‘official’ curriculum. Secondly, they may have different priorities from those of the teacher. Finally, some of the content of a course may simply be unlearnable given a learner’s current stage of develop- ment. Course content often conveys a ‘hidden curriculum’: underlying messages that go beyond factual information. These may have to do with religious or political beliefs, or with attitudes towards certain kinds of people, nationalities, or cultures. It is very impor- tant for the teacher to be aware of such ‘subtext’. Hidden curricula teach students beyond the subject content of their courses. An educator can design hidden curriculum to teach positive characteristics such as dignity, humility, hard work, responsibility, and apprecia- tion. Hidden curriculum has the potential to positively impact students and even change lives. [cf. curriculum] homework → domača naloga Work students do outside the classroom and which forms an important part of their learning program. I icebreakers → dejavnosti, s katerimi sprostimo vzdušje / prebijemo led Activities to help learners and teacher get to know each other at the beginning of a course. They are useful to create a good and positive atmosphere in new groups which are a bit ‘icy’. [cf. warm-up, warmers] immersion, immersion program → jezikovna kopel, jezikovna potopitev An approach to the teaching of language in which students are taught their regular school subjects such as science, history, and math through the target language. Also known as content-based instruction. individual work → individualno/samostojno delo The teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and students work on them independently; the teacher walks around monitoring and assisting where necessary. inductive approach, inductive learning, ‘guiding’ approach → induktivni pristop, induktivno učenje An approach to language teaching in which learners are not taught grammatical or other types of rules directly but are left to discover or induce rules from their experience of us- ing the language. This may be contrasted with deductive learning, in which learners are taught rules and given specific information about a language. They then apply these rules when they use the language. [cf. deductive approach] inference questions → sklepalna vprašanja, vprašanja za sklepanje These textually implicit questions encourage the reader to make inferences based on the passage and take the reader beyond simple language practice. They oblige the student to form conclusions that are not directly stated in instructional materials, to infer, to make assumptions, to use background knowledge, to ‘read between the lines’. inferencing → inferiranje, sklepanje Writers often tell you more than they say directly. They give you hints or clues that help you ‘read between the lines.’ Using these clues to give you a deeper understanding of your 16 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms reading is called inferring or inferencing. information transfer exercises (tasks) → vaje za prenos in pretvorbo informacij v drugo obliko, ‘prenosne’ vaje Fairly common testing and teaching techniques, often associated with graphic texts, such as diagrams, charts and tables. The student’s task is to identify in the target text the required information and then to transfer it, often in some transposed form, on to a table, map or whatever. The use of such exercises marks a shift from the exclusive use of comprehension questions of the yes/no or ‘wh-’ question variety, and thus reflects a greater interest in the learner’s ability to focus on important information and ignore what is irrelevant. The learner also has the opportunity to practise a variety of sub-skills, such as listening for gist, note-taking, summarising, prediction, etc. It is assumed that the abil- ity to state information in a non-linguistic form – for example, by completing a diagram – reflects the learner’s understanding of a text as effectively as answering conventional comprehension questions. information-gap activity → dejavnost sporočilne vrzeli An information-gap activity is a technique in language teaching where students are missing information necessary to complete a task or solve a problem, and must com- municate with their classmates to fill in the gaps. Students use the language they have at their command to bridge the information gap – by asking questions, giving information, etc. [cf. jigsaw activity] input → vnos Language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn. [cf. intake and output] in-service teacher training (INSETT) → stalno strokovno spopolnjevanje učiteljev, usposabljanje učiteljev ob delu The continued training of teachers while they are actually on the job. [cf. pre-service teach- er training] instructions → navodila The directions/explanations that are given to introduce a learning task which entails some measure of independent student activity. [cf. rubrics] intake; uptake → privzem A term referring to that part of the language to which learners are exposed that actually ‘goes in’ and plays a role in language learning. The language that a learner retains from L2 instruction. Some theorists believe that intake is that part of the input that has been attended to and noticed by second language learners while processing the input (i.e. the noticing hypothesis). Intake is input which is actually helpful for the learner. Some of the language (i.e. the input) which a learner hears may be too rapid or difficult for the learner to understand, and therefore cannot be used in learning (i.e. cannot serve as intake or cannot turn into intake). [cf. input, output] integration of the (four) skills, skill integration, integrated skills → povezovanje / združevanje (jezikovnih) spretnosti Gaining a new language necessarily involves developing four modalities in varying degrees and combinations: listening, reading, speaking, and writing. Very often language users em- ploy a combination of skills at the same time. It is very often true that one skill cannot be performed without another. Often classroom activities will have a focus on one particular skill so that at a certain stage the students will concentrate, for example, on reading abili- 17 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms ties. But the focus can later shift to one or more of the other skills. For almost six decades now research and practice in English language teaching has identified the ‘four skills’ as of paramount importance. For learners of a second language, some attention to the four different skills does indeed pay off as learners discover the differences among these four primary modes of performance along with their interrelationships. With all our history of treating the four skills in separate segments of a curriculum, there is nevertheless a more recent trend toward skill integration. The integration of the four skills seems to be the only plausible approach to take within a communicative, interactive framework. intensive reading/listening → intenzivno branje Intensive reading/listening is generally at a slower speed and may involve reading/listen- ing to all or part of the text; the reader/listener pays more attention to detail and seeks a more thorough understanding. [cf. extensive reading/listening] interaction → interakcija, sporazumevanje The way in which a language is used by interlocutors. interaction/interactive patterns, modes of working, patterns of classroom interaction → učne oblike Techniques for getting students to communicate with one another. In order to create suit- able conditions for such a learner-centred approach it is necessary in the first instance to consider what can be done to implement an interactive approach, i.e. learners communi- cating with one another. Pair and group work ensure increased learner-learner interaction and reduce the amount of teacher-whole class talk. Learning through interaction puts the learners at the centre and reverses the classical pattern of classroom interaction (i.e. lockstep). [cf. grouping arrangements, student groupings] intercultural/cross-cultural communication → medkulturno sporazumevanje The term usually refers to the meeting of two cultures or two languages across the politi- cal boundaries of nation-states. Intercultural communication is a discipline that studies communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects com- munication. Knowing a foreign language is just part of the parcel – the other party’s cul- tural background, values, and beliefs also need to be understood. This is where intercul- tural communication skills are indispensable. interlanguage, learner language → vmesni jezik Language produced by learners in the course of acquiring the target language; a learner’s developing internal second language system that lies somewhere between the learner’s first language and their second language. Learners are hypothesized to pass through a series of interlanguages, each of which has a set of rules that, while deviating from the target language, have a degree of internal consistency. internal syllabus → zaporedje učenja, (učenčev) notranji učni načrt Drawing on evidence of developmental sequences in language acquisition and ideas surrounding the natural order of L2 development, learners are said to have an ‘internal syllabus’ (or ‘built-in syllabus’) for learning the language that establishes the route of L2 acquisition. Provided that their natural processes have scope to operate, the internal syllabus will de- termine, to a large extent, the learning path that they will follow. The classroom learner is, of course, also provided with an external syllabus, in which items have been placed into a teaching sequence. This may conflict with the learner’s internal syllabus, but will not nec- essarily override it. The learning sequence may not be the same as the teaching sequence. 18 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms J jigsaw activity → sestavljanška dejavnost An activity in which students have to do a task, but the information they need in order to do it is distributed amongst them in such a way that no one student has it all. This creates an in- formation gap. Only through collaboration and the exchange of information can students complete the task. Such activities are a mainstay of communicative methodology. They are a way of contriving communicative interaction. Normally the jigsawed information relates to real-life tasks, such as arranging a meeting, or deciding who was responsible for an acci- dent. The jigsaw principle can be applied to reading, writing, speaking, listening, grammar and vocabulary. [cf. information-gap activity] L language awareness → jezikovno ozaveščanje, jezikovna ozaveščenost Language awareness can be defined as explicit knowledge about language, and con- scious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching and language use. It seeks to stimulate curiosity about language and to provide links among different kinds of language experiences learners typically encounter in foreign language classes. language learning disorders → motnje/primanjkljaji pri učenju jezika Exceptional problems with processing and producing language, not related to IQ or other types of disorders inhibiting learning, but specific cognitive difficulties affecting only lan- guage learning. There are several quite different types of language learning disorders: dys- lexia, dysgraphia, dysnomia, difficulties with memory, sequencing, abstraction, auditory/ visual perception, etc. Language learning disorders have been studied and described much more for mother tongue development, partly because in foreign language learning all learners experience some degree of normal difficulty with processing and producing lan- guage, and it is difficult to delineate precisely these normal developmental difficulties from disorders. However, it is clear, for example, that English as a foreign language usually brings out a learner’s dyslexia even if their mother tongue doesn’t (due to the deep orthography of English), and there are some guidelines as to how to detect and deal with language learning disorders in the EFL classroom. [cf. dyslexia] language portfolio, the European language portfolio → jezikovni listovnik, Evropski jezikovni listovnik (EJL) A document which gives a ‘visible’ representation of language proficiency acquired inside or outside school. Young people and adults can use the ELP to evaluate and describe their own language proficiency, using a 6-level scale which has been developed by the Council of Europe. The ELP fulfils two specific functions: (a) an informative function, and (b) a pedagogic function. [cf. portfolio] lead-in → uvodna dejavnost, uvod, uvajanje Here the students and the teacher prepare themselves for the task and familiarise them- selves with the topic of the lesson or a reading/listening text. One of the major reasons for this is to create expectations and arouse the students’ interest in the subject matter. learner as doer → dejavni učenec Learner actively involved in ‘learning by doing’, i.e. being involved in a large range of ac- tivities that can be analysed as being cognitive (thinking), affective (feeling) and physical. 19 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms learner autonomy → učenčeva avtonomija, avtonomija učenca The most widely evoked definition conceives of learner autonomy as learners’ ability to take charge of their own learning. In more practical terms, this entails students taking responsibility for various aspects and stages of the learning process, including setting goals, determining content, selecting resources and techniques, as well as assessing pro- gress. The movement for learner independence springs from the powerful yet common- sense perception that it is learners who do the learning. Autonomy is your capacity to take responsibility for, and control of, your own learning, either in an institutional context, or completely independent of a teacher or institution. It is also called self-directed learning, and it has been advocated as a ways of addressing the fact that many – particularly adult – learners have individual needs and learning styles that are not always easily accom- modated in a classroom situation. Autonomous learning assumes that the learner has well-developed learning strategies, and the development of such strategies is the aim of learner training. [cf. learner training, learning styles, learning strategies] learner-centred approach → na učenca osredinjen pristop Approach to language teaching based on the needs and interests of the learners rather than on a fixed syllabus or coursebook and the dictates of a teacher; such approach would ideally involve the learners in decisions about what and how they learn and would require the teacher to be an organiser and guide rather than an instructor. [cf. student-centered] learner-centredness → osredinjenost na učenca An approach/activity which takes as its starting point the needs and/or interests of the learners and involves them as fully as possible in the learning process. learner training → učenje učenja; učiti, kako se učiti Focusing on how to learn rather than what to learn, learner training aims to help learners make more effective use of the learning opportunities they encounter and encourage learner autonomy. In language teaching, learner training procedures or activities seek to raise learners’ awareness of what is involved in the process of foreign language learn- ing; help learners become more involved in and responsible for their own learning; help learners develop and strengthen their language learning strategies. [cf. learner autonomy, learning strategies] learning → učenje (1) The American applied linguist Stephen Krashen argues that there are two distinct ways of mastering a foreign language, and he calls these learning and acquisition. The dis- tinction suggests that, while acquisition occurs naturally and unconsciously, learning is a conscious process. Learning, according to him, results from formal instruction, typically in grammar, and is of limited use for real communication. [cf. acquisition] (2) A traditional view of the teaching/learning process is one in which the learner is expected to receive external knowledge, transmitted by teachers or books, and this received knowledge is considered to be sufficient to last a lifetime (i.e. transmission ap- proach). Current views of this process see it more as interaction, or dialogue – a dialogic approach – with information flowing from teacher to learner and back, as well as between learners. More recent cognitive theories see learning as being less about behaviour and more about what goes on in individual minds. Constructivism sees learning as a two-way process, with the learners linking input to their own personal experiences and percep- tions of the world. Input from books, people, personal experience or practice is not seen as information to be added to a store of knowledge, but rather as new perspectives to be considered and possibly used to reconstruct the learner’s existing internal knowledge. 20 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms Social constructivism acknowledges the important contribution of the context of learning and the other individuals within that context, and views knowledge as jointly and socially created through interaction with others. learning strategies → strategije učenja, učne strategije Intentional behaviour and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn or remember new information. When the learner con- sciously chooses strategies that fit his or her learning style and the L2 task at hand, these strategies become a useful tool-kit for active, conscious, and purposeful self-regulation of learning. Learning strategies can be classified into six types: cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective, and social. [cf. learning style] learning style → učni stil, učni slog A learning style is an individual predisposition to learn in a particular way. The term is used to describe broad, general characteristics of approach to learning, and it is likely that the preferred learning styles of any one learner will be manifest in all aspects of learn- ing, not just in relation to learning foreign languages. Learning styles, whether related to personality (e.g. extroversion, self-esteem, anxiety) or to cognition (e.g. left/right brain orientation, ambiguity tolerance, field sensitivity) characterize the consistent and rather enduring traits, tendencies, or preferences that may differentiate you from another person. Styles are not by any means immutable tendencies. Learners can, through a program of self-awareness, understand who they are and take steps to change what may be inhibiting traits within their general style. [cf. learning strategies] lesson aims → cilji učne ure Anticipating what students will learn in a given lesson, and basing the substance of the lesson on this. Aims may thus be specified in behavioural terms (what students will be able to do as a result of the lesson), in linguistic terms or in terms of the skills and subskills they may develop. One of the arguments in favour of specifying aims very clearly is that this ensures the usefulness of the lesson, and allows the teacher to check that the precise content of the lesson is congruent with these aims. In determining the content of the les- son and then checking this against full and detailed projected aims, teachers often find that there is a lack of congruence. They can then choose either to modify the aims or the content. A lesson can have one main or overall aim and several subsidiary aims. [cf. teach- ing aim, teaching objective] lesson content → vsebina učne ure, učna vsebina We can differentiate between the linguistic content (e.g. grammar, functions, skills, lex- is, phonology, etc.), and the topic content (i.e. topics that texts are about, or that tasks relate to). The topic content of a lesson may be of various types (e.g. zero or trivial content, the lan- guage, another subject of study, home culture, literature of the target language, world or general knowledge, etc.). [cf. teaching points] lesson plan → učna priprava, dnevna priprava A description or outline of (a) the objectives a teacher has set for a lesson (b) the activities and procedures the teacher will use to achieve them and the order to be followed, and (c) the materials and resources which will be used. [cf. scheme of work] lexical approach → leksikalni pristop The lexical approach recognizes the importance of word- and chunk-learning. It is based on the assertion that language consists not of traditional grammar and vocabulary but 21 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms often of multi-word prefabricated chunks. These are the ‘lexical phrases’ (collocations, idi- oms, fixed and semi-fixed phrases) which form an important part of the language. This approach promotes the idea that fluency is the result of the acquisition of a large store of fixed and semi-fixed prefabricated items. A lexical approach would steer us away from an over-concentration on syntax and tense usage (with vocabulary slotted into these gram- mar patterns) towards the teaching of phrases which show words in combination, and which are generative in a different way from traditional grammar substitution tables. lexis → besedišče, leksika The total bank of words and phrases of a particular language, the artifact of which is known as a lexicon. listening for gist, global listening → globalno poslušanje Listening for gist involves general thematic understanding, without any focus on spe- cific details or discrete information. It is one among many types of listening and aims to answer primary questions related to an aural text’s central theme, topic, and purpose. In a first language, one usually listens for gist, to decide whether to continue or abandon listening. In a second language, listening for gist is often done despite linguistic limita- tions such as syntactic or lexical weaknesses that make comprehension challenging. Gist- level listening can occur with any type of aural text: conversations, lectures, news reports, songs. In the ELT field a number of different terms have been used interchangeably to refer to this type of listening, for example global listening, listening for main idea, and topic listening. listening skills, listening comprehension → slušne spretnosti, slušno razumevanje The process of understanding speech in a first or second language. The study of listening comprehension processes in second language learning focuses on the role of individual linguistic units (e.g. phonemes, words, grammatical structures) as well as the role of the listener’s expectations, the situation and context, background knowledge and the topic. It therefore includes both top-down processing and bottom-up processing. While tradi- tional approaches to language teaching tended to underemphasize the importance of teaching listening comprehension, more recent approaches emphasize the role of listen- ing in building up language competence and suggest that more attention should be paid to teaching listening in the initial stages of foreign language learning. literacy, literacy acquisition → pismenost, opismenjevanje The ability to read and write; contrasts with illiteracy, the two poles now being seen to demarcate a continuum of ability. The notion of functional literacy was introduced in the 1940s, in an attempt to identify minimal levels of reading/writing efficiency in a society, such as being able to write one’s name. Literacy acquisition involves learning how lan- guage is encoded in a writing system and learning the orthographic rules that relate graphic units to linguistic units. In learning to read the child must learn to decode lan- guage forms from written forms. These processes allow a speaker to transition from the oral form of a language to its written form. Biliteracy is the ability to read and write in more than one language. English is considered to have a deep orthography, as there are often different pronunciations for the same spelling patterns. Languages that have orthogra- phies that are highly irregular, difficult, and where sounds cannot be predicted from the spelling, are more difficult to learn. 22 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms lockstep, whole-class teaching → frontalni pouk This is when the teacher conducts the lesson from the front of the class, obliging all stu- dents to proceed at the same pace in spite of any differences in their learning styles or level (all the students are ‘locked into’ the same rhythm and pace). M marking, grading → ocenjevanje An assessment procedure during which the score or level attained by a test taker is rep- resented by a word (e.g. ‘excellent’), phrase (e.g. ‘above average’) and/or a letter (e.g. ‘B’). [cf. descriptive assessment] medium of instruction → učni jezik, jezik poučevanja The language which a country has chosen for use in its educational system. In many coun- tries, the medium of instruction is the standard variety of the main or national language of the country (e.g. French in France). metalanguage → metajezik The language used to describe language items (e.g. ‘present simple tense’) or used in class to give instructions, explain things, etc. method → metoda A coherent and internally consistent set of principles for teaching language derived, at least in part, from a set of beliefs about the nature of language and learning. Language teaching is sometimes discussed in terms of three related aspects: approach, method, and technique. Different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned (the approach) imply different ways of teaching language (the method), and dif- ferent methods make use of different kinds of classroom activity (the technique). [cf. ap- proach, technique] micro-skills, part skills → podspretnosti, delne spretnosti Each macro skill (i.e. listening, speaking, reading, writing) consists of a series of micro- skills. For example, among the micro-skills used in listening are: sound perception, inter- preting intonation patterns, making predictions about what the speaker is going to say next, distinguishing the main point (listening for gist), listening out for particular points, listening against background noise, etc. mingling, mingle activity, ‘milling-around’ activity, melee → kroženje, ‘tržnica’, ‘koktajl zabava’, vrvež, direndaj The kind of interaction pattern where participants move at will around the room forming and re-forming pairs or groups to complete the givens tasks (also called ‘market place’ or ‘mingle), such as with a ‘Find someone who …’ exercise. With very large classes, and espe- cially when they are sitting behind desks, mingling is not a realistic option. mistake → nesistemska napaka (pomota) As opposed to errors, which occur regularly or systematically and result from incomplete knowledge, mistakes are caused by lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspect of performance. A performance error, or slip, that learners know and might usually get right. [cf. accuracy, error correction, interlanguage, errors] 23 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms mixed ability classes → mešani razredi, heterogeni razredi Classes containing a mixture of good, average and bad students, either in terms of their initial level in the language or in terms of their ability to learn a foreign language. monitoring → nadzor, nadziranje, spremljanje, opazovanje When the learners are working on an activity where the teacher does not have an active role, the teacher can keep an active eye over what is going on, checking that instructions are being followed, etc. monolingual class → enojezični razred, monolingvalni razred In a monolingual group all the students share the same first language. mother tongue, first language, native language → materni jezik, materinščina, prvi jezik The language first acquired by a child. multiple-choice test → test izbirnega tipa A test in which the examinee is presented with a question along with four or five possible answers from which one must be selected. The different possible answers are known as alternatives. The alternatives contain one correct answer and several wrong answers or distractors. multiple intelligences → mnogotere inteligentnosti The theory of multiple intelligences challenged the traditional notion that there is one sin- gle type of intelligence, sometimes known as ‘g’ for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive abilities. It is worth noting that the linguistic and logical-mathematical mo- dalities are most typed valued in school and society. The theory of multiple intelligences proposes the differentiation of human intelligence into specific modalities of intelligence, rather than defining intelligence as a single, general ability. The nine types of intelligence are: Naturalistic, Musical, Logical–mathematical, Existential, Interpersonal, Lin guis tic, Bodily–kinaesthetic, Intra–personal and Spatial intelligence. There may be other ‘candi- date’ intelligences – such as spiritual intelligence, existential intelligence, and moral intel- ligence. Addressing the multiple intelligences can help teachers pluralize their instruction and enrich student learning. N native speaker → domači govorec Someone for whom a particular language is a first language. needs analysis → analiza potreb The process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners requires a language and arranging the needs according to priorities. Needs analysis is a part of curriculum development and is normally required before a syllabus can be developed for language teaching. neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) → nevrolingvistično programiranje (NLP) Neuro-linguistic Programming (NLP) is based on a model of communication and psy- chotherapy. In ELT this model has implications for learning, as it says that we all have different learning and perceptual preferences, and in order to learn well we need to both exploit our preferred styles and develop our less preferred ones. NLP has been 24 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms around in language teaching longer than we may realise. Those teachers who incorpo- rate elements of suggestopedia, community language learning, music, drama and body language into their lessons are already drawing on NLP as it stood twenty years ago. It encompasses or is related to ‘left / right brain’ functions, ‘visual / auditory / kinaesthetic’ learning styles, multiple intelligence and other areas of research which are attempting to identify modes of learning whilst recognising the importance of the individual learner. According to NLP, everybody has their own personal way of experiencing the world, ei- ther externally or internally, and on the basis of the five sensory modes or the VAKOG (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, olfactory and gustatory). It’s easy to realise that people have very different ways of perceiving and describing their world, and varying ways of internalising information. non-communicative activities → nekomunikacijske dejavnosti In these activities students have no desire to communicate something, no purpose for communicating and the activities normally focus on form rather than content; the teach- er will intervene to stop the activity and the materials the teacher relies on will dictate what specific language forms the students use; such activities do not replicate real com- munication. [cf. communicative activities] non-verbal communication, body language → nejezikovno sporazumevanje, govorica telesa Communication using body movement, position, and appearance, such as facial expres- sions, hand gestures, and the mutual body orientations of the speakers. norm-referenced test → normirani test In norm-referenced tests, each test-taker’s score is interpreted in relation to a mean, me- dian, standard deviation, and/or percentile rank. The purpose in such tests is to place test-takers along a mathematical continuum in rank order. Typical of norm-referenced tests are standardized tests intended to be administered to large audiences, with results quickly disseminated to test-takers. Practicality is a primary issue. In the case of a teacher- prepared classroom test, students’ scores are listed in rank order, and each student’s score is compared to those of the other students. Using this chart, the teacher ‘curves’ the re- sults, that is, he decides what percentage of the students receive an A, a B, etc. In theory, approximately 10 percent of the students get A’s, 20 percent B’s, 40 percent C’s, 20 percent D’s, and 10 percent F’s. The weakness of such a procedure is that students may rank very high and learn very little, or they may learn a great deal and receive a comparatively low grade if they happen to be in a group of especially strong academic students. [cf. criterion- referenced tests] noticing → opažanje, zapažanje, opazovanje, pozornost The suggestion that learners need to ‘pay attention’ to or ‘notice’ language consciously be- fore they can understand and produce it. In other words, input does not become intake for language learning unless it is noticed, that is, consciously registered. notional-functional syllabus → pojmovno-funkcijski učni načrt Central to the emergence of Communicative Language Teach ing (CLT), a syllabus primar- ily organized around functions (e.g. ‘apologizing’ or ‘requesting’) and notions (e.g. ‘logical relationships’ or ‘time and duration’). 25 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms O open pairwork, public pairwork → odprti pari, odprte/javne dvojice In open pairwork two students exchange language across the classroom with the other students listening. [cf. closed pairs, pairwork] open-ended questions → vprašanja odprtega tipa Questions used in class discussions or in tests which allow the person taking the test to answer in his or her own way; questions to which there are a number of possible answers. [cf. closed questions] ostensive presentation (of a word), ostensive means (of presenting vocabulary) → vizualna predstavitev, pokazna predstavitev, predstavitev s pomočjo prikaza A way of demonstrating the meaning of a word or group of words by getting the learners to experience the meaning through their senses (e.g. visually). Means of presenting (new) vocabulary items by showing (e.g. real objects, pictures, mime, action and gesture). output → iznos The language a learner produces. [cf. input, intake] P pair work → delo v dvojicah/parih Independent work by pairs of students working simultaneously on a task or practice ac- tivity; often an extension of ordinary controlled practice or drilling, with more opportu- nity for students to talk. [cf. closed pairs, open/public pairwork] pairing arrangements → oblike dela v paru, oblikovanje parov Ways of putting students/learners in pairs on different principles (e.g. friendship, stream- ing, by chance, changing groups, etc.). parrot-fashion → učenje na pamet, papagajsko ponavljanje, memoriziranje When students repeat parrot-fashion, they repeat automatically what they hear without understanding its meaning. peer assessment → kolegialno/vzajemno ocenjevanje An assessment procedure during which learners evaluate their colleagues’ performances using clear criteria and weighting systems agreed on beforehand. [cf. self-assessment] peer correction, student-student correction → vzajemno/kolegialno popravljanje (napak) Letting students correct and edit each other’s writing (or speech). [cf. self-correction] performance → izvedba; jezikovna izvedba The actual use of language. Transformational-generative grammarians distinguish be- tween competence (an individual’s abstract knowledge of language) and performance (the actual use of language). [cf. competence] placement test → uvrstitveni test A test which is designed to place students at an appropriate level in a program or course. [cf. diagnostic test] 26 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms portfolio → mapa učenčevih dosežkov, listovnik, portfolijo The learner gathers a collection of assignments and projects done over a long period into a file; and this portfolio provides the basis for evaluation. [cf. language portfolio] Postmethod, postmethod condition → post-metoda, post-metodno stanje The notion that teaching and learning needs to move ‘beyond methods’, enabling teach- ers to develop a ‘principled eclecticism’ that is appropriate to local contexts. [cf. method, eclecticism] post-reading and post-listening (stage, activity) → po-bralna/po-poslušalna dejavnost, dejavnost po branju/poslušanju A stage within the three-part skills model for developing listening and reading compre- hension skills. This model takes into account not only the need for a range of interesting texts but also the importance of appropriate activities to activate, develop and exploit comprehension skills. Activities in this model may be divided into three broad catego- ries: (1) pre-listening/reading activities; (2) while-listening/reading activities, and (3) post- listening/reading activities. The post-reading/listening stage allows learners to respond to the text, evaluating the content and relating it to their own experience. [cf. pre- and while-listening/reading stage] practice, accurate reproduction → vadba, urjenje, utrjevanje Exercises, activities, drills, etc. designed to give the learners opportunities to produce cor- rect sentences which include particular language items or structures they have recently been taught. [cf. presentation-practice-production] pre-questions → predvprašanja, začetna vprašanja, vprašanja pred besedilom Questions which are set before the students read or listen to a text for the first time. [cf. guiding questions] pre-reading or pre-listening (stage, activity) → pred-bralna/pred-poslušalna dejavnost A stage within the three-part skills model for developing listening and reading compre- hension skills. This model takes into account not only the need for a range of interesting texts but also the importance of appropriate activities to activate, develop and exploit comprehension skills. Activities in this model may be divided into three broad catego- ries: (1) pre-listening/reading activities; (2) while-listening/reading activities, and (3) post- listening/reading activities. The pre-reading/listening stage stimulates learners’ interest or curiosity, helps them to anticipate the text and encourages them to voice their own experience, views and feelings on the theme. [cf. while- and post-reading/listening stage] presentation-practice-production (PPP), the three P’s model → uvajanje, utrje-vanje, uporaba (UUU) Emerging from audiolingualism, a three-stage approach to teaching in which language is first presented to learners who subsequently engage in controlled practice, focusing on accuracy. Finally, learners ‘produce’ the language creatively in ‘free practice’. presentation, the presentation phase (stage) → predstavitev, uvajanje The introduction of the form and meaning of a new language point, which the students do not know yet. [cf. presentation-practice-production] pre-service teacher training (PRESETT), initial teacher training/education → začetno izobraževanje/ usposabljanje učiteljev Instruction or training one gets before starting a job. 27 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms pre-teach (vocabulary) → predhodna razlaga/predstavitev (besedišča), predhodno poučevanje (besedišča) To teach key vocabulary items (structures, etc.) immediately before the students meet them in a reading or listening text. Pre-teaching vocabulary facilitates the reading of new text by giving students the meanings of the words before they encounter them. This practice reduces the number of unfamiliar words encountered and facilitates greater comprehension. procedural knowledge → proceduralno znanje The ability to use the knowledge to get things done (e.g. being able to use grammatical rules and principles to communicate meaning). It contrasts with declarative knowledge which has to do with the ability to state or declare facts and principles (e.g. the ability to regurgitate grammatical rules). [cf. declarative knowledge] process writing → procesno pisanje An approach to writing pedagogy that focuses on the steps involved in drafting and re- drafting a piece of work. [cf. writing] production, the production stage → uporaba The section of a lesson or unit requiring the learners to use particular language skills or items. Usually production comes after presentation and practice of the teaching point but in some ‘modern’ approaches production comes first and then the teacher decides what to present and practise. [cf. presentation-practice-production] productive skills, production skills → spretnosti tvorjenja, tvorbne spretnosti, produktivne spretnosti Those skills which involve the production of language (i.e. the main skills of speaking and writing). [cf. receptive skills] proficiency, language proficiency, proficiency levels → jezikovno znanje; ravni jezikovnega znanja The degree of skill with which a person can use a language, such as how well a person can read, write, speak, or understand language. This can be contrasted with language achievement, which describes language ability as a result of learning. Proficiency may be measured through the use of a proficiency test. [cf. proficiency test] proficiency test, proficiency assessment → test jezikovnega znanja, ocenjevanje jezikovnega znanja A test which measures how much of a language someone has learned, regardless of how this knowledge has been acquired. The difference between a proficiency test and an achievement test is that the latter is usually designed to measure how much a student has learned from a particular course or syllabus. [cf. achievement test] progress test → test napredovanja An achievement test linked to a particular set of teaching materials or a particular course of instruction. Tests prepared by a teacher and given at the end of a chapter, course, or term are progress tests. Progress tests may be regarded as similar to achievement tests but narrower and much more specific in scope. [cf. achievement test] project work → projektno delo A project is an extended task which usually integrates language skills work through a number of activities. These activities combine in working towards an agreed goal and may include planning, the gathering of information through reading, listening, interview- ing, etc., discussion of the information, problem solving, oral or written reporting, and 28 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms display. Project work has been part of educational thinking and practice on experiential learning for the greater part of the 20th century and has influenced the teaching method- ology of curriculum subjects at the school level. More recently since the mid-seventies, as ELT has espoused principles of learner-centred teaching, learner autonomy, the negoti- ated syllabus, collaborative learning, and learning through tasks, English language educa- tors have explored and exploited the tradition of project work, and it is now part of the English language curriculum in many contexts. prompt, cue → iztočnica A word/phrase/picture/gesture etc. used to stimulate a response from a student, espe- cially in drills. Cues may be verbal, visual, numerical, mimed or sound effects. ‘pyramid’ technique, ‘snowballing’ technique → piramidna tehnika, ‘snežna kepa’ A way to structure a discussion in a large group. For example, each student might list the five most important qualities a good parent must have. The students then form pairs and agree on the list of five things. Then pairs form groups of four and have to agree on their five things, and so on until there are few enough groups for a list to be elicited from each group and put on the board, or the whole class is discussing the topic together. [cf. group- ing arrangements, interactive patterns, class discussion] Q questioning strategies → vpraševalne tehnike, tehnike/strategije vpraševanja, načini postavljanja vprašanj Different ways in which the teacher asks questions (e.g. dotting about; asking each stu- dent in turn round the class; let any student call out the answer; the teacher first chooses a student, and then asks the student a question, etc.). R rapport → odnos med učiteljem in učenci, medosebni odnosi The quality of relationship within the classroom (i.e. between the class and the teacher). Many teachers associate rapport with being liked by the students, but rapport is more than playing games and having fun in general. Rapport refers to the working relationship be- tween the teacher and the students, and motivation entails the students’ incentive to learn. Both are an outgrowth of effective teaching. A good classroom atmosphere and good rela- tions between all in the class is essential. reading comprehension, reading skills → bralno razumevanje, bralne spretnosti The recognition and comprehension of written text. The process can take place silently (silent reading) or by reading aloud (oral reading), and the comprehension of the passage can be evaluated in different ways (e.g. by asking readers questions about it, or asking them to paraphrase or draw inferences from it). Two main theories have been developed to explain what takes place in learning to read. One theory (of ‘phonic mediation’) argues that a phonological step is an essential feature of the process; on this account, letters are sounded out in a linear way, with larger units gradually being built up (‘reading by ear’). The alternative argues that there is a direct relationship between the graphology and the 29 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms semantics, a phonological bridge being unnecessary; on this account, words are read as wholes, without being broken down into a linear sequence of symbols (‘reading by eye’). Several integrated accounts have also been proposed. [cf. literacy, reading aloud] reading aloud, oral reading → glasno branje Saying a written text aloud. This can be done with or without an understanding of the contents. In addition to being a means of practising reading, oral reading has traditionally been the basis of both formal and standardized tests of reading performance. When we listen to a reader reading a text aloud we can ‘see and hear’ the extent to which the oral reading matches the written text. It is thus not surprising that the reading is usually an oral exercise for the beginners. However, it must be noted that it should not be a predomi- nant form of practice. At later stages the reading should be silent. If we want the students to comprehend the text, then they have to read it silently. Reading aloud is also an un- natural activity – most people do not read aloud in real life. The value of reading aloud as a separate skill is doubtful, but it is useful as a test of pronunciation and general fluency; it can help students to make the connection between sound and spelling. In reading aloud, students’ attention is focused on pronunciation, not on understanding the text. Teachers may intent to help students by reading the text aloud to them, but it can in fact make reading more difficult. [cf. silent reading] real classroom questions [genuine questions] → resnična (stvarna, pristna) vprašanja A question to which the asker does not know the answer (contrasted with display ques- tion). For example: Are you hot? Shall we open the window? realia, real objects → realije, predmeti kot učni pripomočki Real objects, real things that you can bring into the classroom to illustrate the meaning more clearly or to use as aids to make a situation more meaningful and therefore more memorable. [cf. audiovisual aids, teaching aids, visual aids] rebus reading → slikopis A reading text from which some words have been omitted and replaced with pictures; a kind of cloze. A technique often used in children’s readers because the pictures replacing certain key words in the text help reduce the reading load and provide cues to meaning. receptive skills → receptivne/sprejemniške spretnosti, spretnosti razumevanja Traditionally, listening and reading (and understanding) have been classed as ‘receptive’ (i.e. those skills which involve receiving language) and speaking and writing classed as ‘productive’ skills. [cf. productive skills] reciprocal listening → vzajemno/obojestransko/ recipročno poslušanje Listening situations in which the listener also takes part as a speaker. recycling → ponavljanje, ponovno uvajanje (in utrjevanje), recikliranje The frequent repeating of a teaching point (usually focusing on different aspects each time). reference questions → sklicevalna vprašanja These are textually explicit questions (i.e. the response includes primarily information supplied in the input). They are questions of literal comprehension. As their vocabulary often echoes the text (i.e. the questions are based on the same words as the sentences in the passage) learners can answer them without understanding what they have read. [cf. inference questions] 30 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms reformulation, recast → preoblikovanje (1) Feedback on students’ speaking: Rephrasing something in a way that makes it more accessible to the listener or reader. This technique is an example of covert feedback, dis- guised as a conversational aside. The hope is, that the student will take the veiled correc- tion on board but will not be inhibited from continuing the flow of talk. Typically, this is the way parents seem to correct their children – by offering an expanded version of the child’s utterance. (2) Feedback on students’ writing: An attempt by the teacher (or a native writer) to under- stand what a non-native writer is trying to say and then to rewrite it in a form more natural to the native writer. But the point of any such changes must be to respect and bring out the original writ er’s probable intentions. [cf. error correction] register → register Social register is the degree of formality of language (it ranges from very formal to in- formal or casual register); the kind of language used by particular groups for particular communicative situations (e.g. medical register). role play → igranje vlog, igra vlog Members of the group pretend they are different people and act their roles, play their parts and speak according to which role they are playing. [cf. simulation] rote learning → učenje na pamet, memoriziranje Learning through repetition with minimal attention to meaning. [cf. parrot-fashion] rubrics → navodila A set of rules or explanations on an examination paper, in a book, etc. which is often printed in a different way to the main body of the writing and which tells one what to do. [cf. instruc- tions] S scaffolding → ‘zidarski/gradbeni oder’, pomoč, podpora Scaffolding refers to a method where teachers offer a particular kind of support to stu- dents as they learn and develop a new concept or skill. In the instructional scaffolding model, a teacher may share new information or demonstrate how to solve a problem. The term itself offers the relevant descriptive metaphor: teachers provide successive levels of temporary support that help students reach higher levels of comprehension and skill acquisition that they would not be able to achieve without assistance. Like physical scaf- folding, the supportive strategies are incrementally removed when they are no longer needed, and the teacher gradually shifts more responsibility over the learning process to the student. scanning, scan (a text), scan reading → preskakovanje, preskakovati (besedilo) To read rapidly through a text looking for specific items of information without needing to focus or understand other parts of the text. [cf. skimming] schema theory, schematic knowledge → shemska teorija, shematsko znanje (zaloga znanja, védenjska podlaga) A theory of language processing based on the notion that past experiences lead to the creation of mental frameworks that help us make sense of new experiences. In compre- hending language, people activate relevant schemata allowing them to process and in- 31 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms terpret new experiences quickly and efficiently. Schemata serve as a reference store from which a person can retrieve relevant existing knowledge and into which new information is assimilated. When encountering a topic in reading or listening, the reader activates the schema for that topic and makes use of it to anticipate, infer, and make different kinds of judgements and decisions about it. scheme of work → (letna) priprava A plan of what a teacher intends to do with a particular group of learners over a particular period of time. [cf. lesson plan] seating arrangement → sedežni red, (prostorska) razvrstitev (učencev in pohištva) The organisation of students in the classroom (i.e. classroom layout), e.g. orderly rows, circle, semi-circle, U-shape arrangement, horseshoe arrangement, etc. Classroom furni- ture always affects the learning atmosphere. How the seats are arranged depends on the size of the class, the size of the groups, the types of activities and the style of the furni- ture. Seating arrangements can determine: (a) students’ attitude to each other and to the teacher, (b) the teacher’s attitude to them, (c) how they interact (d) the types of activity they can perform. [cf. classroom layout, classroom arrangement] second language → drugi jezik, jezik okolja A language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication (e.g. in education and in government) and which is usually used alongside another language or languages. Italian is described as a second language in one part of Slovenia. second language acquisition → usvajanje tujega/drugega jezika The psychological and social processes underlying the development of proficiency in a second language. self-assessment, self-evaluation → samoocenjevanje, samovrednotenje The learners themselves evaluate their own performance, using clear criteria and weight- ing systems agreed on beforehand. [cf. peer assessment] self-correction, auto-correction → samopoprava (napake) An error-correction procedure where an error is corrected by the speaker himself or her- self. Error-correction procedures can be classified into three basic categories: (1) self-cor- rection; (2) peer correction; (3) teacher correction. [cf. peer correction] sequencing, gradation → sosledje, zaporedje, stopnjevanje The arrangement of the content of a language course or a textbook so that it is presented in a helpful way. The sequencing of content in the course is the order in which the content should be taught for the best learning. This involves deciding which content is needed early in the course and which provides a basis for things that will be learned later. In any given subject, including English, there are likely multiple theories about which sequence is best, but it is usually based on the following criteria: simplicity/complexity, learnabilty/ teachability, chronology, (immediate and long-term) need, interest and affectivity, peda- gogic merit, relevance, prerequisite learning, whole to part or part to whole, spiral se- quencing, etc. silent reading, reading for meaning → tiho branje Silent reading is the essential first step in breaking students from the habit of devoting all attention to the precise decoding of the shapes and sounds of letters. If we want the students to comprehend the text, then they have to read it silently. The understanding that results is called reading comprehension. [cf. reading aloud, oral reading] 32 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms simulation, simulation activities → simulacija, simulacijske dejavnosti Similar to role play situations except that participants take part in simulated situations as themselves instead of acting a part. [cf. role play] skills, language skills → spretnosti, jezikovne spretnosti Listening, speaking, reading, and writing, often referred to as the four skills. Communicative methodology gives equal weight to these skills and their sub-skills, and also emphasises the importance of integrating them. [cf. integration of the (four) skills, productive skills, re- ceptive skills, micro-skills] skimming, skim-read → preletavanje (besedila), preleteti (besedilo) A reading strategy/style; reading the whole text rapidly to get the gist. [cf. scanning] speaking activities → govorne dejavnosti Activities to promote speaking, such as dialogues, discussions and debates, drama, role- play, simulation, information gap, brainstorming, storytelling, interviews, story comple- tion, presentations and talks, stories, jokes, anecdotes, conversation and chat, etc. speaking competence → govorna zmožnost Speaking competence means conversation ability or conversation skill. It performs mu- tual interdependent, interactive nature of conversation. Speaking skills are defined as the skills which allow us to communicate effectively. They give us the ability to convey information verbally and in a way that the listener can understand. Speaking is an inter- active process where information is shared, and if necessary, acted upon by the listener. So, it’s important to develop both speaking and listening skills in order to communicate effectively. speech act, speech event → govorno dejanje A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication. We perform speech acts when we offer an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. [cf. functions, language functions] spoken interaction → govorno sporočanje Spoken interaction refers to the ability to actually hold, maintain and continue a conver- sation. Reception and production strategies are employed constantly during interaction. Examples of interactive activities include conversation, discussion, debate, interview or negotiation. [cf. spoken production] spoken production → govorno sporazumevanje Spoken production is producing an oral text for one or more listeners, for example giv- ing information to an audience in a public address. This may involve reading a written text aloud, speaking from notes, giving a presentation, delivering a status update, acting out a rehearsed role, speaking spontaneously, improvising or singing a song. [cf. spoken interaction] staging, lesson stage, staging a lesson → stopnja/faza učne ure; učni korak One distinct part of a lesson (often a single activity); a lesson can normally be divided into several stages. Organizing the different parts of a lesson so that they follow on logi- cally and smoothly to make an effective whole. A lesson is sometimes divided into three stages: (1) presentation stage; (2) practice stage (or repetition stage); (3) production stage (transfer stage, free practice). Each stage should have its own aim (objective). [cf. execut- ing a lesson] structural syllabus → slovnični učni načrt A syllabus organized around lists of grammatical structures. [cf. task-based syllabus] 33 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms student-centred, student-centredness → na učenca osredinjen (pristop); osredinjenost na učenca An approach/activity which takes as its starting point the needs and/or interests of the learners and involves them as fully as possible in the learning process. [cf. learner-centred, learner-centredness] student groupings → učne oblike The use of varied patterns of response and interaction (e.g. individual work, whole class, pairwork, groupwork). [cf. grouping arrangements, interactive patterns] student talking time (STT) → količina/obseg govora učencev The amount of time that students get to talk within the lesson. [cf. teacher talking time, TTT] substitution table → zamenjevalna razpredelnica A table setting out a grammatical paradigm showing which items in a particular structure can be substituted for others. The learner selects from columns and then combines the elements he has chosen in order to make a sentence. Suggestopedia → sugestopedija A humanistic teaching method that claims that students can learn prodigious amounts of language in a short time under the correct relaxation techniques. It makes use of dialogues, situations, and translation to present and practise language, and in particular, makes use of music, visual images, and relaxation exercises to make learning more comfortable and effective. Suggestopedia is said to be a pedagogical application of ‘suggestology’, the influ- ence of suggestion on human behaviour. summative test, summative assessment → sumativni test, sumativno ocenjevanje, (končno/zaključno ocenjevanje) A test which is given at the end of a course of instruction, and which measures or ‘sums up’ how much a student has learned from the course. [cf. formative test] syllabus → učni načrt (za predmet) That subcomponent of a curriculum concerned with the selection, sequencing, and jus- tification of linguistic and experiential content. It contrasts with methodology, which is concerned with the selection, sequencing, and justification of tasks and activities. In British usage, the content of a particular language program or the step-by-step guide that sequences and organizes content, specifying what is to be taught. [cf. curriculum] T target language → ciljni jezik The language the learner is trying to learn. [cf. foreign language, mother tongue, second language] task → opravilo A task is an activity in which a person engages in order to attain an objective, and which requires the comprehension and/or production of meaningful messages. A pedagogic task is a piece of classroom work having a beginning, middle, and an end, and a focus principally (although not exclusively) on meaning. In contrast with pedagogic exercises, tasks have a non-linguistic outcome. 34 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms task-based approach, task-based syllabus → na opravilih temelječ pristop / učni načrt A syllabus in which the designer has taken a series of tasks (rather than a set of linguistic items, such as structures and/or functions) as the point of departure for the design pro- cess. teacher-centred, teacher-centredness → osredinjen na učitelja, osredinjenost na učitelja An approach/activity in which the teacher determines what is to be taught and directly controls the teaching of it. teacher talking time; TTT → količina/obseg učiteljevega govora The amount of time the teacher talks within the lesson. [cf. student talking time, STT] teaching aids → učni pripomočki, učila, učna sredstva (Audio or visual) devices used by a teacher to help learning. They can be mechanical (e.g. slides, OHP, film, film strips, cineloops, episcope or epidiascope, record-player, TV, radio, VCR, spirit duplicator, etc.), non-mechanical (chalkboard/blackboard; whiteboard/dryboard, flan- nelboard, magnet board, flipcharts, pastiboard, maps and plans, model theatre, glove pup- pets, cardboard clocks, picture dictionaries, wallcharts, realia, Blu-Tack, etc.), or digital. [cf. audiovisual aids, realia, visual aids] teaching aims (general objectives) → splošni cilji; učni cilji General objectives, or aims, are the underlying reasons for or purposes of a course of in- struction (e.g. to teach students to read and write a foreign language). Aims are long-term goals, described in very general terms. [cf. teaching objective, lesson aims] teaching objectives (specific objectives) → operativni cilji; [učni cilji] A goal of a course of instruction. Two different types of objectives may be distinguished. General objectives, or aims, are the underlying reasons for or purposes of a course of in- struction (e.g. to teach students to read and write a foreign language). Aims are long-term goals, described in very general terms. Specific objectives (or simply objectives), are descrip- tions of what is to be achieved in a course. They are more detailed descriptions of exactly what a learner is expected to be able to do at the end of a period of instruction (e.g. use of the linking words and, but, however, although). [cf. teaching aim, lesson aims] teaching points → učna snov, nova snov Particular aspects of the language selected by the teacher for presentation to a particular class of learners. [cf. lesson content] teaching steps → učni koraki A teacher’s actions or procedures making up his or her execution of a lesson; a way of structuring a lesson. Most lessons do not consist of a single activity; rather the teacher analyses the overall goals of the lesson and the content to be taught and then plans a sequence of activities to attain those goals. This sequence of sub-activities for a lesson establishes a kind of format or script for the lesson. Experienced teachers often have a mental format in mind when they think of a particular kind of lesson, such as a reading lesson, a composition class, a listening lesson, and so on. This format represents the se- quence of activities which make up the lesson. [cf. executing a lesson, staging] technique → tehnika, aktivnost Language teaching is sometimes discussed in terms of three related aspects: approach, method, and technique. Different theories about the nature of language and how languag- 35 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms es are learned (the approach) imply different ways of teaching language (the method), and different methods make use of different kinds of classroom activity (the technique). [cf. approach, method] threshold level → raven sporazumevalnega praga The specification, made for the Council of Europe (for English), referring to the minimum level of language proficiency which is needed to achieve functional ability in a foreign language. timeline → časovna premica The visual representation of time; very useful with tenses. top-down processing → pristop od zgoraj navzdol The use of background knowledge, knowledge of text structures, and/or knowledge of the world to assist in the interpretation of discourse. [cf. bottom-up processing] total physical response (TPR) → popolni telesni odziv (PTO) A ‘humanistic’ language teaching method that links physical action to learning; for ex- ample, learners follow commands. The process mimics the way that infants learn their first language, and it reduces student inhibitions and lowers stress. TPR works well when teaching vocabulary, particularly verbs; difficult to explain actions (e.g. wiggle, slide, launch), storytelling and narrative language, and imperatives and classroom language. Also popular are TPR songs, with actions embedded to promote understanding and memorability. transitions → prehodi How the teacher links different stages of a lesson together, i.e. how they make transitions between one point in the lesson and the next task or activity which is different. [cf. execut- ing a lesson, staging, teaching steps] V visual aids → vizualna učna sredstva, vizualni učni pripomočki Things which the students can see (e.g. pictures, photos, cartoons, blackboard drawings, puppets, wall charts, diagrams, models, realia, and even the view from the window), and which therefore help them to understand. [cf. audiovisual aids, realia, teaching aids] voice → glas If the teacher’s voice does not have sufficient range, variety and projection, they are go- ing to be at a considerable disadvantage in the classroom. The voice alters fairly naturally, according to the activity, the size of the class, the room, etc. A class often mirrors the teacher’s volume. If you speak quietly, the students speak quietly; when you raise the volume, so do they. [cf. audibility] W wait time → čakalni čas The length of time teachers wait after asking a question. It is important for students to have sufficient time to think about questions after they have been asked before attempt- ing to answer them. According to some research, most teachers never manage to extend 36 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms their wait time beyond one or two seconds. The issue of wait time is important in lan- guage classrooms because of the greater processing time required to comprehend and interpret questions in a second or foreign language. warm-up, warm-up activity, warmer → začetna ogrevalna dejavnost The students themselves are often an underused resource: in particular we can use their lives and feelings for any number of interpersonal exchanges. Such activities fall into the ‘humanistic’ category and are often useful at the beginning of classes to warm things up (‘warmers’) or to create a good and positive atmosphere in new groups which are a bit ‘icy’ (‘ice breakers’). These are short activities at the start of a lesson which are not neces- sarily related to what is to follow. Such activities could also be used as fillers when you have time on your hands at the end of your lesson, or during a lesson to vary the pace. [cf. icebreakers] washback, washback effect → povratni učinek Washback (alternatively ‘backwash’) is the influence of a test, either positive or negative, on teaching and learning, e.g. ‘teaching for the test’. while-reading or while-listening (stage, activity) → med-bralna / med-poslušalna dejavnost A stage within the three-part skills model for developing listening and reading com- prehension skills. This model takes into account not only the need for a range of inter- esting texts but also the importance of appropriate activities to activate, develop and exploit comprehension skills. Activities in this model may be divided into three broad categories: (1) pre-listening/reading activities; (2) while-listening/reading activities, and (3) post-listening/reading activities. The while-reading/listening stage guides and checks understanding and fosters a range of appropriate comprehension strategies. [cf. pre- and post-reading/listening stage] word-attack skills, text-attack skills → spretnosti ugibanja pomena, spretnosti za spoprijemanje z besedilom Encouraging students to guess the meaning of words from the context instead of pre- senting or pre-teaching all the new words in a text before they read it or listen to it. An important part of reading (and listening) is being able to guess the meaning of unknown words, and we can give students some practice in developing guesswork strategies and discovery techniques. Successful reading involves using word attack skills such as iden- tifying sound/symbol correspondences, using grammatical knowledge to recover mean- ing, using skimming and scanning for key words or information, relating text content to one’s own background knowledge of the subject, identifying the rhetorical or functional intention of individual sentences or text segments, etc. writing, written production, writing skills, writing activities → pisanje, pisno sporočanje, pisne spretnosti, pisne dejavnosti The focus of written production is on students learning how to make deliberate produc- tion decisions in light of purpose, message and intended audience. They then craft the text accordingly and justify the choices made. Writing is also the process or result of recording spoken language using a system of visual marks on a surface. The concept includes the particular writing system (or orthography) which is available for a language, the choice and mastery of a particular medium of expression (usually handwriting or typing), and the prod- uct which emerges (the piece of writing, or composition). [cf. process writing] 37 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms A Slovenian-English Glossary of Basic Pedagogic Terms Slovenian English andragogika adult education; [andragogy] asistent pri pouku tujega jezika foreign language assistant blok ura double period bralna značka reading badge čistilka, čistilec cleaner devetošolec (tj. učenec 9. razreda OŠ) ninth-former (BrE); ninth-grader (AmE) dežurni učenec; dežurstvo pupil/student on duty; being on duty, duty hours didaktika theory of education; [didactics] diferenciacija (glej nivojski pouk) streaming, ability grouping diferencialni izpit bridging examination diploma degree dnevnik register, teacher’s record book; form/ attendance register dodatni pouk support lessons, additional classes/ lessons, high achievers’ classes dopolnilni pouk remedial classes/lessons dualni sistem (poklicnega izobraževanja) dual system (of vocational education) dvojezična šola bilingual school ekskurzija excursion; school trip gimnazija grammar school; humanistic secondary school, general-program secondary school govorilne ure consultation hours graja negative note/record hišnik caretaker, janitor (AmE) igrišče playground; playing fields individualne hospitacije (individual) teaching observations inšpekcija; inšpektor school inspection; school inspector izbirni predmet elective subject izključitev (iz šole); izključiti expulsion; expel, suspend 38 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms Slovenian English izmenski pouk school shift; the school has split hours/a split day izpit examination, exam izpitna komisija board of examiners, examination board izpitni red examination code izvenšolska dejavnost out-of-school activity, extramural activity, extra-curricular activity; school club jezikovna gimnazija language secondary school klasična gimnazija classics secondary school knjižnica; knjižničar(ka) library; librarian konferenca assessment period meeting kontrolna vaja/kontrolka (control) test krožek/interesna dejavnost/obšolska (after-school) club (e.g. a photo club); dejavnost extra-curricular activity lekcija/učna enota (coursebook) unit mala šola preschool, nursery school matura matura examination(s) mednarodna matura International Baccalaureate (IB) mentor/-ica supervisor, mentor, tutor naravoslovni dan fieldwork day naravoslovni predmeti natural science subjects nastop demonstration/model lesson, assessment lesson (ne)napovedano spraševanje (un)notified testing, testing with(out) prior notification nivojski pouk streaming, ability grouping obvezni izbirni predmet compulsory elective subject ocenjevalno obdobje assessment period ocenjevanje marking, grading oddelek class odmor break; playtime; recess okrožnica circular opisno/numerično ocenjevanje descriptive/numerical assessment opomin admonition, demerit (AmE) opravičena/neopravičena ura (un)authorized absence 39 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms Slovenian English opravičilo absence note osnovna šola primary school (BrE); elementary/grade school (AmE) osnovnošolec/osnovnošolka primary-school pupil (BrE); elementary school student, grade-school student (AmE) ozvočnica announcement (over the loudspeaker) pedagogika educational science, pedagogy pedagoška obveznost teaching load podaljšano bivanje extended school day, supervised homework/private study poklicna matura vocational matura examination(s) pomočnik ravnatelja assistant head, assistant principle ponavljač/ponavljalec student repeating a year popravljati naloge marking homework popravni izpit re-examination predmet subject predmetna stopnja (osnovne šole) primary school subject level(s), second-cycle/third-cycle level(s) predmetni učitelj subject teacher predmetnik curriculum, syllabus; set of subjects predura (extra) early class preizkus teacher-made test, test paper preverjanje assessment priprava; letna priprava lesson plan; annual scheme of work pripravnik trainee, apprentice, probationary teacher, teacher on probation projekt project ravnatelj head, head teacher; principal (AmE) razred class (BrE); form (may refer to several classes in one year); grade (AmE) razredna stopnja (osnovne šole) early-grade levels, elementary/first-cycle level razredna ura form-class, form-period, homeroom meeting razrednik class teacher 40 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms Slovenian English razredni pouk first stage/initial education razredni učitelj elementary education teacher, first-cycle primary school teacher, early-grade teacher, generalist (teacher) reditelj monitor redovalnica grade book roditeljski sestanek parent-teacher meeting skupinske hospitacije group teaching observations spričevalo (school) report; school record srednješolec/srednješolka secondary-school pupil (BrE); high-school student (AmE) strokovni izpit teacher licensing/certification examination suplenca (nadomeščanje); suplirati to cover/stand in for a teacher, to do a (nadomeščati); učitelj, ki suplira stand-in for a teacher; to be Ms X’s stand- in; a cover (internal), a stand-in, a stand-in teacher; a supply teacher (from outside) šola v naravi field trip šolska kuhinja canteen; school cafeteria; school meals/ lunch šolska malica midmorning snack, early lunch šolska proslava/slovesnost school function, school event, [school festival, speech day] šolski radio school radio šolska reforma educational reform šolska svetovalna služba (school) counselling service šolska ura school period šolske počitnice school holidays šolski časopis school newspaper/magazine šolski red school rules/regulations šolski spis composition šolsko leto school year športni dan sports day svet šole school council tekmovanje iz angleščine English language competition telovadnica gym 41 A Glossary of Basic ELT Terms Slovenian English test test triletje triennium (pl –nia); triad učbenik textbook, course book učiteljski zbor teachers’ assembly učna gradiva teaching materials učna oblika interactive pattern, student grouping, mode of working učni cilj goal; aim; objective učni načrt (za predmet) syllabus učni pripomočki teaching aids ukor letter of reprimand ura period, lesson urnik timetable; schedule Vesela šola Vesela šola competition vpis enrolment vrtec kindergarten, day nursery vzajemno/kolegialno popravljanje peer correction (napak) zaključni izpit final examination zbornica staff room zunanje/eksterno preverjanje external assessment žepna redovalnica pocket grade book Acknowledgement: Thanks are due to David Limon and Kirsten Hempkin for their advice on this glossary. 42