VI I
II
intormatica '«ì:
informatica
Published by INFORMATIKA , Slovene Society tor Informatics, 61000 Ljubljana, Parmoya 41, Yugoslavia
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T. Aleksić, Beograd, D. Bitrakov, Skopje, P. Dra-gojlović, Rijeka, S. Hodžar, Ljubljana, B. Horvat, Maribor, A . Mandžič, Sarajevo, S. Mihalić, Varaždin, S. Turk, Zagreb.
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T. Banovec, Zavod SR Slovenije za družbeno planiranje, Ljubljana
A . Jerman-Blažič , Republiški komite za družbeno
planiranje in informacijski sistem, Ljubljana
B. Kldmenčič, ISKRA, Elektromehanika, Kranj . S. Saksida, Insitut za sociologijo pri Univerzi v Ljubljani
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JOURNAL OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS
YU ISSN 0350-5596
VOLUME 6. 1982 - No. 2
p. M.Lavorel
CONTENTS
3 Steps Towards Natural Computation
A.P.Zeleznikar 13
J.Weiss
l.Hratko l.Kononenko 1. Mozetič
M.M.Miletić
A.M.Jenkins
S.Brajović--Bralai|ović
B.Džonova--Jerman-BInžič
S.K.Kburml
C.B.	Besani H.A.Pak
16 21
27 30
34 38
J.J.Dujmović 45
D. Peče k
B.Kastelic
R.Murn
V.Smolej
T.Erjavec,
B.Sosič A. Hudobi vnik
55
61
63 69
74 78 80
Informatization as the World Challenge
Computergraphics and CAD Activities.in Austria
An Efficient Implementation of Advice Language 2
Electronic Computers Techiiolooy
Meeting the Challenge for Information Systems in the 80's
Standards and Standardisation Policy in the Field of Informalii s and Computer
llie Design and Development ol a Microcomputer Based CAD/CAM System for 2 1/2 Milling Operations
Compiler Performance Measurement and Analysis
Transparent Multiprocessing -(Micro) Computer Systems of Tomorrow
PILOTA" - A Preprocessor for CAI Language
Simulator of the 8051 Microcomputer
Structured Assembler for Microproi-essor 68000
Programming Quickies
News
' Meetings
informatica
časopis izdaja Slovensko društvo INFORMATIKA, 61000 Ljubljana, Parmova 41, Jugoslavija
UREDNIŠKI ODBOR:
Člani : T. Aleksić, Beograd, D. Bitrakov, Skopje, P. Dr.i-gojlović. Rijeka, S. Hodžar, Ljubljana, B. Horvat, Maribor, A. Mandžić, Sarajevo, S. Mihalić, Varaždin, S. Turk, Zagreb.
Glavni in odgovorni urednik: Anton P. Železnikar
TEHNIČNI ODBOR: Uredniki področij:
V. Bal.Kielj, D. Vitas - programiranje
I. Bralko - umetna inteligenca
D. Ć(!('oz-Kecmanović - Informacijski sistemi
M. Exol - operacijski sistemi
A . Jerman-Blažič - novice založništva
B'. Džonova-Jerman-Blažič - literatura in srečanja
L. Lenart - procesna informatika
D. Novak - mikro računalniki
Neda Papié - pomočnik glavnega urednika
L. Pipan - terminologija
B. Popovič - novice in zanimivosti
V. Rajkovič - vzgoja in izobraževanje
M..\Š|ie<jel, M. Vukobratović - robotika
P. Tancig - računalništvo v humanističnih in
družbenih vedah S. Turk - materialna oprema A . Gorup - urednik v SOZD Gorenje Tehnični urednik: Rudi Murn
ZALOŽNIŠKI SVET
T, Banovec, Zavod SR Slovenijo za družbeno planiranje, Ljubljana A . Jerman-Blažič, Republiški komite za družbeno
. planiranje in.informacijski sistem, Ljubljana
B. Klemenrič, Iskra, Elektromehanika, Kranj S. Saksida, Institut za so<:iolo<jijo pri Univerzi v
Ljubljani,Ljubljana J. Virant, Fakulteta za elektrotehniko. Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljuliljana
Uredništvo in uprava: Informatica, Parmova 41, 61000 Ljubljana, telefon (061) 312-988, teleks: 31366 YU DELTA
Letna naročnina za delovne organizacije je 500,<M.> ilin, za redne člane 200,00 din, za študente 100,00/r)0,()() din, posamezne številke 100,00 din Žiro račun šf.: SOlOl-678-51841
Stališče ure<lništva se lahko razlikuje od mnenj,i avtorjev.
Pri financiranju revije sodeluje tudi Raziskovalna skupnost Slovenije.
Na podlagi mnenja Republiškega sekrotariata za prosvoto in kulturo št. 4210-1'l/7y z dne 1.2.1479, jo časopis oproščen temeljnega davka od prometa proizvodov.
Tiskt Tiskarna KRESIJA, Ljubljana
Grafična oprema: Rasto Kirn
ČASOPIS ZA TEHNOLOGIJO RAČUNALNIŠTVA
IN PROBLEME INFORMATIKE
ČASOPIS ZA RAČUNARSKU TEHNOLOGIJU I
PROBLEME INFORMATIKE
SPISANIE ZA TEHNOLOGIJA NA SMETANJETO
I PROBLEMI OD OBLASTA NA INFORMATI KATA
YU ISSN 0350-5596
LETNIK 6,1982 - št. 2
VSEBINA
P. M. Laverei	3	Stops Towards Natural
A.P.Žx,leznikar		Cojnpulalion
	13	informatizacija kol svetovni izziv
J .Weiss	16	Computergraphics and CAI)
		Arlivities in Austria
1.Bral ko	21	An Efficient linplenientation ol
I.Konunciiko		Ailvice Language 2
i. Mozetič		
M.M.Milotić	27	Tehnologija eloklrcmskih računarsKili
		sisti;ma
A.M.Jenkins	30	Meeliiuj the Challenge for
		Inlorinalion Systems in the HO's
S.lirajović-	34	Siandarxli i polilika stantlardi/.iriji,-
-Bratanovič		u oblasti infornialike ll. deo
B.IJžonova-		
-.lerman-Ulažič		
S.K.Khurnii	38	The Design and Development of a
C.B.Besani		Microcomputer Based CAD/CAM
H. A. Pak		System for 2 1/2 Milling Ojiej-alions
J.J.Dujmović	4r.	Compiler Performance Moasinement
		and Analysis
D.Peček	55	I'ransparenlnu mullijirocesiranje -
B.Kastelic		(Mikro) računalniški sistemi
R.Murn		jutrišnjega dne
V.Snioloj	61	PILOT/K - predpi ocesor za računal-
		niško fxxjprto programirano učenje
T.Erjavec	63	Sinnilator miKi oraćunalnika 8051
R.Sosič	69	Strukturirani zbirnik za mikro-
A.liudobivnik		računalnik 08ÜU0
	74	Uporabni pro<irami
	78	Novice in zanimivosti
	HO	Srečanja
STEPS TOWARDS NATURAL COMPUTAT IO N
UDK: 159.953:681.3
PIERRE MAREE LAWOREL CNRS, INSERM UNIT 94, LYON, FRANCE
This article deals with problems of natural computation, I.e. processes In human brain indicating some avenues of research in neuropsychology and neurollngulstics where inspiration may be found for future advances in computational science. The article discovers problems of human software and brain wetware, cooperative processes in the brain, and computer simulation of activity in the brain. The new approach presented in this article enables neuropsychologists to test cognitive models of brain processing that are thought to match anatomical and psyslo-logical discoveries. Computer simulation thus appears to be an efficient method to verify the relevance and the robustness of theoretical models in the neurosclences.
(The Editor)
Koraki V smeri naravnega računanja. Ta članek obravnava problematiko naravnega računanja, tj. procesov v človekovih možganih s posebnim ozirom na raziskave v nevropsihologiji in nevroling-vlstlkl, kjer Je moč pričakovati Ideje za prihodnji razvoj računalniških znanosti. Članek odkriva probleme človekove programske opreme In možganske "vlažnosti", kooperativnih procesov v možganih ter računalniške simulacije možganskih aktivnosti. Nov pristop, ki Je v članku prikazan, omogoča nevropslhologu preizkuSanJe kognitivnih modelov možganskega procesiranja, ki se ujemajo z anatomskimi in fizloloSklml odkritji. Računalniška simulacija se tako pokaže kot učinkovito sredstvo pri preverjanju tehtnosti in obstojnosti teoretičnih modelov v nevrozna-nostl.
In 1961, Marvin Minsky published a paper entitled "Steps towards A.I. (Artificial Intelligence)". His Influence and that of his students or colleagues (Schank, Ulnograd. Newell. Colby, Bobrow, Woods) were so great that the crowd of computer scientists quickly realized that a new science was born. Cybernetics, the mother discipline concerned with machine processes as well as brain processes and other natural systems dynamics, was considered to be too old and too general. Cognitive psychology, brain theory, social systems dynamics, and AI gradually developed as diversified fields. But processing models remained a central issue. In computer programs for the comprehension of language, for Instance, debates went on about which top-down or bottom-up algorithms were more efficient, or what types of data were to be processed (acoustic data, syntactic structures, or semantic-pragmatic representations). Yet, one sweeping statement frequently made by AI specialists kept disturbing people who worked In neuropsychology and In linguistics. Almost everjjione In the computer sciences claimed thak psychological reality as well as neurophyslologlcal reality could be forgotten when one cortcelved a system that would handle language, or control a robot, or solve heuristic problems. The only questions to be asked were t Does It do the trick7 Is It both economical hflnd efficient? What Is the
percentage of error? Very soon, however, honest scientists had to admit that while AI systems were at the origin of very useful methodological progress In program designing and In computational theory, they could not successfully replace man for verbal coimiunl-catlon. The only systems that seemed to yield satisfactory results were extremely sophisticated and costly, and could only handle relatively small samples of natural language (e.g. for English : Thorne, Bratley and Dewar (1968), Woods (1970), Rieger (1975), Riesbeck (1975), Winograd (1972), Schank (1973, 1975), Simmons (1973), Small (1980)). Besides, these systems did not solve many morpho-syntactic ambiguities, and anaphora or ellipsis caused misinterpretations.
For all these reasons, foremost AI experts started meeting cognitive scientists, linguists, and neurologists In the 1970's, In order to renew the partly unsuccessful approaches which they had favored before. After severa! Individual experiments, like HARPY (Newell, 1978), HWIM (Woods et al., 1976). HEARSAY I and II (Erman et al., 1980), PARSIFAL (Marcus. 1978) and PSI-KLONE (Bobrow and Webber (1980), where some hypotheses about natural language comprehension wer'e tested, two conferences were organized by Arblb, Caplan and Marshall In 1980-1981 at the University of Massachusetts (Arblb et al., 1982).	'
Thn piirivirr w,is explkltely to ft>rraii1.ite somo noural moilols of Isngiiatio processing anH pncoùraqe p<irt.kipants lo put thnm to the tost with computer simulation and renewefl testlnq In clinical noiiropsycholoqy.
Followlntj iho sarao eplstpmoloqlcal track, I shall now try to Indicate some aveniios of research In neiiropsycholo v and ""»rollmiilstlcs where Inspiration may be found for future advances In computational sclencii». I sitqqest to call this new style of Informatics M.Č. («bhrevlated for Natural Computation).
IlllfWI SOFfWARF ANn BRMH WEJWARE.
.....~' TKari1<s"To 'mSny šiicćessriiT discnverles
of the Inst twenty years, brain sciences have much to offer to theoreticians of Informatics. The biophysical study of the central nervous system of animals and the now powerfully Instrumented observations of lesioned human brains have enabled neurophyslolo<)istr. and neuropsycholoqists tn formulate models of how the 14 billion neuron brain processes
- representations of the physical
world,
-	representations of real or imaqinary social, cultural, and artistic worlds,
-	schenas of elementary motor acts,
-	mais, plans and strategies for complex behavior,
interartlve control between representations, schemas, and overall scheming,
-	second or third order representations of representations, called voluntary or involuntary lanquaqe and siqn communl-cation (See Lavorel, 198.V).
It must first he admitted that the brain does not work like a classical computer with stored data and sets of coded rules to be applied In a given order corresponding to algorithms or sets of programs. The nature of neural activity is totally unrelated to the nature of intellectual objects being processed. Neurons or neuron modules Just keep being active or inhibited (Szentàgothai and Arbib, 1971). nasically, the biochemical and electro-magnetio phenomena of neural tissue ate the same In the most stupid amphibians and In the most famous Nobel prize winners (fccles, 1977). What is different in animal and In man is first the number of neural processors and their ability to memorize and forget. Secondly, the number of connections, their architecture and their plasticity determine self-organization in the system, and a gradual diversification or a redundancy of Its functional subsystems. Thirdly, the order of complexity of the simultaneous propagations of rhythmic signals in the cortex, which Is a consequence of the two properties already distinguished, ensures a style of cnniputatlon which can transfer and transform information In a functionally efficient manner, in spite of conflicting stimulations, of minor breakdowns, or of possibly erroneous knowledge. Thus, the human brain can be hyperactive in order to adapt itself instantaneously to Intricate aspects of novel stimulation, or It can react more economically and more automatically to recurring situations that It has learned to Identify and categorize.
Some neurophyslologlsts and some electrical engineers have tried to devise networks that would possibly approach the computational properties of mammal neural modules (e.g. Reiss (1962), Mc Gregor and Lewis (1977), Anderson, RItz, Sllverstein and Jones (1977), de Callatay (1981), Wood (19nr)). However, the fact that they do research for electronic computers limits their attempts essentially to the study of
multiplexing, of timing control, of noise filtering, and of cellular automata with ftizzy Inputs. What they show has In fact already been predicted by mathematicians like Winograd and Cowan (1961), Nilsson (19fi5), Amari and Arbib (1977), Arbib and Manes (1975) or Dalenoort (19fll). It has also been observed at a microscopic level by anatomists and physiologists. Mountcastle (1976) for example showed how skin sensations are distributed In the monkey's brain in an
Hgure 1. Cumulated PET Scans during a rep~eFftTon task (Left and Right hemispheres, In Lavorel, 19fi3). G = left; D = right.
overlapping manner across the post-rolandic somato-sensory area. He and others explained that parallel representations ensure rich, accurate, and safe computation when thousands of neurons can answer simultaneously to, say, a prickling stimulation at the tip of one finger. Thus, first generation networks of artificial modules have only verified mathematical or electrophysiological models..
In fact, a reductionist attitude, although it teaches us something about some physical properties of some layers of neural tissue, does not increase our global comprehension of the processing style of the brain when, for Instance, an animal sees a prey and catches It, or a man sees cherries and says "I'd like a pound of these cherries, please". So, what are the main principles that subserve mental representations and
ichemas? To-day^ by covering much muUldlscl-p11nary theoretical ground I will try and define coopèrative computation which Is one of these principles. 1 claim {Rät this aspect of Natural Computation can be implemented on modern computers and that It could enable scientists to Improve the efficiency of their systems for language comprehension, picture recognition and automatic control of robot movements. .
COOPERATIVE PROCESSES ,
The first striking fact that PET Scan pictures of the brain at work (Lassen et al., 1978) have shown neurologists Is that when a subject Is either, perceiving something night, sound or body sensation), or doing something (talking, moving a hand, etc...). Injected gluclds can be seen to be metabolized at the same time In several areas of the brain. The following picture Is a cumulated representation of such an activity for several subjects who repeat numbers as they are hearing them.
Here, high activity can be observed In the temporal lobes, In lower and upper parts of the frontal lobes, along Rolando's fissure, and relatively Intense activity is also to be found in several areas of the anterior and posterior lobes. Although the localization of high activity varies from one task to another, or from one type of stimulus to another, mental computation always seems to take place in a cooperative manner between several perceptual or gnosic areas of the posterior lobes and several motor or planning areas, of the frontal lobes. Pathology had Indicated that If only one area Is severely lesloned, processing Is disturbed at least for some time. That led to the belief of gnosic centers, praxic centers, language centers, etc... The global observation of normal activity Indicates that the emphasis should -be put on cooperation (or connexions, for neuroanatomlsts) rather than on localization. Performance may of course be disturbed and will have to be reorganized 1f part of one processing subsystem Is destroyed. It may even not be reorganized If the system has aged and evolved Into an over-specialized, over-automatized entity, That Is particularly true for secondary perceptual and motor areas which already reach a relatively stable state a few weeks after birth.
From the standpoint of the cognitive functions that have to be Inferred whenever psychologists study intelligent activities, like form recognition, or the grasping of an object on a table, or language comprehension. It is of course comforting to find that many cortical and subcortical areas have to collaborate in every form of behavior. To claim that the understanding of a spoken message must Involve many levels of analysis and that these parallel searches may cancel or confirm one another (Lesser et al., 1981), or to claim that differences in processing speeds between one comprehension process and another may occasion hasty, partial, and erroneous interpretations (Frailer and Rayner, 1980), all that is entirely in keeping with what conjectures can be made about more or less successful idiosyncracies of calculation going on between the cooperating subsystems of the; brain. But, instead of reasoning in abstracto as linguists have been accused of doing. It would be better to try and stipulate how cooperative Interaction really takes place. There are four levels of issue that need to be considered by brain theory scientists :
1.	What is the nature of information , propagation between co-active areas? Is €Here
something line bottom-up or top-down transfer between prfniary, secondary and other repre-: sèntational areas? Or between different modalities of cognition (Visual, auditory, somato-sensory)? Are control modalities distributed or centralized in certain areas (Frontal, limbic, sub-cortical)?
2.	What are the basic functions for computation between ?lie sTx layers of the
' corwx, between adjoining columns or modules, and between neighboring neurons?
3.	Is there Wild competition or well-timed harm^ous regulation between the two hemispheres? or between these two hemispheres and other sub-cortical more primitive subsystems?
4.	Hw does a co-operative system evolve over time?	'i I win not address the fourth issue In this paper. Elements for an understanding of the problem have been suggested In Lavorel (1982) and In various papers about the research carried on by Spinelli, Bartow, or Bozlnovski (1982).
1. What is the nature of information propagatiörTTtetween co-actlye areas?	""
Since no ultimate an-lnclus1ve model can be devised at the present stage of physiological -knowledge, it might be best to cite a few significant experiments that will suggest the style of information propagation In the cortex.
The recording of individual neurons or of groups of neurons In animals, as well as the anatomical study of cortico-cortical pathways with chemical or radio-active tracers, and with artificial lesions (Jones , and Powell, 1970) has Indicated that afferent signals travel from primary to associative, areas (secondary, tertiary, etc...). It was therefore believed until recently that processing was hierarchically organized and that the associative areas dealt with more abstract and multimodal patterns while primary areas only identified features. It was also believed that secondary associative sensory information was normally sent to . motor areas (Everts and Fromm, 1977). At least three experiments have recently shown that things are a little more complex. For instance, ascending activation waves are regulated (i.e. inhibited or preactivated) by descending priming. In many cases, perceptual neurons (e.g. of the primary visual cortex) may fire when motor responses to their previous sensory Inputs are record^ (Fischer" and Boch, 1981). For example7th"e following histograms from Brldgeman's recent paper (1982) show the peak activity of three neurons of layer IV of the primary visual cortex of monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) while these trained (awake) animals performed a voluntary movement in answer to a visual stiniulus (light). Two neurons out of three keep firing while the motor response Is triggered off. The histograms on the right show mean activity for a whole group of visual neurons (Multiplexing hypothesis) when there is and when there is not a motor response (= incorrect behavior) :
Correct
15-
Flgure
2.
-of
Two activity peaks In the visual monkeys. One corresponds to the
cortex
motor response (R), one to visual stirauljtlon that preceeded It (-120 mill1-seconds).Two visual neurons' out of three show renewed low activity (spikes = 6 per sec. and 8 per sec.) during the motor response.
-200 -100 O
T
Time (msec) R
^ 4
o.
<n
Ui
-200 -100 0
Time (msec) R
-200 -100 0»
Time (msec)
The next figure represents peaks recorded 1n the secondary associative visual cortex of anesthetized paralyzed cats. Through learning, comparable responses can be evoked when an Individual neuron Is first primed by simultaneous visual and auditory stimuli and then excited only by the visual stimuli previously associated with auditory information.
f	I
L + C"
50 msec
millisecondes o lOO 200
Figure 3. Modifiable discharge of a visual cortex neuron {Reproduced from Morrei, 1972). L stands for "response to a light beam stimulus". C stands for "response to a click". The fourth series of peaks (L) matches the third (L + C). The four series correspond to successive sequences of light, click, light and dick, light stimulations. 40 repetitions of L + C are sufficient to determine multimodal learning.
Figure 4. Is tills line horiznnt.il? (Siiiinif TTame). Discrimination is difficult. Vlsu.il feature perception is not indepeiult-nl frdni associated information.
The third experiment curisUls in showing horizontal lines on a circular scroi.Mi to a subject (animal or human) waiting in Uie dark. The task consists in detecting the lines which are not perfectly horizonldl. Physiological studies have shown that such i Job Is essentially depending on the activity of specific primary and secondary visual cortex neurons firing in a selective iikiiim-r for lines oriented one way or atiolher. llow, if the same lines are shown i noi de of d square frame that may be slightly tilted to the left or to the right, subjects very quickly make errors, thus indicating tliat the identification of oriented lines is far from being only a primary feature detection tusk.
As a first conclusion to these three experiments, one might say that visual perception, which has been picked up as an example of a bottom-up function where ino.Uiles only have to answer to Individual visual features, is In fact a very interactive process. The propagation of Information to and from tnuUf-inodal secondary perceptual areas, to and from motor control areas appears to be Just as Important as. the Input stimuli from the outside world. Seeing is not Just using one's visual system.
If we want to predict all the sorts of feedback and feed-forward regulation between subsystems In the brain, we only have to look at anatomy. Connections between hemispheres, cortex and subcortex, lobes, local modules are Inumerable. Each area of the layered brain Incorporates different neurons partaking In representational or In motor functions. Associative cortex Itself generally includes layers of pyramidal motoneurons as well as layers of other neurons Indirectly connected to perceptual pathways (4 to 7 relays).
Figure 5. Von Economo's model of the BTirrlbuffon of neuron types In five major types of cerebral cortex (Williams and Warwick, 1975). As seen on this picture, when cytoarchitectonic studies of the cortex are consulted, they "^reveal that the so-called specific centers of perception or of motor control ■ are not fitted exclusively with motoneurons or wit,h perceptual neurons. For example. In addition to the giant pyramidal neurons of "frontal" and "parietal" cortex (layers III and V), the above "granular" and "polar" visual cortex (occipital lobe) also Includes, a number of neurons which are known to mediate motor processes (In layer V more exactly). The cortex of Brodmann's frontal areas 6-8 (premotor cortex) Includes a good number of neurons answering to visual stimuli (In layer IV). As for the lower part of the parietal cortex. It Includes layers of neurons participating In almost every representational or motor activity.
Consequently, a reasonable computational hypothesis about cooperation between cortical areas might be that activation is constantly propagated bottom-up and top-down without any other preestablIshed control principles than "motor neurons project to motor neurons, perceptual neurons project to perceptual neurons. As seen In Figure 3 above, specificity for one modality of Information for Individual areas would not even be an absolute principle. According to such hypothesis, what would tune downer preorder trains of signals would not be a preestablIshed central schedule, but only the varying effects of preactlvatlon, of propagation timing, of post-firing refractory states, and of local Inhibition by pre-synaptic
and post-synaptic regulatory neurons. Varying delaying effects might also be attr.lbuted to regulatory neurons of layers I and II (See below). If such a theory was valid, control could even be completely distributed. YeCr pathology has shown that overall planning and scheming ensured by the limbic system In collaboration with fronto-orbltal and prefrontal areas also play a role : Self stimulation and conscious control are constantly Introducing mediation, or priority, or global Inhibition constraints on the Information traffic (Pribram, 1967; Merzenich and Kaas, 1980). Therefore, control is partly dlstiM-buted and partly regulated by coorifrnafTng units.	~
T, What are the basic functions _fo< compulaflon be'tween OTe~six layers of the cortex, between aTjoining columns "or modules, and between nejqHBbnng neuronsT
Ever sThce Pl'tCs anÌT^Hc Cul loch started modelling neuron networks in the fifties, many contradictory theories have blossomed up and faded away. Among the most robust principles kept by all the theoreticians In physiological processes, two must be distinguished because they are relevant to the Issues raised here.
First, the principle of £ooperatiy^ excitation and of reinforcement or fhTiflvrrrun of the activity oFmotor ceiyiay^r^ other layers of the same moTuTe. Äh earTy piece of reliable evidencecame from studies on the frog tectum by Lettvln et al. (1959), by Ingle (1976) and by Ewert (1976). When a frog sitting on a fixed disk Is confronted with flies placed on a circular disk revolving around the first one, it will snap at them after having visually recognized them. Evoked potentials can be recorded in cells of various layers of the tectum. These physical measurements have been analyzed by mathematicians (Didday, 1970), and by theoreticians who built up a plausible theory of visually controlled motor performance (Arblb, 1981). In short, visual information gradually builds up an excitation cycle In several layers of neurons that all Interact directly or indirectly with "foodness layers" where motoneurons are going to fire eventually and send information to the efferent motor system (For a short report and figures, see Lavorel and Arbib, 1981). What is interesting is that, while different layers compote to build up activation, cells of the superior layers (1, U) may or may not inhibit the process on the basis of complementary sensory input (perhaps visual or auditory context effects) and of motor feedback and feed-forward that has to do with present and past motor activity. In summary, everything looks like a coop^r_ative_ decision function based on a very frTcky Timing of :
-	one sensory Input,
-	multimodal knowledge mediation, and
-	activation decay when a delay is Introduced between the initial Input and the final motor output.
Hardcore cybernetlcians would argue that this looks like a sort of Boolean AMD gate function mediated by a delay that Is Itself a function of activation. Inhibition and decay functions. But that would be trying to think In terms of Irrelevant concepts about a new type of calculus that Is not really based on gate management but on very complex Interactive excitation and inhibition among associated cells in an adaptive network. Furthermore, our frog example does not Incorporate linear multiplexing effects which are obviously fundamental in mammal layered brain modules, where we do not deal with half a dozen neurons in six layers but with up to ten thousand of them competing for one decision. But results on mammal studies
would perhaps make the computational style of local modules less obvious because of many physiological details that would hide the principal procedure. For the same didactic reason, the frog model does not go very far In Integrating post-firing refractory states, peripheral Inhibition around excited cells, and competition between neighboring modules or columns that receive Inputs from contralateral sensory channels (e.g. alternating visual columns In the visualcortex correspond to Ipsllateral or contralateral visual stimuli). In fact, phenomena are so Intricate that paper and pencil modelling can not
represent reality, only computer simulation can nanaie many tne variables and keep track or timing constraints!
The second basic function for computation between local cells Is spreading activation d.ynamics which has been considered ly psycholinguists to be a plausible explanation for associative behavior observed In semantic tests (Quilllan, 1968; Collins and Loftus (1975)). Better computational arguments In favor of spreading activation have been offered by neurosclentlsts who work on wave dynamics and resonance phenomena In the axon and dendrite mesh of the cortex (Khodorov (1974).; Scott (1977); and Scott (1978)). De Callatay (1981) recently conceived a brain simulation model that Incorporates cascading top-down and bottom-up wave dynamics In an additive memory connected with a robot and pattern recognition devices. This bidirectional network, where excitation Is propagated after Input stimulation,Is capable of recognizing previously memorized patterns and of associating motor scheraas to sensory Input. Activity Is distributed to the different processing units In a periodical manner and It spreads along connections as long as It Is not Inhibited by concurrent propagation (Refractory or Inhibiting effects). The bursting (i.e. firing) of cells determines vital Intelligent operations, like the decision functions described above. But, simultaneously, the spreading of activation throughout the network ensures learning. Acquired knowledge can thus play a more and more Important role as the system evolves and becomes more or less sensitive to Individual patterns of excitation (For a better understanding, see Minsky, 1980).
Not only learning and physical growth, but also pathology and ageing must be considered when one deals with biological machines. Zaimov, for Instance, studied the effects of blodegradatlon and, based on studies of Wedensky (1901), Pavlov (1949, 1951) and Uchtomsky (1966), found that In the case of lesions normal processing by a neural network may go through successive paranormal phases of extreme activity, of undifferentiated behavior, or of complete Inhibition corresponding to necrotlzatlon.
In short, apart from cooperative decision functions, and spreading activation effects, many other computational aspects of neural modules are being observed, characterized and modelled. Host of the theoreticians conjectures are stUl to be verified. But It Is already possible to assemble some principles and rules Into prototheorles of brain-like layered machines.
3. Is there wild competition or well-timed harmonious regulation between the two hemispheres? Or between these two hemispheres ana other~sub-corticai systems? Most of tRe arguments in this field of research come from the observation of pathology. Nature performs experiments on the human central nervous system when small or
large lesions appear for various traumatic or etiological reasons. The present state of knowledge about hemispheric specialization was reviewed recently by Springer and Deutsch (1981), and by Gazzanlga (1982). Rather than attributing particular faculties to either hemisphere, neurosclentlsts now consider that everything works as If two different entitles, each one having Its own processing style, were functioning slmulta-neously and certainly exchanging results at every step of calculation. Of course, each stimulus remains the same for the two hemispheres If the sensory captors are In a good functional state (Lavorel, 1983 b). What differs Is the role of each hemisphere In ultimate representations of real or Imaginary worlds.
What Is more Interesting Is to consider control and timing effects when
Parallel procedures come to trigger off ehavlor.
A very spectacular and convincing experiment consists In presenting dicampic visual stimuli to normal or lesloned subjects (Lavorel, forthcoming). For a few milliseconds (50 to 200), they are shown a picture on one side (I.e., In one hemlfleld) and a word on the other side. For example. In one hemlfleld they see the picture of a snake and. In the center of the other hemlfleld, they see the word SERGENT. If the stimulus Is presented after many other pictures (preferably faces or moving scenes), subjects often read SERPENT. If the stimulus Is presented after many written words (preferably abstracts or compound words), they see the trap and read SERGENT 1n many cases. If, Instead of presenting the picture of a snake, together with SERGENT, we present another word like SNAKE or VIPER, very few subjects read SERPENT by mistake. The results of this experiment In artificially controlled dyslexia are founded on competition between right and left hemisphere processes. When the double brain- ■system Is habituated to a global Gestalt approach to pictures. It neglects analytical routines that Identify Individual letters and transcode them-Into a phonological structure. When the system Is habituated to a linguistic task, like pure graphic-phonic translation. It Is less Influenced by a pictorial context. That the global Gestalt approach corresponds to right hemisphere dominance and that the analytical graphic-phonic translation corresponds to a left hemisphere dominance can be concluded from the fact that the side of the stimuli Influences performance according to whether subjects are right-handed or left-handed: Another convincing element Is the fact that patients with unilateral lesions tend to have either a unilateral extinction or a marked Inferiority of one procedural style.
Other, pieces of evidence, not about competition, but rather about harmonious cooperation between hemispheres have been found in neuroHngulstlcs, the study of the neuropsychological substrates of language. The analysis of slips of the tongue or of lapsus linguae In normals, and the observation of semantic paraphasia In aphaslcs (Lavorel, 1980), Indicate that repetition, naming or Invoking rest upon converging left and right hemisphere cues (Lavorel, 1981). It Is well known that lesions In the dominant hemisphere are detrimental to language. But It Is also obvious that lesions In the minor hemisphere disturb word-processing transitorily or In a discrete manner. Furthermore, spllt-brain and disconnection studies have proved the minor hemisphere's verbal competence to be real though different and much weaker than the left hemisphere's glib abilities.
A word must be said about sub-cortical
external regulation. Pathology has demonstrated the essential functions of the limbic system, for example. However, much remains to be observed before a good understanding of goal .calculation, of reward and punishment modalities, of attention, of automatization of behavior, etc, can. be reached. Meanwhile,It Is possible to consider that most of the already complex cooperative computation In the cortex 1s either prepared, or crosschecked, or completed by subrcortlcal computation. But we will leave such Issues aside for the moment.
After having accumulated a few pieces of evidence about what Is meant by cooperative computation 1n the central nervous system,, I will now conclude this study of one aspect of N.C. with a brief Illustration of computer models that try to emulate the human brain.
discussed here. They are presented at length In Gigley's PhD dissertation (1982) and in Gigley (1982). the system can be (teflned both as a distributive cooperative computation tool and as a set of deterministic devices achieving undetermlnlstic calculus. For those two reasons HOPE Is the first computer system with control modalities based on N.C.
The results of processing implemented from 1980 to 1982 have surpassed all expectations. Not only does HOPE perform typically human functions but It can also be Induced to commit errors exactly like normal or pathological human brains. To illustrate these statements, here is an account of how HOPE can be used to reproduce our naming behavior and also our difficulties when we cannot for Instance recall somebody's name, or remember how to say "good bye" in Japanese (Although we do know the word and feel that It Is on the tip of our tongues). The processing of visual inputs Is distributed In the following manner :
COMPUTER BRAIN.
SIMULATION OF ACTIVITY IN THE
Computer simulation of Natural Computation does not only provide a way of understanding complex interaction arid fragile timing control in neurological systems. It is also an experimental approach to natural computation as long as the models implemented are true to life and not oversimplified. Initially observed phenomena can be reproduced, often leading to the. discovery of unsuspected relationships and blatant insufficiencies in the models. Later, bold predictions about the weaknesses and the ' strength of neuroblological systems will be possible. Ageing, handicaps and possible recoveries will be understood from the inside of the black box. More strikingly, even heuristic processes of language and of problem solving that had remained out of the reach of machines will be grasped by mimicking the marvellous human brain.
One such system called HOPE has been developed at the University of Massachusetts by Helen Gigley, with the collaboration of neuropsychologists (Duffy and Lavorel). HOPE has been used for the simulation of some aspects . of language pathology (Aphasia). Instead of trying to simulate human performance with a sequential model, the system , permits simultaneous processing that is time synchronous. Several modules deal simulta-i neously with different aspects of a given task. Each module is a threshold mechanism with an associated activation. Excitation propagates at each step of calculation, either according to a fixed-time spreading schedule, or after reaching or surpassing threshold and firing (indicating a decision has been made about one facet of representations or schemas). Other control principles of HOPE are directly Inspired by neurophysiology rather than by traditional algorithmic concerns. They Include :
-	Memory decay : any active Information decays In time unless It Is reinforced;
-	Preorganized distribution of Inputs Into parallel modules that may collaborate or compete according to goals and to the nature of Inputs;
-	Post-firing effects : the firing of one module confirming one decision Inhibits all the other processes that were competing on the same task; '
The firing of one module also determines a very short-term refractory state In the same module.
All these characteristics will not be
STIMULI
COALS
PURPOSES PLANNING OVERALL CONTROL
MOTOR PROGRAMS OUTPUT AND CONTROL :
IN
OUT
DISTRIBUTIVE CONTROL OF INFORMATION IN COOPERATING PROCESSES__
COMPUTATION OF PHONO-ACOUSTIC REPRESENTATIONS
AND
ARTICULATORY SCHEMAS
		COMPUTATION OF
p		PERCEPTUAL-
u		GNOSIC
		
		REPRESENTATIONS
		OF
		WORLD(S)
LINGUISTIC-
SEMIOTÌC PROCESSING
Figure 6. Distributive control of representation modules used for naming tasks (reproduced from Lavorel and Gigley, 1982). It must be added that each one of the processing modules (Phono-acoustic; Perceptual-gnoslc; Lingulstlc-semlotic) may Itself be subdivided Into two complementary ones (One
for each hemisphere).
One Instance of cooperative naming performance can be represented very schematically by the following flowchart :
INPUT-
STIMULI MOTIVATION.
MODIFIED CONCEPTUAL IMAGES
OVERALL
CONCEPTUAL IMAGES
CONTROL
e-
MATCHING CONTROL (CLOSED 1.00P)
ACCESS ÒI'
REPRESEN TATIONS MATCHING PROCEDURES
LINGUISTIC HYPOTHESES
CONTEXTUAL
CONTROL (CLOSED LOOP)
REGENERATION 3F CONCEPTUAL IMAGES
SPEECH SCHEm CONTROL (CLOSED LOOP)
UTTERANCE CONTROL (OPEN LOOP)
OUTPUT
Figure 7. Naming procedure : one instance among many (Lavore! and Gigley, 1982). Note that distributive access to representations is associated with matching procedures (i.e., a sort of (Jynamic lexical component). For the sake of simplicity, only three interacting modes are focussed upon here (In the center, context free component; on the right, context sensitive component; on the left, transformational component). Each one of the three procedural modes competes with others or corrects them.
It must be remembered that since control is basically a matter of interactive activation, inhibition, and decay, knowledge consulted or produced at all levels will only play a part in world representations and in motor acts if it reaches a threshold. And it will do so only if the level of confidence associated with individual processes is high, or if several processes concur in building up confidence.
Abnormal performance, like word amnesia or misnaming, will take place if information that was to be processed in A, B, C, or D (Figure 7) is not transferred, if it is transferred too early or too late, and if it is distorted, fuzzled, or Incomplete, For example, it has been observed that in left hetni-sphere lesions, proper names cannot be associated with portraits of well-known personalities either because patients find it difficult to recognize the individual features of the face presented to them, or becausc they cannot retrieve the phono-articulatory pattern to be associated with the given visual stimulus. Such a natural situation can be simulated by lowering activation either in the given artificial vision module or in the given artificial speech generation module. Thus a decision threshold can never be reached. Other solutions are to lengthen processing time (i.e. activation build-up) and to accelerate Information decay, so that for instance visual identification is fuzzled or erased before it can be matched with one and only one candidate among phonological patterns.
The present state of N.C. models like HOPE can only be a far cry from actual brain work. However, all our recent experiments in cooperative computation tend to encourage us to pursue this new approach to the processing of natural language. Other principles of N.C. based brain studies will soon be tested and applied in systems development and programming. Another advantage of this new approach is that it enables neuropsychologists to test cognitive models of brain processing that are thought to match anatomical and physiological discoveries. Computer simulation thus appears to be an efficient method to verify the relevance and the robustness of theoretical models in the neurosciences.
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INFORMATIZACIJA KOT SVETOVNI IZZIV
UDK: 681.3:007
ANTON P. 2ELEZNIKAR DO ISKRA-DELTA, LJUBLJANA
Informatization as the world challenee. Informatization la a notion which can be deduced in the full sense from Information, Informatics, intelligence, technological, and social progress in the last two or three deicades. Informatization includes computer usage, robotics, new education, intelligent environment, new management information, information home; it transfonua the human behaviour into informatic one and enables the existence of subcultures and super-cultures.
An information is a process of interpretation, representation, evaluation, execution of a message (linguistic, sensual, data, signal) in the central nervous system or also a reaction of a living cell to the changes of its environment. A technological information is convergent (single meaning) in the contrary to the human information which is normally divergent (pragmatic).
Informatics Is a working, research, technological sphere using computer as a concentration of algorithmic Intelligence (determinist.ic knowledge). Informatics is amplifying the human information environment, it develops ita Ideology, style of life and of work; here, tlie silent transition Into informatization as an organizing strategy of life is taking place.
In the transition phase of informatization the intelligence as a specific Information process in brains and machines is getting more and more important creating the so called Intelligent environment. This kind of environment evoluates tlie use of human brain substentlaUy, raising the intensity of Intellectual work. Informatization connects systems into planetary net, information into sceletoo world information, production parts into distributed production, so, the integration of resources Is getting a complete form whicli could not be aciiicwed In the wave of industrialism. In tills way. Informatization is becoming a challenge for developed and undeveloped countries giving tlicm an encouraging vision of the future.
Informatizacija je pojem, kl ga Je mnč smiselno izpeljati Iz pojmov Informacije, informatike, inteligence ter iz tehnološkega in družbenega napredka v zadnjih dveh aH treh desetletjih. Informatizacija vključuje uporabo računalnikov, robotiko, novo presveto, inteligentno okolje, novo upravljalsko Informacijo, informatizirani dom; Informatizacija transformira človekovo obnašanje v informatično in omogoči enakopraven obstoj sub in super civilizacij.
Informacija je proces interpretacije, predstavitve, vrednntenja in izvršitve sporočila (jezikovnega, čutnega, podatkovnega, signalnega) v centralnem živčnem sistemu In Je tudi reakcija žive celice na spremembe njenega okolja. Tehnološka informacija Je konvergentna (enoumno pomenska) v primerjavi s čluveSko informacijo, ki je normalno divergentna (pragmatična).
Informatika Je delovno, raziskovalno in tehnološko področje, ki uporablja računalnik kot nakopičeno al orltmlčno Inteligenco (determinirano znanje). Inlurmatika ojačuje človekovo informacijsko okolje, razvija pa tudi svojo ideologijo, stil življenja In delaj tu r,e začenja tihi prehod v Informatizacijo kot organizacijsko strategijo življenja.
V prehodnem obdobju Informatizacije postaja inteligenca kot posebna oblika informacijskega procesa v možganih In strojih vse bolj pomembna, saj oblikuje tklm. Inteligentno (pametno) okolje. To okolje bistveno evoluira (razvija) uporabo človekovih možganov, ko pospešuje Intenzivnost umskega dela. Informatizacija poveže sisteme v planetarno mrežo, Informacijo v skeletno svetovno informacijo, proizvodne dele v porazdeljeno proizvodnjo; tako dobi integracija virov (človeSklh, materialnih) tisto popolno obliko, ki je nI bilo moč doseči v dobi Indu-strlallzma. Informatizacija postane Izziv za razvite in nerazvite, saj jim daje vzpodbudno sliko prihodnosti.
Uvod
Informatizacija, je pojem, ki ae pojavlja med drugim v delih J.-J. Servan-Schraiberja (1) in A. Tofflarja (3) in ga je moS sm^aelno izpeljati iz pojmov informacije, informatike in inteligence. Informatizacija je novi val (tehnološki, družbeni), ki se razvija po Induatrlalizmu in ta val ae zaEenja v ZDA v razdobju 195S do 1965, nekaj kasneje zajame Japonsko z vso svojo moSjo, v laSji obliki pa tudi zapadno Evropo in druge predele zemeljske oble. Informatizacija obaega uporabo računalnikov na vseh ravninah, robotizacijo proizvodnje s pomoSjo inteligentnih informatiSnih pripomoSkov, novo prosveto, oblikuje pa tudi pametno (inteligentno) okolje, upravljaleko informacijo v druZbeni in zasebni infosferi, informacijski , dom (Toffler imenuje ta pojav elektronski dom), Sloveka preoblikuje v informacijsko intenzivno bitje, ki iz skeletne informacije ustvarja (ustvarjalno oblikuje) svojo polno informacijo, omogoSa pojav, razvijanje in ohranjanje lokalnih in globalnih kultur (subkulture in super-kulture), ki ao s planetarnim Informacijskim sistemom povezane v mrežo. Informatizacija spremeni naün življenja iz industrijskega v informatiSnega.
Toffler predvideva, da bi zaradi informatizacije in robotizacije proizvodnje v prihodnje kar 75 % delavcev opravljalo svoje delo iz svojega elektronskega doma, ki Je seveda ustrezno informatiCno opremljen in povezan npr. s tovarno, pisarno oziroma z delovno funkcijo. To pa pomeni, da tovarna kot industrijska katedrala ne predstavlja veS dnevnega romanja delavcev na delovno mesto, delavci pa so z delovnim procesom povezani iz svojih domov, ko krmilijo, nadzorujejo in usmerjajo proizvodne tokove skladno s svoja delovno funkcijo. To je morda vizija prihodnosti, ki pa se uresničuje 2e danes z uporabo lokalnih-informacijskih mrež in Se ne v polnem obsegu.
Informacija, informatika, informatizacija
Kratko: informacija je proces interpretacije, predstavitve, vrednotenja, izvrSevanja sporoSila (jezikovnega, čutnega, podatkovnega, signalnega) v centralnem živčnem sistemu. Človek sprejema in oddaja sporočila oziroma ukrepa. Öe Je informacija reakcija na spremembo ali stanje okolja, potem Jo Je moč smiselno posploSiti tudi na procese v živi celici (prilagajanje) in na tehnoloSke procese (avtomatsko krmiljenje z viSjo ali nižjo stopnjo t.i. umetne inteligence).
Sporočilo kot dražljaj sproži npr. interpretivni proces v možganih z vsemi pragmatičnimi možnostmi, zato Je informacija kot mednevronski proces (nevron Je živčna celica) oziroma proces v nevronski mreži različna pri enakem sporočilu (ponovljenem, v različnih možganih, pri različnih stanjih spomina, pri različnem kemizmu, električni prevodnosti oz. bioloSkemu stanju nevronske substance) .
TehnoloSka informacija Je predvsem enopomenska (npr. strojno prevajanje jezikov), da bi bili procesi predvidljivi ter v tehnoloBkih mejah. TehnoloBka informacija Je proces ugotavljanja "pomena" (semantike) brez pragmatičnih ekskurzij, je torej konvergentna za razliko od divergentne, razvijajoče informacije v možganih.
Informatika Je delovno, žtvljensko, tehnoloBko področje, uporablja računalnik, ki ima nakopičeno algorlt-mično inteligénco (determinirano znanje) v obliki programov za haJrazličnejSei uporabe. Informatika kot tehno-loSki pojav ojačuje človekovo informacijsko okolje z znanjem (programi) in sredstvi (računalniki, informacijski sistemi, telekomunikacije), DanaBnJa informatika se
tako lahko utemelji na računalniku z njegovo nakopičeno inteligenco in v obliki informacijskih sistemov seže na vsa bistvena področja dela in bivanja. Informatika razvije svojo tehnologijo in metodplogljo ter tudi svojo ideologijo, stil življenja in dela. Tu pa se pravzaprav že začenja tihi prehod v informatizacijo kot organizacijsko strategijo družbe.
Informatika je kot raziskovalno in delovno področje utemeljena z znanostjo o informaciji, raziskavami centralnega živčnega sistema, umetno inteligenco, z računalniškimi znanostmi (raziskovalno in izobraževalno področje), z znanostjo in uporabo informacijskih sistemov, z uporabo računalnikov, z uvajanjem inteligence v robotiko pa tudi z njeno teorijo in prakso, s sistemi za iskanje podatkov in naposled tudi s sredstvi in metodami masovnega in drugega obveBčanJa.
Na prehodu v informatizacijo dobi Inteligenca kot specifičen informacijski proces v možganih In strojih svoj poseben, poudarjen pomen. Prehod iz informatike v Informatizacijo Je bistveno pogojen z Inteligenco, in sicer s povečano strojno pametjo ter z oblikovanjem t.l. inteligentnega (vse bolj pametnega) okolja. Stroj, ki ojačuje znanje človeka in razpolaganje z znanjem, evoluira tudi človekove možgane, sili ga v konstruktivno mišljenje, v delo, ki zahteva obvladanje (odkrivanje in reBevanJe) problemov ter ima svojo praktično, obstojno utemeljeno upodobitev oziroma realno projekcijo. Tako se človek z informatizacijo realizira na drugačen, času in prostoru ustreznejši način, ko izstopa iz dobe indüstria-lizma novemu upanju naproti.
Informatizacija se tako glede na informatiko razBlri, v svoje okrilje vključi in poveže različne infrastrukture, kot so avtomatizacija (regulacijski sistemi), informatika (porazdeljena obdelava podatkov), telekomunikacije (sateliti, mreže), inteligenca (v sistemu, okolju), robotika (robotizacija proizvodnje in storitvenih dejavnosti), raziskovanje {informacijski procesi, nove tehnologije) in izobraževanje. Informatizacija pomeni tako med drugim tudi realizacijo telelnformatlke in njenih posledic, kot sta porazdeljena proizvodnja (delo Iz Informatiziranoga doma) In porazdeljena administracija (Informatizirani urad). Informatizacija omogoči dostop do željenih podatkov, ki so zbrani v posebnih bazah podatkov za Javno uporabo - tudi posameznikom iz njihovih domov - omogoči kakršnokoli od doma ali od drugje naročeno obdelavo podatkov za različne namene: podatki in njihove obdelave postanejo tako porazdeljeni po Informacijski mreži, ki zajame in poveže celoten planet pa tudi izvenplanetarne podatkovne postojanke. Tako niso porazdeljeni samo podatki , porazdeljena Je tudi obdelovalna moč in v Informacijskem pomenu postane svetovna mreža podobna velikemu možganskemu Informacijskemu sistemu.
Pametno okolje
Dvom o tem, da je Informatizacija na pohodu, nima več realnih temeljev. Japonska hiti v robotizacijo In se dviga na vlSje ravnine vsakodnevnega delavčevega izobraževanja iz strahu pred prihodnostjo, v kateri bo moč zadovoljivo reBevatl probleme njenega In svetovnega obstoja le s pomočjo Informatizacije. Z njeno močjo bodo Japonci racionalno uravnavali svojo potroBnjo (surovinsko, energetsko, prehrambeno) in dovolj hitro odpirali možnosti za nove poti proizvodnje, ki bodo postale nujnost (bloloBka, akvakulturna, vesoljska, elektronska industrija).
Izgleda, da bo informatizacija povzročila intenziv-neJBe izkorlBčanJe In uporabo človekovih možganov, s tem
da bo zavestni del drugače napolnjen oziroma informacijsko bolj intenziven, saj se bo naposled tudi £lovek prilagajal informacijskemu okolju.
ZnaSilnost informatizacije kot družbenega procesa Je tedaj tudi v intenzivacijl Slovekovega intelektualnega dela, v prestrukturiranju Sloveka kot vSeraJSnJega roSnega, fizlSnega, plsarnlSkòga in upravljalskega delavca v danaSnJega in novega delavca, ki bistveno dru-gaSe uresniSuJe svoje delovne naloge v nastaJaJoSem in; formacijskem okolju, ki Je bolj pametno. V Sem se ta vilja oblika pameti odraZa?
ZnaSilnost Informatlzaolje Je možnost in nujnost stalnega delavBevega izobraževanja (v Soli in na delovnem mestu) zaradi hitrih sprememb informacijske (in druge) tehnologije. Presveta dobi v informatizaciji novo obllkoi intenzivno Je podprta z informatiSnlml pripomoSkl za uSenJe, dopolnilno in delovno izobraževanje, za reSevanJe in odpiranje problemov, za doseganje vsakrBnih podatkov (strokovnih, upraviJalskih, statističnih, poslovnih) iz specializiranih podatkovnih baz ter v prebavljivi, interaktivni , dialogni, menujskl obliki. Uporaba te informa-tične podpore ne zahteva od človeka posebnega znanja; sistemi vodijo Šipveka prek uporabnih možnosti, prikazujejo mu možne alternative in pripomočke za iskanje podatkov, učenje, dopolnjevanje znanja. Seveda se ta infor-matična Infrastruktura vzdržuje s človekom: dopolnjuje se ne samo kot uporabnlBki marveč tudi kot delovni sistem v proizvodnji. Vedno več ljudi je udeleženih v proizvodnji informatičnih sredstev, tehnologije, programov, uporabniških in delovnih sistemov. Človek tako povečuje ne samo svojo tehnoloSko pamet, povečuje tudi svojo konstruktivno informacijo in iz informacijskih skeletov oblikuje sebi ustrezno, novo informacijo, s sebi primerne jSo vsebino. TakSen način informatizacije bivanja povečuje človekovo neodvisnost, njegovo varnost, saj mu daje možnosti predvidevanja dogodkov z uporabo dovolj kvalitetnih podatkov.	I
Ker Je informatizacija izrazito integrativen pojav, ki poveže sisteme v svetovni sistem, informacijo v skeletno svetovno informacijo, dele proizvodnje v združeno proizvodnjo, dobi integracija v informatlzacijski dobi : tisto polno obliko, ki Je nikoli ni mogla doseči v dobi
industrlallzma. Vlogo industrializacijskih integratorjev in elit prevzamejo enostavno inforitiatlzacljske možnosti, informatizacijska moč in povezanost in tako ée začenjajo zmanjševati razlike v položajih človeka, v stopnjah njegove obveäBenosti, povečuje se človekova delovna primernost, njegova motivacija in zadovoljstvo. Človek zaživi svojim hotenjem in svoji motivaciji primerno, izbolJSa svoje zdravje in počutje, svojo vključenost v svetovno informacijo, postane dejemsko pametneJBi (bolj razvit, bolje obveSčen), preudarneJBi, sposoljnejBi za polno življenje. ^ '	..	: ^
VpraBanJe Inteligence (pameti) postane naposled na-kako obrobnoi inteligenca Je vaslaj relativna, specializirana, prilagojena prostoru in časui' Inteligenca Je. le posebna oblika trenutno aktualne informacije, ta pa se pretaka (v obliki procesov) v živi in tehnoloBki. informacijski mreži. Inteligenca postane tako le dovolj bistveni del informacije in njena statistična prisotnost zagotavlja smotrno delovanje sistema: intellgencap»stane bolj regularnost kot izjemnost,^čeprav se povečuje njena raznolikost in količina (kopičenje znanja).
Sklep
Informatizacija postaja izziv za razvite in razvi- ' jajoče, saj kot možnost in nekje tudi kot dejansko sta- ; nje daje vzpodbudno vizijo prihodnosti: ukinja klasičen ; Industrlallzem in njegova tipična nasprotja, spremeni nastajanje in strukturo upravljalske informacije in z njo povezanih institucij (demokratičen stroj, upravljalske elite), utrdi družino in manjše delovne skupnosti v . neposrednosti preko dela Iz informatiziranih domov, raz-reSi s spremenjenim načinom bivanja in dela energetske, transportne, prehrambene in druge ključne človekove probleme. Informatizacija se pojavi kot počasi naraSčajočl val, ki prekrije planet z novo žlvljensko vsebino.
Slovstvo	^
(1) J.-J.,Servan-Schrelber: Svetovni izziv. Globus, Zagreb (1981).
,(2) A. Toffler: The Third Wave. Bantam Book, New York (1981).
COMPUTERGRAPHICS AND CAD ACTIVITIES IN AUSTRIA
JOHANN WEISS
UDK: 519.688
INSTITUT FOR DATENVERARBEITUNG TU WIEN, AUSTRIA SYSGRAPH GESMBH, WIEN, AUSTRIA
Abstract :
Coniputergraphlcs (CG) and CAD have had a quick development in Austria during the last 5 years. Of course, Austria has no companies producing graphic equipment in large quantities nor do we have big companies dealing with graphic software. But there is big need for such software and hardware and some progress has been made in the development. This paper is giving a survey about the Austrian activities research and application in this field.
1. Computergrapliic : Research and Development
Basic research has been made on Computer-graphics at the Technical University of Vienna (TU Wien). There are several institutes involved in CG-research.
In 1977 a Coraputergraphic Research Group was founded at the "Institut für Datenverarbeitung" (Dataprocessing) (Prof.Dr.Eier, J.Weiß). First a three years program was started including hardware and software development. Several papers of this work have been published, including "circle clipping", decentralization of graphic systems, standardization, development of a colour raster display, development of a graphic workstation etc. This project was followed by some others, mostly oriented to CG-appli-cation and CG-standardization. e. g.: A program for input of city maps together with statistical information is now being developed.
Beside these above mentioned activities the "Institut für Datenverarbeitung" offers also an educational program for computer graphic. For interested students exists the possibility of a lecture including practicum (3 less, per week/ one semester). This lecture shows an interesting development in the number of students: In 1978 there were 18 students, in 1982 there are now 175 (I) students. Further there exists the possibility of practices and diploma works.
Another Institute working (mostly) on graphic languages is the "Institut für praktische Informatik" (practical informatics, Prof. Barth). Prof. Barth and his crew designed a graphic extension* to Pascal. This Pascal/ Graph was presented 1981 at Eurographics and was elected as 3rd paper. This institute, too, offers possibilities working with grahpics for the students.
The work of the "Institut fur Informationsverarbeitung" of the "österreichische Akademit-der Wissenschaften" (ÖAW) - Austrian Academy of Sciences - (Dr.Firneis, DI Herzner) concentrates to several University appiication projects. Since 1979, the Institute is also working in the fields of graphic standardization.
Some examples of this graphic application are: Drawings of cinematic functions, contours of complex differential equation systems,
3-dimensional representation of parameterized surfaces using arbitrary sets of curves.
Furthermore the institute is supporting many applications with graphical software in the area of University of Vienna and Academy of Sciences. In the future It Is planned to adapt existing software and to base new application on the Graphical Kernel System (GKS).
There is not only the university area, but also companies developing cpmputergrahpic software' in Austria.	!	.
The bigger companies as Siemens, CDC, IBM etc. provide their packages and develop user-specific adaptions. There are companies developing graphic software. Fa. Technodat provides a Calcomp based package named "Dipp"; which was extended by segment- and colour-sfunctions, and can handle a big variety of dev ices.
Another company, "Sysgraph", is consulting and developing in computergraphic applications. Several user-specific programs have been installed. A standard graphic package and a business gra()hic package are announced for this year.
The "Forschungszentrum Seibersdorf" also has a crew (Dr.Schoitsch) working on process-control and computer-graphic. They wrote graphic software whichs runs on Digital computers.
2. CAD -■Development 2.1) TU Wien " ' '
'In the department of mechanical engineers the "Institut für Maschinenelemente" (Prof. Kazda, Doz,Reinauer) has bullt up a CADCenter. They use PROREN and.have already made several pilote studies. Therefore the PRORENSystem was extended several times. The applications are not restricted to drafting purposes. Beside these there are modelling functions, dimensioning, selecting of machine parts supported by-computer. Application which have been done are crank shaft drives, gear boxes, clutches etc. With CAD-kernel package DINAS a roller bearing catalogue system was installed. A surface design program originally made by the Institut für Datenverarbeitung was extended to a 3Ü surface ^modelling system including hidden Vine removal.
Since 1979 a CALMA system has veen installed at TU Wien (Prozeßrechnerzentrum). This system is mostly used with CALMA software-for applications, now there is also development ' done on i t. .
2.2) Industry
In the industrial field CAD-deve]opment is done at various places. A Viennese company dealing with prefabricated buildings (FTB) has designed their own CAD and drafting system.
VOEST developed a CAM-system; which is also marked outside the company. Support for technical computation (Finite elements etc) is given by Technodat.
3. Applications:
3.1) Computer Animation
Since 1980 a company exists in Vienna which only deals with computer animation. A 2^2 dimensional animation system was designed which is now used in production. 2^/2 dimension means, that it is a system based on surfaces which can be moved in 3-d without restrictions. You can even have perspective views from this system. Generally the ANIMA-System is organized like an ordinary eel 1-production animation. There are of course no limitations in numbers of cells, which you can define and move simultaneously. The system takes care about what is visible or not. There are, more possibilities like on Walt Disney's multiplane camera, but with less costs. The artist (animator) has an excellent user aid and a great variety of effects on controls.
Just to define effects and controls : E.g . : moving a character (figure) from left to right is an effect. The definition of the velocity -how fast the character has to be moved - is a control.
The pictures are made out of lines, areas with, or without borders, areas with partially exi- , sting borders, curves, texts (freely define-able) etc.
There is a variable text defineable which ca.n also be controlled by the effects. The system is capable to make "in-betweens" between defined keyframes. The whole system consists of 3 subsystems
1.	Input of the graphic ,
2.	Definition of effects and controls
3.	Film production.
Output is done on colour raster displays ranging in resolution from 48o x 64o to lo24 x lo24. Direct filming from screen wouldn't give good resolution and stable colour. It Is done
via a video-camera. Even In use the system Is expanded with new functions. There are many possibilities using coraputergraphic for animation. This system was mainly developed at the Institut fUr Datenverarbeitung, TU Wien. '
of diagram. The system then gives the picture, which Is updated every miniite or 5 minutes. The control system not only shows the data which are already available. There is an extrapolation done for a1.1 important data.
3.2)	ComputercarthographiCS :
The Municipal Council of Vienna, Department for Oataprocessing, (01 Koloseus, DI Wilmersdorf) developed a rather big system, which Is capable of stor.lmg the whole city map of Vienna In a very detailed manner. It is possible to connect geometric-oriented data bases to the graphical objects.In the last years nearly the whole city was digitized. This department also takes care of statistical Information needed by the municipal authority. It Is produced in form of business graphic charts.
Another Institution Is the "Amt für Vermessungswesen" (Dr.Zimmermann). It is digitizing the territory of Austria. Its aim is to get the 1 atid-regl ster informations into this database. Out of this information the offIclal.maps are produced.
3.3)	Business graphics:
Besides the foreign business-graphic systems in use, an Interesting development is going on in business and representation graphics. In the university area the Institute for . Statistics (Prof.Vlertl, DI Guttmann) is developing graphical output methods for time series and other statistical data. It is a similar approach like business graphic. A new system is announced by the company "Sysgraph". Due to this activities«ACGA (see chapter 4) offers one day courses in this field starting In autumn 82.
3.4)	ground .glass Joint design program:
As an example of an Industrial order a ground glass Joint design program was developed. An example is shown In the figures.
3.S Process control for power supply
In the power supply companies In Austria there is a movement to use more full graphic output Instead of semigraphic displays In process control. An Installation in Linz, OKA, made 1979, gives the managing person' all consuming and producing data in a graphic representation. The user decides on the type
4.	Standardization of Computer Graphic Systems
The Austrian Standard Institute "österreichisches Normungsinstitut") has: an active group which Is working on computer graphics. Due to the reason that Austria Is not big enough for Its own graphic standard, this group supports International activities, e.g. the graphical kernel system (GKS) which Is now ISO draft standard Is supported within ISO, but also discussed and published in Austria, GKS was originally a German draft. There was some Austrian-German cooperation on GKS. The Austrian relation to GKS exists since this time. The future plans for standards are not detailed. But it looks like, if the work will continue on a graphical metafile and a device driver interface.
5.	Organisations supporting CG and CAD
5.1)	The Austrian Computer Society (OCG)
The OCG (Österreichische Computer Gesellschaft] Is an organisation supporting all activities 1n the area of computing (President: Dr.N.Rozsenich). The OCG Is based upon personal and institutional members. OCG is supporting several special Interest groups (working groups). There is also one for Computergraphics and CAD. This working group (Arbeitskreis) Is organizing lectures, tutorials and conferences. The last greater one was "Graphische Datenverarbeltung 79" (Computergraphics 79) which was organized together with TU Wien (Institut für Datenverarbeitung) 1979.
OCG is also a liaison member of Eurographics.
5.2)	Austrian Computer Graphic Association (ACGA)
The Austrian Computer Graphic Association was founded in Vienna in December 198o. This association's purpose Is to foster the research and the practical use of this fast proceeding computer science in Austria. The association Is a member of the World Computer Graphics Association.
The ACGA coordinates its activity with the Austrian Computer Association. The major
evidence Of the ACGA's:attlylty i^ publishing of a bymonthly publication, the , CAD, and.the organization of iseminars and • conferences. ■
6.	Conclusion
, Coraputergraphic and CAÖ' arevfast-growing . ^ branches in Austria. This paper could not cover all the projects going on now. The activities which' have been mentioned concern subjects which are compietely-or at 1 east to ; :a great extent designed and programmed in , ; Austria .	' '. T
Of course, there is a lot of software -especially in CAD - coming from abroad. It is ; my opinion there should be a balanced relation between development and buying. This depends, very much on the particular application.
E.g.: It needs a lot of good ideas and reason to start a new (3-D) model l ing system for CAD. It is here similar situation like for programming languages some years ago. But the daily use computer graphics offers many possibilities for "home brewn" Systems which are not covered by already existing! systems-
on the market. This seems to me the:area for
: . . i
national activities. Last but not least, doing so, a very important knowledge 1s;bùi 11 up step by step. To get the 1nformation, exr changed among these people Is the task of ACGA and OCG. If.they are working well - like ; they did - it will be fine to see you sòme day in'Austria at a graphic conference, tutorial or seminar.
The author's address: DI Johann Weiss
Castellezgasse 4/13 A - 1020 Wien, Austria
7.	References
(1)	H. Guttroann, J, Weiss: Clipping the View of decentralization in computer graphics. Interactive techniques in Computer Aided Design, Bologna 1978 Conference proceedings, p 235-p 240.
(2)	N. Nagler, J. Weiss: Dezentrale Be-, y nutzerfUhrung bei graphischen Systemen, OCG Schriftenreilie Band 4. p 45-p 59.
(3)	J. Weiss: Device Driver Interface for, Decentral Device Drivers, Eurographics 79, 25.,10.-27.10. Bologna, p 252-p 263.
(4)	J. Weiss: Decentrai Graphic Systems (Decentralization of Workstations)
..... Computer Graphics 80, Conferencepro.. ceedlngs p 471-p 485.
(5)	H. .Hillebrand, J. Weiss: Considerations .; of Extensions of Inputfunctions based
on a Graphical Kernel System, Euro: . graphics 80 Conference Proceedings 7p ■21-p31.; ■ ' /s: . ■
(6)	G. Reinauer: Der Aufbau von anwendergerechten CAD-Systemen, OCG-Schriftenréihe,
: 1981, ISBN .3-7029-0169-8 (230 pages)
(7)	G. Reinauer: Darstellung von Gebilden, unter Verwendung räumlicher Elemente, CAD Heft 15, P 10-p, 16.
(8)	G.. Reinauer: Variantenkonstr. von Maschinenelementen.Der Kurbel trieb, CAD Heft 9 P 2-p 9.
(9)	! E.Buttar,, G. Reinauer: Anwendererfahrungen
mit der B-Spline Approximation, : CAD-Heft 13 p 2- p 9.
(10)	G, Reinauer, K. Sträßler: Konstruktion, Auslegung und Auswahl von Lamellenkupplungen ml ttel s XAD . CAD Heft 13,
p 16-p 22.
(11)	Graphische Datenverarbeitung 79, book OCG Schriftenreihe ISBN 3-85403-004-5, 197.9 (344 pages)
8. Pictures
figure 1. Surface representation using general parameter lines (ÖAW)
figure 2; Surface representation using general parameter lines (DAW)
figure 3: Example of ground glass design layout (TU Wien)
figure 4; Surface modelling for technical applications (TU Wien)
figure 5: Mechanical Engineering: crank shaft drive (TU Wien)
AN EFFICIENT IMPLEMENTATION OF ADVICE LANGUAGE 2
UDK: 519.682.7
IVAN BRATKO1'2, IGOR KONONENKO^, IGOR MOZETIČ^
FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. E: KARDELJ UNIVERSITY, TRŽAŠKA 25, LJUBLJANA 2 JOŽEF STEFAN INSTITUTE, JAMOVA 39 LJUBLJANA
Advioe Lanojuages were developed to facilitate the implementation of know I edge-based solutions to that are oombinator i at in nature. This paper reports on an efficient implementation of
AL 2
problems
(in Fortran)i and eiperiments with its application to chess endgames. In particular» a difficult ending with king and knight vs. king and rook was implemented in AL2 following the structure of an older advice program which was previously written in ALI. The new implementation of this endingt in AL2i is about two orders of magnitude faster than the previous ALI program.
UÖ1NK0VITA IMPLEMENTACIJA JEZIKA NASVETOV AL2. Jeziki nasvetov olajäujejo reSevanje kombinator i fin i h problemov s pomoSjo aktivne baze znanja. V Članku je opisana utiinkovita implementacija AL2 in eksperimenti z njegovo uporabo v Šahovskih konCnicah. Na podlagi prejšnjega programa napisanega v ALI) je bila v AL2 implementIrana teüka konfinica kralja in skakaOa proti kralju In trdnjavi. Implementacija v AL2 je od prvotnei programirane v ALli hItrejSa za dva reda velikosti.
1. XNTHOÜUCriüN
Une useful way of looking at problems Is: given an Initial problem situation, ä, find a sequence of actions which transforms S Into a final situation, F, such that F satisfies a given goal condition G. The actions can be Chosen from a predefined repertoire of permissible operations on problem situations. This general concept Is reflected In various formalisms for representing problems, widely used in artificial intelligence, such as state-space, ANU/üR graphs, or game-trees (e.g. Nlisson 198Ü). Examples of practical problems whlcn naturally fit these formalisms are: combinatorial optimization, computer-aided design, automatic programiuingj failure detection and diagnosis, game-playing, etc.
Mhen solving problems within this paradigm, the domain-specific knowledge has to be used for practical reasons in order to reduce the combinatorial cpinplexlty of the search process. One way of expressing knowledge for streamlining the problem-solving process is to specify subgoals which are relevant to the given goal. This can be done in the framework of production rules in the form popularly used in artificial intelligence (e.q . waterman and riayes-Hoth 197u). A series of rule-based systems, called Advice Languages, has been based on this idea (ALI: Sratko and Hlchie 1980a; 19B0bf AL2: Mozetlc 1900; al3: bratko 1982a; 19820). In this paper we describe an Implementation, in Fortran, of AL2. ali and AL3 were irapleinented (elswhere) in Al languages POP-2 and Prolog respectively.
In experiments with the Advice Languages, the game of chess has been mainly used as an experimental aomaln. The adversary nature ot games introduces complications, but the idea of breaking the whole problem Into subgoals is still viable and rather straightforward. Consider, for example, the ending with king and rook vs. king (KRK tor short). A useful piece of advice for this, ending would be: in order to mate, first squeeze the opponent's king against the edge, and then try to mate.
The whole problem ot mating nas oeen reuucea into the (easier) subgoals: force the opponent's king to the edge, and, when on the edge, carry out the final phase for mate.
Tnls is, basically, the form in wnlch ^he knowledge about problems Is couimunicdted lu the proulem-solver via Advice Language 2.
Two nontrivial endgames have been implemented in ALI and AL3: king and knight vs. king and rook (KNKR) in ALI (Bratko and Mlchie 1980b), and king and pawn vs. king and pawn in AL3 (Bratko 1982a; 1982b). as shown by Kopec and Nlblett (1980), the difficulty of perfect play in KNkk Is beyond the capabilities ot chess masters. Tne performance of an advice program in ALI tor KNKK was, it not perfect, at least comparable to that of human masters.
One trouDle with ALI was its slowness, due to an inefficient Implementation In PUP-2. To play a move in a nontrivlal KNKK position. It took the system typically a tew minutes of CPU on a Ui::C Kl-lO processor, we translated the ALI program tor KNKK into AL2 and used it as a benchmark for testing our present Implementation ot AL2. The present implementation typically uses between a second and a few seconds to play a move iii a difficult KNKK position on a Ul::c KL-10 processor. The pace of play of a tew seconds per move is attained bv AL2 when searching about lOuO positions In the game-tree. Under regular chess tournament conditions, the player is alloweu about three minutes per move. So under tournament conditions, the program would be allowed to search correspondingly larger portions ot the game-tree. With, say, ÜO times more time per oiove, the system would be able search some äO thousand ot positions per nove actually played across the board. This figure Is comparable to tne speed ot some (not fastest i) tournament cness programs.
The rest of the paper describes the details ot AL2 and Its implementation, and some' experimental results.
2. 'AI.2 DESIGN
The overall structure of the Ab2 tyiteo It depleted In Fig. i. The main modulei ot the system are >
(U the Icnowledge base
Knowledge Is represented in advice-tables and pleces-of-advlce. each advice-table Is specialised as to deal with certain problem-subdonaln. According to the current problem-situation It chooses an aproprlate advlce-llst. Advlce-llst Is an ordered list of pleces-o£-advlce. A plece-of-advlce suggests what goal should be achieved next while preserving some other condition. If this goal can be achieved In a given problem-situation then we say that the plece-of-advlce Is satlsflable.
(2)
(3)
the search module
The search module talcès an advlce-llst from the knowledge base and tries to satisfy a Plece-of-advlce In the list, sequentially attempting the pieces one after another, until It succeeds. To satisfy a plece-of-advlce Is to find a specific subtree of the game-tree called forcing-tree. Forcing-tree may be interpreted as a strategy that guarantees us the achievement of the goals prescribed In the first satlsflable plece-of-advlce from the advice-list.
the interactive interface The interface facilitates the communication between the user-player and the system. It accepts a forcing-tree from search module and interprets it as our strategy for playing our moves, besides this It can show useful statistics and enable trace during the search for a forcing-tree.
	KNOWliCDGE			chess endgame
		äASE		knowledge
position			pleces-of-advlce	
		1		
	SEARCH MÜDULE			
position			strategy	
	INTERACTIVE			moves
	IHTERFACE			statistics
/ "ser \expert J
\player J
Fig. li The basic structure of the AL2 systen.
It should be noted that the basic structure of AL2 as described above Is almost Identical to that of the ALi system (Implemented in POP-2 at the university of Illinois, outlined also in Bratico and Michie 1980).
In the following paragraphs we describe the modules of AL3 in inoi;e details.
2.1. The icnowledge base
Advice-tabU If a set of rules of the form
If precondition then advlce-llst
If more then one precondition Is satisfied then simply the first rule Is chosen.
A plece-of-advlce Is a flve-tuple
(HG, BG, UHC, THC, MAXD)
Where HG and BG are predicates on positions called holding-goal and better-goal respectively, UHC and XNC are predicates on moves, called move-constraints for us and for them respectively and haxd Is a depth-bound of a forcing-tree. By "us" we mean the side to move In a given position, either white or blacK, and by "them" the opponent of "us".
Move-constraints can besides a mere selection of a subset of legal moves prescribe an ordering on the moves that are selected.
we say that a plece-of-advlce is satlsflable In a given position If and only If (
(1)	the "us" side can force the achievement of the better-goal in less then maXO plies. While
(2)	during the play toward tne better-goal, the holding-goal Is never violated, and
(3)	the "us" side always chooses Its moves only from the set of moves that satisfy UHC,
and
(4)	the "them" side's choice of moves is limited only to the moves that satisfy THC.
Goals may also be expressed by the satisfiability of some other plece-of-advlce, as follows I
Better-goal (or holding-goal) is achieved In a position if the other plece-of-advlce Is satlsflable in the same position, k
Talee, as an example, the king and pawn vs. king ending, A plece-of-advlce for the stronger side that suggests simply "push the pawn to tne queening square" can be defined as t
(pawn.safe, pawn.queened, pawn.nioves, klng_fflacro.move.to.queening.square, 9.plles)
If we take tor example the position In Fig. 2, It Is obvious that this plece-of-advlce falls, because the black king can capture the white pawn.
8 1 I I I I Iff I I I
1	1	1 1		1
1	1	1 1	1 1	1
1	1	1 1	1 1	1
1	I	1 1	1 1	1
1	1	1 1	1 1	1
)	•Ä	1 1	1 1	1
1	1	1 1	1 1	t
1	(		1 1	1
white
Fig. 2t An example of nontrlvial position for white to move and win. After the natural move K d2 black can draw by K e7. The only correct move Is K c2'l.
2.2. The learct) nòdule
Control structure chooses whlcn place-of>advlce from advice-list to apply next. Then It tries to satisfy It by simple depth-first search. If and only if a plece-of-advlce is satlsflable 'in a given position there exists a forcing-tree and the search module finds It.
forcing-tree Is a subtree of the game-tree rooted In a given position, such that i
(1) every node, except the root-node,
satisfies HG, C2) every nonterminal node satisfies not BG,
(3)	every terminal node satisfies BG,
(4)	there Is exactly one move from every nontenolnal us-to-move node» that move must satisfy UMC,
(5)	there are all legal moves from every them-to-move nonterminal node that satisfy TMC,
(6)	the lenght of the longest path must not exceed the depth-bound maxo; the root-node Is supposed to be at depth 0.
Me say that In a position, from which there Is no legal "us* move tnat satisfies UHC, the better-goal can not be achieved. But If there Is no legal "them" move that satisfies TMC, the position Is a terminal node ot a forcing-tree.
In Fig. i there is an example of forcing-tree generated tor tne position in Fig. 2. Here, a piece-o£-advlce tor \iihite that suggests hon to get the King in tronc o£ the pawn Is Satlstied.
WK c2 bK el WK bi BK dć WK b4 BK C6 /
BK d5 /
BK e6 WK C4 BK d6 / BK d7 WK b4 BK d6 / BK C6 /
BK f7 WK d3 BK e7 WK C4 BK d6 / BK eó WK C4 BK d6 / BK e8 IVK b3 BK el KK C4 BK 06 / BK d7 WK b4 BK db / .
BK C6 /
Fig. 3j The forcing-tree for white for the
position in Fig. 2. On any black's move white has an answer that brings his king in front of the pawm so that black cannot eventually prevent the queening.
AÜV1CE UOOES 1 2 3 4 5 t 7 8
1	19 1 5 1 b i 4 1 1
2	bb 3 9 Ó 15 10 15 Ü 0 NODES = 77	<CPU time = 0.18 sec)
Fig. Statistic typed during game-tree search for white in the position from Fig. 2. The first p iece-of-advi ce "push_pawn" fails in 8 pliesi but the second "bring_king_in_front_of_pawn" succeeds.
The interdctive Intertace
The Interface can Interpret some dozen commands from the user, to start various functions of the system. The search module triggers tne searching for a forcing-tree on tne user-player request. This one Is then interpreted as our strategy and executed by interactive Interface In across-the-board play.
The user-expert may specify tne system to play In the "strong-mode" or in the "weaK-mode". in the first case the st,rdtegy is executed up to a terminal node in the forcing-tree, ün tne other hand If the "wean-mode" Is chosen it means that there is no point In following the current strategy up to its end, and a new forcing-tree Is generated Immediately on tne next move.
3. IMPLEHENIATION
a Fortran implementation of the AL2 system was developed on a PDP-11/34 at "Jozef Stefan" Institute, LJubllana. Later It was Installed on a DEC-10 at the university of Kdinburgh and at the e. Kardelj university at Ljubljana. The development of the AL2 programming pacKage Which contains about 3000 Fortran commands required about a half a year worK ot one of us.
Fortran is not very convenient language for such a Kind of programming tasK, but at the moment when the work was Initiated no other high-level programming language was available. On the other hand the Fortran Implementation has turned out to be much more efficient then the Known implementations in others, more powerful languages (POP-2, Prolog). For example, the current Fortan Implementation on uec-lO Is about 100 times faster and even on PDP-il/34 about 10 times faster then POP-2 Implementation of the Alii, system. Tne reason is only partly due to the 4 times faster processor In the first case. The efficiency is measured In the number of positions generated per second during the game-tree search. The Aii2 system examines oetween 500 and 1000 positions per second, depending on the complexity of predicates in pleces-of-advice.
4. EXPEHIMENIS AND HtlSULTo
Two major experiments conducted with AL2 were concerned with tne Implenientation of two endgames: King and pawn vs. King CMozetic ISMO), and King and knight vs. King and rook (KNKR). Here we present tne second experiment, tne more complex test of AL2: a KNKR advice program, üui: Ab2 program for KnKH is, in fact, a translation of an advice program for Knkr In AH (BratKo and Michie 1980b).
The following is a summary of basic Ideas underlying tne KNKR advice program. The program plays for tne weaker side, i.e. the Knight's side, if a KNKK position is tneoreticaily won for the rook's side, the win is based on two motifsi first, mating threats, and second, capture of the Knight. The latter is possible either after a short, forced combination (e.g. based on pinning the knlgnt), or after a long-term strategic plan which consists of separating the Knight and ics friendly King, and subsequently surrounding tne Knight. If neither of the two basic motifs can be exploited then the position is theoretically a draw. The advice program for the Knignt's side is based on negating the attacker's goals. The corresponding broad advice is as follows:
1.	Avoid mate: Keep the king as far from
tne edge as possible; Keep the King as far from the corner as possible.
2.	Preserve the Knight: Keep the Knight as
near the friendly king as possible and far from the eneiiiy King.
The aetaiis ot ttiis broad strategy are Incorporated into an advice table comprised of 5 columns (which corresponds to 5 production rules) ana 16 pleces-of-advice.
As our KNKK aavice prograra is a rather straigntforward translation of the original prograra in Aui we nere present only examples of its bsnaviour, specially with respect to its efficiency.
In the tollowlnq exaopXes Me give the CPU tlee the syscem spent for playing the move, and tor some positions statistics on the number of positions searched (for separate pleces-of-advice tried before the move was found, showing also these numbers over the depth of positions In the game-tree; depths correspond to columns labeled 1-6).
Example 1;
Ihls Is a game between the advice program and an International chess master. The starting position of the game Is In the following diagram. Tnls position Is won for white, as Known from databases of complete KNKR positions. White can force the capture of the knight against best defence In 24 moves.
K e67
(5.78 sec)
e	I
7	I
6	t
5	I
4	I
3	I
42	I
1	I
I	I
I	I
I	I
(	t
I	I I
Ilii!
I I I I i I b c
i I
isi"
I	I
i	I
I	I
I	I
I	I
I	I

1. K eS
N a4 (
e t g (1.88 sec)
WHITE
(The best defence, rather hard to find.) Statistics on search follows.)
ADVICE	NODES	1	2	3	4	S	6	
	mmm^mm^m		——~ ~ ~ «	* - - .	. . - _ V	^mmm		
1	14	14	0	0	0	0	0	
IS	172	14	2S	30	31	21	51	
14	172	14	2S	30	31	21	51	
13	423	7	S4	47	86	30	199	
NODES	s	781					
3. R	h7 + .	K	e8	(2.54	see.	1078	nodes)
3. K	d6 ,	N	b6 :	(2.46	sec.	1074	nodes)
4. R	hStl	, K	£7	(0.98	sec.	389	nodes)
5. R	h4 ,	N	C8 +	(1.98	sec.	880	nodes)
6. K	d7 ,	N	b6 +	(0.54	sec.	218	nodes)
7. K	C6 ,	N	c8	(1.44	sec.	594	nodes)
8. R	h7t.	• • «	>				
B
I

I I
I
I
71 I I II ifVl Ig ••——----t—♦
6 1 I	I > I I I
S I I I I I I I I
—-t—t---t---«"—-
4 1 +3 I
2 I + "
1 I f •
I I
I
I I » , I
I I I i 1 I I I I b c d e f
I
ADVICE NODES	1	2	3	4	5	6
		mmmwmmm^mm		w mm	mmmm	
1 6	6	0	0	0	0	0
15 828	6	65	18	100	71	568
14 828	6	65	18	100	71	568
13 696	6	105	33	113	71	568
12 93	1	18	7	67	0	0
NODES a 2651
Up to this point both the program and the master played optimally. This is the first mlstaKe In this game which considerably shortens the resistance of the wealcer side. Correct was K f6t.
9. R h6t, K eS
(0.90 sec, 464 nodes)
Play was stopped nere as the white's win is clear byi 10. K d7, N a7 11. H a6, N bS 12. R as etc.
Example 2i
In the following game against another chess naster the program again defended a lost position. This time, after a master's mistake the program saved the game.

e I ♦
7 I +
6 I ♦
5 t
4 I
3 I ♦
2 I t
1 I
I I
I I
1	1	1 1	1	1 1
1	1	1 1	1	1 1
1	1	1 1	1	1 1
1	1	1 1	•	
1	1	1 1	1	1 1
1	1	1 r	1	1 1

I I
I t
I ♦
I +•
I +
I ♦
I
is;
abcdefgh
1. R h4t, N f6Tl (2.32 see)
WHITE
ADVICE NODES	1	2	3	4	5	6
			mmmmm		- - -	mmmm»
1 39	9	6	24	0	0	0-
15 980	1	17	13	186	91	673
NODES
1019
The move N f6 was good, but not optlaal. Best was N eS.
2.	K d2 ,
3.	R d4?
K b2
(1.00 sec, 417 nodes)
After this uistaKe the position is theoretically drawn. Correct was K d3.
3.	• 4	> • •		K	b3	(1.06	sec.	434	nodes)
4.	K	d3	#	N	e8	(0.74	sec.	287	node^)
5.	R	d7	t	K	b4	(0.88	•ec.	388	nodes)
6.	K	d4	>	K	b5	(1.02		448	nodes)
7.	R	e7		N	d6	(1.66	■ ec.	717	nodes)
8.	K	dS		H	08	(0.64	■ ec.	241	node^)
At this		point		draw		was agreed. Position is			
. obviously drawn.
BLACK
Example 3i +
8 I ♦
7 I t
6 I ♦
5 I ♦
4 I ♦
3 I ♦
2 I t
1 I
1	I •	1	1 I I
1		1	I I 1
1	1 1	1	rgi i
1	j 1	1	II 1
1		1	III
1	1 1	1	1
1	1 1	1	1 1 .1
1	1 1	1	i I I {
c d
BLACK
Example S»
6	1 iff I I I I I l i ♦------
7	1 I I ißl II I I
6 1 I I	I I I	I 1 I ♦—t—t—t—*—t—t
5 1 I I	III	I I t t—t—
4 1 I I I	III
3 11 i	I I I	III
2 1 I I	I I I	I I I
II III I I I I I t—t—t—
a b c d a t 9 h
BLACK
Program playsi K h4 (3.60 sec)
Tne program plays the only drawing novel
ADVICE	NODES	1	2	3	4	5	6			K Ct.	(2	,24	sec)		
1	11	11	0	0	0	0	0	ADVICE	NODES	t	2	3	A	5	6
15	196	11	20	15	38	16	96	---------	-------	. -----	-------	----	—_—		
14	349	il	42	28	84	21	163	1	10	10	0	0	0	0	0
13	956	5	62	36	201	48	604	15	B97	5	32	18	152	SB	632
NODES s	1512							NODES »	907						
The move played by the program K h4 Is the only, study-liKe drawing move. Ine natural ;iiiove K g4 would lose atter R c6, N dB, R e6.
Example 4s
♦
e I ♦
7 I +
6 I
5 I t
4 I t
3 Ì +
2 I t
1 I , +
gxaro£le_6j
8 I
I I
1	1 1	I I	1	1	1	7	1 1	1 1	1 1	1	1	1
1 .	1 1	1 1	1	1	1	6		1 1	1 1	'	1	1
	1 1	1 1	1	1	1	5	1 1	laj	1 1	1	1	1
1	' 'S	I I	1	1	1	4	1 1	1 H	Ipl 1	1	1	1
1	l^'l	ll^l	1	1	1	3	1 1	l ì		1	1	1 —♦
1	1 1	I I	1	1	1=	2	1 1	1 1	1 1	»	1	1
1	1 1	1 1	1	. 1	1	1	1 1	1 1	1 1	1	1	
1	1 1	1 1	1	1	1		a	D C	d e	t	«	h
BLACK
Program plays: K b7 ADVlCe NUDt:S
(2.0t> sec)
1 15
NODES
13
706 719
1	2	3	4	5	6
11 4	2 37	0 29	0 142	0 49	0 445
BLACK
the prograa tlnas the pretty and only correct! K b6 (0.86 see) ADVICE NODES 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 15
NODES
13 271
2B4
11 3
2 19
0 27
0 34
0 0 26 162
The move K b7 Is again surprizing, but only correct. The Intuitive move K b6 loses after R d4 forcing the Knight tar from its own king.
S. CONCLUSION
The ImpleiiientaClon of AL2, presented In tnis paper« Is by about two orders of magnitude faster than the previous Implementation of ALI. AbZ is also currently the only impienientatlon of Advice Languages whose legal move generator Is complete, others are limited to certain subgames only.
al2 as a language Is very similar to ali« it only Introduces small but useful improvements. The major improvement over ali thus lies in al2's efficiency. On the other hand, al3 ib> compered to ali and al2« as a nonprocedural programming language, much more flexible and general. However, its present inefficiency maKes it a rather Impractical tool for solving realistic problems. One attractive possibility is to combine the al3's linguistic power and al2's efficiency. Thus the high level reasoning would be done in the domain of al3. The result of this would be 'plans', or pieces-of-advice, which would be passed to al2 for concrete checicing by search.
REFEREMCES
1. BratKo, I. (l9B2a) Knowledge-based problemsolving in al3. Machine intelligence 10 (eds. O.Nichie, J.H.Paoj Ellis Norwood and Wiley.
2.	BratKo, I. (1982b) Advice and planning in Chess endgames. NATO Symposium on Artificial and Huoan Intelligence, Lyon, Oct. 19U1.
To appear in Artificial and Human Thlnicing (eds. a.Ellthorn, R.Banerjl, in preparation).
3.	BratKo, I., Michie, 0. (1980a) A representation for pattern-Knowledge In chess end-games. Advances in Computer Chess 2 (ed. M.R.B.ClarKe) Edinburgh University Press.
4.	BratKo, I., Michie, 0. (1980b) An advice program for a complex chess programming tasK. The Computer Journal, Vol. 23,
pp. 353-359.
5.	Kopec, 0., Niblett, T. (1980) How difficult is the play in the KNKR ending? Advances in Computer Chess 2 (ed. M.R.B.ClarKe) Edinburgh University Press,
6.	Nilsson, N.J. (1960) Principles of Artificial intelligence, Tioga Publishing Co.
7.	Nozetic, I. (1980) User's aanual for the AL2 systeo. An AL2 strategy for King and pawn vs. King. Research Memorandum HlP-R-130, Machine Intelligence Research Unit, University of Edinburgh.
8.	Waterman, D.A., Hayes-Roth, F. (1978) Pattern-directed Inference Systems. New YorKt Academic Press.
TEHNOLOGIJA ELEKTRONSKIH RAČUNARSKIH SISTEMA
UDK: 681.3.02
MARIJAN M. MILETie DO ISKRA - DELTA
ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS TECHNOLOGY
This article briefly describes seven levels of computer techuologlea from manufacturers point of view. These are: semiconductors, tnodules, peripherals, systems hardware Integration, ba-sic software,' applications software and services.
Manufacturing process in DELTA is presented.
Članak opisuje tehnološke nivoje računura opSte namene sa aspekta proizvođača.
To su: poluprovodnicl, moduli, periferne jedinice, integracije sistema, osnovna programtika oprema, aplikacioni programi i servisi.
Prikazan je proizvodni proces u RO DELTA.
1.	UVOD
U ovom članku dafemo kratak prikaz osnovnih tehnologija elektronskih raf^unarskih sistema opšte namene sa aspekta proizvođača računara.
Nastojačemo da koliko je moguče izostavimo numeričke podatke'l različito dijagrame. Na slici 1. je dat prikaz poteka proizvodnje računara u RO DELTA.
Pojava jeftinih mikroprocesora daje snažan impuls reSavanju apllkaciono usmerenlh računarskih sistema. Proizvođači Integrisanlh kola su preuzeli i deo pripreme osnovne programske opreme te značajno olakäall široko uvođenje ovih najkompleksnijlh poluprovodničklh komponenti.
Veliki broj programskih timova i samostalnih kuča lansira programske pakete opSte namene 1 osvaja mlkrora-čunarlma sve veči deo kolača namenjenog sistemima opSte namene.
To je rezultiralo u konačnom "Priznanju" mikro-računara kao nove klase računara od strane IBM-a, DEC-a 1 ostalih.
Značajno je joä uočiti sve tesnlju Integraciju računara 1 telekomunikacija, kako u digitalizaciji komunikacija tako 1 u kompleksnim mrežama računara sa raznovrsnim bazama podataka.
I pored ova dva značajna trenda u kompjuterskoj tehnici, principi proizvodnje računarskih sistema se nisu bltnije menjali skoro dvadeset godina i ne očekuje se drastičnija promena ni u sledečih deset.
2.	TEHNOLOgKI NIVOJI
Sa aspekta proizvođača elektronskih računara moguče je izlučiti pojedine faze pri kompletnoj proizvod-
nji sistema.
To su sledeči specifični tehnološki nivoi:
1.	poluprovodnici,
2.	moduli,
3.	periferne jedinice,
4.	integracija mašinske opreme,
5.	osnovna programska oprema,
6.	aplikativna programska oprema,
7.	servisi.
Ovih sedam vertikalnih nivoa čine zaokruženu celimi u proizvodnom ciklusu, mada se pojedini proizvođači specijalizuju samo za pojedine horizontalne nivoje.
Ove nivoje treba posmatratl dinamički sa migracijom na niže, Tipični primeri su VLSI kola koja preuzimaju ranije funkcije više modula, implementacija operativnog sistema 1 prevodioca u BOM-u, koriščenje daljinske diagnostike u servisiranju itd.
Karakteristična Je velika primena računara u eumoj proizvodnji računara.
3, POLUPROVODNIČKA TEHNOLOGIJA
Performanse poluprovodničklh elemenata u j)ajvečoj meri određuju 1 performanse kompletnih elektronskih računara .
Danas svi veči.proizvođači računara poseduju sop-stvene kapaciteta za razvoj 1 proizvodnju integrisanih kola. Interesantno je, da su mogučnostl nekih od njih (IBM, FUJITSU) bolje od mogučnostl primarnih proizvođača komponenti (TI, INTEL).
Osnovna svrha sopstvene poluprovodničko tehnologije proizvođača računara nije se bitno promenila od
IBM-ovog poteza 60-ih godina pri uvođenju Serije 360.
Na silikonskoj ploSici lakSs Je sakriti specifiSna organizaciona reSenJa kompleksnih arhitektura 61me se postiže ve6a vremenska distanca od "kopiraJuBih" konkurenata.
Dominante poluprovođniSke tehnologije visokog nivoa integracije su nizovi logiSkih vrata u bipolamoj tehnici za logiSke funkcije 1 NMOS za memorijska kola.
Trendovi ou ka koriBSenJu galljum - arsanida za veSe brzine i submikronsklh rezolucija za veSe guatine.
■ Kao Jednu od visoko zahtevnih tehnologija, karakto-rlSe Je brz razvoj 1 velika kapitalna ulaganja.
Izražena Je vodeSa uloga Amerike i Japana sa grSe-vitlm nastojanjima zapadne Evrope da održi korak pomoSu infuzija državnog kapitala.
4.	TEHNOLOGIJA MODULA ,
Modul baziran na Štampanim kolima Je osnovni oblik integracije razllBitih elektronskih i elektrlEnlh elementa sa odgovaraJu51m priklJuScima za međusobna povezivanja
Kao i kod polupi-ovođnlka, uoSlJlv Je trend ka primeni veSih štampanih ploSa sa velikom gustinom komponenti radi smanjenja manje pouzdanih, eksternih konta-kata i veza.
Dvoslojna Stampa sa metallzlranlm rupama Je minimalni zahtev, a sve vlSe se koristi Setvoroslojna sa velikim, unutraSnJlm l^ovrSinama srednja dva sloja namenjena napajanju.
Skupa sa poluprovodnlSkom 1 magnetskom tehnologijom, tehnOloSki postupci u proizvodnji Štampanih pločica su veoma "prljavi" zbog korlSčenJa Jako otrovnih kemikalija.
Radi smanjenja proizvodnih troSkova teži se ka što višem Btepenu automatizacije u projektovanju, testiranju i ulaganju komponenata.
Deo ljudskog rada na modulima je veBl nego kod poluprovodnlka Sto se odražava u sporijem padu cena.
5.	TEHNOLOGIJA PERIFERNIH JEDINICA
Ovđe možemo diferencirati đve dodatne tehnologije: magnetnu i finu mehaniku.
Magnetna tehnologija je neophodna za izradu flka-v-iih disk jedinica koju su glavna ekstèrna memorija raSu-nara.
Nedefinlsana je sudbina memorija sa mehurovlma, dok feritne memorije sve viSe gube tržiSte.
Kod magnetnih traka se oSekuje znatno veSe gusti-lis pakovanja informacija Jer su mehaniSki limiti brzina ,veS dostignuti. Time če se magnetna traka 1 dalje održati kao najjeftiniji medij za arhiviranje i razmenu podataka.
Tehnologija fine mehanike je sve znafiajnija u eri minijaturizacije, a odlufiujuSa kod StampaSa.
Ekranski terrainall su najsllfiniji proizvodima Široke potroSnje (televizorima) sa klasičnim zahtevima po plastici 1 vakumskoj tehnici katodnih cevi.
Karakteristična Je sve Sira prlmena mikroprocesora u kontrolnoj elektronici perifernih Jedinica.
Apetiti korisnika su u stalnom porastu, posebno za diskovima, te Je proizvodnja perifernih jedinica značajan Izvor prihoda proizvođača računara.
Pored klasičnih kompjuterskih perifernih Jedinica, ne treba zaboraviti Široki spektar komunikacionih Jedinica 1 industrijske periferije, no ovi su najčaiče na nivoju modula.
6.	INTEGRACIJA MASINSKE OPREME
Tehnologija ovog nivo* ■■•tojl u nizu procedura u elektrlBno, elektroniko I progrwnzKo ttitlranj« raBunarakog sistema.
Integracija maBlnske opreme Je prva faca u kojoj se pojavljuju fizlEke konture buduBeg raBunarskog sistema. Ova faza Je neophodna zbog kompleksnosti sastavnih podaklopova maSlnske opreme: centralnog procesora, glavne memorije^kontrolnih 1 perifernih Jedlnica^ta niza razllBitih kombinacija istih u finalnom sistemu.
Svaki od ovih podsklopova mogiiBe Je vellkosarlj-skl proizvoditi u nekoliko standardnih verzija.
Ovde su najizraženiji problemi mehanlBkih reié-nja podsklopova, napajanja, hlađenja 1 povezivanja.
Da bi se obezbedlla pouzdanost celog sistema vrSl se integracija najosnovnije konfiguracije za svakog po-JedinaBnog korisnika sa obimnim testiranjima radi otklanjanja eventualnih međusobnih smetnji u skupnom radu.
Kako ova faza stvara dodatne troSkove u proizvodnji, kod manjih računarskih sistema rizikuje se "integracija pri otpremi", te se ceo sistem prvi put "oživljava" u instalaciji kod korisnika.
Kod mlkroraSunarskih sistema ostavljena Je moguč-nost samom korisniku da IzvrSi integraciju najrazllčnl-Je maSlnske opreme.
7.	OSNOVNA PROGRAMSKA OPREMA
Optimalan rad maSlnske opreme kontrolisan je operativnim sistemom.
Proizvođači računara često nude više operativnih sistema koji su prilagođeni različitim režimima koriščenja raBunara.
Operativni sistem doživljava česte promene pre svega zbog novih komponenata maSlnske opreme, no uvek se nastoji da se održi kompatibilnost na nivoju korisničkih programa u maSlnskom jeziku.
U osnovnu programsku opremu JoS spadaju prevodioci različitih računarskih jezika, programi za rad sa bazama podataka, programi za računarsko komunikacije i niz pomočnlh, često koriSčenih programa.
Dosta se očekuje od noylh jezika za strukturalno programiranje (ADA),te relacionlh baza podataka.
Svi proizvođači računara se trude da ponude Sto Siri spektar osnovne programske opreme radi veče unifikacije obrade podataka na jednoj familiji računara.
8.	APLIKACIONA PROGRAMSKA OPREMA
Aplikaclonu programsku opremu vefiinom razvija korisnik sam, dok proizvođači naJčeSče nude programske pakete prethodno razvijene kod nekog korisnika ili za interne potrebe.
Sve večom prlmenom računara u najrazllčitljim oblastima, prevazidena Je podela aplikacija samo na poslovna 1 tehničke, pojavom značajnih programskih segmenata u proizvodnji, transportu, obrazovanju, obradi tekstova, automatizaciji kancelarijskog poslovanja i komunikacijama u Birem smislu.
Kod apllkacionih programa je veona Izražen nizak stepen unifikacije i standardizacije sa več posloviSno niskom produktlvnoB8u programera. Sto rezultira u porastu cena programske opreme 1 anullranju pada cena ma-Sinske opreme.
Upravo na podruSJu aplikaclone programske opreme neophodan Je tehnoloSki proboj, da bi se omoguSlla naj-masovnija prImena mikroprocesora.
Pomo8 kod uvođenja sistema ide paralelno sa prodajnim aktivnostima i ogleda se planiranju računarskih resursa, prostornim, klimatskim 1 energetskim zahtevima raSunara 1 instalaciji raSunara.
Korisniku se naJSeSSé nude kompleksne InSenJerirB usluge koje obuhvataju i znaiajan deo programski pomoči.
10, zakuuCak
9, SERVISI
Računarski sistemi zbog svoje kompleksnosti zah-tevaju dosta servisnih usluga od strane proizvođača..
To su pre svega održavanje maSinske opreme, programi Školovanja, te pomoč kod uvođenja sistema. Ovde ' možemo svrstati i prodajne aktivnosti koje traže jedan . viSi nivo znanja komercijalista.
Održavanje maSinske opreme'se pospeSuje ugrađiva-: J njem dijagnostičkih funkcija Jo5 u fazi projektovanja si , sistema, daljinskom dija^iostikom kvarova te poboljšanjima operativnog sistema za rad sa dellmično Ispravnom maSinskom opremom.
Servisna.organizacija obično uključuje i obimnu logistiku rezervnih delova, programskih produkata i pot-troSnog materijala.
Školovanje treba da zadovolji internevpotrebe po permanentnom obrazovanju, te mnogostruke zahteve korisnika.	, v"
Dinamička industrija elektronskih računara ima Jedno od glavnih mesta u buduSem, ihformaclonom druStvu
Petu generaciju elektronskih računara 90-lh godina baziranu ria principima veStaCke inteligencije biće moguče reallzovati tehnoloSkim napredkom na svih sedam nivoa u cilju permanentnog poboljSanja odnosa cena I performansi sistema.
Ovaj sažet prikaz tehnologija elektronskih računara dat Je sa željom da omogučl potencijalnim,, jugoslovanskim "proizvođačima" računara da sagledaju svoje odgovarajuče mesto u jednoj specifičnoj industriji, koja kod nas preživljava bezbroj porođajnih muka.
Literatura:,
e.G. Bell et al. COMPUTER ENGINEERING, Digital Press
1978
ELEKlRa KOMPONE(<TE
Mluprovodnici ntegrirana kola otpornti, kondervzatori kablovi, Konektori
PERFERNE JEDINICE
magnetni diskovi i trake
štampači
terminali
I

NAPAJANJE usmerači stabilizatori razdelnici.


kabineti
ventilatori
filtri
CENTRALNI PROCESOR
mehaničko, sestavljanje testiranje moduti i hopajanja aritmetičko-logička jedinica
ulazno-izlazni konlroleri -- --
MEMORIJE
NESTANDARDNE OPCIJE
brze memorije jomični zarez <omercialni set
APLIKACIONI PROGRAMI tehnički poslovni
SISTEMSKA INTEGRACIJA

finalna konfiguracija kompletno testiranje instalacija programa

OSNOVNI PROGRAMI
operacioni sistem prevodioci baza podataka komunikacije ponročni programi
ŠKOLOVANJE
korisničko interno
SERVISI
instalacija garancija održavanje
potrošni materijal - —__
z
a:
o.
ic:
DOKUNENTACIJA
proizvodna servisna korisnička
: SHEMA PROIZVODNJE ELEKTRONSKIH RAČUNARSKIH SISTEMA U RO ISKRA-DELTA
MEETING THE CHALLENGE FOR INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE 80'S
U DK: 681.3:007
A. MILTON JENKINS INDIANA UNIVERSITY
Izziv Informacijskih sistemov v osenridosetth letih. Tožave In tveganje v povezavi z upravljavskim informacijskim sistemom (MIS) so znane že iz sedemdesetih let. Današnja organizacija MlS predvideva (več ali manj standardno) pot členov. Projekt vodi navadno poseben pomočnik direktorja (tudi podpredsednik podjetja), kateremu poročajo (odgovarjajo) štirje izkušeni vodje (slika 1). Administrator baze podatkov odgovarja za stanje podatkovnih virov, sistemski upravnik pa za ustrezno materialno, programsko in komunikacijsko opremo organizacije. Operacijski upravnik odgovarja za obdelavo vseh aplikativnih paketov in upravnik razvoja aplikativnih sistemov za pokrivanje potreb vseh uporabniških organizacij. Članek razčlenjuje vrsto bistvenih nalog sodobne-
(Urednik)
Introduction
The hazarda and difficulties associated with management positions in the MIS department of any organization are well known.' During the early and mid sixties computer systems management was the most difficult position. A major contributor to this difficulty was the rapid technical advances in both the hardware and systems software. During the late sixties and through the mid seventies the Data Processing (DP) Manager's position was the "hot seđt" in MIS. Several surveys reported "life-expectancies" of less than one year for DP managers during this time. The application system explosion la usually credited with being the largest contributor to the problems DP Managers faced during this time. The most difficult managerial position In MIS durig the late seventies was that of the Database Administrator. The rapid expanding supply of corporate data from transactlo-naJ and operational application systems, coupled with an Increasing awareness that data and Information could and should be viewed as organizational resources, contributed toward making the Database Administrator's position difficult during this time. The rapid technological advances In database management systems and the proliferation of new software products by both hardware vendors and newly evolving software houses farther con-, tributed to the problems of managing the organization's data resources.
From 1960 to 19Q0 the typical MIS organization chart changed considerably, reflecting the changing role of MIS in the organization, the changing management needs within the MIS organization, and the Influences of computer and systems technology. Today the top levels of most MIS organization charts appear as illustrated in figure 1. The senior MIS manager today is usually at the vice president level and has four senior managers reporting directly to him/her. The Database Administrator Is responsible for managing the organization's' data resources and increasingly plays a major role in providing consulting and trai-
ning services to the user community. The Syatfims Manaftfr la responsible for providing appropriate hardware, software and communications facilities for the organization.
The Operations Manager (formally called the DP Manager) is responsible for processing of all applir.a-tlons systems in the organization. The A.$D Manager is responsible for meeting the needs of all user orguniza-tlons for application systems.
MIS VP
DATAUASE ADMTNISTHATOH
SVSTKMS MANAGER
OPERATIONS MANAGE)!
	ASD
	MANAGER
Typical Early 1900' MIS Organization t:hart KIGIJIÌE 1
The current managerial "hot seat" in MIS Is the Applications Systems Development (ASD) Manager. The biggest task facing this manager today la meeting the challenge to deliver effective and efficient Information systeniB to any user group in the organization that "requests" an information system. That challenge la the topic of this paper.
The Major Challenges
The major challenges to the ASD Manager arise from three sources: 1) tectmologlcal advances in computer
hardware, software, and methodologies, 2) Increasing organizational awareness of the need to manage the information resource, and 3) increasing management awareness of the value of information in increasing their own and their subordinates' productivity. This paper will focus on those issues thst are most common to all ASD Managers, recognizing that the sequence and level of concern ^'over the Issues may vary significantly across organlza-: tions. These issues will be presented in the form of questions - questfons that the ASD manager will have to find answers for in the near future.
. How do I manage the growing backlog of new application system development projects?
A frequent first reaction to this question is to ^ask wlW such a backlog exists and why is it growing. ! These are natural questions given, that hardware costs in 1980 are IX of what they were in 1960 and that programmer productivity is five times what it was in 1960. The explanation of this apparent paradox lies in the fact that user expectations are growing faster than development capacity, even with increasing development budgets. ; Another factor explaining the lag in development capaI billty is that a high proportion of most development ; budgets are' expended on maintenance of or enhancements ' to existing systems. Reports of maintenance costs at eighty percent or more of the total development budget : are common.
Let's look at the feasibility of some typical solutions considered by. ASD Managers. The first solution set is based on expanding the MIS resource base.
Since' the largest capacity constraint is the programmer/analyst, why not Just hire more programmers. Intuitively this response ia appealing. But even if the development budget could be expanded to meet increase in the development staff, are these skilled people readily available? The answer is almost always no. While the, number of programmers has grown considerably the demand for these people has grown even faster, as illustrated in figure 2.
Can the ASD Manager learn to live with the backlog? Probably not, because of the next question to be answered by the ASD Manager.
: Date	Programmer Jobs	Programmers	Shortfall
	Available	Available	
1975	320,000	308,000	12,000 (4%)
; 1985	640,000	476,000	164,000 (26«)
Source: U.S. Department of Labor Statistics
' » - . ■
Programmer Availability FIGURE 2
Turning from the resources available to the ASD '.Manager, let's examine the demand side of the question. Assuming that the requested application systems have been subjected to an appropriate value (costbeneflt) analysis, the demand is real. The best that can be gained from prioritizing the backlog is a higher return on investment. Given the difficulty in quantifying payoffs (especially for decision support systems (DSS) which are rapidly becoming the mos|; common type of new application system) there is little to be gained in structuring the • backlog.
How do I respond to upper managements demand for solutions?
increasing
One solution that Is attracting considerable attention today is user-developed systems. The title of James' Martin's latest book, Application Development Without Programmers, reflects this orientation. Further, the tremendous number of personal computers in use and their continued decreasing cost indicates that the typical organization user can afford this solution. Many advocates of user-developed systems argue that non-procedural languages and user-friendly software packages allow the user to implement this solution. Given that this solution is economically and technically feasible raises the next question.
How do I handle users seeking their own solutions?
One answer, suggested by advocates of user-developed systems is: You don't.. Leave the users alone and let them seek their own solutions. The problem moat ASD Managers have with this solution is: How do I manage application systems development if any user can build his/her system? The answer, of course, is he/she cain't. The bigger question is, does the process need to be managed? The weight of evidence at this time seems to clearly indicate an affirmative answer. The major reason for managing the process is that the risks of not managing are too high. Gordon Davis recently articulated several of these risks: the high probability of programming errors leading to a loss of information integrity, a resurgence of all the problems associated with duplication of data files and databases, and large inefficiencies associated with duplication of effort. The next question is closely ; linked to this issue.
How do I effectively manage the organizations' Information resources?
One necessary response is, by not advocating managerial responsibility or totally delegating thar responsibility to the users. The most important issue to understand here is that the ASD Manager manages in cooperation ' with the other MIS managers. These managers must work in : concert to manage the organizations' information resources. When the MIS function is managed, new technologies are regularly introduced in the organization. This raises ! another question for the ASD Manager.
How do I utilize technological advances wisely?
Given the scarcity and high cost of people, the increased availability of inexpensive computational capacity, and the availability of fourth generation software, what tradeoffs are available to increase the productivity of the systems/information analyst? In other words, how do I best use technology to get systems developed?
The answer to this, and the other questions asked' by the ASD Manager, lies In the examination of the process used to build systems. Ninety percent of all systems developed in 1980 were built using thè same methodology that was used in 1960. That methodology is the . systems' development life cycle. Over the last twenty years the major costs (in time and dollars) have shifted from the physical design phase of the life cycle to the logical design phase, and particularly to the informa-
tlon requirements definition atop in that phase. But the methodology has remained essentially unchanged. A new system development methodology, prototyping, goes a long way in helping the ASD Manager meet the challenge for information systems in the eighties.-
Meeting The Challenges
Prototyping is presented here as the most appropriate way for the ASD Manager to meet the challenge for information systems in the 'SO's. Prototyping is not a panacea, it is simply a sound methodology that provides answers to many ot the present needs in the systems development area. The following sections define and describe the methodology, the tools required for its successful application and then describes how it meets the challenges facing the ASD Manager.
What is Prototyping?
Prototyping is a development methodology: A methodology which has been used in the design fields (engineering, architecture, etc.) for centuries; A methodology both priholophically and operationally different from the traditional life cycle methodolog. Prototyping has not been used in the application systems development area in the past for one simple reason - the tools required to enable prototyping of application systems were not available until the late '70's. Prototyping is not piloting, although one can pilot a system that was developed by prototyping. The prototype process is typically carried out by two individuals — a competent user and a technically skilled systems analyst. The prototype process is described'in figure 3.
The Prototype Process FIGURE 3
Prototyping Is a fovjr step procesa. The first step is to identify and capture a nucleus or skeleton that embodies the essential features of the user's requirements. The systems analyst works with the user during this process which usually takes less than four hours.
Both the data abstracting and the process simulating approaches are successful in this step. The second step is completed by the systems analyst using a unique set of resources that have become widely available in the last five years. The most important characteristic of this initial prototype is that it must be implemented in a very short time — over night, if possible. The initial prototype is purposefully incomplete. It is a simulation in the sense that it represents the essential elements desired by the user in a simplified form. Design and implementation of the system is accomplished not by completely determining the user's information requirements but by developing a system which delivers as output the ^ key or critical information requirements.
Steps one and two of the prototype process return nothing to the user. Step three, however, is delivery, installation, training, operation and use of the prototype system. This "hands-on" experience with a real system provides a basis for mutual understanding of the system by both user and analyst. The user exercises the system during this step and records the problems and incongruities as well as his/her discoveries as to what they wish the system could do. The user controls the time spent in this step and then contacts the analyst to begin step four. This final step involves only the analyst. The analyst's job is to enhance and modify the prototype system to meet the desires and needs of the user. These modifications must be made rapidly — within a few days. Steps 3 and 4 are repeated as many times as the user feels necessary and at intervals determined by the user.
This prototype process is based on a simple principle — that it is easier for the users to describe what they don't like about an existing system, than it is for them to describe what they would like in an imaginary system.
The Tools Required for Prototyping
Prototyping takes advantage of the technological advances made in the last decade. The basic tools that are essential for prototyping are: 1) Interactive systems (either through time sharing or mini/micro computers). Interactive facilities extend the apparent power of information processing resources by reducing delays and by extending control over the resources to the user. 2) Database management systems (with as full a range of enhancements as possible). A natural language based query language is essential. 3) Generalized input and output software is required if not available with the database management system. This software includes report generators, report writers and nonprocedural, natural languages. 4) A model base (which contains all of the essential features of a database). Many other tools are desirable when prototyping but the purpose of this paper is not to discuss the tools in detail, rather tt Is to describe how to meet and beat the challenges for information systems in the 80's.
How Prototyping Meets the Challenges for Information Systems
The prototyping solution addresses the basic reason for most of the challenges ASD Managers face today. It strikes at the heart of the problems — an inefficient, '•■ time consuming and labor intensive development methodology. For the last twenty years the systems development life cycle has remained essentially unchanged and has been the only methodology employed to develop application systems. Prototyping provides a viable and attractive
alternativo methodology. All future application Byatems will not be developed using prototyping. But based on the reported evidence and my personal experiences with prototyping over tihe last four years, I am convinced that prototyping will be the dominant development methodology by the mid-eighties. Let's examine some of the reasons why.
Prototyping provides a real response to upper management's demanda for solutions. Prototyping provides a real solution because: 1) It reduces the development time required to deliver a functional and useful system to the user, While the reductions in development time vary considerably, times between 10* and-20% of that required by the traditional methodology are very common, 2) The proportion of systems analyst time to user time in the development process shifts significantly placing a greater load on the users to do what they can do best — define their own information and systems requirements. By reducing the time required to develop application systems and by lessening the systems analyst's involvement, prototyping : shows great promise for reducing the applications development backlog.
Prototyping helps handle users seeking their own solutions. Prototyping provides an alternative to the users. The users can get the system they want without having to become a computer non-programmer. Prototyping focuses the user's attention and energy on that aspect of sys-
tems development for which he/she is best qualified. The results, universally reported, are much higher, user satisfaction with the application system.
Prototyping helps the ASP Manager to manage the organi-lation's information resources. Prototyping trades off machine inefficiencies for people efficiencies. With cheap and abundant computational resources and expensive and scarce human resources, this is the appropriate management tradeoff.
Conclusion
There are large number of compelling reasons to use prototyping as a development methodology. It far surpasses any other available alternative in meeting the challenges facing ASD Managers today. But a word of caution is appropriate in closing. There appear to be two potential problems with prototyping: the reduction of controls on both the process and product and the difficulty in easily integrating prototyped systems with other, traditionally developed systems. The ASD Manager should carefully assess these potential problems lest he/she simply trade one set of challenges for another.
STANDARDI I POLITIKA STANDARDIZACIJE U OBLASTI INFORMATIKE
n. deo
S. BRAJOVIĆ-BRATANOVIĆ B. DŽONOVA-JERMAN-BLA2IČ
UDK: 389.6:681.3
SAVEZNI ZAVOD ZA STANDARDIZACIJU. BEOGRAD INSTITUT JOŽEF STEFAN', JAMOVA 39. LJUBLJANA
Razmatrano je problematika i ciljevi standordizacije za područje informatike i računarske tehnike. Razrodjena je metodologija rada na standardima u oblast! informatike koo i srednjeročni plan rada Grupe za standardizaciju Saveznog zavode za standardizaciju u oblasti informatike.
STANDARDS AND STANDARDISATION POLICY IN THE FIELD OF INFORMATICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE. The paper discuss the problems encountered In the development of standards in the field of informatics and computer science as well as the standardisation policies. The areas and procedures of standardisation are treated too. The working plans of the Yugoslav Committee for standardisation in the field of informatics for the next five years are presented.
4. METODOLOGIJA RADA NA STANDARDIMA
U metodologiji rodo na standardima, koja predstavlja sadašnju praksu rada u SZS.
4.1. Faza planiranja
Planiranje je prva aktivnost u radu no standardima. Zadatak planiranja je da obezbedi do standardi koji će biti predmet roda u narednom periodu odražavaju stvarne potrebe drultva u odredjenoj oblasti. U oblasti informatike plan se donosi usoglašavonjem mišljenja stručne javnosti, radnih organizacijo i organa uprave.
Pod terminom stručna javnost podrazumevaju se:
-	naučni instituti i fakulteti u čiju delotnost spada oblast informatike,
-	udruženja korisnika računora u republikama i pokrajinama,
-	saveti za informatiku republika i pokrajino, odnosno upravni organi za područje informatike i Društveni sistemi informisanjo.
Pod terminom radne organizacije podrazumevaju se
-	predstavnici velikih centara za informatiku, elektronskih računskih centara i si.,
-	predstavnici proizvodjačo računora odnosno zastupnici u SFRJ svojim specijolizovonim tehničkim službama.
Pod terminom organi uprave podrazumevaju se predstavnici organa savezne uprave koji imaju Ili će imati Centre za automatsku obradu podataka ili im je delotnost vezana za oblast informotike.
Konkretan plan rada no standardima, kako petogodišnji tako i godišnji predlože odgovarajuća služba, odnosno stručnjak U SZS no osnovu usvojene koncepcije i sagledanih potreba u odredjenoj oblasti standardizacije. Za oblast informatike. Iz napred izloženih razloga, najpogodnije do se rad na standardima organizuje u okviru kompleksnih programa za odre-djene oblasti. U pojedinim oblastima radili bi spacijalizovoni rodni timovi sastavljeni od stručnjaka potrebnih profila, odnosno odredjenom radnom timu bi poverili rod no ćelom kompleksnom programu u dotičnoj oblasti.
U narednom petogodišnjem planu u informatici su načelno sagledane sledeče oblasti standardizacije ;
Grupa I. Informatika i obrada podataka
1 . Opšta grupo
2.	Skupovi znakova i kodovi i šiforski sistemi
2.1	Skupovi znakova
2.2	Kodiranje
2.3	Šiforski sistemi
3.	Magnetni nosioci podataka
3.1	Magnetne trake
3.2	Kasete
3.3	Diskete
3.4	Diskovi
4.	Prenos podataka
4.1	Opšti deo
4.2	Osnovne kontrolne procedure sistema za prenos podataka
4.3	Kontrolne procedure visokog nivoa sistema za prenos podataka
4.4	Veze terminalne opreme sa komunikacionim sistemom
5.	Projektovanje sistema, programiranje I dokumentacija projekta
5.1	Projektovanje
5.2	Metodologija programiranja
5.3	Izbor sistema za AOP
5.4	Unos podataka
6.	Ostali periferici Ó.1 Papirne kartice
6.2	Papirna traka
6.3	Uredjojl za optičko čitanje znakova
6.4	Terminali
7.	Programski jezici
8.	Računarski sistemi i oprema B.l Opšti standardi
8.2	Testiranje
8.3	Sigurnost
9.	Numeričko upravljanje mašinama -
Mehanizam prihvaćanja plana u principu se odvija prema procedurama uobičajenim za druge oblasH standardizacije, odnosno veriflkuje se u taku javne disl<usije, a potam prihvata u odgovrtrajućoj komisiji kao definitivan plan. Na osnovu plana.prav! se detaljan program rada.
U fazi planiranja rada no standardima SZS učestvuje kao:
-	inicijator aktivnosti
-	formolnl davalac predloga plana
-	organizator aktivnosti kod verifikacije i konačnog usvajanja plana
-	osnivač radnog telo za rad na standardu (komisije, podkomisije, radne grupe).
Na osnovu prihvadenih godlinjlh planova SZS organizuje rad na predlogu standarda. Predlog standarda radi se u samom SZS ili se ZO rad na predlogu zadužuje radna grupa III stručni tim Izvan SZS.
4.2.	Faza pripreme
Faza pripreme počinje u trenutku kad SZS od svog sorodnika, radne grupe ili stručnog tima dobije pripremljen radni materijal - predlog za donojenje stondorda. Predlog se na j pre me-tadološki kontrolUe, a potom se vrli i provera njegove tehničke sadržine.
PoSto se sve stručne prlmedbe otklone vrJI se unifikacija predloga stendardo I njegova pravno I terminološka kontrola. Nakon ispravke dobijenih primedbi zovrSovo se faza pripreme i predlog standarda postoje prednocrt standarda.
4.3.	Fazo prednacrta
U fozi prednacrta, surodjuje Komisija za standarde, koja nastavlja do radi i u fazi nacrta standarda. Najveći problem u fazi prednacrta je obezbedjenje komisije koja poseduje potrebnu stručnost i koja istovremeno reprezentuje sve zoin-teresovone nivoe i strukture korisnika. Formiranje strukture komisije u smislu odredjivonjo stručnog profila članova komisije, koji bi bili u stonju do sa stručnog aspekta aktivno saradjuju u radu, kao i sagledavanja interesa korisnika trebalo bi vršiti.za svoku oblast standardizacije posebno. Tako, no primer, kod standardizacije protokola zo prenos podataka u sastav komisije bi trebalo do bude uključena JPTT, koja sa druge strane nema nikakvog interesa za rad u druge oblasti informatike. Kod standardizacije programskih jezika, koji nisu razvijeni u našoj zemlji, trebalo bi obovezno uključiti i zastupnike proizvodjača računaro i si. Kod formiranja komisije za standarde u SZS je i do sodo bila praksa da se nastoji do budu uključeni svi subjekti zo koje bi se moglo pretpostaviti do su zainteresovani. Specifičnost situacije u oblasti Informatike je to da za soda još ne postoji razradjeni mehanizmi organizacije, a sa druge strane broj i disperzija interesovonjo subjekata je izuzetno velika, odnosno korisnici potiču iz privrede, bankarstvo, javne uprave, specijolizovonih institucija, naučnih institucija itd. Kod sostavo komisije je potrebno posvetiti ozbiljnu pažnju i pristupiti tom poslu izuzetno aktivno i profesionalno.
Na osnovu primedbi usoglašenih komisije vrši se ispravka prednacrta stondorda i tako se dobijo nacrt standarda, koji je spreman zo javnu diskusiju.
4.4.	Fozo nacrto
Fazo nocrta počinje onotacijom, odnosno formalnim stavljanjem standarda na javnu diskusiju koja može trajati do 3 me-seco.
Nakon završetka javne diskusije komisija pregledo prispele prlmedbe i usoglošavo ih a potom vrši ispravku nacrta standarda. Ukoliko su isprovkfi suštinske prirodo, ovo fozo se . može ponoviti. Inače, posle unošenja ispravki završava komisijo sa radom, a nacrt postoje konačni predlog stondorda.
4,5, Faza usklodjlvanja
Konačni predlog standarda prolazi' u SZS poslednju stručnu kontrolu zatim pravnu i tèrminoloSku kontrolu a potom unifikaciju.
Polto se sve prlmedbe otklone doblja se konačni tekst standarda.
4.Ć.	Faza objovljlvonja
Konačni tekst standarda prolazi zakonski propisanu proceduru objavljivanja, jugoslovenskog standarda.
4.7. Faza tehničke obrade	.	'
JugoslovenskI standard se prevodi na jezike naroda I narodnosti, vrši se njegova tehnička obrada i standard izdaje u njegovoj konočnoj formi.
5.	SREDNJEI50ČN1 PLAN RADA GRUPE ZA STANDARDIZACIJU U OBLASTI INFORMATIKE U SZS
Detoljnim uvidom u medjunorodnu i inostranu nacionalnu standardizaciju došlo se do osnovnog spiska standarda koji u narednih 5 godino trebo do budu predmet jugoslovenske standardizacije. Spisak treba shvotiti kao minimalni skup standarda, potreban do se dostigne prihvatljiv nivo standardizacije u oblasti informatike u našoj zemlji.
Grupo 1 ! Opšta grupo 1.1. Rečnici pojmova
1.	Osnovni pojmovi (postoji standard)
2.	Aritmetičke i logičke operacije
3.	Tehnologijo opreme
4.	Organizacijo i iskazivanje podotoko
5.	Priprema i rukovanje podacima
6.	Programiranje
7.	Periferna oprema
8.	Medijumi za skladištenje i čuvanje podataka
9.	Pouzdanost, raspoloživost I održavanje
10.	Prenos podataka (postoji, potrebna revizija)
Grupo 2; Skupovi znakova, kodovi I šlfarski sistemi
2.1.	Skupovi znokovo
2.2.	Kodovi
1 . 7-bitni jugosiovenski kod za razmenu podataka za latinično srpskohrvotsko i slovenočko pismo
2.	7-bitni jugosiovenski kod za razmenu podataka za ćirilično srpskohrvotsko pismo
3.	7-bitni jugosiovenski kod za razmenu podataka za ćirilično makedonsko pismo
4.	7-bitni jugosiovenski kod za razmenu podataka za olbonsko pismo
5.	7-bitni jugosiovenski kod zo razmenu podataka. Osnovna verzija
6.	Pravila zo proširenje 7-bitnog na 8-bitni kod
7.	Pri mena 7-bitnog i 8-bitnog koda zo rozmenu podataka pri rozmeni podataka no 9-kanalnim magnetnim trakama širine 12,7 mm	.
8.	Primena 7-bitnog i 8-bitnog koda za razmenu podataka pri razmeni podataka sa kasetom sa magnetnom trakom širine 3,81 mm
2.3.	Šiforski sistem
9.	Šifornik gradova i opštino Jugoslavije
10.	Sifarnik zemaljo
11.	Šifornik valuto
12.	Šifornik OO.UR
13.	Šifornik ortikalo
14.	Šifornik republika i pokrajino
15.	Obeiežovanje datuma i vremena
Grupo 3: Magnetni nosioci podataka
3.1.	Magnetne trake
1.	Neispisane magnetne trake za razmenu podataka širine 12,7 mm (0.5 in) so 8 i 32 reda po mm (200 i 800 bpi) NRZI i 63 reda po mm (1600 bpi) fazno kodirone - fizičke i magnetne osobine trake
2.	9-kanalna magnetno traka zo rozmenu podataka Jirine 12,7 mm (0.5 in) sa gustinom upisa 32 reda po mm (1600 bpi)
3.	9-kanalna magnetno traka za razmenu podataka širine 12,7 mm (0.5 in) so gustinom upisa 63 reda po mm (1600 bpi) fazno kodirana
4.	Labelisanje i struktura datoteka kod magnetnih Iraka zo razmenu podataka
3.2.	Kasete sa magnetnom trakom
5.	Kasete sa magnetnom trakom za razmenu podataka širine 3,81 mm (0.15 in) so gustinom upisa 63 redo po mm (IćOO bpi) fazno kodirane
6.	Labelisanje i strukturo datoteka kaseta sa magnetnom trakom za razmenu podataka
3.3.	Diskete
7.	Izmenjive diskete za razmenu podataka, fizičke i magnetne osobine
8.	Izmenjive diskete zo razmenu podataka, format staze
9.	Labelisanje i struktura datoteka disketa za razmenu podataka
3.4.	Diskovi
10.	Izmenjivi magnetni diskovi sa 6 pločo, fizičke i magnetne
osobine
11.	Izmenjivi magnetni diskovi sa 6 pločo, format staze
12.	Izmenjivi magnetni diskovi sa 11 pločo, fizičke i magnetne osobine
13.	Izmenjivi magnetni diskovi so 12 ploča (loo f^ytes)
14.	Izmenjivi magnetni diskovi so 12 pločo (200 Mbytes)
Grupa 4: Prenos podataka
4.1.	Opšti deo
1 . Struktura znakova zo start-stop i sinhroni prenos
2.	Upotreba provere longitudinalnog pariteta za otklanjanje grešaka kod prenosa podataka
3.	Sinhrono signalizacija kod pi-enoso podataka
4.	Sinhrono signalizacijo velike brzine izmedju lerminolne (OTE) i komunikacione (DCE) opreme kod prenosa podataka
5.	Odredjivonjo performansi sistema za prenos podotoka
6.	Kvalitet prenosa i granične vrednosti kvaliteta sistema ZO prenos podotoka 4.'
7.	Funkcionalni zahtevi zo medjuveze niieg nivoa kod dupleks veze od točke do točke
4.2.	Osnovne kontrolne procedure sistema za prenos podataka
8.	Osnovne kontrolne procedure sistema zo pronos podataka
9.	OsnoVne kontrolne procedure, prenos podataka nezavisan
od koda
.10. Osnovne kontrolne procedure, procedure zo prekid i raskidanje veze
11.	Osnovne kontrolne procedure, procedure za oporavak
12.	Osnovne kontrolne procedure, procedure zo odobironje stanico
13.	Osnovne kontrolne procedure, konverzociona rozmena poruka
14.	Osnovne kontrolne procedure, ostale procedure
4.3.	Kontrolne procedure visokog nivoa sistema zo prenos podataka
15.	Kontrolne procedure visokog nivoa, osnovne procedure
16.	Kontrolne procedure visokog nivoa, dodatne procedure
17.	Kontrolne procedure visokog nivoa, strukturo okvira
18.	Kontrolne procedure visokog nivoa, uravnoteženo vezo stonico istih nivoa
19.	Kontrolne procedure visokog nivoa, neuravnotežena veza sa primarnom i sekundarnom stanicom
20.	Kontrolne procedure visokog nivoa, komunikacioni transportni protokol
4.4.	Veze terminolne opreme sa komunikacionim sistemom
21.	Specifikacija konektoro zo DTE-DCE vezu, sa 15 nožico
22.	Specifikacijo konektoro za DTE-DCE vezo, sa 25 nožica
23.	Specifikacija konektoro zo DTE-DCE vezu, sa 37 nožica
24.	Medjuveze DTE-DCE kod start-stop prenosa u javnim mrežama ZO prenos podataka
25.	Medjuveze DTE-DCE kod sinhronog prenosa u javnim mrežama ZO prenos podataka
26.	Medjuveze DTE-DCE kod poketnog prenosa u javnim mrežama ZO prenos podataka
Grupo 5: Projektovanje sistema, programiranje (dokumentacija projekta)
5.1.	Projektovanje sistema
1 . Metodologija projektovanjo informocionih sistema
2.	Projektna dokumentacija
5.2.	Metodologijo programiranja
3.	Simboli ZO dijagrame sistema obrade informacijo (postoji, potr. reviz.)
4.	Metodologija struktuironog programiranja
5.	Programska dokumentacijo
5.3.	Izbor sistema zo AOP
6.	Metodologijo izbora sistema zo automatsku obradu podataka
5.4.	Unos podotoka i obrado
7.	Dokumentacija zo sistem unosa podataka
8.	Dokumentacija obrade
Grupo 6: Ostali periferni uredjoji
6.1.	Papirne kartice
1.	Nebušene papirne kartice, mere, uslovi kvaliteto (postoji, potr. rev.)
2.	80 kolonske bušene papirne kartice - specifikacija ubušenja
3.	Primeno jugoslovenskih latiničnih kodova zo razmenu podataka no bušenoj papirnoj kartici
4.	Primena jugoslovenskih ćiriličnih kodova zo razmenu podataka no bušenoj papirnoj kartici
6.2.	Papirna traka
5.	Nebušena papirna traka, osobine
6.	Bušena papirna traka, dimenzije i lokacije ubušenjo
7.	Rozmena podataka na bušenoj papirnoj troci
8.	Primena jugoslovenskih latiničnih kodova za razmenu podataka na bušenoj papirnoj troci
9.	Primena jugoslovenskih ćiriličnih kodova u rozmeni podataka na bušenoj papirnoj traci
6.3.	Uredjoji zo optičko prepoznavanje znokoyo
10.	Skup znokovo za ručno pisanje zo uredjenje zo optičko prepoznavanje znakova
11.	Hartijo ZO uredjaje zo optičko prepoznavanje znakova, specifikacije, optičke osobine, testiranje
12.	Skup Štampanih znakova za maÜnsko plian|a za ured|o|e za opHčko prepoznavanje znakova
13.	Dimenzije znokova za uredjaje za optiiko prepoznavonje znakova
14.	. Pozicijo linijo na dokumentima za uredjaje za optičko prepoznavanje znakova
6.4. Terminal!
15.	Alfanumeričko tastatura zo latinično srpskohrvotsko I slovenočko pismo za 44,46-i 48 tipki
16.	Alfanumeričko tastaturo za ćirilično trpskohrvolsko I . makedonsko pismo ZO 44,47 i 48 tipki
17.	Alfanumeričko tastatura za albansko pismo za 44, 47 i 48 tipki
18.	Alfanumeričko tastaturo za modjorsko pismo za 44, 47 i 48 tipki
19.	Tastature za numerički unos podataka
20.	Skup znakova zo ručno pisanje za uredjaje za prepoznavanje znokova pisanih magnetnim mostilom
Grupo 7: Programski jezici
1.	Programski jezik FORTRAN
2.	Programski jezik COBOL
3.	Programski ježlk PL/1
4.	Programski jezik BASIC
5.	Reprezentacija izvornog programa kod razmene programa na jezicima FORTRAN, COBOL, PL/1, BASIC
Grupo 8: Računarski sistemi i opremo
8.1.	OpštI stondordl.
1 . Oceno performansi sistema za AOP
8.2.	Sigurnost opreme
2.	OpštI zahtevi zo smeitaj opreme za automatsku obradu podataka
3.	Zahtevi zo sigurnost opreme zo AOP, mehanički in fizički
zahtevi
4.	Zahtevi zo. sigurnost opreme zo AOP, električna instalacije
5.	Zahtevi za sigurnost opreme zo AOP, protivpoiarne i drugo Inst.
ó. Merenje rodlo-interferencije opreme zo AOP i dozvoljene vrednosti
8.3. Testiranje sistema
7.	Hordversko testiranje ročunoro, testiranje centralnog procesora, centralne memorije i perifernih procesoro
8.	Hardversko testiranje ročunara, testiranje perlferika
9.	Hordvorsko testiranje ročunoro, testiranje analognih uldzo I Izlaza
10.	Testiranje operativnog sistema
11.	Testiranje programa prevodilaca
9. Numeričko upravljanje moilnamo
1.	Numeričko upravljanje, simboli
2.	Procesor zo numeričko upravljanje, logičko strukturo izlaza.
6.	ZAKLJUČAK
U moterljolu je učinjen napor do se sagleda problematika standardizacije u oblasti informatike I računarske tehnike. Uočeni su takodje, problemi koji bi mogli iskrsnuti u toku realizacije srednjoročnog plana grupe zo standardizaciju u oblasti informatike.
U utečenoj metodologiji rodo SZS uočene su faze gde bi SZS trebao do zadrži iniciotivu, koordinativnu i kontrolnu ulogu, dok bi ostalu aktivnost trebalo do se prepusti odgovarajućim subjektima izvan SZS.
7.	REFERENCE
U pripremi materijala korISčenI su sledeči dokumenti:
1.	Politika standardizacije u Jugoslaviji, Beograd 1979, izdavač SZS, odgovorni urednik Milan Krojnović.
2.	Srednjoročni plan roda no standardima u oblasti informatike, jun 1981, SZS, autor S.Brajevič-Bratonović.
3.	P. Wolley, Standards in Computing, S.Tech. College, 1978, London.
THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A MICROCOMPUTER BASED CAD/CAM SYSTEM FOR 2 1/2 MILLING OPERATIONS
S.K. KHURMI, C.B. Besant and H.A. Pak
UDK: 681.3:621.914
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT. IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY. LONDON.
The ever diminishing size and cost of microelectronic devices has brought about two technological achievements. Firstly, in the integration of two technologies, namely, Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacture iiiLo unified CAD/CAM systems, whereby a design is developed and the manufacturing process controlled fiom start to finiuh with a single system. Secondly, in the feasibility of low cost CAD/CAM systems on an economic scale wliich cuti be related to small sized nanufacturing industries.
The system concept described is in an effort to obtain the optimum benefit from recent developments in the u.-je of microprocessors in the field of CAD/CAM.
The current system is capable of 2D and 2 1/2 D design and machining of milling components compruiing of utrait;lit lines and arcs, which conforms to the need of a large section of the manufacturing industry.
HARDWARE CONFIGURATION The CAD/CAM Workstation
The CAD/CAM workstation's hardware is based around the Motorola 6809 8-bit microprocessor and at the time of purchase (1980) if represented one of the most versatile microcomputer systems providing a wide range of hardware and software support.
The gverall hardware configuration of the integrated CAD Wkstation, Fig. 1, consists of:
1. A Southwest Technical Products (SWTP) 6009 8.bit 2 MHz microprocessor based šinjele user systoiri With 64 K bytes of user RAM, of which 8 K bytes is utilised by flex9 Operation System. For programs rt-(|Uiring large data storage the HAM can be exp-inded up to 768k on a single user system. The 6809 inicro-processor, although an 8-bit device, has a IC-bit architecture which makes it one of the most vi:i ;ia-tile and fastest 8-bit microprocessors in the market (1).
Plq.l Tlie basic hardware of tho CAD/CAN workstation .

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2.	A dual 8 inch double density, double sided flexible disk unit, providing up to 2 M bytes of usable (formatted) online storage.
3.	An "intelligent" combined alphanumeric/graphics raster scan vdu - Hewlett Packard 2648A refresh terminal. It contains its own microcomputer which commands the execution of display control functions on a screen resolution of 720 x 360 pixels, and operates at 9600 baud.
t. A flat-bed AO multi-microcomputer based plotter.
5. And a text printer.
Besides the standard I/O ports the SWTP system also providea the user with additional peripheral caimunica-tion ports (i.e. serial or parallel)
so that several peripherals as well as computers can be linked to the workstation. The ability to communicate with other computers is a very important feature in that it provides the capability of developing larger and more complex programs by distributing the tasks amongst several heterogeneous computers arranged in a hierarchical configuration. Another advantage is that the CAD/CAM workstation is capable of simultaneously conimunicating with several NC machine tools, similar to a DNC system configuration.
the Multi-Microcomputer CNC System The CAM hardware. can be. rsub-^dividèd into two discrete, elements, momely, the control system and the mechanical components associated with the machine tool.
The control system is one which has been developed at Imperial College for the control of multi axes machines such as machine tools, plotters and robots (2). The basic architecture of the control system is a hierarchical one. of a master/slaves configuration. By employing such an architecture system modularity, flexibility and expandability are maintained. The concept of . the general control system is that it can be customised to the specifications arid peculiarities of existing machine tools..
WORKSTATION'S SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE Software Hierarchy
Successful design and development of CAD/CAM software packages on a microcomputer requires careful evaluation of the architecture, capabilities and limitations of the system (3). The three most obvious limitations that are inherent to most microcomputer systems, especially 8-bit microcomputers, are firstly, they possess relatively slow processing speeds compared with minicomputer based CAD/CAM systems, secondly, they lack software backup, and thirdly, they have severe faststore restrictions. Despite these implications there are several ways one can minimise these restrictions for the development of a CAD/CAM system. Some of the most common ways are:
.	development of a modular software
.	development of a modular and intelligent CNC system
.	utilization of a "powerful" operating system
.	use of intelligent peripherals
.	allow communication with other computers.
As a result of these recommendations tlie software packages described were formulated not only to be modular but be executed in such a manner as to optimise the flow of information from the design stage to manufac- ' ture. Since the process of product design and iiönufac- ■ ture is a systematic one following a standard design sequence, whereby first the design is formulated, analysed and thien the cutter path movements generated followed by the machining process, the sequence of the CAD/CAM software must adhere to it. However, it does not imply that all the packages should be resident in memory at the same time during the various stages of the product design. Thus, in order to minimise on board storage the software packages can be sub-divided into three main classifications:
1. Creation and visual display programs. ,2. Cutter path simulation programs. 3. Part program generation programs.
Product Level
Comportent Lovel
Primitive level
Pig.3 ft three level hierarchical data base structure
By sub-dividing the software packages into the above-mentioned classifications one can develop quite large scale CAD/CAM programs on microsystems by executing them sequentially with intermediate formats transferred from one package to another, Fig. 2.
The CREATE Package
The CREATE package is responsible for the storage of data and the general management of the data base (DB). CREATE is written in 6809 assembly language mainly for speed and ease of memory management and data decoding. The CREATE package accepts command from the user and calls display and edit routines to interactively visualise and modify the elements of a component. The component can be related to any machining operation e.g. turning, milling, punching, drilling, etc. '
The structure of the data base is illustrated in Fig.3 and represents a simple way of storing data CO. Hierarchical configurations represent an ideal way of representing information which itself is not centralised.	. ^
into
The hierarchical structure falls/three main categories (5), namely Product Specification, Component Specification and Primitives. The Product Specification contains information pertinent to the managerial aspects associated with the product such as the materials, quantities required,contract number, customer's name and delivery dates. The product is then sub-divided into several components, which comprise of several geometrical Primitives. These Primitives are a collection of geometrical attributes which can be called and appended to from the geometry of the component. For milling operations some of the commonly used primitives are cylinder, thread, line, fillet, box; pyramid, etc.
Thus by either Using the standard primitives (or by defining new primitives) compie* milling geometries can be quickly and easily entered into the computer.
The EDIT Package
This package, also written in assembly language, allows components to be recalled and modified interactively. Similar to a text editor, primitives can be analysed graphically as well as numerically. By sequentially stepping through the primitives which define a compo-
nentj geometrical errors can be quickly and easily detected. Once the error has been detected, two very powerful commands, namely Delete and Insert, allow entire primitives to be deleted and replaced by new ones.
The DISPLAY Package
DISPLAY is an interactive, modular graphics package, written in PASCAL, and is responsible for the canpre-hensive display of the technological primitives and components as they are created or modified by the above-mentioned packages.
The output is either in the form of a single view of the part or a four view first angle orthographic projection whereby the vdu screen is sub-divided into four viewports as illustrated in Fig. iJ.
General display features such as orthographic views, isometric views, clipping, windowing, rotation, scaling and dimensioning form the basis of the DISPLAY package.
The PLOTTER Package
The PLOTTER Package communicates directly with the multi-microcomputer based flatbed plotter designed and built at Imperial College via, a standard RS 232 serial communication bus. The PLOTTER package contains an ASCII character generation set in software and is responsible for the production of graphical hard copies of the component in first angle orthographic projection and/or rotated 3D views. Due to the limited resolution of the vdu screen high resolution plotter hard copies can be used for the verification of the component's geometry as well as cutter paths.
The HllllnK Cutter Path Derivate and Simulate MCPDRS Package	----——
Once the geometry of the component to be pocket-milled has been entered, displayed, analysed and stored, using the above-mentioned packages, the cutter path's loci can be generated. The automatic generation of the loci and the machining commands, such as feed rates, spindle c'^anges, are the responsibility of the MCPDRS package. A macro flowchart of the MCPDRS package is illustrated in Fig. 5.	f "e,
Fig.4 A typical view of a component displayed in four views.
On
		
•rl y		
^ 1		
ll		s 1
a M		d 0
		s		1
		g		Q
■i		« 2		S >. 3
		4> S		S o
		J-jp- Is
ll		ll
		it
1		51
p 0 li		33
g'5			
ä..			
g Bd			
hi		—	§
s .C n			
G
—1		
ss ■a s &		ji H
		
V. ^		___^
Fig.5 Macro nowchart of the MCPDRS package
The geometry of the workpiece ia decoded from the compact data base format and displayed In any desired view. Conventionally, the desired views are the plan, elevation, side elevation, and isometric views. Thus, by displaying the above-mentioned four views a quick and accurate graphical visualisation of geometrical errors or illegal cutter path movements can be detected and corrected.
The blank size and geometrical parameters are input while tools and the mac^iining parameters are selected from tooling and machining data libraries. The' libraries contain the commonly used tools (cutters)."materials and their corresponding machining speeds and feeds. From this information the blank, rou^cut and finecut offsets are displayed. Fig. 6.
The spindle speeds and the feed rates are computed using the following formulae:
Spindle speed = cutting speed of the milling cutter (cutter's diameter)
Feed rate = Number of teeth in the cutter : X recommended feed per t<?oth X r/min of the cutter
Having computed the speed? and feeds a visual simulation of the roughing process is displayed (either on the ydu or on the plotter). Figs. 7,8, followed by the final roughcut at a reduced feed rate. After a tool change for a finecut tool, usually an end mill, the finishing cuts are displnyod at a slower feed rate
aiinfc^
i^-L
■vV V
i

■ -U
AN EXAMPLE OF POCKET MHilNC
Horlcpiace Contour-^I
Roughcut Locus
Finsi Soushcut Loc\is
Plnecut Loco»
S


ttottgfaeat, TUuJ. Sougbeut ud FiMcut opUKtlon«
v«rtteal Orliling oper»tlcn
worlcpiece contour
finishing cut's allowance
final roughing cut locus
Fig.6a Visualisation of the wrkpiece' s geometry and contouring roughcut and finecut loci
Roughcut depth
Roughcut feed rate
Finecut depth.
(b)	(cl
Fig.6 Removal of material during a (b) roughcut, (c) finecut process
(è
lE/
I
O
s
a
■o
s
«J
i

and spindle speed so as to achieve a good surface finish.
The roughing algorithm has been formulated bearing in mind the limitations and capabilities of the present microcomputer based workstation. Thus the roughing cutter path locus consists of horizontal and vertical (X,Y) movements only. For the majority of cases where the machining time is not a critical factor this algorithm is an acceptable one. However, the modularity of the package enables such algorithms to be optimised or changed without grossly affecting the rest of the package. Furthermore, fast algorithms do exist (6) for the optimisation of the cutter paths for machining arbitrarily shaped pockets, and they can be easily incorporated on a commercial system.
The final operation i's drilling. If there are any drilling operations to be performed then they too can be executed by performing tool change(s) and using the milling head as a drilling machine.
The tool changes, spindle speeds, feed rates and cutter paths are stored in an integer binary format in a cutter location data (CLDATA) file for subsequent access by t'ae part progfam GENERATE package.
The Part Program GENERATE (PPGP) Package
This package is responsible for the conversion of the . CLDATA from a binary to an ASCII formst t and transmitting it, via a standard RS232 serial canmunication bus to the CNC systemCs).
CCMMUMICATION BETWEEN THE WORKSTATION AND THE SYSTEM
One of the advantages of the above system is that is eliminates the NO papertape which is conventionally used in transferring NC commands from the CAD workstation to the NC machine tool. The papertape have several disadvantages over the direct comnjunication link, and are as follows: *
. relatively slow to genèrate and to read, . takes time to be transported- ft'om the workstation to
the NC machine tool, . expensive in terms of paper and storage costs, . easily damaged, .'and are difficuld to identify.
Thus, by generating an ASCII CLDATA file and transmitting it down a standard communication bus (e.g. RS 232) all of the above-mentioned disadvantages uva eliminated. Furthermore, the bus can also be utilise;:.! for the two way communication. The implications associated with this are almost limitless.
RELATIVE MERITS OF THE.CURRENT SYSTEM
Several benefits of the current system can be postulated .and summarised as:
1.	A reduction in the total system costs due to the introduction of micro-electronic technolo©' in the processing, control and mechanical engineering areas.
2.	Low computer software coöts due to the modular structure of■the packages. The modules' arohiteo-ture is such that modification and interfacing with other modules is a relatively straightforward task.
3.	Interactive and visual (simulation) features lead to the rapid detection and correction of errors.
H. Customised software packages can be quickly and ch<2aply assembled from existing modules.
5.	A general purpose hierarchical DB which ia coiunon to all the software; packages.
6.	A direct communication link between the CAD workstation and the CAM system greatly reduces CAD to CAM data transfer times by eliminating the generation of NC papertapes. This greatly improves design to production times with lower overheads and skilled labour costs.
LIMITATIONS OF THE CURRENT SYSTEM'
As briefly mentioned earlier, microcomputer based systems possess certain restrictions in the form of online memory, processing speed, fast backup storage, or existing software backup. This is especially true for most 8-bit microsystems and the above described CAD/CAM packages were formulated with those implications in mind. However, by developing most of the software packages in a hi^ level language and maintaining modularity then the task of transferring them from an 8-bit to a 16-bit microcomputer is a relatively simple one.
The transfer to a 16-bit microcomputer with a link to other computers will be welcomed since it encourages more complex 2D, 2 1/2 D and even 3D milling operations to be performed.
CONCLUSIONS
The design ^d development of an 8-bit microcomputer based CAD/CÀM system for the design and direct manufacture of simple milling components has been described. Consequently, the system has been formulated for 2D and 2 1/2 D pocket milling operations but.software modularity enables expansion of the packages to handle more complex 2D, 2 1/2 D and 3D milling operations. Furthermore, other machining operations such as turning,' drilling, shaping and grinding can easily be inti'oduced since all that is rewuired is the replacement of the cutter path derivate and the part program generate packages.
The inmediate future of this CAD/CAM system is to transfer it onto a 16-bit microsyatera and further develop it into a ccBBieroially viable low cost system mainly for use in small to medium sized industries.
REFEREMCES
1.	Gooze, M. "How a 16-bti microprocessor makes it in an 8-blt world". Electronics, September 27, 1979.
2.	Dalzell, D.T. "Intelligent machine tools and the microprocessor". Ph.D. Ttiesis, Imperial College, University of London, 1981.
3.	Khurmi, S.K. "Computer Aided Design and Manufacture and the Microprocessor". Ph. D. Thesis, Imperial College, University of London, 1982.
t. Booth, G.M. "Hierarchical configurations for distributed processing". Compcon Digest, September 1977.
5.	Pak, H.A. "Microprocessors in Computer Aided Design and in Computer Aided Manufacture in Mechanical Engineering". Ph. D- Thesis, Imperial College, University of London, 1981.
6.	Persson, H. "NC machining of arbitrarily shaped pockets". Computer Aided Design, Vol. 10, No. 3.
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COMPILER PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS
JOZO J. DUJMOVIC
UDK: 681.3.068
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE, YUGOSLAVIA
An empirical analysis of various practical aspects of compiler performance is presented. The basic goal of the >inii1yKlä Is to shou the range of possible performance levels corresponding to various language processors. The paper pn-simi» two simple formulas for computing (1) the memory requirements and (2) the compilation time of a source prop.ram written In a high-level language. Various examples verifying these formulas are also presented. A part of tlie paper Is devoted to a statistical analysis of the memory consumption per source Instruction, Finally, various, compilers are corap<iri-d from the standpoint of resource consumption during the execution of compiled programs. The comparison Is based on an extensive case study performed using the Amdahl 470-V6 computer.
I?
INTRODUCTION
Modern computer systems regularly offer a variety of options for processing a high-level language program. A user should be Interested in selecting the best option, i.e. the option which outperforms all other alternatives. Generally, there are three basic steps in selecting the best computer Implementation of an algorithm:
(1)	select a proper language,
(2)	select one of available compilers for the selected language, and
(3)	select appropriate compilation parameters (switches) of the selected compiler.
The selection procedure is to be based on performance considerations since the basic user's goal should be.to process his programs using minimal computer resources. Of course, we assume that the user has to pay for the use of computer resources.
In some cases the selection of an appropriate programming language may be a strategic decision wliich Is based on external mandatory requirements, different from the optimization of performance and cost. However, the selection of an efficient compiler and compilation parameters for a given language represents always an important task. It seems that general computer users frequently neglect various compiler-related performance Issues and that the default versions of compilers are the most frequently used. Unfortunately, many algorithms are quite sensitive to compilation parameters. Consequently, a-skilled user can often substantially improve the performance level of his programs without changing the Initial source program. The level of possible Improvements, is exemplified in subsequent sections.
AN EXPERIMENT WlTll THE STRAIGHT SEI.ECTION SORT ALGORITHM
Let us analyze various equivalent implementations of an algorithm using different programming languages. The algorithm to be studied is an internal straight selection sort (SSS) rwiR76] used for sorting an Integer vector
A,, A,..... A^. A simple (but Inefficient) version of
the SSS algorithm is presented in Fig. 1. In addition, five equivalent Implementations of the SSS algorithm using COBOL, Pascal, FORTRAN, BASIC, and MACRO-11 as-embly language are also shown In Fig. 1.
All these programs sort the array A following exactly the same algorithm. Conasquently, one could expect similar memory consumptions and similar processing times for all equivalent versions of this simple algorithm. In this case, however, the expectations and the reality
are two different things. The memory requlremi-.nt fnr each (translated) source Instruction is shown in Fig. 1. Using PDP 11/34 the minimum space fur the aBaunibly language version of the SSS algorithm was 32 byCi^s, while the default version of OMSl Pascal used el^'ht timoH iiiore, I.e. 260 bytes. Optimal versions of FORTRAN and Fascili also dramatically differ:Pascal needs two times gn^^itei' memory space. Similar situation was found using the Honeywell System 6. The COBOL version of the SSS algorithm used three times more space than tlic Siniie algorithm written in FORTRAN.
Run times for sorting N random numbers using the t'lip li/ 34 are shown in Fig, 2. Tlie differences are again substantial. The default version of FORTRAN uses an Inlórn.il counting of source line numbers. For simple source statements' this can generate large overheads, and in our case the line-number overhead Is greater than lOOX. The default version of OMSl Pascal Implies a number of tests Including thè array bounds check and the stack overflow check, as well as alow floating-point calls (compiler automatically generates floating-point machint: instructions and,for machines having no floating-point hardware, traps are used for Juaiplng tp the floating-point arithmetic subroutines). Tlie resulting overhead for the default version of OMSl Pascal was greater than 50%. Tlie lowest execution speed can be expected tihen using.an Interpreter. According to Flg.- 2 the BASIC aort was 200 tlmi:s slower than the assembly language sort.
Similar results were obtained using the Huneywell System 6. The results shown in Fig. 3 correspond to the vector
A - -1, -2.....-ID, -1,-2,..., -10.....The assembly
language sort was almost two times faster th.in the FORTRAN sort. However, the COBOL sort was shown to be 30 times slower than the FORTRAN sort for equivalent two-byte binary components of the vector A. Tlie use of three-digit decimal Integers for vector A makes the corresponding COBOL sort 7 times slower than the binary version of the same COBOL sort.
A comparison of space arid time requirements for PDP 11/ 34 Is summarized in Fig. 4. Obviously, the obtained results are insufficient for deriving conclusions about general ranking of languages and their compilers. However, these results prove the Importance of compiler performance'measurement and analysis. They also illustrate the range of possible Improvements, and show how dramatic can be the difference between any pair of different programming languages.
46
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6) (7)
A STRAIOIT SELECTION ^ '	SORT ALSORITm
J := i j := j + 1
if Aj < A^ then exchange Aj and A if j<N then (3) i = i + 1 if i <N then (2)
i
POP 11/34, RT-11 F. IV V02.04
Honeywell 6 FORTRAN 3.0
C FORTRAN IV	Opt.	Default	
00 5 I n 1 , N-1	20	(26)	24
00 5 J » 1^1 . N	28	(34)	22
IF(A(J).GE.A(I)) GOTO 5	4	(10)	20
T = A(I)	6	(12)	10
A(I) = A(J)	2	( 6)	12
m = T	2	{ 6)	10
5 CONTINUE	24	(30)	14
TOTAL =	= 86	(124)	112 B
* HONEYWELL 6/43 COBOL A 2.0			
1-LOOP.			
PERFORM J-LOOP VARYING I			
FROM 1 BY 1 UNTIL I = N.	62		
J-LOOP.			
COMPUTE K = I + 1,	30		
PERFORM SWAP VARYING J			
FROM K BY 1 UNTIL J>N,	62		
SWAP.			
IF A(J) <A(I)	54		
MOVE A(I) TO T	30		
MOVE A(0) TO A(I)	50		
MOVE T TO A(J).	30		
TOTAL	= 318 B		
	PDP 11/34	, RT-11	
}0MS1 Pascal VI.2G ]	Opt. 1	Default	
FOR I 1"TO N-1 DO	30	(30)	
FOR J := I+l TO N DO	34	(34)	
IF A(J)<A(I) THEN	26	(58)	
BEGIN			
T A C I 3	12	(28)	
A D3 ACJD	20	(52)	
. A [J 3 :=T	8	(2A)	
END	34	(34)	
TOTAL	= 164	(260)	B
10 REM MICROSOFT BASIC IN ROM V.I REV 3.2
20 FOR I = 1 TO N-1	16
30 FOR J = I+l TO N	16
40 IF A{J)<A(I) THEN T=A(I): A{I)=A(0): A(J)=T 44
50 NEXT J.I
10
TOTAL = 86 B
: POP 11/34,		MACRO-11 assembly language	
	MOV	«A, RO	4
	MOV	N, R1	4
	DEC	R1	O
SRT1 :	MOV	t(0.R2	2
	TST	(R2)t	2
	MOV	R1,R3	2
SRT2:	CMP	(R0),(R2)+	2
	BLE	SRT3	2
	MOV	(R0),R4	2
	MOV	-(R2).(R0)	2
	MOV	R4.(R2)+	2
SRT3:	SOB	R3,SRT2	2
	TST	(R0) +	2
	SOB	R1,SRT1	2
		TOTAL -	32 B
Figure 1. A simple version of the straight selection sort and its iroplementations in COBOL, Pascal, FORTRAN, BASIC, and MACRO-11 assembly language
MEHORY CONSUMPTION FORMULA
The first step In a study of compiler perforaance should be an analysis of memory requirements of a compiled program. In this section we extend the results presented in C DUJ733£or FORTRAN and ALGOL with similar measurements for a COBOL compiler.
Memory consumption of a compiled program depends on many factors. The most important factor Is the number of executable source instructions. Let M denoto the memory needed for a compiled program, excluding system subroutines and data used by the program, Tlie executable source instructions directly generate the machine code, but soue related code may precede and/or follow the program yielding increased memory requirements. Consequently, a simple detei'ministic expression of the memory consump-
tion as a function of the number of executable source language instructions N can be formulated as the following tnemory consumption formula:
m + m, N o I

const,
The parameter m represents a fixed part of the memory requirements, l.e, the average memory occupicd independently of the number üC insLructiona N. The main components of m are:
(a) Introductory code uliicVv may be used for varlinis
data initializations using system subroutine calla, and for program structuring (e.g. for controlling sections and paragraphs in COBOL). Internal variables (loop indices, subroutine linkage parameters, and auxiliary local varlahlua). character strings Included in output srJtemiiiito,
(b)
(c)
Figure 2. Run times of the straight selection sort using the PDP 11/34 and random numbers
9 8 7 +
I
jilii
6 5
4 ■• 3 •• 2
1 + I
PDP 11/34 i| I
SPACE
1"
H
a
: 'Il ■
TIME
i: ^i^iMr :ii:l;;
: ili h^!-:
		—^
		
		
		
		rs !
		<C-Ll-'i
		ÜJ'
		Ol
		
. ot		C£)
■ O		o:
U;		

a
Figure 3. Run times of the straight selection sort using Honeywell System.6
<0
Figure 4, A comparison of space and time requirements for the straight I selection sort using assembly language, FORTRAN, and Pascal. (PDP 11/34, RT-11. random numbers)
2950 +
M^ IBM 360 (SSP)
FORTRAN IV . 117 PROGRAMS
■H^ = 23 N^ + 277
12984
0
SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS N H-(-1-1-(-1-1-1-(-
117
2248+M^ IBM 1130 (SSP)
FORTRAN IV . 121 PROGRAMS
M^ = 19.7 N^
4036 H
SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS	"f
H-(-(-1-1-(-(__(-(-^
IBM 1130 (SSP + STRESS) FORTRAN IV . 190 PROGRAMS
M^ = 17 N^
117
SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS "f
H-1-(-1-(-(-(-(-1-
222
Figure 5. Four examples of the memory consumption formula
30.8 + T^^ IBM 1130 (SSP)
§
.0
FORTRAN IV . ,121 PROGRAMS
T^^ = 0.01 N^'-®^ + 4.7
SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS
H-H-1-1-1-1-1-1-h
84
■T^f IBM 1130 (SSP + STRESS)
FORTRAN IV , 190 PROGRAMS
= 0.01 Nf'-®' + 4.8
g..
SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS
-i-1-1-1-(-f-
H-1-(222
Figure 6. Examples of the compilation time formula
and various numeric constants. -(d) Terminating code at the end of program.
The parameter m, represents the average memory occupied by a translated source Instruction (or the memory occupied by an average source Instruction). Since the memory consumption formula Is usually generated using a regression analysis, It follows that m, can also be affected by all related memory requirements uhlch are approximately proportional to N. For example, the number of constants. Internal variables and section labels may be proportional to N , Increasing the computed value of m,. However, under normal circumstances, these Influences are not substantial and they can be analyzed within the context of the code generated by the executable source instructions.
There are two approaches to the measurement and analysis of m^ and m^. The first approach is based on an analysis of individual programs, and the second approach is based on an analysis of individual compiled instructions.
The first approach assumes the compilation of a set of programs and the measurement of the N,M pair for each compiled program using global statistical data generated by compiler. Since N represents the number of individual executable Instructions the computatation of N should take into account the complexity of source instructions, separating multiple and nested instructions. After applying a linear regression to the set of points in the N,M plane the parameters m and m can be easily determined.	o	^
The second approach consists of analyzing the assembly language equivalents of individual source instructions. The memory space used by a compiled instruction depends on the context in which the instruction appears. Consequently, the memory space per source instruction (m^) la a random variable, and using a sufficiently large sample it is possible to determine the distribution of frequencies of various values of m.. The parameter m can ttien be defined as the mean value of this distrlBu-tion. Results of this approach are presented In subsequent sections.
The first approach (i.e. the propram-orlented analysis oE memory requirements) is exemplified in Fig. 5. Tlie first example shows the memory consumption data for the IBM System /360 Scientific Subroutine Package according to data published in CIBM70J . The resulting parameters are m.=23 B and m =277 B. The memory consumption for the CDC 3000 FORTRAN Is slightly larger: m =26.5 B (assuming m =0) or m =25 B and m^-316 B. Finally; the 16-bit IBM 1130 used for an average FORTRAN statement from 17 to 19.7 bytes.
tion t.N where a % I. If the compilation process is linear, i.e. a=l, then t. denotes the average compilation time per executable source instruction. In the case of a nonlinear compilation process we have a>l and t denotai, the average compilation time tor the first executable instruction in the jprogram, while each additional instruction has an Increased compilation time.	'
The above analysis shows that the average compilation time can be computed using the following compilation time formula!
Tc ■ '^o «
a » 1
In commercial literature the performance of a compiler is frequently expressed using a unique indicator called "the number of translated source statements per minute".; This seems to be an Incorrect Indicator since It la meaningful only if t =0 and a"l. However, the measurements of compiler performance show that regularly t^ > 0 and very frequently a>l.
Two examples of the compilation of FORTRAN programs are
presented In Fig. 6. These are typical examples of the
nonlinear compilation process. The compilation process
of ALGOL programs reported in [ DUJ73 J also showed the
nonlinear characteristic. The compilation time formula
for the IBM 1130 ALGOL is	it
T = 18.7 + 0.11 N	seconds,
ca	a
This formula is to be compared with the compilation time formula of the IBM 1130 FORTRAN compiler:
1.61
T^j = 4.8 + 0.01 Nj
seconds.
For example, if N =N,=100 then the corresponding average compilation times^are T (100)=62.5 seconds and T ,(100)= =21.A seconds.	.
The examples shown in Fig. 7 illustrate a linear compilation process. Tlie Burroughs 1714 COBOL compiler was analyzed using two Independent and different program samples. The first sample consists of 32 small programs (N^ i 42) used as programming exercises. The second sample consists of 41 medium commercial programs (N ^498) developed and used by professional programmers. Figure 6 shows separately the results for small programs, the results for medium programs, and the results for the merged sample containing both small and medium programs. It is important to emphasize the consistency of results both for the memory consumption (10.2 im^i 10.7) and for , the compilation time (l$t.^l.5). The parameter m. has an excellent value which can be explained by an extremely efficient organization of machine Instruction coding (see LwIL72 3). However, the range of the parameter t U72 $ t^ 278 sec) represents a surprisingly poor ° result.
COMPILATION TIME FORMUIA
' The compilation process Includes two basic steps:
(1)	fetch and initialization of a selected compiler, and
(2)	the translation of the source program. The first step needs (approximately) a constant time and,represents the fixed part of the compilation time. The time necessary for the second step is a function of the number of executable source instructions (N), and consequently it represents a variable part of the compilation time. Generally, the translation of the source program can be
a nonlinear process, i.e. the variable part of the compilation time can be a nonlinear function of the number of source instructions. Let T (N ) and T (N.) denote the compilation times of two relaSed programs containing respectively N and N^ executable source instructions. Suppose that these programs can be merged yielding the compound compilation time T (N +N,). The nonllnearity of the compilation process can be expressed by the following inequality:
T^{Nj+N,)	+ T^(N2) .
This inequality can be explained by the extra time needed for searching various tables.genèrated by the compiler (the tables which correspond to the compound program are greater than the equivalent tables of the constituent programs). Therefore, the variable part of the compilation time can be expressed using the. simple power, func-
AN ANALYSIS OF THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF BYTES PER SOURCE INSTRUCTION
In cases where a compiler can generate an assembly language listing of the translated source program it is possible to analyze various details of the compilation process. In particulai;, it is.easy to count both the number of bytes and the number of machine instructions per source instruction. Such an analysis yields the corresponding frequency distributions which enable a detailed analysis of the parameter m,. Examples of these analises are presented In Figures 8,9,10, and 11. Figures 8 and 9 illustrate a comparison of FORTRAN and Pascal compilers. The analyzed Pascal compiler generates more machine Instructions and needs more memory space for a source Instruction than the FORTRAN compiler. However, the machine instructions generated by the Pascal compiler are shorter than those generated by the FORTRAN compiler.
A comparison of the Honeywell System 6 FORTRAN and COBOL compilers (for equivalent sample programs)'is shown in Fig. 10. The COBOL compiler needs more memory space and generates more machine instructions than the FORTRAN compiler, but the machine instructions generated by COBOL are shorter than those generated by FORTRAN. The obtained parameter m 'S 22 bytes for the Honeywell System 6 COBOL A is substantially greater than the minimum value m^ S 10 bytes which corresponds to the
50
525f
M BURROUGHS 1714
COBOL, 32 StlALL PROGRAMS
234+T.
SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS "e H-1-1-1-1-1-1—ttJ
BURROUGHS 1714 a
COBOL, 32 SMALL PROGRAMS
V «C ^
SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS
Nc
_l-(-1-(-(-1-1-1-(.
42
958
T BURROUGHS 1714
cc
COBOL, 41 PROGRAMS
1.2 N, + 278 cc	C
SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS
H-h
■4-1-1-1-1-H
7610 +
M^ BURROUGHS 1714 COBOL, 73 PROGRAMS
958 T^j. BURROUGHS 1714
COBOL. 73 PROGRAMS

H-1-
SOURCE ^INSTIjUCTiyNS
■f >
Figure 7. Memory consumption and compilation time for two samples of COBOL programs
number of source instructions » average * of bytes PER src. in. standard deviation » is.18
149 21.69
0 0 2 6 19 26 14 7 7 17 7 0 4 6
3
4 4 6 A 0 1 2 0 2 0 0 0
10
20
0
----+----
2 1 4 1 6 I»# 8 i»««««« 10 I«*»««*«*»«*«««««««« 12 I«»»**««*«»«»«»«*««««««««»« 14 I************** 16 I******* 16 I******* 20 I*»:*****$*il!*#**$$* 22 I***»«*» 24 i
26 X**** 28 1**$*** 30 i»«» 32 i*««* 34 I**** 36 I**m** 38 I**** 40 I 42 I* 44 I«* 46 I 48 I»» . 50 I 52 I
54 J BYTES
30 —+
aiteraoe * of machine in. per src. in.» 5.77
standard deviation" 4.56
average » of bytes per machine in." 3,79
0 31 31 17 22
3 6 9 6
. s. 6 0
4 1
0	10	20	30	40
----^----+--------+----+----+.----+-—.-+
II
I«««»««»»«««««*««««*»*«»«««««»«*
I«»«»*«»««««««««««
i*«* It***** e i»**««»*»» 9 i**#*«# 10 i**#*« I*»»»«»
1
13	i»»»« ,■
14	i#
2
3
4
5
6 7
11 12
1	56	i»	0	ez	i	1	15	i«
2	50	i»«	1	s4	i«	0	16	i
0	60	i	0	86	i	2	17	i»#
1	62	i»	0	88	i	1	18	i»
1	64	i«	0	90	i	0	19	i
1	66	i*	0	92	i	2	20	X**
0	68	i	0	94	i	0	21	T
0	70	i	0	96	i	0	22	X
0	72	i	0	98	i	0	23	X
0	74	i	0	100	i	0	24	X
0	76	i	0	102	i	0	25	i
0	78	i	1	104	i«	2	26	i««
0	80	i						
26 l## machine instructions
Figure 8.
An analysis of the parameter nij for PDP 11/3^1 and FORTRAN IV V02.04
NUMBER OF SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS = 515 AVERAGE ♦ CIF BYTES PER SRC. IN.= 23.65 STANDARD DEVIATION = 20.51
0
----+--------+----+--------+-----+
!#*■*
I**************************************** I«««««««**«««*« l**********i( 1***********************
AVERAGE * OF MACHINE IN. PER SRC. IN.= 6.013
STANDARD DEVIATION= 6.43
AVERAGE ♦ OF BYTES PER MACHINE IN.= 3.44
5	2
75	4
27	6
20	8
43	10
37	12
25	14
31	16
8	18
42	20
4	22
5	24
8	26
17	28
4	30
23	32
15	34
e	36
2	38
15	40
4	42
5	44
58	46
2	48
4	50
2	52
2	54
3	56
0	58
1	60
0	62
1	64
0	66
0	68
0	70
				
		1	72	i»
1*****************		1	74	i«
i****		3	76	i**
X **********************		1	78	i«
X**		2	80	i«
X***		1	82	i«
X****		1	84	i*
		2	86	i«
X**		0	88	i
X************		1	90	X*
I********		0	92	i
I****		0	94	i
X*		0	96	i
UK*******		0	98	i
X**		0	100	i
X***	for	0	102	i
x***********************t*******		0	104	i
X*		1	106	i«
X**		0	108	i
X*		0	110	i
X*		0	112	i
I**		0	114	i
X		0	116	i
X*		0	118	i
X		2	120	i»
i* ,		0	122	i
i		0	124	i
\ bytes		2	126	i»
i		1	128	i#
104 38 53 61 36 17
14 20 10 35 19
6 52
15 6 5 0 3 1 1 0 2 0 3 5 0 3 i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 1****************************************
2	I***************
3	I********************
4	X***********************
5	X**************
6	X*******
7	I*»«**
8	X********
9	X****
10	X*************
11	I****«»*
12	I**
13	1******************** FOR
14	X******
15	i*#
16	i»*
17	i
18	i*
19
20 21
22	X*
23	1
24	I*
25	X**
26	i
27	i*
0	36	i
0	37	i
0	38	i
0	39	i
4	40	X**
0	41	X
1	42	i
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
machine instrücti0ns
Figure 9. An analysis of Che parameter nij for PDF 11/34 and OHSI Pascal VI.2 fi
NUMBER OF SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS = 137, rtVERrtGE ♦ OF BYTES PER SRC. IN.= . 17.72 STANDARD DEVIATION = . 22.31
AVERAGE « OF MACHINE IN. PER SRC. IN,= 3.54
STANDARD ĐEVIATION= 4.22
AVERAGE # OF BYTES PER MACHINE IN.= 5.01
1
43 10 12 11 13 7 3 2 3 5 1 1 0
2
4
6
5 10 12 14 16 13 20 22 24 26 28
0
-+----+-
I«
I«««»««««»«»«««««««»««»«»»*«««)»)««««««*«««
I********** I************ I*»****»
0	30 Ì3	32
1	34
2	36 0	38 0	40
I***
I#«
T*.**
I«**««
I»
I*
I
I
I«««««
I>|! liC* I I
2 0 0
2 2 2 ■■ 0 2 0 0 0 0
42 , ii|t#
44 46-
48 I«« 50 I»» 52.I#» .54 L 56.I»»
58 60 62 64
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ó 0 4 0 0 1 0
66 I 68 I 70 I 72 I 74 I 76 78 80 82 84
96 I 98 I 100 I 1Ö2 I I
86 I*##»
88 90
92 I* 94 I
Ö 0 0 0
0 104 , 0 106 t 108 I« 0 110 I ■112 I 114 I 116 i 118 I 120 I 122 I
124: I*
44
33 18 15 8 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 0
I««»««««««*«««*«« I«««««»«»««««!)!«
3
4
5 . 6
7
8 9
10 11 12.
I»««««»«
T********* -
I
I
I
I
I
I
13	I*«
14	I
15	I ■
16	I
17	I#»
18	I**
19	I»*
20	J
0 ;0 0 0 0 0 1
21 22
23
24
25
26 27
I I I I I I
I*
BYTES
MACHINE IHSTRUCTIONS Honeywell .System".6 , FORTRAN 3,0
NUMBER OF SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS = . 146. ' AVERAGE ♦ OF BYTES PER SRC. IN.= 2i;.-99 STANDARD DEVIATION = , ,16.67
AVERAGE ♦ OF MACHINE IN. PER SRC. IN,:= 6.73
STANDARD DEVIATION^ 5.04
AVERAGE * OF BYTES PER MACHINE IN.= 3.27
		0 10		__ X __	20	1___	30	
0	2	- —. ——^—.J.. I				I —		
0	4	I						
8	6	I««««««««						
1	8 1«							
18	10	I««««««««*»««««««««: ;.						
21	12	I«*«#«*«#««««*##«»##«*						
26	14	1«*««««««««««««««»«««««««««						
10	16	I««««««««««						
Q	18	I«*«««**«						
7	20	I«««««««	1	48	, i«			
5	22	I««*««	4;	50 .1««««		2	76	I««
3	24	I***	0	"52	i	0	78	1
5	26	I«««««	1	54	I« .	0	80	I
4	28	I»«#»	0	56'	I	0	82	I
4	30	I«»««	0	58	I	0	84	I
0	32	I	1	60	I«	0	86 I	
1	34	I*	2	62	I** '	0	88	I
1	36	1«	1	64	I«	0	90 I ,	
3	38	I««»	0	66	I	0	92-	I
4	40	I««««	0	68'	I	0	94	I
2	42	I««	2	70	I«« ■	0	96	i;
0	44	I	0	72	I	0	98	I
0	46	I	0	74	I	1	100	I»
BYTES								
30
0 10 20
---+----+----+----^----
0 1.1
9 2 I********* 31 3 I«««*«»«»««*»»«»««»«»«**»*«««*»« 17. : 4'..I»»»**«*#*#**»*»»*
30	■ 5 I»»#»*»#****»»**»»#D(###«*#»»#*» 12 6 1«*«««»«««*»«
10	■■7.1«»««*«««*«
3 8 I««« 7 9 I«*«««««
40
6	Ì0 1««««««			
2	u I««			
0	12 I			
0	13 I			
0	14 I			
4	15 I««««	0	24	I
3	16 J***	0	25	I
5	17 I«««««	0	26	I
,2	18 I««	0	27	I
1	19 I«	Ó	28	I
1	.20 I«	0	29	I
1	21 I«	0	30	I
1	. 22 I«	. 0	31	I
0	23 I	1	32	I«
MACHINE INSTRUCTIONS
Honeywell System 6 , COBOL A
Figure ID. A comparative analysis o{ the parameter nij for Honeywell System 6 FORTRAN 3.0 and COBOL A
Burroughs 1714 COBOL. However, the consumption of memory per source instruction, can vary depending on the complexity of program. As opposed to rather complex programs : used for generating the Histograms presented in Fig. 10, Figure 11 shows the histogram for a typical simple commercial program. Now m - .15 bytes and the histogram enables the identification of lines which correspond to various Individual source Instructions.
the parameters m^ and ^,do not depend exclusively on compiler performance. Tney can be substantially affected
by the processor architecture including the available ■
machine instruction set, addressing modes, and' processor registers. However, if li^, and m^ are determined using .
the same hardware but different compilers, then the resulting performance levels can be considered a direct consequence of the properties of the analyzed compilers.
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FORTRAN, PASCAL AND PL/l COMPILERS BASI» ON l'UE RON TIME RESOURCE CONSUMPTION OF A BENCHMARK PROGRAM
The comparative analyses of compiler performance that appear in the literature are usually restricted to the comparison of various compilers for a given language (e.g. see tWOR761 for PL/1 and [WICVSQfor ALGOL). However,the computer users are generally Interested in
NUMBER OF SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS » 354 AVERAGE » OF BYTES PER SRC. IN.= 14.90 STANDARD DEVIATION = 7.23
TABLE 1. A SURVEY OF FORTRAN, Pascal AND PL/1 COMPILERS USED ON AMDAHL 470-V6 (August 1980)
ABSOLUTE FREQUENCY
0	2	I .
52	4	GO TO
1	6	1
0	8	I MOVE , ADD
87	10	
0	12	I-
55	14	
8	16	I«»*# .
32	18	I«««!):««««**»««»«
60	20	PERFORM
16	22	I»*«*»**
10	24	
0	26	I
12	20	!#»*#♦»
3	30	I»
0	32	I
10	34	I**#«#
BYTES PER SOURCE INSTRUCTION
NUMBER OF SOURCE INSTRUCTIONS = 354
AVERAGE »OF MACHINE IN. PER SRC. IN.= 4.23
STANIiARn DEVIATION» 2.10
AVERAGE »OF BYTES PER MACHINE IN.= 3.52
52 ■ 1 67 60 76 33 20 11 4
io
Ö	ABSOLUTE FREQUENCY
1	GO TO ^
2 I
MOVE . ADD
3
A	I**###»*»*##)|!***)|t*»#j([*»#)K)|()|(!)ii|[ IF
5	.I««##*#*«***#»»*»)|I*»*»»#*#»»»!|Cl|(»*»i»#
6	I*»*#»##**»»##«)|t . .	PERFORM
7	I*»***«*«*
8	I*##i|t# - J
9	I** . • 10	I!«!««««
MACHINB INSTRUCTIONS PER SOURCE INSTRUCTION
Figure II. An example of the m,-analysis for a simple
commercial program (Honeywell System 6, COBOL I)
0 1 2 0 . 1 2 Ò 1 2 3 OPTIMIZATIO N , LEVEL
Figure 12. Execution time as the function of the level of optimization
COMPILER LANGUAGE FORTG FORTRAN FORTH FORTRAN FORTX FORTRAN FORTQ FORTRAN WATFIV FORTRAN WATPAS* Pascal P-8000 Pascal PASCAL VS* Pascal PLC PL/1 PLIF PL/1 PLIX PL/1	PRECISION	LEVEL OF OPTIMIZATION
	iì26àlo.22«ii + + + + . + + + + + , + ■ + - + + + + + + + ■ +	+ + - + ■ + + + - + + , :+ + + _ _ + - _ ■ -+ _ _ + _ - _ + - - - . + + -
* August 1981 TABLE 2. A COMPARISON OF RESOURCE CONSUMPTION FOR COMPILERS USED ON AMDAHL 470-V6 (AuRust 1980)		
COMPILER OPTIMIZATION TOTAL RELATIVE CONSUMPTIOb		
		
FORTQ	3	1.00
FORTQ	2	1.03
FORTH	2	1.3
FORTX	2	1.3
FORTX	1	1.4
FORTQ	1	1.4
FORTH	I	1.6
FORTG	0	2.0
■ FORTH	0	2.1
FORTQ	0	2.1
FORTX	0	2.2
PLIX (no test)	I	2.2 ,
PLIX (no test)	0	2.3
PLIF	0	2.8
PASCAL 8000	0	3.1
PASCAL VS*	1	3.1
PLC	0	8.8
PLIX (all tests)	0	17.1
WATFIV	0	18.4
WATPAS*(all tests);0		162.8
* August 1981
FFlgure 13. The results of the optimization process
reducing the cost of computing and this Implies a.comparison of different languages available In a computing center. In this section we present a comparative analysis of eleven compilers for FORTRAN, Pascal, and PL/1 running on the Amdahl A70-V6. 'n\e analysis is aimed at showing how the proper selection of compiler reduces both the computer workload and the cost of computing for the user.
A standard matrix-inversion-based benchmark program (see CdUJSO 3 ) was usu' for comparing various FORTRAN, PL/1 and Pascal compilers. The FORTRAN, PL/1 and Pascal versions of the pro^5,ram were equivalent, used the same hardware (Amdahl 470-V6) and the same operating system (MVS), and generated equivalent results. The only difference was in the code generated by the compilers.
The analyzed compilers are described In Table 1. Optimization level 0 denotes no optimization. Since three of the available compilers default to double precision, only the results for double precision are presented. Tliese resultls for total resources consumption (according to the accounting routine) are shown In Table 2. From this Table the following conclusions can be derived:
(1)	It is rather easy to spend 100% more computer resources than necessary for solving a problem. Conversely, by careful selection of the compiler It la frequently possible to halve the workload and the user's cost of computing.
(2)	For numerical problems, FORTRAN compilers are still substantially more efficient than PL/1 and Pascal compilers (of course, this is not proved generally, but It holds on Amdahl 470-V6, IBM 30XX and similar machines),
(3)	It lo very Important to know how to use the optimization features of the compilers because this Is the key to reducing workload and costs.
(4)	The development compilers like PLC, WATFIV and WATPAS must be used with extreme care since they can consume substantial amounts of computer resources (during execution of program).
(5)	"Tests" in the PLIX compiler are dangerous consumers of computer resources (this also frequently holds for various run-time checking implemented in other compilers).
The reduction of computing cost using the optimization procedures caii be substantial, as shown in Figures 12 and 13.(The optimization procedures are described in tsCA80] and t RUS72 3 . ) According to Fig. 13 the optimization pcoceduree Increase the compilation time. However, the compilation time is regularly much shorter than the execution time. Consequently, the reduction of resource consumption Is almost as efficient as the reduction of the execution time shown In Fig. 13.
ACKNOWLEDOiENT
The author la grateful to Mr. Laslo Kraus for his contributions to this paper.
REFERENCES
CDUJ733 Dujmovic J.J. and Klem M. A COMPARISON OF
FORTRAN AND ALGOL COMPILERS. (In Serbo-Croatian) Informatica 1973. [DUJSOl Dujmovic JJJ. WORKLOAD CHARACTERIZATION,
BENCHMARKING, AND THE CONCEPT OF TOTAL RESOURCES CONSUMPTION. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Computer Capacity Management. San Francisco 1980, ppl51-163. [IBM703 IBMiSystem /360 Scientific Subroutine Package. Version III, Fifth Edition, 1970. Form No. GH20-0205-4.
[SCASO] Scarborough, R.G. and H.G. Kolsky. IMPROVED OPTIMIZATION OF FORTRAN OBJECT PROGRAMS. IBM J. Res. Develop. Vol. 24, No.6, Nov. 1980. [WIC73] Wlchmann, B.A. ALGOL 60 COMPILATION AND AS-
SESMENT. Academic Press, London 1973. [RUS720 Rustln, R. (Ed.). DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION OF
COMPILERS. Prentice-Hall, 1972. [WIL723 Wilner, W.T. BURROUGHS B1700 MEMORY UTILIZATION.
Proc. AFIPS FJCC Vol. 41 , 1972. CWIR76] Wlrth, N. ALGORITHMS+DATA STRUCTURES - PROGRAMS.
Prentice-Hall 1976. [WOR76] Wortman, D.B., Khalat, P.J. and D.M. Lasker. SIX PL/1 COMPILERS. Software- Practice and Experience Vol. 6, 411-422 (1976).
TRANSPARENTNO MULTIPROCESIRANJE -(MIKRO) RAČUNALNIŠKI SISTEMI JUTRIŠNJEGA DNE
DUŠAN PEČEK, BORUT KASTEUC, RUDOLF MURN
UDK: 681.3.012
INSTITUT JOŽEF STEFAN. LJUBLJANA
Hamen Hanka je aeananiti bvaloa a novim prta topom v arhitekturi mikroprooeaorjev, S pria cot'om, ki. pomeni revolucijo in bo imel v bodoSnoati daljnoaeSne poalediae aa anovanje kataroga koli (mCKroJ računalniškega aiatema.
TRAiJSPAHEUT MULTI}'HOCi:sSXlia - (MICRO) COMPUTh'K SySTLUS OF TOMORROV. The purpoae of the artiale ia to acquaint tke reader with a new approach in mioroproaeaaor architecture, t/ith the approauh tnat meana a revolution and that will have far-reaohing conaequenoea for projecting any (niaro) aomput-ar ayatem in future.
1. UVOD
Beaeda bo tekla o novi 3a bitni proceooroki družini. Ki ao jo, razvili in iadelali v tvrdki IN'i'EL, Le-ta je a tem poatala neaporni noailea raavoja hodoSih mikroraäunalniäkih druSin, Uovo druSino predatavljajo tri integrirana veaja a oanakami: ÌAVXÌ1201, ÌAPX43202, ÌAPX4Ì203, Veaji ÌAPX 43201 in ÌAPX43202 noaita akupno ime General Data Proceaaor (GÜP), veaje iAPX 43203 pa ae imenuje Interface Proceaaor (IP), Poveaava va^h treh veaij v celoto pa ee imenuje Sia tem 4 32. Namen dlanka ni opiaovati agradbe, funkcij in medaebojnega delovanja teh treh elementov, pa! pa prikaaati moSnoa ti, ki ao dane na oanovi nove arhitekture,
Pri vaaki novoati ae vedno vpraiamo aakaj? Odgovor je na dlani:
Nova arhitektura aato in tako, da bo biat-
veno amanjSala ceno programake opreme.
Arhitektura 432 Je programsko usmerjena. Za ilua traaijo pa tudi morda aa povedanje aanima-nja, navedimo nekaj najbolj aploSnih laatnoati;
-	OmogoSena je gradnja raalidnih aiatemov a raaliSnimi laatnoatmi, ne da bi bilo potrebno apreminjati programsko opremo. Programi piaani aa 43a delujejo na aiatemih a enim, dvema ali ved proceaorji. Vaak aiatem 432 lahko iabolj-Samo taKo, da mu dodamo nov GDP, na da bi bilo potrebno, raaen mehanakega poaega, 3e karkoli apreminjati, Proceano moJ aiatema VAX-PDP Je moHno enoatavno doaedi a paralelnim delovanjem tridesetih GDP-Jev.
-	V eia temu 4 32 so vse aia temake funkcija s tandardiairane in ker so raaliairane v materialni opremi. Je izvrševanje le-teh iaredno hitro. Tipiöne sistemske funkcije ao npr,: dodeljevanje apomina, raavrBSanje poaameanih opravil (multiprogramiranje), dodeljevanje proatih procesorjev (multiptaceoiranje),
-V aia temu 4 32 Je nemogoče aagraSiti naslednje programake napake, ki amo Jih lahko delali do sedaj.
program ne mora niK.dar poaeJi v apomCnako področje, ki mu ni dodeljeno ; ne more čitati ia apominakih lokacij, ki ao mu dodeljene samo aa vpiaovanje in obratno; nad poljubno podatkovno strukturo Je moSno narediti aamo tiste operacije, ki ao Ji predpisane (npr.: nemogoče je iavr^eoali podatek kot instrukcijo).
i^e na kratko strnemo primerjavo med dosedanjimi uR aia temi in aia temom 4 32, lahko redamo, da Je potrebno funkcije, ki ao t> a.isttfmih 432 reali-airane v materialni opreme enkrat an vedno, v doaedanjin aiatemih realiairati a programuko opremo na nivoju operaci jakih sistemov in prevajalnikov, HaaVika v zanesljivosti delovanja in hitrosti iavajanja funkcij Je milo rečeno, ogromna,
članek Je raadeljen v dva dela, V prvem delu oe bomo arečali a novo terminologijo in raalago nekaterih bistvenih pojmov. Drugi del pa govori o reäitvi problema sočasnega iaväjanja programov Kot uvod v transparentno multiprooesira-nje.
POJt^M OH ,1L
V aiutemu 4 32 sta diifinirana dva tipa pouatkov-nih struktur:
-	podatkovna atruktura primitiv
-	podatKOVna atruktura objekt
a) liistem 432 pouna oaen vrst primitivov;
-	CiiHRACi't:ii (8 bitov) tìhùtiì' Iii'l'LOdR ( Itì bitov)
-	SHORT ORDIiiAL, (16 bitov)
-	I NT l Gì: H (32 bitov)
-	ORDI.iAL (32 oitov)
-	CliURT Ri:Ab (32 bitOV)
-	ulAL (64 oitov)
-	r^v/pü/MAT m: A u ( so bitov)
Primitivi imajo tri hiatveno ana3ilnoati:
-	ao podatkovna a truktura, ki na ure jen naSin vaebujejo neko informacijo:
-	na'd mnoSiao primitivov ,ja definirana mnoSioa operatorjev
-	primitive naslavljamo kot oeloto.
b) Pojem objekt bomo pojaanili a nomodjo poenostavljenega ' prikaaa raavoja mikroproaaaorjev. Prvi prooeaorji ao vsebovali zelo enoatavno materialno opremo aa izvajanje operacij (npr. s MOVE aU'l'E, ADD Iii'i'EüHR, ipd.) in niao bili apo-aohni izvajati operacij aritmetike v plavajoSi vejici. To je bilo potrebno realizirati a pro-gramako opremo. Haavoj tehnologije je pripomogel K materialni realizaciji komplekanejSin operatorjev kot npr.: ADD, MVLTIPL^i, DEVIDE, itd. kar je biatveno olajSalo implementacijo aritmetike v plavajoSi vejici.
Pri razvoju aia tema 4 32 pa je bil a torjen Se en bistven korak naprej. Kot amo Se omenili, ao v 422 a materialno opremo realiairane tudi ai-atemake funkcije (operacije),
-	Implementacija aritmetike v plavajoSi vejici z materialno opremo pomeni, da mora materialna oprema operirati a podatkovnimi atrukturami, ki predatavijajo števila zapiaana u obliki plava-joSe vejice,
-	Implementacija aia temakih funkoij v materialni opremi pomeni, diX mora materialna oprema operirati a podavkovnimi atrukturami, ki ao operandi naalednjih operacij (funkcij):
-	dodeljevanje apomina
-	dodeljevanje procesov
-	medproceana komuniKacija
ie podatkovne strukture (operande) imenujemo objekte (objekt). Slika 2 prikazuje aiatemake opreacije in pripadajoče objekte.
-	Objekt naslavljamo kot oeloto
-	ObjeKt ima značko, ki določa njegov tip.
V nadaljevanju Slanka bomo objekte grafiSno predatavljali a pomoSjo simbolov. Slika S, ua-radi anoatavnoati vsebuje samo tiate objekte, ki jih potrebujemo za razumevanje aoSaanega izvajanja programov in tranaparentnega mulcipro-ceairanja.
fizični procesor
objekt komunikaaiJakih vrat
podatkovni objekt
slika 3.
OPERACIJA
OBJEK'Ì
dodeljevanje procesov	objek procesa
	objekt prooeaorja
	objekt dodeljevalnih
	vrat
dinamično dodeljevanje	objekt izvora spominskega
spomina	prostora
medproceana komunikacija	objekt komunikadskih
	vrat
Slika 2.
Imena objektov predatavijajo novo terminologijo, ki jo bo nadaljnje spoznavanje in delo a siatemi 4 32 udomaSilo in dopolnilo.
Strnimo laatnoati objekta:
-	Objekt je podatkovna struktura, a katero lahko manipuliramo na toSno doloSen naSin. Tako a pomočjo vgrajene materialne opreme, kot a pomočjo programske opreme. Zn določeno vrsto objekta Je moSen aamo eden od treh načinov manipuliranja:	'
-	z materialno opremo
-	z materialno in/ali programa ko opremo
-	a programako opremo
HnoSica puSčic na aliki 3. Je posebnoa t aiate-ma 432. Le-ta pozna aamo objektno orientirano adreairanje, To Je metoda, ki omogoča objektu, da naslovi drug objekt aamo v primeru, če vae-buje kazalec nanj. Med aamim izvajanjem programov ae a tanje kazalcev dinamično spreminja. Slika 3. predstavlja obenem tudi otrukturo kakSnega programa pisanega aa aia tem 432.
3. MEDPROCESitlA KOMUNIKACIJA
Na kratko bomo bralca seznanili kako ao v ai-stemih 432 reSeni problemi medprocesne komunikacije pri paralelnem izvajanju procesov.
Haj je to proces?
Proces je enota programake opreme, ki je lahko dodeljena prooeaorju aa iavrSevanje.
Kaj je to program?
Program je enota programake opreme, ki izvrSuja neko nalogo. (Program. Je največkrat abirka proceaov),
Medproceana komunikacija zahteva vpeljavo novega objekta - objekt komunikacijskih vrat.
Komunikacijska vrata predstavljajo vmesnik med dvema asinhronima sočasnima procesoma, preko katerega procesa izmenjuje t" «voročila.
kaj. je to aporoSilo?
Sporočilo je lahko katerikoli objekt. Sporoči la in operatorji
■Sietem 432 vaebuje dva osnovna operatorja, ki lahko delujeta nad eporodilit SHIID in HHCiilVE.
Operator . SEHÜ ima dva operanda: eporoSilo in naslov komunikacijskih vrat. Pred ievrSitvijo operatorja (inatrukoije) SHHD vaebuje prooes aporodilo ki naj bo odpoa lano. Po isvrHtvi ae sporočilo nahaja v objektu komunikaoijakih vrat.
Operator RECklVK ima en operandi naalov komuni-kaoijakih vrat^ Po izvrBitvi operatorja RECEIVE se sporočilo prenese v prooas. öe sporočila ni v trenutku, ko je prooes pričel a izvrševanjem operatorja RECEIVE, prooes čaka v komunikaoi Jakih vratih, prooeaor pa preide na izvrševanje kakSnega drugega prooeaa. V sistemu 422 obstajajo tudi izvedenke osnovnih operatorjev kot npr. : COUDITIOUAL SEUl), CONDITIONAL RECEIVE ipd. Pri iavrSevanju operatorjev SEND in RECEIVE seveda ne gre za dejansko kopiranje (prenaSanje) sporočil, pač pa se dinamično pre-naSajo samo kazaloi na oporočila: dinamično ae apreminja mnoiioa kazalcev med objekti.
4é fRAHSPARENTUO HULTIPROCESIRAUJE
Arhitektura aiatema ,4S2 je zaanovana tako, da podpira paralelno izvajanje programov na aio temin z enim, dvema ali več procesorji. Izvajanje iatih programov na različnih sistemih z različnim Številom procesorjev ne zahteva spremembe v programski opremi. Ta način imenujemo transparentno multiprooeciranje. Sistem 422 je zaanovan tako, da naloga vodenja multiprooeaor-akih sistemov razpade v tri. dele:
-	kreiranje razvrSčevalnega pravila: določevanje kriterija v kakšnem vrstnem redu si bodo prooeai delili procesorje, Obstajajo različni načini: EIFO, R0UND-R03IN, PRIORITY, DEADLINE, ■JEIUUTED ROüNü-ROaiU, ipd.
-.; razvrščanje glede na razvrSčevalno pravilo: r.azvrSčanje čakajočih proaeaov, ki ao pripra-v:ljeni za izvajanje glede na rasvrSčevalno pravi lo'.
-	dodeljevanje; dodeljevanje razvrSčenih proaeaov procesorjem v izvrševanje,
In kdo opravlja nalogo vodenja multiprooeaor-akih aistemov? Morda nadzorni procesor? Né. Sposobnost vodenja je dana vaem procesorjem v eis temu. Kateri od njih pa v nekem trenutku opravij a funkcijo vodenja, je odvisno od stanja aia tema (razjasnitev te problematike do sledila iz zgleda).
Kreiranje razvrSčevalnega pravila
Funkcija kreiranja razvrSčevalnega pravila je prepuščena programski opremi -programerju. Zelo pomembno je, pač glede na različne alikaci-je, da je moSno definirati različne razvrSče-valne kriterije. Rezultat kreacije razvrSčevalnega pravila Je posredovan materialni opremi za razvrščanje in dodeljevanje preko raavrSče-valnih parametrov, slika 5. 'prikazuje zgled razvrSčevalnih parametrov.
Ko je razvrSčevalno- pravilo določeno, je procea pripravljen za razvrSčanje, ki ga bo opravila materialna oprema. Priče tek operacija razvrščanje Je aproiien z operacijo SEJU v dodeljeval-na vrata. Dodeljavalna vrata ao obJeKt, ki Je canova za- reali zaci jo multiprooeaoraakin aistemov, So prostor, meato ali del spomina, kjer se "srečujejo" procesi in prooeaorji.
objekt procesa
!-77
dodeljevalni parametri
pogostost dodeljevanja
trajanje časovne rezine
Število pretočenih časovnih rezin do naslednja spremembe dodeljevalnih paranetrov
Slika S,
Dode Ijevanje
Kot smo omenili so dodeljevalna vrata mesto, kjer se "srečujejo" prooeai in procesorji. Procesi čakajo v vrati (glede na rasvrSčevalno pravilo) procesor pa "gre" k razvrSčevalnim vratom, ko je pripravljen izvrJiti nov proces,
Je so dodeljevalna vrata prazna, procesor čaka,' da ae pojavi kak procea.
Zgled za transparentno multiprooeairanje
Na zgledu si bomo ogledali dinamičen potek mul-tiproceairanja. Za primer bomo vzeli program z imanom REPORTER, ki Je aeatavljen iz treh pro-ceaov. Proces SAäü, ki piSe poročila o prometnih nezgodah in prooeaa DRAGU in MARKO, ki tipkata poročila in jih dajeta proceau SAlO v pregled. Na voljo nam bo naslednja struktura:
-	trije prooeai: SAŠO, DRAGO, MARKO
-	dva proceaorja: 1 in 2
-	ena dodeljevalna vrata
-	ena komunikacijska vrata
Trenutek 1 (slika 10.1.)
O
'TiViT^JRXtKtWdMl
ggcEr^
Slika 10,1.
V trenutku ' 1 ae izvajata dva procesa. SAJO piSe poročilo na procesorju 1, MARKO tipka poročilo na procesorju 2. DRAGO je brez dela, ker ni na voljo nobenega poročila za tipkanje, Zato čaka v komunikacijskih vratih'na aporočiloi.
58
llarko je o tipkanjem končal in pričel izvajati ine.trukoijo HKCcllVB, ki naj mu dodeli oporoHlo iz komunikaoijakih vrat.
Trenutek -2 (glika 10.2. J
Slika 10,2.
MA/iKO-va inatrukaija RHCflVl; je bila aamo delnò izvrSena, ker v komunikaoijakih vratih ni apo-roSila. Zato mora v Sakalno vrato za DRAGO-m v komunikaoijakih vratih. V tem trenutku je seveda prooeaor 2 končal prooea MARKO (MARKO čaka in &e ne. iavrSuje), Prooeaor 2 oe napoti k do-deljevalnim vratom po nov prooea.
Trenutek 3 (alika 10, Z.)
mika 10.3.
Proaeaor 2 je pregledal dodeljevalnä vrata Tri
ugotovxl, da ao prazna. Zato va topi vanje in čaka na nov prooea. ì'rooea 1 He vedno izvaja prooea SAJO,	"
©
.r-iir-WlITHSÄL/Sil
I lil ii' m ii^^Mi I iii II mu I ci iiiid
END^BCWESAf^TmiCEyn
slika 10,4,
SASO ja končal piaanje poročila 1 in ga s in-atrukoijo SENü noSlje v komunikaoijaka vrata, kjer čakata MARKO in DRAGO, da bi ga natipkala, Prooeaor 2 če vedno raka.
Trenutek 5 (alika
O
JL.
fBBJEKT . .. , ■
V
'V^/mimtsmisna


nTnramrQffifiiWiirao
Slika 10.i.
Inatrukaija SKUJ prooeaa SA:10 je iavrSena eamo delno. Sporočilo 1 je dodeljeno prooeau DRAGO, ki je aedaj pripravljen aa izvajanje, i'roaesop 1 ga aedaj dodeli dodeljavalnim vratom, kjer pa najde prooeaor n, ki čaka. frooeaor 1 "ukaSa" prooaaorju 2 naj pridne a izvajanjem proaaaa pRAGO, aam pa ao vrne na izvajanje proaeaa SA~
io.
•trenutek 6 (alika 10,6.)
Trenutek 4 (olika 10.4,}
Sedaj delujeta oba prooea orja in izvajata proaeaa SA^O in uKAGO, i'rooaa MARKO Se vedno čaka na aporočilo (poročilo za tipkanje).
0

Slika 20,ti.
Htika 10.3,
Trenutak 7 (alika 10,?.}
Urenutak 13 (elika 10.i).)



t;ii<a 10,7.
ßlika 10.J.
Sno V trenutku, ko proasii	izvaja ino truK-
oijo SE.iD (aporoöilo Z). V komuiiikaoijakih vratin odkrije prooee lUHKO, ki Saka na katerokoli aporoSilo, Prooeoor 1 tnu aporočSilo dodeli in preneae proaea ^'lAüKO o oporoHilom vred v do-deljevalna _ vrata. HARKO je aedaj pripravljen aa invajanjo. Vae opiaane akoije prooaaorja 1 ao rezultat izvajanje inatrükaije SIJU.
Ironutok S (alika 10.B.)
Prooea AMääO Saka v dodeljevalnin vratih. Pro-oaaor 1 iavrSuje prooea SASO, prooeaor a iivr-Suje prooea UBAGO. Had trenutkoma ä in 8 je biatvena raalika. v trenutku ti MAHKO 3e ni pripravljen aa iuvajanja in aato öaka v komuni-KaoijaKin vratih. (Kadarkoli je proaea pripravljen aa izvajanje, Saka u dodeljevalnin vratih,- kadar ni pripravljen, iaka v komunikaoij-Bkih vratin na aporodilc proouaa a kateiHn je funkcionalno uox>eBan).
Proaea SA30 je ii ouloti iekoiUatil iaactvno ruttino, ki I1U je bila dodeljena (<jlej pojem rau-vr35evalni parametri i, i'rouaaor ugotovi, da mu je 5aa potekel, konSa tdkoäo ina trukai jo in preneae	SAJO v dodeljevalua vrata, kar
pa ima ,'1/i/ìa-J vi S jo prioriteto, je ilA.'ü na vrati aa njim.
'Xrenutiìk iC (aiika 10.10.)
Proaea i>lìAi}0 ee i avrluje na proottaorju 3, pra-oitia SAäC in ilAfiiiü Jahata na iavrüevanje. Prooeaor .1 je proat, nato vaa-'jtj is dodo Ijevalnih vrat pì'oaea tlARrio in ga ps^ióne iavajati.
Una od informacij v objektu procesorja je kazalao na uatreana dodeljevalna vrata.
tudi
hcmU^KACIJSKA VHATAI V IPOPOČrVo I|
Slika 10.10.
Trenutek 11 (elika 10.11.)
ErkoJ
IPHoČEŽim-^
-'iDRAr.nl
mm
IfOHCCTLO III
ncinii
Slika 10.11,
Izvajata ae prooaoa DRAGO in MAHKO. SASO je pri fidavi j en, vendar mora àakati. (če hi bil na' voljo 3e en- prooeaor, bi ae tudi SA30 pričal iavrSevati).
la prikazanega ugleda lahKo izluSSimo pomemben raalog kdaj in aakaj prooeaor preide ia iavrSe-vanja enega prooeaa na drug proaea:
- kadar ae Jaaovna rezina izte3e	- prooe-
»or, ki izvaja proaea, izvrSi inatrukoijo SECE-IVi' nad praznimi komunikaoijakimi vrati
Ob konou navedimo Se odgovore na nekatera oa-novna vpraSanja, ki bo ae morda porodila pozornemu ùralau.
Kako prooeaor ve, iz katerih dodeljevalnih vrat bo odvzemal prooeae v obdelavo?
Kako prooeaor ve, v katera dodeljevalna vrata nora va tavi ti prooea, ki je pripravljen za raz-vrSSanje in čaka v komunikacijskih vratih?
Ena od informacij v objektu proceaa je tudi kazalec na ua tre zna dodeljevalna vrata.
Koliko dodeljevalnih vrat lanko vsebuje nek sistem?
V	principu jih. je lahko več. Vendar ao eamo ena centralna dodeljevalna vrata, v katera vatopajo vsi proceai, ki ao pripravljeni za izvajanje in v katera poaegajo proaeaorji, ki iS-dejo novo opravilo. Pravimo v principu, dejan-ako a tanje pa je naalednje: za vsak tip proce-aorja oba tajajo aamo ena dodeljevalna vrata. Arhitektura 432 je namreč takSna, da dopuSča tudi aočaano delovanje več različnih proceaor-jev. Različni prooeaorji imajo različne nabore inatrukoij in zato različne tipe proceaov. Had-vae vaHno je, da izvrSujemo nek tip prooeaa na pripadajočem proceaorju. Zato morajo oba tajati najmanj ena dodeljevalna vrata za vaak tip pro-ceaorja.
V	eni od naalednjih Številk bodo objavljen opia moSnoati eiatema 432 dopolnili Se z opisom načina gradnje komplekanih programakih paketov ter prikazali način priključevanja I/O enot.
Ob koncu navedimo Se nekaj zanimivoati o aia temu 432, Kot amo Se poudarili je le-ta tak, da v popolnoati podpira multiproceairanje v realnem čaau. nekateri oanovni algoritmi ao povzetek jeder operacijskih aiatemov KMX 80, R!tX 88 in 3e. poaebaj RMX 86. Za preli t je programake opreme v materialno je bilo potrebno reSiti vrato tehnoloških problemov. Eden od njih je uvedba Stiri vrednoatne logike. Celoten razvoj druSine 4 32 (tri integrirana vezja) je zante-val za naSe razmere nepredatavljivo velike napore. Harno za I/O prooeaor (iAPX 4320 3), ki ga aeotavlja 100.00 transiatorjev, je bilo potrebno napisati 30 ti hyt-ov programov za simulacijo in diagnostiko, računalniški Sas aa izvajanje. teh programov pa je znaSal 1,3 leta. In kot zadnja zanimivost; ko so izdelali in pre testirali prvi primer I/O proceaorja, je ta deloval brez napake.
ZAKLJUČEK
V članku smo prikazali aamo nekatere detalje in ugodnosti, ki nam jih nudi nova arhitektura. Ui potrebno biti jaanovidec, da ugotoviS, da ae bo anovanje novih (mikro) računalniških aiatemov popolnoma podredilo novi arnitekturi. Če pogledamo aamo, svet aplikacij mikro računalnikov, lahko vidimo, da bo moino graditi aplikacije in aia teme, ki ao bili do danea izključno domena velikih firm, ali pa ao bili nroceai, ki •bi jih lahko avtomatizirali za poljubnega naročnika, predragi. Operacijski aia temi aa delo v realnem čaau ao preliti v materialno opremo. To bo biatveno znižalo ceno aiatemov "po naročilu", obenem pa bo pripomoglo k veliko večji zanesljivosti delovanja materialne. Se poaebaj pa .programake oprarne. .Va tiaoče firm po vsem avetu bo gradilo katerekoli računalniške aplikacije za ceno, ki bo povaem aprejemljiva.
Ali lahko Bledimo temu razvoju?
To ni odviano aamo od pripravljenoati vodilnih firm 'v. avetu, pač pa predvaem od naa samih.
PILOT/F - PREPROCESOR ZA RAČUNALNIŠKO PODPRTO PROGRAMIRANO UČENJE
VITOMIR dr. SMOLEJ
UDK: 681.39:371
VISOKA ŠOLA ZÄ ORGANIZACIJO DELA, KRANJ UNIVERZA V MARIBORU
Članek opisuje dialekt Jezika za pronraralranje udTnlh sekvenc za računalniško podprto pronramirano uCcnje, Na enostavnem primeru je potem prikazano delovanje prenrocesorja. Članek zakljuKuJe ocena opravljenega dela In napotki za nadaljnje delo.
PILOT/F - A PREPROCESSOR FOR A CAI LANGUAP.E - A dialect of PILOT Is described and its Implementation shown. Practical hints for future enhancements and possible additional elements is qiven at the end.
UVOD
Uvajanje raSunalnlka v proces Izobraževanja predstavlja eno od možnosti, ki s prodorom tehnologije postaja vse realnejSa. Osnovni predpoqoj - to je ratunalnlk z ustrezno opremo - Je tudi v naSIh razmerah precej bi life uresnl-Kitvi, kot je bilo to pred nekaj leti. Kljub temu pa nekateri elementi celotneqa sklopa manjkajo. Predvsem je - in bo 5e vnaprej -.problem ustrezen kader, ki naj bi uino snov oblikoval na naČin, ki ustreza novemu mediju.
Rcizkornk med pedjijoSko usposobljenostjo in pa tehnološkim znanjem, ki je potrebno za delo z raffunalnikom, skuSa predloženi preprocesor prebroditi; z njefjovo pomoijo namreč lahko pedaqoSko usposobljen poznavalec učne snovi izdela utne enote in sekvence, ne da bi moral posebej poznati vse trike in podrobnosti računalnika.
PILOT/F
PILOT (akronim za Proqrammed Inquiry, Learninq and Teachinq) predstavlja eneqa od jezikov, ki so namenjeni računalniško podprtemu pouku. Izbrani dialekt Jezika, ki sem ga imenoval PILOT/F (zaradi uporabe fortrana), opisujejo naslednji sintaksni qrafi:
PROfiRAH; ----1--* vrsta
f

vrsta:
STAVEK:
-r y ---
--(znamka)-
♦ N --
stavek
niz
'T----i} - (spremeni J I vka)-&'----'
—f.-------- niz —----------------
niz -\ —'
X:-----(loqicni izraz)--------------------
--> R: —................... niz ............>
-■a» C: -----(fortranski stavek)----------------
J: -------------------------(znamka)-------^
Terminalni simboli, ki so v oklepajih, predstavljajo sicer za PILOT/F nize znakov, ki qa ne zanimajo, vendar nxi-rajo odqovarjati pravilom fortrana, ker nam PILOT/F, kot vsak preprocesor, izvorni proqram ne prevaja neposredno v strojno kodo, paČ pa v iiljnl jezik, ki Je v tem
primeru fortran. Celotno zaporedje od izvorneqa prorjrama v PILOT/F do programa, ki qa izvajamo, je uko poduiio z naslednjo sekvenco operacij-
izvorni___ proqram v __ __^revedehi________^izvodljiv
proqram ^ fortranu -i pronram	"i- proqraiii
preprocesor prevajalnik	povezovalnik
(PlLOT/F)	(FitP)
(TKB)
Čeprav, kot rečeno, preprocesor pravilnosti simbolov v oklepaju ne preverja, morajo odqovarjati pravilom fortrana, v kolikor noSeino imeti težav s prevajalnikom, ki pre-procesorju sledi.
Pri povezovanju moramo dodati prevedenemu izvornemu pro-qramu (poleq druqeqa) tudi kodo subrutine HATCH, ki skrbi za primerjanje nizov (ql. dalje),
Ostali simboli v sinlaksnih grafih imajo naslednji pomen: pomen
fi mbo1 y
izvedi ukaz, ce FLAG = .true. (FLAG je rezervirana loqicna spremenljivka). Primer:
Y	T: v redu, lahko nadaljujem? izvedi ukaz, če FLAG = .false. Primer: N T: flaq ni .true.
Čitaj stavek s terminala in priredi vsebino nizu ANS (rezerviran niz - ANS kot ANSvjur)
Primerjaj ANS z nizom, ki sledi, in ustrezno priredi FLAG. Primer:
H: v redu\ V REDu\wREDu\ Oa\ja\§
V	kolikor |e ANS enak (znak po znak, vključno (S) enemu od nÌ2ov za dvopil^jem (prvi brez vodenih b ali katerikoli med dvema \ ), je FLAG .true., sicer oa .false. Za najpoqostejSe odgovore - kot recimo da - je na raziK>laqo meta znak § (ki odgovarja tipki return oz. CR/LF)
priredi spremeni j Ivki FLAG logično vrednost izraza, ' ki sledi. Primer :
X: SPOL.EQ.-Z-
Izpljfl ostanek vrst ice In spremenljivke. Primer; T: v redui sIhES. iremo dalje
, komentar. Primer :
R;-'"..........................-
R: u £ n. a enota 1.23/A
skoil na znamko, ki Je navedena v 8,tavku. Primeri N Ji 999
«tavek za dvopIŽJem preprocesor neipremenljen . prenese v ciljni Jezik. Primeri
Ci FLAG - FLAG.AND.NAPAK.LT.3
PRIMER	,
Spodnji programv PILOT/F n^'služi za primer. Namen ufne enote Je preverjanje poznavanja pojma glaqol.
testni program T - O
PoiSfi glagol v naslednjem stavku "Pek Peter peŽe preste oo pet nara'' T - T 1 r.GT.It
dovolili bomo do iti ri poizkuse
peče\ PEČe\ pečl\PE£l pravilno! 9-
ali Je bil odgovor samostalnik? pek PEK\preste\PRESTE\para\PARA ta beseda Je samostalnik
1
ali Je bil odgovor po? po PO ta beseda Je predlog
1
peter\PETER
Že Je odnovorll s Petrom, Je verjetno neresen; naj bo tudi odgovor neresen: Petri ti znajo to zameriti
1
samo Se oet ostane pet\PET
pet Je število (S) 1
verjetno Je bila tipkarska napaka napainol poizkusiva znova ( pazi, ko tipka! I)
1
konec enote glagol.Je bil "peSe" hvala lepa
feprav Je program okoren, lahko setsvaljalec u2ne enote svoje misli zelo hitro Izrazi. Primer: v kolikor u2encu nI uspelo pravilno prepisati niti ene od besed v stavku. Je verjetno zaEetnIk. Zato bi še spodobilo, da delamo z pjim v rokavicah, bolj, kot pa smo sprva hoteli. Predvsem Je pametno, da mu vpraSanJe znova postavimo, da mu pe bo treba Iskati po ekranu. Zato vrstico, kjer prvl& ^zpiSemo tekst, takole spremenimo:
Za tekstom " (pazi, ko tIpkaS 1) " dodamo se dve vrsti, tako da se na tem mestu kon£na verzija programa v PILOT/ F glasi:
Ti napaJnol poizkusiva znova T: ( pazi, ko tipkaS I) Ti da ponoviva vprašanje Ji99
Tako pripravljen program v PILOT/F z naslednjim zaporedjem ukazov (na sistemu PDP W/'iU z prevajalnikom FltP In RSX operacijskim sistemom) sprav.lmo v obliko, ki Je i' I zrela za izvajanje:
>run pilot pl'|;> glag-glag
pit>-z
>fl(p glag-glag >tl<l> glag-glag,match
Sedaj si lahko prIvoSČImo naslednji preizkus nalega poznavanje pojma glagol. (s črkami elite Je vpisan tek^c^ ki ga izpisuje raéunalnik):
^run g lag'
PoiSäi «Xapol v naslednjem stavku "Pek Peter pe6e preste po pet para" PEK
ta beseda je samostalnik peti
napažnol poizkusiva znova
( pazi, ko tipkaš! )
da ponoviva vprašanje
Poišči glagol v naslednjem stavku
"Pek Peter pe6e preste po pet para"
peži
pravilno!
glagol je bil "peče" ^hvala lepa
ZAKLJUČEK
Za konec dve kritični ralsll;
PripraviJalec snovi bi mcfebiti imel lažje delo, ko bi pri rokah imel konstrukte kot so CASE, REPEAT In podobno. Razlog, da tega nI, je najprej PILOT/F sam; dodaten razlog Je fortran kot cIlJnI Jezik; ko bi uporabili PASCAL, bi zlahka razllrlll zalogo ukazov (vprašanje Je le, ce bi prenrocesor bil tako kratek, kot Je sedaj - obsega vsega skupaj okoli 300 vrstic fortranske kode, od tega predstavlja subrutina MATCH eno tretjino).
Drug razlog se skriva v naravi samega uienja;grafl z enim samim vhodom in Izhodom predstavljajo le del struktur, s katerimi skuSamo slediti procesu u£enja in ga posnemati.
Druga krltl£na misel se tlce koncepta preprocesorja: v primeru sistema za ve& uporabnikov bi bil verjetno tolmaS bolj primeren, kar se Izrabe sistema tl£e.
ZAHVALA
Omenjeno delo Je bilo opravljeno v Času, ko je bil avtor gost Max-Planck Instituta, Institut für Werkstoffwissenschaften, Stuttgart, Zvezna republika NemcIJa.
?9
T: PolSEl glagol v naslednjem stavku:
(vpeljemo novo labelo 99)
SIMULATOR MIKRORAČUNALNIKA 8051
TOMAŽ ERJAVEC
UDK: 519.685.8:681.3
MAJARONOVA 5, 61000 LJUBLJANA
Sestavek opisuje programski simulator za družino zaključenih mikroračunalnikov MCa-51. Najprej sta predstavljeni arhitektura družine MG3-51 in organizacija pomnilnikov. Nato se bralec seznani s skupino programov,ki sestavljajo simulator in z opisom enega inatrukcij-skega cikla,
SIMULATOH of tue 8051 michocomputeh. 'i'he article describes a'software simulator for the MCS-51 family of single chip microcomputers. First the architecture of the MCS-51 and the organisation of the memories is presented. The reader is then informed with the set of prograuis that form the simulator and with the description of one instruction cycle.
1, UVÜÜ
Uaključeni mikroračunalniki so zaradi svo-•Jih lastnosti primerni za procesno vodenje, V enem samem ohišju ( navadno s 40 priključki ) združujejo mikroračunaln^J^ško strukturo,ki Je samozadostna za delovanje, ü prihajajočimi zaključenimi mikroračunalniki postaja ta struktura vse bogatejša,
Primerna metoda uvajanja v tehnologijo zaključenih mikroračunalnikov Jo simulacija, saj laliko na simulacijskeo računalniku programsko ponazorimo njihovo delovanje in opazujemo obnašanje. Pri taki simulaciji Je seveda težko doseči izvajanje funkcij v realnem času, pač pa Je mogoče s primernim vpogledom v notranjost simulatorja nazorno zasledovati dogajanja ot» izvajanju instruk-cij.
Intel,HOU-51 Je med najsodobnejšimi družinami ; zaključenih mikroračunalnikov. Opisani simulaciJaki programski paket izvaja večino iunkcij družine MÒi3-31, modularna
zgradoa pa omogoča enostavno dograditev ostalih oziroma izklapljanje že vgrajenih funkcio in s tem prirejanje obsea;« in hitrosti simulacije uporabniku.
V nadaljnem besedilu se spoznamo z arhitekturo družine MGa-51, modulai-no zgrudDo programskega paketa in opisom poteKa simulacije.
OPla DHUŽINK MCÜ-51
uružina MUd-^l obsega tri zaključene mikroračunalnike, ki se med seboj razlikujejo le . po obsegu in vrsti programskega pomnilnika. ÜU31 je najpreprostejši in nima vgrajenega programskega pomnilnika. bO^l vsebuje 4k HOM, B7^>1 pa 4k EPKUH pomnilnik. Pri vseh treh Je nasluvljivi prostor programskega pomnilnika omejen a b4ic lokacijami, v vseh ostalih lastnostih se člani družine MUo-^1 ne razlikujejo, zato ae od tu dalje nanje obračamo kar z imenom BO^l,
64
2,i. Arhitektura 8O51
aelo vißOlca stopnja integracije s 60.ÜÜU transistorji na isti silicijevi ploščici je omogočila naslednjo arhitekturo:
-	centralna procesna enota
-	X Ö programski pomnilnik
-	laa X 8 podatkovni pomnilnik
-	vhodno/izhodnih linij
-	dva 16-Ditna ćasovnika/števoa dogodkov
-	5-izvorna vgnezdena prekinitvena struktura z dvema prednostnima nivojema
-	serijska vhodno/izhodna linija
-	taktirna ura .
Blokovna sheina je podana na sliki 1.
Centralna procesna enota lahko obdeluje podatke iz obeh 64k obsegov programskega in podatkovnega pomnilnika, pri čemer se del obsegov nanaša na vgrajena dela pomnilnikov. Družina je opredeljena kot 8-bitna, izvaja pa nekatere funkcije tudi na 16 bitih, M- bitih, odlikuje jo še poseben bit-procesor za obdelavo Boolovih spremenljivk. Aritmetični del procesorja izvaja vrsto aritmetičnih in logičnih operacij, posebnost pa sta celošte-vilsko množenje in deljenje, ki sicer pri zaključenih mikroračunalnikih nista bila doslej pogosti operaciji.
2,2, Organizacija pomnilnikov
Programski števnik ( 16-bitni ) dopušča klice in vejitve pò vsem 64k prostoru programskega pomnilnika, nikakor pa ne mora pokazati na lokacije podatkovnega pomnilnika, kamor se ne da prenesti izvajanja programa. Ko vrednost v programskem števniku preseže W!;>, ae naslednja instrukcijska koda preneso preko vhodno/izhodnih vrat iz zunanjega pomnilnika avtomatsko. Določene lokacije programskega pomnilnika so rezervirane za inicializacijo in prekinitvene programe.
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Slika 2,: Vgrajeni podatkovni pomnilnik
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Vgrajeni podatkovni pomnilnik obsega 12Ö lokacij. Prvih 52 je zaobseženih v t- bankah podatkov s po 8 registri. Izbira banke se izvaja s postavljanjem zaznamkov v statusni besedi, izbira registra pa je zajeta že v kodi instrukcije. Na lokacijah od 32 do se nahaja i;:;ü bitov, ki jih je moč naslavljati neposredno in služijo kot pomnilni prostor za bit-procesor. Po 8 bitov skupaj je sevftda uio't naslavljati tudi besedno kot katerokoli di-ugo besedo v pomnilniku. Od lokacije 'i? naprej so nenamenske lokacije za hranjenje poljubnih podatkov.
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jlika 3.: Razporeditev posebnih registrov
Poleg tega Je mogoče podatke hraniti tudi v posebnih registrih, ki obsegajo 20 lokacij. Tu so akumulator in pomožni akumulator,ki sodeluje pri mnoSenju in deljenju, sicer pa je navaden register, statusna beseda vsebuje štiri aritmetične zaznamke, zaznamka za izbiro banke podatkov in prosti uporabnikov zaznamek. V skupino kazalcev sodijo kazalec sklada in 16-bitni podatkovni kazalec. Poleg štirih 8-bitnih vrat in in dveh 16-bitnih Števcev so tu Se registri, ki omogočajo programiranje in nadzor delovanja števcev, serijske komunikacije in prekinitvene strukture.
V dinamični del, katerega spremenljivke se spreminjajo v skladu z izvajanimi instrukci-jami, pa sodijo:
-	simulacija podatkovnega pomnilnika
-	prepoznavanje operacijskih kod
-	klicanje instrukcijskih subrutin
-	izvajanje funkcij posameznih instrukoij
-	postavljanje zaznamkov
-	vlaganje naslova naslednje operacijske kode v programski števnik
-	izpisovanje vsebine registrov .
Blokovna shema programskega paketa MCa-51 je prikazana na sliki 4.
funkcijski opis plokov
3. ZASNOVA PROGRAMSKEGA PAKEa?A MCS-51
Programski paket MCS-51 omogoča izvajanje, preizkušanje in nadziranje dogajanja ob izvajanju programov, ki so pisani v strojni kodi 8051, na simulacijskem računalniku.Napisan je v zbirnem jeziku 80Ö0.
Naloge, ki jih opravlja, lahko značajno razdelimo v dve skupini. V statični del sodijo:
-	simulacija programskega pomnilnika
-	tabeliranje operacijskih kod in naslovov njihovih subrutin
-	tabeliranje kod in naslovov izpisnih subrutin.
Simulirani progx-amski (HOW) in podatkovni (.HAM) pomnilnik ata organizirana prav tako, kot je bilo opisano v poglavju 2.i?. Fred izvajanjem simulacije v za programski pomnilnik rezervirano področje pomnilnika aimu-lacijskega računalnika vpišemo program v strojni kodi 8051.
PC5I je simulirani programski števnik in v njem se nahaja naslov v programskem pomnilniku, na katerem je koda instrukcije, ki se bo naslednja izvedla.
'j;ABl,TAiJü,'i'AJi5 so taoele, v katerih se natia-jajo podatki v öoliki:
koda sti-an lokacija .
Slika : Shema programskega paketa MUS-5I
OtMCT Moon-
»m
OiMCT «OOMMMB
Slika 5: Od vgrajenega RAM pomnilnika program IZPIS doseže le posebne registre. Operacijski kodi instrukcije sledita stran in lokacija, na kateri se začenja subrutina, ki izvede operacijo instrukcije.Operacijske kode 8O5I je moč po njihovih karakterističnih lastnostih razdeliti v štiri skupine:
-	aaakOOOl
-	kkkklrrr
-	kkkkklli - kkkkkkkk
kjer pomeni "a" naslov, "r" register v določeni banki podatkov, "i" register v banki podatkov pri indirektnem naslavljanju in "k" samo operacijsko kodo. Kodi prvega tipa sta samo dve in ju prepoznava glavni program ne- \ posredno, ostale pa ao razdeljene v tri tabele zaradi krajšega iskanja in razpoznavanja. ■
FILTAB pred začetkom izvajanja simulacije vpiše v pomnilnik simulacijskega računalnika tabele TAB1,TAB2 in TAB3.
FILL5 pred začetkom simulacije zapiše v pomnilnik simulacijskega računalnika tabelo (I)AB3, ki služi prepoznavanju imen posebnih registrov, katerih vsebine želimo izpisati v podprogramu IZPIS. Tabelo vpisuje v obliki:
znak znak znak znak stran lokacija. Če ima imo registra mail j kot 't znake, je namesto njih vpisana O. Stran in lokacija se nanašata na naslov subrutine, ki izpiše vsebino željenega registra.	~
NIČLE pred začetkom izvajanja simulacije zapiše v pomnilnik simulacijskega računalnika . ničle na področje tabele a?AB5.
FILNIČ,pred začetkom izvajanja simulacijo na področje simuliranega podatkovnega pomnilnika zapiše ničle.
Dinamični del pa tvorijo«
MC3-51 je glavni program in nadzira delovanje vseh ostalih. Pri zagonu nastavi programski števnik PC5I na začetek programske-
ga pomnilnika ter vpraša po načinu izpisovanja vrednosti registrov med izvajanjem. Hate se izvajanje ponavlja v zanki instrukcij-skega cikla, dokler ni razpoznana koda 560 ( dodatno vstavljena koda za prenehanje simuliranja ). Podrobnejši ópia delovanja jo v poglavju
NASLOV : Ko MC3-51 razpozna operacijsko kodo v eni od tabel, vloži naslov inatrukcijske subrutine v NASLOV, ki jo pokliče takoj za tem, ko jo naslov vrnitve v glavni program zložil na sklad.
IZPIS si zapomni način izpisovanja, ki je bil vstavljen ob zagonu glavnega programa. Pozna tri načine delovanja. Način O : Želimo izpisovanje poljubnih posebnih registrov. Najprej so izpiše vrednost programskegia števnika PC5I in koda izvedene instrukcije. Nato IZPIS čaka, da vtipkamo ime registra. Prebrani podatek primerja z vrednostmi v tabeli TAUS in po uspešni primerjavi pokliče izpis vsebine željenega registra, sicer javi napako operaterja. Po opravljenem izpisu vsebine registra čaka na novo ime registra. Izpisovalno sekvenco prekinemo z 'return'
Način 1 : Želimo izpisovanje vsebin osmih pomembnejših registrov ( A, B, PSW, SP, ÜPH, DPL, PO, PI ) po vsaki izvedeni instrukciji. Hkrati se izpisuje tudi stanje programskega števnika in koda izvedene instrukcije. Na vsakih 20 vrstic številčnih izpisov C na vsaKih 20 instrukcij ) se ponovi vrstica z imeni registrov, ki jim pripada številčni stolpec pod njimi.
Način 2 : Ne želimo izpisa na terminal. To pospeši simulacijo, a prepreči vpogled v dogajanje v mikroračunalniku.
IZPISNJS SUBKUTINK imajo nalogo izpisati vsebino registra, ki ga prepozna IZPIS.
INSTKUKOlOSKÜ SUBriUTlNJi : obsegajo 10y sub-rutin, ki opravljajo funkcije 10y operacijskih kod. Instrukcije se delijo v štiri funkcijske skupine : aritmetične, logično, za prenos podatkov in za prenos nadzora. Dodana jim je še funkcija KONKC.
KüNfiü v pravem 80^1 ne obstaja, tu pa je uporabljen za zaključitev simulacije. Ko glavni program pokliče KONEO, ta zahteva način končnega izpisa vsebin registrov in po njem zapiše, da .je izvajanje simulacije končano.
XOKEO se odziva na kodo 360 C oktalnp
Instrukoidske subrutine pri evpjea delovanju lahko pokličejo 10 podprogramov, ki jih po'?, trebujejo za določitev izvornih in ponornih operandov, ki sodelujejo v instrukciji, za računanje zaznamkov v stacusni besedi in za ustrezno inkrementiranje programskega štev- : nika PC51.	'
BANK kličejo instrukcijske subrutine, katerih operandi so registri v eni izmed étirih bank podatkov. flANK prebere vsebino tretjega in četrtega bita v statusni besedi, ki določujeta, v kateri od bank podatkov se nahaja operand. Nato nastavi kazalec na eno od štirih bank podatkov.
kEG dopolnjuje BANK, saj iz vrednosti prostih bitov v kodi instrukcije razbere, kateri register v pokazani banki podatkov je operand instrukcijo. .
OVI kličejo instrukcijske subrutine za seštevanje. Njegova funkcija je ugotoviti, če je pri seštevanju dveh operandov prišlo do prenosa iz šestega in sedmega bita rezultata. Nato postavi tretji bit statusne besede ( zaznamek 'preliv') na 1, če je vsota po modulu 2 prenosov iz šestega in sedmega bita rezultata enaka 1, sicer postane 'preliv ' enak O.
0V2 opravlja podobno funkcijo kot OVl, le da ga kličejo instrukcijske subrutine za odštevanje s sposojanjem,
CZ kličejo vse aritmetične instrukcijske subrutine. Njegova funkcija je ugotoviti, 6e je pri izvrSeni aritmetični operaciji prišlo do prenosa iz tretjega'in sedmega bita. V skladu z ugotovljenim postavi zaznamek 'pomožni prenos'oziroma 'prenos'na 6. oziroma 7. mea- : tu statusne besede na 1, če je prišlo do prenosa, sicer na O.
BIT služi za določanje naslovov operandov pri delovanju instrukcij bit-procesorja.Ha -slavijanje operandov bit-procesorja je direktno, torej je naslovljen bit neposredno brez imenovanja besede, v kateri se nahaja. Z uporabo rotacij, prištevanja konstant in maskiranja besed omogoča BIT simulacijo takšnega naslavljanja bitnih operandov.
TONI opravlja inverzno funkcijo Bia?-a, Bit-
no spremenljivko, ki smo jo dobili kot rezultat bitnih operacij, vrne na ponorno mesto v podatkovnem piomnilniku. Bit zarotira na pravo mesto v besedi, nato maskira besedo v pomnilniku in zbriše bitno lokacijo, na katero pride ponorni operand. Besedo z zarotiranim bitom nato prišteje besedi v pomnilniku. ( V priStevani besedi so vsi biti razen ponor-nega enaki O ).
Bm, BYT2, äraj služijo nastavljanju programskega števnika PC51 na naslov naslednje operacijske kode. Kličejo jih instrukcijske subrutine v skladu s številom besed, ki jih obsegajo njihove operacijske kode ( ena, dve ' ali tri ).
PABITY izračunava pariteto podatka v akumulatorju. Kliče ga glavni program MCS-51 po vsaki opravljeni instrukciji in pred izpisom rezultatov le-te. Njegova funkcija je seštevanje po mödulu 2 vseh bitov v akumulatorju.Če Je vsota 1, postane zaznamek 'pariteta'v statusni besedi enak 1, sicer O.
4. OPIS INSTRUKCIJSKEGA.CIKLA-
PC51 kaže na lokacijo v programskem pomnilniku, na kateri se nahaja koda instrukcije. MGS-51 prebere kodo, ugotovi njeno karakteristično lastnost ter izbere eno od treh tabel, iz katere bo črpal podatke za primerjavo. Ko je koda prepoznana, se naslov njene instrukcijske subrutine vloži v NASLOV, ki pokliče subrutino. Ta v skladu s številom besed svoje operacijske kode pokliče BYTI, BlfT2 aH ByT3,ki inkrementira programski števnik P051, da kaže na lokacijo naslednje operacijske kode. Če operandi izvajane operacijske kode niso takojšnji ali direktno naslovljeni, instrukoijska subrutina pokliče BANK in HBG in z njuno pomočjo določa registre iz bank podatkov ali pa indirektno naslovljene operande. Ce je instrukcija aritmetična, lahko pokliče OVI, 0V2 in cr ter z njihovo pomočjo izračuna zaznamke 'preliv'in 'prenos'. Ca sodi instrukcija v bit-procesor, izračuna naslov operandov s kliuom podprograma BIT, ko pa izračuna rezultat, ga vrne kot ponorni operand s klicem ViiNI na njegovo mesto v podatkovnem pomnilniku. Ob zaključku instrukcijske subrutine se izvajanje vrne v MUS-^l. Ob tem času so spremdmbe, ki jih
je povzročila instrukcija že vpisane v po-datkovDem ponnilniku. Glavni program jpokliče PARITY, ki izračuna pariteto podatka, ki se nahaja v akumulatorju in vnese ustrezni zaznamek v statueno beseéo. Zadnji klic v glavnem programu je klic izpisnega podprograma lüPia, ki v skladu s predhodno vloženim podatkom o načinu izpisovanja vsebin registrov izpiše željene vrednosti. S tem je cikel ene instrukcije končan, v PC51 pa 2e čaka naslov naslednje operacijske kode.
Čeprav vse funkcije ÖOßl še niso vgrajene v simulator, je oilo dograjevanje predvideno in ga modularna zgradba omogoča. a'o velja predvsem v primeru dograjevanja v emulator, ki ga sestavlja simulacijski programski paket in digitalne vhodno/izhodne enote, priključene na simulacijski računalnik. Ua tak način je mogoče prikazati celotno delovanje zaključenega mikroračunalnika vključno s priključnimi sponkami, seveda ne v realnem času.
5. SKLEP
Simulacijski programski paket je zanimiv kot učni pripomoček. Z njim lahko podrobno sledimo dogajanju v mikroračunalniku. V kombinaciji s prevajalnikom za zbirni jezik 8O5I lahko predstavlja učinkovit učni pripomoček za učenje uporabe zbirnega jezika, ker. lahko zasledujemo neposredni učinek izvajanja ins-trukcij.
Pri simulaciji posebnih nalog,kjer ne uporabljamo cölotnega naoora ukazov, lahko poljuben obseg instrukcij povsem izklopimo, s tem skrajšamo čas dekodiranja in pospešimo delovanje simulatorja.
LITü£AXUHA
1.	Intel Corporation, MGÖ-51 family of Single Chip Microcomputers - user's Manual, Intel Corporation, Santa Clara California, 19B1
2.	Adam Osborne, An Introduction to Microcomputers, volume 1, Osborne & Associates, Inc., Berkeley, California, 19/0
3.	Intel Software Subroutines,fotokopije, last IJS/El
STRUKTURIRANI ZBIRNIK ZA MIKROPROCESOR 68000
UDK: 681.3.068
ROK SOSIČ, ALOJZ HODOBIVNIK
RUČIGAJEVA 14, 64000 KRANJ SUHA l/a, 64000 KRANJ
Članek opisuje zbirnik za mikroprocesor 68000 (M68000) in predprocesor, ki omorjoča .strukturirano pisanje zhii niških programov. Zbirnik je bil napisan kot pripomoček za ra;-,voj računalnika na osnovi M 68ÜOÜ v ISKHI l()/.l.i Kačunainiki Krajij. '
Structured assembler for microprocessor 68000: Tliis describes assembler {or microproiju-s-ior 68000 <uicl preprocessor for structured syntax, ftoth of tliem were developed in iSKHA TO/1) Kacunaliiiki Kranj.
A. l'«l!ČNI MAKKO ZUIRNIK ZA M680Ü0
1.	UVOD
Ko so se pojavili icmogljlvi 16-bitni mikroprocesorji, se je ISKRA odločila za raavoj računalnika na osnovi M 68000. Kot osnova za razvoj novega sistema je bil napisan križni zbirnik, kasneje pa je bil dodan še predprocesor za strukturirani zbirnik. Oba programa tečeta na računalniku IS SUAUATA lD-19, napisana pa sta v jeziku KOKTUAN.
2.	KRATEK OI'IS ZUIRNIKA ZA M68000
Sam mikroprocesor je bil opisan v ( l),zato tega ne bomo ponavljali. Zbirnik za M68000 je podoben ostalim zbirnikom za mikroprocesorje. Ima le precej več načinov adresiranja - kar 14. Čeprav je osnovnih instruk-cijskih mnemonikov le 56, pa lahko z izbiro načina adresiranja dobimo več koülOOO različnih instrukcij.
Ker je M68000 precej zmogljiv, ima temu primerno zapleteno zgradbo instrukcij. Kot primer naj povem,da zaseda dekodiranje instrukcije pri zbirniku za M68000 okrog 260 besed, pri zbirniku za M68000 pa kar 3500 besed.
Oglejmo si zgradbo :
Dolžina osnovne instrukcije je 16 bitov, (»samezni biti pa pomenijo : 15 - 8 - koua instrukcije 7 - 6 - dolžina operanda : .
00	- zlog ( 8 bitov)
01	- beseda ( 16 bitov)
10 - dolga beseda (32 bitov) 5 - 3 - način adresiranja 2 - O - številka registra
Poleg tega Ima zbirnik še pòlno |X)sòbnlh oblik Instrukcij, tako da je zgornja instrukcija skorq izjema in ne pravilo.
2.1 NAČINI AOmiSlHANJA: Oznake :
KA - adresa operanda An - naslovni regisloi t)n - podatkDvni reg. - indeksni register (An ali Dn) SR-statusni reg. re - programski števec d8 - 8 - bitni odmik dl6 - 16 - bitni odmik N - I za zlog, 2 za besedo,
4 za doljc besedo ( ) - vsebina	= - nadomesti
1.	Direktno adresiraiije podatkovnega registra: KA = Dn
način : 000
2.	Direktno adresiraiije naslovnega registra : EA 3! An
način : 001
3.	indirektno adresiranje: EA = (An)
način: 010
4.	Indirektno adresiranje .s }xjvečanjem : KA = (An) , An =■ An + N
način: 011 sintaksa: (An) +
5.	Indirektno adresiranje z zmanjšanjmn: An = An - N, EA (An)
način : 100 sintaksa: - (An)
6.	Indirektno adresiranje z odmikom: EA = (An) + dl6
l ačin : 101 sintaksa: d(An)
Instrukciji ju dodana še l6-bitna beseda.
7. Indirektno adresiranje z odmikom In indeksnim registrom ;
EA = (An) + (Xn) + d8 način : 110 sintaksa : d(Anv<n)
Instrukciji je dodana še 16-bitna beseda s sledečo zgradbo : bit 15
0	- indeksni register je Dn '
1	- indeksni register Je An biti 14-12
številka indeksnega registra bit 11:
0	- indeks je samo spodnjih 16 bitov v registru
1	- indeks je 3 2 biten biti 7-0 :
odmik	,
6. Absolutno kratko adresiranje; EA = naslednja beseda mčin : 111
številka registra : 000 sintaksa : nnn
Instrukciji je dodana 16 bitna beseda, v kateri je naslov operanda.
9.	Absolutno dolgo adresiranje: EA 1 naslednji dve besedi način; 111
številka registra: 001 sintaksa : nnnnnnn
Instrukciji sta dodani dve besedi, v katerih je naslov operanda.
10.	Relativno adresiranje z odmikom: EA = (PC) + dlć
način : 111
številka registra : 010 sintak^ia : nnn - relativo na PC Instrukciji je dodana 16 bitna beseda, v kateri je odmik.
11.	Relativno adresiranje z odmikom in indeksnim registrom :
EA = (PC) + (Xn) + d8 način: 111 register: 011
sintaksa: nnn(Xn) - relativno'na PC Instrukciji je dodana 16-bitna beseda z naslednjo zgradbo : bit 15 :
0	- indeksni register Dn
1	- ind eksni register je An biti 14-12:
številka indeksnega registra bit 11:
0	- indeks je samo spodnjih 16 bitov v regis-
tru
1	- indeks je cel register biti 7 - O :
odmik
12.	Takojšnji način adresiranja9 EA = v naslednjih besedah način : 111
številka registra: 100 sintaksa : nnn
Instrukciji je dodan operand. Ta je lahko :
-	spodnjih 8 bitov naslednje besede
-	cela naslednja beseda (16 bitov)
- dve naslednji besedi (32 bitov)
.13. Takojšni hitri način :
Ta način imata le Instrukciji AUO in SUD. Operand je vsebovan že v kodi instrukcije. Odštevamo ali prištevamo lahko največ 3 bitno število.
. 14. Adresiranje statusnega registra:
EA =» SR
način : lil	'
številka registra: 100 sintaksa : SR
2.2	DOLOČANJE DOLŽINE OPERANDA
V splošnem so lahko operandi dolgi 8, 16 ali 32 bitov. Poleg tega imamo še možnost operirati z BCD kodo ( 4 biti) in z biti. Dolžino operanda določi mo t:ako, da z mnemonikom Instrukcije napišemo .B , .Wall .L.
Primer:
ADD.B DO,Dl (prišteje spodnjih 8 bitov iz DO v Dl)
ADD.WDO.Dl (prišteje spodnjih 16 bitov iz DO v Dl)
ADD.L D0,D1 (prišteje celoten DO v Dl) Operacije nad BCD kodo in biti pa so določene že s samo Instrukcijo.
2.3	Vrste instrukcij
Pri dvooperandskih instrukcijah je le en naslov lahko v spominu, izjema je MOVE, kjer sta lahko oba. 1. Premikanje podatkov
MOVE - prenos iz ene lokacije v drugo
MOVEM - prenos vsebine več registrov naenkrat
MOVEP - prenos po by tih
EXG - zamenjaj vsebino dveh registrov
LINK - povezi
UNLK - razvezi
(zadnji dve instrukciji uporabljamo za prenašanje parametrov in vzdrževanje list) 2. Celoštevilčna aritmetike ADD - seštej CLR - briši CM P - primerjaj DIVS - deli s predznakom DIVU - deli brez predznaka EXT - razširi operand na 32 bitov MULS - množi s predznakom MULU - množi brez predznaka NEG - negiraj SUB - odštej TA S - testiraj in postavi TST - testiraj
3. Logične operacije AND - logični in EOR - ekskluzivni ali OR - logični ali NOT - eniškl komplelnent
Premiki ASL,LSL					.1
ASR	1	F—			v/
	1	L«			
LSR	0				x/

ROL ROR
ROXL m* r~r
ROXR

BA

s. Operacije z biti : BCLR - briši bit Bc:;'33 - spremeni bit BSET - postavi bit . BTST - testiraj bit
6. Operacije z BCD kodo: ABCD - seštej NBCD-negiraj SBCD - odštej .
7 .-Kontrola programa :
BCC - pogojni skoki (CC - glej CON CODE v opisu strukturiranega zbirnika) DBcc - tvorba kratkih zank Scc - pogojno postavi BRA - relativen skok JSR - absoluten skok v podprogramu RTR - vrnitev iz podprograma in obnovitev statusnega registra RTS - vrnitev iz podprograrna NOP - prazna instrukcija
8, Priviligirane instrukcije RESET - začetek RTE - vrnitev iz prekinitve STOP - stoj
.in .instrukcije za popravljanje statusnega registra
9. Pasti
TRAP - začetek pasti
TRAPV - testiranje prekoračit ve
CHK - testiranje mej operanda
2.4 Pogojno zbiranje
Pogojno zbiranje začnemo z enim izmed haslednjih pogojev:IFEQ,IFNE,IFGT,IFGE,IFL,IFLE. Pogoj zaključimo z ENDO. Vsi pogoji so testirani na 0. Primer: IFEQ A ADD DO, Dl ENDC
Gnezdenje pogojnega zbiranja je neomejeno.
ADD NOP. . -ENDM
Đ2
klic:
ZAM4«5, D1>,<D1,D2>
razširitev:
BEQ. .00001
ADD ^fe.Dl - ^
ADD D1,D2
.00001 NOP
3. OPIS PROGRAMA - ZBRINIK ZA M68000 ' Program je napisan po priročniku /3/, tako da je kompa-Ubilen z originalnim zbirnikom. Delno spremenjeno jele pogojno in makro zbiranje.
Pri pogojnem zbiranju so dodani še 4 pogoji - poleg IFEQ in IFNE - še IFGT,IFLT,IFGE in IFLE.
Pri makro zbiranju pa je število možnih parametrov razširjeno z 9 na 99 in število lokalnih oznak z 1 na 26, globina gnezdenja pa povečana na 25.
Zanimiva je tudi organizacija progranr.à.Za razliko od večine zbirnikov, kjer je vsa teža na drugem prehodu, večino dela opravi prvi prehod. Tak pristopje bilo potrebno uporabiti zaradi nefleksibilnosti dela z datotekami na računalniku ID-19. Tako prvi prdöd že generira listing in vanj vpisuje oznake za drugi prehod. Ker ta pregleduje le tiste vrstice, kjer je oznaka, je tudi zelo hiter - približno 50 krat hitrejši od prvega prehoda, kate -rega hitrost znaša 500 -. 2000 vrstic na minuto. Program generira na koncu listinga še listo napak z diagnozo in refe^čno tabelo.
B.PREDPROCESOR ZA STRUKTURIRANI ZBIRNIK 1. UVOD
Da bi izboljšali pregfednoätin hitrost pisanja učinkovitih programov v zbirniku, je bil kot implementacija zbirnika za M68000 izdelan križni predprocesor za strukturirani zbirnik, ki se imenuje SASS (Structuréd Assembler ). SASS ima za vhod program v strukturiraiem zbii niku v editorski datoteki, za izhod pa dobimo navadni zbirnik. SASS je trenutno šie ločen od zbirnika, vendar sta strogo kompatibilna.
2.5 Makro zbiranje:
Makro definiramo z ukazom MACRO in končamo z ukazom ENDM.	. . Kličemo ga po imenu in za njim navedemo listo para-■ metrov. Zamenjavo parametra označimo z znakom © (©) in za njim številko parametà- (O - 99). Lokalno labelo zahtevamo z znakom B in za njim črko,, ki označuje eno izmed lokalnih labd (A - Z). Globina makro klicev je omejena na 25 (zaradi sklada lokalnih label). Parametri so ločeni z vejicami, če pa parameter \sebuje vejico, ga lahko damo v oglati okle^ paj .
Primeri definicije:
ZAM
MACRO BEQ BA ADD BI ^
2.0 PREGLED KONTROLNIH STAVKOV STRUKTURIRANEGA ZBIRNIKA
Za predstavitev bomo uporabili BNF-zapis. <ÌF STA VEK>: : = IF [^size code^] <boolean exp> ^stavek^^
^WHILE-ŠTAVEK)>: : = WàlLEf.^^ize cod^j^olean exp^ .
DÓ J^.^xteh^j^tavek S
<REPEAT-S rAVEK>: :
s= REPEAT j .^xten ^tótavek^ UI^Tlbj^^ize codei^olean exp>
<F0R - STAVEK>: : = FOliUize cod^l^ re<Ì>|4:) rec4>)=»
^	,	<f,peran(^o|lX)V7NT(),$perand>.
op. : z BY definiramo korak zanke, če ga izpustimo
- STAVEK> : = CALl4me> ^ESTAVLJEN STAVEl^: := BEGIN^tavel^ND
Definicija PROCEDUR^: :=PROCEDURE^m^^e stavljen stavel^
2.1 Opis izrazov, ki pojasnujejo definicije
<STAVEK>: : =4;bir. direktlva>
<niakro klic>	I
^68000 - instrukcij^lej.-opis v zbirniku
<if- stave^hile -
stave^epeat - stavel^ <for-stave^all-stave^estavljen stave^ ^deflnlcija-procedure^
alfanumfalfanumj <A re^::= A0l..^7 <D re^::=« DOI-.JD? <size cod^: : = b)w|l Pexten^: : = s(w	.
^BOOLEAN	: =<čmp ex^«on cod4>
<CMP EXI^: : =^perand|j<éan cod^perand>
<CON COD^: :=^i:;dNElpL|Ml|GT(LTjGEjHljLs|cs| CC|
: vs vc^>
^OPERANI^ : = operand združuje vse adresne načine ■ in mora ustrezati instrukciji, kateri pripada:
operand Iz^mp ex^pripada instrukciji
CMP
operand iz^or-stavk^pripada CMP in
MOVE
^BS EX]^ : = vsl načini, ki se lahko pojavijo na mestu XXX v zbirnišklh stavkih : • SUB XXX,Rn ADD XXX,Rn to je lahko dolg sestavljen aritmetični izraz
Program zaključuje END stavek. Programiramo,|ako, da napišemo mešanico strukturiranih kontrolnih stavkov in zbirnlške stavke. Strogo rezervirane besede, ki se ne smejo pojaviti nitt v navadnem zbimiku , M68000 so:
IF, ELS, REPEAT, UNTli., WHILE,FOR, düGIjm , END, CikLL., PROCEDURE
3.0 ÒPI^ KOMENTARJEV
Za uporabnika, kl bo naletel na program v strukturiranem zbirniku, bodo verjetno zanimvs pojavne oblike komentarjev:
1.	Komentar, ki se prične v 1. koloni vrstice se razteza preko celotne vrstice 72 znakov
(ekviyälentno komentarju v FORTRAN-u : C.....)
Ta komentar se prepiše tudi v prevod.
2.	Zbirniški stavek ima v vrstici sledečo strukturo: ^aslo-^^perato^^perand-^^omentai)»}
V tolikor se pojavi naslov stavka, se mora priče; ti y prvi koloni, kar velja tudi za kontrolne stav' ke. Komentar je celotno polje od operanda do znaka; ali konca vrstice (72 kolone). Komentar ni napovedan z nobenim posebnim znakom in se prepiše v prevod.
3.	komentar, ki se pojavi med meta besedami in deli kontrolnih stavkoy, mora biti napovedan z! in se razteza do konca vrstice. Ta komentar je viden samo v listingu.
^PROCEDURE! definiramo podprogram _BRISI	I to je ime podprograma
« slediti mora sestavljen stavek _.BH31N
jCLR D1 brišemo register Dl; CLR D2 ■K v nadaljevanju se pojavi drug stavek X sledi zaključek podprograma - END
4.0 LASTNOSTI PREDPROCESORJA SASS
Oglèjmo si nekaj lastnosti in omejitev, ki so značilni
za strukturirani zbirnik M68000 in procesor SASS:
-	prevajanje strukturiranega zbirnika se izvede d) enem samem prehodu
-	pravilnost zbirniških stavkov testira zbirnik, medtem ko SASS kontrolira samo sintakso in semantiko kontrolnih stavkov
-več stavkov je lahko zapisano v eno vrstico, če so med seboj ločeni z znakom; .Sicer so zbirniški stavki omejeni na eno vrstico in zaključeni s koncem vrstice. Elementi kontrolnega stavka se lahko raztezajo preko več vrstic ob pogoju, da ne delimo besed ali izrazov.
-	procedura je lahko definirana kjerkoli v programu na osnovnem nivoju t.j. ne sme biti vgnezdena.
Vse spremenljivke so globalne, parametrov nimamo. Programer lahko sprogramira lokalnost, če uporablja kompleksne instrukcije za delo z mikroproprocesorje-vim skladom.
-	naslovljivi so vsi stavki na nevgnezdenem nivoju ter stavki v REPEAT-bloku in sestavljenem stavku.
-	globina gnezdenja je omejena na 50. Omejitev izhaja iz globine skladov, s katerimi dela program in marajo bi-.ti v FORTRAN-u vnaprej določene. FOR-stavkov lahko vgnezdimo največ 16, ker nimamo več indeknsih registrov pri mikroprocesorju.
-	skočne naslove generiramo umetno.
-	vsi stavki, ki so izpeljani iz določenega kontrolnega stavka imajo v polju 72-80 kolone indeks vrstice kontrolnega stavka, ki mu pripadajo. To omogoča hifo primerjavo med izvornim in prevedenim programom.
-	če program odkrije manjšo napako, izpiše v listing sporočilo o vrsti in lokaciji napake, če pa je napaka groba, se prevajanje prekine in vsa^obdelana vsebina se shrani.Nato se brez obdelave prepiše še ostanek izvornega programa.Napake, ki so v zvezi z operacijskim sistemom (delo z datotekami ) povzročijo izpis sporočila na uporabnikov terminal in prekinejo izvajanje.
-	vgrajen je sistemski interapt, ki ob pritisku na tipko prekine prevajanje in shrani vso prevedeno vsebino, ki jo kasneje uporabnik lahko pregleda.
-	maksimalna dolžina izvornega programa je 13000 vrstic.
-	dolžina obeh <felovnih datotek, za katere uporabnik na začetku^oda ime in enoto je odvisna od dolžine izvorne datoteke in se na koncu reducira na dejansko dolžino. V prvi datoteki (80 kolonski) je prevod v drugi (132) pa je listing strukturiranega zbirnika.
-	prevod je vhod dvopasovnega zbirnika, ki nam generira zbirniški listing in binarni program na poljubni eno» ti, ki jo specificiramo (disk, disketa, trak,...).Binarni program je lahko preveden absolutno aU relativno.
Če navedeni makro zbirnik za M68000 obdelamo ® SASS ne doživi nobenih sprememb, zato kompleks strukturi-
ranega'zbirnika omogoča pisanje v navac^em ali strukturiranem /Zbirniku.	i .
Predstavljeni strukturirani zbirnik omogoča učinkovito programiranje v lepem stilu. ,
Povzetek;
Strukturirani zbirnik se je že Izkazal kot zelo uporabno orodje jjrl razvoju 16-bitnega sistema. Omogoča strukturiran pristop k razvoju programov v zbirnem jeziku. Tako napisani programi so preglednejši in precej lažje je njihovo vzrževanje.
Strukturirani zbirnik je prvi korak v razvoju kompleksnejše programske opreme za novi 16-bitni sistem, ki bo temeljil na domačem znanju.
Literatura:
1.	Janez Uratnik - 16 bitni mikroprocesor
Motorola MC68000,INFORMATICA 1, 1980
2.	16-bh microprocessor , Usermanual,
Motorola 1979
3.	MC68000 systems cross macro assembler,
Reference manual, Motorola 1979
4.	Resident structured assembler , Reference manual
Motorola 1979
INTO Al
CLEAR RESISTERS LOAD ADDRESS ANO VALUE
TTL PRINER-PROGRAHA-V-STRUKTURIRANEN-ZBIRNUU
ORC I1000
PROCEDURE GREATER 8ECIN
LEA 0«Al,Olt.AO LOAD NEW ADDRESS HOVE.L IAOI«03 LOAD NEM VALUE END BEGIN SIZE DC »20 DATA OS.L SI2E END
PROCEDURE INIT BEGIN
LEA DATAtAl LOAD BASE ADDRESS
CLR.L OOi CLR.L D'i! CUR.L D9 HOVE.L AltAO; HOVE.L (AUIfOB END
CALL INIT	INITIALI2ATI0N
♦EXECUTION I
♦PROGRAH WHICH FINOS THE GREATEST VALUE IN ARRAr »DATA* LEAVING «THAT VALUE IN REGISTER 03 AND THE ADDRESS OP ITS FIRST OCCURENCE IN ♦REGISTER AO
FOR.L 01-114 TO («♦(SIZE-ll BY 00 iOl IS USED AS AN INDEX IF.L 0(Al,01t <GT> 03 THEN CALL GREATER ♦EXECUTION 2
♦TEST THE GREATEST VALUE ♦NUHBER OF 0*S IS IN 04 ♦NUHBER OF 1«S IS IN 05 REPEAT
AOD.B (1.00 00 IS USED AS A POINTER
BIST.L D3t00
IF <EQ> THEN ADO.B «li04
UNTIL.B
♦	03 - THE GREATEST VALUE
♦	04 - NUHBER OF O'S THE GREATEST VALUE
♦	D5 - NUHBER OF I'S THE GREATEST VALUE
♦	05 - NUHBEk OF l*S THE GREATEST VALUE
♦	AO - ADDRESS OF THE GREATEST VALUE END .
UPOR A B N I I' K O (. K \ VI 1
Avtomatiöna začetna naložitev uporabniškega programa v sistemu CP/M
Modificirali bomo zbirko DOS64P.CUM, ki oe nahaja po naložitvi z ukazom DDT na lokacijah hitrega pomnilnika (PC, NEXT-l), kot kažo zgornji primer. Z uporabo direktive 'D' in naslova začetka CCP v UDOS, dobimo tole, nekoliko okrašeno sliko:
t*******************************
*	Informatica UP 6
*	CP/M Autoload Feature
*	maj 1982
*	Anton P. Železnikar
*	sistem CP/M, operacijski s. ********************************
1. Področje uporabe
Opisani primer je modifikacija operacijskega sistema, točneje modifikacija njegovega modula CCP (konzolnega ukaznega procesorja sistema CP/M). Ta modifikacija povzroči, da se ob začetnem zagonu sistema začne brez dodatnega posega uporabnika takoj izvajati določen uporabniški program. Takšen zagon sistema onemogoči uporabniku doseganje CP/M operacijskega sistema in.izvaja se lahko le določen program za določene namene. Ta lastnost sistema je tako zlasti priporočljiva pri sistemih na ključ, tako da se uporabniku nI potrebno seznanjati z ukazi operacijskega sistema.
Podoben primer bi se lahko pojavil tudi tedaj, ko imamo računalnik doma In se otroci med drugim večkrat poigrajo z ukazom ERA *,*, ki zbriše celotno disketo.
2."Kratek opis modifikacije
CP/M sistem ima pravzaprav že vgrajeno lastnost avtomatičnega začetnega nalaganja, le da ta lastnost nI objavljena v dokumentaciji proizvajalca Digital Research. Ta informacija se praviloma daje samo OEM proizvajalcem in distributerjem programske opreme. Pokažimo sedaj, kako je mogoče ta mehanizem realizirati na vsakem CP/M sistemu.
Vzemimo program za izračunavanje biorltma z 1-menom BI02, ki je bil razvit v jeziku CBASTC2 In se Izvaja po prevodu v okviru modula za izvajanje BASIC programov z Imenom CRUN2 (glej primer UP 3, Informatica 5(1981), št.3, str. 79). Program BI02 naj se začne izvajati avtomatično ob začetnem zagonu pod kontrolo programa CRUN2,
Ker Imamo celoten operacijski sistem (CP/M = INIT + BDOS + BIOS) shranjen v zbirki DOS64P, pokličemo to zbirko v hitri pomnilnik s prohodnim programom DDT in jo modificiramo. Najprej imamo tole:
B>DDT D0S64-C0M DDT VERS 2.2 NEXT PC 2300 O IDO -D980
--- modificiramo DOS64.COM
--- število zlogov zbirke
--- izpis z začetkom 98ÜH
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o o o o
ca ca
U a m U* o ov o o o o o o
Tz te slike je razvidno, kaj moramo v /blrki tJOS64P spremeniti (moditicirati) . Za to opravilo uporabimo direktivo 'S' ukaza DDT. Imamo tole:
-S9B7			---	modifikacija začne pri	987H
0987	00	OA	---	v ukazni vrstici je 10	z lO'JÜV
0988	£0	43	---	ASCII znak "C"	
0989	20	52	---	ASCII znak "R"	
098A	20	55	---	ASCII znak "U"	
0938	20	4E	---	ASCII znak "N"	
	£11	32	---	ASCII znak "2"	
09UD	20		----	ASCII znak "SPACE-	
098e	20	4:2	---	ASCII znak "B"	
D98F	20	4'>	-----	ASCII znak "I"	
099 0	20	4*-	---	ASCII znak "0"	
0991	20	32		ASCII znak "2"	
0992	20	•	---	konec modifikacije	
S ponovno uporab direktive 'D' se pokaže tole!
w M • a (9 (9 •
3. Preizkus lastnosti avtomatične naložitve in izvajanja programa BI02
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.o o« Ot o o o I M 9 <r M e o I
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u » o to o o I 9 m M « o o I
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O) h, o. 01 o o < u> ^ n in o o <
fo n t^ o o « •«t ^ o <T o o C
< o Ov Ul o o < ' o W P) <f o =>.'
(■• o n o o ( t- 01 (0 m o o I
S prehodnim ukazom SYSGEN smo na sistemski stezi zapisali modificirani sistem CP/M, .ki naloži najprej modul CRUN2, nato modul BI02 ter začne izvajati modul BI02 pod kontrolo modula CRUN2. To pa je natanko lastnost, ki smo jo zahtevali in ob tem sistem CP/M za uporabnika ostane v celoti zakrit. Lista 1 pokaže, da se to zgodi ; tudi v praktičnem primeru. S tem je korektnost naSih predpostavk praktično dokazana, uporabnik CP/M sistema pa si lahko v celoti zgradi modifikacijo za svoj poseben primer.
CRUN VER 2.07P
POCAKAJi DA SE IZRAČUNAJO TABELE I
VSTAVI IME
7 PETRICA
VSTAVI DATUM ROJSTVA! DAN« MES< LETOi 27-6>l981
VSTAVI ZAČETNI M Eis EC IN LETO BI OKOLEDARJAI
? 6«1982
VSTAVI ŠTEVILO MESECEV BIOKOLEDARJAl '
7 1
BIO INDEKS
M M
01 o o o o
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S .o co u o o o o 01 01 ^ o o o C3
UOJo^^oooo u>noi<roooo
n u. o t
m m o o o o
nooaooooo
SIOO«II)UC)UI>. 0> o» ON <» 0< CT' (» C Ioooooooo
60259 62460 64650 66662 68307 69387 69709 69109 67465 64714 60868 56014 50322 44038
r
F
Modifikacij.a je s tem opravljena in to kar se sedaj nahaja v hitrem pomnilniku, mpramo rešiti z vgrajenim ukazom SAVE na disketo, npr. takole:
K opisanemu primeru dodajmo še tele'bistvene opombe: pri navajanju zaporedje zbirk, ki bodo po vrsti izvršene, nikakor nismo omejeni samo na imena posameznih zbirk, temveč lahko uporabimo tudi SUBMIT,zbirke (vključno z ukaznimi zaporedji). Pri tem smemo v celoti prekriti licenčno sporočilo podjetja Digital Research vse do lokacije 9FFH. Tako imamo dovolj prostora za vstavitev vrste imen,' torej za izvedbo zelo zapletene funkcije. j
Končajmo sedaj naš primeri Najprej izskočimo iz ukaza (stanja) DDT z uporabo 'CTL c' ali z GO. Takoj nato uporabimo ukaz SAVE, in sicer:
B>SAVE 34 BIORIT.COM
		1	JUN 1902
	E	I	1 TOR
		E I	2 SHE
1		IE	3 CET
s		I E	4 PET
t	I	E	5 SOB
F: t	I	E	6 NED
F l		E	7 PON
tir		E	8 TÜR
I t	F E		9 SRE
I «	E	F	10 CET
J E	'i	F	11 P ET
E		F	12 SOB
El		F	13 NED
1		F	14 pa4
Ta rezultatna	lista	kaže, kako	se pri
Lista 1.
mrzlem ali toplem zagonu javi sistem. Ker imam-mo kot prvi, modul CRUN2, se ta modul javi s svojo verzijo 2.07P, nakar preide kontrola že na modul BI02. Po običajni vstavitvi vhodnih podatkov se začne izpisovati bioritemski diagram, kot kaže zgornja lista.
4. Opombe k danemu primeru
Da bi bila slika popolnejša, navedimo še, katere zbirke morajo biti v našem primeru zapisane na disketi. Te zbirke so:
S tem ukazom smo rfeSili modificirano zbirko, sedaj pa moramo to zbirko še zapisati na sistemski stezi z uporabo prehodnega ukaza SYSGEN. Ob začetnem zagonu se tako najprej naloži CRÙN2, nato še BI02, nakar se začne BI02 izvajati pod kontrolo programa CRUN2. To pa je prav tisto, kar smo želeli. Otroci tako nimajo več dostopa do vgrajenih in drugih prehodnih Ukazov sistema CP/M.
CRUN2.COM, BI02.INT
CRUN204P.COM,
CRUN237.COM in
Na sistemskih stezah te diskete se nahaja modificirani CP/M sistem, ki smo ga poimenovali z imenom BIORIT.COM (glej SAVE ukaz). Ta sistem smo shranili v posebno zbirko zaradi možnosti dodatne modifikacije kdaj pozneje pa tudi zaradi možnosti opazovanja zgradbe te žbirke.
Program, ki pomakne samega sebe tik pod obstoječi operacijski aistem CP/M
********************************
*	Informatica ÜP 7
*	CP/M Relocating User Program
*	junij 1982
*	Anton P. Železnikar
*	sistem CP/M, Delta 323/M ********************************
1. Področje uporabe
Uporabnik želi večkrat imeti program, ki bi se naložil sam pod operacijski sistem v pomnilniku v odvisnosti od danega obsega pomnilnika, na katerega je CP/M sistem prilagojen. Takäen uporabniški program deluje navadno Se nad ' kakšno drugo zbirko in ima tako določene "sistemske" lastnosti. Primer takega uporabniškega programa je npr. inverzni zbirnik, ki smo ga napisali sami in ga želimo uporabljati nad ukaznimi zbirkami tipa COM.
Pojasnimo še, zakaj želimo, da se ta uporabniški program samodejno premesti pod sam opera-? cij ski sistem CP/M. Z znanimi lastnostmi CP/M sistema bomo lahko brez posebnih težav dosegli naložitev COM zbirke na naslov lOOH in navzgor. Ker bodo te COM zbirke, ki jih želimo npr. prevajati nazaj v.zbirni jezik, različnih obsegov, želimo imeti na razpolago čim večji del tkim. TPA (Transient Program Area) območja. Zaradi te lastnosti želimo imeti naš uporabniški program pod samim operacijskim sistemom. Namen naše naloge je tako pojasnjen.
2. Kratek'opis začetnega (premestitvenega) dela prograria
Modifikacijska aditivna tabela začenja takoj za koncem uporabniškega programa in je določena s spremenljivko MODTAB. V tej tabeli so pravzaprav shranjeni vsi naslovi uporabniškega programa, ki jih je potrebno modificirati v odvisnosti od obsega CP/M sistema. V vsakem zlogu te tabele je shranjena le razlika do predhodnega naslova, ki smo ga modificirali, torttj aditivni pomik. Vrednost OFFH je določena kot markacija za konec tabele ter je izražena s spremenljivko ENDMK.
Ostale spremenljivke liste 1 (v začetnem segmentu) so poljubne in v našem primeru smo le pokazali, kako lahko predvidimo določen prostor v uporabniškemu programu za kopiranje delov iz BDOS in BIOS. To Sta spremenljivki BDLEN in BIOLEN. Na lokacijo POS smo v našem primeru shranili za potrebe uporabniškega programa naslov na naslovu BDOSAD (vrstica 27 liste I). Prvotna lokacija s tem podatkom bo namreč dobila naslov začetka premeščenega uporabniškega programa (vrstica 47).
V našem primeru se bo nerelocirani uporabniški program začel pri lokaciji '200H in se bo razprostiral do lokacije 16FFH. Na lokaciji 1700H se bo začela modifikacijska tabela, ki jo bomo ustrezno napisali k uporabniškemu programu.
Program za avtorelokacijo v listi 1 pojasnjuje samega sebe, tako da nadaljni komentar ni več potreben.
3. Izvajanje programa
Podprogram z liste 1, uporabniški program in modifikacijska tabela so shranjeni kot zbirka na disketi. Ko pokličemo to zbirko v izvajanje, se najprej uporabniški program modificira in relocira pod BDOS, nakar se začne Se izvajati. S tem je naSa naloga opravljena.
Opisali bomo samo začetni del programa, saj bo nadaljevanje odvisno od konkretnega namena tega programa. Ta program bo premestil (relociral) samega sebe v odvisnosti od instaliranega CP/M sistema. Kot vemo, lahko CP/M sistem verzije 2.2 instaliramo v obsegih po ik-zložnih stopnjah v intervalu (20k, ... , 64k). Premestitev bo tedaj odvisna od dejanske vrednosti obsega iz gornjega intervala.
Začetni del našega.programa je prikazan na listi 1. V tej listi se pojavljata med drugimi spremenljivki BDOSAD in WBOOTE, ki sta odvisni od trenutno instaliranega CP/M sistema oziroma od njegovega obsega. WBOOTE določa začetek podsistema BIOS v CP/M, BDOSAD pa začetek podsistema BDOS v CP/M. S tema spremenljivkama se tako uravna premestitev uporabniškega programa v odvisnosti od obsega CP/M sistema.
Naslednji dve spremenljivki PRBEG in PRLEN se nanašata na začetek in dolžino uporabniškega programa. V naši shemi smo predvideli prostor med naslovoma lOOH in vključno IFFH za preme-stitveni podprogram, ki bo del celotnega programa, ki ga bomo naložili v obliki zbirke iz diskete. Ta premostitveni del je tudi prikazan v listi 1.
lOOH
200H
1700H
Modifikacijski in premestitveni podprogram
Nepremeščeni uporabniški program
Modifikacijska aditivna tabela
[ Svobodni pomnilnik tipa RAM
■ I I
9700H
ACOOH BAOOH BFFFH
Premeščeni uporabniški program
BDOS (CP/M)
BIOS (CP/M)
PRIMER ZA 48k CP/M
addr	code ""	stmt	source	statement
		0001		
.'>0008		0002	RELOAD! ; ZAČETEK ĐEJAiJSKEGA XJPORABNlSKEGA	
		0003	S	programa:
>oaoo		0004	prbeg	equ 20oh
		0005	;	naslov naslova vstopa v bdos:
>0006		0 0 06	bdosad	equ 6
		0007	S	naslov naslova vstopa v bios:
>0001		0008	uboote	equ 1
		0009	;	dolžina kopiranja zlogov iz bdos
>0012		0010	bdlen	ebu 12h
		0011	;	dolžina dejanskega up0rabi41skega
		0012		programa:
		0013	;	kopija dela skocne tabele iz
		0014	;	bios-a:
>0027		0015	biolen	eou 27h
>1500		0016	prlem	eou 150 oh
		0017	;	začetek modifikacijske tabele:
>1700		0018	modtab	equ prbeg♦prlen
		0019	S	znak konca v modifikaci jski tab«
>00ff		0020	eì4cmk	eau offh
		0021	t	lokacija za shranitev cbdosad):
>0239		0022	pos	equ prbeg+bdlen»biole;j
		0023		
>0100		0024		org 10 oh
'0100	31ff01	0025		ld sp<prbeg-1 ;ciastavitev sp
♦0103	2a0600	0026		ld hl,(bdosad);»pomik vsebine
'0106	223902	0027		ld (pos),hl bdos/bdos^ll na
'0109	110002	0028		ld de,prbeg t» prbeg/prbeg-m 1
'01 oc	011200	0029		ld bc^bdlen
'OIOF	edbo	0030		ldir
		0031		
'Olli	2a0100	0032		LD HL.(lfBOOTE);ZAČETEK SKOCNE ta-
'0114	23	0033		ing hl j bele plus tri
'01 15	23	0034		inc hl
'0116	23	0035		inc hl
'0117	01270 0	0036		LD BC,BIOLEN i DOLŽINA TABELE
'oha	edbo	0037		ldir ;pre.40s skocne tab.
		0038	t	V UPORABiJISKI PR.
		0039		
•one	2a0600	0040		ld hl,(bdosad)
'Ol IF	110015	0041		ld de,prlen /'določitev začetka
'0122	af	0042		XOR A ; UPORAB-JISKEGA. PRO-
'Ol 23	6f	0043		ld l,a ; grama glede na za-
'0124	es	0 044		push hl ; cetek bdos
•0125	ed52	0045		sbc hl,de
		0046		
'0127	220600	0 047		LD <BDOSAD),HL;NOVI ZAČETEK BDOS
		0048		
'012A	210002	0049		LD HL,PRBEG ;NASLOVdA MODIFIKA-
•ol 2d	110017	0050		LD DE,PRLEi^+PRBEG; CIJA UPORAB- ,
'0130	0600 '	0051		ld b, 0 ; niskega pr0grai4a
'0132	lA	0052	nexttbild a,cde)	
'0133	feff	0 0 53		cp offh ;kajec mod. tab. 7
'0135	280e	0054		jr z,exit-i
'0137	4f	0055		ld c,a
'0138	09	0056		add hl,bc ; oblikovanje kazalca
'0139	febo	0057		cp 80h ; za popravo
'013b	2605	0058		jr z,overj-$
addr	code	stmt	source statement	
'013d	3a0700	0059		ld a,(bdosad+1)
'0140	86	0060		add a,(hl) {oblikovanje popravka
'0141	77	0061		ld (hl),a ; izvršitev popravka
'0142	13	0062	overj: inc de	
'0143	18èd	0063		jr nexttb-$
		0 064		
'0145	Dl	0065	exit: pop de	
'014-6	ib	0066		dec de
'0147	21ff16	0067		ld hl,prlen+prbeg-1jk0piranje üpp-
'014a	010015	0068		ld bc,prlen ; ràb. progr. na mo-
'014d	edb8	0069		lddr ; vo lokacijo
		0070		
		0071	jskok za izvajaì4je relociranega uporabni-	
		0072	;	skega programa s preskokom začetne ta-
'014f	2a0600	0073		ld hl, (bdosad); bele v programu
•0152	2e3b •	0074		ld l,bdlen«bi0len«2
•01 54	e9	0075		jp (hl)
		0076		
		0077		END
errors-0000
Lista 1. Ta lista je tisti del celotnega uporabniškega programa (je torej podprogram), ki opravi modifikacijo dejanskega uporabniškega programa ter ga relocira pod sam vrh razpoložljivega pomnilniškega prostora v danem CP/M sistemu. Takšen tip uporabniškega programa je največkrat sistemski program, kot je npr. zbirnik, urejevalnik, inverzni zbirnik ali kakšen drugi storitveni program.
Iz programske liste je razvidno, da se pri tem vselej upošteva trenutno instalirani CP/M sistem oziroma zanj razpoložljivi pomnilni prostor. S tem je dosežena, največja izkoriščenost po-^ mnilnega prostora, saj'je na razpolago največji mogoči prostor za objektni program (program, kibo npr. prevajan, obdelan). Prav to pa si v takih primerih želimo.
Posamezni segmenti podprograma na tej listi so omejeni z .zvezdnimi vrsticami. V prvem segmentu imamo definicijo spremenljivk, tako da lahko te definicije v vsakem posebnem primeru enostavno popravimo. Vobče bomo imeli različne dolžine dejanskih uporabniških programov (PRLEN), tako bo poravijena avtomatično tudi lokacija, za začetek modifikacijske tabele. .' Drugi segment je inicializacijski in premestitverii (kopira se del BDOS). Tretji segment je kopirni (kopira se del BlOSa). V Č0trtem segmentu se izračuna začetek relociranega programa, peti segment preimenuje naslov na naslovu BDOSAD. Šesti segment opravi modifikacijo uporabniškega programa, sedmi segment pa ta modificirani del relocira. V osmem segmentu imamo skok v izvajanje relociranega programa.
N O V I C E IN ZANIMIVOSTI
*********************************
SB-80 diskovni operacijski sistem
*********************************
SB-80 je diskovni operacijski sistem za procesorja 8080 in Z80, ki uporablja upogljive diske, vinčestrske diske ali pa tudi kombinacijo obeh diskovnih tipov. Ta sistem je v celoti združljiv s sistemom CP/M-80 in ga je moč dobiti le na OEM osnovi. Sistem je v prodaji pri podjetju Lifeboat Associates, 1651 Third Ave., New York, NV 10028, U.S.A.
SB-80 dovoljuje uporabo 16-krat večjih zbirk (glede na CP/M), vsebuje integralno lastnost tiskanja v ozadju ter ima prožnejšo množico ukazov. Ima tudi običajne storitvene programe, kot so mehanizem za prenos zbirk, urejevalnik teksta, zbirnik in popravijalnik.
SB-80 je grajen za procesorje 8080/8085/Z80 z najmanj 20k-zložnim strnenjlm bralnlm/pisalnlni pomnilnikom, z začetkom pri naslovu 0. Sistem lahko uporabi vrsto krmilnikov za upogljive in vinčestrske diske. Dokumentacija sistema SB-80 dopušča lastno generiranje BlOSa za uporabnikovo periferijo.
Program sistema SB-80 je sestavljen iz treh modulov: iz diskovnega operacijskega sistema (DOS), zbirčnega upravijavnika in BlOSa, Prva dva modula se nahajata na sistemskih stezah diskete, enako velja tudi za BIOS, ki je odvisen od uporabnikovih krmilnikov oziroma periferije. Interpret ukazne vrstice (CLI), ki izvršuje posamezne ukaze, nalaga uporabniške programe ter sproža njihovo izvajanje, pa je shranjen na disketi kot zbirka.
Operacijski sistem zasede JOk-zlogov pomnilnika In se lahko poveča zaradi potreb v okviru BlOSa, Naslov začetka operacijskega sistema (z Izjemo prve strani) lahko določi uporabnik.
Operacijski sistem dovoljuje oblikovanje, brisanje, preimenovanje, branje in zapisovanje zaporednih zbirk z zapisi spremenljive dolžine in zbirk z naključnim dostopom, ki imajo zapise stalnih dolžin. Sistem podpira uporabo 16 diskovnih enot in zbirčni prostor se dodeljuje dinamično. Največji mogoči prostor za zbirko v sistemu SB-80 znaša 12BM zlogov in ta prostor je tudi največ, kar je dovoljeno za posamezno diskovno enoto. Ta prostor se dodeljuje dinamično med posameznimi zbirkami.
SB-80 ima rezidentno lastnost tiskanja iz ozadja; s tem se izločijo slabosti, ki se pojavijo pri odvijalclh (despooler), ki niso Integrirani direktno v operacijski slatem. Tiskanje iz ozadja temelji na vrati največ šestih zbirk, ki čakajo na tiskanje. Uporabnik lahko prekine, ukine ali uvede funkcijo tiskanja iz ozadja, dodaja zbirke v vrsto in jih iz nje odvzema v Operacijski sistem ima tudi obdelave programov.
A.P.Železnlkar
vsakem trenutku, možnost paketne
(Dnevnik 3.4.1982, Sobotna priloga) lahko prel.c-remo tole zanimivo misel:
XVI.
Na vprašanje, ali bi Janez Bleiweis kupil Koeit in i svojega in našega časa, je treba odgovoriti ostro zanikujoče. Veselil bi se kot iskren rodoljub kranjski, slovenski in slovanski poraza geimansko in nemške moči v Industriji in kapitalu, o)>en(Mik pa postavljal temelje taki industriji, ki bi bila kos razmeram na evropskem in svetovnoin trziSòu. Bleiweisovim odklonilnim stališčem do prevzema Koertinga v šibke slovenske roke, pa je tudi že izoblikovana misel o progresivni vlogi doktorja Janeza Bleiweisa na polju slovenskega nacodiKHja gospodarstva.
A.P.Železnlkar
JANEZ ÜLEIWEIS IN KOERTING
V sestavku Bojana Stiha: Blelwels 1982, Z nedavnega simpozija o "očetu slovenskega naroda"
CP/M-86 v integriranem vezju
Ameriško podjetje Intel je najavilo IzJelavo operacijskega sistema CP/M-86 (za 16-bltnl procesor 18086 in njegove naslednike) v enei.i samem integriranem vezju (tipa ROM). Ta slsteju deluje tudi na 8-bitnem procesorje 18088, ki ga uporablja osebni računalnik podjetja IBM (Personal Computer)■ Takšna izvedba operacijskega sistema omogoča brezdlskovno obratovanje daljinskih postaj v porazdeljenih lokalnih mrežah, kjer ae večje diskovne enote nahajajo na centralnih mestih. Vezje je ROM obsega 16k zlogov ter vsebuje še časovnike in drugo logikoj oznaka t:t-cja vezja je 8086-E3, vezje pa bodo začeli prodajati še to poletje (1982).
Podjetje Intel je tudi objavilo, da je podpiralo sporazum za OEM distribucijo s poiijeLjem ni-gital Research, ki bo oskrbovalo Intelove plošče (tiskana vezja) z naročnikovimi verzijami sistemov CP/M in MP/H.
A. P. Železnlkar
*****************************************<*
Novice uporabniških skupin SIG/M In CPMUu *******************************************
SIG/M skupina ja najavila dvanajst nadaljnlh zvezkov CP/M programske opreme, tako da ima sedaj skupaj 55 zvezkov (disket). SIG/M skupina je izdala tudi l2-stranski katalog svoje programske opreme, ki navaja programsko knjižnico in listo distribucijskih pogojev. Cena tega kataloga je it 2,00 za zračno pošto (Evropa) , naslov pošiljatelja pa je: SIG/M, Box 97, laellii, NJ 08830.
Tudi CPMUG skupina je najavila in že realizirala izdajo 15 novih programskih zvezkov, tako da jih ima sedaj že preko 80. Pri tem velja omeniti, da so zvezki STS do 35 ponatisi starih SIG/M zvezkov 1 do 20. Na upogljivih diskih obeh uporabniških skupin je tako več deset milijonov zlogov uporabnišltih in sistemskih programov. Cena diskete je $ 12,00 (za Evropo) pri CPMUG. Uporabnik lahko dobi na ta način ceneno sistčmsko in aplikativno programsko opremo,
A. P. železnlkar
*«*****************«******»*******.
68000 produkti podjetja Cromeraco ************* *_* ********************
Podjetje Cromeraco Iz Mountain Vlewa, Ca je začelo dobavljati produkte, temelječe na procesorski tehnologiji 68000. Ti produkti so bili najavljeni že v septembru/oktobru leta X981 v časopisu Microsystems, Novi sistem je sestavljen iz treh S-100 piošči DPU (Dual Processor Unit) plošče z dvema procesorjema (68000 In Z80) (cena $ 995), MCU pomnilniškega krmilnika (cena $ 495) in 256MSU pomnilnika s 256k zlogi (cena J! 1995) . Dobavljiva je tudi ploSča s 512k zlogi. .
DPU lahko Izvršuje izmenoma ukaze procesorjev Z80 in 68000 in med tem, ko na tržišču še ni izdatne programske opreme za 68000, se uporablja programska oprema za procesor Z80. Vsaka MCU enota se lahko uporabi za krmiljenje osnih 256MSU plošč. Uporabljena pomnllniška vezja so dinamična in plošča ima mehanizem za razpoznavanje napak in njihovo poravljanje. Napake se tudi beležijo in so za uporabnika razvidne. Tako lahko uporabnik sistema sam ugotovi, katero integrirano pomnilno vezje povzroča napake in to vezje sam zamenja.
A. P. Železnlkar
*******************************
podatki o prevajalniku pascal/z *******************************
Pascalski prevajalnik z oznako Pascal/Z deluje na CP/M sistemih s procesorjem Z80, imeti pa mora 56k zlogov "čistega" pomnilnika za svojo uporabo. Podatki b napakah prevajalnika se objavljajo dvomesečno, prav tako pa se preizkušajo poslani pascalski programi, ki pridejo v po^ štev za prodajo in distribucijo. Tisti, ki že imate programe, napisane v Pascal/Z, jih lahko pošljete na naslov: Charlie Foster, Director, Z-User Group, 7962 Center Pkwy, Sacramento, Ca 95823.
A. P. Železnlkar
disket pri dani aplikaciji. Cache/Q je za uporabnika in za sistemske programe transparenten.
Ta novi produkt ima svoj Instalacijski program, ki je ihteràktiyen,' nadalje rekonflguracijaki (modifikacijski) program, s pomočjo katerega uporabnik lahko določi, katere zbirke ali razred zbirk bodo dostopljene ali pisane skozi vmesnike. Paket vsebuje tiidi prikazovalni program, ki pokaže operacijsko statistiko za Caohò/Q.
A.P.Železnlkar
**************************************
Pascalski prevajalnik za procesor 6809 **************************************
Pascalski prevajalnik podjetja Omegasoft deluje na operacijskih sistemih MDOS, XPOS, Flex, DOS69 ali OS-9. Enoprehodni prevajalnik prevaja hitro pascalske programe v optimizirani zbirni jezik procesorja 6809. Ta prevajalnik dopušča dolga cela števila, tako da je moč komercialne podatke obravnavati hitro brez Izgube hitrosti pri dvojni natančnosti realnih ali BCD števil. Prevajalnik ima v celoti dinamično dodeljevanje pomnilnika spremenljivkam z uporabo procedur NEW, DISPOSE, MARK in RELEASE. Prevajalnik podpira zbirke z naključnim dostopom. Druge lastnosti prevajalnika so še simbolično odpravljanje napak, izvajalna knjižnica z izvirnim kodom in storitveni programi za pomoč in oblikovanje verižne zbirke, ki povezuje uporabniški program z knjižnico izvajalnega časa. Prevajalnik za Pascal je napisan v strojnem kodu procesorja 6809 in potrebuje sistem z 48k zlogi. Razen prevajalnika sta na voljo tudi premestltveni zbirnik in povezovalnik. K prevajalniku je dodan jezikovni priročnik in konfi-guracljskl priročnik, ki določa oziroma opisuje spremenljivost sistema. Cena prevajalnika znaša $ 425, zbirnik in prevajalnik pa imata ceno $ 75. Naslov proizvajalca je:. Omegasoft Industrial Products Group, P.O.Box 70265, Sunnyvale, Ca 94086.
A. P. Železnlkar
************
CP/M katalog ************
V februarju letos je izšla že druga knjiga tkim. kataloga programske opreme za javno uporabo. Ta katalog je izdal New York Computer Club Inc., P.O.Box 106, New York, NY 10008. Natančen naslov publikacije je: The Catalog of Public Domain Software for ĆP/M. Ta katalog vsebuje pregled objavljenih disket iz prve knjige (49 disket) ter zaporedne številke CP/M disket 50 do 53 in SIG/M disket od 1 do 42. Posamezni programi iz teh disket só podprti s primeri in v tej knjigi najdemo vrsto zanimivih in uporabnih informacij. Seveda je ta druga knjiga namenjena "pravim" uporabnikom CP/M programske opreme.
A.^ P. Železnlkar
*************************
Pohitritev CP/M sistema *************************
************************************
Priročnik za operacijski sistem UNIX ************************************
Uporabniški , priročnik za sistem UNIX sta napisala Jean Yates in Rebecca Thomas ter predstavlja uvod v zgradbo, programsko opremo in lastnosti tega znanega operacijskega sistema. Knjiga je pisana za začetnika in opisuje začetne korake na sistemu, kot so vstop v lupino, obdelava zbirk, pošiljanje pošte in oblikovanje imenikov. Opisani so tudi storitveni programi sistema UNIX in njihove lastnosti. Dana je informacija o programski opremi za sistem UNIX in za sorodne proizvode, naslovi univerz, uporabniških skupin in časopisov, ki se ukvarjajo s problematiko tega operacijskega sistema.
Cena te knjige (broširane) je fS 15,99, izdajatelj pa je Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 630 Bancroft Way, Berkeley, Ca 94710.
A. P. Železnlkar
Cache/Q proizvajalca Queue Computer Corporation povečuje hitrost izvajanja CP/M sistema za faktor 35. Cache/Q zahteva CP/M 2.2 sistem s 64k zlogi pomnilnika ali tudi manj. Pri tem je moč uporabiti tudi mehanizem pomnilnlških bank. Prenosi podatkov na in iz disket se opravljajo preko vmesnikov, tako da se znižuje aktivnost
SREČANJA
a-13 avguBt, Montreal , Canada
20th IMACS World Congress on Spatem Simulation and Soienttfia Computation
Informaoi,ie: n'ACS Secretariat, Departement of Computer Soienoe, Rutgers tiniveraity. New dnmsuiak, NJ 08903
18 -il avguBt, St. Call, Sw'oa
7th Symposium on Operation Reaearah
Organisator: Society for Hathematias, Eoonomioa •tmd Operation Research
Informacije! H.Loeffel and P.Stahly, Institut fur IMtemehmensforsohung, Hochachule St.Gallen, Bodanetraase 6, CH-dOOO St,Gallen, SiHtaerland
24-87 avgust, Bordeaux, Francija
First Working Conference on Advances in Production Management By s tema - AP»S 32
Organizator: IFIP WG S. 7
Informaoije; IFIP Secretariat, 3, rt<e du Marche, CIJ-1S04 Geneva, sititzerland
SB avguat- 3 september, Ghent, Belgium
Mathematical and Computer Aided Modelling in Medical Engineering and Biocytemetics
Organizator: ■ IFIP WO 7.1
Informacije: IFIP Secretariat, 3, rue du Marche, CH~1Z04 Geneva, Siiitiierland
30	avguet-3 september, Toulouse, Francija Sth Symposium on Computational Statistica Organisator: lASC
Infornaci,is: COMPSTAT BS, c/o iah. de Statisti-que et
Probabili tea, E.R.A -C.N.R.S SSl
US route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouae Cedex, France
31	avguat - 3 aeptenber, Berlin, ZRNemSija
International Congreaa for Pata Proceeaing and Information Technology
Organisator:AMK Berlin and ACM European region Informaci je :AMK Berlin, Congress and Convention IHvision Dep. K J, Messedam SB, D-1000 Berlin, W.Gemany
1-3 September, Berlin, ZR llem/fija
Seeon International Symposium on Distributed Data Basee Organisator: IFIP TC 2
Informacije:IFTP Secretariat, i rue du Marche, CH-1304 Geneva, SiHtserland
6-ia september, Haifa, Israel EUROMICRO 83 Organisator: EllROMICRO
7-10 september, London, Velika Britanija
Sixth International Conference on Computer Communicaticm ICCC 82
Organisator; ICCC
Infomacije: ICCC 82, P.O.B. 23, Horthoood Hills HAS ITT Middlesex, U.K.
7-10 september, Kiel, ZRHemHja
Working Ćonference on Data Protection and Health In fornati OS Sy^.s terns
Organisator: IMIA
Inf'onnaoije:ffr,J.Roukens, Commieaion of the European Communities, PC III/B/1, A2Ì-3/8, Wetatraut 200 B-1049 Brussels,Belgiwi
8-10 aeptember,ManoheBter, Velika Britanija Eurographics 82
Organisator:Eurographica asaociation, IFIV W.C. S.2 UCS, CAP/CAM Asaooiation, Vniveraity of Hanuhestar, ACM European Chapiter
Informaoije: Eurographics 82, c/o 170A Park }ìoacì, Petet-borough, England PEI 2IJF
12-18 september, //arrogate. Velika Britanija Working Conference on Nursing Informatics Organisator:IMIA
Informaoi je: Mr.J, Roukens, Comission of the Eitropiirirt Conrnmities, PG ITI/B/1, A2S-3/8, Wetstraat 200 n-1049 Brussels, Belgium
20-24 september. Pan's, Francija
Working Conference on Eduaation in Health Informitioa Orgmiantor: IMIA
Informacije: ^tr.J,RoukenB, Coamiasion of the European Commmitiea, DG III/B/1, A2S-3/a, Wetstraat BOO B-1049 Brussels, Belguim
27-29	September, Baden-Baden, ZH HemSija
General Conference on Analysis, Deoign and Evaluation of Man-Machine Systems
Organi sotor:IFAC/IFIP/IFORS/IEA
InformacijetProf.T.Vamoa, Conputer and Automation Institutu l/ungarian Academy of Sciences, B.O.X 63,1/ 1602 Builupest J12, Hungary
28-30	september, Paris, Francija
Snd International Conference on the Impact of CAD in Small and Medium Sised Indue tries
Organisator:IFIP TC 6
Infomacije: IFIP Secretariat, 3 rwo du Marche, C//-1204 (TonoDtij SiHtserland
S-B oktober, Madrid, Španija
3rd IFAC/IPIP Symposium on Software for Corrputer Control
SOCOCÖ 82
Organiaator:IFIP/IFAC
InformaoiJe.'ProfiT. Vamoe, Computer and Automation Inatitute, Hunftariah Aoademy of Soienoea, B.O.Box 63 S-1B02 Budapest «mgary
19-22 oktober, tiunioh, ZnNemSija
eth International Conferenòeo on Pattern Ifeae^jnition-
icvR ai
Orjaniaatorr IA°n
■ InfomaoiJe.-tFXP Beoretarf-at, rue cU i^rohe,CH-120i Geneva, Saitserlcnd
26- 28 oktaler, Berlin, ZWemSija
International Sympoaium on Medicai Imaging and Image Interpretation
Organisator:lEEE-CS
Informacije: ISMIII 82, 1109 Spring Street, Suite 201 Silver Spring, MD 20901; USA
3-5 november, Veraaillea, Francija
Heal Time Data 82,. Second International Conference on Real Time Data Handling and Prooeae Control
Organisator:IHPIA
Informacije: T.Brichéteau, INHIA, SenHoea dea Pelationea Exterieuree, Domaine de Votuceau- BP, lOS, 78 163 Le Cheanaii Cedex, France
21-22 novenòer. Rive del Sole, Italija Working Conferenceoan Syatem Design for and uith Vaera -- Organisator: IFTP TC 9, WG 9.1
Informacije: IFIP Secretariat, rue du Marche, CH-Ì204 Geneve, Suitserland
13-16 december. Bangalore, India
Second Conference on Foundations of Software Technolog^ and Theoretical Computer Science
Organisator: National Centre for Software Development and Computing Techniques, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
Informacije:M.Joseph, NCSDCT, TATA Institute of Fundamental Research, Colaba', äorbay 400 006, India
13-lS december, Cairo, Egirpt
First International ESIT/ASIS Conference
Organiaator;Egyptian Society for Information Taehnology and hnerican Society for Information Science Informacije: Skip McAfee, ASIS, 1010 Sixteenth St., «.«., Washington D. C 20036, VSA
16-20 december, Oslo, SórveSka
General Conference on Comparative Revieu of Information Systems Methodologies ^
Organisator: IFIP WG 8.1/NCS
Informacije: IFIP Secretariat, rue du Harah«, CHt12M Geneva, Switaerlaad
1983
17-21 januar, Berlin, ZR Rem3ija
Comrnmications in Distributed Systems - Applications and Operations
Organisator:Geaellachaft fur Informatik and Vachrichr tentechniache Geaellachaft
Infomacije:Otto Spanici, Fachbereich Informatik, Rechnerbetrlebasyateme Universität Frankfurt, 6000 Frankfurt, Wi Germany
23-26 februar, Vienna, Austria
First International Conference on Governmental and Municipal Data Proceaeing
Organisator:IFIP/ADV
Informacije:Conference Secretariate, ADV-Arbeitngemein-achafi fur Datenverarbeitung, Trattnerhof 2, A-lOlO Vienna Austria
14-18 marea, Tel Aviv, Israel
International Conference on Mini and Micro Computer Applications and 0(>erationa
Organisator:National Centre for Scientific and Technological Information
Informa<nje: Secretariat, Mini and Micro Computer Applications and OpemtioriB, Documentations and libraries, P.O.Box 30S<I, Tel Aviv, 61030, Israel
. NOVE KNIGE IN ČASOPISI
ZaloJiniSka hiSa North-Holland Publishing Company je V letu 1982 saŠela z isdajanjem Saeopisa " COMPUTERS AND STANDARDS". Objavljeni prispevki bodo obravnavali teme s podroSja rasvoja raSunalniikih atandardov, njihovo implementacijo in uporabo. Uporaba raSunalniSkih standardov sajema naslednja podroSja: avtomatizacija pieamiSkega poslovanja, proektiranje s pomoSjo raSunalnika (CAD/CAM), robotika, programski jeziki, podatkovne base, infor-macijaki sistemi, raSunalniSka grafika, vhodno/ishodni vmesniki, podatkovni slovarji, dokumentaaija, operacijski sistemi in dr. Objavljeni bodo tudi prispevki s podroSja aplikacij raSunalniSkih standardov v tehnologiji, eknomiji ter trgovini. Namen Sasopiaa je da informici mednarodno EDP javnost o poteku rasvoja raSunalniifkih standardov na mednarodnem in nacionalnem nivoju ter da zagotovi forum sa mednarodno javno debato o problematiki raSunalniSkih standardov, NaroSniki Saeopisa so: raSunalniSki strokovnjaki { individualno), institucije za standardizacijo ter agencije, ki sodelujejo pri razvoju atandardov ali pa so vkljuSeni na kakSen drug naSin v proceau izdelave in uporabe raSunalnilfkih standardov.
Glavni in odgovorni urednik je John L, Berg, Standard Oil Company,Indiana, USA, V urechiSkem odboru so strokovnjaki is ZDA, Kanade, Franci je. Japonske, SSSR, ZRNemSije, Italije in Belgije, letna naroSnina je 80 g.
NAVODILO ČLANKA
ZA PRIPRAVO
Avtorje.prositno, da pošljejo uredništvu naslov in kratek povzetek članka ter nav^ejo približen obseg članka (število strani A 4 formata). Uredništvo bo nato poslalo avtoj jein ustrezno število formularjev z navodilom.
Članek tipkajte na priložene dvokolonske formular je. Če potrebujete dodatne formularje, lahko uporabite bel papir Istih dimenzij. Pri tem pa se morate držati predpisanega formata, vendar p«» cja ne vrišite na papir.
Hodite natančni pri tipkanju in temeljiti pri korigiranju. Vaš članek bo s foto postopkom pomanjšan iti pripravljen za tisk brez kakršnihkoli dodatnik korektur.
Uporabljajte kvaliteten pisalni stroj. Če le tekst dopušča uporabljajte enojni presledek. Črni trak je obvezen.
Članek tipkajte v prostor obrobljen z modrimi črtami. Tipkajte do črt - ne preko njih. Odstavek ločite a dvojnim presledkom i n lirez zamikanja prve vrstice novega odstavka.
Hrva stran članka ;
a)	v sredino zgornjega okvira na prvi strani napišite naslov članka z velikimi crVami;
b)	v sredino po<l naslov članka napišite imena avtorjev, ime podjetja, mesto, državo;
c).	na označenem mestu čez oba stoljica napišite povzetek članka v jeziku, v katerem Je napisan članek. Povzetok naj ne bo daljši od 1Ü vrst.
d)	če članek ni v angleščini, ampak v katerem txl jugoslovanskih jezikov izpustite 2 cm in Jiaplšite povzetek tudi v angleščini. Pre<J povzetkom napišite angleški naslov članka z velikimi črkami. Povzetek naj ne bo daljši od 10 vrst. Če je članek v tujem jeziku napišite povzetek tudi v enem od jugoslovanskih jezikov;
e)	izpustite 2 cm In pričnite v levo kolono pisati članek.
Oruga In naslednje strani članka :
Kot je označeno na formularju začnite tipkati tekst druge In naslednjih strani v zgornjem levem kotu.
Naslovi poglavij:
naslove ločuje od ostalega teksta dvojni presledek.
Če nekaterih znakov ne morete vpisati s strojem jlli čitljivo vpišite s črnim črnilom ali svinčnikom. Ne uporabljajte nuxirega črnila, ker se z njim napisani znaki ne bodo preslikali.
Ilustracije morajo biti ostre, jasne in črno bole. Če jih vključite v tekst, se morajo sklaflatl s predpisanim formatom. l.ahko [KI jih vstavite tudi na konec članka, vendar morajo v tem primeru ostati v mejah skupnega clvo-kolonskega formata. Vse Ilustracije morate ( nalepiti) vstaviti sami na ustrezno nieslo.
Napako pri tipkanju se lahko popravljajo s kurekrljsko
folijo ali belim tušem. Napačne besede, stavke ali odstavke pa lahko ponovno natipkate na neprozoren papir in ga pazljivo nalepite na mesto napake.
V zgornjem desnem kotu Izven modro o/.naronega roba oštevilčite strani članka s svinčnikom, tako dà jih je mogočo zbrisati.
Časopis INFOUMATICA
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DELTA-KOPA 2000
video terminal
računalniški sistemi delta
SPLOŠNI OPIS
Video terminal DELTA KOPA 2000 je računalniška vhodno/izhodna enota. Terminal je zasnovan na mikroprocesorski tehnologiji in ga lahko izpopolnimo in usposobimo za opravljanje zahtevnejših nalog. Je enostaven, vendar z lastnostmi, ki olajšajo delo in izboljšajo komunikacijski odnos računalnik — človek. Terminal DELTA KOPA 2000 je v celoti plod lastnega razvoja DO DELTA.
LASTNOSTI
—	do 132 znakov v vrstici
—	dvojna velikost znakov; dvojna višina in dvojna širina
—	delitev zaslona
—	možnost dopolnitve v samostojen sistem
—	izbira svetlega ali temnega ozadja na zaslonu
—	matrika za izpis znakov s 7 x 9 točkami
—	utripanje, podčrtavanje in dvojna jakost znakov, kombinacija vseh atributov na enem znaku, brez izgube položaja na ekranu
—	stalni in nastavljivi tabulatoci
—	ustavljanje izpisa pri polnem zaslonu
—	ločena tastatura
—	standardna skupina številčnih tipk
—	posebni grafični znaki
—	izjemno enostavno vzdrževanje
—	vgrajeni lastni diagnostični programi
—	poseben izhod za video signal
—	poseben izhod za tiskalnik
—	prilagoditev nagiba monitorja
—	namizna, viseča in stenska montaža
—	univerzalni močnostni del
—	različne prenosne hitrosti,
—	kompatibilni način delovanja s KOPO 700, KOPO 1000, z VT 100, VT 52
—	LED indikatorji za kontrolo delovanja
—	brezkontaktna nastavitev lastnosti
—	izbrane lastnosti terminala se ohranijo tudi ob izklopu
—	dupleksni prenos prek asihrone komunikacijske linije
TEHNIČNE SPECIFIKACIJE
Dimenzije:
Monitor/ brez podstavka
s podstavkom
Tastatura
Teža:
Pogoji delovanja:
Napajanje: Zaslon:
Katodna cev Format
Znaki
Aktivna površina zaslona Znakovni niz Tastatura: Tipke
Pomožna tastatura
Povezave:
Tip
Hitrosti:
Format znakov Dolžina znakov
Kode
Parnost
Sinhronizacija
dolžina 46 cm širina 43 cm višina 28 cm dolžina 52 cm širina 43 cm višina 36 cm dolžina 46 cm širina 24 cm višina 6 cm 15,6 kp
temperatura od 10—40® C relativna vlaga 10—90 % 180—256 V/47—63 Hz/100 VA
diagonala meri 31 cm, fosfor GR
24 vrstic po 80 znakov ali 24 vrstic po 132
znakov (po izbiri)
matrika s 7 x 9 točkami
205 mm x 115 mm 96 ASCII znakov
65 tipk je izdelanih in razporejenih podobno kot pri pisalnem stroju ■ ■ 18 numeričnih tipk s piko, vejico, minusom, tipko ENTER in štirimi programsko-funkc. tipkami zvočna potrditev vtipkanega znaka in mejni signal za napako
EIA {RS-232-C)
polni dupleks 50, 75, 110 (dva stop bita), 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2000, 2400, 3600, 4800, 9600, 19200 asinhronski
7 ali 8 bitov; izbira na tastaturi. (Če izberemo 8 bitov za znak, osmi bit ne nosi informacije.) USASCIl, JUS A.F0.101, soda, liha, če je ni, izbira na tastaturi izbiramo jo s tastaturo, tako da generiramo kontrolno kodo XON/XOFF s tiskalnikom CTS ali XON/XOFF
^D'il Delta, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia
računalniški sistemi deha
TASTATURA
Podobna je tastaturi pisalnega stroja in je ločena od ohišja monitorja. Z njim jo povezuje 1,50 m dolg kabel, ki dovoljuje postavitev monitorja iin tastature v različne položaje. S tem dosežemo zorni in delovni kot. Na tastaturi so posebne funkcijske tipke za prenos kontrolnih znakov, ki krmilijo delovanje terminala. Skupina številčnih in funkcijskih tipk, oblikovana podobno kot pri kalkulatorjih, služi za vnašanje numeričnih podatkov in uporabo programskih operacij na terminalu. Na tastaturi je 7 LED indikatorjev, ki dajejo operaterju informacijo o delovanju terminala in služijo za odkrivanje napak.
ZASLON
Ena od prednosti video terminala DELTA KOPA 2000 je, da lahko prikazuje poročila v dveh formatih: 80 in 132 znakov v vrstici. 132 znakov v vrstici omogoča zapis poročil, ki so standardno generirana v formatu za tiskalnik in direkten prenos iz zaslona na tiskalnik brez preoblikovanja. V načinu delovanja drseče obračanje (SMOOTH-SCROLL) lahko operater kontrolira podatke pri visokih hitrostih prenosa. S tipko NO-SCROLL pa lahko izpis kjerkoli ustavi in ga s pritiskom ponovno sproži. Zaslon lahko logično razdelimo v dva dela tako, da se del 24-vrstičnega zaslona odvija ločeno. Podatke lahko vpisujemo na enem in izpisujemo na drugem delu zaslona, kar je ugodno za programiranje in operaterja.
S pritiskom na posebno SET-UP tipko operater nadomesti vsebino zaslona s standardno sliko (SET-up A). S pomočjo te slike lahko izbere število znakov v vrstici, določi svetlost zaslona in nastavi tabulatone. S pritiskom na tipko 5 operater zamenja prikaz SET-UP A s .prikazom SET-UP B. Ta prikaz omogoča izbiro prenosnih hitrosti in drugih lastnosti terminala (npr. svetlo ozadje na zaslonu, oblika zaslonskega kazalca, mejni signal).
ZNAKI
Matrika za izpis znakov obsega 7x9 točk in se razprostira na prostoru 10 x 10 točk, kar omogoča spuščanje nižje ležečih znakov za dve točki. Operater lahko izbere svetle znake na temni podlagi ali temne znake na svetli podlagi, in sicer za vsak znak posebej ali za cel zaSlon. Ta lastnost poudarja določene dele teksta, temni znaki na svetlem ozadju pa dajejo videz tiskanega teksta na papirju. Uporabniku je na voljo dvojna višina in dvojna širina znakov, s čemer dosežemo preglednost teksta in čitanje na večjo razdaljo. Osnovni nabor znakov vsebuje poleg črk, številk in ločil, še 39 grafičnih znakov za prikaz grafičnih informacij na zaslonu.
SPLOŠNI PODATKI
Video terminal DELTA KOPA 2000 ima dve mehanski stikali, eno za vklop terminala in drugo za preklop močnostnega dela. Vse druge funkcije terminala, kot so prenosna hitrost, tabulatorji, pariteta, itd., so shranjene v posebnem pomnilniku in jih spreminjamo preko tastature. Nastavljive lastnosti terminala se ohranijo, tudi če terminal izključimo in ga ponovno vključimo. Odstranitev mehanskih stikal olajša uporabo testnih diagnostičnih programov in omogoča enostavno prilagajanje terminala. Vgrajeni testni diagnostični programi poenostavijo vzdrževanje in zmanjšajo čas osamitve in popravila napak. Ohišje je spojeno s čepi, kar omogoča hiter dostop in lahko vzdrževanje.
Univerzalni močnostni del je prilagojen za napajanje terminala in vseh dodatkov in omogoča njihovo vgrajevanje na terenu.
Posebni izhod za video signal lahko krmili pomožni video monitor in tako omogoča posredovanje podatkov večji skupini ljudi. Terminal DELTA KOPA 2000 deluje z dupleksno asinhrono komunikacijsko linijo in ima standardni vmesnik El A 232 in 20 mA vmesnik. Novost terminala DELTA KOPA 2000 je, da poleg glavnega vhoda vsebuje posebna serijska vrata za tiskalnik.
® marketing Delta - 1982 (video terminal DELTA KOPA 2000, V.1)