197Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
Tu Wangbei    UDK 930.85(510):821.111(73).09-93:087.5
University of Malaysia Sabah, DOI: 10.4312/vestnik.17.197-224
Malaysia/Anqing Normal University Izvirni znanstveni članek
China 
alicetu83@sina.com
MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN 
AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS THROUGH WRITTEN AND 
VISUAL LANGUAGES 
ABSTRACT
 
Language is a communication system which consists of signs, symbols, gestures, and so on. 
In picture books, a special genre of children’s books, pictures can be regarded as a visual 
language because meaning can be conveyed from the authors to readers by pictures. How-
ever, there are a number of limitations with regard to the cultural connotations implied in the 
picture-word language system in picture books, and previous studies found there were ste-
reotypes of Chinese culture and Chinese people in American picture books. Using a mixed 
methodology approach, the author selected 78 picture books created by American authors, 
including Chinese Americans, from an initial sample of 3,000, and subjected them to dis-
course analysis to examine the misrepresentations of Chinese culture. The results showed 
three main types of misrepresentation of Chinese culture in picture books and explored the 
reasons for this. The misrepresentations included: (1) the full view of Chinese culture is 
overshadowed by the excessive attention and localization of cultural symbols, such as the 
Chinese dragon and the Spring Festival; (2) the confusion of Asian cultures in visual lan-
guage and written language weakens the uniqueness of Chinese culture; and (3) information 
disorder weakens the authenticity of Chinese culture. The reasons for these misrepresenta-
tions are rooted in the attitudes towards multiculturalism in American, including in relation 
to Chinese Americans. The misinterpretations result in the following issues: (1) Chinese 
culture is equated with the culture of Chinese Americans; (2) Chinese culture is regarded as 
static, which leads to serious homogenization; (3) the sightseeing attitude towards Chinese 
culture results in an excessive focus on cultural symbols. Therefore, the misrepresentations 
and even stereotypes of Chinese and Chinese culture have been solidified by these books.
Keywords: American picture books, visual language, multimodal, misrepresentation, 
Chinese culture 
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IZVLEČEK
NAPAČNO PRIKAZOVANJE KITAJSKE KULTURE V PISNEM IN VIZUAL-
NEM JEZIKU AMERIŠKIH SLIKANIC
Jezik je komunikacijski sistem, ki ga tvorijo znaki, simboli, kretnje in podobno. V slikani-
cah, posebni vrsti otroških knjig, lahko slike obravnavamo kot vizualni jezik, saj avtorji z 
njihovo pomočjo bralcem posredujejo vsebino. A kulturne konotacije, ki izhajajo iz slikov-
no-besednega jezikovnega sistema slikanic, so z več vidikov omejene. Dosedanje raziskave 
so tako opozorile na prisotnost stereotipov o Kitajcih in kitajski kulturi v ameriških slikani-
cah. Z uporabo mešanega metodološkega pristopa smo iz prvotnega vzorca 3000 slikanic 
izbrali 78 slikanic, katerih avtorji so Američani oz. Američani kitajskih korenin. S pomočjo 
diskurzivne analize izbranih del smo proučili primere napačnega prikazovanja kitajske kul-
ture in ugotavljali razloge zanje. Rezultati analize so osvetlili tri glavne vrste napačnega 
prikazovanja kitajske kulture v slikanicah: (1) celosten pogled na kitajsko kulturo je zastrt 
zaradi pretirane pozornosti, namenjene izbranim kulturnim simbolom, kot sta kitajski zmaj 
in pomladni festival; (2) mešanica prvin različnih azijskih kultur v vizualnem in pisnem je-
ziku spodkopava edinstvenost kitajske kulture; (3) netočnost informacij zmanjšuje pristnost 
prikaza kitajske kulture. Opisano prikazovanje je posledica ameriškega odnosa do večkul-
turnosti in do Američanov kitajskih korenin, privede pa do naslednjih težav: (1) kitajska 
kultura in kultura Američanov kitajskih korenin sta prikazani kot eno; (2) kitajska kultura je 
prikazana kot statična, kar povzroča grobo homogenizacijo; (3) izletniški odnos do kitajske 
kulture privede do pretiranega posvečanja kulturnim simbolom. Proučevane slikanice torej 
utrjujejo napačne predstave in celo stereotipe o Kitajcih in kitajski kulturi.
Ključne besede: ameriške slikanice, vizualni jezik, multimodalnost, napačno prikazova-
nje, kitajska kultura
1 INTRODUCTION
The essence of language lies in communication, and language’s main function is to 
convey information. The term language can refer to the spoken and written systems of 
expression, as well as to “the system of signs, symbols, gestures, etc. for conveying in-
formation” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s English Chinese Dictionary, 1997:833). Signs, 
symbols and gestures also form a system of language, which could be regarded as a 
visual language. According to Saussure, any language is composed of “signifier” and 
“signified”, and the ‘signifier’ of visual symbols is the carrier of visual language expres-
sion, which is mainly the image and schema acting on people’s visual experience. Its 
‘signified’ is the content of expression and the ideas and thoughts it causes. (Zheng, 2014)
199Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
As a unique genre of children’s literature, the narrative of picture books is comple-
mented by images (visual language) and text (written language), or images only. David 
Wiesner’s wordless picture book Tuesday (1991) is highly regarded and won the Cal-
decott Medal (an American award for picture books given by the American Library Asso-
ciation) and Japan Picture Book Award in 1992, because it “provides plenty of intriguing 
visual details to ponder” (Kirkus Media, 2015). 
As a multiethnic nation of immigrants, multiculturalism in United States which “re-
spects every culture and is based on cultural pluralism” (Özdemir, 2021), advocates that 
mainstream society should recognize differences in ethnicity and identity, and ensure that 
the cultures of ethnic minorities and disadvantaged groups are on an equal footing with 
mainstream culture, which has gradually become the principle and starting point for educa-
tion, literature and politics. Culture itself is a dynamic, evolving process shaped by social 
interactions and is often described as a “struggle over meaning” (Hall, 1997). It encom-
passes various elements, including beliefs, morals, values, language, food, dress, and cus-
toms. Picture books, combined with written and visual language, play a crucial role in the 
production, circulation, and consumption of cultural symbols and practices. Multicultural 
picture books have become a great medium for intercultural communication, and the au-
thentic representation of other cultures in picture books is extremely important for the target 
readers to learn about the culture. Chinese culture is interpreted and manifested in a diverse 
range of ways in picture books. In this paper, picture books by some American authors will 
be examined for the representation of Chinese culture through written and visual languages. 
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Picture books are regarded as being of significant importance in the education of young 
children. Indeed, they are often “the very first book” that children encounter (Salisbury 
& Styles, 2012). Picture books are utilized extensively in preschool education on a glob-
al scale, as they have the capacity to “promote the development of children’s cognitive 
ability, language expression ability, social adaptation ability and emotion” (Wang & Lu, 
2017). A study in China found that 104 children demonstrated more advanced school 
readiness after 18 months of reading picture books (Wang & Shao, 2024). The combina-
tion of image with text facilitates the comprehension of the narrative, the understanding 
of the structural elements of a story, the enhancement of reading comprehension skills, 
and the development of cultural competence (Elliott, 2024; Akyol, 2021). 
Compared to literature for adults, it is widely acknowledged that children’s liter-
ature has advantages in intercultural communication because it focuses on common 
topics for children, such as children’s innocence, growth, friendship and imagination. 
Picture books have thus been recognized as valuable tools for promoting intercultural 
learning and understanding, particularly in educational settings (Mourão, 2023). The 
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Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s led to demands for recognition and equal rights 
of ethnic minorities. In the 1970s, multiculturalism became an education policy, which 
was intended to promote the understanding of the cultural traditions of different national 
and ethnic groups in primary and secondary education, and multicultural picture books 
thus emerged to help achieve this, depicting various ethnic, racial, and cultural groups 
within US society with the aim of helping young readers to celebrate diversity. Research 
on multicultural picture books has identified the issue of misrepresentation in children’s 
literature, with the portrayal of minority cultures in such books being examined in terms 
of stereotypes, cultural values, and motifs (Creany, 1993; Wilson, 2014; Husband, 2019; 
Venessa, 2021). Studies have also examined the representation, authenticity and con-
struction of Chinese culture in picture books (Cheng, 2011; Yu, 2016).
Mingshui Cai surveyed 73 picture books in three local libraries in a small Midwest 
community in the US in 1993, to learn more about the images of the Chinese and Chi-
nese Americans that they presented. Most of these books were positive about Chinese and 
Chinese Americans, and “while biased stereotypical portraits have not been eliminated, 
cultural inauthenticity is the main flaw of many books exhibited in both the content of the 
texts and the details of the illustrations” (Cai, 1994). A stereotype is “a belief about a group 
of individuals” (Wheel & Petty, 2001), which can be categorized as positive or negative 
based on the implications and effects on individuals and society. A positive stereotype 
refers to a generalized belief that attributes favourable traits to a specific group (Czopp et 
al., 2015). For example, the idea that “women are more attentive and gentler” seems to be 
positive of women’s characteristics, but it can still be problematic, as it strengthens gender 
roles, eliminates individual identity and restricts women’s career choices. A derogatory 
generalization about a social group, usually on the basis of prejudice or misinformation 
(Steele, 1997), can be exemplified by the claim “women are not good at logistic thinking”. 
This kind of negative stereotype will lead to discrimination and the social exclusion of 
women, as seen in barriers to employment. No matter whether positive or negative, stere-
otypes contribute to overgeneralized perceptions of social groups.
Following up Mingshui Cai’s study, Minjie Chen and Qiuying Wang examined 46 
titles of award-winning picture books featuring China and Chinese characters and found 
“both significant improvements and persistent problems”. However, “cultural errors, in-
accuracies, and problematic representations still occur at a high frequency, appearing in 
about one third of the titles” (Chen & Wang, 2010).
A culture can be very broadly defined as how the members of a particular group 
think, judge, communicate and live. Here, cultural authenticity can be difficult to define, 
as only the members of the group in question can tell whether something is authentic, 
and even then their judgements are based on instinct and intuition, rather than objective 
criteria. However, cultural insiders, those who belong to the culture portrayed, are often 
better at recognizing authenticity (Cai, 1995). Kathy G. Short and Dana L. Fox (2003:4) 
follow Bishop and the idea that “you know it when you see it”, to support the cultural 
201Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
insider’s judgement. Considering the long tradition of problematic picture books in the 
US, the author of this paper, as a Chinese cultural insider, wants to examine whether 
“cultural errors, inaccuracies and problematic representations” still exist in picture books 
with American authors that consider elements of Chinese culture. 
3 METHODOLOGY
Multimodality is a widely used methodology when conducting research on picture books, 
and is the foundational construction that underpins the theory of communication known 
as multimodal discourse (2001). Kress and van Leeuwen define multimodality as “the use 
of several semiotic modes in the design of a semiotic product or event, together with the 
particular way in which the modes are combined”. A discourse is essentially a “resource” 
or a “semiotic mode” that is developed in a specific context (e.g. institutional, geograph-
ical, social, etc.) by a particular community of social actors (e.g. business practitioners, 
experts, family members, etc.) to suit that community’s specific needs (e.g. to work, act, 
bond, etc.) (Chiappini, 2014). In picture books, the discourse is developed into a certain 
visual, verbal, social and cultural context by the writers and illustrators, and it is natural 
to analyse the discourse of picture books from the semiotic and multimodal perspectives 
(Moya, 2014; Wang, 2019; Li, 2020; Cheng, 2021). 
This study focuses on the misrepresentation of Chinese culture in picture books se-
lected from Amazon, the online retailer that “the monopoly power” when it comes to 
books, with 79% of e-book market in America (Errera, 2024), and functions as a huge 
database of published titles. To start the research, the author found there were more than 
3, 000 English-language picture books on China and Chinese culture available on Ama-
zon, and a total of 3, 000 of these were used for the initial sample in a quantitative study 
of the frequency of Chinese cultural symbols.
The next step in the research was to narrow the research scope and focus on the 
content. The Lexile Framework for Reading is a scientific method of assessing English 
reading level and text reading difficulty that has been validated by numerous studies 
(Arrington, 2012; Fisher & Frey, 2013). It is the most widely used reading system in 
the US, and is applied by institutions in all 50 states, covering about 50% of the student 
population. The Lexile Index is an important tool for evaluating the quality of picture 
books, as it ensures age-appropriate readability, supports literacy development, guides 
book selection, and enhances vocabulary acquisition. To ensure the quality and populari-
ty of the samples, the author chose the Lexile Index as the selection condition, to narrow 
the research scope to 129 books (including Kindle e-books). The next step is the content 
and background analysis. The author found that 51 of the titles were related to Asian 
countries other than China, and that 78 were about Chinese culture and Chinese people. 
These 78 picture books were thus included in the sample for the discourse analysis.
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Table 1: The research process used in this study
4 FINDINGS 
Multiculturalism is a complex term in the US. As a multiethnic and multicultural country, 
there are various minority groups, including African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian 
Americans in terms of the ethnicity, or the disabled, LGBTQ+, and so on in terms of other 
characteristics, and such all these groups must be considered in education, politics and 
other areas of public life. Multiculturalism refers to a social and cultural phenomenon that 
emphasizes the co-existence and mutual respect of different racial, ethnic and cultural 
groups in a pluralistic society (Glazer, 1997). Despite the diversity of culture in the US, 
multiculturism in this paper is considered rather narrowly in relation to ethnicity alone. 
Chinese culture is an important part of American multiculturalism, and is well rep-
resented in picture books, which is very significant for Chinese Americans, especially for 
those born in America, as this can help them to realize their own self-cognition and iden-
tity through the aspects of Chinese culture shown in such books. It is also important for 
other ethnic groups’ cognition of Chinese culture. These picture books are a window for 
the US and even the wider world to get access to Chinese culture, and provide a platform 
for exchanges and confrontations between different cultures. 
203Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
The authors and illustrators of the picture books can be categorized into three groups. 
Firstly, some of the authors and illustrators have not travelled to or resided in China, and 
have created their stories through imagination or the consumption of the works of others. 
Secondly, some have visited China but do not have a profound understanding of Chinese 
culture. Thirdly, there are descendants of Chinese immigrants, who are regarded as insid-
ers in relation to Chinese culture, but do not have a tangible connection to the country.
Everyone Knows What a Dragon Looks Like (1976) is written by Jay Williams and il-
lustrated by Mercer Mayer. It tells the story of a young orphan named Han who works as a 
gatekeeper in an ancient Chinese city threatened by an enemy army. When an old beggar 
arrives, claiming to be a dragon who can save the city, the townspeople dismiss him – until 
Han’s kindness and humility reveals the beggar’s true nature. Although setting with Chinese 
background, there is no evidence in the available sources indicating that the authors or illus-
trators had ever travelled to or lived in China. Catherine Stock’s Emma’s Dragon Hunt (1984), 
Hillman & Wallner’s Min-yo and the Moon Dragon (1992) also belong to this group.
Kurt Wiese, as a representative of second group, created two picture books, You 
Can Write Chinese (1945) and Fish in the Air (1948), for which he won the Caldecott 
Medal twice. He was also an illustrator for many China-related picture books, including 
The Five Chinese Brothers (1938). He seems to have become an authority on such books 
and illustrations because he had lived in China for six years, and was believed to have 
“captured the facial expressions of the Chinese and the atmosphere of the country to an 
extent that is unusual for a foreigner” (Ewing, 1934). However, the facial expressions of 
all the characters in his books are identical, emotionless and stereotypical. Based on his 
own cultural background and experiences, the “foreign” perspective that Kurt Wiese held 
did not foster any deep understanding of Chinese culture.
Grace Lin is a prominent author and illustrator known for her multicultural books for 
children, which include picture books, board books and others. As a Chinese American, 
her books, such as Bringing in the New Year (2010) and Dim Sum for Everyone (2014), 
introduce Chinese cultural customs and representations, and demonstrate intercultural 
communication and integration, as seen, for example, in The Ugly Vegetables (2001). 
However, and though unintentionally, her books have reinforced the stereotype that “all 
Asians look alike” (Interview with Cybils, 2016). 
There are other forms of misrepresentation of Chinese culture in picture books, aside 
from the stereotypical portraits of Chinese people, as outlined in the following sections.
4.1 An Excessive Focus on Cultural Symbols 
Omar Lizardo defined “cultural symbols as motivated mappings between external form 
and cognitive meaning, used for both the private evocation of and the public externali-
zation of those meanings” (Lizardo, 2016). Cultural symbols are part of the unconscious 
world of the members of a culture, and also the first and automatic choice of references 
204 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES
when outsiders come to learn about it. Chinese cultural symbols can be divided into six 
categories (Guan, 2015):
Table 2: The six categories of Chinese cultural symbols (Guan, 2015)
Here, the symbolic symbols refer to the typical icons related to Chinese culture, 
which would arouse subconscious connections between the symbol and the culture, like 
the panda and Great Wall, which are both icons of China. Life symbols are related to the 
way people live, such as how they eat, dress and celebrate. Thought symbols reveal the 
traditional beliefs and spiritual practices, while language and literature symbols repre-
sent the communication system and mental outlook of the Chinese. Art symbols are the 
visualization of the Chinese aesthetic consciousness, and the education symbols include 
the typical characteristic and outstanding achievements of the Chinese education system. 
The conformity between symbolic symbols and life symbols is the most superficial and 
obvious element that attracts attention in intercultural communication.
In this study, among the initial 3, 000 sample picture books on Chinese culture on 
the Amazon website, the number of books that feature typical Chinese cultural symbols, 
such as the Spring Festival and the dragon, far outnumber other themes. 
Table 3: The Chinese cultural symbols in the relevant books on the Amazon website
Chinese Culture Symbol The Number of Picture Books
Dragon 726
Chinese Language (in bilingual books) 692
Spring Festival 426
Food 138
Panda 32
Palace 30
Emperor 27
Great Wall 20
Taichi 5
Kungfu 2
Culture  
symbols
symbolic symbol: The Great Wall, dragon, panda, etc. 
life symbol: Spring Festival, Kungfu, Chinese cuisine, silk, etc. 
thought symbol: Confucianism, Taoism, etc.
language and literature symbol: Chinese language, poetry, etc.
art symbol: calligraphy, painting, opera, etc.
education symbol: Peking University, etc.
{
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A research team of Peking University conducted surveys in 2011, and again in 2016, 
to find that Americans’ appreciation of Chinese cultural symbols, such as the panda, the 
Great Wall, the Chinese language, and Taichi, has increased significantly, with the Spring 
Festival showing the greatest growth, increasing by 50.3% (Guan, 2018). It shows that 
in intercultural communication, individuals often comprehend and adapt to new cultural 
contexts through tangible, observable elements. In contrast, abstract concepts or educa-
tional symbols may necessitate a more profound cultural comprehension to fully grasp. 
Symbolic and life symbols represent intuitive and frequently encountered dimensions of 
cultural differences, making them the most readily observable aspects. 
The focus of this study is picture books, and Table 3 also confirms Guan’s finding. 
When looking at Table 3, the question arises as to why the top symbols are so popular? 
The Chinese-English bilingual picture books are good materials for children of immi-
grants to study Chinese, and books about Chinese traditions can provide answers to the 
many questions about daily life they may have. In short, these books are carriers of the 
Chinese cultural inheritance, which can strength the relationships of in-groups. These 
symbols are often used as cultural identifiers to quickly convey a Chinese cultural identi-
ty, and can help individuals quickly identify both in- and out-groups. 
4.2 Localization of Culture Symbols
The localization and adaptation of Chinese cultural symbols is another common phenom-
enon in the books examined here. The localization of symbols refers to the process of 
adapting symbols (e.g., language, images, gestures, colours, or rituals) from one cultural 
context to another, ensuring they align with the target culture’s values, norms, and cog-
nitive frameworks while retaining their intended meaning or function. It involves mod-
ifying both the signifier and the signified of symbols to avoid misinterpretation, cultural 
offense, or loss of communicative efficacy. Replacing original symbols with functionally 
equivalent ones is an important strategy for localization. For example, there is a huge 
difference between the dragons in Chinese and Western culture. The Chinese dragon rep-
resents good fortune, happiness and authority, while the Western dragon is synonymous 
with evil, greed and disaster. It is thus perhaps not surprising that the signifier of the 
dragon differed in the selected books, too.
4.2.1 The Localization of the Chinese Dragon
The dragon is an important creature in various mythological traditions. In traditional Chi-
nese culture, it is seen as a guardian of water and a symbol of power. In contrast, in Japa-
nese culture, dragons are often depicted as snake-like creatures, representing destruction. 
In the Western European tradition, dragons are often portrayed as evil and greedy crea-
tures, typically guarding treasure (Sonja, 2024). Due to the influence of differing cultural 
206 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES
identities, Chinese and Western conceptions of the dragon frequently evoke divergent 
emotional responses and symbolic interpretations, thus engendering obstacles to effective 
intercultural communication.
Emma’s Dragon Hunt, for example, is a story about Emma and her grandfather, who 
has just arrived from China. Her grandfather explains how dragons were responsible 
for earthquakes, heat waves, solar eclipses, and thunderstorms. The dragon is typically 
depicted as blue and spotted, emerging from the ground (Figure 1), in Min-Yo and the 
Moon Dragon (1992), it has orange wings (Figure 2), both of which are rarely found in 
Chinese culture. In Chinese culture, the dragon is a creature that lives in the deep sea and 
can fly due to an ability to control the clouds, rather than having wings, and the whole 
body is covered in scales (Figure 3). It is important to note that in Chinese culture there 
is no known association between dragons and earthquakes. According to Chinese legend, 
the land was supported by four turtles, akin to the four legs of a table. These turtles had 
been hibernating and still for hundreds of years. They would move when they awoke, and 
then earthquakes would occur.
Figure 1: The dragon image in Emma’s Dragon Hunt by Catherine Stock (1984)
207Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
Figure 2: The dragon image in Min-yo and 
the Moon Dragon (1992)  
by Elizabeth Hillman,  
illustrated by John C. Wallner
Figure 3: The whole body 
of a dragon in Water  
Dragon (2012) by Li Jian
208 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES
In Everyone Knows What a Dragon Looks Like, the facial expressions of the dragon 
are the typical greedy and evil expressions of Western dragons (Figure 4). In contrast, the 
traditional Chinese dragon’s look is calm, serene and solemn in a picture book by a Chi-
nese author (Figure 5). These western dragon images are very different from the Chinese 
dragon image. 
Figure 4: The dragon face in Everyone Knows What a Dragon Looks Like (1984) by Jay Willi-
ams and Mercer Mayer
 
209Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
Figure 5: The dragon face and whole image in Water Dragon (2012) by Li Jian
4.2.2 The Localization of the Chinese Palace
In The Weaving of a Dream, the palace (Figure 6) is built on the steep cliff that reaches 
the clouds, which is a typical palace design in Western magical depictions. However, the 
ancient Chinese palaces are usually located in the central empty flat land of the imperial 
city, covering a vast area, like the Forbidden City in Figure 7. An ancient Chinese city 
usually contains the outer city, the inner city and the imperial city (palace). Not only is 
the imperial palace symmetrical, but also the whole city is, as this is an expression of 
Chinese traditional philosophy and aesthetics. For example, the “Beijing Central Axis” 
was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2024 (Chen, 2024).
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Figure 6: The palace in The Weaving of a Dream (1989) by Marilee Heye
 
Figure 7: The Chinese palace in In the Forbidden City (2014) by Chiu Kwong-chiu 
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No matter whether in China or the West, the dragon is an imaginary mythological 
creature, and the differences in how they are portrayed reflect the differences between the 
two cultures’ traditions, beliefs and religions. In contrast, palaces are real, and the differ-
ences in how they are shown reflect the difference in the aesthetic concepts of China and 
the West, with an axisymmetric design typical in China. 
4.2.3 The Localization of the Written Language
In addition to the localization of the visual language, we also get some examples of the 
written language and plot setting. 
“Mulan fed Little Brother, who barked in appreciation. “ 
– from Disney Before the Story: Mulan’s Secret Plan (2020) by Tessa Roehl
In American culture, dogs are regarded as members of the family, and “Little Broth-
er” is thus an acceptable name for a dog for American readers. However, in ancient Chi-
na, dogs are generally used to guard the home, and their cultural connotations are mostly 
derogatory. While it is trye that dogs are widely recognized as a helpful, companionable 
and friendly, in Chinese culture there are several derogatory terms derived from the dog’s 
loyalty to its owner. Indeed, the term “dog” has been extended to mean a person who runs 
for his master, or works without though as an accomplice (Meng, 2022).
Although attitudes towards dogs have changed dramatically in modern China, where 
they are mostly pets, the term “Little Brother” would still be inappropriate to Chinese 
readers, and might be misinterpreted as a familial reference rather than a pet’s name.
According to the theory of multimodality, discourse develops based on the context, 
and the aim is to please the specific group it is aimed at. The localization of the visual 
image of the dragon and palace, and the name of the dog, show that in these examples 
the purpose is to adopt to American readers’ culture and meet the readers’ expectations. 
In intercultural communication, blindly catering to readers and complete localization 
are not conducive to the cultivation of the intercultural consciousness of young readers. 
Featherstone (2012) explored the dynamic interplay between globalization and cultural 
localization, and argued that global forces should interact with local identities, practices, 
and symbolic systems. Because of the over-localization of Chinese cultural symbols, 
American readers found the picture books to be over-Americanized. Excessive and su-
perficial localization without appropriate cultural connotations will lead to the loss of the 
uniqueness of the original symbols, and thus cultural homogenization.
4.3 The Confusion of Asian Cultures 
Because of the widespread and traditional influence of Chinese written characters, Con-
fucianism, Buddhism, and political affiliation, many Asian cultures were historically 
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influenced by Chinese Han ethnic culture, and thus this area is known as the Sinosphere. 
This term is used to denote the region comprising multiple countries in East and South-
east Asia that have historically been significantly influenced by Chinese culture, and in-
cludes the countries of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Singapore, and so on (Fogel, 2009; 
Denecke & Nguyen, 2017). However, despite this influence all these countries’ also have 
their own distinct cultural characteristics.
Moreover, Asian Americans can also be seen as a distinct cultural group. In 1968, 
students at the University of California, Berkeley, founded the Asian American Political 
Alliance (AAPA) to fight for educational equity and end discrimination, and this was the 
first time the term “Asian American” was used to unite people from with various East 
Asian backgrounds. This concept broke through ethnic boundaries and marked the politi-
cization of Asian American identity. Since then, Asian Americans have been categorized 
as a specific racial grouping in the US census and other settings. 
With the support of a multicultural policy for ethnic minorities in America, public 
education is committed to recognizing cultural diversity and fostering it. However, dif-
ferent Asian countries’ cultures are often confused and mixed together by the creators of 
picture books.
Tiki Tiki Tembo by Arlene Mosel is a classic American picture book and was the 
winner of the 1968 Boston Globe – Horn Book Award for Picture Books. In 1997, The 
New York Times named Tikki Tikki Tembo one of the 50 best children’s books of the pre-
vious 50 years. It is a good example to be analysed from the perspective of multimodality, 
as the discourse contains verbal communication, architectural design, and dress codes, 
and is also a good example of the confusion of Asian cultures. 
The story tried to jokingly explain the evolution of the length of Chinese names by telling 
of a boy called “Tikki tikki tembo-no sa rembo-chari bari ruche-pip peri pembo” who got into 
trouble because of his long name. Readers were told it was a traditional Chinese folk tale, but 
it has been shown that in fact the story comes from the Japanese folk tale “Jugemu” (Book 
Analysis, n.d.). From ancient times to modern China, Chinese people’s names are composed 
of the family name and given name. The family name is usually one character, like Fang, Li, 
Liu, Wang, or Zhang, and the given name consists of one or two Chinese characters, which 
carries the blessings and expectation of parents. For example, Mao Zedong, the founder of 
People’s Republic of China, is a typical Chinese name. It is thus clear that “Tikki tikki tem-
bo-no sa rembo-chari bari ruche-pip peri pembo” is far too long to be a real Chinese name. 
Moreover, the architectural and clothing in the book are not Chinese, either. 
The Empty Pot by Demi is a classic picture book about honesty and bravery, which 
has been presented as an ancient Chinese folktale. But in fact, it is a Korean folk tale that 
is used as an example of Korean literature in first grade textbooks in China (Yu, 2016).
In fact, the confusion of Chinese with other Asian cultures is not a unique phenom-
enon in American picture books, and inaccurate representations of Korean cultural ele-
ments have also been noted (Kwak, 2014). 
213Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
The cultural conflation of Asian countries is common among readers, authors and 
illustrators. A total of 129 picture books were selected for further research from the initial 
population of 3, 000, using the Lexile Index as the quality and popularity criteria. A clos-
er examination then showed that 51 of the 129 picture books on “Chinese” topics were 
not related to Chinese culture or Chinese people. The contents and cultural backgrounds 
of those 51 books included stories about India (11 books), Japan (13 books), Korea (6 
books), Indonesia (4 books) and other Asian countries, distributed as follows:
Table 4: The country distribution of 129 picture books on “Chinese” topics
Country The Number of Relevant Picture Books
China 78
Japan 13
India 11
North and South Korea 6
Indonesia 4
Malaysia 1
Philippines 1
Afghanistan 1
Cambodia 1
Thailand 1
Turkey 1
Unidentified 11
Total 129
4.4 Information Disorder 
Folklore constitutes the original material of children’s literature. In its earliest forms, 
children’s literature was primarily a direct adaptation of folklore, serving as a literaliza-
tion of oral narratives. A notable example of this phenomenon is the work of the Brothers 
Grimm in the 18th century, who meticulously collected and compiled German folk tales, 
resulting in the compilation of Grimm’s Fairy Tales. Folklore and legends provide a rich 
source of material for writers to draw on, but the inclusion of a large number of folklores 
and legends in picture books has the potential to compromise the authenticity of the his-
tory, culture and reality of the situation depicted. Meanwhile, China’s long history and 
changing historical dynasties bring great difficulties to creators with an English-language 
cultural background, and the confusion of historical dynasties is thus a common problem. 
In The Weaving of a Dream, the clothes and hairstyles of the women on the cover 
(Figure 8) are of the typical Tang Dynasty style (681–907 AD), while the people’s and 
officials’ clothing (Figure 9) is of the typical style of Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 AD), as 
can clearly be seen in the men’s iconic pigtail, or queue.
214 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Figure 8: The cover of The Weaving of a Dream(1989) by Marilee Heye
Figure 9: Image from The Weaving of a Dream (1989) by Marilee Heye
215Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
Cultural confusion over Chinese education can be found in Disney Before the Story: 
Mulan’s Secret Plan (2020) by Tessa Roehl. Here are two examples:
Would she learn math today? Writing? (p.2)
“I told you, Mulan. It’s a different kind of school, ” said her mother. (p.10)
The story of Mulan joining the army comes from the famous Chinese text The Poem 
of Mulan, written during the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589 AD). In ancient 
China, women did not have the right to receive education. Moreover, in ancient China 
education followed Confucianism, and the content was dominated by Confucian texts, 
without the division into subjects such as mathematics and writing, as in modern society.
5 DISCUSSION 
The great number of picture books on Chinese culture that are available on Amazon is 
attributed to the policy of multiculturalism which emerged under pressure from various 
ethnic minorities in the US, who campaigned for equal rights and an end to discrimina-
tion. However, over time there has been a tendency for multiculturalism to become rather 
“rigid” and so stereotype the national cultures of various ethnic minorities, as seen in 
the various misrepresentations of Chinese culture in American picture books. Although 
criticized for its racist illustrations, as noted by Schwartz in “The Five Chinese Brothers: 
Time to Retire” in 1977, The Five Chinese Brothers has been reprinted many times and 
is still available on Amazon. Moreover, when it was used in a university classroom many 
undergraduates did not see anything wrong with it (McNair, 2003). The reasons why 
students and even adult readers in USA did not perceive any issues with this book lie in 
the following aspects:
5.1 Chinese Culture Is Equated with Chinese American Culture 
Culture is the product of human social practice, and is closely linked with the develop-
ment of society. With the implementation of a policy of multiculturalism and the abo-
lition of discrimination and restrictions on Asian immigration in the 1965 Immigration 
Law, a large number of immigrants from Asian countries went to the US, which changed 
the population structure. With the increase in Chinese immigrants, more readers and writ-
ers took an interest in Chinese culture. With the change in the social status of Chinese 
people in America, the focus of the related picture books also shifted from legends and 
folktales to the personal development and achievements of Chinese immigrants. The im-
ages of Chinese people in picture books are now no longer of labours with long pigtails, 
but instead of scientists, pianists, and fashion designers. As mentioned above, the main 
themes of the 78 books examined in this study were myths and legends, Spring Festival 
216 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES
activities and immigrant stories. Thirty-two books, nearly 40% of the total, are about the 
new generation of Chinese Americans, examining the psychological processes related to 
integration and identity, as well personal achievements. 
Chinese culture is bound to develop with different characteristics in the US and Chi-
na. As Professor Xu Yingguo, an expert in Chinese American culture, has noted (2005): 
When individuals inhabit a different cultural environment, they tend to adapt 
the original culture to the new setting, thereby resulting in a third culture that 
differs from both the source cultures. This process of adaptation and transfor-
mation is more about adapting to a new environment than about copying the 
original culture. The Chinese culture that ethnic Chinese refer to in the U.S. 
context is actually Chinese American culture, not Chinese culture as we know 
it, and the differences between the two are taken for granted. There is a wide-
ly quoted saying by Maxine Hong Kingston (a Chinese American author), ‘I 
am an Chinese-American, not an American Chinese, and my emphasis is on 
America. My writing focuses on America rather than China’. In the American 
context, Chinese-Americans practice Chinese culture differently and someti-
mes even in the opposite direction.
Chinese American culture, as a “third culture”, is different from both Chinese and 
American cultures. The reason is that Chinese Americans are characterized by a fluidity 
between the labels of “Chinese” and “American”, influenced by factors such as class, 
gender, and generational dimensions, and thus Chinese American may adapt their iden-
tities when they are in different social environments. In 2020 there were 5.54 million 
Chinese Americans (UCA data centre, n.d.). Many Chinese Americans are struggling 
with an identity that is made up of two parts: Chinese and American. Moreover, the 
huge differences between Chinese and American cultures make it more challenging for 
Chinese people to adapt to American society. Stuart Hall (1990) explained that “identity 
is a continuous ‘production’, which is never complete, static, but always in process, and 
always constituted within, not outside, representation of new cultural practices”. Identity 
is not fixed, but it is created and changed through interaction with society, and while 
fluidity is always a characteristic of identity, this is especially true for minority groups. 
This cultural fusion is not merely a simple mixing of cultures, but rather is the birth 
of a new cultural form that retains the core values of Chinese culture while also absorbing 
unique elements of American culture. For instance, dishes served in Chinese restaurants in 
the US represent a blend of Chinese and American cooking styles and ingredients, resulting 
in a unique fusion that is neither traditionally Chinese nor authentically American. Chinese 
American culture is the result of the Chinese community adapting to American society and 
enriching and contributing to American cultural diversity. It introduces new perspectives 
and cultural resources to American society, thereby promoting exchanges and understanding 
217Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
between different cultures. Apple Pie 4th of July (2006) by Janet S. Wong tells a story of a 
young Chinese American girl whose parents run a Chinese restaurant. On July 4th, the Inde-
pendence Day, her parents still work and cook Chinese food in their restaurant, but the girl 
wants to enjoy the holiday as other American citizens, and she thinks no one would want to 
eat Chinese food on that day. Ultimately though, it is the customer’s appreciation of the food 
that bring the girl both a sense of holiday cheer and cultural acceptance.
Based on the historical background of multiculturalism, the reason why the US and 
other immigrant countries adopt multicultural policies is to alleviate social contradictions 
and recognize the cultural differences and equality of ethnic minorities, but not to uncon-
ditionally protect the integrity of a specific culture. As a political strategy, multicultur-
alism explores identity cognition under the framework of mainstream culture, with the 
ultimate goal of helping new immigrants to realize citizenship identification and identify 
with a national consciousness in the context of cultural conflicts. American multicultur-
al education is thus committed to national identity education under the recognition of 
cultural differences. It there natural for most Americans them to equate the culture of 
Chinese Americans with Chinese culture. 
5.2 Chinese Culture Is Regarded as a Static Concept
Chinese civilization has a history of over 5, 000 years, and Chinese culture is constantly 
evolving in line with economic development, changes in social systems, technological 
advances, and so on. Mingshui Cai (1994), a Chinese American scholar at the Univer-
sity of Northern Iowa, conducted a survey of 73 picture books about Chinese culture 
and Chinese people in local libraries, and found that 51 of them, or 70%, were based on 
folk stories and legends. This prevalence of similar themes on ancient Chinese myths 
and folklore in picture books reflected the static state of Chinese culture in the US in the 
1990s. Myths and folklore provide much space for the imagination, which is why they 
are popular themes in literature, especially children’s literature. However, although the 
imagination is a powerful tool in literature, it cannot fully replace the need to experience 
and understand a real culture. Ethnicity and personal experience are extremely important 
in creating authentic multicultural literature (Cai, 1995). Writers must thus be careful 
and strive to avoid misrepresentations when writing about cultures other than their own. 
Many authors and illustrators have no direct experience of Chinese culture, and their 
comprehension of it comes from literature and other such representations. A typical ex-
ample is The Five Chinese Brothers (1938) by Claire Huchet Bishop and Kurt Wiese 
(Figure 10), which has been noted for the racial stereotypes of Chinese people it contains 
(McNair, 2003). Claire Huchet Bishop (1899-1993), the author of the book, was a Swiss-
born children’s author and librarian who lived and worked in France and the US, with no 
known personal experience of living or working in China. She wrote about 30 children’s 
books, which were characterized as “fantastic or whimsical” (Scarboro Missions, n.d.). 
218 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES
As noted above, this particular book is full of controversy, as it has been criticized 
for perpetuating stereotypes and racial insensitivity in its illustrations and themes. The 
Chinese people are illustrated as labourers with long pigtails, as in Fish in the Air (1948), 
another book that was illustrated by Kurt Wiese. 
 
Figure 10: The cover of The Five Chinese Brothers (1938) by Claire H. Bishop and Kurt Wiese 
Figure11: The cover of The Seven Chinese Sisters (2003) by Kathy Tucker and Grace Lin
219Tu Wangbei: MISREPRESENTATION OF CHINESE CULTURE IN AMERICAN PICTURE BOOKS ...
On the one hand, scholars like Schwartz (1977) have noted the stereotypes in this 
called and called for it to be retired from circulation. On the other hand, the book remains 
very popular among readers. The Five Chinese Brothers was first published by Putnam 
Juvenile in 1938, and was reprinted 46 times, being reissued by Puffin Books in 1996 and 
Paw Prints in 2009 (Douban, n.d.). The author of the book did not have any real expe-
rience of China or Chinese culture, but the “fantastic or whimsical” story has long been 
appealing to American readers. The book’s popularity highlights how stories that rely on 
stereotypes or simplified cultural elements can still be attractive to audiences who are 
unfamiliar with the culture being depicted. This suggests that, in the absence of authentic 
cultural experiences, readers may be more drawn to stories that fit their preconceived 
notions or fantasies about a culture, rather than the reality. 
The book has also had long-lasting impact on later creative works, with a series of 
similar picture books such as Fish in the Air (1948), The Seven Chinese Brothers (1990), 
Seven Magic Brothers (1994), and The Seven Chinese Sisters (2003). From The Five 
Chinese Brothers (1938) to The Seven Chinese Sisters (2003) (Figure 11), the image of 
the Chinese characters remains much the same, without any personality or unique char-
acteristics. Apart from gender, the stereotypes of Chinese people have really not changed 
in the span of more than six decades. Therefore, the stereotypes of Chinese and Chinese 
culture are bound to be reinforced and passed on to future generations.
5.3 A Sight-Seeing Attitude Towards Chinese Culture
The multicultural policy of the US ensures that ethnic minorities such as the Chinese can 
express and pass on their ethnicity and culture, and picture books are a good channel to 
deepen the communication between Chinese culture and readers of different cultures. 
However, while the US advocates multiculturalism, when it comes to the cultures of 
ethnic minorities, mainstream readers tend have a “sight-seeing attitude” and pay more 
attention to cultural symbols such as festivals and celebrations, engaging with the culture 
in a way that is similar to how tourists experience a new place. Tourists often focus on the 
most visible and easily accessible aspects of a culture, such as landmarks, famous sites, or 
popular events. Cultural symbols such as festivals and celebrations are often the most vis-
ible and accessible parts of a culture. Moreover, they are usually designed to be inclusive 
and entertaining, making them easier for outsiders to appreciate. As mentioned above, the 
cultural symbols in the books examined in this study could be put into six categories, and 
mainly related to symbolic symbols, life symbols and language symbols, with these being 
the most distinctive and apparent in intercultural communication. 
Hofstede’s (1980) cultural onion model is a theoretical model that graphically de-
scribes the structure of a culture. It compares a culture to an onion, which has different 
layers from the outside to the inside. The outermost layer of this cultural onion is sym-
bols, which are the most obvious and easily observed part of a culture. The progression 
220 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES
from the outer layer of symbols, rituals, and other elements to core values reflects the 
transition of culture from a surface phenomena to its deeper essence. 
Excessive focus on the superficial symbols can lead to stereotypes. Cultural symbols 
are characterized by their metaphorical and metonymic nature, and are easily simplified 
and misunderstood in the communication process. For example, the excessive focus on 
the dragon and Spring Festival in picture books makes American readers acquire stere-
otypes of Chinese culture. On the one hand, these books may create a sense of orien-
tal mystery with all kinds of ancient myths. On the other hand, American readers may 
think that Chinese culture is essentially just celebrating the Spring Festival, setting off 
firecrackers and eating dumplings. Overemphasizing certain cultural symbols, such as 
dragons, may also lead to an incomplete understanding of the cultural connotations of 
such symbols. Without full consideration of their complexity and diversity, the excessive 
focus on certain culture symbols will lead to the formation of stereotypes.
6 CONCLUSION
This study analyses the misrepresentations and stereotypes of the written and visual lan-
guage of Chinese culture in American picture books, and also examines how the for-
mation of stereotypes in the context of multiculturalism in the US is closely related to 
socio-historical factors. While multiculturalism emphasizes cultural diversity, in practice 
certain cultural groups may be marginalized or simplified, leading to the creation of ste-
reotypes. However, due to the limited number of samples analysed in this research, it is 
inevitable that some issues still need to be discussed further. Future studies may thus con-
sider expanding the range of samples examined, analysing the way culture is presented 
in different types of picture books in more detail, and exploring how to promote a more 
authentic and diverse cultural understanding in intercultural communication.
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