A

JOURNEY

IX

CARNIOLA, ITALY, AND FRANCE.

Miratur, facilesque oculos fert omnia circum
-Capiturque locis; et singula laetus
Exquiritque auditque.virum monumenta priorum.

Vinc.

B RIB GE AT LA SCHIEGGIA

in lite dpeimines', on tl te vutflamuiia.Jiiitlt in 1805 •

See Pa 9 e 6.T0I.JL

T^/JmhirtiK -dConstable &,Co.l820.

A

JOURNEV

IN

CARNIOLA, ITALY, AND FRANCE,

IN

THE YEARS 1817, 1818,

CONTAINING

REMARKS RELATING TO LANGUAGE, GEOGRAPHT, HISTORY,
ANTIQU1TIES, NATURA! HISTORV, SCIENCE, PAINTING,
SCULPTURE, ARCHITECTURE, AGRICULTURE, THE MECHA-
NICAL ARTS AND MANUF ACTURES.

By  W. A. CADELL, Es 2 .  F. R. S. Lond. & Ed.

WITH ENGRAVINGS.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOL. I.

EDINBURGH:

PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLF. AND CO. EDINBURGH;

ANI) HUB,ST, ROBINSON, AND CO. CIIEAPSIBE, LONDON.

1820.


TO

THE RIGHT HONOURABLE

SIR JOSEPH BANKS, Bart.  G. C. B.

PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETV,

fyc. 8)C.

THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED,

IN TESTIMONY OF

GREAT RESPECT AND ESTEEM,

BY HIS VERY HUMBLE SERVANT,

THE AUTHOR.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The  First Chapter of the following Work
relates to Trieste and Carniola; the Chapters
that follow, which compose the greatest
part of the Book, are descriptive of the
North and Middle of Italy; in the last
twenty pages, Savoy, Geneva, and a part of
France, come under view. The Appendix
contains an account of the Antique Marbles
of Rome, a view of the Geology of Italy,
Tables of Heights and of Population, and
a List of Books and Maps. In the Alpha-
betical Table of Contents, several additions
and explanations are inserted. Through-
out the Work the Author has compar-
ed what he saw with the descriptions con-
tained in books, written at different pe-
riods, by inhabitants of the countries he vi-

i

viii

ADVERTISEMENT.

sited, and has made extracts and references
to these works where they appeared correct.
Of the Engravings, some are from sketches
by the Author, the rest are selected from
the works of different artists, and were com-
pared by the Author with the objects they
represent, excepting only the two figures in
Plate XIII., the Pyramid and Santa Sophia.
Seven of the plates contain representations
of architectural monuments, drawn on one
scale, shewing the relative magnitude of the
buildings. The Map of the Middle and
North of Italy shews the principal roads,
the mountains, and other circumstances, to-
gether with the nature of the rocks in seve-
ral places, indicated by Roman numerals,
which refer to the explanation at page 268,
Vol. II.

*; * The Table of Contents is in Volume II.

A

JOURNEY

IN

CARNIOLA AND ITALV.

CHAPTER I.

Trieste—Approach.—Buildings.—History.— Trade and Ma-
nifactures.—Money.— Toleration.—Language— Netespa-
pers.—Inns.— Natural Productions.— Mineral Strata.—
Face of the Countrg.—Basins in the Limestone.—Grotto oj'
Carnioli.—Groito of Adelsberg.—Proteus Anguinus.—Ca-
verns in Limestone.— Idria.—Plants.—Indian Corn
Gourds.—Green hue of the JVater.—Quicksilver Mine;
the Ore ; IVashing, fyc.— Vermillion.—Health of the Worh-
men—Road to Trieste.—Mode of Travelling.—Trieste to
Venice by Sea.

J he  traveller who comes by the Vienna road, dis-
covers Trieste and the sea from the brow of the hill
which he has to descend in order to arrive at the
town. The productions of a warmer climate are
suddenly brought into vievv. Olive plantations, and
the lofty tapering dark-green cypresses, planted
near the country houses, adorn the prospect. The
donax reed, the laurel, peach-trees, lig-trees, and
vines, are cultivated in the gardens; and the roofs

A

2

TRIESTE.—BUILDINGS.

of houses are formed in the Italian manner, with
the tiles called canali, suited to a climate where
snow seldom falls.

The modern part of the town of Trieste is built
on a piece of level ground, and consists of streets of
a good breadth, laid out in straight lines, and at
right angles to each other. An inlet, in form of a
canal, comes up from the sea into the town, with
quays on each side, for ships to load and unload.
The Lazaretto, a mile north of the town, is a consi-
derable piece of ground on the water’s edge, inclos-
ed with a high wall, to prevent communication, and
containing the requisite buildings to accommodate
the crews of ships vvhilst performing quarantine.

The theatre is large and handsome. During the
carnivai, musical operas in Italian are performed,
and, at other seasons, the theatre is occupied by
some of the companies of comedians who go  about
playing in Venice, Padua, Milan, and other towns
of the north of Italy.

The cathedral is an ancient edifice, adorned, at
the high altar, with two large semicircular vault-
ed niches called tribune.  The concave surface
of these tribune  is covered with figures of saints
in mosaic, on a ground of gilt mosaic. Much
of this kind of mosaic is seen in the church of
Saint Mark at Venice. It also occurs in the
church of Saint John the Baptist at Florence, in
the church of Saint Paul without the city at Rome,

CATHEDRAL.—ANTIQUITIES.

and in other churches in Italy. The art of mosaic
painting was employed by the ancient Romans for
pavements of rooms, many of vvhich pavements stili
exist in Italy, France, Spain, and England. * At
Constantinople, in a less fiourishing State of the arts,
mosaic vvas employed to decorate the internal vvalls
of Santa Sophia, and other churches, and from
thence it was again brought into Italy in the middle
ages. Beyond the Alps mosaic of the middle ages
is not met with in churches. Ciampini’s  vvork, entit-
led Vetera Monumenta,  published in 1690, contains
a historical account of the art of forming pictures
in mosaic, as practised by the ancients, and in the
middle ages.

The columns and tvvo bas reliefs that belonged to
an arch in honour of Trajan, are built into the tovvcr
of the cathedral.

Some ancient Roman inscriptions and sculptured
stones are built into the front of the cathedral, and
an ancient marble, vvith eight busts in high relief,
the portraits of a Roman family, having the name
inscribed under each bust, has been savvn in tvvo
pieces, vvhich form the door-posts of the church.
Some other ancient Roman inscriptions are seen in
different parts of the tovvn. That concerning Fa-
bius Severus is published by Gruter.

* See the engravings, published by Laborde, of the mosaic
at Italica in Spain, and those of different mosaics in England
by Lysons.

4

TRIESTE.—ANTIQUITIES,

In the Piazzetta di Ricardo, situated in the el d
part of the town, is a stone arch with Corinthian
pilasters, said to have been built in honour of Charle-
magne on his return from Istria. The Piazzetta di
Ricardo is so called, from a tradition of its having
been the site of the prison of Richard I. Cceur de
Lion, after he was taken at Aquileia.

There are some remains of a Roman aqueduct,
partly subterraneous, which brought water to Trieste
from a distance of six miles. These remains are
not conspicuous.

Trieste was anciently the Roman colony Ter-
geste, mentioned by Csesar and Pliny. * In the
sixth century it was subject to the Exarchate of
Ravenna. In the middle ages it was successively
subject to the Patriarch of Aquileia, to the Count
of Goritz, to the Doge of Venice. In 1382, it
came under the protection of Leopold Duke of
Austria, and has remained ever since in the posses-
sion of the house of Austria.

In the fifteenth century, the trade of Austria
and the south of Germany was carried on through
the Venetian port of Capo dTstria, and Trieste was
a small plače vvithout trade.

In 1719, Trieste was made a free port by the
Emperor Charles VI., and after that, during the

* Italy was divided into eleven regions by Augustus, and
the colonia Tergeste  was situated in the tenth region. Plin.
Hist. Nat. III. 22.

TRADE.

5

reign of his daughter Maria Theresa, the popula-
tion was greatly increased, by Greeks and other new
settlers. The new town was built on a fiat piece of
ground, formerly used for making salt by the eva-
poration of sea water. In 1753, the harbour was
enlarged, a mole was formed to shelter it from
the south, and an increase of trade was the conse-
quence of these improvements. The population is
now estimated at 40,000 inhabitants.

The trade of Trieste is flourishing, and the Au¬
strian government is inclined to favour it, and to
check the admission, into their dominions, of goods
brought up the Elbe.

Amongst the exports of Trieste are glass from
Bohemia, the produce of mineš from Hungary and
Idria, linen, tobacco, vvoollen cloth, potash, wool,
from the Austrian dominions and other parts of
Germany, manufactured and printed cotton goods
from Switzerland.

The imports are cotton wool, dried raisins, &c.
from Smyrna; wax, hides, silk, gall-nuts, rice, oil,
wool, from the Levant; wheat from the Levant and
from Odessa; Indian corn, oats, coffee, sugar, &c.
The importation of foreign manufactured goods into
the Austrian dominions is prohibited.

In 1790, the numberof vessels enteredwas 6750,
and of .vessels cleared out 7280. Since that time
the number has increased. Many barks of twenty
to thirty tons are employed in bringing to Trieste

6

TRIESTE.—TRADE.

the produce of  the countries bordering on the Ad¬
riatic, and in carrying to different ports in the Ad¬
riatic the foreign goods that have been imported in-
to Trieste. The communication with Naples is
carried on without going out of the Adriatic ; goods
from Trieste being sent by sea to Manfredoma, and
from thence overland to Naples.

The quantity of goods conveyed to and from
Trieste by land-carriage is very considerable. They
are carried, by way of Laybach and Gratz, to Vi-
enna and Bohemia, and by Klagenfurth, Salzburg,
and Innspruck, to Bavaria and Switzerland.

The harbour of Trieste is easy of access, and is
protected from the south by a mole.

The Borra  is a cold east-north-east wind, which
sometimes blows in vvinter with great violence ; but
as it blows off the land, it does not produce a high
sea, and is, therefore, less injurious to the shipping
than a sea wind of equal force.

In the road, where there is good anchorage, his
Majesty’s frigate Tagus, Captain D. Dundas, was
lying for some days at this time, (November 1817»)
and excited the attention of the inhabitants by her
fine appearance.

The tides are perceptible at Trieste, but are con-
siderably influenced by the winds.

The ships built at Trieste are much esteemed.
There is a yard with eight building slips, for the
construction of merchant vessels of £0o to 600 tons.

SHIP-BUILDING.

7

The ships are said to last fifty or sixty years, where-
as fifteen to twenty-five is the duration of ships built
in some other parts of Europe. The oak of which
they are built is excellent, and is got near Trieste
and Fiume. In the country near Trieste the soil
is scanty, upon limestone rock, so that the trees have
a slow growth, and produce wood of great density.
If the ship has a cargo of salt in her first voyage,
the wood is hardened by the salt, and the durabili-
ty of the ship is thereby increased. Vessels, also,
that carry quicklime, are of long duration, the lime
absorbing the damp, and, by its caustic quality, pre-
venting the action of worms and the rot. Other
cargoes, such as hemp, cotton, and pepper, that
hinder the circulation of air in the hold, and con-
fine the damp, are found to occasion the rot in
ships. Good cordage is made at Trieste from the
excellent hemp of Bologna. The masts are of spruce
fir, CPinus abies,)  and grow in Hungary and the
district of Adelsberg, but they are found to be
much inferior in durability to the masts of Norway
and the Baltic.

There are manufactories of white lead, soap,
leather, bleached wax, maccaroni paste for export-
ation, an establishment for dyeing Turkey red on
cotton, a sugar refining house, &c. In the sugar-
house and other manufactories, pit-coal from Basso-
viza, some miles distant from Trieste, is used asfuel.

At some distance from Trieste is a paper manu-

8

TRIESTE.—MANUFACTURES.

factory. From the low priče of subsistence, and the
consequent lovvness of vvages, and from the small
expence of their rude machinery, the paper is ma-
nufactured so cheap, tliat paper from Britain, made
with improved machinery, cannot come into com-
petition vvith it. The same may be said of the pa¬
per manufactories in Italy, some of the finer kinds
of paper only being iraported from England, France,
or Holland; but the manufacture is of so little
extent in Italy, that considerable quantities of rags
for making paper are exported to Britain from Leg-
horn, Naples, and Trieste.

Three miles from the town are salt vvorks. The
vvater of the sea is raised up by a scoop into a num-
ber of large shallovv pools of a rectangular form,
and separated from each other by banks of clay.
The bottom of these beds is of clay, and is rolled
fiat and horizontal by a small stone roller, like a
garden roller. The vvater is evaporated by the na¬
tura! heat of the sun, and the salt forms into cry-
stals, which are raked together by a vvooden rake
without teeth. The salt is made in May, June, July,
and August. During the rest of the year the heat
is not great enough to accomplish the evaporation.

In Britain the sun’s heat is not sufficient to pro-
duce salt at a marketable priče, by a complete eva¬
poration of sea vvater, but part of the process is ac-
complished by the sun at Lyminton in Hampshire,
vvhere the sea vvater, after if has been brought to a

SALT.

9

tertain density, by exposure in the shallow clay re-
servoirs like those mentioned above, is pumped up
into a pan in which the evaporation is finished by a
coal fire.

The salt got near Trieste is not sufficient for the
supply of the adjacent countries, and the Austrian
government, which has the monopoly of that arti-
cle, imports salt from Naples and Sicily.

The Austrian government has also the monopo-
ly of tobacco.

In the warehouses at Trieste are seen the iron and
Steel goods manufactured in Styria. The small
scythes are much esteemed. * The files are coarsely
made, and sold at a low priče. The Styrian Steel,
of which these articles are formed, is made at
one process from the ore, in the same way as the
Steel of the Hartz, of Brescia, of the Pyrennees,
and the East Indian steel called Wootz. The
English steel made by the cementation of bar-iron
with charcoal is more homogeneous, and preferable
for cutlery, gravers, files, &c. especially after it has
been čast. Very few articles made of čast iron are
to be seen. Some čast iron cannon are made at
Maria Zeli in Styria.

The vvarehouse for the products of the imperial
mineš is the deposit of mercury, vermillion, corrosive

* Some of the scythe forges are seen at Schottvvien on the
road from Vienna to Gratz.

10

TRIESTE.-MONET.

sublimate and other salts of mercury, and of sheet
brass, which is much used in Austria for making
spoons, &c.

Minium, made at Villaeh in Carinthia, is met
with at Trieste.

In November 1817, the most common coins in
circulation at Trieste were Austrian twenty kreuzei*
pieces, of base silver, * of the current value of eight-
pence halfpenny sterling.

Trieste, Carniola, and the other Illyrian provinces
belonging to the House of Austria, are favoured by
government so far as to enjoy an exemption from
the Vienna paper money, which has entirely super-
seded silver in the common circulation of Austria,
Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary, and Styria. This pa¬
per money at Vienna, in October 1817, was at one-
third of its original nominal value, the notes inscri-
bed sixty kreuzers being current for about twenty,
but their value fluctuated from day to day. A one
gulden note passed for the value of eightpence half-
penny sterling; the other notes in circulation at
Vienna are for tvvo, three, five gulden, and for larger
sums.

Roman Cathoiic is the prevailing religion, and
the religion of the government. Joseph II. gave
the free exercise of vvorship to ali religions;

* The silver they contain is only 7-12ths of their weight.—
Nelkenbrechers Mimzkunde, Berlin,  1817-

10

RELIGION.

H

and this toleration has been continued ever since.
The Protestanta of the confession of Augsburg
occupy the church that was formerly dedicated
to Santa Maria del Rosario. They have beliš to
announce public worship, and their hynins are ac-
companied by a good organ. On the altar is a cru-
cifix, and over it a painting of Christ. In the
church of the Protestants called the Reformed or
Helvetic community, ali ornament is carefiilly avoid-
ed. There are neither pictures, crucifix, nor organ.
The vvalls are inscribed with texts from Scripture.
The greatest number of the community are from
the country of the Grisons, vvhose language is Ro-
manish; * and in that language the Service is per-
formed.

* The country of the Grisons is a part of the ancient Rhae-
tia Propria, or Prima, which occupied the Southern declivity
of the Rhaetian Alps; the northern declivity being Rhaetia
Secunda, or Vindelicia.

The Romanisti, Rhastish, or Chur Walsh, is spoken by
about a half of the population of the country of the Grisons;
5-14ths speak German, and 2-14ths a corrupt Italian. The
Romanish is a modification of the Romana Rustica, or vulgar
Latin, that was spoken in the provinces of the Roman empire.
From the Alpine and inaccessible situation of the Grison coun try,
the Romana Rusticahas suffered less alteration in theRomanish,
than in other languages of vvhich the Romana Rustica forms
the ground-work.

The Proven$ale, or Romance, and, in some degree, the
Furlana or Friuli languages, resemble the Romanish. The
foUowing example of the Romanish is from Adelung: “  A

12 TRIESTE.—RELIGION.

■ The Illyrian Greek church is ornamented inter-
nally with paintings of saints, on a gilded ground,
in the Greek style.

The church of the Oriental Greeks has fewer de-
corations. Each of these Greek churches is admini-
stered by an archimandrite and subordinate priests.

The synagogue is situated in the Ghetto de’Ebrei,
the Jewry, or part of the town appropriated to the
habitation of the Jews.

The manners and the mode of living in Trieste
are Italian ; and Italian is the language most gene-
rally spoken. It is the language of the church and
of the theatre. German, the language of the go-
vernment, is not universally understood. Many
of the labouring class in Trieste are natives of Friuli,
and speak the corrupt Italian of that district. * * The

nus manar bec enten pruvament; mo nus spindre d’ilg mal.”
And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.—
See Planta’s Account of the Romanish Language, in the
Philosophical Transactions, 1775; Adelung and Vaters Mi-
thridates.

* The Furlano, or dialect of Friuli, is a corrupt Italian,
with a mixture of French and Slavic words. It is by some
considered to be allied to the Romanish language of the Gri-
son country. The French words that occur in the Furlano
were introduced by the priests, who came from Provence and
Gascony in the fourteenth century, with the two patriarchs of
Aquileia, Bertrand de Quercy and Cardinal Philip, There
are poems in this dialect by Brunalesco Brunaleschi, and
others.—See Adelungs Mithridates oder sprachenkunde.

1

LANGUAGE.

13

country people in the neighbourhood of Trieste, and
in  other parts of Carniola, speak Krainish, a dialect
of the Slavic ; * and in this language the church ser-

* The Slavic languages are spoken in the extensive conti-
nuous tract of country which comprehends Russia, Poland, Si¬
lesia, Bohemia, and Moravia. In that part of Saxony, which
borders on Silesia, the Serbi are distinguished frona the neigh-
bouring Germans, by their Slavic language and their peculiar
dress.

The Slavic dialects are spoken also in the countries adjacent
to Hungary on the east and south, and on the right of the
Drave and Danube, namely, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Croa-
tia, Sclavonia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria.

Adelung’s classification of the Slavic languages is as follovvs:

The Eastern Slavic  includes, 1. The Russian.  2. The
Illyrian,  comprehending the Servian, spoken in Servia, Bos¬
nia, Bulgaria, Morlachia, Sclavonic Walachia, Eastern Dal¬
matin, and the territory of Ragusa, and by the colonies of
Servians in Hungary and Transilvania; the Croatian, spoken
in Croatia, Western Dalmatia, in the Croatian counties in
Hungary, and in some parts of Hungary on the left of the
Danube; the language of the Southern Wends, or Krainish,
spoken in Carniola, Carinthia, Styria, and in the counties of
(Edinburg and Eisenburg in Hungary.

The Western Slavic  comprehends, 1. The Polish,  and
the language spoken by the Kasubi in Pomerania, and by
some of the inhabitants of Silesia. 2. The Tschechish,  (Czes-
ky,) or Bohemian, spoken by two millions out of three of the
inhabitants of Bohemia, by the inhabitants of Moravia, and by
the Slovaks in Hungary. 3. The language of the Serbi,  who
amount to 60,000 in Lausatia. 4. The language of the North¬
ern Wends,  of whom there are some remains in the dutchv of
Luneburg.

14

TRIESTE.—LANGUAGE.

vice in the countrv parishes is performed. A trans* *
lation of the New Testament into Krainish was pub-
lished at Laybach in 1786, by orders of the Bishop
of Laybach.

The inhabitants of Camiola are composed of the
fragments and remains of several different nations,—
Uskoques, * a Slavic people, vvho vvere driven from
Walachia,—Germanst of  different races,—the Krai¬
nish race vvhich is found ali over Carniola; there are
besides, five Slavic races varying from the Krainish,
and from each other in their dialect and dress, vvho
inhabit different parts of the dutchy.

Styria also contains the remains of several old Ger¬
man tribes ; and there are in that province six or

The Old Prussian and the Lettish, in Livonia and Kurland,
are languages composed of Slavic and German.

The VValachian is composed of Romana Rustica, or the
Latin anciently prevalent in the provinces of the Roman em-
pire, and Slavic. It is spoken in Moldavia, Walachia, Transilva-
nia, the Bukovine, the Bannat, and Upper Hungary ; and, on
the right of the Danube, by the greatest part of the inhabit¬
ants of Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly. Persons of rank
in Moldavia and Walachia speak Greek and Turkish.

• The Uskoques, 200 years ago, infested the Venetian trade
by their piracies. Some of them are called Heiducks, from
Hajduk, a captain of robbers. A specimen of their poetical
compositions is given by Fortis, Viaggio in Dalmazia ; Venet.
1774.

j- The Gottshelearer,  one of these small German tribes, are
depraved in their morals, and speak a very corrupt dialect of
fierman.—Adelung’s Mith. II. Th. 211.

I.ANGUAGE.

15

eight different dialects of German. The different
tribes are also distinguished by their dress. *

Many of the names of places in Carniola, Styria,
&c. are Slavic. In these names, Grad, equivalent to
the Russian Gorod, signifies town. Brod, the pas-
sage of a river, &c. The word Windisch is prefixed
to the names of some towns and districts, denoting
that these places are inhabited by Slavi, called Wends
by the Germans. Many of the places have two names,
one German, the other Italian or Slavic. Laybach
is otherwise called Lubiana ; Carniola in German is
called Krain, &c.

The netvspapers in the coffeehouses of Trieste are,
—the two German papers.published at Vienna,—
the Italian papers of Venice, &c.,—an Italian paper
for advertisements pnblished at Trieste,—a paper in
the Illyrian language, pnblished at Žara, and print-
ed in the Cyrillic letters, which the Russians use,—
a Greek paper entitled, ^.ilizrn.  f The

* I passed through the town of Marburg in Styria, on the
forenoon of the 2<)th of Octobcr, the day the emperor was ex-
pected. Arches of green fir boughs were erected in honour
of the sovereign ; and the town was crotvded with great num-
bers of the country people of different races, Siavi or Wends,
Hungarians, and Germans, distinguished from each other by
their dress, which was most curiously varied in form and co-
lour.

t One of the largest houses in Trieste is the property of a
Greek merchant who has been long established in the plače.

16'

TRIESTE.—NEWSPAPERS.

Austrian government does not admit English news-
papers, and even the British merchants at Trieste
find difficulty in procuring them.

The inns in Trieste are like the Italian inns.
The Locanda Grande is one of the best, and has
a view of the sea.

Madame Eliza Baziocchi, one of Bonaparte’s
sisters, lives at this time (November 1817) at
Trieste, and inhabits a handsome house to the south
of the tovvn.

The country near Trieste is stony, and contains
scarcely any arable land fit for producing grain, so
that the grain for the supply of the tovvn must be
imported.

The cattle are small. They are used for dravving
carts and in the plough. Buffaloes are rarely em-
ployed. The sheep fed upon the rocky pastures
are esteemed for the table.

Trieste is plentifully supplied with a variety of
fish. They reckon 60 kinds of fish and shell-fish.
The oysters fix themselves on vvooden posts placed
in the sea. Considerable quantities of tunny, sar¬
doni, and anchovies, are salted.

TheTurkishsubjectsof the Greekreligion, whofrequent Trieste,
Vienna, and Venice, are frequently termed by the inhabitants
of these cities Raitzen. This name, which should be written
Rascier, in a strict sense denotes the inhabitants of the South¬
ern part of Servia, who live near the river Raška.

/•shnJ>i.uxi]L l J ul > jlis7i ecL.hi.± l- (. 't 'ii-v/ aMi - < '■ •

FRUITS.

17

The fruits in the market of Trieste in the begin-
ning of November were the following : Apples. A
large winter pear, common in the middle and north
of Italy. Oranges and lemons. The fruit of the
strawberry tree, unpalatable, and full of small seeds.
The pods of the caroub ; the pod is sweet and eatable,
the seeds are hard and are not eaten. The fruit of
the Sorbus domestica,  in shape like a small pear an
inch long; * it is eaten when it bas begun to rot,
and is agreeable to the taste ; it is met with at
Vienna, and, as that climate is not very mild, it is
likely that the fruit would ripen in Britain. Lazze-
roni, a pleasant tasted fruit, in size and shape like a
very small apple, produced by the Cratcegus rubra,
a fruit-tree common also in the gardens at Rome and
other parts of Italy.

Amongst the garden-stuffs in the market is the
kohl raabi, a kind of brassica, which produces a pear-
shaped bulb above ground, three or four inches in
diameter, of the consistence of a turnip, and agree¬
able to the taste when boiled. This vegetable is com-
monly cultivated in gardens ali over Germany. In
Britain, although it has not come into general use,

* Pliny mentions sorbi, with a fruit of apear-shape, “ Sorbis
quadruplex differentia. Aliis enim eorum rotunditas mali,
aliis turbinatio pyri.’’ Plin. Hist. Nat. XV. 23. A figure of the
Sorbus domestica is in Jacquin, Flora Austriaca, 5 t. 447-

B

18

TRIESTE.—OIL.—IVINE.

it thrives well, and comes to maturity, at least when
raised from foreign seed.

Good olive-oil is made at a village two miles
north-west of Trieste, and the wine of Prosecco, a
villasje in the neighbourhood, is in some estimation.

The špirit called Sirmischer Slivovitz is met with
at Trieste. It is distilled from fermented plums,
and is made in Sirmia * near Belgrade. This kind
of špirit is also in use at Vienna and Prague.

Besides the limestone rocks which compose the
higher ground inland from Trieste, there are strata
containing clay ironstone. Pit-coal is wrought at
Bassoviza and at Lippiza, some miles distant, and
is used as fuel in the sugar-house, the sulphur-
refinery, and the soap-work, at Trieste. In the
clay ironstone strata is got a stratum of stone, one
to two feet thick, used for Street pavement. This
stratum has the upper and under surface tolerably
e ven. It is broken across into pieces of an irre-
gularly polygonal figure, of the thickness of the stra¬
tum, and having a surface of two or three square feet;
of these pieces the pavement of the streets of Trieste
is made. The pavement of the streets of Florence
is formed in the same way of a similar kind of stone.

The limestone or marble of the neighbourhood of

* Sirmium was the Capital of the ancient Roman province
of Illyricura

FACE OF THE COUNTRY.

19

Trieste is hewn into door-posts and other carved
parts of buildings.

That part of the Vienna road which ascends the
steep hill from Trieste vvasinade by Count Zinzendorf,
governor of Trieste, in the time of Maria Theresa.
In going up there is an agreeable view of the town
and the sea, but after the summit the scene changes
to a barren rocky country, which continues for seve-
ral stages on the Vienna road. The rock is lime-
stone, composed of strata nearly horizontal. In
some places the surface of this rock is bare for a con-
siderable extent, and very uneven, being full of fis-
sures, and grotesquely perforated with water-worn
holes. These bare limestone rocks occupy more than
one-halfof the surface, there being only a little grass
in the space betvveen the prominent parts of the rock.
The prominences are generally three or four feet
high,and the vegetation betvveen them can afford only
a scanty food to a few sheep. From the grey colour
of these rocks, the surface of the country looks as if
covered with snow or hoar-frost. A green-flovvered
hellebore (Helleborus viridis)  is seen here and there
amongst the rocks. Near some of the villages there
are vvalnut trees, and a few vines trained high upon
a small-leaved maple tree (Acer campestre).  The
common wine of the country is very bad. In the
inns on the road the vvine is either new and sweet-
ish from the imperfect fermentation, or vvhat they
call old vvine, which is cpiite acid. The vvine of

20

CARNIOLA.-—BASINS IN LIMESTONE.

Prosecco is the best in the country. In varioiis
piaces of this rocky ground there are round co-
nical pits or basins formed in the limestone by
some ancient operation of nature. These basins are
of different sizes, some of them about a hundred
yards in diameter at the top, and fifty feet deep;
the bottom is a plane surface of good arable ground,
which is cultivated. On the sides of most of the
basins there are trees. As there are many perfora-
tions visibly effected by water in the limestone, it
may be supposed that the formation of these basins
also, is due to the action of water.

There are severa] caverns of considerable extent in
this limestone. Amongst these is the grotto at the
viilage of  Carnioli, othervvise called Lohiow, seven
miles from Trieste. Its entrance is by a descent along
the inclined sides of a natural pit. After this descent
we walked into the cavern, in a direction nearly hori¬
zontal, the length of 1000 feet or more. The cavern
is very lofty in some places ; and there is a great
quantity of calcareous stalactite often reaching from
the roof to the floor. In one plače there is clear water,
but there is no running stream. The rock in vvhich
this grotto is formed is limestone containing shells.
The limestone is very cavernous and full of fissures.
Many of these fissures are water-worn. The wear-
ing action of the water appears to have taken plače
after the Stone was Consolidated, and after the fis¬
sures had been formed ; the fissures look as if form-

GROTTOS.

21

ed before the stone was Consolidated. This grotto
is similar in many respects to the cave at Castleton
in Derbyshire.

The country betvveen Carnioli and Trieste is
stony and barren. Near the road at Lippiza, in a
wooded piece of ground inclosed with a wall, is kept
a breeding stud of horses, established in 1805 by
the Archduke Charles; the climate is favourable to
Arabian and Spanish horses.

Near Adelsberg, which is thirty English miles
from Trieste, and on the road from Trieste to Vien-
na, is a vast cavern through which a river passes.
The river is so considerable as to drive a mili with
four vvater-vvheels, about 200 yards above the plače
where it enters the cavern. We went some hund-
red feet into the cavern, which is very lofty ; * the
roof is covered with stalactites. The river is seen
running in the cavern, at the foot of a precipice, and
fifty fathoms belovv the path where we were. The
river comes out to day again near Alben, called also
Planina, after having run under ground for some
miles. The Cyclamen Europeum  grows amongst
the stones at the mouth of the cavern.

The lake called the Czirknitzer-see is some miles
distant from Adelsberg. From the cavernous nature

* In thework entitled, Ehre des Erzherzogthums Krain,  by
Joanncs Weichard Valvasor  at Laybach,  in 1689, there are
views of this and other remarkable objects in Carniola.

22

PROTEUS ANGUINUS.

of the rocks in vvhich it is situated, the water, at
certain seasons, becomes low. In the water con-
tained in the caverns of this lake, the singular rep-
tile the Proteus anguinus is found. It has been ob-
served in no other part of the vvorld. Professors Con-
figliaehi and Rusconi of Pavia * have lately examined
its structure, and are of opinion that it breathes solely
by means of the pendulous and fringed gills placed
on each side of the throat; and, consequently, is
capable of living always under water, as the larvas of
vvater-nevvts, which are also provided with pendulous
gills, vvhereas newts in the adult State, and other
aquatic reptiles, having no apparatus for respiring
the air that is diffused in water, must sometimes
come to the surface of the water to inhale the air
of the atmosphere into their lungs. These learn-
ed observers consider the Proteus anguinus to be
an animal in the adult State, and not a larva. But
the Syren lacertina, examined by John Hunter and
Camper, and the aloxolotl brought from South
America by Humboldt, are supposed to be in the
state of larva. The eyes of the Proteus anguinus

• See Descrizione Notomica degli organi della circulazione,
delle larve delle salarnandre aquatiche, fatta dal Dott. Mauro
Rusconi, Pavia, 1817 ; and the description of the Proteus an¬
guinus, which Professors Configliachi and Rusconi were pre-
paring to publish in 1818.

The anatomy of the Proteus anguinus has also been exam-
ned by the eminent naturalistaSchreiberof Vienna, andCuvier.

CAVERNS IN LIMESTONE.

23

are so srna)! as scarcely to be visible, the animal in its
native situation, being, like the mole, always in the
dark, as it inhabits the vvater of caverns; the colour
of the animal is pink; the length about nine inches ;
the feet very short. I saw one of these animals alive
at Pavia, it was kept in a bucket of vvater in a dark
plače, and had been brought from the Czirknitz lake.
The country people sometimes bring them alive to
Trieste, and seli them as objects of curiosity.

Another river in the neighbourhood of Trieste
that appears to have run in caverns, is the Timavo,
near Montefalcone, on the road from Trieste to
Udine and Venice. It issues at once from the rock,
and after a very short course falls into the sea. *

* Caverns vvith stalactites, and rivers passing under ground,
occur in other countries composed of small-grained limestone.
The limestone near Trieste is probably of the same formation
vvith the limestone at Buxton and Castleton in Derbyshire,
vvhere large caverns are seen resembling those in Carniola,
and vvith that limestone in which the Rhone runs after leaving
the lake of GeneVa.

The quantity of vvater of the Rhone is mucli more consi-
derable after issuing from the lake, and after it is joined by
the Arve, than it is some miles belovv ; the vvater goes avvay
by the crevices of the limestone; and at the plače called La
Perte du Rhone, the stream runs for some hundred feet un¬
der a cover of limestone strata, and then emerges.

Near Dovedale, in Derbyshire, part of the vvater goes oft
into crevices of the limestone, and joins the main channel of
the river, after having run under ground for the space of se.
veral miles.

24

IDRIA.

Idria is sixty English miles from Trieste, and may
be visited from Laybach, in coming from Vienna to
Trieste. The small tovvn of Idria, vvith its old ba-
ronial castle, church, and via crucis  or calvary in a
serpentine form which travellers are apt to mistake
for some metallurgic apparatus, is situated in a deep
valley, surrounded vvith verdant and lofty mountains
of limestone. The more extensive horizon, seen
from the height, is bounded by distant mountains,
at this season (the beginning of November) cover-
ed vvith snovv.

Wood covers a part of the hills, and adds to the
beauty of the scenery. The woods consist of beech,
ash, birch, cherry-tree, pear, and apple. I savv no
larix, vvhich is common in the neighbouring pro¬
vince of Styria. Spruce fir (Pinus abies)  is the
most frequent of the fir tribe. There are some sil-
ver fir, and Scotch fir, (P. silvatica.)  Barberry,
juniper, and the hellebore, called Christmas rose,
are met vvith.

Tern is collected, and kept on a skreen composed
of horizontal poles, * to be used for litter to the

* These skreens, or narrovv barns, are used in other parts
of Carniola for hanging buck-vvheat upon. The skreen is
composed of two upright posts tvventy feet in height. Through
holes in the upright posts, horizontal poles are placed, reach-
ing from one upright to the other. On these poles, the buck-
vvheat, and other kinds of fodder, are placed. A narrovv roof

11

Skt-een arulPoles on whieh P>ueh-whe.a t,, is
slarkerL in, darnioln,. page, 24.

II

/hit  v/ m !he. s id e.v o/' whieh
hidiaru eorn. is- h n ruj in Carniola,

ZdinlurPi Tuhldied h-J. Cens/allc  <6 Co. 1820.

INDIAN CORN, &C. 25

eattle ; and, for the same purpose, beech leaves are
gathered in baskets made of hoops.

Indian corn is a good deal cultivated in other
parts of Carniola ; much of it is seen on the Vienna
road, betvveen Gratz and Cilli, in Styria ; and it is
cultivated partialiy, as far north as Prague, near the
latitude 50°. Gourds also are cultivated in consi-
derable quantity in Carniola and Styria. They
are cut into slices, and given to the hogs and cows.

The stream that runs by Idria, when seen from
the height, appears of a greenish blue colour. The
water, when looked at near, is colourless and trans¬
parent. This green colour is observed in other rivers
which run over limestone. It is remarkable in the
Rhone, issuing from the lake of Geneva.

The mine, from which the quicksilver ore is got,
is 450 feet deep. We vvent down by a stair, with
Stone steps, inclined about 35 degrees to the hori-
zon. A great deal of  wood is employed to support
the galleries of the mine. These wooden pillars
caught lire ten or tvvelve years ago, and it vvas found
necessary to allow the water to grow in the mine till
it covered and drovvned out the lire. They now use
piers of stone and lime for supports, in some parts
of the mine, instead of vvood.—In one of the galle-

of boards covers the whole, passing from one upright to the
other. The sheaves of buck-wheat are also sometimes fixed
on one upright post.

26

IDRIA.—QUICKSILVER MINE.

ries is an altar, with an image of the Virgin, and of St
John of Nepomuk, a saint much venerated by the
Roman Catholics at Prague, and in the south of
Germany.—The Emperor Francis, who makes fre-
quent excursions into different parts of his domi-
nions, descended into this mine in 1816. It has
been visited also by the Archduke John, vvho culti-
vates and promotes natural Science, founder of the
school of mineralogy and botany, called the Joan-
neum, at Gratz, and by some of the archdukes, his
brothers.—After going through several parts of the
mine, we came up in a bucket, moved by a forty
feet over shot water-wheel, which works the pumps
that keep the mine dry. The vvorking barrels of the
pumps are of bronze, the rest of the pump-pipes
are of wood. In Britain, the working barrels and
pipes, in similar situations, are now always of cast-
iron, which has many advantages; but the cast-iron
manufacture in the Austrian dominions is not suffi-
ciently improved to furnish such articles. The daily
wages paid to a miner are seventeen kreuzers, equal
to sevenpence halfpenny sterling. The adjacent
rock is small-grained limestone ; and, according to
Ferber, the ore is situated in shistus, lying under the
limestone. *

The ore is for the most part of a reddish brovm
colour. Some pieces are incrusted with bright red
cinnabar. The mercury exists in it in combination

* Ferber’s Letters.

ORE.

TJ

with sulphur. * Native mercury is found in small
quantities.

After the ore is raised from the mine, it is pick-
ed and separated into different sorts by the hand.
It is then pounded by stampers, and exposed at
the same time to a stream of water. The water
carries away the small particles of the pounded ore,
and, running along a wooden canal, the richest ore,
which is also the heaviest, falls down and remains
on the bottom of the canal in the form of slime.
In the next reach of the canal, the ore of a small-
er specific vveight is deposited. The ore* is some-
times vvashed in an iron sieve, immersed in a tub of
water, in order to separate the heavier parts from
the lighter. Use is also made of the large washing-
table, inclined at an angle of four or five degrees,
and kept in a tremulous motion, vvhilst the slime
and vvater run over it.

* The brovvn ore of Idria, on account of its liver colour, is

1000.0

28

IDRIA.-SUBLIMATION.

Some native mercury is collected, by vvashing the
ore, and is sold at a higher priče than that obtained
by sublimation, being considered more free from
mixture.

The ore, being reduced to powder and assorted,
is next to be subjected to the process of sublima¬
tion. For this purpose, there are vaulted ovens,
within vvhich are two or three tiers of brick grating.
On the brick grating are placed fiat earthen dishes,
containing the ore without addition. Fire is made
in the lower part of the oven, under the brick grat¬
ing, and the mercury is volatilized, and passes
through a chimney into the cooling-room, where it
is condensed, and remains in small drops amongst
the soot which covers the walls. The soot proba-.
bly contains also black sulphuret of mercury. The
soot and mercury are swept from the vvalls, and
the mercury is collected in a cavity in the middle of
the floor of the cooling-room.

The mercury is measured by a glazed earthenvvare
vessel, with a vertical slit at its upper end; when filled
up to the lower part of the slit, the vessel contains
twenty-five poundsof mercury. This portion of twen-
ty-five pounds is put in a piece of white leather, the
edges of which are gathered up round the mercury,
and firmly bound together, by many turns of a string
of the size of the little finger. The leather, after
being tied, has the form of a round bag, and no mer-
eury can be made to pass from any part of it, even
by a considerable pressure. This bag is packed in

VERMILLION, &C.

29

a cask niade to fit it, and three of the casks are pla-
ced in a strong deal box. In this form it is sent off.

The process for making vermiilion is not s.hewn
to strangers. It is niade of a great many differ-
ent shades, and is esteemed good; some of it,
perhaps, approaches to the brilliancy of the vermil-
lion imported from China. The vermiilion is pack-
ed like the raercury ; it is tied up in brovvn leather.

Corrosive sublimate, calomel, and red nitrate of
mercury called red precipitate, are also made at Idria.

The vvorkmen at the subliming furnaces have
their health injured by the action of the mercury on
their constitutions. The miners are not affected.

During the four years that the French were in
possession of Idria, they vrrought a much greater
quantity of ore, and produced more mercury, than
is now done by the Austrian government.

Mercury was formerly obtained from a mine in
Friuli by the Venetians. Almaden in Spain, and
Idria, are now the two most considerable mineš. It
is also extracted at Deux Ponts. The mine of Gual-
cavalica, in South America, has been abandoned.

Much of the mercury from Idria is sent to
Spanish South America, for the purpose of extract-
ing the silver from the ore by the process of amal-
gamation. *

* The process for obtaining silver from the ore by amalga-
mation, originated in Spanish South America.

It \vas aftervvards introduced in Hungarj by Bom, but is
in a great degree relinquished there.

30

1DRIA.-AMALGAMATION, &C.

Leaving Idria, a good road conducts us for twelve
or fifteen miles mostly along the ridges of the hills,
till we came to Lohitsch, on the great road leading
from Vienna to Trieste, and to the latter plače I
returned through Adelsberg, &c.

The transit of goods on this road is very consider-
able. Sugar, coffee, lemons, and other articles, im-
ported into Trieste, are sent to Vienna and the cir-
cumjacent parts of the Austrian dominions; and the
glass of Bohemia, and other produce of these coun-
tries, is brought to Trieste to be shipped. The
road, however, is rough, and is not kept in a suffi-
cient State of repair to facilitate the passage of the
numerous four- wheeled vvaggons, each of which is
drawn by many horses. The high roads in Italy
are kept in much better order.

The diligence from Vienna to Trieste, which
travels ali night, except one night at Gratz, and
makes out the journey, of about 300 English miles,
in eight days, is a heavy vehicle in form of a coach,
and suspended on steel springs. AIthough not
excellent, it is better than the public conveyances
in Hanover and Saxony, and not worse than se-
veral of the diligences in France ; but these last
are now improving by the adoption of coaches

In Saxony the process is carried on with much activity, and
with well constructed machinery, at the amalganiation esta-
blishment at the Halsbriicke, near Freyberg, as I witnessed
there in 1817-

C 0^1 S TIN G VI S'SEL S ON THE TI C F. 31.

F.dmlnu^hFubLL.vhed. />y .LConjitalle I CoJ820.

PUBLIC CARRIAGES. Sl

niade in the English way. Tliere are also coaches
that go betvveen Trieste and Vienna, when they
have got their complement of passengers, and tra-
vel with the same horses, stopping at night. Tra-
vellers that take post-horses may have a calesh at
each post-house, for vvhich they are charged a fixed
hire, but these caleshes are not very commodious, so
that it is better for those who travel far vvith post-
horses to procure a carriage for the vvhclc journev.

There are numerous barks vvhich carry goods
betvveen Trieste and Venice. They are like the
other coasting vessels of the Adriatic, about thirty
tons burden, vvith two masts, and a lug sail some-
thing in the latine form, to each mast. With these
sails they are able to go vvell before the vvind, but
cannot beat up against a vvind so vvell as a sloop-rig-
ged vessel. In one of these barks I went from
Trieste to Venice. The passengers have the use
of a cabin and beds, but must not expect very de-
licate accommodation. Soon after the time of which
I speak, a steam-boat, for conveying passengers from
Trieste to Venice, was constructed by the American
Consul.

The distance is seventy English miles, and is
gone in tvvelve hours vvith a good vvind; but the
vvind proving unfavourable, vve put into the harbour
of Pirano, a small town in Istria, vvith a churchtovver
built on the model of the tovver of Saint Mark at
Venice. The Venetian lion is seen sculptured on
several of the buildings, the tovvn having belonged

32

TRIESTE TO VENICE.

to the republic. It is inhabited by sea-faring men,
who, like other sailors in this part of the Adriatic,
wear a brown great coat with a hood that goes over
the head.

The chamber of Commerce of Trieste, in 1818,
erected a lighthouse near Pirano, illuminated by
the gas from pit coal.

At Pola on this coast, forty miles south of Trieste,
are the remains of a Roman building, consisting of
an elliptical wall of three floors, with rustic arcades
like the outer wall of the amphitheatre at Verona.
Maffei * considers this fabric to have been a theatre
and not an amphitheatre, as the seats are on one side
only, and formed on the declivity of a hill. The
length, according to that learned author, is 416 Eng-
lish feet, the height 97- It is the only one of the
Roman elliptical precincts that now remains entire
in its vvhole circumference ; about a half of the pre-
cinct of the amphitheatre at Rome, and the greatest
part of the precinct at Verona, having long since
come to the ground.

The wind becoming favourable, we sailed from
Pirano, and arrived at the port of Lido, the entrance
of the Laguna, vvhere there is a fort to guard the
passage, and from whence, after a tedious examina-
tion of baggage by the custom-house officers, we pro-
ceeded in a boat the distance of two or three miles
to Venice.

* Verona Illustr. parte quarta.

CHAPTER II.

Venice.—Laguna—Ancient State and decline of Penice.—Saint
Mark’s Plače.—Saint Mark’s Church.—Bučal Palaee.—Li-
brary.— Churches.—School of Saint Rocq.—Academ.y qf
Painting.—Mode of Building Public Garden.—Collection
of Minerals.—Climate.—Coffeehouses.— Theatres.—Rialto
Bridge.—Arsenal.—Fish and other productions—fflells.—
Armenian Monastery.—Manufacture of Glass Beads.—Bu-
rying Ground.—Islands of Torcello, 8>c.

I. ite  Laguna is separated from the sea by a line of
narrovv sandy islands. This line is broken by three
passages, vvhich are the principal entrances into the
Laguna;—the most northerly at the port del Lido,
by which we entered ;—the passage at the port of
Malamocco, between the points of the two longest
of the sandy islands;—and the most southerly at the
port of Chiozza.

At Chiozza, at the Southern extremity of this
line of sandy islands, massive stone bulwarks, called
Murazze, have been constructed, to render the de-
fence against the action of the sea more secure. *

* The strengthening the barriers that defend the Laguna
against the sea is recommended in the Trattato delle acque
di Luigi Cornaro,  published at Padua in 1560. The same
author, wbo, in his work, De Vita Sobria,  gives an agreeable

C

34

VENICE.—LAGUNA.

The Laguna, vvithin the line of sandy islands, is
an extensive bay, a great part of which is so shal-
low as to be dry at low water. It is intersected
by channels of various depths, some of them deep
enough to allow ships of considerable size to come
close to the town.

The šiit, or sandy mud, accumulates in the La¬
guna, and tends to exclude the sea. This exten-
sion of the land, by alluvial matter, has taken plače
in different situations on the Adriatic, near the
mouths of the Po ; and particularly at Ravenna,
which was anciently on the edge of the sea, but,
from the accumulation of mud and sand, is now
three or four miles inland from the shore. To
counteract this filling up of the Laguna, in the be-
ginning of the sixteenth century, a part of the river
Brenta was made to discharge itself near Chiozza;
and the bucket-dredging machine, called by the
French Marie salope, is used for keeping the chan¬
nels clear of silt.

There are several low islands in the Laguna,
The city of Venice is built on two of these islands,
separated from each other by the great canal, which
has a serpentine course. The two islands are again

description of the way in which he passed his old age, and of
the temperate regimen he observed, with the desired effect of
keeping off the diseases to which his delicate constitution was
predisposed. He was a wealthy Venetian of the distinguish-
ed family of Cornaro, and lived to the age of 98.

POPULATTON.

35

subdivided by a great many smaller canals. The long
narrow island of La Giudecca, so called from having
been formerly the residence of the Jevvs, being at a
short distance, is included in the city. The surface
occupied by the city may be about one English square
mile and a half. The population is stated to be
120,000; sixtyyears ago, it was 170,000. Muratio#
and some other islandscovered with buildings, are more
distant, and are to be considered as separate villages.

The province, called Venetia by the ancient Ro-
mans, vvas bounded by the Adda, the Rhoetian and
Julian Alps, and the Po. Maffei gives the historv
of that province to the time of Charlemagne. *

About the year 450, the cities of Aquileia, t Pa¬
dna, and others, situated in the ancient province of
Venetia, vvere ruined by the Huns under Attila,
and the inhabitants took refuge in the islands along
the coast. On the island of Ripa-alta, or Rialto,
the first foundation of the city of Venice vvas laid.
An epistle of Cassiodorus, praetorian prefect, and

* Maffei Verona Illustrata, parte prima.

t The inhabitants of Aquileia took refuge on the island of
tirado, not far distant from Aquileia. In 570, the patriarch
of Aquileia, flying from the Lombards, renioved his treasure
to Grado, which was called New Aquileia. The patriarchs of
Aquileia were adopted by the infant republic of Venice, be-
came the ecclesiastical primates in the Venetian territory,
and, in 1450, the seat of the patriarch was removed from
Grado to Venice. Of the city of Aquileia, which vvas at it?
greatest in the fourth century, little now remains.

36 VENICE.—-ANCIENT STATE.

minister of Theodoric, describes the State of the
islands of the Laguna in 523, seventy years after
Attila’s irruption.* At that time the chief pro-
duce of these islands was fish and salt. The inhabit-
ants had trading barks that ascended the Po, and the
neighbouring rivers, and vessels that traded in the
Adriatic. They performed the transports of wine
and oil from Istria to Ravenna, Theodoric’s royal re-
sidence. The epistle of Cassiodorus, vvhich is ad-
dressed to the tvvelve tribunes, or magistrates, shews
that the islands of the Venetian Laguna were at that
time subject to the Gothic kingdom of Italy.

Charlemagne resigned ali claims to the sovereign-
ty of Venice. His son Pepin made an unsuccess-
ful attack upon the islands of the Laguna. The
Venetians then, and in the ninth and tenth een-
turies, considered themselves as an unalienable
portion of the Greek empire of Constantinople.
Venice in religion did not adhere to the Greek
church ; but she was less servile in her obedience to

* This epistle is commented on by Maffei, Verona Illus-
trata.

The anonymous Chronicle of the Eleventh Century, and
the Chronicle of the Fourteenth Century, composed by the
Doge Andrew Dandolo, are the oldest chronicles of the
Venetian history.—See Muratori Script. Rer. Italic, Tom.
XII. Paruta’s History of Venice, from 1513 to 1551, and
his History of the War of Cyprus, from 1570 to 1572, are
much esteemed. Paolo Ramusio il Giovane, Storia della
Guerra di Costantinopoli, is partly a translation of Villehar-
douin, who was a commander in that war.

ANCIENT STATE.

37

the Popes than many other Catholic States, and the
Papal laws against usury, and other inquisitorial laws
of the church of Rome, were never acknovvledged
by the republic.

The annual election of the twelve tribunes passed
into the permanent command of a doge or duke.
The government was then a mixture of democracy
and monarchy; the doge was elected by the votes
of the general assembly, and reigned with the au-
thority of a prince vvhilst he was successful; but
vvhen bad fortune prevailed in the puhlic affairs, he
was deposed, banished, or put to death, by the mul-
titude.

In the twelfth century began the povver of the
aristocracy, which reduced the doge to the mere ap-
pearance of command, and deprived the people of
ali povver.

After the capture of Constantinople by the com-
bined forces of the Venetians and the crusaders,
and the subsequent election, by these tvvo povvers,
of Baldvvin, Count of Flanders, to the imperial
throne, Venice possessed three of the eight parts
into vvhich Constantinople was divided, and the
doge, till 1356, was styled Dominus quarta± partis
et dimidiae imperii Romani, the lord of one-fourth
and of the half of a fourth of the Roman em-
pire. *

Along the sea-coast, from Ragusa to the Helles-

* See Gibbon’s Decline and Fali of the Roman Empire.

38

VENICE,—ANCIENT STATE-.

pont and Bosphorus, the Venetians had a chain of
factories and tovvns, many of vvhich vvere held by
Venetian families in fen from the republic. The
Venetian family of Sanuto held the dutchy of Naxos,
vvhich comprehended the greatest part of the Ar-
chipelago.

The island of Candia vvas purchased by the re¬
public from the Marquis of Montferrat, one of the
crusaders, vvho got that island and the kingdom of
Macedonia as his share of the spoils after the cap-
ture of Constantinople.

Corfu, Cefalonia, Zante, &c. vvere conquered by
the republic and by the feudatory nobles of Venice.

Padna, Vicenza, Verona, Brescia, Bergamo, and
other cities, vvere acquired in 1410.

Venice possessed the East India trade vvhen the
goods were brought to Europe by the Levant. But
she lost this trade after the route by the Cape of
Good Hope vvas discovered by the Portuguese.

In 1508, Venice had the energy and the good
fortune to vvithstand the combination formed against
her by the league of Cambray, composed of the Em-
peror Maximilian, Louis XII., Ferdinand of Ar-
ragon, Pope Julius II., and the Duke of Savoy.

In 1618, Venice vvas on the eve of being destroy-
ed by a conspiracy, at the head of vvhich vvas the
arabassador from Spain. *

Candia vvas lost in 1669.

* See the Abbe de S. Reals Account of the Conspiracj' of
the Spaniards against Venice.

FALL.

39

A hundred years ago Venice was already in a
State of decline, and had lost much of her trade. *

France and Austria had long speculated upon
seizing the Venetian territory. At the peace of
1747, France offered to allow the Empress Maria
Theresa to occupy the Venetian possessions. During
Bonaparte’s campaign in Italy in 1795 and 1796,
the Venetian government did not possess sufficient
energy to take a decided part or to maintain a re-
spected neutrality. Verona, Brescia, Vicenza, Pa¬
dna, Friuli, and the rest of the Venetian territory
on the mainland of Italy, were the seat of war be-
tween the French and Austrians. The French
troops were maintained and equipped, and their ge¬
nerala enriched at the expense of these provinces,
which vvere at length revolutionized and taken pos-
session of by the French, notwithstanding the sub-
missive conduct of Venice. The Venetians had no
effective fleet, + England had the command of the
Adriatic, but want of union prevented the Venetian
government from taking advantage of the assistance
of England to defend the town, which, from its si-
tuation, was considered as impregnable. Many Ve¬
netian nobles, members of the government, were in

* Addison’s Remarks on Italy, in 1701.

j- In 1786, the Venetian fleet was scarcely sufficient to keep
the pirates of Tunis in order, and failed in »n expeditiea
against that plače.

40

VENICE.-FALL.

the French interest. The 12,000 Sclavonian troops
in the pay of the republic were disbanded and sent
home, and after Bonaparte had concluded the Italian
campaign by the treaty with the Austrians at Čam¬
po Formio, the French were admitted into Venice
in May 1797, the ancient government of the repub¬
lic vvas dissolved, and a new government, on the
French revolutionary model, was substituted in its
plače. Thus Venice lost her independence, after
having subsisted, vvith various fortune, for upvvards
of 1000 years.

Under the French, Venice continued from 1797,
for eighteen years, till the fall of Bonaparte’s power,
and since that she has been subject to the Austrian
government, forming part of the Lombar do-Vene-
tian kingdom.

Venice is no longer the brilliant and prosperous
city from whose stories Shakespeare chose the sub¬
ject of his plays; the life is gone, * but the material

* Two hundred years ago Venice vvas called the rich, Ve-
nezia la ricca; and the follovving epithets, some of which stili
continue to be applicable, vvere given to the other cities of
Italy: Koma la santa, Rome the holy ; Napoli la gentile,
Naples the courtly, and the abode of nobles ; Genova la su-
perba, Genoa the magnificent, on account of its fine palaces;
Milano la grande, Milan the great, from its extent and po-
puiation ; Firenze la bella, Florence the beautiful, on account
of the neatne.ss of the streets and the agreeable situation of
the town ; Bologna la grassa, Bologna the fertile, on account

SAINT MARK’S PLAČE.

41

remains of former magnificence stili exist in the
works of the eminent artists whose talents vvere cal-
led into action 800 years ago by the vvealth of the
republic, the pictures of Titian and Paul Veronese,
and the buildings of Sansovino.

Saint Mark’s Plače, and the Merceria, which
leads from Saint Mark’s Plače to the Rialto, are
the most frequented parts of the town. In the
more remote parts there are many untenanted
houses going to ruin. Much of the trade that
formerly gave animation to the city has been trans-
ferred to Trieste.

Saint Mark’s Plače is an oblong rectangle, sur-
rounded on three sides by buildings in a good style
of architecture, on the ground-floor of which is a
gallery with open arcades, forming a puhlic walk.

The south side was commenced by Sansovino ; * *

of the fertility of the adjacent country; Ravenna 1’antica,
Ravenna the ancient; Padova la dotta, Padua the learned,
on account of the university.

* Jacopo Tatti, called Sansovino from the name of his ma-
ster’s birth-place, vvas born at Florence, studied at Rome,
along vvith Michael Angelo, and even aspired to emulate
that great genius. It is remarked, in an account of Sansovi-
no’s life, that he vvas qualified to hold the first plače amongst
his companions, but not vvhen Michael Angelo vvas present,—
Jacopo era nato per primeggiare ma non ovefosse Michel Ag~
nolo.  Sansovino’s architectural vvorks at Venice are the zecca
or mint,—the building formerly emploved as the library of

42

VENICE.—SAINT MARK’s PLAČE.

part of it is by Scamozzi, and the rest successively
by three other arcbitects. * It is of Istrian inarble,
was begun in 1588, and finished in 1682. The
architecture is nearly uniform ; it was called the
Procuratorie Nuove, and contained the habitations
for each of the nine procurators of State. The
French converted the Procuratorie Nuove into a
palače for the sovereign, and it is stili used for that
purpose by the Austrian government, and contains
a splendid suit of rooms for the emperor.

The Procuratorie Vecchie, the range of build-
ings on the north side of Saint Mark’s Plače, was
built about the yeai’ 1500. It has the windows
disposed in arcades, and is not so much decorated
with sculpture as the Procuratorie Nuove.

The small vvest side of Saint Mark’s Plače for-
merly contained the church of Saint Geminiani,
vvhich interrupted the arcaded walk, but this church
has been removed by the French, who constructed
in its plače the grand staircase of the palače, and
the arcades are now continued vvithout a break,
round the three sides of Saint Mark’s Plače.

Saint Mark,—the palače of the Cornaro family on the great
canal, which was burnt in December 1817,—the Scuola della
Misericordia, and some churches. There are also several
statues executed by Sansovino at Venice. He died at Venice
in 1570, at the age of 91.

j- F. di Bernardino, M. della Carita, and Longhena.

SAINT MAKK*S CHURCH.

43

The pavement of Saint Mark’s Plače is of squar-
ed pieces of grey marble, with tracery in white mar-
ble. It was first paved in 1723.

In the form and in the galleries, Saint Mark’s
Plače resembles the Palais Royal at Pariš, but is not
a scene of such bustle.

At the east end of Saint Mark’s Plače is the
church of Saint Mark, in the round-arched style of
architecture that prevailed in the middle ages. It
was built about the year LOGO, and contained the
body of Saint Mark, brought from Alexandria by
the Venetians in 829. The first church of Saint
Mark, on the same site, was built in 828, and con-
sumed by fire in 976.

The church has five domes, which adinit no light,
and are low.

The interior has a gloomy appearance. The walls
and ceiling are decorated with scripture histories in
mosaic, executed at different periods, from the
eleventh century downwards. Some of the finest
pieces of mosaic are of the year 1545, by the bro-
thers Zuccati of Trevise, who vvrought after the
designs and with the advice of Titian.

The atrium or vestibule, a kind of portico that
runs along the front and part of the sides of the
church, is also adorned vvith mosaic, as is the exte-
rior front of the church.

In the church are sculptures by Sansovino.

There are a great many antique columns of mar¬
ble and porphyry, but mostly of a small size.

4>4<  VENICE.—SAINT MARK’s  CHURCH.

In the middle of the church is a large brass lustre,
in form of a cross, with four arms. *

In the vestibule are the tombs of some Doges,
and several Latin inscriptions of the eleventh and
tvvelfth centuries, in letters called Lombard, which
are a modification of the Roman letters. The old-
est of these inscriptions is in memory of the Doge
Vitale Falerio, who died in 1096.

Above the middle door of the front are novv again
placed the four antique bronze horses, after having
decorated the Plače du Carousel  in Pariš. These
horses are not seen to advantage in this situation,
being too far from the eye. They are supposed to
have been brought from Constantinople, after the
combined army of the Crusaders and Venetian fleet
had taken that city in 1204. + These horses are ably
executed, but they are thought to be inferior in

* The mode of disposing lamps in form of a cross was a-
dopted by Bernini, in the church of Saint Peters at Rome,
where the great illuminated brass cross displayed at Easter is
admired for its simple form, and the just proportion it bears
to that vast edifice.

See Sanuto vite degli Dogi in Muratori Scriptor. Rer.
Italic. Tom. XXII.; and Paolo Ramusio de Bello Constantino-
politano et Imperatoribus Commenis per Gallos et Venetos
restitutis; Venet. 1635. Nicetas, a senator of Constantinople,
enumerates, in his history, the ancient bronze statues that were
broken and coined into money by the Crusaders and Veneti-
ans, after getting possession of Constantinople.

Ec/inhirg/i iy jLCvturtu/<Ie <t (o.28'20.

Form, oP llut letters oP ircscriptiono oP tho, 13 CemJzory,
m Sat ut Mark’s c.hurch, at 'Venlcepope, 44.

dTVLTV  m(T(TLYXY

s t v u. x 12 8 0

l>y.1 .Constalle <t Co-1820.

DUCAL PALAČE.

45

špirit to the horses’ heads in the Elgin collection,
and the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the
court of the Capitol.

The south and vvest sides of the ducal palače,
vvhich was rebuilt in 1439, produce an agreeable ef-
fect; they are of pointed arched Gothic architec-
ture, and the vvalls are chequered vvith marble of tvvo
different colours, light red and white, disposed sym-
metrically.

The palače is built round a court, the east side of
vvhich consists of round arcades, more modern than
the exterior part of the building, being of the style
of the sixteenth and seventeenth century. On the
balustrade of the Scala de’Giganti, vvithin the court,
are tvvo colossai statues of Mars and Neptune, by
Sansovino, erected in 1566.

The interior of the palače is occupied by courts
of justice and puhlic offices, and contains pictures
and other decorations. In one of the roorns is a set
of large geographical maps, painted on the vvalls,
after the maps of Ramusio. *

The hali of the great council, a very large and
noble room, is now occupied by the public library,
and contains a collection of antique statues, present-
ed to the republic by Giov. Grimani, patriarch of
Aquileia. t The side vvalls are adorned vvith pictures

• Large painted maps also occur in the Vatican.

j- An account of these statues is published by Zanetti.

46

LIBRARY OF SAINT MARK.

on canvas, relating to the history of Venice, and
one end is covered by a very large picture of the
saints in celestial glory, by Jacopo Tintoretto. On
the ceiling are paintings by Paul Veronese and
others.

There are some celestial and terrestrial globes by
Coronelli. *

The library, before the extinction of the repub-
lic, was kept in the building erected by Sansovino,
opposite to the ducal palače, and has since been re-
moved to this great hali. Petrarch gave his library
to the republic of Venice, but the books were
neglected and lost. In 1468, Cardinal Besarion t
made a donation of his extensive collection of ma-
nuscript books to the church of Saint Mark; and

* Coronelli, a native of Venice, a monk of the minor con-
ventual order, author of many folio volumes on Geography,
made, in 1683, the two large globes that are seen in the Biblia~
theque du Roi  at Pariš, 11 feet, 11 inches, 6 lines, French, in
diameter, and of which there is an account published by De
la Ilire. They were made by order of Cardinal d’Estree, and
presented by liim to Louis XIV. A large modem terrestrial
globe, of about the same size, and made in the latter part of
the eighteenth century, is in the Mazarine library at Pariš.

f Besarion was born at Trebizond, and educated at Con-
stantinople. He was one of the Greek ecclesiastics that ac-
companied John Paleologus II. to the council held at Flo¬
rence, for the union of the Greek and Latin church. This
council was held only fourteen years before the Turks got
possession of Constantinople. Besarion čarne over to the opi-

4

BESARION.—MANUTIUS.

47

this gift is the first commencement of the public li-
brary of Saint Mark. * * The cardinaPs portrait is
seen in the library.

In this and other libraries of Italy are seen col-
lections of the finely printed editions, by the cele-
brated Venetian printer, Aldus Manutius. t

nions of the Latin church, and was made Cardinal in 1439,
by Eugenius IV. He was employed by the popes in embas-
sies; was legate at Bologna, &c. He wrote in defence of
Plato and other works, which are enumerated in the Biblio-
theca Graeca of Fabricius. Besarion died in 1472, at the age
of 77.

* See Dissertazione della Puhlica Libreria di San Marco,
da Jacopo Morelli, 1774.

f The elder Aldo Manuzio was born near Rome in 1447-
He was a man of learning ; and, in 1494, formed an establish-
ment in Venice for printing Greek and Latin works. He
published almost ali the Greek and Roman classics. Erasmus
lived with him for some time, and had his Proverbs printed
by Aldus. The letters of Aldus are admired for their Cice-
ronian Latin. He died in 1515, at the age of 68.

The printing establishment at Venice was continued by his
son Paolo Manuzio, who likewi.se printed at Rome in the sena¬
tor’s palače in the Capitol, with the Rubric, Apud Paulum
Manutium in /Edibus Populi Romani, 1562.

Aldo Manuzio the younger, and son of Paolo, was professor
of literature at Piša and Rome, and superintendent of the
printing-house of the Vatican.—See Foscarini Storia della
Letteratura Veneziana. Tiraboschi, st. d. lett. Ital. Apos¬
tolu Ženo Notizie del Manuzio.

48

VENICE.-COLUMNS.-TOVVER.

On the plače called Broglio are two columns of
thirty feet or more in height, brought from Greece
in the time of the Doge Tiani. Each of the co¬
lumns is of one stone. One of them is of small-
grained grey syenite, and on its top is now again
placed the bronze vvinged lion by Donatello, vvhich,
during Bonaparte’s reign, was removed to the Plače
of the Invalids at Pariš. The other column is of
red Egyptian large-grained granite, and has on its
summit a statue of Saint Theodore, formerly patron
of the city, till the republic thought lit to choose a
more dignified protector Saint Mark.

The Campanile, a square tovver of brick, in Saint
Mark’s Plače, is 350 English feet in height, and
was built in 1148, in the reign of the doge Dome-
nico Morosini. At the base of the tovver, on the
east side, is a small ornamented building by San-
sovino, called la logetta. The tovver is composed of
a double vvall, and betvveen the vvalls is an inclined
plane of brick, vvithout steps, vvhich vvinds round the
central tovver and leads to the top.

From the gallery at the top of the tovver there is
a view of the town and the Laguna. The point of
sight is not high enough to open the great canal,
nor even the canal of the Giudecca, so that the three
principal islands of Venice appear in one. To the
north the view is bounded by the Friuli, or Julian Alps,
vvhich occupy about ninety degrees of the horizon,

n

O<WT'&

anr-^u0i^'iia^js‘^\.rifl'uo. , 6^friu-/rhi7f^f i -'/i'fD^j'i/3:t7zit»yT.^ avtru ■Kfz&ffifuojfi&iff puv ,'impvj ■"■'•'u -itruvTirvj 't/joj
• 6'7' '8^'^ '^n^i a^/naf &i£7 iM#.y i&</s -ruit>jun<w

VIEW.

49

CKtending from the neighbourhood of Trieste to the
mountains near the lake di Garda. The upper part
of this range of mountains is covered with snow at
this season, (November I8I7.) At their foot are
lower hills, and a plain extending to the sea. In
this plain several towns are seen, amongst others
Treviso. Thirtv miles distant, and rising above the
level horizon to the vvest, are the hills called Monte
Seliče, or the Euganean Hills, composed of porphyry
and trap, which Fortis, in his work entitled Geolo-
gia del Vicentino, considers to have been formed by
submarine volcanos.

The grand vievv of the chain of the Julian Alps
is seen also from the northern quay, called the Fon-
damento Novo.

From the east end of Saint Mark’s Plače are seen a
number of buildings of different ages;—Saint Mark’s
church, with round arches and low cupolas, of the
beginning of the eleventh century ;—the Campanile,
of the tvvelfth ;—the ducal palače, vvith pointed
arched vvindovvs, and the walls chequered vvith red
and white marble, of the thirteenth or fourteenth;—
the torre del orlogio and the procuratorie vecchie,
vvith round arches, of the end of the fifteenth ;—the
library of Saint Mark, highly decorated vvith sculp-
ture by Sansovino, of the beginning of the sixteenth;
— the procuratorie nuove, nearly in the same
style, and built in the seventeenth century-and
if the spectator goes a fevv paces tovvards the gra-

50

ARCHITECTS—ANT. CANAL.

nite columns, he has a view of the church of
San Giorgio Maggiore, by Palladio,* built in 1560.

The paintings of different vievvs in Venice, with
the principal buildings, canals, &c. by Antonio
Canal, commonly called Canaletto, t are excellent
for the truth of the linear perspective and colouring,

* The following are the names and the years of some of
the principal architects whose fabrics are seen in Venice :

Niccolo Pisano, flourished in 1230. Built the church of
Saint Anthony at Padua, and the Frari at Venice.

Sansovino, (Jacopo Tatti,) flourished in 1510. Built the
mint, the library of Saint Mark, &c.

Tullio Lombardo, flourished in 1516. Built some churches
in Venice.

Santi Lombardo, his son. Built the hali of Saint Rocq.

Serlio, flourished in 1534. Constructed the ceiling of Saint
Mark’s library, and some churches.

Palladio, flourished in 1550. Designed several churches in
Venice.

Scamozzi, flourished in 1580. Built part of the procu-
ratorie nuove, &c.

Antonio da Ponte, flourished in 1590. Built the Rialto
bridge, the prison.

Baldassar Longhena, flourished in 1630. Built the church
of la Salute, &c.

Domenico Rossi, in the eighteenth century. Constructed
the front of the Jesuits’ church.

j- Antonio Canal was bom in 1697, and died in 1768.
Bernardo Belloti Canaletto, the pupil of his uncle Antonio,
painted views of Venice in the same style, and etched. He
was bom at Venice in 1724, and died at Warsaw in 1780.

CHURCHES IN VENICE.

51

.and contain representations of the old Venetian festi-
vals. These pictures are seen in many of the first
collections in Europe, and engravings from them are
commonly to be met with in Venice.

Pictures, Statues, Architecture,  &c. of some
of the Principal Churches in Venice.

Churches of the period from the Eleventh to the
Fifteenth Centurg.

Saint Mark’s church, as before mentioned, was
built in the beginning of the eleventh century.

The church of La Carita was first consecrated in
1177-

The Frari, in the pointed-arched Gothic style,
and one of the largest churches in the city, was built
about 1234, by Niccolo Pisano, the same architect
who erected the church of Saint Anthony at Padua.
This church contains the tomb of the great painter
Titian, who died in 1576, at the age of 99, and some
large monuments, erected in memory of Doges.

In the large church of the Servi di Maria, built
in 1316, is the tomb of Santorio, and of Fra Paola
Sarpi, theologian to the republic. *

* Fra Paolo Sarpi was bom in 1552. He was a Servite
monk, and for supporting the rights of the Venetians in their

RESTORATION

In another church is a monument in memory of
Rosalba Carriera, from vvhose pencil many portraits
in crayons ai’e seen in tlie collections in various
parts of Europe. She was boni in Venice in
1672, and died in 1757«

Santi Giovanni e Paolo is a large church, with
some pointed arched Gothic, built in 1430. The
interior produces a grand effect. It contains the
celebrated great picture by Titian, representing
the Assassination of San Pietro Domenicano. * *

disputes with the Pope, he was excommunicated by Paul V.
Borghese. InFra Paolos History of the Council of Trent, he
exposes the intrigues of the court of Rome, who attempted
to refute the work of Fra Paolo by the publication of Cardinal
PalavicinPs history of that council. Fra Paolo vvas thought
to be inelined to the opinions of Calvin.

* This picture of the Assasination of San Pietro Domeni¬
cano, considered to be the finest of Titian’s compositions, is
returned to its former plače in this church, after having been
in the Louvre during Bonaparte’s reign. It was originally
painted on board, but was transferred to canvas in Pariš. The
frigate, in which it was conveyed from Venice to Marseilles,
met with tempestuous weather; the box containing the picture
got wet; the damp penetrated to the board and the size
ground of the picture ; and when the picture was taken out,
and put in a dry plače, the painting, not being capable of con-
tracting so rapidly as the ground, cracked into a multitude of
scales.

The reparation of the picture was performed by FIacquin,
under the inspection of a committee of the Institute, compo-
sed of four men eminent in their professions, the cheraists Ber-

OF PICTURES.

53

There are otber good pictures, and many monu-
ments of Doges, and eminent persons. On the pi-
azza, or square, in front of the church, is the bronze

thollet and Guiton, and the painters Vincent and Taunay,
from vvhose report the follovving account of the process is
taken.

Gauze vvas pasted on the surface of the picture ; and
this being dry, another gauze, and then two layers of grey
paper, vvere pasted on. When these vvere dry, the pic¬
ture vvas fixed vvith the face doivmvards on a table, and the
vvood taken off, first vvith tvvo small savvs, one acting perpen-
dicularly, the other in a horizontal direction. Then vvith a
plane, having an iron vvith a convex face, and applied in such
a vvay as to take off very short shavings. Next vvith a plane
having a straight faced iron vvith teeth, producing the effect
of a rasp. After this the vvood that remained was no thicker
than a sheet of paper.

The vvood vvas then moistened vvith vvater, in small portions
at a time, and taken off vvith the point of a knife.

The distemper or size ground vvas then removed, by means
of vvater, and the back of the painting vvas exposed to view.

To restore some flexibility to the painting, much dried vvith
age, it vvas rubbed over vvith cottOn dipt in oil, and then
vviped vvith a muslin rag. It vvas aftervvards painted over vvith
vvhite lead and oil, in plače of the former distemper ground.

In this State, the picture vvas allovved to dry for three
rnonths, and gauze vvas pasted on the ground, and on the
gauze canvas vvas pasted.

When these vvere dry, the picture vvas detached from the
table, and turned vvith the face uppermost, and the grey pa¬
per taken off by means of vvater. Then, in order to bring the
picture to an even surface, diluted flour paste vvas applied'up»

54>  RESTORATION OF PICTURES.

equestrian statue by Verrocchio, representing Col-
leone of Bergamo, commander of the troops of the
republic, who died in 1475. Four other equestrian

on the scales of the painting, an oiled paper was laid on the
moistened part, and a heated iron cautiously applied. Ir
this way, the scales were rendered flat.

It remained to fix the picture upon canvas. For this pur-
pose grey paper was again pasted on the face of the picture.
The gauze was taken off from its back, another coat of white
lead and oil was applied on the back, and over this a flexible
gauze ; then a coat of white lead and oil; then a canvas wo-
ven ali of one piece, and coated exteriorly with a resinous
mixture, by which the large surface was carefully made to ad-
here in every part, to a similar canvas stretched on a frame.
The grey paper was taken off from the surface of the picture
before applying it on the frame.

After this the picture was put into the hands of a painter
skilled in the restoration of pictures, to receive the repairs
that he judged necessary.

Raphaefs Virgin, with the portrait of the Donor, Conti,
the Chamberlain of Julius II., which was taken from the
church of the Nuns of Saint Ann at Foligno, and is nov in
the Vatican, was restored in Pariš by the same process.

The picture, on a board of soft white wood, was so ruinous
at the time of its being sent to France, that it was found ne-
cessary to paste gauze over the surface, to preserve it du»
ring the transit. It was worm-eaten,—some of the painting
had scaled off,—and there was a considerable crack in the
board, which was warped into a curved surface. To reme-
dy this crack, before proceeding to the other steps of the
reparation, the folloving method was employed: A gauze
was pasted on the face of the p‘cture. The picture was pla-

10

CHURCHES IN VENICE.

55

statues of commanders of the troops are within the
church.

San Zaccaria, a grand and spacious church, built
in 1457, contains a fine picture of the Virgin and
Child, represented under a mosaic niche, vvithSaints,
painted, in 1505, by Giovanni Bellino, the master of
Titian.

The church of Saint Giobbe, built at the espence
of the Doge Moro about 1470, contains pictures
by Giovanni Bellino, Pariš Bordone, &c.

Churches of the beginnlng of the Sizteenth Century,
by Serlio, Sansovino, Tullio Lombardo,  <SfC.

The interior of the church of San Salvatore is
adorned in an agreeable style, with composite co-
lumns and arches, and was finished in 1534. It was

ced with the face downwards. Furrows were made in the
wood at some distance from each other, and near the crack.
Into these furrows small wedges of wood were introduced.
The whole surface of the wood was covered with wet cloths
frequently renevved ; by this means the wedges were dilated,
and forcedthe wood to resume its ancient form. The two edges
of the crack came together, and glue was inserted between
them. Cross bars of oak were applied to retain the board in
its position during the time of drying. The rest of the repa-
ration was performed in the manner already described.—See
Notice de Plusieurs Precieux Tableaux Recuellis a Venise,
&c. published at Pariš in 1802.

56

VENICE.—CHURCHES B'Y

built by Tullio Lombardo, with tlie assistance of
Sansovino. Scamozzi was afterwards employed in
making additions to the church. The front was
erected in 1663, after a design of Longhena. This
church contains two fine pictures by Titian, the
Transfiguration and the Annunciation;—the Sup-
per at Emaus, by Giovanni Bellino, &c.;—tombs of
Doges of the family of .Cornaro, and of Doges of the
family Veniero. On one of the latter are well de-
signed statues of Hope and Faith, by Sansovino.

The church of Saint Sebastian was built in 1506
by Serlio. The front is by Sansovino. The inte-
rior is adorned with pictures by Paul Veronese. The
tomb of that excellent painter is in this church ; he
died in 1588.

San Giorgio dei Greci is a church of moderate
size, built by Sansovino. The front is adorned with
mosaic, and the interior with pictures of saints, on
a gilded ground, in the middle-aged Greek style.
The Greeks obtained permission to erect this church
from Leo X. in 1514.

Churches built after designs of Palladio, in the
Siateenfh Century.

Most of Palladio’s churches in Venice have the
front decorated with a pediment supported by co-
lumns, and between the columns statues in niches.
Statues are also placed on the top and angles of the
pediment.

PALLADIO.

57

The church of San Giorgio Maggiore, after a
design of Palladio, was begun in 1556, and com-
pleted in 1610. The front is of Istrian marble.
In the church is a portrait of the reigning Pope
Pius VIL, who was consecrated pope in this church
in 1800. The adjoining buildings, fonnerly a mo-
nastery, are now occupied as the customhouse,
Dogana di Mare. In the dining-hall of this mo-
nastery was the great picture of the Marriage Feast
at Cana, which was taken to Pariš, and stili deco-
rates the saloon of the Louvre gallery.

The church of San Francesco della Vigna was
begun in 1534. The front is by Palladio, of Is¬
trian marble, and adorned with composite columns.
The rest of the church is by Sansovino. In this
church are pictures by Giovanni Bellino, and other
esteemed masters, and monuments of doges, procu-
rators of State, senators, &c. The adjoining build¬
ings, fonnerly a monastery, are now occupied as
soldiers’ barracks. On one side of the piazza, which
is before the church, is the palače formerly inhabit-
ed by the pope’s nuncio, and now by the consul of
the pope, by whom it is necessary for travellers pro-
ceeding from Venice to Rome to have their pass-
ports signed.

The front of the church of il Redentore is of
marble, with Corinthian columns, after a design of
Palladio. This church was erected in consequence
of a vovv made by the senate during the plague that
afflicted Venice in 1576.

58

MARCO POLO.

The atrium and cloister of the convent della Ca-
rita, * the small church of the Zitelle, and the
church of Saints Gervasio and Protasio, commonly
called San Trovaso, were built after designs of Pal-
ladio.

Churches of the end ofthe Siadeenth Century.

The church of la Celestia was built in 1580 by
Scamozzi.

In the church of San Lorenzo, rebuilt after the
design of Sorella in 1590, is the tomb of Nicolo
Polo the Venetian traveller. t

Churches built in the Seventeenth and EighteentJi
Centuries.

The church of San Pietro di Castello was the
seat of the patriarch. It is large, and the interior

* See a design of the atrium and cloister in the Architet-
tura di Palladio. Ven. 1642.

f Marco Polo, about the year 1270, accompanied his fa-
ther Nicolo and his uncle, who traded in precious stones, to
the court of Kublai, the Grand Khan of the Tartars, Emperor
of the Moguls and of China, and sixth in succession from
Gengis Khan. In the dominions of Kublai Khan they passed
twenty-seven years. Marco Polo’s account of his travels is
in Ramusio’s collection, published at Venice, by Tomaso Giunti
in 1559; and with notes by Muller, Berlin, 1675—See Tira-
boschi st. d. 1. It.

CHURCH OF  LA SALUTE.

59

producesa noble effect. It vvas begun in 1621, and
completed in 1630, after the design of Grapiglia.

The church of Santa Maria della Salute vvas built
in 1631 by the Venetian architect Baldassar Longh-
ena, in consequence of a vovv made by the senate
whilst the city vvas afflicted by the plague in 1630.
It has tvvo handsome cupolas, and is one of the most
considerable buildings of the seventeenth century in
Venice. At the high altar are four large columns
of Marino Greco, brought from Pola in Istria, the
remains of a Roman edifice demolished by the en-
gineer employed in building the fortifications of
that plače in the seventeenth century. * Whilst
I vvas at Venice in December, a great annual festi¬
val vvas celebrated in this church. In the proces-
sion there vvalked the members of a fraternity, dress-
ed in vvhite cloaks, vvith a hood that entirely covers
the face, leaving tvvo holes for the eyes, so that the
persons cannot be knovvn, one of them bearing a
large and heavy cross. These fraternities are insti-
tuted for charitable purposes, attending criminals to
execution, carrying the sick to the hospital, &c.; the
members are tradesmen in Venice, and sometimes
persons of the middle and higher classes. They
exercise the functions of the fraternity gratuitously,
and from motives of devotion. Some of these so-

* Maffei Veron. Illus. parte cjiarta.

60 CHURCH OF THE JESUITS.

cieties are composed of females. On occasion of
this festival there was a bridge of boats constructed
across the great canal, and terminating on the quay
before the church.

The front of the church of Santa Giustina was
built in 1640, after the design of Longhena.

The church of the hospital of mendicants was
built in 1673.

The church of the Gesuati, * built by Masari af¬
ter the suppression of the order, is adorned inter-
nally with red Sicilian brocatello marble, and con-
tains the tomb of Apostolo Ženo, who left his libra-
ry to the monastery that formerly existed near the
church. t

Santa Maria Formosa was built in the end of the
seventeenth century.

The church of the Jesuits was built in the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century. t It is large and

* This order is different from the order of Jesuits. It was
suppressed in 1669.

f Apostolo Ženo, of a Venetian family settled in Candia,
was bom in 1669. He was poet and historiographer to the
Emperor at Vienna, where he composed a great number of
dramatic poems for musical operas and for azioni sacri, or
oratorios. His successor at Vienna was the celebrated dra¬
matic poet Metastasio. Ženo wrote also on antiquities, of
which he was a good judge,—on the Italian historical writ-
ers,—letters, &c. He died at Venice in 1750

J In 1773 the order of Jesuits was suppressed.

1

SCALZI.—CAMPAN MARBLE.

61

highly decorated. The front is by Domenico Rossi.
Within the church, the columns and vvalls, and the
pavement, are covered with Carrara marble curiously
inlaid vvith verde antico in the form of foliage. The
pulpit is adorned vvith a drapery in marble, inlaid in
the same way, and representing damask. The church
contains the picture of the Martyrdom of San Lorenzo
by Titian;—the Presentation in the Temple by Giac.
Tintoretto, &c. Amongst other tombs is that of the
Doge Cicogna, vvhose reign ended in 1595, and
under whose government the bridge of the Rialto,
the prison, the fondamento nuovo, or quay on the
north side of the city, and other public works, were
constructed.

The front of the church of the Scalzi, oi' barefoot-
ed Carmelites, is of Istrian marble, and is highly de¬
corated ; it was designed by Sardi in the eighteenth
century. The interior of the church is ornamented
in the richest manner vvith brilliant coloured marbles,
Rosso di Francia, * of vvhich the spiraly tvvisted co-

* The marble called in Italy Rosso di Francia and Brec-
cia Corallina, is the red marble of Campan in the Pyrenees.
It is bright-red with white spots. There is another marble
from Campan with green veins, called in France Verd de Cam¬
pan. These Campan marbles are seen on the exterior of the
palače of Trianon near Versailles,—in the columns of Bona-
parte’s arch in the Plače du Carousel,—-in the interior of the
church of Saint Sulpice, and in other buildings in Pariš.

- The Campan marble, bowever, is not the most common

62 HALL OF SAINT ROCQ.

lumns at the high altar are formed,—breccia Afriča¬
na, and others. Pietra di paragone, or black touch-
stone, occurs in this and otber churches and palaces
in Venice, in slabs of considerable size; it is dis-
tinguished from black marble by its hardness.

In the churches in Venice and some other towns
in Italy, col umns are incrusted on the surface with
pieces of the finer kinds of marble, fitted together
so as to appear like a column of solid marble. Most
of the columns of solid marble or granite, in Italy,
formed the decoration of ancient buildings, and by far
the greatest number of these columns is at Rome.

San Simion Piccolo is round, vvith a dorae, and
a portico supported by columns. It is, in some re-
spects, an imitation of the pantheon at Rome, but
being much smaller produces a very different effect.
The grandeur of the pantheon cannot be conveyed
to the spectator by a copy on a smaller scale. San
Simion Piccolo was built in 1718, after the design
of Scalfarotto.

The Scuola di San Rocco is the hali of one of the
six scuole grandi,  or great fraternities, * * which are

marble in Pariš. The slabs on the top of stoves and of fur-
niture, and the marble tables so much used in Pariš, are made
of marble from Flanders, some of which is black and white,
and some of a dull red.

* These six fraternities are seen in the procession of Cor-
pus Christi day, (the fete Dieu,) painted by Canaletto.

VENETIAN PAINTERS.

63

now suppressed. It was built in 1516 by Santi
Lombardo, the son of Tullio Lombardo, and is re-
markable for the beauty of the building, the interna!
decorations, and the pictures of Tintorett it contains.
This is the only one of the six scuole grandi that
has been kept in repair after the suppression of the
fraternities, which happened in 1797» at the extinc-
tion of the Venetian government.

In thie churches and palaces of Venice are seen
pictures by Giovanni Bellino,, Titian, Paul Vero«
nese, Giacomo Tintoretto, Domenico Tintoretto,
Palma the elder, Palma the younger, Bassano, Pa¬
riš Bordone, Sebastian del Piombo, Giorgione. *

* The periods at which some of the principal painters, born
in Venice and the Venetian dominions, lived, are as follows :

Gentil Bellino, - born in 1419, died in 1501.

64 ACADEMT OF PAINTING.

Each of these pamters is distinguished by a parti-
eular style ; the pictures by Giovanni Bellino, the
master of Titian, are in tliat old and rather formal
manner vvhich prevailed before Raphael came to
eminence. The Virgin seated on a Throne, under
a tribuna or nicbe, vvith the Child and Saints, is a
subject frequently painted by Bellino ; the figures
have a serious and dignified expression.

Titian was much employed in portraits, and drew
most of the princes and distinguished personages
of his time. Charles V. sat to him several times;
for vvhich purpose Titian went twice to Bologna,
once to Piedmont, and twice to Augsburg. Amongst
the excellencies of Titian’s pictures, vvhich en-
title him to rank vvith the three or four great-
est painters that have appeared since the revival of
the arts, are the beautiful landscapes he introduces
as accessories to his compositions.

The pictures of Paul Veronese are magnificent
in the dresses and architecture, vvhich are expressed
with excellent colouring and knovvledge of direct
and reflected light and of linear perspective.

The academy of painting, called the Scuola delle
Belle Arti, is a modern institution, situated in the
buildings formerly occupied by the Scuola di Santa
Maria della Carita, the oldest of the six scuole grandi,
or great fraternities. Many valuable pictures and
other productions of art are collected in this insti¬
tution. Amongst them are;

ACADEMY OF PAINTING.

65

The Assumption of the Virgin, by Titian, vvhich
has been restored to brilliancy from a state of al-
most total blackness. It vvas brought from the
church of the Frari.—The Presentation in the Tem-
ple, by Titian, a large oblong picture.—The Virgin
presenting the CGid to the aged Simeon, by Car-
paccio.—Adam and Eve, by Giacomo Tintorett.—
Saint Mark descending from heaven to liberate a
slave from the hands of the Turks, by Giacomo Tin¬
torett. This picture vvas in Pariš as well as others
in this collection. *■—Pictures by the old Venetian

* The greatest number of the pictures and productions of
art taken by the French from Venice and the Venetian terra
firma were returned, according to the treaty with the Allied
Sovereigns ; some manuscripts, hovvever, from Padua, remain
in the collections in Pariš on account of their not having been
claimed, and one masterpiece, which formerly adorned the din-
ing-hall of theBenedictine monastery of San Giorgio Maggiore
at Venice, Paul Veronese’s splendid picture of the Marriage
Feast at Cana, stili (June 1818) decorates the great saloon of
the Louvre. On account of its extraordinary size the picture
might be exposed to injury in the carriage; it does not appear
what other motives there were for allovving it to remain. The
administration of the Louvre gallery sent a picture by le Brun
in plače of this great work.

Paul Veronese’s Feast of Cana was the most considerable
of the four feasts painted by him for the dining-halls of
the monasteries of San Giorgio Maggiore, San Giovanni e
Paolo, San Sebastian, &c. at Venice. It contains portraits
of Charles V., Francis L, Titian, Tintoretto, &c.

E

66 VENICE.—BUILD1NG MATERIALS.

masters Catena and Antonio di Murano, by Boni-
facio in 1562, &c.—The seated statue of Polyhym-
nia, by Canova.—Bronze sculptures in relief, by Do¬
natello.

The houses in Venice are generally of brick
plastered over. The Istrian maihl e with which the
fronts of palaces, churches, and other puhlic build-
ings, are encrusted, is a small-grained limestono o f a
dnll vvhite colour, which is brought to Venice in,
blocks of a large size. It is susceptible of polish,
although. not. polished when used in the exterior of
buildings, but is not to be ranked amongst the finer
marbles by reason of its dull colour.

The floors of rooms are almost ali of them of
plaster, composed of lime coloured red by the admix-
tureof brick-dust, with fragmentsofblack andof white
marble stuck into it j the whole is brought to a shin-

All these four feasts were in the Louvre during the reign
of Bonaparte, and two are stili in that collection, one of them
having been given to Louis XIV. by the Venetian Repub-
lic in 1665.

Repasts were often the subject of the pictures ih tlie dining-
halls of large and wealthy monasteries. The Last Supper, in
the hali nf the monastery of Madonna delle Grazie at Milan,
painted by Leonardo da Vinci, 80 years before the time that
Paul Veronese flourished, comes under this description, and
is celebrated for the grave and solemn character of the
figures, and the simplicity of the accessory parts.

PALACES. 67

ing polish. * In most other parts of Italy the floors
are usually laid with rectangular fiat tile.

The foundations in Venice are constructed upon
piles with much solidity, fevv cracks or deviations
from the perpendicular being seen in the buiidings.

On the great canal, vvhich has a winding course
betvveen the two principal parts of the city, are si-
tuated the most magnificent of the great houses, or
palaces as they are termed ; some of them are in an
agreeable style of architecture, with fronts of Is-
trian marble, and contain valuable collections of
pictures. +

In the palače of the Grimani family there are an-
tique inscriptions, and some antique statues disposed
in the court. One of them is a statue, larger than
life, of Marcus Agrippa, brought from the portico
of the pantheon at Rome, when that edifice was first
used as a church.—Portraits, by Titian, &c. of in-
dividuals of the Grimani family, several of whom
were patriarchs of Aquileia, and ecclesiastical pri-
mates of the Venetian State.—Ceilings painted in
fresco, by Giovanni da Udine, in the manner of some
of the Chinese paper hangings, representing arbours
of overhanging and entvvined branches of vines, In-

* Architettura di Palladio, Cap. XXII. de’ pavementi, e
de’ soffittati.

f Views of the palaces and churches of Venice are publish-
ed in Gravii Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Historiarum ItaUo?,
Tom. V.  printed at Levden in 1722.

68

VENICE.—PALACES.

dian corn, reeds, and various plants, with herons,
hawks, owls, magpies, and other birds flying and
perched : Similar designs occur in tlie loggie of the
Vatican, painted by the same artist, under the di-
rection of Raphael.—The architrave and jams of a
chimney, ali three of one piece of black touchstone,
pietra de paragone ; and a slab of the same material
forming a table five feet in diameter.

In the palače of the Pisani family,—the picture
of the family of Darius, by Paul Veronese, &c.

In the palače of the Barbarigo family,-—Magdalen
by Titian.—Nymph and Satyr, by Titian, and others
by the same master.—A Child lixed to the Cross, by
Padouanino.

In the palače di CaSa Manferino,—the Ages of
Man, by Titian.—The Body of Christ carried to the
Sepulchre, a Capital picture, by Titian; the French
had spared the private collections, at least when the
proprietors were inclined to their party, and did not
take this picture.—The Last Supper, a fine picture,
by Giov. Bellino.—A Magdalene, by Corregio.—
Cartoon of Noah and his Family, with the animals en-
tering the ark, by Raphael; the picture from this is in
the loggie of the Vatican.—Landscape by Tempesta.

In the palače of the Časa Albricci,—a Hebe,
by Canova, and casts of Canova’s bas reliefs of sub-
jects from Homer.

In the possession of Madame Albricci, who is
author of a good account of Canova’s statues, is the
bust of Helen, by Canova.

PUBLIC GARDEN.

69

The palače of the Cornaro family at San Mauri-
zio on the great canal was built by Sansovino. This
palače being occupied by some of the public offices
of the Austrian government, was accidentaUy burnt
in December 1817, whilst I was at Venice. The
walls were strongly built, and had not fallen in, al-
though the lire had consumed the interior of the
fabric.

The French formed public walks in several of
the cities in Italy, after the model of the gardens of
the Tuilleries and of the Luxembourg; and ut
Venice the ground form eri y occupied by the mo-
nastery of Sant Antonio, was laid out by them with
alleys of trees, and is stili resorted to as a public
walk. This garden forms the south-east point of
the city, and commands a view of some of the islands
in the laguna, and of the sand islands that bound
the laguna.

The botanic-garden, formerly the garden of
the monastery of San Giobbe,  possesses no great
collection of plants. The hot-house has a roof
projecting some way forvvards to protect the glass
from hail, like the hot-houses at Shoenbrun. There
are mats* on the outside vvhich are rolled up,

* These are not the mats of bast or lime tree bark used in
our gardens in England ; they are that kind of mat called
stuoja, made of a species of stipa, which grovvs near Venice ;
and are much used at Trieste, Venice, and in other parts of
Italy, for covering waggons, the floors of rooms, &c.

70

VENICE.-COLU.

and at night are let down before tlie glass. The
house is heated in the usual way by fines at this
season, (December,) as it freezes every night.
There is another small botanic-garden belonging
to a gentleman who cultivates that Science.

The professor of mineralogy at the lyceum has a
collection in which there are good specimens of cry-
stallized sapphirs, spinell, and hyacinth. Signor
Parolini of Bassano, who sometimes resides in Ve-
nice, possesses a good collection of minerals, vvhich
comprehends a part of the collection of the late Pa-
risian mineralogist Delametherie.

It was rather cold in Venice in the end of No¬
vember and beginning of December 1817, so that
fires were used in rooms. There was generally frost
at night. The wood fires in rooms are made in
open chimneys. Stoves are not used. The cold
is sometimes so severe that part of the laguna is
frozen over. This happened in 1788, and passen-
gers went on the ice from Venice to the main land
at Mestre.

There are many conversazione where company is
received in the evening, and foreigners introduced
at these conversazione are treated with polite atten-
tion by the lady of the house who presides.

Saint Mark’s Plače is the centre of public resort,
and in this respect, as well as in its form, bears a
resemblance to the Palais Royal in Pariš, but with
less bustle and brilliancy, in proportion as Venice is

COFFEE-HOUSES.—THEATRES.

71

stnaller, containing only one-sixth of the population
of Pariš. The merchants hold their exchange on
one side of the plače of Saint Mark. A great
part of the ground floor under the covered walk, or
peristyle, is occupied by neat coffeehouses, which,
in the evening, are crowded with persons who come
to pass the time, and to converse with their acquaint-
ances; some ladies are seen accompanied by their
male friends; bands of singers go about from one
coffeehouse to another to amuse the company; each
band is composed of two or three tolerable male and
female singers, accompanying their song on the
guitar. In Rome the coffeehouses are on a diflferent
footing, being dirty, and not so much frequented by
genteel people as at Venice.

The young women in Venice wear a veil of
white muslin becomingly thrown over the head and
shoulders, something like the veils of the young
persons in Pariš when receiving their first commu-
•nion.

The theatres at Venice, in November 1817, vvere
three in number: An opera, neither to be praised for
the performers nor the appearance of the house.—
A neat theatre, where a good company of comedians,
directed by Vestris, performed. Vestris himself is a
good actor in ludicrous and caricatured parts.—The
third was a theatre for inferior comedies, in which
Harlequin, othenvise called Trufaldino, is always

VENICE.-THEATRE.

prominent ; he is a kind of knave full of jest, repre-
sented as a native of Bergamo, and speaking tlie
Bergamasque dialect. The dumb Harlequin of our
pantomimes, originally borrovved from the Italians,
has now little resemblance, except in dress, to the
Italian Harlequin, of whose province leaping is not
a part. Quadrio, in his Storia della Poesia, gives
an account of the origin of the four masked cha-
racters in the Italian farces, Arlechino, Pantalone,
il Dottore  a scholastic pedant, and Brighella.

One of the burlesque personages sometimes in-
troduced on the Italian stage is Tartaglia,  or the
stutterer. They play caricatures of the different
nations of Italy. In the north of Italy the Neapo-
litan is represented on the stage as a boaster and
coward, something like the Gascon in France, but
with less courage.

In the time of the carnival, performances are given
in the theatre del Phenice,  vvhich is the handsomest
theatre in Venice, with an agreeable architectural
front, and was built in 1791.

The hours of performance at the theatre, and the
hours of seeing company at the conversazione, are
late. Very different from the early hours at Vienna,
where the theatrical performances are over by nine
in the evening, in Venice they finish about midnight,
and after the play people go to the conversazione.

The inn La Grande Bretagna  occupies a hand-
some building, formerly a palače, on the great canal,

RIALTO BRIDGE.-STREETS.

73

near the Rialto bridge. The inn called La Re¬
gina d’ Ingilterra  is pretty well regulated : a print-
ed list of the prices of the rooms, &c. is fixed up in
the entrance hali.

Few of the English who visit Italy for amuse-
ment or curiosity pass any considerable time at Ve-
nice; Florence, Rome, and Naples, are the cities
vvhich detain them most.

The bridge of the Rialto is the only bridge over
the great canal. It is of marble, and of one large
arch; and, like the other smaller bridges in Ve-
nice, the way over it consists of a stair which the
passenger ascends on one side and descends on the
other. The span is about eighty feet. As there
are no carriages, the bridge has no great weight or
shake to sustain. It was built in 1.591, as appears
from the inscription. The architect was Antonio
da Ponte. Formerly there was a wooden bridge in
this plače. Vasari, in his life of Friar Giocondo of
Verona, speaks contemptuouslyof the present bridge,
and praises the design presented by the friar, which
was not accepted, Many of the bridges over the
other canals are without parapets.

The French made one broad Street near the puh¬
lic garden of Sant Antonio, by arching over a ca¬
nal ; but this was only for shew and ornament, and
not a matter of use. There being no carriages nor
beasts of burden in Venice, broad streets are not ne-
cessary. The communication, therefore, by land is
effected by means of narrow streets, or rather lanes,

74 VENICE.—BARKS.'—TEDE.

called Calle,  which are about eight feet broad, and
serve for foot passengers. These lanes are paved
with cubical pieces of trap.porphyry, vvhose upper
surface is about a foot square, from Monte Seliči,
near Padua.

There are canals that penetrate to most parts of
the town, so that almost every house has a commu-
nication with a canal, by a landing stair, which is
frequently the threshold of the principal entrance
to the house. The plače of coaches is supplied
by gondolas, which are light skiffs thirty-five feet
long, and six feet broad at midship, without any
keel, drawing very little water,—having a cabin in
which four or five persons can sit, covered and
furnished with a door, and plate glass windows, like
the windows of a coach. This box or cabin is co¬
vered on the outside with black cloth and blaek
tassels, like the furniture of a mourning coach in
England, and the rest of the gondola is also black.
In the time of the republic, a sumptuary law order-
ed that the gondolas should be of no other colour,
with the intention of preventing expence in painted
and gilded ornaments. The gondola is rovved by
one man standing near the stern, with a single oar,
which he pushes, moving the boat in the same di-
rection as he looks. Other gondolas have two oars.
The rovvlock is a strong piece of wood rising a foot
or eighteen inches above the gunwale, with two
notches to receive the oar. There are numerouS

vn.

V&n^tiaru GotuLola, ,■ paffe- 74. the. ornament at the, head. is of polishtd Irorr.

TrarLsverse seotion. ui thr inidcUčs.

36 Fee-t>

JZ&wloak, of th^ G-oTLdsla.,on a, larger scaJt/.

Rinhler of Lovc/e Carrying-barg&s at Ve.tuee.

Fdinhm/h PublishetL ^i.Cprvstable &.J820.


VIII.

[Page 75, Vol. I.]

Camel used for Floating large Ships of War out to
Seafrom the Laguna of Penice.

Draton by W- A. C-

Etched ly Lizars.

ARSENAL.

75

gondolas to be hired as hackney coaches in other
cities, and they wait at the door of the theatre in
the evening.

The tide rises three or four feet in Venice, and
occasions a considerable current in some of the chan-
nels of the laguna, and there were anciently tide
miliš near the island of San Georgio Maggiore.
At low water, some of the small canals in the town
are left dry. Sometimes the high vvater rises so as
to cover the eastern part of Saint Mark’s Plače; as
I saw in November I8I7.

The arsenal, inclosed with a high wall, includes
slips for building ships, mast-houses, a long build-
ing for making ropes in, a foundery for brass can-
non, an armoury, and other establishments. The
ships are built under a roof, a practice which has
been adopted within these few years in the English
dock-yards, and is found very advantageous in
protecting the timber from the injurious action of
the rain, and of the sun’s rays. The camel for
floating large ships of war out of the laguna con-
sists of four pieces, vvhich have a concave surface
that fits close to the convexity of the sides and
bottom of the ship, and the four pieces are then
joined together; when the camel thus embraces
the ship, the water in the cavities of the camel is
pumped out, it becomes buoyant, and floats the ship.
Bonaparte had several seventy-foui’ gun ships and

76

VENICE.—ARSENAL.

frigates built at this arsenal of Venice. At this
time, in November 1817, there are no ships build-
ing, and few men employed in the yard. There are
some thirty-six pounder cast-iron guns and large
carronades, čast at Ruelle near Pariš, and at Ne-
vers, as appears from the inscriptions on the trun-
nions. The keeper said that some iron guns had
been čast at the iron-works at Brescia. In the ar-
moury is an ancient hovvitzer, made of rope gaskins
covered with leather. At the gate of the arsenal
are some large antique figures of lions, rudely sculp-
tured in marble. They were brought from Greece
when the Venetian republic possessed territory in
that country. On one of them is an inscription in
very ancient and unknown letters, called by some
authors Pelasgic, and concerning which Akerblad
and others have written.

Natural Productions.

Folega (Fulica, Lat.) and Mazorini are two kinds
of scollop-footed water fowl, with black plumage,
common in the markets in November; as are also
wild-ducks, snipe, vvoodcock, red-legged partridge. I
saw likevvise one of the large birds called cock of
the woods, the Tetrao urogallus, killed in the Friuli
Alps. This species of bird formerly existed in the
mountains of Scotland, but has become extinct there.
It is sometimes imported fresh from Norway to Lon-

NATURAL PR0DUCTI0NS.

77

don and Leith. Frogs are sold in the market in
Venice.

The fish and other sea animals in the market of
Venice are, the turbot, the soal, the flounder, the
red mullet, the dory, called pešce di San Pietro,  the
skate, the red gurnard, a sparus  called in Venice
orade, the electric silurus, called tremola,  the Lo-
phius piscatorius ;—oysters, the Solen siliqua or razor
fish, Cardium edule called Tellina di mare, and some
other shell fish,—a kind of cuttle fish called polpi,—
gammari a kind of sea cray fish, white, nine inches
long, and without large claws,—shrimps, &c. Va-
rious articles of food ready dressed are sold in the
streets to the poorer class, such as gourd stevved,
white turnips, polpi, polenta or hasty-pudding, made
of the meal of Indian corn, and forming a large mass
which is cut with a string. Gourd seeds, seme della
zucca,  are sold on the streets, and eaten by the poor.

The trees in the public walk are, the Platanus
orientalis, Robinia pseudacacia, Bigonia catalpa, a
tree which thrives near London, but does not bear
the cold in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, Melia
azederach, a justicia, hornbeam, Hibiscus Syriacus
formed into hedges. The Stipa palustris, which
grows in the neighbourhood of Venice, is used for
making mats called stuoje. A stipa is employed
for making brushes for clothes, &c. The ruscus,
or butcher’s broom, is used for brooms, and for sweep-
ing chimneys.

Fresh vvater for drinking is got from wells that

78 VENICE.—VVELLS.

are supplied vvith the rain vvater, falling on the
houses in their immediate vicinity. The vvell is
placed in the courtof the house, and in the earth round
the vvell a great basin is formed, and moated vvith
clay. This basin being filled vvith rubbish, and covered
vvith the pavement, the rain vvater, vvhich falls fronti
the tiles of the roof, and that vvhich falls immedi-
ately on the pavement, sinks into the rubbish, and
cannot get deeper than the clay ; it therefore flovvs
to the bottom of the vvell, vvhich is the lovvest part
of the basin. The surface of the vvater in these
vvells is from five to ten feet belovv the surface of
the ground. Around the mouth of the vvell is a
cylindrical parapet of one stone, such as the ancient
Romans called puteal, vvhich prevents the high
tides from flovving into the vvell. * The pavement
of the court is also elevated, to prevent as much as
possible the sea-vvater from sinking through the in-
terstices of the stones into the basin. Fresh vvater
for the use of ships and of some parts of the tovvn,

* Olivier de Serres, in his interesting old treatise le Theatre
d’ Agriculture,  describes a similar mode of' coliecting rain vva¬
ter, practised in some parts of the south of France. It is also
employed in situations vvhere the nature of the strata is such
as net to retain the rain vvater. Near Castleton, and in other
parts of Derbyshire, ponds are thus moated vvith clay, to col-
lect the rain vvater for the use of men and cattle; vvithout
this precaution the rain vvater sinks, and is lost in the porous
limestone beneath the soil.

THERIAC.

79

is brought from tlie mam land, by boats in large
open tubs.

The theriac of Venice has long been, and stili
continues to be, in great repute. It is a medicine
used internally, as an astringent, &c. It is de-
scribed by some of the ancient Greek medical wri-
ters, and is composed of a great number of different
vegetable drugs. Some of these are spices from the
East Indies, of vvhich Venice had formerly the mo¬
nopol}’. They were making theriac when I was at
Venice in December. Thirty or forty porters in a
row were seen daily pounding the ingredients with
pestle and mortar, on the Rialto Bridge, before the
shop of the apothecary. The ingredients are after-
wards heated in large cauldrons; and this part of
the operation also is performed on the public Street.
Mithridate, another medicament composed of a mul-
titudeof ingredients, is prepared in the same establish-
ment. The leaf of the Laurus nobilis appears to be
one of the ingredients of these medicaments, boat
loadsof these leavesbeing brought from Trieote. Both
these medicines have been banished from the Phar-
macopoeias of Britain for a good many years, on ac-
count of the needless multiplicitv of their ingredi¬
ents, when the same effects may be obtained by the
exhibition of some more simple preparation. The
medical practice in many parts of the Continent of
Europe employs various other drugs vvhich are
thought quite inefficacious by the English practi-
tioner. The English medical practice is more ac-

80

VENICE.—CIRCULATING COINS.

tive, that of the French and Italians is la medecine
expectante,  they only watch the course of the dis-
ease.

The most frequent coins in common circulation in
1817, were pieces of very base silver, marked with
the Austrian eagle, and with the inseription one and
a half lira, others with one lira, others with one-half
lira, denoting the value for which they had been
issued ; but most of these coins were depreciated,
and only current for a smaller value than that vvhich
was stamped upon them. One lira is equal to half
a franc, or in English money fivepence. One sol-
do is one-twentieth of a lira.

The coins of the Venetian republic are no longer
seen in circulation at Venice. In most parts of the
Austrian dominions, the common circulating medium
is in a bad State. In Vienna, Bohemia, and Hungary,
it is paper depreciated to one-third of its original va¬
lue. In Venice, it is base silver. At Milan, the
most convenient money in common circulation is
that coined by Bonaparte, during the existence of
his kingdom of Italy.

The lingua Veneziana, or Venetian dialect, is
soft, having been preserved, by the insular situation,
from intermixture vvith the language of the nations
who overrun the mainland ; vvhereas, the Berga-
masque, and other dialects in the neighbourhood of
the Venetian territory, are harsh-sounding.

Goldoni’s comedy, i Busteghi,  is in the Venetian
dialect, and many other printed comedies and poems.

11

BIALECT.—ARMENIAN MONASTERV.

81

Tasso’s Gierusalemme liberata is translated into
Venetian, and into several other provinciai dialects
of Italy, as Bergamasque, Bolognese, Milanese,
Neapolitan.

Tlie three last petitions of the Lord’s prayer in
Venetian, as given by Adelung, are,

E perdona i nostri debiti coine anca nu perdo-
niamo ai nostri debitori;

E no ghe indur in tentazion ;

Ma libera ghe del cativo.

The only monastic community that remains in
Venice, or indeed in the vvhole Lombardo-Vene-
tian kingdom, is the Armenian monastery, vvhich oc-
cupies the small island of San Lazzero,  in the la¬
guna and near the town. The inonastery is neat,
and the monks receive strangers, and show them the
objects worthy of attention with great politeness.
The monastery and its garden, vvith vvalks covered
by an arched arbour or berceau of vines, occupy the
vvhole island. A great dog serves to protect the
garden froni water thieves. The monastic commu-
nity is now raising ground on the adjoining shallovv
to extend their garden. They educate a certain
number of young Armenians. They print Armenian
books. Amongst the books they have printed are,
a French and Armenian Dictionary ; an English
Grammar, for the use of Armenians; an Italian
Grammar for Armenians. They have some good
English philosophical and astronomical Instruments

F

82

VENICE.—GLASS-MANUFACTORY.

for the instruction of their pupils. The monastery
is much patronized by a wealthy Armenian merchant,
who resides in London.

On the island of Murano, half a mile from Ve-
nice, are the glass-vvorks, in vvhich they manufac-
ture vvindovv glass in small panes, flasks, tubes for
making beads, and some plate-glass for mirrors.
These vvorks were first established in the thirteenth
cen tur y. In the year 1300, the art of making glass
mirrors vvas practised in Venice, and in no other part
of Europe; but this manufactory of mirrors has
now become inconsiderable in Venice, and is car-
ried on to a greater extent in France, * and also in
England, Vienna, &c. in vvhich places mirrors can be
made of a larger size than at Murano, being čast.

To form the tubes, from vvhich the small beads
are made, a lump of colourless glass, in a melted
state, is taken on the end of the Steel pipe, and this
is plunged into coloured glass, likevvise melted ; a
boy seizes a portion of this with pincers, and runs
with it, dravving after him a thread of glass, vvhich
becomes smaller as he moves from the vvorkman
vvho holds the pipe ; a very small tube is thus ob-

* The French mirrors are čast at Saint Gobin, in Picardy,
and polished in the Faubourg Saint Antoine, in Pariš. This
extensive manufactory is carried on by government. It is
the largest manufactory of mirrors in Europe; and mirrors
are more frcquently used for the furniture and ornament of
rooms in Pariš than in other places.

GLASS BEADS.

83

tained. These coloured tubes are broken into pie-
ces of about a foot long, and sent to the bead ma-
nufactories in the town. To break them into the
size of the beads, a bunch of tubes, ali of the same
length and colour, is held by a vvorkman, with the
part to be cut resting on an iron edge; he strikes
them with an iron chisel, so that a piece about an
eighth of an inch long is separated from the end of
each tube, and falls into a bag. This operation is
repeated till the whole are cut into small pieces.
These pieces must then undergo an operation to
round off their edges. This is done, by putting
them into a copper pan with sand ; the pan has a
long handle, by means of vvhich it is held exposed
over a flame in an open oven, and shaken continual-
ly. The heat is such as only to fuse the edges,
without altering the form of the bead, and the sand
prevents their coherence. The operation of the
fire being finished, the beads are separated from
the sand by means of a sieve, and they come out
of this process with the edges rounded by fusion.
These beads are of a cylindrical form, and are
called piccoli perletti.  The smallest of them are
strung by vvomen and children, who plače a quan-
tity of the beads in a saucer, and push amongst
them repeatedly a bristle fixed on the end of a slen-
der silk thread ; some beads get upon the bristle
each time. For stringing the larger beads, a small
vdre is fixed at the end of the thread. With these

84

VENICE.—CEMETERIES.

small beads of different colours, purses, bags, watch
chains, and other articles are embroidered.

Beads of enamel, of a larger size than the glass
beads just spoken of, are made at Venice by the
enameller’s lamp. A small pair of smith’s bellovvs
supplies air to several lamps. Some of these beads
have the colour of metallic copper, vvhich is produ-
ced by metallic copper introduced into the enamel,
and heated, and exposed in a particular way to the
Hame of the lamp. This metallic copper colour is
the same as is seen on some old Italian earthen-
ware; and it has also come into use within these
few years on English stoneware.

The practice of burying in churches has been re-
linquished for some years, and the burying ground
of Venice now occupies the small island of San
Cristofero, situated in the Laguna, between Venice
and Murano. *

The burying-ground of the Jews, on the sandy

* This salutary practice, of burying out of the city, vvhich
tends to lessen the quantity of putrid tffluvia, too abundant in
crovvded towns, was introduced by the French. There have
been no burials for the last twenty-five years within the city
of Pariš, with a very few exceptions of senators in the church
of Sainte Genevieve; the cemeteries are at Mont Martre, &c.
The dead are stili buried in the most populous parts of
London and Westminster ; nevv church-yards, hovvever, have
been formed of late ycars, removed from the crowded parts,
and in the vicinity of the tovvn.

ADJACENT ISLANDS.

85

island of Lido, is covered with tombstones bearing
Hebrevv epitaphs. The Jews in Venice, as in other
towns of Italy, inhabit a particular part of the city,
called Ghetto degli Hebrei,  the Jewry.

The burying-ground of the Protestants is vvithin
one of the bastions of the fortress of Lido. It con-
tains several tombs of English. Amongst the rest,
that of the British consul, Smith, knovvn as a col-
lector and encourager of the arts. There are also
some tombs erected in memory of Germans.

The islands of Torcello, Burano, Mazorbo, and
Murano, lie in the Laguna, to the north-east of
Venice. Torcello is five miles distant, and was
peopled by emigrants from the ancient city of Alti-
num, who fled from Attila. Torcello was the seat
of a bishop, and Burano, Mazorbo, and Murano,
vvere subject to it. It was a considerable town, but
is now diminished in population, by reason of the
situation having become unhealthy. The cathedral
of Torcello was built in the eleventh century ; and,
according to the printed descriptions, contains some
columns of Greek marble, and other remains of an-
tiquities. Opposite the cathedral is the Baptiste-
rium. Mazorbo is inhabited by fishermen and a
few gardeners. Near Torcello, some islands, for-
merly inhabited, are now washed away by the sea.

CHAPTER III.

Penice to Padua.— P.idua; —Church of Saint Anthony ; Hall
of Justice ; University ; Galileo, &;c.; Botanic Garden.—
Gustavus Adolphus.—Davila.—Petrarch.—Dialect.—Mode
of Travelling.— Vicenza. —Buildings by Palladio.—Mine¬
rale.— Verona— OldBastions.—Amphitheatre.—Cathedral.
—Fracastoro, fc Castle Bridge.—Attila.— Verona to
Mantua Mantua. —Edifices.—Palazzo del T.—Jidio Ro¬
mano.—Mantua to Modena— Modena. —Palače.—Mura-
tori.—Guicciardini—IVells.— Modena to Bologna.— Bo¬
logna. — University.—Aldrovandi, —Botanic Garden.—

Agricultural Implements.—Painters of Bologna.—Church
qf San Petronio.—Cassini.— Church of the Madonnadi San
Luca, fc.—Building Materials, &;c.— View from the Asi-
nelli Tower Operas.—Dialect.

The  passage-boat from Venice to Padua is towed
by a boat with oars aeross the Laguna to Fusina.
At Fusina there are several carriages waiting, in
which places may be taken by those who wish to go
the rest of the journey to Padua by land. Fusina
is at the mouth of a canal communicating vvith the
Brenta, and along this canal the boat proceeds, and is
dravvn by horses. The boat, which is conveniently
laid outfor passengers, leaves Venice in the morning,
and arrives at Padua in the evening. The distance
is thirty English miles. The fare is of the cheapest,
as low as in our modern steam-boats. A travelling

VENICE TO PADUA.

87

took comes aboard with a box containing a small
charcoal furnace, and the whole apparatus and pro-
visions for dinner, and furnishes the passengers with
rice soup, and a fevv other dishes, and vvine.

The canal from Fusina to Dolo is bordered, un-
interruptedly, with populous villages, and vvith vil-
las of handsome architecture, some by Palladio,
and many of them in a neglected state ; the fa-
brics and habitations of Venetian nobles in the
flourishing times of the republic. At Dolo, after
passing through three locks, and thereby getting
into a higher level, the boat enters the broad
channel of the Brenta, some way above the plače
where there is a bridge of masonry of several arches.
After this, at Stra, we pass a large palače belonging
to the Emperor, and at Stra is another bridge over
the Brenta. The river is confined betvveen em-
bankments.

Padna is mentioned by Strabo as one of the most
considerable cities of Italy in his time.

Over the gate is seen the defaced figure of the
Venetian lion. * Many of the public buildings are
in imitation of those of Venice.

The interior of the large church of Saint An-
thony is majestic ; it is in the pointed-arched style,
and was begun in 1255 by the architect Nic-

* The Venetian lion is the winged cherubim, with a lion’s
face, in the vision of Ezekiel, the mystical image of the se-
cond Evangelist Saint Mark.

88

PADUA.—CHURCHES.—GREAT HALL«

colo Pisano, and finished in 1307« On the piazza
before the church is the bronze equestrian statue of
the Captain-General Gattamelata by Donatello.

In the cathedral is a cadelabrum of bronze fifteen
feet high, vvith sculptures in relief by Ricci, in the
style of the year .500, the mille cingue cento.

The church of Santa Giustma vvas built by
Riccio after the design of Paliadio. The front is of
brick, rough and uncoated. The small cupolas in
the interior, and the rest of the interior, resembles
Saint Paul’s in London. Paliadio died in 1580,
Sir Christopher M ren, therefore, 90 years after,
xnay have taken some hints from the design of this
church. The columns of the church of Santa Gius-
tina are lonic.

Ihe great justice hali, Palazzo della Ragione,
vvas begun in 1172, and finished in 1306; the
ceiling is pointed-arched, of timber, held together
by chiave,  or tie rods of iron. At the end of  the
hali is an inscription in meniory of Livy, erected
by his countrymen the Paduans.

In 1283, an old tomb vvas discovered vvhich Lo-
vato, a poet and lawyer of Padna, maintained to be
the tomb of Antenor, the leader of the Heneti, and
founder of the city, according to the traditions of
the heroic age. * An inscription, vvritten by Lova-

* Strabo, L 13, mentions the arrival of the Heneti at Adria ;
and the mouth of the Pp, under the conamand of Antenor.

VENETI.—UNIVERSITV.

89

to, in memory of Antenor, was engraved on the
sarcophagus, and the tomb of Lovato himseif is
placed opposite. *

The building of the university has a court with a
peristyle, said to be by Palladio. Oa the walls of
the peristyle are carved the arms of distinguished
persons who have studied at the university.

The university was first established in the thir-
teenth century, by professors and scholars who se-
ceded from Bologna. + Padna čarne into the pos-
session of the Venetians in the beginning of the

These Heneti came from Asia Minor. The Latin mode of
pronunciation changed the word Heneti into Veneti. The
name Euganei, which signifies illustrious, seems to be applied
by some ancient authors to the Veneti, vvho lived on the
shores of the Adriatic.

According to Adelung, the word Wend, Wand, Vend, in
several ancient languages, signifies Water, Sea; and Veneti
signifies a people who mhabit the sea-coast. Hence there
were Veneti at the head of the Adriatic, Veneti in Gaul,
Vand-ali and Wendi on the coast of the Baltic, Heneti or
Eneti, according to Herodotus, in Asia Minor on the coast
of the Black Sea. But these nations had nothing common
with respect to their origin. See Lanzi Saggio di Lingua
Etrusca, T. il. p. 634. Adelung’s Mithridates, II, s. 365.

The word Venetus, signifying a sea-green colour, was af-
tervrards applied to denote one of the four factions of the cir-
cus at Rome.

* See Tiraboschi, štor, della lett. It

Tiraboschi, st. deli. lett. It. T. IV. p. 48,

90 PADUA.—EMINENT TEACHEltS.

fifteenth century, and, after that, it was the only
privileged university in the dominions of the re-
public.

A Iaw, first promulgated by the republic in 1407,
forbade the teaching of Science in ali other cities.
Grammar alone was excepted, and might be taught
in other places.

The follovving are some of the distinguished pro-
fessors who taught at Padua in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.

Galileo vvas professor of natural philosophy at
Padua, from 1592 to 1610.

Guglielmini, in 1700, vvas professor of hydraulic
engineering, a subject important to the proprietors,
and, therefore, much studied in Italy on account of
the peculiar State of the rivers, vvhich require em-
bankments to protect the adjacent country, vvhilst
the river-water for irrigating the fields is derived
and distributed to the different proprietors of ground
by means of canals, and constitutes a valuable spe-
cies of property. Guglielmini vvas bom at Bologna
in 1655. His principal work is on rivers, Trattato
jisico matematica detla natura d^Fiume.

Vesalius of Brussels was celebrated throughout
Europe for his škili in anatomy, and accepted invi-
tations to teach at Montpellier, Pariš, Louvain. He
was invited also by the republic of Venice, and
taught anatomy at Padua from 1537 to 1542. He
vvas aftervvards physician at the ceurt of Charles V.

12

SANTORIO.

91

Faloppio was professor of anatomy in 1555.

The anatomical theatre was first constructed at
Padna in 1594, at the instance of Fabrizio de Aqua-
pendente, professor of anatomy at Padna. Piša had
the first anatomical theatre in Italy, and then Pavia
in 1552.

Morgagni was professor of anatomy in the eight-
eenth century. He was born at Forli in Romagna.

Santorio, professor of the theory.of medicine, was
the first who made observations on the quantity of
the transpiration of the human body. The loss of
vveight by transpiration he ascertained by weighing
himself at different times of the day, and found it
to be very considerable. He published the results
of his experiments in the work entitled Medicina
Statica, which went through many editions, and was
translated into different languages.—He invented
the air thermometer, in which the changes of tem¬
perature are rendered visible by the variations in the
volume of a quantity of air confined by a moveable
surface of vvater.—He also improved the form of dif¬
ferent surgical Instruments.—He was born at Capo
d’Istria in 1561, and lived to the age of seventy-five.
After having been professor in the university of Pa¬
dna, he practised medicine in Venice vvith great ce-
lebrity. A monument was erected over his tomb in
the cloister of the Servi di Maria at Venice.

The botanic garden is handsome. The hot-houses

92

PADUA.—BOTANIC GARDEN.

have a small-meshed wire trellis on the outside te
defend the glass from hail.

In the open air is a Magnolia grandiflora thirty
feet high, now (in December) bearing many ripe
seeds. The Bignonia capreolata a]so climbs on the
wall in the open air. The cedar of Lebanon is not
so frequent in the Italian gardens as it is in those
near London; a large one in the garden at Padna
was blown dovvn by a storm.

There is also a giardino economico, or garden for
the use of the students of agriculture.

A professorship of botany, at that time confined
to plants used in medicine, was first instituted at
Padna in 1533. Bologna had not a professor of
botany till a year after.

The foundation of the botanic garden, in 1552,
is dne to Daniel Barbaro. *

Soon after the formation of the garden, Guilan-
dinus, a Prussian botanist, had the superintendence
of it.

In 159L the garden was under the direction of

* Daniel Barbaro was bom in Venice in 1513. He was
coadjutor to the patriarch of Aquileia, and one of the tnem-
bers of the eouncil of Trent in 1563. He was a man of learn-
ing, and published La Pratica detla Prospettiva,  the first ex-
tended treatise on perspective that appeared after the revival of
Science,—an edition of Vitruvius, and other works. See Tira-
boschi, štor. deli. lett. Ital.

GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS.—DAVILA.

93

Prosper Alpinus, author of a work on the medical
art amongst the Egyptians, and a treatise on the
plants of Egypt, in which country he had travelled.
He was a native of the Vicentine.

Gustavus Adolphus, the great energetic and skil-
ful antagonist of the power of Austria, and de-
fender of the Protestant cause in Germany, * was
at Padna, for some months, in 1609, at the age
of fifteen, and attended the lectures of Galileo, as
Galileo mentions in one of his letters. f In con-
sequence of this, when the king of Sweden visited
Padna in 1783, he asked leave to erect a statue of
Gustavus in the Prato del la Valle, vvhere the statues
of the most celebrated men vvho have studied at the
university are placed.

The celebrated historian Davila was born near
Padna. He vvas named Arrigo Caterina, after
Henry III. of France and his queen-consort Cate¬
rina de’Medici, and resided long in France. He
afterwards held several military commands under the
Venetian republic. His history of the French
civil wars, Storia delle Guerre Civile di Francia, is
a classical vvork. He vvas born in 1576, and lived
to the age of fifty-five.

* An animated description of the exploits of Gustavus
Adolphus, and of the other leaders in the thirty years’ war, is
to be found in Schiller’s history of that war, one of the most
esteemed historical vrorks in the German language.

f See Tiraboschi, štor. deli. lett. Ital.

94

PADUA.—PETRARCH.

The tomb of Petrarch is at Arqua, near Padna.

Petrarch was treated vvith distinction by many of
the princes of Italy, Galeazzo Visconti duke of
Milan, the king of Naples, the Roman family Co-
lonna, and, amongst others, by the Carrara family,
vvho were sovereign lords of Padna in the fourteenth
century, and he died at Arqua, in the territory of
that family, in 1374. He was born at Arezzo in
1304. Hi s father was a notary of Florence of the
name of Pietro, and familiarly called Petracco and
Petraccolo, and the son was first called Francesco
di Petracco, and aftervvards Petrarca.

In his childhood Petrarch accompanied his pa-
rents to Avignon; to which plače the popes had
transferred their seat in 1309, in eonsequence of the
turbulence and disobedience of the inhabitants of
Rome, Philip III. of France having ceded to the
popes the country round Avignon, the Comtat Ve-
naissin.

Petrarch studied Iaw at Montpellier and Bologna,
but did not become a practical lawyer. He was in
orders, and held some ecclesiastical benefices.

Laura, celebrated in the sonnets of Petrarch, was
the daughter of the syndic of Avignon, and wife of
Hugo de Sade, as the Abbe de Sade has shewn in
his life of the poet.

Petrarch was one of the most eloquent writers at
the revival of letters, and enjoyed vast celebrity du-
ring his life. He received the poet’s crovvn of laurel

DIALECT. 9.5

in the Capitol, on Easter-day 1341. This was a
revival of an ancient ceremony that had been bor-
rovved from the games of Greece, and was introduc-
ed into Rome by Nero and Domitian, but had fallen
into disuse after the year 230.

After Petrarch had acquired farne, the Florentines
restored the confiscated property of his family, and
invited him to Florence, from whence his father had
been banished by the prevailing faction, but Pe¬
trarch did not accept of the invitation, and continu-
ed to live at the courts of different Italian princes.

The dialect of the country people near Padua dif-
fers considerably from the vvritten Italian, and is a
mixture of the Venetian and the lower Lombard,
which prevails in Modena, Mantua, &c. In the
sixteenth century the composition of coraedies, in
different popular dialects of Italy, was in fashion,
and Ruzzante Beolco, * a native of Padua, was cele-
brated for the comedies he composed and acted in
the lengua ruste^a Pandovana,  the dialect of the
country people of Padua.

The high-roads in the Lombardo-Venetian king-
dom and other parts of Italy are generally good, and
the traveller who has a carriage gets forvvard expe-
ditiously with post-horses, of which there are relays

* Me was boru in 1502. Tirahoschi. st. deli. lett. It,

96 PUBLIC CARRIAGE3 IN ITALY.

at every stage. Some travellers, hoivever, left their
own carriages and went in the public vehicles, that
they might be less exposed to the attacks of bandit-
ti, who, at this time, in the beginning of «818,
sometimes committed depredations on travellers,
and particularly between Rome and Naples. For
those who trave! at a smaller e^pence there are three
modes generally resorted to.—First, the diligenza,
or public stage-coach, which is tolerably commodi-
ous, and goes from Venice to Milan, and from Mi¬
lan communicates with the stage coaches of Pied-
mont.—Secondly, the sedia,  or seggiola,  a one-horse
chaise, on two wheels, with a seat for a single per-
son. This kind of vehicle is to be hired from one
town to the next, and goes at a good rate. It is
rather rough, the seat being fixed upon the long
flexible shafts, which but imperfectly supply the
vvant of steel-springs. The sedia has neither apron
nor cover, and therefore affbrds no protection against
the rain. Sedie are met with at the different towns
on the road betvveen Venice and Turin, and from
Pesaro and Rimini to Bologna, Parma, &c., but they
are not found in Tuscany, nor in the Pope’s terri-
tory to the west of the Appennines.—The third
kind of public carriage, and the most commonly em-
ployed, are the coaches driven by the Vetturini,  who
set out when they have got their complement of pas-
sengers, four or five in number; each passenger makes
his bargain, the vetturino engaging to convey the

4

VETTURINI.—C0RRIERE.

97

passenger and furnish him with supper and bed every
night during the journey for a sum agreed upon. The
inexperienced traveller is always made to pay more
than the usual fare by the vetturino, but in this
way of travelling he escapes imposition at the inns
on the road, as the bili at night is paid by the vet¬
turino. The vetturini travel very slovv, only from
thirty to thirty-five English miles a-day, stop during
the night, and proceed always with the same horses
unaided, except in hilly places, where the vet¬
turino finds the country people ready with oxen to
hire to assist in dragging the coach up the hill.
South of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom there
are almost no diligenze or stage-coaches, so that
those who travel in public carriages usually have re-
course to the vetturini. At Florence there is an
extensive proprietor of vetturino coaches, vvhich
sometimes perform long journeys, as, for instance,
from Florence or Rome to Pariš. A great many
vetturini are to be met with at Rome.

In Tuscany and the Roman State, the courier
vvho carries packets for the post-office, has a coach
suspended on springs, in vvhich he takes three or
four passengers. These couriers go ali night,
change horses at every post station, and consequent-
ly travel quicker than the vetturini. Their fare is
higher than that of the vetturini, the carriage is
not more commodious, and a bargain must be made
also with them, for the priče is not fixed, and ad-

G

98

INNS.—PADUA TO VICENZA.

vantage is always taken of the foreigner’s want of
practice.

The inns at the small tovvns on the road are ge¬
neral^ tolerable, but not much to be commended
for cleanhness, in which even tlie inns in the
large towns are deficient. Women servants are
rarely seen in the inns in Italy; ali the Service is
performed by men.

Between Padna and Vicenza the country is Hat;
vvheat-fields are now green, (16th December.) The
fields are divided from each other by wet ditches.
There are rows of pollard willows, and pollard pop-
lars with vines trained upon them. The road is
well made, it is elevated higher than the surface of
the adjoining fields, and has a ditch on each side.

Vicenza.

At Vicenza, a tovvn of 80,01)0 inhabitants, are
seen many considerable mansions and other fabrics
designed by Palladio, who was a native and an in-
habitant of this tovvn.

In the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, lOth, and llth cen-
turies, the prevalent architecture was the round-
arched style which sprung from the Koman, and
which gave rise to the pointed-arched. What con-
nection existed betvveen the architects of the point-
6

VICENZA.-PALLADIO’S BUILDINGS. 99

ed-arched buildings on the banks of the Ganges, ®
and the builders of the pointed-arched cathedrals
in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Europe,
is not vvell ascertained.

At the revival of the arts the architects quitted
the round-arched style, and began to imitate the fa-
brics of the beginning of the Roman empire ; they
retumed to the straight architraves and columns
which the ancient Romans had borrowed froni
Greece, and they copied the models vvhich existed
in the ruins of Rome.

In the first part of the sixteenth century, the
most flourishing period of the arts in Italy since
their revival, this imitation of the Roman style of
architecture vvas practised in its greatest perfection,
and the fabrics of that period, by Michael Angelo,
Sansovino, Palladio, and Vignola, have served as
models in Europe ever since. Amongst these ar¬
chitects Palladio is perhaps the most distinguished
for graceful and appropriate buildings, although the
works in vvhich he vvas employed are small in com-
parison with the majestic cupola of Saint Peter’s, by
Michael Angelo, Sir Christopher Wren’s Church
of Saint Paul, or Perraulfs colonnade of the Louvre.

One of the most considerable buildings at Vi-

* Views of these tnosques, tombs, and bridges, vvith point-
ed arches, situated on the banks of the Ganges, are to be seen
in the Vievvs in India, by William Hodges, published in 1786.

100 VICENZA.-l J ALLADIo’s THEATRE.

cenza is the justice-hall, the palazzo della Ragione,
renovated. and decorated with porticoes by Palladio.
It bas two loggie, or galleries, externally, one on
the ground with Doric pilastres, the other on the
principal floor with lonic. The length of the whole
fabric is 217 English feet, the breadth 124. It is
now used as a guard-room. The justice-halls at
Padna and Brescia are similar to this in their ge-
neral form and destination.

Theinterior of  theOIympic theatre, constructedby
Palladio in the manner of the ancient Roman theatres,
and after the description contained in the vvritings of
Vitruvius, produces now but little effect. It is not
large, and being scarcely ever made use of for theatri-
cal or other public perfonnances, it' is neglected and
covered with dust. The decorated ceiling is gone
and replaced with boards. The scenes are in perspec-
tive, in relief, and are made of carved vvood, repre-
senting three streets that diverge from the stage.
The front scene represents a magnificent hali open-
ing into these streets. This theatre was built at
the expence of the Academia Olimpica. Palladio
died before the building was completed. It was
finished under the direction of Scamozzi. An Aca¬
demia di Musiča, or concert, vvas given in it in
1816, when the Emperor Francis visited Vicenza.
A theatre on a similar plan was constructed by Sca¬
mozzi at Sabionetta, for the Duke Vespasian Gon-
zaga, but it bas now gone to ruin. At the en d of

12

ROT0NDA BY PALLADIO.

101

the sixteenth century, vvhen tliese theatres vvere
built, the Italian stage was in a flourishing State.
Musiča] operas (dramme per mušica) were then in-
vented, and many poets of eminence vvere employ-
ed in vvriting for the stage.

One of the principal private buildings by Palla-
dio in the tovvn is the mansion of the Chiericati
family, fronting the large open plače called La
Piazza deli ’Isola. The ground floor on the front
has a loggia, or open gallery, vvith Doric columns.
The first or principal floor (piano nobile) is orna-
mented vvith lonic columns, and a loggia interrupt-
ed in the middle. The cornice of the lonic co¬
lumns is immediately surmounted by the roof. This
palače is in a neglected State.

The Rotonda of the Capra family is a celebrated
fabric by Palladio, and finished, after Palladio’s de-
sign, by Scamozzi, situated three miles from Vicen-
za, amidst ground varied vvith hill and dale. It con-
tains a basement floor, a principal floor, and an attic.
The plan is a perfect square. In the centre is a sa-
loon, vvhose height reaches from the principal floor
to the top of the vaulted cupola, vvhich has a lan-
tern to admit the light. Each front of the square
building is adorned by a portico of six lonic co¬
lumns of the same height as the principal rooms,
and supporting a pediment; the reason assigned by
Palladio for having a portico on each of the four
sides is, that the situation of the house commands

102 VICENZA.—MANSIONS BY PALLADIO.

agreeable views on every side. * A flight of steps as-
cends to each of these porticoes. The villa design-
ed by Palladio at Meledo, + in the Vicentine, is
nearly similar, and is accompanied by buildings for
the use of the farm, connected with the mam fabric
by colonnades.

It is said that Palladio took the idea of this ro-
tonda from a small fabric at Padna, In a way
nearly similar to this Rotonda are disposed the
rooms in the Casino of the Villa Pamfili, near
Rome, built by Algardi about 1630, and those of
Bagatelle, in the Bois de Boulogne, built in the
end of the eighteenth century. The Duke of De-
vonshire’s house at Chisvvick, erected by that ex-
cellent judge of ornamental architecture the Earl of
Burlington, is a copy of the Rotonda de’ Capra.

Other fabrics by Palladio in Vicenza are, the
Palače of the Prefect,—part of the front of the Bar¬
baram mansion, lonic and Corinthian,—the man-
sion of Count Porta, Rustic and lonic ; both of
these have an attic above the principal floor.—The
mansion of the Counts Tiene, the ground floor
Rustic, the principal floor Composite, vvithout an

* Archit. di Palladio, libro secondo, Cap. III. De i di-
segni delle čase della citta.

j- See Archit. di Palladio, libro secondo, Cap. XV. De i
disegni delle čase di villa di alcuni gentil’ huomini di terra
ferma.

SCAMOZZpS BUILDINGS. 103

attic ; the design was not completely executed.—
The mansion of the Counts Valmarana, with Com-
posite pilasters, vvhich include in their height the
ground fioor and the first floor.—The front of the
house of Franceschini, formerly Schio, of three win-
dows only in breadth,—and the stili smaller fabric
called Palladio’s house, the front ornamented with
paintings in fresco by Fasolo, novv injured by time.
Some of these buildings differ in several respects
frora the designs in the printed collections of Palla-
dio’s works. ®

The mansion of the Fressini, in the Corso Street,
vvith an extensive front, is by Scamozzi. It has a

* Palladio was born at Vicenza in 1518, and lived to the
age of sixty-two. He visited Rome in 1547-

Besides the buildings at Vicenza, he designed the Bishops
palače at Trent; the wooden bridge of five arches over the
Brenta, at Bassano ; the fronts of some churches in Venice,
and the church of Santa Giustina at Padna; the mansion of
Floriano at Udine ; country houses, čase di -cilla,  with farm
buildings attached to them, in the Vicentine, the Trevisau
and the Veronese territory, on the Brenta, &c. He publish-
ed,— Archileltura,  in four books, which contains the designs
of buildings executed under his own direction, the designs of
the ancient faurics in Rome, and of those described by Vi-
truvius, Brainante’s temple, &c.;—Notes and Illustrations of
Cresafs Commentaries, vhere he explains the construction
of Ctesar’s bridge over the Rhine;—and šotne other works.
A collection of his designs of buildings was published at Vi«
cenza/in four volumes folio.

104<

VICENZA.—SCAMOZZI.—MINERALS.

loggia with lonic columns on the ground floor, and
above these Corinthian pilasters, comprehending in
their beight the principal and upper floor. *

Pigafetta, knight of Rhodes, who accompanied
Magellan (Magaglianes) in the first voyage round
the vvorld, made in the period from 1519 to 1522,
and who wrote the account of that voyage publish-
ed by Ramusio, t was a native of Vicenza.

In the neighbourhood of Padna and Vicenza are
rocks of trap porphyry, vvhich Fortis, in his Geolo-
gia del Vicentino, published at Pariš in 1802, con-
siders to be of volcanic formation. This porphyry is
used in paving the streets of Vicenza, Padna, and
Venice.-—A limestone or marble, similar to the
Verona marble, is employed for the ornamental parts

* Vincenzo Scamozzi was born at Vicenza in 1550, and
lived to the age of sixty-six. He built a part of the Procu-
ratorie Nuove at Venice, and the Palazzo Strozzi at Florence.
The design he gave for the Rialto bridge was not approved
of, and Antonio da Ponte was preferred as the architect of
that structure. He published a treatise on architecture in ten
books, and Discorsi Sopra le Antichita di Roma, Ven. 1583,
with forty engravings, of vvhich fifteen give the detail of the
amphitheatre. The buildings executed by him in the latter part
of his life are thought to deviate from the simplicity of his
first productions, and to partake of the decline of taste vvhich
took plače in the beginning of the seventeenth century. His
son also was an architect. See Temanza vite degli Archi-
tetti Veneziani, 1770.

t Ramusio Navigazioni, Tom. I. Ven. 1606.

NOSTRA DONNA Dl MONTE BERICO.

105

of buildings in Vicenza.—Strata of pit-coal are found
in the territory of Vicenza.-—Of the porcellane earth
got at Tretto, in the Vicentine, the specimen I
saw, vvas of a dull vvhite, vvith some reddish spots,
like decomposed garnets ; it has not the appearance
of a granite, whilst the Cornish porcellane rock and
that of Limoges are evidently granites. Porcellane
is made from this Vicenza rock at Vicenza, and it
is used at the porcellane manufactory of the Mar-
quis Ginori, near Florence.

Stone-ware in the English manner, a luso d’In«
gilterra, is also made at Vicenza.

Before Bonaparte’s campaign in Italy, the pre-
sent King of France, Louis XVIII., resided for
some time at Vicenza, which vvas then a part of the
Venetian territory.

The church of the Madonna di Monte Berico is
situated on a hill, tvvo miles from the tovvn. A por-
tico, one side of vvhich is composed of open arcades,
affords a covered walk ali the way from the tovvn to
the church. Another approach to the church is by
a stair of 104 steps, from the top of vvhich there is
an agreeable vievv of the neighbouring country.
The church vvas built in the end of the seventeenth
century. It has a cupoia, and produces an agreea¬
ble effect, particularly the interior, vvhich resembles
Sir Christopher Wren’s church of Saint Stephen
AValbrook, the plan being square, and the columns
disposed vvithin so as to form a cross; but the or-

106

VERONA.'—HISTORV.

naments and mouldings are complicated, and in the
degenerate style that prevailed in Italy in the end
of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth
century. The most esteemed works of architectnre
in Italy since the revival of the arts, are productions
of the end of the fifteenth and of the sixteenth cen-
tury.

From Vicenza to Verona the soil is gravelly, and
there are several embanked rivers which carry and
deposit much gravel in their beds.

Verona.

Verona is beautifully situated on the Adige.
Near the tovvn, on the left of the river, there are
hills with villas, and cypresses* the usual ornament
of the villas in this country. At a distance behind
these lower hills the more lofty mountains connect-
ed with the AIps are seen.

Verona first came under the dominion of the Ro-
raans, soon after the arrival of Hannibal in Italy.
It was very considerable amongst the towns of the
ancient province of Venetia, in the beginning of the
Roman empire. In the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, Verona vvas governed by its sovereign
princes the Scaligers. In the beginning of the fif-

* The cypress and Pinus pinea at Verona do not grovr spon-
taneously, but are planted for ornament.

Pliny mentions that the cypress was first introduced into
Italy from Crete.

FORTIFICATIONS.

107

teenth century it čarne into the possession of the
Venetians, and was the second city in the dominions
of the repuhlic. It is now included in the Lom-
bardo-Venetian kingdom belonging to the Emper-
or of Austria.

The neck of land formed by the Adige at Verona
was fortified by a vvall by the Emperor Gallienus in
the third century, and by another vvall built by
Theodoric in the beginning of the sixth ; the river
flovving round, and defending the other sides of  the
tovvn. Afterwards, other fortifications,' including
the rising ground on the left side of the river, were
formed by Can Grande in 132.5, and by Galeazzo
Visconti in 1389- When cannon came into use in
the end of the fourteenth century, the old vvalls, vvith
battlements and tovvers, were no longer a sufficient
defence ; and recourse was had to fortifications made
of vvalls twenty feet thick, vvith a broad terrace or
mound of earth thrown up behind them, and vvith
bastions formed of thick vvalls and filled with earth,
or filled vvith vaulted places for cannon, called čase-
mates. *

Amongst the first bastions of this kind vvere those
constructed at Verona for the Venetian republic,
about 1.530, by Micheli San Micheli. t And, ac-

* Casemate, in Italian, Casamatta,  signifies a building hol-
low within. Maffei. Veron, ill.

+ The architect Micheli San Micheli constructed likevvise

108

VERONA.—ANCIENT BASTIONS.

cording to Maffei, San Micheli vvas tlie first vvho
made pentagonal bastions, of vvhich ali the faces are
seen, flanked, and protected by the fire from the
curtain and adjacent bastions.

Other Italian authors State the fortifications of
Urbino to be the first that vvere made vvith penta¬
gonal bastions and oreillons; and these fortifications
vvere built by Batista Commandino, the father of
Frederic Commandine, the mathematician.

The bastions of Verona vvere blovvn up by the
French, and are stili in ruins.

Two of the gates of Verona, the Porta Nova and
Porta di Palio, by San Micheli, are admired for their
architecture and solidity. They have Doric columns
and rustic masonry. Each of these gates is in the
curtain betvveen tvvo bastions, and is intended to

for the Venetian republic the fortifications of Candia, vvhich
was taken by the Turks after a siege of twenty years, the fort
of Sant Andrea del Lido at the entrance of the Laguna of Ve-
nice, the fortress of Corfu, &c. He vvas born in 1484, and
died in 1559.

According to Maffei and Denina, the treatise by Marchi, a
military officer, published at Bologna in 1599, contains seve-
ral of the methods of fortification aftervvards etnployed by
Vauban.

The military engineers, as vvcll as the other artists of Italy
in the sixteenth centurj', vvere esteemed and employed in dif-
ferent parts of Europe. Henry VIII. had an Italian engineer,
Girolami di Trivigi, in his Service at the siege of Bouiogne
See Tiraboschi storia d. lett. It.,—Maffei. Veron, ill.,—and
Vasari vita di San Micheli.

AMPHITHEATRE.

109

serve as a cavalier commanding and protecting the
bastions.

Amphitheatre.

The amphitheatre is spacious, although not so
large as the Flavian amphitheatre, the Coliseum, at
Rome. The building of the Verona amphitheatre
has no great appearance on the outside, as there on-
ly remains a small part of the high exterior vvall,
and the rest of the fabric scarcely rises above the
adjacent houses. The stone seats vvithin have been
renevved since the middle of the sixteenth century,
so that the interior forms a vast hollovv eHiptical
cone, the surface of vvhich is composed of the rovvs
of seats. The effect of this view is striking, vvhen
seen from one of the upper rovvs. The seats as they
now are, are capable of containing 22,000 persons.
A portion of the seats is inclosed in a precinct of
wood, for the use of a small theatre, in vvhich plays
are acted in summer by day-light. The interior of
the Coliseum presents a very different vievv, the seats
being entirely demolished, and the arches that sup-
ported them covered vvith vvild shrubs and herbage.
The amphitheatre of Verona is built of large squared
masses of marble, from Sant Ambrosio, nine miles
from Verona on the Tyrol road. This stone has a
slight tinge of red. The soffit stones of the arcades
are eight or nine feet long. There are also bricks
in some parts of the building vvhich are stili unin-
jured, after having suffered the action of the wea-
ther for 1700 years; these bricks are large and fiat,

110

AMPHITHEATRE.-GLADIATORS.

like the bricks generally used by the Romans in
building; theyare eighteen inches long, nine inches
broad, and two inches thick.

The long axis of the precinct, inclosed by the
outer vvall of this amphitheatre, was 522 English
feet. The height of the remains of the external
vvall, consisting of three tier of  rusticated arcades,
96 English feet; the fourth story of rectangular
windows bas fallen dovvn.

The time when this amphitheatre vvas built is nei-
ther recorded in books nor inscriptions; Maffei
conjectures, that it was after the building of the
Roman amphitheatre, and in the reign of Domitian,
Nerva, or the first years of Trajan.

The practice of keeping gladiators, a set of men
trained to fight for the amusement of the puhlic,
vvas peculiar to the Romans. In the Olympic games
of the Greeks there vvere no exhibitions of that kind.
The number of the gladiators amongst the Romans
vvas very considerable ; many thousands are mention-
ed as being on some occasions inlisted into the army.

In the last times of the republic, and under the
first emperors, the combats of gladiators vvith one
another, and vvith wild beasts, at Rome, vvere exhi-
bited in the circus, in the forum and in amphi-
theatres constructed of timber. Vitruvius, vvho
vvrote in the time of Augustus, and described the
different edifices then in use, does not mention
the amphitheatre, from vvhich it is inferred, that-
there vvas no amphitheatre of stone at that time.

AMPHITHEATRES.

lil

The fabric of the ancient theatres was borrowed
by the Romans from the Greeks; but the amphi-
theatre was a building of Roman invention, and
constructed for the exhibition of gladiators and wild
beasts, spectacles peculiar to the Romans.

The amphitheatre of Rome, called Coliseum or
Colosseum, and in Italian, Coliseo and Coloseo, be¬
gun by Vespasian, and finished by Titus, was the
first amphitheatre built of stone, and is the largest
Roman edifice of stone that exists. After the mo¬
del of the amphitheatre of Rome those of Capua
and Verona were built.

The exterior prccinct of the amphitheatre of Ca¬
pua had already come to the ground in the time of
Theodoric, as Cassiodorus mentions, and the re-
mains of the fabric are now inconsiderable. Of the
amphitheatre of Rome and that of Verona the re-
mains are considerable at this day. The seats, and
the disposition of the stairs leading to them, is best
seen in the Verona amphitheatre. In that of Rome
the seats have long been destroyed.

Besides the three amphitheatres above mentioned,
the number of those constructed of masonry in other
parts of the empire was small. There are some re-
mains of fabrics, considered by authors to have been
Roman amphitheatres,—at Syracuse and Catania;
in Candia ; at Nismes, * and Frejus; at Tarragona,

* The wall ofthe amphitheatre at Nismes, where the height
is entire, is 70 Engiish feet in height, and consists of two tier

112

AMPHITHEATRES.

Seville, and Italica, in Spain. The edifice at Pola,
in Istria, is considered by Maffei to have been an
elliptical theatre and not an amphitheatre, as it bas
the seats only on one side.

There vvas no amphitheatre of masonry at Con-
stantinople, nor in the Roman provinces in Asia
and Africa. In these places the combats of gladia-
tors and wild beasts were exhibited in the hippo-
drome or circus.

Maffei bas published six medals, stamped ,with
representations of the amphitheatre, and he could
find no others that were authentic ; three are of
Vespasian, one of Alexander Severus, and tvvo of
Gordian ; on the last is represented a combat be-
tvveen an elephant and a buli in the amphitheatre.

From the combats of wild beasts the amphitheatre
is called by Cassiodorus and other vvriters, Theatrum
Venaticum.

Besides the gladiators vvho were trained to fight
in public, individuals were condemned by the courts
of justice to fight with men or with wild beasts, and
sometimes the condemned were bound and exposed
to the wild beasts. In the times of persecution

of arcades of masonry, not rusticated, according to the draw-
ings published in the Antiquites de la France par Clerisseau,
primiere partie, a Pariš, 1778. Maffei doubts »vhether it was
an amphitheatre in the strict sense, with the seats ali round.

In the Antiquite Explique of Montfaucon, an engraving
is given of an amphitheatre at Autun, and this engraving is
the copy of a falsified view of that of Verona. Maffei, V. Ul.

VERONA.—ANCIENT FABRICS. 113

inany Christians suffered in this way in the ainphi-
theatre at Rome, which the Roman Catholics there-
fore consider as a holy plače, sanctified by the relics
of martyrs. Capital punishments by burning, whip-
ping, &c., * came to be executed in the Coliseum.
Justinian abolished the exhibition of gladiators in
the eastern empire, and in Italy also these fero-
cious spectacles ceased entirely in the sixth century,

In the Street called the Corso, is an ancient gate
of the city, consisting of  a wall perforated by two
arched gate-ways, one for the passengers entering,
the other for those going out, with an inscription
which shows that this part of the wall was built by
order of the Emperor Gallienus, vvho begun his
reign in 261. Another ancient gate is in the Via
de’ Leoni. A dilapidated piece of antiquity, near
the old castle, is called the arch of the Gavii.

Ofthe palače built by Theodoric no traces remain.
An ancient seal of the city of Verona, is considered
by Maffei to be a repregentation of this palače.
Theodoric frequently visited Verona, although he
held his chief residence at Ravenna.

In the theatre of the Academia de’Filarmonici,
the representations were preparing vvhich were to
take plače after Christmas. In a court adjoining

* See Suetonius, Suidas, Lactantius.

H

114 VERONA.—MUSEUM OF INSCRIPTIONS.

to this theatre are placed the ancient inscriptions
and carved stones collected and arranged under the
inspection of Maffei. These antiquities are kept
under a lofty portico, supported by lonic columns,
which forms one side of the court, and under a lovr
portico, or colonnade, which goes along the other
three sides. Many of the inscriptions were found
in the neighbourhood of Verona, and are described
in Maffei’s Verona Illustrata.  An ancient Lace-
demonian testamentary deed, engraved on marble,
is in this collection, after having been in Pariš.

The cathedral of Verona is a large old church. In
this and some of the other churches several good pic-
tures are to be seen. In the church of Saint George
is the Martyrdom of Saint George, by Paul Veronese;
an excellent picture, which was in Pariš. In the
church of San Bernardino is the Capella Pellegrini,
a round chapel highly finished, with a cupola, the
whole interior formed of polished marble of a dull
white, and of that particular kind called bronzino
marble, * from the neighbourhood of Verona, most
accurately joined, and skilfully carved. This pleas-
ing piece of architeeture is the work of the archi-

* The term bronzino is applied on account of the sound
the marble gives when štručk. A kind of marble in Tuscany
is caikd Campanino, and a porphyry is named by the Gcr*
mans Klingstein, for the same reason.

FABRICS.—‘BUILDING MATERIALS.

115

tect San Micheli. Four of the eight Corinthian co-
lumns vvhich decorate the chapel are fluted spirally.

There are several mansions or palaces vvhich are
of geod architecture. The Bevilacqua palače in the
Corso is by San Micheli; some of the columns are
spirally fluted ; the front is incomplete.

The buildings in Verona as well as in Mantua
and Padna, are generally of brick plastered over.
The fronts of churches, public buildings, and of the
more magnificent of the houses of private individuals,
are faced with marble, vvhich is got in the country
to the north of Verona and Vicenza. This stone
is of a dull vvhite, and is susceptible of a shining
polish, but it is not polished vvhen employed in the
exterior of buildings. The facing of brick build¬
ings with stone is mucli practised in Italy. When this
operation is done in the most solid way, the stone
vvhich forms the facing is built in at the same time
vvith the brick in the original construction of the
wall; this is called Opera collegata nel muro. But
frequently the brick fronts of churches are built
rough, vvith holes and pierres d’attente for receiv-
ing the stone facing aftervvards, vvhich, if it is ap-
plied, never unites firmly vvith the vvall. A less
solid manner of incrustation, called investigione and
incrostatione, is that in vvhich some of the stones
only are built into the vvall, and the rest are thin
slabs applied to the vvall, and retained by the dove-

116

VERONA.—TOMBS.—FRACASTORO.

tail form of their edges, vvhich fit into the grooves
of the stones that are built in. *

The tombs of three of the Scaligers, sovereign
princes of Verona, Can Grande, and tvvo others,
covered with canopies composed of pointed arches
and pinnacles, are situated on the outside of a small
church in the town. Can Grande I. was lord of
Verona, and conquered Brescia, Padna, and Friuli;
he died in 1328. Mastino died in 1350. Cansiff-

O
norio Scaliger died in 1375. Another tomb, with-
out inscription, is said to be the tomb of Mastino I.
della Scala, who was elected captain-general of Ve¬
rona in 1261.

For the sake of English travellers, the shevvers of
curiosities gave the name of Juliet’s tomb to a fabric
which has now disappeared, in consequence of the
demolition of the adjacent building.

In the Piazza de’ Signori are sculptures represent-
ing celebrated men natives of Verona, Catullus,
Cornelius Nepos, M. Vitruvius, Pliny the natu¬
ralist, Fracastoro, t and the Marquis Maffei. t

* Architettura di Sebastian Serlio Bolognese.

+ Fracastoro was born of a noble family of Verona in 1483,
and died in 1554. He was physician to the Councilof Trent.
He was a patron and encourager of learning, and his resi-
dence on the beautiful bili dlncaffi, near Verona, was the re-
sort of men of letters. In his Latin poem de Siphilitide, he
describes the symptoms and ravages of that disease in a seri-
ous and clevated style.

+ Amongst the principal publications by the Marquis Maf-

12

MAFFEI.-—J. C. SCALIGER.-ADIGE.

117

■ Ginlio Cesare Bordone, commonly known by the
name of Julius Caesar Scaliger, was a native of Ve¬
rona or of Padna. He went to Agen, vvhere he
lived with an Italian bishop of that plače, and assum-
ed the name of Scaliger, under pretence of being
descended from the family of the Scaligers princes
of Verona. He wrote concerning the origin of the
Latin language,—a controversial treatise against
Cardan, &c. and possessed great celebrity in his
time, as did his son Joseph Scaliger. * *

The river Adige, vvhich rises in the Tyrol, and
has its course to the east of the Lake di Garda, runs
through and nearly surrounds the principal part of
the town by its winding course. The Ponte del
Castel Vecchio, a bridge of three arches built over
this river in 1354, in the reign of Can Grande II.
is remarkable for the extent of one of the arches,
vvhich is 157 English feet in span. + This bridge

fei are,—the tragedy of Merope, which had great success,
was translated into English, and other languages, and was prai-
sed by Voltaire, in the preface to his tragedy of the same
name, which he addressed to Maffei;—La Scienza Cavalle-
resca, a treatise against duels ;—the learned historical and
antiquarian work, Verona Illustrata. Maffei obtained cele-
brity during his life, and was much esteemed by his felloiv
citizens of Verona. He died in 1755, at the age of 80.

* See Tiraboschi, štor. deli. lett. Ital.; and Maffei, Verona
Illustr.

t 142 Verona feet, each of which is about 13j% English
inches, and is | of a Roman architectural palm. Maffei, Ve¬
rona Illust. parte quarta, p. 102.

118 BRIDGE.-VVATER WHEELS.-MONTE BOLCA.

communicates with the castle; it isnarrovv, and was
part of the old fortifications, and is not used for the
passage of the puhlic road. There are three other
bridges over the Adige at Verona.—Of the rivers
of Lombardy, the Adige, cailed by the German
Tirolese, Etsch, is next in size to the Po.

On the river are seen some vvheels that lift vrater
for watering the gardens. The rim of the vvheel is
hollovv and divided into compartments. Each com-
partment plunges in the vvater of the river, is fil-
led when at the bottom of the circumference, and
empties itself into a trough when it comes to the
upper part.

Monte Bolca, situated about fifteen miles from
Verona, on the confines between the Veronese ter-
ritory and the Vicentine, is famous amongst na¬
turalista for the remains of fish which are there found
imbedded between the layers of  a whitish shale,
as betvveen the leaves of a book. The fish are of
many different species, and are drawn and describ-
ed in the publications of various naturalists, accord-
ing to vvhose judgment the fish differ in kind from
those now got in the Mediterranean; as the natu¬
ralists also find, that most other remains of animal
bodies in a fossil state in Europe differ from the
animals at this day inhabiting the adjacent land and
vvater, and most commonly resemble the animals of
a vvarmer cl imate. Count Giambatista Gazzola, the
propnetor of Monte Bolca, has a very large collec-

F0SSIL FISH.—GERMAN COLONIES.

119

tion of these fish at his house in Verona. Amongst
other objects in the collection, I remarked a kind
of crab vvithout large claws, from Monte Bolca, like
the vvhite sea cray-fish, called at Venice Gammara;
and the grinding-teeth and bones of elephants from
Romasjnano, near Verona, similar to the remains
of elephants found in Britain, and in many other
parts of Europe. Another extensive collection of
the fish of Monte Bolca was disposed of by Count
Gazzola to the French government, vvho placed it
in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes at Pariš,
where it is now to be seen.

Near Verona, a small district, called the Tredici
Commune, is inhabited by Germans, who retain
their native language. Their dialect resembles the
German, spoken in the bishoprick of Trent; and
towards Trent and Feltre, amongst the hills, is a
similar colony of Germans, called the Sette Com¬
mune. The origin of these German colonies, at
the foot of the Southern declivity of the Alps, is not
precisely ascertained. * Maffei is inclined to as-
cribe their origin to the remains of the Cimbri, whp
were conquered by Marius, in a great battle near
Verona ; but this is not supported by any probable
evidence.

From Verona, the Lake di Garda, anciently call-

* See Adelung’s Mithridates, and Maffei Ver. I1J.

120 COUNTRY NEAR VERONA.—ATTILA.—VIRGIL.

ed Lacus Benacus, may be visited ; the road from
Verona to Brescia passes near its Southern extre-
mity. The Lake di Garda is one of the three larg-
est lakes on the Southern declivity of the Alps.

At Peschiera, where the Mincio issues from the
lake, Attila, in 452, a year before his death, and
after having conquered the country, afterwards call-
ed Lombardy, received the ambassadors of Valen-
tinian IH., emperor of the west, and agreed to with-
draw from Italy, on receiving in marriage Honoria,
the sister of Valentinian, and a large sum of money.
Saint Leo, bishop * of Rome, was one of the am¬
bassadors. This event is the subject of Algardi’s
sculpture in relief in Saint Peter’s, and of one of
RaphaeFs pictures in the rooms of the Vatican. In
both of these celebrated compositions, Saint Peter
and Saint Paul are represented in the air driving
back Attila. t

Near this is the village of Bandes, vvhich Maffei
bas shewn to be Andes, the birth plače of Virgil.
It is situated on the brow of the Veronese hills, and
fommands a view of the plain of Mantua.

* The bishop of Rome had not begun to assume exclusive-
ly the title of Pope till about the year 500, in the time of
Theodoric, and one of the Popes was elected by that Prince.
Gibbon.

•f Vasari, a painter, and little acquainted with history, er-
roneously describes this event as having happened at Monte
Mario, near Rome. See Vasari vita di Raffaelle.

TREES.—INDIAN CORN.

121

In the mountainous part of the Veronese territo-
ry, there grow Scotch fir, silver fir, and larix. Ma-
ny vvoods of different kinds in the Veronese were
destroyed a hundred years ago, by neglect, and by
attempting to cultivate ground which was better
suited for wood. *

On one of the mountains is a cavity sheltered
from the rays of the sun, in which the snow remains
during the whole year ; and when the ice-houses in
Verona happen to be exhausted in summer, a sup.
ply is obtained from this natural ice-house.

Indian corn is cultivated in considerable quantity
near Verona, where it was introduced about 200
years ago. t

It is called Formentone at Verona, Melgone at
Milan, Granone in Piemont, Gran turco in Tus-
cany, Maiz by the native inhabitants of South Ame¬
rica, and Zea Maiz by Linnaeus.

It is a native of the warm climates of America*
and is the grain principally cultivated on the Mis-
sissippi, where wheat is frequently injured by the
great heat.

It is cultivated in Carniola, Styria, and in small
quantities as far north as Prague, which is near the
latitude of 50°; and nearly in the same latitude
are the most northerly vineyards in Bohemia. t—It

* Maffei Ver. 111. f Maffei Ver. 111.

t Wine of a good quality was made near Aussig in Bohe-

122

INDIAN CORN.—FOGLIA.—FRUIT.

gives a great produce, but exhausts the ground, and
requires more manure than vvheat; it also has the
disadvantage of being difficult to keep. It is es-
teemed much less nourishing than vvheat. It is
brought to market at a cheap rate, and is the food
of the poorer classes in the north of Italy, Carniola,
and other climates fitted for its culture.

The bread, vvhich is sometimes made of the meal,
has a yellovv colour, and is unpleasant to the taste,
heavy, and not capable of being well raised.

Indian corn is more frequently used in the form
of polenta, vvhich is a mass of paste or hasty-pud-
ding, made by boiling the meal vvith vvater,

The stalks of Indian corn are kept in stacks, and
serve as food for cattle.

The sheath, called foglia, vvhich envelopes the
ear, is generally used in Italy to stuff mattrasses,
and is vvell suited for that purpose. The beds most
common, and usually met vvith in the inns in Italy,
consist of tvvo tressels of vvood or iron, on vvhich
boards or reeds are laid ; on these a thick mattrass
of foglia, and over it the bed, vvithout bed-posts or
curtains.

Peaches, apples, pears, melons, stravvberries, and

mia, in the latitude 51°; but some severe winters killed the
vines about the year 1787. See Keysler’s Travels; and Gar-
denstone’s Travels.

*

WINE.—oiL.—VERONA TO MANTUA. 123
other fruits, are abundantly cultivated in the terri-
tory of Verona, and are of excellent quality.

The wine of the Veronese, which is most com-
monly used, is svreet, not being completely fer-
mented.

Ohves are a good deal cultivated; and the oil
that is made from the pulp alone, is esteemed nearly
as good as the oil of Lucca and the south of ltaly.
That vvhich is made by bruising the kernels along
vvith the pulp is less agreeable to the taste, and
sells at an inferior priče. The olive trees, near Ve¬
rona, were destroyed by the frost in 1710; it was
found necessary to root them out, and plant young
trees, so that the produce of olive oil was stili defi-
cient twenty years after the accident. * In similar
cases, it is often found more advantageous to cut the
old olive tree over by the roots, which then send
forth a new stem. +

Proceeding from Verona to Mantua, we observe
many wliite mulberry trees, called morari, and in
Tuscany, gelsi and mori, a good deal of silk being
produced near Verona. Maffei, who vvrote about a
hundred years ago, complains that the silk was ex-
ported from the territory of Verona to Leipsic and
Vienna in thread, instead of being dyed and manu-
factured, and thereby affording employment to the
inhabitants. The fields are separated by dry ditch-

* Maffei Ver. 111.

j- Virgil. Georg.

124

MANTUA.—THE T PALAČE.

es. On approaching Mantua, there are clear run-
ning streams in the ditches by the road. The road
is well made of vvater-vvorn gravel.

Mantua.

Mantua is situated in a lake, with reedy shores,
surrounded by a flat country, and vvithout the beauty
of a mountain lake. The tovvn is fortified; it has
four Communications with the land by bridges and
causeways; and, from the situation, is considered to
be capable of holding out long against an enemy.

The church of Saint Andrew is spacious, with
Corinthian pilaster«, ornamented with grotesque fo-
liage, in the style of the Mille cinque cento, the
end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth
century. In this church is a bronze bust of the
early painter Andrea Mantegna, who was born at
Padua, and died in 1517. He was contemporary
with Leonardo da Vinci, and had for pupil Correg-
gio. This bust was taken to Pariš by the French,
and is now restored to its former plače.

The cathedral has a flat ceiling and Corinthian
columns for its internal decoration.

At the scuola delle belle arti there is a theatre
ornamented in a heavy style.

The Palazzo del T, so called from the form of
a building that once stood in the vicinity, is of
brick plastered over; some of the ornamental parts
are of stone. It consists of a ground floor only, and

PAINTINGS IN FRESCO BY JULIO ROMANO. 125

was built by Frederic Gonzaga, Marquis of Man¬
tua, who employed Julio Romano in the decorations.
The ceiling and walls of the saloon, and adjacent
suit of rooms, are painted in fresco by that artist.
There are many beautiful figures in these pictures.
The figures on the ceiling are painted in their just
perspective, that is, as figures seen from a low point
of view. This strict attention to the point of view
is remarkable also in the ceiling pictures of Paul
Veronese, and in the architectural part of the fresco
paintings of Raphael in the loggie of the Vatican.
The singular subject which composes the decora-
tion of one of the rooms in the palazzo del T, shews
the exuberance of the artist’s fancy. It is a repre-
sentation of Jupiter fulminating the Titans. On
the walls of the room are the gigantic Titans, crush-
ed by the fall of the rocks they had piled up, in or-
der to scale the habitation of the gods. The thun-
derbolts which destroy the giants and their vvorks
are seen to issue from the hand of Jove, who is re-
presented in the centre of the ceiling.

The house which Julio Romano * inhabited is in

* Julio Pipi, usually called Julio Romano, was the favour-
ite pupil of Raphael, and completed the pictures in the stanze
of the Vatican, which were left unfinished at Raphaefs death.
Julio was patronized by Clement VII., and aftervrards by
Frederic II. Gonzaga, marquis of Mantua, who brought him to
reside at Mantua. Julio, as Benvenuto Cellini relates, gave

126'

STREETS.-—MANTUA TO MODENA.

one of the principal streets; it is a moderate sized
house, with architectural ornaments. In the same
Street is a large house, with huge statues in form of
termini, in a fantastic and uncommon style. The
streets of Mantua are of a convenient breadth, in
straight lines, and were laid out by Julio Romano,
who was employed by the Marquis to beautify and
improve the town. * *

In the church of the Madonna delle Grazie,  some
miles from Mantua, a monument vvas erected under
the direction of Julio Romano, in memory of Bal-
thassar Castiglione.

Betvveen Mantua and Modena, we cross the Po
by a ferry-boat, which svvings on a rope attached to
four or five small boats, the uppermost of vvhich is
moored in the middle of the river, and up the
stream. By means of the helm the boat is placed
diagonally in the river, and the stream acting on the
upper side of the boat puts it over. The whole is
similar to the swinging boat on the Elbe at Pilnitz
near Dresden. The country is fiat and well cultivat-
ed. Vines are trained on a kind of maple. Wheat is
sovvn under the trees, vvhich are thirty or forty feet
asunder.

offence to the Pope, by his lascivious drawings engraved by
Marc Antonio Raimondi, for a book of Pietro Aretino. Julio
died at Mantua in 1546.

* Vasari Vita di Julio Romano.

MODENA.—HOUSE OF ESTE.

127

The part of the dutchy of Modena that we pass
through on this road is a plain and fertile country;
but the mountainous part to the west, amongst the
Apennines, is poor; and chestnuts form a principal
part of the food of the inhabitants, as in other parts
of the Apennines.

Modena.

In the sixteenth century, the dominions of the
family of Este, the parent of the house of Bruns-
wick, included Ferrara, as well as Modena. Their
sovereign authority in these cities began in 1249.
Ferrara was the chief residence; and the dukes of
Ferrara were distinguished for their encouragement
of men of genius. The two greatest poets in the re-
fined period of the Italian language, Tasso and Ari-
osto, lived at their court.

In 1597» Clement VIII. Aldobrandini took pos-
session of Ferrara, with JOGO horse and 2U,0UG foot;
the most numerous army that has ever appeared under
the banners of the popes. After this, the dominions
of the family of Este were reduced to the dutchy of
Modena.

The duke of Modena, novv reigning, is son of the
Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, who married the
princess of Este, heiress of Modena and Carrara, in
1771, and died in 1807, and for the repose of this
Archduke they were celebrating a solemn anniver-
sary mass at the time I was in Modena. In the
duke’s palače at Modena, a large building begun

12S

MODENA.—PICTURES.—LIBRARY.

by Duke Francis I. in the seventeenth century,
there are many good pictures. The Inamorata of
Titian, Venus and Mars by Guercino, both of them
returned fronti Pariš; as is Julio Romano’« dravving
of the bas reliefs on Trajan’s column.

The collection of pictures in the palače was for-
merly more numerous and valuable. Augustus III.,
king of Poland, and elector of Saxony, bought 100
of the best pictures of the duke of Modena’s collec¬
tion for L. 50,000 sterling. These pictures, amongst
which is the Holy Family of Corregio called the
Night, the Magdalen of Corregio, &c. are now in
the gallery at Dresden.

The duke’s library, called the Biblioteca Estense,
was formed of the ducal library brought fronti Fer¬
rara, to which great additions have been made.
The learned historian and antiquary Muratori * was
superintendent of this library in 1700, and ano-

* Muratori was boru at Vignola, in the dutchy of Modena,
in 1672, and lived to the age df 78. He was an ecclesiastic,
and held the benefice of prior of Santa Maria di Pomposa. He
elucidated thehistoryof ltalyin themiddle ages byhis vvritings,
whicharevoluminous. His principalworks are,—Rerum Italica-
rum Scriptores, ab anno 500ad 1500, in 27 folio volumes.—An-
tiquitates Italicae Medii aevi, siveDissertationes de Moribuslta-
lici Populi, ab inclinatione Romani Imperii usque ad annum
150t, 6  vol. folio.—Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum
in Praecipuis earundum Collectionibus hactenus Prretermissa-
rum, 6 vol. folio.—Annali d’ltalia dal Principio deli era vol-
gare fino ali anno 1500, 12 vol. quarto, &c.

TIRABOSCHI.—TOWER.—GUICCIARDINI. 129
ther eminent Italian author, Tiraboschi, * lield that
plače in "1780.

The tovver of the cathedral, and the sculptures of
the pulpit, vvere the vvork of Arrigo da Campione
in 1322, as appears from the inscription. The ca¬
thedral is in the round-arched style.

In the piazza della cathedrale is an inscription in
honour of the celebrated historian Guicciardini, a
memorial of his having vvidened and embellished the
streets vvhilst he vvas governor of Modena. +

* Tiraboschi, author of the Storia della Letteratura Ita-
liana, vvas a Jesuit till the suppression of that order. He vvas
aftervvards professor of rhetoric in the college of Brera at
Milan, and lastly librarian to the Duke of Modena. He vvas
born at Bergamo in 1731, and died at the age of 62.

f Francesco Guicciardini vvas born at Florence, and died
in 1540 at the age of 58. He vvas appointed by Leo X. go¬
vernor of Modena, vvhich vvas at that time under the dominion
of the Pope, and vvas aftervvards governor 01 Bologna. He
retired from the Papal court after the death of Clement VII.
In his villa of Arcietri, near Florence, he vvrote his History
of Italy, from 1494 to 1534, one of the most esteemed histo-
rical vvorks in the Italian Janguage, although the style is ra-
ther diffuse. In the first editions, the passages vvhich vvere
thought injurious to the Popes are left out, and one particu-
larly in Book IV. concerning the origin of their temporal
povver.

Ludovico Guicciardini, a nephcvv of Francesco, lived at
Antvverp, and published a description of the Lovv Countries,
and a History of the Events in Flanders, from 1529 to 1560.
See Tiraboschi St. d. lett. It.

I

130 MODENA.—WELLS.—ALLUVIAL S0IL.

Tassoni, author of the burlesque poem, the Secchia
Rapita, was a native of Modena. *

The plain in which Modena is situated is com-
posed of alluvial matter deposited by rivers. Wells
are dag to the depth of about sixty-three feet, till
the workmen come to a bed of sand, into which they
bore five feet, and a spring of water issues imme-
diately, and keeps the well always supplied with
good water.

In some parts of England also the disposition
and nature of the alluvial strata admit of this mode
of getting water by boring.

In sinking the wells at Modena, they first pass
through fourteen feet of rubbish of old buildings ;—
then vegetable mould ;—peat earth, with remains of
plants, hazel nuts and other seeds; this earth is
in layers, some of which are of a black, others of a
lighter colour.—At twenty-eight feet, the vvorkmen
come to a bed of clay eleven feet thick, in passing
through which there is no water to incommode
them; it ends at the depth of thirty-nine feet,—
and then there is a bed of peat earth, composed of
decayed vegetables.—Then another bed of clay,
vvhich terminates at the depth of fifty-tvvo feet.—
Decayed vegetables again,—and a third bed of clay,
rather thinner than the others.—Decayed vegeta¬
bles,—and, lastly, the bed of sand and gravel, con-

* Tassoni died in 1635, at the age of 70.

GOUNTRT BETWEEN MODENA AND BOLOGNA. 131
taining remains of sea-shells, and through this the
perforation is made by which the water rises. *

The country betvveen Modena and Bologna is a
cultivated plain. At this season, the ^3d of De¬
cember, it was seen unfavourably, the snow falling
and Iying some inches thick. But returning again
in April, we saw a country highly cultivated, in-
closed with hedges, and interspersed with many
houses, some of  them of considerable size, occupied
by farmers or proprietors. The farm-houses in
Italy are large, a part of the fabric being employed
as a granary. The grain is threshed immediately
after reaping, and there are no stacks of unthreshed
corn near the farm-houses, but only a few small
stacks of stravv. In April the hills thirty miles off
to the west were stili seen covered with snow.
Many of the hedges are of Rhamnus paliurus, a
thorny plant which scareely endures the cold of the
climate of London.

Bologna.

Bologna is the mater studiorum, the principal
plače of study in the Pope’s territory. In the scho-
lastic times, that is, in the end of the tvvelfth, and
in the thirteenth century, when vast numbers of
students flocked to the schools to learn systems

* Bacchini de Fontium Mutinensium Scaturigine, publish-
ed about 1700.

182

BOLOGNA.—EMINENT TEACHERS.

which are now seen to be nugatory and useless,
'Bologna was the most celebrated university in
Itaiy. * Afterwards, in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, when the objects of study had be-
come more similar to those of the present day, se-
veral men of eminence taught at Bologna. Amongst
the professors who at that period attained eminence
are the following :

Berengario da Carpi, professor of surgery in
1510, was one of the first who introduced the ex-
ternal application of mercury.

Aldrovandi lectured on uncompounded medicines.
By his advice the botanic garden was instituted in
1567'. He left his collection of objects of natural
history and his library to the Senate of Bologna,
who transferred them to the Institute. He was
versed in different Sciences. His Treatise on qua-
drupeds, birds, fishes, insects, &c. is in thirteen
folio volumes. He was born at Bologna in 1522,
and died at the age of eighty-five.

Gaspar Taliacozzi, named from Tagliacozzo, a
town in the kingdom of Naples, a native of Bologna,
and professor of surgery and anatomy in that uni-
versity in 1580, author of the book, De Curtorum
Chirurgia per Insitionem seu de Narium et Au-
rium defectu per Insitionem arte hactenus ignoto

* Tiraboschi, Štor. d. lett. It. t. 4. p. 43.

CAVALIERI.—RICCIOLI. 133

sarciendo, is the learned Taliacotius vvhose art is
celebrated in Hudibras.

Cavalieri, a native of Milan, was professor of
mathcmatics at Bologna. Galileo considered him
to be one of the first mathematicians of his time.
His book, Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum
nova quadam ratione promota, published in 1635,
is one of the first works containing the remote prin-
ciples of the differential and integral calculus. It
appears from his book, entitled Ruota planetaria,
that he was not free from the belief in judicial astro-
logy. He died in 1617, at the age of forty-nine.

Grimaldi, a Jesuit, was professor at the Jesuits’
college in Bologna. His names of the spots on the
moon are usually adopted by astronomers. He
vvrote on the refraction of light, and died in 1663.

Riccioli, a Jesuit and professor in the college of
that order at Bologna, died in 16'71. His Almagest
is a collection of ali that vvas knovvn in astronomy
in his time. In his Astronomia nova, he tried to
combat the system of Copernicus, with a view to
support the censures of the inquisition against Ga¬
lileo.

The Institute of Bologna vvas establishcd by
Count Marsigli in 1710. * According to its origi-

* Count Marsigli vvas of a noble family of Bologna, and
served in the army of the Emperor, which Service he was
obliged to quit, being unfortunately an officer, though not
first in conunand, in Brisach, when that plače surrendered,

134 BOLOGNA.—INSTITUTE.—MARSIGLI.

nal Foundation it consisted of an academy of Sciences,
like the Academy of Sciences of Pariš, various pro-
fessorships, a cabinet of natural history, a printing
establishment.

The university and institute occupy a handsome
and commodious edifice, in which are contained a
collection of objects for the study of natural history,
a collection of philosophical Instruments, a library,
a collection of antiquities, an observatory. The ob-
servatory is furnished vvith a transit instrument and
a circle, both made by Reichenbach the Bavarian
artist, and a,  ten feet reflecting telescope, after the
manner of Herschel, by Arniči of Modena.

In the collection of antiquities I remarked some
ancient Roman lead pipes for conveying water. The
pipe is fixed betvveen two stones, each of which has
a semi-cylindrical cavity embracing one half of the
pipe ; the other stone fits on the remaining half.
Some of these pipes have a section that is not cir-

after a rcsistance which was considered too short by the Au-
strian Government. He aftervvards received marks of atten-
tion and encouragement from Louis XIV. The Institute of
Bologna vvas established by hira in 1710, as above mentioned.
He published a description of the Danube, with the antiqui-
ties and natural productions, from Kalemberg, in Austria, to
the confluence of the river Jantra, in Bulgaria, in six volumes
folio—An Account of the Forces of the Ottoman Govern¬
ment, and other works. He died in 1730, at the age of 72.

ANCIENT LEAD PIPES.-GALVANI.

135

cular, but pear shaped. * Lead pipes were some-
times used by the Romans to convey water across a
valley, the pipe following the curvature of the val-
ley. This is supposed to have been put in practice
by the Roman artists who constructed the aqueduct
at Lyons, as the aqueduct of masonry goes no far-
ther than the brow of the hill above the valiey.

In the same collection is a statue of Pope Boni-
facio, composed of embossed plates of brass, and
made about the year 1300.

The abbate Mesofanti, librarian, and one of the
professors of the university, is celebrated for his ac»
quaintance with a great number of languages, many
of which he speaks fluently.

In the portico of the university is a tablet in me-
mory of Galvani, the natural philosopher, and cele¬
brated as the first who observed the phenomena of
galvanism, which Volta afterwards explained, and
shewed to belong to electricity.

Another tablet is in memory of Laura Bassi, do-
toressa di lisica, a lady who was professor of natural
philosophy in the university of Bologna. She died
in 1778, and in Saint Catherine’s church is her
tomb, erected by her husband, who was a professor,
and by her sons. +

* A figure of ancient pipes of this kind. found ncar the
Pantheon, is published in the treatise of the Jesuit Donatus
de Urhe Roma, in Graevii thes. antiq. Rom. Tom. III. p. 765.

f Authors have recorded the names of other ladies distin-

136 BOLOGNA.—NOVELLA.—BOTANIC GARDEN.

The botanic garden is furnished with hot-houses,
and near it is the giardino economico, a garden
for the purpose of giving instructions in agricul-
ture, on which subject a course of lectures is deliver-
ed.

In the collection of models of agricultural instru¬
menta kept in this garden, I observed an instrument

guished for learning in Bologna at an earlier period. Novella,
the daughter of a professor of canon law, about 1350, used
to read the puhlic lectures for her father ; and that the atten-
tion of the students might not be dravvn off from the lecture
to the teacher, the face of this learned and beautiful profes¬
sor was concealed by a skreen, as Cristina da Pisano, also
of a Bolognese family, curiously relates in the Tresor de la
Cite des Dames :

“ Pareillement a parler de plus nouveaux tems sans querre
les anciennes histoires, Jean Andry solempnel legiste a Bou-
logne la grasse, n’amie soixante ans, n’etoit pas d’opinion
que mal fust que fetnmes fussent lettrees. Quand a sa belle
et bonne fille, que il tant ama, qui ot nom nouvelle, fist
appendre lettres, et si avant la loix, que quand il estoit occu-
pe d’aucune essoine, pourquoy il ne puvoit vacquer a lire les
legons a ses escholiers, il envoyat Nouvelle sa fille lire en
son lieu aux escholes en chayere. Et afin que la beaute
dhcelle n’empechast la pensee des oyans, elle avoit un petit
courtine devant d’elle. Et par cette maniere suppleoit et
allegoit aucunes fois les occupations de son pere, lequel Paima
tant que pour mettre le nom d’elle en memoire fist un no-
table lecture d’un livres des loix, qu’il nomma du nom de sa
fille la Nouvelle.” Wolfius de Mulier. Erud. and Tiraboschi.

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

137

for threshing vvheat used near Bologna ; it consists
of a thick piece of wood in the shape of an isosceles
triangle about five feet high. Along the base of the
triangle is a row of short iron teeth, like the teeth
of a comb. The interval between the teeth is so
small as not to admit the passage of a grain of vvheat.
The ears of corn are placed upon a floor, and the
teeth of the instrument are drawn over them. The
machine is dravvn by a couple of horses or oxen.

The waggon used at Bologna and in the neigh-
bouring country is a four-vvheeled vvaggon of a pe-
culiar form, dravvn by oxen. These draught oxen
are of a grey colour, like those in Tuscany, at Rome,
and at Vienna.

The Bolognese school of painting is called the
school of the Caracci Scuola Caraccesca, from its
founders, Ludovico Caracci and his two cousins,
Hanibal and Augustine.

The celebrated fresco paintings in the Farnese
palače at Rome vvere executed in eight years by
Hanibal Caracci, and the general plan of the pic-
tures was furnished by Augustine Caracci, a man of
erudition. The distinguished pupils of the Caracci
vvere Guido Reni,—Domenichino, vvhose beautiful
fresco paintings adorn several churches in Rome, and
vvhose communion of Saint Jerome, novv in the Va-
tican, is considered to be second only to RaphaeFs
Transfiguration,—Lanfranco,—Guercino,— Michael

138 BOLOGNA.—CARACCI SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

Angelo da Caravaggio,—Carlo Cignani, a pupil of
tliis school after tlie death of the Caracci. *

The greatest painters, since the revival of the
arts, were the painters who lived about the 1500,
in Rome, Florence, Parma, and Venice. They
surpassed their predecessors, and produced works of
such excellence, that ali who have come after are
ranked as their imitators ; + and of these their suc-
cessors, the most eminent are the painters of the
school of the Caracci, and of the school of Rubens,
vvho was contemporary with Gnido.

At the academy for painting, called the Scuola

* Ludovico Caracci was born at Bologna in

Two ladies of some eminence as painters flourished at Bo¬
logna, Lavinia Fontana, pupil of her father, Prosper Fontana,
and Elizabeth Sirano, in 1663, pupil of Guido. Vasari gives
an account of Propertia de Rossi, a Bolognese lady, who
sculptured statues and bas reliefs, and engraved copperplates
in 1520, and succeeded, as he says, in every thing cxcept in
gaining the affections of the man she loved.

f Winkelmann, Hist. de l’Art.

PICTURES.—PAINTERS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 139

delle belle arti, there is a collection containing many
pictures of eminent masters. Amongst these are the
Patron Saints of’ Bologna, by Guido ; the Mysteries
of the Rosary, by Domenichino ; the Martyrdom of
Saint Catherine, by the same. The two celebrated
pictures last mentioned are here, after their return
from Pariš, as is also the Saint Cecilia of Raphael.
There are several fine pictures by Guido and the
Caracci ; also many pictures by old masters, who
lived at the time of the revival of painting in Italy,
painted on a gilded ground, in campo d’oro, in the
manner then prevalent in Greece, and at Constan-
tinople. Of this style is the Virgin and Child,
with the painter’s name and year, Vitalis de Bo-
nonia, 1420. There are always some individuals
who possess a talent for drawing, but in the 7th,
8th, 9th, lOth, llth, and I2th centuries, the State
of society in Italy was such, that no one had leisure,
encouragement, or good teachers to improve these
talents, so as to become an able painter or sculptor.
According to Vasari, the paintings executed in Ita-
ly during the above-mentioned period vvere by
Greeks; but Tiraboschi, vvho shevvs Vasari’s inaccu-
racies with respect to the history of the middle ages,
maintains that there were also some Italian painters.
Vasari, excessively partial to his countrymen, the
Tuscan artists, relates that Cimabue, a native of
Florence, born in 121-0, was the first Italian painter
after the Greeks of the middle age. Several wri-

140 BOLOGNA.—CHURCH OF SAINT PETRONIUS.

ters, however, have shewn that there were Italian
painters, in different towns of Italy, before the
time of Cimabue. This is proved vvith respect to
Bologna, in the treatise entitled la Felsina * Pittrice.

There are also several private collections of pic-
tures to be seen in the great houses or palaces in
Bologna. In the Piazza del Gigante is a statue of
Neptune, by the celebrated sculptor Giovanni Bo¬
logna. +

On Christmas day I was present at the celebra-
tion of mass in the cathedral, at which the Cardinal,
governor of Bologna, and another Cardinal attended.
The cathedral is of modern architecture.

The church of Saint Petronius is of brick, and in
the pointed-arched Gothic style. It was begun in the
year 1390. The front is rough, and waits for an or-
namented coat, as is the čase with many of the fronts
of the churches in Italy. The columns in the interior
of the church are of brick and whitened over. On
the pavement vvithin the church is the meridian line,
traced in 1656 by Cassini, $ and renevved in 1776.

* Felsina is an ancient name of Bologna.

f Giovanni Bologna, anative of Douay in Flanders, flourish-
ed in the sixteenth century. His sculptures, which are most-
ly at Florence, shew him to have been one of the best statu-
aries since the revival of the arts.

J Giandomenico Cassini was born at Perinaldo, in the
county of Nice, in 16'25, and died in 1712, at the age of 87.
He studied with the Jesuits at Genoa, and was professor of

CASSINI.—MERIDIAN LINE.—ITALIAN HOURS. 141

The length of the line, from the point perpendicu-
larly under the aperture in the roof that admits the
ray, to the point shone upon at the winter solstice,
is one six hundredth thousand part of the circum-
ference of the earth ; that is, ff-g 6 - of a degree, or
about 219 English feet. The Italian hour, that hap-
pens at mid-day, is marked ali along by the side of
the line. In the church are two clocks, the one
marking the Italian hours, and the other the hore
ultramontane, the hours used in the rest of Europe.

astronomy at Bologna at the age of twenty-five. He con-
structed a new meridian in the church of Saint Petronius in
plače of the old one, which was the work of Egnazio Dante,
and made observations vvith it for the purpose of correcting the
theory of the eartlfs real, and the sun’s apparent motion. He
observed the shadows of the satellites on the body of the
planet Jupiter, and ivas able to calculate the period of the ro-
tation of that planet on its axis; he was the first who pub-
lished an ephemeris of the motions of Jupiter in 1668. At
the end of 1668, he was called to France by Louis XIV., at the
instance of Colbert. Clement IX. granted him leave of ab-
sence for a few years, but Cassini married a French lady, and
settled permanently in France. Huygens discovered one of
the satellites of Saturn, and Cassini aftervvards discovered four
others. Cassini observed the zodiacal light, and shewed it to
be the atmosphere of the sun. The telescopes he used were
made by Campani, an artist who resided in Rome. Maraldi
the astronomer waš Cassini's nephevv. The descendants of
Cassini, for three generations, vvere astronomers at the Royal
Observatory of Pariš, and his descendant, in the fourth or fifth
degree, is distinguished in that city as a botanist.

142 BOLOGNA.—ITALIAN HOURS AND CLOCKS.

The Italian hours are reckoned from the end of
the tvvilight, half an hour after sunset, which is the
beginning of the first hour, and are counted on to
half an hour after the follovving sunset, which mo¬
ment is the end of the twenty-fourth hour. The
end of the twenty-fourth hour is called le lenti qua-
tro hore,  and 1’ave Maria della sera;  one hour af¬
ter that is una hora di notte,  and so forth. The
Italian hours are now almost entire]y out of use in
Venice, Milan, and other parts of the Lombardo-
Venetian kingdom and in Tuscany, in ali which
places the mode of counting hours common in the
rest of Europe is employed. But at Rome particu-
larly, and in other parts of the Pope’s territory, the
Italian hours are generally used, and these hours
are marked by the public clocks. *

* This mode of counting hours prevailed also in Bohemia
and other parts of Europe. There is to this day a public
clock of a peculiar kind at Prague, which marks the Italian
hours, also at Deutsch Brod there is a public clock that strikes
the Italian hours, and a similar clock, but not in use, is seen
in the cathedral of Lyons. In the Emperor’s collection of the
schatzkammer at Vienna, there are smaller clocks of the same
construction as that at Prague and Lyons, having an astro-
labe or sterographic projection of the sphere on the plane of
the equator that moves round according to the diurnal revo-
lution of the earth in twenty-four hours, and by another mo-
tion shews the sun’s plače in the ecliptic, whilst the reticula
that represents the verticals remains fixed; a clock of this

6

CHURCHES.-—RELIC OF SAINT CATHERINE. 143

The church of the Dominicans contains the pic-
ture in fresco of the ascension of Saint Dominic, by
Gnido. In this church is the tomb of Count Mar-
sigli, the founder of the Institute.

The church of the Madonna di San Luca is on
a hill called Monte della Guardia, three miles from
Bologna. In this church, whieh was built in 1765,
is kept one of the pictures of the Virgin, said to
have been painted by Saint Luke. A covered portico
or gallery leads ali the way from the gate of the town
to the church. The portico is of brick plastered over,
one side of it is composed of open arcades; it was
built at the expence of individuals and the corpora-
tions of the town, each of thern building one or more
arcades as a mark of their devotion.

In the church of Santa Caterina di Bologna is
shevvn the body of that holy lady Saint Catherine,
who died 300 years ago. She is seated and dressed
in a gown ali embroidered with tinsel. The face
and hands, which are uncovered, are black and shri-

kind is drawn in Daniel Barbaro’s translation of Vitruvius.
The clocks used to mark the Italian hours at Rome have no-
thing peculiar in their mechanism, and are constructed in the
same way as our common clocks; the hour hand generali/
goes round in six hours. The Italian hour at which mid-day
happens is marked in the almanacs at Rome, and by that
means the clocks are set by a sun dial. The beginning of the
firsf. hour is fixed sometimes at half an hour, sometimes at
three quarters after sunset, so that mid day is expressed in
quarters of an hour.

BOLOGNA.—BUILDING MATERIALS.

144

vellecl. This relic, decorated in such an incongruous
manner, is not, hovrever, always exposed to public
view, but is shewn by the sacristan, a more decent
mode than that practised at Vienna, where skeletons
of saints, dressed in blue sattin and ribbons, are ex-
posed in tbe churches to the eyes of the public.

The public burying-ground of Bologna is at the
Certosa, a short distance from the town. The practice
of burying without the city was introduced here by
the French.

In the fourteenth century, when there were two
or three simultaneous and rival popes, most of the
cities in the ecclesiastical territory came under the
dominion of enterprising individuals. Bologna,
amongst the rest, was alternately obedient to the
Popes and opposed to them, and was sometimes go-
verned by a powerful baron, sometimes by a council
of citizens; the word libertas is stili inscribed on
the arms of the city.

The buildings of Bologna are almost entirely of
brick. What stone is used in the ornamental parts
is Verona or Vicentine marble, and sandstone for

steps from the neighbourhood of Bologna. Most of
the streets have porticos or galleries, under which

is the path for foot passengers. The pavement un¬
der the porticos is in some places of stucco, made of
lime mortar, with fragments of marble stuck into it.

In other places the

galleries is of

brick. The pavement of the carriage way in the streets
is incommodious, being of small vvater worn stones.

1

MARKETS.—MANUFACTURES.—TOWERS. 145

The streets are ill lighted at night, the lamps being
at too great a distance from each other, The regula*
tions for lighting the streets, vvhich the French at-
tempted to introduce, have not been continued.
The streets and even the coffee-houses are infested
with beggars.

©O

There is a large covered fish-market built some
years ago. It is lighted at night with candles
placed in glass lustres. The sea fish is brought from
Comacchio, fifteen miies distant.

Bologna possesses manufactories of silk, paper,
perfumed soap, and others. The hemp of the neigh-
bouring country is much esteemed for ropes. The
liqueurs, cotognato or preserved quinces, and sau-
sages of Bologna, are famed throughout Italy.

The mineral called Bologna stone is a sulphate of
barytes, vvhich is found in masses imbedded in the
clay or marl near Bologna. After being calcined, it
gives out a phosphorescent light, visible in the dark.

The slender unornamented square brick vvatch-
tovver is an edifice of a peculiar kind that vvas in
use in some towns of Italy in the middle ages. Se-
veral of these tovvers are stili to be seen at Pavia.
At Bologna there are tvvo; the highest is called
the Tovver of the Asinelli. Near it is the Garisenda
Tovver, vvhich is considerably inclined from the per-
pendicular. It appears that the fouridation having
šunk, the upper part of this tovver fell, and the part
vvhich novv exists remained inclined. Bologna is
founded on an alluvial soil.

K

146 BOLOGNA.—VIEW.—THEATRE.

In December the ground was covered with snow,
and the atmosphere obscured by mist, so that no
view could be had of the neighbouring country.
But in the fine clear vveather in April, when I re-
visited Bologna, the view from the top of the Asi-
nelli tower was seen to advantage. This beautiful
prospect comprehends the extensive plain, highly
cultivated, inclosed, and planted with trees, and
near the town some gently elevated heights adorned
with villas, amongst which the Villa Aldini, a mo¬
dem fabric, with its portico and pediment, is con-
spicuous. The towers of Modena are seen on the
horizon to the north-vvest, and Monselice, or the
Euganean hills, near Padua, to the north. These
hills are also seen from the tower of Saint Mark’s at
Venice.

During the čarni val, that is, from the end of De¬
cember to Lent, is the season when theatrical repre-
sentations are most frequent in Italy. There are
generally a fevv new operas produced every year at
that time, and one of these is acted in each of the
principal towns, for many nights in succession. The
new operas performed in different parts of Italy this
season, January 1818, were compositions of Rosini.
At Bologna, hovvever, an old opera, Mozart’s Don
Juan, was in preparation to be exhibited after Christ-
mas. One of the theatres is agreeably decorated
in the interior.

The lingua Bolognese, or dialect of Bologna, is

DIALECT.

147

spoken not only by the common people, but is also
frequeritly used by people of the middle ranks.
It differs considerably from the classical Italian, the
volgare illustre.  For example,—

Perdonnaz i noster debit, sicom no alter i per-
donen ai noster debitur;

E n c’, indusi in tentazion ;

Ma liberaz da mal. *

Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors;
and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from
e vil.

* See Adelung and Vaters, Mithridates, Berlin, 1809.

CHAPTER IV.

Bologna to Florence.— Florence. — Cathedral, and otJier
Churches.—San Lorenza.—Santa Croce.—Gallery.—Pitti
Palače, and other Palaces.—Pictures and Statues Quays,
Bridges.—Building Materials.—Library of San Lorenzo,
and other Libraries.—Museum of Natural History.— Wecl-
ther.—Plants.—Granary.—Manufactory oj' Inlaid Agate.
—Copperplate Engraving Alabaster Figures.—Earthen-
ivare, Glass, 8$c.—Money.—Hospitals.— IVall of the Foton.
—Pavement.—Language.— Thealres.—Inns.

From  Bologna to Florence the road is mountain-
ous, over the Apennines, and the distance about
seventy English miles. The Vetturini generally
have their coaches dravvn by mules, and go in two
days. In ascending, we observed the Eriča Medi-
terranea, the Ruscus, called Butcher’s broom, the
Mespilus pyracantha, oaks, and chesnut trees, which
grow on ground of a middle elevation, and not on
the highest part of these mountains. The rock
some miles from Bologna is sandstone.

At Pietramala, vvhich is about the most elevated
part of the road, the country is bleak and cold, and

SOURCE OF INFLAMED GAS.

149

now, on the 27th of December, there was frost and
snow. Near this, at a quarter of a mile east from
the road, a stream of inflammable gas ascends out
of the ground. This stream of gas is on fire, and
large enough to be distinctly seen from the road at
night. It rises from amongst broken stones. * The
gas has been analyzed, and found to consist of car-
bonated hydrogen gas, like the fire damp which oc-
curs in the coal mineš in Britain. A source of in-
flamed gas, similar to that of Pietramala, occurs on
the south coast of Asia Minor. +

Monte Radicoso, over which the road passes,
near Pietramala, the highest summit in this part of
the Apemiines, was found by the barometrical ob-
servations of Sir George Shuckburgh in 177-5, to be
1901 English feet above the sea.

Going on towards Florence, vve come to a long
descent where the road is newly made, and conduct«
ed in a vvinding direction. At intervala, the gutter
for conducting the water goes into a well, from which
there is a large conduit under the road into the val-
ley. This part of the road is made with great čare
and intelligence ; it was begun by orders of Bona'
parte. The rock appears to be a sandstone.

* See Ferbcr’s Letters.

t See Captain Beauforfs Voyage in the Levant, published
in 1817.

150 FLORENCE.—CATHEDRAL.—INCRUSTATION.

We novv descend to the region vvhere tlie ches-
nut trees grovv, and affbrd a principal article of food
to the inhabitants.

Descending stili farther, olive plantations and
villas vvith cypresses appear. Under the olive trees
there are fields of vvheat, now green. Phylerea and
Prunus laurocerasus are planted as ornamental shrubs
in the gardens.

After passing an old country seat belonging to
the Grand Duke of Tuscany, we have a vievv of
Florence from the height, and the valley in vvhich
the Arno runs, circumscribed by mountains.

The Cathedral Church of Santa Maria del Fiore.

The cathedral, vvhose cupola is conspicuous in a
distant vievv of the tovvn, is remarkable, on a nearer
vievv, from the peculiar manner in vvhich it is de-
corated, the vvalls being coated vvith vvhite marble,
and dark green magnesian serpentine, called Pietra
di garbo. These stones are applied on the rough
wall in thin slabs, polished and cut into figures that
represent pannels, foliage, and other ornaments.
The outer surface of the vvall covered in this vvay
produces an agreeable effect vvhen seen near. The
cathedral, the Campanile, the churches of St John
the Baptist, of Santa Maria Novella, and of San
Miniato, are adorned in this way.

The cathedral vvas begun in 1298 by Arnolfo di
Lapo, a disciple of Cimabue. The architecture is
a kind of Roman, vvith Corinthian pilasters, &c.

CUPOLA BY BRUNALESCO.

151

The churches built at that period without the Alps
were in the pointed-arched style. The cupola is
by Brunalesco, and the lantern, vvhich is of solid
marble, and was finished in 1472. This is the first
lofty cupola erected in Europe ; Michael Angelo
praised its structure, and had it in vievv vvhen he
designed the cupola of Saint Peter’s Basilic. The
cupolas of Saint Paul’s in London, and of Saint
Genevieve in Pariš, rank vvith these two in magni¬
tude. The cupolas that remain of the ancient Ro-
mans, of vvhich that of the Pantheon is the largest,
were of a flatter curve, and not raised on such lofty
piers ; the cupola of the Pantheon is hemispherical
vvithin. The cupola of the cathedral of Florence
is like the half of an elongated elipsoid, vvith the long
axis vertical, but the horizontal section is octagonal;
it was built vvithout timber centerings, and consists
of two vaults, an exterior and an interior, vvith a
vacant space intervening. * The height from the
ground to the foot of the lantern is 299 English
feet; the vvhole height from the ground to the top
of the cross, 384 English feet. t

The front of the cathedral is unfinished, being

* See Vasari’s Life of Brunalesco.

-[• 154 Braccie to the foot of the lantern.

36 Braccie, the height of the lantern.

201 Braccie, the whole height from the ground to the
top of the cross. See Vasari’s Life of Brunalesco.

The braccia, according to Nelchenbrecher, is equal to
English inches.

152  FLORENCE.—SCULPTURES IN THE CATHEDRAL.

vvithout incrustation, and only plastered and paint-
ed in fresco, vvith an architectural design. Vasari *
mentions that a front, designed by Sansovino, and
composed of vvooden columns, and painted imita-
tions of mouldings, statues, and bas reliefs on canvas,
vvas erected on occasion of Leo X. visiting Florence.
The interior is spacious, but dark. At the chief
altar is a group of a Dead Christ and other figures,
larger than life, sculptured by Baccio Bandinelli in
1551. Behind he altar is a group in marble by
Michael Angelo Buonaroti; the subject is La Pieta,
or the Mater Dolorosa, the Virgin mourning over
the dead body of Christ, with two other figures;
it is the last work of Michael Angelo, as appears
from the inscription, and, like many others of his
statues, is unfinished.

The sculptured figures of the Evangelists on the
pedestals of the lonic columns, that form the octa-
gonal inclosure under the cupola, are by Braccio
Bandinelli and another artist. The octagonal in¬
closure is the choir, and vvas constructed after the
design of Brunalesco.

An old picture by Orcagna, representing Dante
in a Garden, serves as a memorial of that great poet
in the cathedral of this his native city. His body
lies at Ravenna, where a monument is erected over
his grave.

Near the entrance, and vvithin the church, are

* Vasari Vit. di Sansovino.

U

GIOTTO.—BRUNALESCO.—LEVIŠ.

153

two monuments, the one in memory of Giotto, *
the most distinguished of the early Fiorentine paint-
ers, and architect of the Campanile, adjacent to the
cathedrai, who was born in 1276, and died in 1336.
The other in memory of Brunalesco, the architect
of the cupola of this cathedrai, who died in 144U. +

The Florentines once erected in the cathedrai a
statue of Poggio, the historian, who died in 1459.
He was noted for his virulent calumnies ; but it is
said, that, in course of time, and when the original
destination of the statue was forgotten, it came to
be placed on the altar as a figure of one of the A-
postles.

* Giotto was the son of a countryman, near Florence. He
was employed in keeping sheep, and had made dravrings on the
rock with chalk. Cimabue, who painted in the manner of the
Greeks of the middle ages, passed that way, was štručk with the
boy’s talent, took him home, and Giotto became the pupil of
Cimabue. His pictures, which are seen in the churches at
Florence and Piša, are very superior to those of his master
Cimabue. They are less formal, have more expression and
well designed perspective, and the drapery is more gracefully
disposed. He painted in oil, in fresco, also in Mosaic, and per-.
forrned some works in architecture and sculpture. He vas
the friend of Dante, and is spoken of as a great painter by his
contemporaries and countrymen, Petrarch and Boccaccio. See
Vasari Vita di Giotto.

f Brunalesco was eminent for his application of machines
to the art of building, and, according to Vasari, he revived
the use of the three iron wedges called Ulivella,  the leviš
for raising stones, having observed the holes used for its in«,
sertion in the stones of ancient buildings.

154

FLORENCE.-MERIDIAN LINE.

The gnomon and meridian line were formed in
1408 by Paolo Toscanelli, a physician and astrono-
mer of Florence, and repaired in 1756 by the Ab-
bate Ximines. The line dravvn on the pavement
runs in the transept, in a direction nearly at right
angles to the nave, the nave being nearly east and
west. The line is only about thirty feet long, and
receives the image of the sun, at and near the sol-
stice, in June and July; at other seasons the image
is lost on the sides of the cupola. The short dia-
meterof the image in Juiy is about thirty-six inches.
The height of the aperture, through vvhich the ray
enters in a vvindovv of the Cupolina, is 277 feet, 4 in¬
ches, 9-68 lines French measure ; and the inscrip-
tion farther States, that it is the greatest gnomon
cxisting. *

Observations are stili made vvith this meridian
line at the solstice ; and at one time large gnomons,
vvith meridian lines similar to this, vvere used by as-
tronomers, for observing the change vvhich takes
plače in the obliquity of the ecliptic. Such are the
meridian lines in the church of Saint Petronius at
Bologna, in the church of the Certosa at Rome,
and that constructed by Lemonier in 1743, in the
church of Saint Sulpice at Pariš. But it is found,
that the dilatation and contraction of great buildings,

* It is higher than the sum of the heights of the gnomons
of the Certosa at Home, of Bologna, and of Saint Sulpice at
Pariš. See Ximines Trattato del Gnompne Fiore.nti.no.

12

TOWER.—SCULPTURES.

155

from heat and cold, and other causes of error, ren-
der the observations made with these gnomons in-
exact, and far inferior in accuracy to the observa¬
tions made by modern quadrants and circles.

The Campanile.

Near the cathedral is the campanile,  or beli tower,
incrusted like it vvith a coating of vvhite marble and
green serpentine. This serpentine is got at Prato,
and in other parts of Tuscany. The marble also is
from Tuscany. This campanile, or tower, was built
after the design of Giotto, in 1834, and forms a
pleasing object when seen near. In niches, on the
lower part of the tower, are statues of the arts and
Sciences, represented under the figures of Plato, A-
ristotle, Apelles, and the rest, the work of the chisels
of Giotto, Andrea Pisano, the author of the oldest
bronze door of the baptistery, and Luca della Rob-
bia, the inventor of the glazed earthen figures. The
height is 144 braccie. Giotto intended to have
placed on the top a spire of 50 braccie ; * but after-
wards it was thought to be too much in the degene-
rate style of the middle ages, and the design was
laid aside. No spire of any considerable height is
to be seen in Italy.

The Church of Saint John the Baptist.

Opposite to the tvest entrance of the cathedral is

* Vasari Vita di Giotto.

156 FLORENCE.—CHURCH OF SAINT JOHN.

the church of Saint John the Baptist, otherwise
called the Baptisterium. In this church ali the
baptisms of' the city of Florence are performed. It
is older than the cathedral, being of the eleventh
or twelfth century. The outside is coated like the
buildings already mentioned. The figure of the
church is octagonal, and the external form of the
roof is an octagonal pyramid. The inside is deco*
rated with round arches, and pictures of saints
in Mosaic of the middle ages, resembling the
older Mosaics in Saint Mark’s church at Venice.
There are some large columns of reddish small-
grained granite, (or syenite of the mineralogists,)
twenty feet or more in height. They have been
taken, it is likely, from some ancient Roman edifice.
On one of the altars is a statue of Mary Magdalen,
represented as emaciated with penitence, and clad
in a shaggv garment. The statue is of vvood, and
the vvork of Donatello.

The three entrances to the church have each of
them a folding door of two leaves. These doors are
of bronze, and are celebrated for the excellent work-
manship of the sculptures with vvhich they are adorn-
ed. The north door is the most ancient, and vvas
made by Andrea Pisano, * after the design of Giot-

* Andrea Pisano was born at Piša in 1270, and died in
1345. He profited in his studies from the antique sculptures,
brought by the sbips of Piša, vvhich vvas then a flourishing rc-
public, the rival of Genoa. See Vasari Vita di Andrea
Pisano,

BRONZE DOORS BY GHIBERTI. .

157

to. The south door has the name of the artist and
the year inscribed on it, Laurenti Cionis de Ghi-
bertis, 1480. It was made on the plan of Andrea
Pisano’s door, at the expence of the Corporation of
merchants of Florence, who adjudged the vvork to
Lorenzo Ghiberti, after he had proved his superiority
in the art of bronze sculpture in a competition, vvhere
his antagonists were Brunalesco, -Donatello, and
other artists. Both these doors are ornamented
with figures, representing historial actions from
scripture, and heads in high relief, sculptured in a
masterly style, and čast in bronze. A bronze ar-
chitrave, ornamented vvith foliage, surrounds the
door-ways.

The eastern door is also the vvork of Lorenzo
Ghiberti. It is the finest of the three, and is supe-
rior to the bronze door at the east entrance of Saint
Peter’s in the Vatican, and to those by Giovanni
Bologna, at the entrance of the cathedral church of
Piša. After Ghiberti had succeeded so vvell in the
south door, he was employed by the Corporation of
merchants to make this eastern door, and vvas al-
lowed to form it according to his ovvn design, vvith-
out being restricted to imitate in any degree the
door of Andrea Pisano. He was employed in this
difficult and masterly vvork for tvventy years, from
his tvventieth to his fortieth year. The pannels are
occupied by subjects from scripture in relief. By
the side of the pannels are figures of the prophets

158 FLORENCE.—SCULETURES BY GHIBERTI.

and sybils, ten inches high, in niches ; and at the
corner of the pannels are heads in full relief, one of
which is a portrait of the artist himself. The fi-
gures are on the outer surface of the door. One of
the leaves of the door is too large a mass to be čast
vvith the figures on it at once. The door, there-
fore, vvas čast vvith the heads on it; and the tablets,
with the scripture histories, were čast separately and
inserted, though the joining is not easily seen. The
sculptures on the door are so excellent, by the ex-
pression in the features and attitudes, the correct-
ness of design, and the agreeable disposition of the
ornamenta, that they called forth the praise of Mi¬
chael Angelo ; and they are recommended as mo-
dels for study, for which reason plaster casts of them
are seen in Raphael Mengs’s collection of casts at
Dresden, and in the collections of casts formed for
the improvement of young artists in the different
academies in Italy.

Lorenzo Ghiberti, the author of these admirable
bronzes, was the son of a goldsmith in Florence, and
follovved his father’s trade- Two of the bronze sta-
tues of saints on the outside of Saint MichaeFs
church at Florence are of his work. *

* Vasari Vita di Lorenzo Ghiberti.

GNOMONIC INSTRUMENTS.

159

The Church of Santa Maria Novella.

The church of Santa Maria Novella has the front,
whicli looks on a spacious plače, incrusted like the
before mentioned churches.

The front was designed by Leo Alberti, * and
erected at the expence of Giovanni Rucellai, an emi-
nent citizen of Florence, in the fifteenth century,
and his name is inscribed in large letters on the
freeze. Joannes Orcellarius, 1470. The front is in
that style of Roman architecture which came into
use at the revival of the arts in Italy. The inside
is pointed-arched Gothic; the columns supporting
the arches are lofty, and have capitals like the
Corinthian Capital. Michael Angelo is said to
have admired and studied the architecture of this
church.

The front is exposed to the south, and two gno-
monic instruments are affixed to it. The vvestem in¬
strument consists of two armillae of brass, at right
angles to each other, and having the same centre,
the one in the plane of the meridian, the other in
the plane of the equator. Their diameter is about
two feet. A vvire parallel to the pole of the world

* Leo Alberti, in 1481, published Architecture, in ten
books, and is one of the first who published engravings of the
ancient fabrics of Rome. See Vasari Vita di Leone Alberti.

160

FLORENCE^—IGNAZIO DANTE.

passes through the common centre, and through the
circumference of the meridian armilla.

The dther instrument, which is placed on the east
side of the entrance, is a slab of white marble, in
the plane of the meridian. There are inscribed on
it a quadrant of a circle, divided into degrees, with a
style in the centre vvhose shadovv shews the altitude
of the sun near mid-day ; a dial shewing the hours,
counted from sunset; another shevving the hours
counted from sunrise ; and one shevving the astro-
nomical hours. These Instruments were raade and
erected by Ignazio Dante,* in 1573, at the expence
of Cosmo I. de’ Medici.

* Ignazio Dante was a monk of the order of Predicatori.
He was employed in making celestial and terrestrial globes.
The Grand Duke Cosmo I. de’ Medici brought hitn to Florence.
He began the construction of a gnomon in Santa Maria No-
vella, but it was not completed. See Xiinines, Trattato del
Gnom.Fior. On the death of Cosmo, Dante went to Bologna,
and was professor of mathematics. In 1576, he constructed
the gnomon in the church of Saint Petronius, which vvas after-
vrards improved bv Cassini.

The geographical maps of different regions of Italy, paint-
ed on the walls of the Vatican gallery, are his work, and done
by order of Gregory XIII.

He was emploved, with Clavius the Jesuit of Bamberg, in
calculations for reforming the calendar. He published Le
Scienze Matematicbe ridotte in Tavole,—Trattato del uso del
Astrolabio,—Comento sulla regola della prospettiva del Ba-
rozzi. He was born at Perugia in 1537, and died in 1586.

PICTURES BY GHIRLANDAIO.

161

This church contains several paintings by old
masters. 'In the choir, behind the chief altar, are a
set of beautiful pictures representing the life of the
Virgin and the life of Saint John the Baptist, paint-
ed in 1485 by Ghirlandaio. The artist has intro-
duced portraits of Peter, John, and Lorenzo de’
Medici; of himself, of Politian, Ficinus, Demetrius
Chalcondylas, and others of his contemporaries.
These pictures are described in Vasari’s Life of
Ghirlandaio.

Paradise and the Infernal Regions are represent-
ed on the vvalls of one of the chapels by Orcagna.

A Virgin and Child, larger than life, by Cima-
bue, the earliest Florentine painter of note since the
revival of the arts ; he flourished in the en d of the
thirteenth century.

There are some paintings on the walls of the
cloister of the monastery which is contiguous to the
church.

The Spezieria, or drug-shop, of this monastery is
noted tor the preparation of various medicines and
of essence of orange flower, and other essential oils
and perfumes.

San Miniato.

The church of San Miniato, on the bili situated
without the walls of Florence, is likevvise incrusted
exteriorly with marble and verde di Prato or mag-
nesian serpentine. It was begun in 1013. The

L

162 SHRINE IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

nave is separated from the aisles by round arehes,
supported by columns with Corinthian eapitals.
There is some mosaic of the middle ages, like that
in Saint Mark’s at Venice. At the east end is the
Presbiterio or chancel, elevated above the rest of
the pavement, as was usual in the ancient churches.
Behind the altar are five windows closed with thin
slabs of pavonazzo marble, * which admit a yel-
lowish light. The pavement of one of the chapels
is composed of antique red porphyry, and the an-
tique green serpentine! of the statuaries and archi-
tects. This particular kind of inlaid pavement
occurs in several ancient churches in Florence, in
Rome, and other towns of Italy. It is also to be
seen in Westminster Abbey on the shrine of Edward
the Confessor, who died in 1066; which shrine was
evidently constructed by Italian artists of the same
school as those who formed the pavements here
spoken of. The twisted columns covered with gild-

* Or perhaps the marble from Seravazza near Carrara,
which has some resemblance to the antique pavonazzo mar¬
ble.

In the church of Saints Cosmo and Darnian at Rome, there
is a window closed with a translucid slab of pavonazzo mar¬
ble, in the same way as those just mentioned.

f The surface of the antique serpentine is dark green, with
angular spots of a lighter green. It is a porpbyry in mineralo-
gical language, the term serpentine being appropriated, in mi-
neralogy, to a class of stones which contain magnesia.

TABERNACLE BY ORCAGNA.—DONATELLO. 163

ed and coloured mosaic, similar to the columns
which adorn the shrine of Edward the Confessor,
are also met with in old churches in Rome and Flo¬
rence, and especially in Saint Michael’« church in
Florence, where the beautifid pointed-arched and
pinnacled tabernacle or canopy over the altar is sup-
ported by twisted columns covered with the same
kind of mosaic. This tabernacle vvas the work of
Orcagna, * othervvise called Cionis, and is inscribed
with his name, Andreas Cionis pictor Florentinus
hujus oratorii archimagester extitit 1359. It is or-
namented with Scripture histories in relief in mar-
ble; the pieces of marble of which it is composed
are fixed together by pins of bronze run in with
lead.

Church of San Lorenza.

In the church of San Lorenze, built in 1425 by
Brunalesco, are two pergani, or reading desks, adorn-
ed with subjects from Scripture, in relief and in
bronze, by Donatello, +—the tomb of Peter and
John de Medici, sons of Cosmo Pater Patri®, with

* Orcagna also designed the Loggia in the Piazza del
Gran Duca, and painted some of the pictures in the Čampo
Santo at Piša. See Vasari Vita d’Andrea Orcagna.

•f Donato, called Donatello, was a native of Florence, and
lived from 1383 to 1466. His principal works at Florence
are, the statue of Judith in bronze, in the Piazzo del
Gran Duca ; Magdalen, a statue in vrood, in the baptisterium ;

164 FLORENCE.—CHAPEL BY MICHAEL ANGELO.

a bronze grate in form of a net of ropes, by Verroc-
chio, and other works of art. In the passage from
the church into the cloister is the statue, in a sit-
ting attitude, of Paulus Jovius, the historical writer,
and Bishop of Como, by Francesco di S. Gallo. In
the court of the monastery adjoining to the church
of Saint Lorenzo, is the Medico-Laurentia library,
of vvhich we shall speak aftervvards.

The Chapel de' Depositi.

From the church of San Lorenzo an entrance
opens into the Sagrestia Nova, or Cape! la de’ De¬
positi, erected by Michael Angelo, by orders of
Leo X. This circular chapel is of a moderatc size,
The ceiling is a round cupola.

There are two monuments of the Medici facing
each other, and adorned with statues from the
chisel of Michael Angelo. Each monument is
composed of a sarcophagus, on the top of which are
two reclining emblematic statues larger than life. On
one is a figure of Night, represented by a female
asleep vvearied with the fatigues of the day. The

David, a statue in bronze, in the bronze rootn of the gallery;
David, a statue in marble; Saint John, a statue in marble,
both in the gallery. The reliefs in bronze, on the pergami,
in the church of Saint Lorenzo. The winged lion of bronze,
placed on one of the granite columns at Venice, is a work of
his, and the equestrian statue of General Gattamelata at Padua.
—See Vasari Vita di Donato.

HIS STATUES OF NIGHT AND AURORA.

165

feraale figure on the other sarcophagus is Aurora,
awaking and reluctantly quitting a State of repose.
The second reclining figure on each sarcophagus is
a male ; both these are only rough hewn and unfi-
nished. Above the one sarcophagus, in a rectangular
niche, is a statue, in a sitting posture, of Giuliano
de Medici, Duke of Nemours, and brother of Leo
X. In the niche above the other sarcophagus is the
seated statue of Lorenzo de’ Medici, Duke of Urbi-
no. Besides these vvorks of Michael Angelo, there is
another production of his chisel in this chapel, a
statue of the Virgin and Child. In this chapel, and
on the tomb of Julius II. in the church of Saint Pe¬
ter in Vinculis at Rome, Michael Angelo’s chief
works in sculpture are to be seen ; the vvonderful
figure of Moses on the tomb of Julius II., in that
church, is his most celebrated statue; next in rank
come Night and Aurora in this chapel; and La
Pieta in Saint Peter’s Basilic. Some of his other
sculptures are, the Restoration of the Dancing
Faun in the gallery at Florence,—La Pieta in the
cathedral at Florence,—a Virgin on the high altar in
the church of San Lorenzo,—David in the Piazza
del Granduca,—Adonis vvounded in the Grand
Duke’s Villa Poggia Imperiale, near Florence,—a
bas relief of the Virgin with a dead Christ, in the
church of the Albergo de’ Poveri at Genoa.

The Great Chapel.

A passage leads from the Capella de’ Depositi to

166 FLORENCE.—CHAPEL COATED WITH JASPER.

Capella Grande, a spacious octagon covered by a
lofty cupola, built, in 1604, by the Grand Duke
Ferdinand I. de’ Medici, as a burying plače for the
sovereigns of Tuscany. The original design was,
that the whole inside should be incrusted with agate
and jasper of various colours, * and a part is execu-
ted, producing a brilliant effect, but a great part re-
mains to be done, and stili presents to the eye the

* Amongst the stones employed are, Sicilian jasper, with
yellow stripes; red jasper from Cyprus, Rosso di Cipro ; jas¬
per of Barga in Tuscany, there is a slab five feet in diame-
ter; Egyptian granite; granite of the island of Elba, called
Ethalian granite, from an ancient name of that island ; Verde
di Corsica Duro or Smaragdito, a compound rock, of which
the chief constituent mineral is that called by the French mi-
neralogists Diallage and Emphodite, and by the Germans
Schillerstein and Labrador Hornblend ; Pietra di Paragone,
black touchstone, and black Egyptian basalt, which is dis-
tinguishable from black marble by the metallic trače it re-
ceives when iron is rubbed on it; red coral and mother-of-
pearl shell are also inlaid amongst these stones.

The art of forming and polishing the hard siliceous stones
has long been practised in Florence. Vasari mentions several
artists about the year 1500, who made vases and crosses of
rock-crystal, lazuli,.and other hard stones, some of vvhich are
seen in the gallery ; these artists also engraved gems of Corne-
lian and agate. In course of time, the manufactory of inlaid
agate was established, of which we shall speak aftenvards; and
which is a work of the same kind vvith the coating of the
Capella Grande of San Lorenzo, both in respect to the nature
ef the stones, and the mode of vrorking them into thin slabs.

TOMBS OF EMINENT AUTHORS.

167

rough brick wall. The Grand Duke, Ferdinand I.,
had the project of removing the holy sepulchre from
Jerusalem, and erecting it vvithin this chapel.

Santa Croce.

The spacious church of Santa Croce contains the
tombs of Michael Angelo Buonarroti, of Galileo,
and his disciple Viviani, of Machiavel, * of Leonar-

* Galileo Galilei  was bora at Piša in 1564, and died in
1641, aged 77. In 1589, he was appointed professor at Pi¬
ša; and, in 1592, was called by the repubiic of Venice to
their university of Padna, where he taught for eighteen years.
At the end of this period he received the appointments of prin¬
cipal mathematician in the university of Piša, and natural phi-
losopher to the Grand Duke, together with a considerable sa-
lary, and without the obligation to reside or read lectures.

Paul III. Farnese, vras an admirer of the Science of astro-
nomy, and favoured the doctrines of Copernicus, who was
then publishing his work. But afterwards the court of Rome
held a difierent opinion ; and the Inquisition forbade Galileo
to write in defence of the opinion, that the eartb moves round
the sun : he did notwithstanding publish a dialogue on the
ijuestion, and, at the age of seventy, he was called before the
Inquisition at Rome, accused of having maintained and pub-
lished the doctrine of Copernicus, concerning the nrotion of
the earth in its orbit round the sun. Galileo’s account of the
manner in which he was treated by thelnquisition, in a letter to
hisfriendFather Vincenzo Renieri, ispublished by Tiraboschi.*
The punishment inflicted on him was confinemept for some
.fttonths, first in the Villa Medici, the residence of the Floren-

Tiraboschi Štor. deli. lett. Ital, The letters of the ambassador, addres-

168

GALILEO.

do Bruni Arettino the historian, of Alfieri and other
men of distinguished talent. It has frequently been

tine ambassador at Rome, and then at Siena, in the house of
his friend the Bishop of Siena.

Galileo was one of the first vvho made telescopes. Viviani,
the pupd of Galileo, in the life he has vvritten of his master,
States, that Galileo, vvhilst a študent at Piša, discovered that
the vibrations of a pendulum in a small are are synchronous,
from having observed the vibrations of a lamp suspended from
the lof’ty ceiling of the cathedral of Piša. He is said to have
had the idea of applying this discovery to regulate the mo-
tion of clocks; but he did not put this idea in execution.
This was first done by Huygens in 1657. Galileo was one of
the first vvho invented the sector, called by hitn Compasso
'geometrico e militare,  and cornpas de proportion, by the French.
Byrgius, in Germany, invented one about the same time.

Galileo vvas the first vvho observed and calculated the pe-
riodical revolutions of some of the satellites of Jupiter, vvhich
he called stelle Medicee,  and proposed the simultaneous ob-
servation of their eelipses at two different places on the earth,
the precise moment of mean time at each plače being ob¬
served, the difference of these tvvo times is the difference
of longitude betvveen the two places, or the angle formed by
the meridian planeš on which the places are situated ; a
mode of observing the longitude vvhich is stili employed at
land, and vvhich gives the result, vvithout the necessity of a
long calculation. The occultation of a fixed star by the moon,
is the most exact of ali the methods for determining the longi¬
tude, but requires a long calculation. Galileo intended to form

•ed to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, contain a particular diary of what hap-
pened to Galileo, while engaged with the Inquisition. These letters are
published by Targioni Tozzetti.

GALILEO.-VIVIANI.

169

proposed at Florence to erect monuments in memory
of the' celebrated Florentine authors, Dante, Pe-

an ephemeris and tables of Jupiter’s satellites, for the pur-
pose of deducing the longitude from their eclipses; but he
was prevented from carrying this into effect by the loss of
sight. Cassini was the first who published accurate tables of
these satellites, thirty years after Galileo’s death.

Galileo discovered the phases of Venus by means of his te-
lescopes, and was one of the first who observed the spots on
the sun.

He was unfortunate in his opinion concerning comets,
which he considered to be formed from terrestrial exhala-
tions, in opposition to the theory of Tycho, who held the true
opinion, that they are celestial bodies tnoving in eccentric
orbits.

But the genius of Galileo is principally displayed in his dis-
covery of the phenomena of falling bodies. He shewed the
falsity of the opinions of Aristotle on that subject, and de-
monstrated that the spaces fallen through by bodies near the
earth’s surface are in proportion to the squares of the times. *
Newton afterwards made his wonderful discovery, and prov-
ed this to be a particular čase of the law of gravitation,
which deflects the planets from a rectilinear motion, and re¬
tam® them in their orbits. Galileo deduced that the path of a
projectile is a parabola.

Vincenzo Viviani  was born in Florence in 1622, and died
in 1703, aged 81. He becatne a pupil of Galileo, when that great
genius was old and deprived of sight; and he aftertvards pub¬
lished a life of his master. The fifth book of the conics of
Appolonius Pergeus was avvanting: it was known to contain
a treatise on the masima and tninima of straight lines, drawn

Galileo, Dialoghi interno alla nuova Scienza.

170 VIVIANI.—MACHIAVEL.—BOCCACCIO.

trarch, and Boccaccio, * and of Accorso or Accur-
tius, the commentator on Roman Iaw, who lived in
the year 1200; but this has not yet been effected.

to the periphery of the conic sections. Viviani composed and
demonstrated a set of propositions on this subject; and, in
his restauration, the subject was found to betreated as in the
work of Appolonius, which was afterwards obtained by a
translation from the Arabic. He was employed as engineer,
to examine the waters of the Chiana, with Cassini who vvas ap-
pointed by the Pope. The problem proposed by him, to design
a cupola with four equal windows, so that the internal surface
shall be capable of exact quadrature, had ceiebrity at the time,
and was answered by Leibnitz, James Bernoulli, the Marquis
de l’Hopital, Wallis, Gregory, and by himself, in the work he
published on the subject in 1692. The housebuilt by Viviani,
with the money he received in pension from Louis XIV., is
to be seen in Florence.

Machiavel  vvas born at Florence in 146'9, and died in 1527,
at the age of 56. He was secretary of the government or re-
public of Florence, and ambassador at the courts of Louis
XIL, of the Emperor Maximilian, of Julius II., and others.
In his History of Florence, from 1215 to 1492, and Life
of Castruccio Castrucani, Machiavel is judged to be guilty
of partiality. His verses and comedies are little esteemed.
II Principe, and his Discourses on the First Decade of Livy,
are his most noted works, and attracted notice on account of
the principles of selfishness and direct villany that he recom-
mends. To controvert this doctrine, Frederic II. of Prussia
published a book entitled Anti-Machiavel.

* Boccaccio  vvas born in 1304, and died in 1375, aged 71.
His father was a citizen of Florence, and the son vvas bred a
merchant, but quitted that profession. Boccaccio vvas em-
ployed in different embassies by the government or republic

ALFIERI.—CAPELLA DE* PAZZI. 171

The monument in memory of Alfieri, executed
by Canova at the expence of the Countess of Alba-
ny, consists a female figure, a statue representing
Italy mourning for thedeath of the poet.

The fine picture called the Limbuš, or Prelimi-
nary Habitation of the Saints in the World to come,
by Angiolo Bronzino, contains a beautiful figure of
Eve ; other celebrated pictures adorn the church
and sacristy, or vestry.

Adjoining to the church are the buildings for-
merly occupied as a monastery, and a chapel, the
capella de Pazzi, decorated in front with a portico
of Corinthian columns, in a pleasing style, by Bru-
nalesco. In the ceiling of this portico is a cupola
twelve feet or more in diameter, composed of pan-
nels containing rosone or roses, of Lucca della

of Florence. An intimate friendship exišted between him and
Petrarch. His collection of tales, entitled Decameron, is con-
sidered as one of the best models of Italian prose. Its circu-
lation was very great; Mazuchelli enumerates ninety-seven
Italian editions. The obscenities in the Decameron were a
subject of repentance to Boccaccio in his old age. The first
professors chait for reading to scholars on the Greek language
in Italy at the revival of Science, vvas instituted in Florence a.
bout the year 1362, at the instance of Boccaccio ; the professor
who occupied this chair wasLeo Pilatus, author of a Latin ver-
sion of Homer. Greek vvas not taught atOxford till thirty years
after, and then it began to be prelected on by Latimer and
others, who had studied at Florence under Demetrius Chal-
condylas, as Knight mentions in his Life of Erasmus.

172 FLORENCE.-THE MADONNA BELLA SACCA.

Robbia’s glazed earthenware, vvhich remains entire
after so many years exposure to the air. The colours
of the glazing are vvhite, blue, andgreen. *

The Annunziata.

In the church of the Annunziata there is kept,
but not publicly exposed, a miraculous picture of
the Annunciation. The artist who vvas employed
despaired of being able to paint the Virgin ; having
finished the other parts of the picture, he vvas over-
come with sleep, and on waking found the figure of
the Virgin completed by some celestial being. This
vvas in 1252. In the Lives of the Saints, mention
is made of several images of this kind, not formed
by mortal hands, and termed a^ignKoirfoi,  and ajzszgoVum)/.

A more incontestible vvork of inspiration is the
eelebrated Madonna della Sacca, painted by Andrea
del Sarto, in fresco, in the cloister adjoining to the
church. The Virgin is seated on a cushion, the
Child and Saint Joseph are the other figures. The
four vvalls of the ambulacrum of this cloister are
covered vvith fresco pictures, by Procetti and others,
representing the actions of the seven Florentines,
vvho founded the order of the Servi di Maria. The
tomb of Andrea del Sarto is in this cloister, vvith
his bust in bronze; hedied in 1606.

* Vievvs of the Capella de’ Pazzi are published in Montig-
ny et Famin, Architecture Toscane, Pariš, 1815.

ANDREA DEL SARTO.-CIPRIANI.

173

Another cloister is painted in fresco, with the ac-
tions of Saint Philip, some of which are by Andrea
del Sarto ; as are the Adoration of the Three
Kings, &c.

In the church is a chapel built at the expence of
the celebrated sculptor Giovanni Bologna ; it is in
the style of Michael Angelo’s vestibule to the Lau-
rentian library.

In the church of Santa Magdalena de’ Pazzi,
the organ screen is painted by Cipriani, a native of
Florence, whose works are known in England ; he
died in London in I789.

In the Piazza before the church is an equestrian
statue in bronze of Ferdinand I., Grand Duke of Tus-
cany, by Giovanni Bologna, erected in 1650; the
pedestal is of granite from the island of Elba.

The ancient Etruscans, called by the Greeks Ty-
rheni, were a civilized nation, as appears from the
perfection they attained in the arts, which the
bronze figures, gems, and other sculptures with E-
truscan inscriptions attest. The history of the Etrus¬
cans is obscure, and the fragments of their language
that remain are now unintelligible.

They were, originally, according to Adelung, a
Celtic nation, in Rhoetia, the Tyrol, from which
they migrated by Trentand the valley of the Adige,
into Italy, about 1000 years before Christ, and sub-
dued the Umbri, another Celtic nation, who occu-

174 HISTORY.—ETRUSCANS.

pied the banks of the Po, forcing them to remove
southward and westward. * Adelung founds this
conjecture on the resemblance of some names of
places in the Tyrol .and in Tuscany, and on the
vvorks of Tuscan art found in the Tyrol, which
were seen in Maffei’s collection at Verona, t He
rejects the opinion of Herodotus, that the Etruscans
čarne from Lydia.

The civilization of the Etruscans, which did not
happen at so early a period as is generally supposed,
arose from their connection with the Pelasgi, whom
they found already established in the middle of
Italy, t and who peopled that country vvith colonies,
before the time of the later Greek colonies, who
settled in the south of Italy. Adelung and Lanzi
consider the oldest Etruscan inscriptions to be only
of the third and fourth century after the building
of Rome.

* Adelungs Mithridates, II. Th. s. 455. See also Freret,
recherches sur 1’origine et Fancienne histoire des differens
peuples d’Italie, in the Metnoires de l’Acad. des Inscriptions,
Tom. 18.; and Heine’s Observations on the 7th and 8th Books
of the JEneid.

f See Joh. v. Muller’s Geschichte der Sclnveitz, B. I.
Cap. V. and von Hormayrs Geschichte, von Tyrol.

J The foliovving works trcat of the Etruscans and their
language : Gori difesa deli Alfabeto degli antichi Toscani,
Firenze, 1742. Luigi Lanzi Saggio di Lingua Etrusca e di
altre antiche dTtalia, Rom. 1789. Heyne, in Novis Com-
mcntat. Gbttingens.

6

TUSCANT IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

175

They vvere conquered by the Romans, 280 years be-
fore Christ, and Tuscany continued. subject to the
Roman empire for 700 years, till the fifth century,
vvhen it vvas subdued by the Goths, and during the
sixty years that theGothic kingdom of Italysubsisted,
Tuscany vvas governed by a prefect. In 568 Tus-
cany vvas conquered by the Lombards, vvho appoint-
ed Dukes, removeable at vvill. In 774 it came un-
der the dominion of Charlemagne, and vvas govern¬
ed by Counts appointed by that Prince, as Eginhard,
Chancellor of Charlemagne relates, in his History.

Under Louis le Debonnaire, the Governors of
Tuscany had the title of Marquis, being appointed
to guard the marches, or frontiers; they vvere also
called Dukes.

Aftervvards Tuscany vvas sometimes ruled by Go¬
vernors, appointed by the Emperors of Germany,
sometimes by Marquisses, Counts, or Dukes, vvho
vvere hereditary, and considered by the Emperors,
successors of Charlemagne, as their feudal vassals.

Of these hereditary rulers vvas the Countess Ma¬
tilda, called la Gran Contessa Matilda, vvho vvas born
about the year 1046, and died in 1115. She vvas
cousin of the Emperor Henry IV., but carried on vvar
against the Emperor, in support of the interest of
the Popes, and made a donation to the Papal throne
of her patrimonial territories, and also of the domi-
nions vvhich she held in fee from the crovvn of Italy,
vvhich fiefs she had not the right to dispose of; but,

176 THE COUNTESS MATILDA.—CASTRUCCIO.

after her death, the Popes claimed both, and dispu-
ted the point with the emperors for 200 years. The
Popes stili retain Viterbo, a part of her bequest,
and a monument is erected to her memory in Saint
Peter’s Basilic church, where she is honoured along
with the great benefactors of the Papal povver, Con-
stantine and Charlemagne. She refused in mar-
riage the son of William the Conqueror, and, in
1089, married the son of Guelf, Duke of Bavaria ;
this was her second marriage. Her dominion ex-
tended over Tuscany, Mantua, Modena, Reggio,
Parma, and other places south of the Po.

After the year 1267 the government of Tuscany
became oligarchical or republican, with elective ma-
gistrates, and sometimes was in the hands of a lord
or military chief, elected by the principal families.

At this period lived the enterprising leader, Cas-
truccio Castrucani, of whom Machiavel bas written
the life. He was chosen Lord of Lucca by the ci-
tizens of that plače, and was created by the Emperor
Duke of Pistoja and Prato. He carried on war
against the Florentines, who chose as their Lord,
to make head against Castruccio, the Duc of Cala-
bria, son to the King of Naples. Castruccio was
opposed to the Popes, and supported the cause of
the Emperor Louis of Bavaria. Castruccio died in
1328, at the age of 47.

In 1342 the Florentines elected, as their lord
and ruler, Gautier de Brienne, Duke of Athens^,
who was deposed a year after.

4

COSMO PATER PATRE®.—LORENZO.

177

The Florentines got possession of Piša in 1406,
by the treason of Giovanni Gainbacorta, Captain-
General of the Pisans.

The faraily of Medici in the fourteenth century
held the rank of private citizens in Florence. They
acquired great riches by trade, and, from the address
with which they conducted themselves, they became
the leaders of one of the parties or factions, and, at
last, rulers of the State. Cosmo, in 1161, govern-
ed without assuming the title of Prince. He gain-
ed the esteem and affections of the people by his
prudence, and the liberal use he made of his wealth,
and, after his death, was called the Father of his
Country, Padre della Patria.

His son Pietro lived a short time, and left two
sons, Giovanni and Lorenzo. Giovanni was killed
in 1478, in Francesco Pazzi’s conspiracy against
the Medici. By Lorenzo the family was brought
to the summit of its glory. He ruled without the
title of Prince, and managed the affairs of govern-
ment with such prudence, as to gain the love of his
countrymen, and the respect of foreign nations. He
collected manuscripts and antiquities in a princely
style, and died in 1492, at the age of forty-four.

Lorenzo left three sons, Pietro, who succeeded
him in the administration of the government, Gio¬
vanni, aftervvards Leo X., and Giuliano.

Pietro incurred the hatred of the Florentines by
taking part against Charles VIII. of France. He

M

178 EXTINCTION OF THE MEDICI FAMILV.

was dri ven from Florence, and the palaces of the
Medici were given up to pillage. He was drovvn-
ed in the Garigliano in 1503.

The Medici returned to Florence, and regained
their povver, and, in 1531, Alexander de’ Medici
was the first solemnly recognized by the States of
Florence as Duke. The Medici family reigned
from 1531 to 1737, when Gaston de’ Medici, the
last Grand Duke of that family, died vvithout heirs.
Before his death, France, Spain, and Germany, made
a treaty, by which it was determined, that the Duke
of Lorrain should inherit the Grand Dutchy.

Francis, Duke of  Lorrain, accordingly succeeded.
He espoused the Empresš Maria Theresa, and, in
1765, was succeeded in the Grand Dutchy of Tus-
cany by the second son of that marriage, Peter Leo¬
pold, who ruled with wisdom, and gained the affec-
tion of his subjects. After the death of his brother,
Joseph II., Leopold ascended the imperial throne
in 1790. He left a numerous family.

In 1801, Tuscany čarne under the dominion of
the house of Parma, of the Spanish branch of the
Bourbons. Bonaparte aftervvards forced the Queen
of Etruria, of the royal family of Spain, now
Dutchess of Lucca, to resign, and Florence was un¬
der his government till 1814, his sister, Eliza Ba-
ziocchi, residing there as his vicegerent and repre-
sentative. In 1814, Tuscany čarne again to be go-
verned by a Prince of the house of Austria, in the

VENUS AND NIOBE ACQUIRED BY FERDINAND. 179
person of the Grand Duke Ferdinand III., now
reigning;

O o

JVorks of Ari collected by the Medici.

The antiquities collected by Cosmo Pater Pa-
triae and Lorenzo were mostly dispersed during the
revolutions of the Medici family, in the fifteenth
century. Leo X. recovered a part of these collec-
tions. In the sixteenth century the Grand Duke
Cosmo I. laid out large sums of money in collecting
productions of art; and, by his command, Georgio
Vasari, the painter and architect, erected the build-
ing called the Ufizi, in the upper floor of which
the gallery is situated. Francis I., the successor of
Cosmo, increased the collection, and added the Tri¬
buna, and some other rooms. Ferdinand I. de’ Me¬
dici, brother of Francis, made many valuable additions
to the gallery: vvhilst Cardinal, he acquiredtheVenus
since called Medicea, vvhich remained in the villa
Medici at Rome till the time of Cosmo III., when
it was removed to Florence. The group of Niobe
also was acquired by Ferdinand, and vvas not brought
to Florence till the time of Peter Leopold. The
Popes prohibit the removal of any considerable an-
tique work from Rome ; but these statues here spo-
ken of, and the Farnese statues now at Naples, have
been removed during the vacancy of the Pope’s
throne, or by favour of the Pope.

180

FLORENCE.-THE GALLERY.

The Gallery.

The magnificent collection of pictures, statues, and
other productions of the graphic arts contained in
the gallery, is one of the most extensive and valu-
able in Europe, a monument of the taste and activity
of the Medici family, by whom it was formed. It
may be ranked next to the collection in the Vatican,
which surpasses ali others in the number of master-
pieces of ancient sculpture. The public are allowed
access unincumbered by any unnecessary restraint,
and artists are permitted to copy.

In the vestibule of the gallery are the busts of
different individuals of the family of Medici who
contributed to enrich the collection, from Lorenzo
downwards. Amongst the statues in the vestibule
are two antique figures of dogs in marble, both
alike. Of this figure there are other antique repe-
titions, similar in size and attitude, at Rome, and
one at Helmsley in Yorkshire.

The gallery itself, adorned in every part with
pictures and statues, forms three sides of an oblong
rectangle. On the two long sides of the gallery
there are entrances into rooms in which the more
remarkable objects are kept.

The ceiling of the gallery is painted with gro-
tesque designs, (grottesche;) in other places with
interlaced branches and vines on trellis work, imi-
tating an arbour, with birds perched or flying a-

PORTRAITS OF EMINENT MEN.

181

mongst them, a mode of decoration in vvhich Ra-
phael’s pupil, Giovanni da Udine, was excellent, as
is seen in the loggie of the Vatican, and in the
Grimani Palače at Venice, painted by Giovanni da
Udine. In one part the ceiling is decorated with
the story of the Tvvelve Ambassadors, * and other
subjects pertaining to the history of Florence.

Belovv the frieze, ali round the gallery, is a col-
lection of portraits of eminent men, Gustavus Adol-
phus the supporter of the Protestants and the op-
ponent of the house of Austria, Wallstein, and
other generals of the thirty years’ war, and states-
men, philosophers, and poets of ali nations. These
portraits are less interesting for the merit of the
painting than for the persons they represent.

Along the sides of the gallery are placed a num-
ber of ancient Roman busts of emperors and mem-

* In 1294, when tweJve ambassadors from different courts
came to Home, to congratulate Bonifazio VIII., the Pope,
astonished to find that they were ali Florentines, exclaim-
ed, “ Florence is the first city in the world, and the Flo¬
rentines the refined fifth element, the quintessence of man-
kind.—La citta di Firenze e la migliore citta del mondo,
e la nazione Fiorentina nelle cose umane e il quinto elemen-
to."

The story is expressed by Verino in the follotving lines:

Roman® merito antistes Bonefacius urbis,
Cum Florentinos diversis partibus orbis
Vidisset Rom® regum mandata ferentes,
Terrarum semen tum quinta elementa vocavit.

182

WORKS or ART IN THE TRIBUNA.

bers of the imperial family, Augusti et Anglista?.
One of the most esteemed is a bust of Marcus Au-
relius.

The most distinguished of ali the rooms vvhich
have their entrance from the gallery is the round cu-
pola room, lighted from the top, called the Tribuna,
containing a selection of the most precious of the
pictures and statues that belong to the collection.
The statues are the Venus de Medici, the hands of
which are modern, and added by Baccio Bandi-
nelli; * the Dancing Faun, the body antique, the
arms and head added by Michael Angelo ; the
antique group of Two Wrestlers; the Young Apol-
lo, called the Apollino; and the statue called the
Arrotatore.

Amongst the pictures in the tribuna are, the
Young Saint John, or San Giovanino, the Amoret-
ta, the portrait of Julius H., t ali by Raphael ; the
Virgin looking at the new-born Child lying on the
Ground, by Correggio ; a Holy Family, the Virgin,
Child, and Saint Joseph, by Michael Angelo ; the

* This fatnous statue is the only object of the gallery that
tras carried to Pariš.

t Raphael painted several other portraits of this warlike
and impetuous Pope, who patronized him. They are to be
seen at the Pitti Palače, and the Corsini Palače in Florence,
and several times repeated in the Stanze of the Vatican. The
tomb of Julius II. is the most celebrated production of Mi¬
chael Angelo’s chisel.

BUONAROTI.—PORTRAITS OF PAINTERS. 183
attitudes are uncommon, and the colouring is yel-
lovvish; * a Recumbent Venus, by Titian; a pic-
tureby Andrea Mantegna; one by Albert Durer, &c.

One of the rooms contains an interesting and nu-
merous collection of the portraits of eminent paint-
ers, painted by themselves. Two hundred of these
were collected in the seventeenth century, by Car¬
dinal Leopold de’ Medici, brother of the Grand
Duke Ferdinand. In the portrait of Michael An¬
gelo, he is represented at an advanced age, but vvith
the hair of the head stili black, There is one of

* This is one of the few pictures by Buonaroti in oil.'
Some of his other pictures in oil are the Parche the Three
Fates, at the Palazzo Pitti; Fortune, in the Corsini Palače
at Florence ; David cutting off the Head of Goliah, treated
in two different ways on the two opposite surfaces of a large
Pietra di Lavagna, in the gallery of the Louvre at Pariš. This
Pietra de Lavagna is a slate which is got at Lavagna, in the
territory of Genoa; it is used for covering roofs in that
country, and pictures on this kind of slate are seen in differ¬
ent collections. The principal paintings of Buonaroti in
fresco are in the Sistine chapel, and are much injured by
time. Buonaroti is recommended by Sir Joshua Reynolds
as a model for painters to imitate, although Sir Joshua’s
own manner bears little resemblance to that of Michael
Angelo. Raphael Mengs dissents from the opinion of Sir
Joshua, and proposes for imitation the pictures of Correg-
gio, distinguished by pleasing gracefulness of expression, and
beautiful colouring, in which the pictures of Michael Angele
are deficient.

184

PICTURES OF DIFFERENT SCHOOLS.

Raphael. The portraits of some British artists are
seen, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Jacob More, the land-
scape painter, and some others.

In the other rooms, the pictures are disposed ac-
cording to the schools, that is, the pictures of artists
of the same country are placed together. In the
room containing the Florentine school is a celebrat-
ed chiaroscuro, or picture in one uniform colour, by
Fra Bartolomeo ; * the Virgin, by Sassoferrato ; a
Magdalen, by Carlo Dolce, half figure, and many
others.

Fine pictures by Titian and Paul Veronese are
seen amongst those of the Venetian school.

Amongst the Flemish there are some by Rubens,
but more of the productions of this great master, so
varied in the subjects he treated, are to be seen in
the gallery at Dresden,—and in the Louvre, where
his pictures of the Life of Mary de’ Medici, the
consort of Henry IV., formerly at the Luxembourg
Palače, are now placed; his celebrated Descent
from the Cross is returned to its fbrnier situation
in the cathedral of Antvverp. He succeeded in

* Bartolomeo was a Florentine of great talent as a painter.
He lived in the time of Michael Angelo. He was converted
to a religious lite by the sermons of Savonarola, to whom he
was mudi attached. He afterwards became a friar, and vvas
called Fra Bartolomeo di San Marco, from the monastery of
Saint Mark at Florence. See Vasari Vita di Fra Bartolomeo.

RUBENS.—NIOBE.

185

every character.—The Kermess or Flemish Wake,
in the Louvre, is a representation of the dances and
gross amusements of the country people,—the Judg-
ment of Pariš, in the Dresden gallery, is treated
with drollery and humour. In the Louvre, Lot
and his Family leaving the devoted city is solemn,
with varied expression. That, and other collec-
tions, contain his landskips,—hon hunts,—portraits,
—bacchanaiian scenes,—emblematic and heroic ac-
tions,—and his church pictures in the grand and
elevated style.

There are several pictures by Gerard Hondhorst
of Utrecht, called Gerardo delle Notti, on account
of his excellence in representing night scenes, with
fire-light. He flourished in 1630.

Amongst the pictures by old German masters is
a portrait of Luther and his wife Catherina de Bore,
by Holbein.

In the room allotted to the French school are
pictures by Lebrun, Poussin, Lesueur, Vernet the
painter of sea-pieces, and others.

The celebrated statues of Niobe and her Children
were placed in the room, which they novv ornament,
in 1780, by the Grand Duke Leopold, aftervvards
Emperor. At one end of the room is the group of
Niobe and one of the daughters, of one piece of
marble. The others, vvhich are single figures, are
disposed along the sides of the room. The whole
of these figures were found betvveen Rome and

186

G10V. BOLOGNA.-BRONZES.

Adrian’s Villa at Tivoli. Mr CockereH’s opinion,
which is received with much approbation by anti-
guaries, is, that the figures vvere placed in the tym-
panum of a pediment, the statue of Niobe occupying
the middle.

A collection of statues, and other ornaments in
bronze, is disposed in one of the rooms. Amongst
them is the celebrated Mercury ascending, by Gio-
vanni Bologna, * and two or three smaller figures
of the same subject, which he made previous to
the production of the complete one ; another cele¬
brated statue of  this master is in the loggia of the
Piazza del Granduca at Florence, and the two egues-
trian statues at Florence are his productions.

In this bronze room, there is a small human
figure, a span high, representing the exterior muscles

* Jean Bologne, called in Italy Giovanni Bologna, was bom
at Douay in French Flanders, and died in 1606. He studied
at Florence, before the death of Michael Angelo, and is one
of the most esteemed sculptors since the revival of the arts.
His principal works, four of which are mentioned above, are,
The Group of the Sabine, at Florence, in imitation of which
ig the Pluto carrying off Proserpine, a group of three figures,
by Girardon of Troyes, after the design of Lebrun, in the
Garden at Versailles,—the bronze Mercury in the gallery at
Florence,—the marble Group of the Centaur at Florence,—the
two equestrian statues at Florence,—the statue of the Grand
Duke at Leghorn,—the Neptune at Bologna,—Mercury and
Psyche formerly at Marii, before the destruction of that palače,
»hich happened in the revolution of the French government.

ETRUSCAN BRONZES.—OLD MAJOLICA. 187
as divestgd of the skin, by Michael Angelo, and an-
other figure of’ the same kind, eighteen inches high,
by Cigoli. * A large bronze antique Etruscan figure
of a chimera, a bronze statue of a man in the dress
of a Roman senator, with Etruscan letters on the
border of the robe; both are of the natural size, and
very few other Etruscan figures of so large a size
exist. Winkelmann considers the bronze wolf in
the conservator’s palače in the Capitol to be also an
Etruscan work.

A room contains majolica, the thick and clumsy
earthenvrare, made by Castelfranco, ornamented
with mythological designs, after Raphael and Julio
Romano.

In the collection of Greek vases that have been
called Etruscan, there are some entirely black, with
foliage in relief, which are less frequently met with
than the vases with red figures on a dark ground.
Most of the ancient painted earthemvare vases
have been found in the kingdom of Naples, particu-
larly in the ancient tombs at Nola ; also in Sicily,
at Girgenti, and Catania. It is uncertain whether
any of them have been found in Tuscany. The
histories represented on these vases are frequently
subjects from Homer, and from the Greek mytho-

* Ludovico Cardi, called Cigoli, of whom there are several
works in the gallery, and, amongst the rest, a fine picture of
the Continence of Joseph, was bom near Florence, in 1559,
and died in 1613.

188

ANTIQUE PAINTED EARTHENWARE.

logy, and events of the heroic age of Greece, and
the names somethnes vvritten over the figures are in
Greek, and none have been found with Etruscan
inscriptions. * Winkelmann, however, is of opi-
nion, + that the figures on some of these vases are
dravvn in the Etruscan style, and, therefore, may be
the vvorkmanship of the Campanians, who lived at
Capua, and were sprung from the Etruscans. The
dravving of the human figure on many of these an-
cient earthen vases is masterly, and, from the ab-
sorbent quality of the pottery, the outline must have
been formed with rapidity, at once, without going
over again or retouching. Dravvings are valued as
shevving the original špirit and the bold ideas of the
painter, unrestrained, and not cooled by the labour,
thought, and time that a finished picture requires.
These earthen vases are specimens of the dravving
of the ancients, and are thought to equal the dravv¬
ings of the best artists since the revival of the arts
in Europe. The outline of the figure is dravvn in
black, the ground is painted of the same colour, and
the figure is left of the reddish colour of the pot-
tery.—The pottery is light, thin, neatly turned, and
ofno great hardness.—Some of the vases have been
found of the large size of four feet high.—They vvere

* Winkelmann, Hist. de l’Art.

f Winkelmann, Histoire de l'Art, Livre III. Chapitre III.
de l’Art des Etrusques,

B. CELLINI.-VALE1U0 OF VICENZA.

isg

used by the ancients for containing the ashes of tlie
dead ; some of them for ornamenting rooms, and
they were given as prizes in the games of Greece.
The vases have been imitated by Wedgewood; and
some less perfect imitations have been made in Italy,
and sold as ancient.

In the room where the vases of rock crystal
and of other hard stones are kept, some works of
Benvenuto Cellini attract the attention, particu-
larly a vase of Japis lazuli, adorned with handles
in form of fanciful dragons or salamanders. In
the bronze room there is a shield, hehnet, and
breastplate, with figures in silver, in relief, by the
same artist. The bronze figure of Perseus, after
cutting off’ Medusa’s head, is also his ; it is in the
piazza del Granduca. Cellini šunk the dies, and
coined several of the medals and coins of Clement
VIL ; one has Moses striking the rock, on the re-
verse. These medals are much esteemed for the ex-
pellence of their sculpture. *

In the same room is a casket, composed of pannels
of rock crystal, on which is beautifully šunk or en-

* Benvenuto Cellini  was a goldstnith, and exercised his
trade in Rome and other places. He published an amusing
account of his own life, in which he relates, in a  natural style,
the vicissitndes consequenton his irregular and turbulent con-
duct, and gives some particulars of the history of his contem-
poraries, Michael Angelo, Julio Romano, and others. He was
born at Florence in 1500, and died in 1570.

190

ENGRAVERS OF GEMS IN THE MD.

graved in cavo,  the history of  the Passion, consisting
of many small figures, an inch high, which are seen
through the substance of the crystal; this casket
was made for Clement VIL, by Valerio of Vicenza,
a celebrated engraver of gems, vvho died in 154-6. *

A remarkable object in one of the rooms is the
large antique marble vase, adorned with figures in
high relief, celebrated under the name of the Medi-
ci vase. The companion to this vase was in the
Borghese collection, and is now in the Louvre.

Pitti Palače.

The collection next in point of importance is
that at the Palazzo Pitti. In this palače the Grand
Duke resides. It formerly belonged to the Pitti
family, whose name it bears, and was from them
purchased by Cosmo I. de’ Medici. The front, be¬
gun by Brunalesco, is extensive. It is of broached
rustic, and looks rather gloomy. The court within

* See Vasari's Life of Valerio Vicentino,  and of other en¬
gravers of gems, rock črjstal, and dies for medals, who lived
at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Of Marmita,  one
of these engravers, Vasari says, that, he made money by coun-
terfeiting antique medals,—‘Fu gran maestro di contrafar me-
daglie antiche, delle quali ne cave grandissima utilita. Greco,
another engraver of cameos, made a medal with a head of
Paul III. Farnese, and on the reverse, Alexander the Great,
adoring the high priest of the Jews, vvhich Michael Angelo
praised highly as a masterly work.

11

RAPHAEL’s  LEO X.—HIS MADONNA. 191
the building is in a style somevvhat different. One
suite of rpoms contains the magnificent collection of
pictures chiefly formed by the Medici family.

It comprehends the collection of the Dukes of
Urbino, of the family della Rovere, * which, af-
ter the death of the last Duke of that family, be-
came the property of Victoria, Grand Dutchess of
Tuscany, consort of Ferdinand II., and heiress of
the family della Rovere.

Amongst the many excellent pictures in this col¬
lection are, the Three Fates by Michael Angelo,—-■
the portrait of Leo X., with Cardinal Julio de’ Me¬
dici and Cardinal Rossi,—the celebrated Madonna
della Seggiola,—the Madonna della Finestra Im-
pannata, so cailed from the papered window repre-
sented in the picture,—ali by Raphael. The two
first of these pictures, by Raphael, were in Pariš, as
was the Martyrdom of Saint Agatha, by Sebastian
delPiombo, and the picture of three figuresvvith musi-
cal Instruments, said to represent Luther, Calvin, t

* Pope Julius II. della Rovere prevailed upon the Duke
of Urbino to adopt his nephew, who was likevvise nephevv of
the Duke, by which means the Dutchy of Urbino passed into
the family della Rovere. Duke Francis della Rovere died in
1631, leaving his principality to the Papal government, as his
feudal superior ; his free, allodial, andacquiredproperty went
to Victoria, Grand Dutchess of Tuscany.

f Calvin was for some time in secret at the court of Fer¬
rara in 1535. See Tiraboschi, st. d. 1. It.

102 GIORGIONE.—CANOVA’s VENUS.

and Catherine de Bore, by Giorgione; * but there
is little resemblance betvveen this portrait and those
of Luther by Lucas Cranach and by Holbein;
and in the account of the Louvre gallery this picture
is only termed a concert, with a Benedictine monk at
the harpsichord, a Dominican with a violoncello, and
a young person with a black bonnet and feather.—
A picture composed of two female figures, called
la Modestia e la Vanita femminile, by Leonardo
da Vinci.—Judith carrying the head of Holopher-
nes, by Cristofano Allori. t This picture was in
Pariš.

The other half of the principal floor is occupied by
the State apartments, at the end of which, in the centre
of a circular room hung with four mirrors, is Cano-
va’s beautiful statue of Venus. It is seen to much ad-
vantage by means of the mirrors, four different views
by reflection being seen from one plače. This sta¬
tue was got by the Florentine government after the
French had removed the Venus de Medici, and fill-

* Giorgione died in 1511 at the age of thirty-four. Vaša-
ri mentions a head drawn by him, a portrait of one of the
Fuggers, the celebrated merchants of Antwerp vvho were con-
cerned in the Fondaco de’ Tedeschi at Venice, and possessed
palaces in Rome. See Vasari Vita di Giorgio da Castelfranco
detto Giorgione; and Luther’s Colloquia Mensalia.

f Cristofano Allori was bom at Florence in 1577, and died
in 1621.

12

BOBOLT GARDEN.-CIMABUE.

193

ed the plače in the tribuna of the public gallery dur-
ing the'time that celebrated masterpiece of ancient
art was in Pariš. On the return of the Venus de
Medici to Florence, Canova’s Venus yielded up the
pedestal in the tribuna, and was placed in the palazzo
Pitti.

Adjoining to the palače is the Boboli garden, of
considerable extent, and partly on a rising ground-
It is laid out vvith broad walks bordered vvith high
hcdgcs of laurel, (Laurus nobilis.j  There are
many fine cvpresses, numerous statues, and, in the
lower part of the garden, fountains.

Academy of Painting.

At the academy of painting, the Scuola delle
belle arti, instituted by the Grand Duke Peter’ Leo¬
pold in 1784, there is a considerable collection of
pictures, amongst vvhich are several productions
of the oldest masters. A large picture of the
Virgin, seated on a throne, with the Child and An-
gels, by Cimabue. Like his other pictures it is on a
ground of gold, in campo d’oro, and in a very for-
mal style. Cimabue vvas the earliest of the Floren-
tine painters. He learnt the art from some Greek
painters who were employed in Santa Maria Novel-
la. * He flourished in. 1280. His colours are em-

* Vasari, Vita <li Cimabue.

19'1 FLORENCE.—OLD PICTURES.

bodied with size and with the yolk of eggs, as Va-
sari relates in his introduction to the lives. The
art of painting with colours embodied by oil, was
not used till a hundred years after his death, when
it was discovered by John van Eyck, called John of
Bruges, who flourished in the year 1400. The num-
ber of Cimabue’s pictures that now exist is very
small.

A picture of the Adoration of the Magi, by Gen-
tilis di Fabriano, with the year inscribed 1423.
Mary Magdalen, clothed in a brown shaggy rug, in
the same way as in Donatello’s statue in the baptis-
try, with the inscription,

Ne desperetis vos qui peccare soletis
ExempLoque meo vos reparate Deo.

The ground is gold, and on the border are eight
small pictures representing the actions of Magda¬
len.

Small iigures, two feet in length, in burnt clay,
by Michael Angelo, representing Night and Aurora,
the models of the marble statues executed by him
in the Capella de’ Depositi at San Lorenzo.

There is also a collection of plaster casts of the
most esteemed statues and bas reliefs for the use of
the students.

On the walls of the court are busts and bas re-

4

FORTUNE BY MICHAEL ANGELO.

195

liefs in, glazed earthemvare, terra cotta invetriata,
by Luca della Robbia or his school.

Corsini Pictures.

The collection of pictures in the Corsini palače,
a conspicuous building by Silvani, on the quay
Lung’ Arno, is numerous and valuable. In this
collection are to be remarked,—a cartoon, by Ra-
phael, of the portrait of Julius II. A head of
a vvoman representing Poetry, finished so that
it seems to rise from the canvas, by Carlo Dolce;
the pictures of Carlo Dolce have become too dark
in the shaded parts, a defect owing to the printers*
ink, or lamp-black, vvhich retains its colour vvhilst
the colours mixed with it fade. * Horse-travellers
going over rocks, vvith a plain and river seen below,
and in the distance, by Salvator Rosa. Fortune,
dropping crowns and treasures from her right hand,
Instruments of punishment from the left, by Michael
Angelo. At the head of the staircase is a seated
statue of Clement XII. Corsini, who died in 1739-

Fabrics.

The palače formerly the residence of the Medici
family, built by Cosmo Pater Patriae, has the court
surrounded vvith a loggia or open-sided gallery on
the ground-floor, and adorned vvith busts, bas reliefs,

* This effect of printers’ ink in painting is mentioned by
Vasari.

196

FLORENCE.-PALACES.

and ancient inscriptions, resembling, by these deco-
rations, the courts of some of the palaces in Rome.

The palače of Duke Strozzi is a large gloomy cu-
bical mass of building, with rustic work on the out-
side. Another Strozzi palače was, in part, design-
ed by Scamozzi. '

In the mansion of the Buonaroti family are pre-
served some sketches by the great Michael Angelo.

The Palazzo del Podesta, which is now used as a
prison, has the court covered with old coats of arms
carved in stone, and the windows pointed-arched. *

In Florence, and other towns in Italy, the exte-
rior of houses and the fronts of churches are some-
times painted with designs in fresco on the plaster.
In the piazza Santa Croce the front of a large house
was painted, in 1619, with figures and architecture
by Pasignano, and fifteen other good artists, in the
space of twenty days. These paintings have in some
degree retained their colour after 200 years exposure
to the weather. At this day, in Italy, large paint¬
ings or outlines of histories are sometimes seen de-
signed on the outside of a plastered wall, the work
of some young painter who takes that method of
making his talent known.

* A view of the court of the Palazzo del Podesta, and views
of the principal buildings in Florence, Siena, and Piša, are
published in the Architecture Toscane par Montigny et Fa-
min, Pariš, 1815.

PALAZZO VECCHIO. 197

In this same piazza Santa Croce is the house in
which Urban VIII. Barberini was born. He was
elected pope in 1623.

There were, in the middle ages, a great many
tovvers or private fortresses in Florence, as in Rome
and other cities in Italy. The number in Florence
is said to have been 150. Most of these were de-
molished vvhen the government began to be more
regular, in the beginning of the dominion of the
Medici family.

The Palazzo Vecchio, in the Piazza del Gran-
duca, iš a lofty old building, with battlements, ori¬
ginal^ designed by Arnolfo di Lapo, and now oc-
cupied by some of the public offices. The court is
small, surrounded by a colonade and corridor,
painted with grotesques, and with views of the cities
of Germany; in the middle, a bronze Cupid by
Verrocchio., The great hali is adorned with pic¬
tures and statues; the ceiling painted by Vasari,
who designed the architecture of the interior of this
palače; the pictures relate to the history of Flo¬
rence, Cosmo I., crowned Grand Duke of Tuscany
by Pius V. in 1570, &c. Amongst the statues is
a group of Victory with a prisoner, by Buonaroti,
intended for the tomb of Julius II. The adjoin-
ing Guardaroba also contains some pictures, and
other vvorks of art.

In front of the Palazzo Vecchio are tvvo colossal
sculptures; the one the statue of David, with a sjing

198 FLORENCE.-STATUES IN THE LOGGIA AND

in his hand, by Michael Angelo, the second cele-
brated statue in point of time that he executed, La
Pieta, in Saint Peter’s basilic, being the first; *
the other is the group of Hercules and Cacus, by
Baccio Bandinelli. +

On the public clock of the old palače the hour at
night is shewn by the transparent and illuminated
numbers of the hour and minute. In theatres at
Venice, and other places in Italy, a clock of this
kind is placed above the stage.

The loggia, built after the design of Orcagna in
1356, and which occupies part of one of the sides of
the Piazza del Granduca, is adorned with some
good statues. Under its round arches are placed
the group of a Roman carrying off a Sabine woman,
with an old man on the ground by Giovanni di Bo¬
logna, in marble;—Perseus, after having cut off the
head of Medusa, by Benvenuto Cellini, in bronze;
—Judith, by Donatello, in bronze;—two marble
lions, one of which is by Flaminio Vacca, a sculp-
tor who flourished at Rome in the latter part of the
sixteenth century.

In the Piazza del Granduca is the equestrian

* See Vasari Vita di Michel Agnolo Buonaroti.

f Baccio was the contemporary of Michel Angelo. He
was laborious, and had a good knovvledge of design, but was
endowed with little genius. See the Life of Baccio, which
name is the Florentine contraction for Bartolomeo, in Vasari
Vit. de’ Pittori.

PUBLIC SQUARES.

199

statue of Cosmo I., Grand Duke of Tuscany, by
Giovanni Bologna, erected in 1594, with tliree
histories in relief on the pedestal;—the Coronation
of Cosmo by Pius V. in 1570;—the entry of Cos¬
mo into Siena, vvhich had submitted to his forces;—
Cosmo, elected Duke of Florence by the Florentine
senate. Near this statue, in the piazza, is the front
of a house designed by Palladio.

In the Piazza della Nunziata is the equestrian
statue, in bronze, of Ferdinand I., Grand Duke of
Tuscany, by the same master, as already mentioned.
Betvveen the bridge of the Trinity and the Pitti Pa¬
lače is the group, in marble, of a centaur, combating
vvith one of the Lapythae, by Giovanni Bologna.

A pedestal, in the plače before the church of
Saint Lorenzo, is adorned vvith figures, sculptured
in high relief, by Baccio Bandinelli, representing
captives brought to John the father of Cosmo I.
The column of granite, surmounted by a statue of
Justice, was erected in 1564 by Cosmo L, to vvhom
it vvas presented by Pius IV. It vvas taken from
the baths of Antoninus Caracalla at Rome.

The loggia of the Mercato Nuovo vvas built in
1548 by order of Cosmo I., for the conveniency of
the dealers in silk. Under it is a vvild boar in
bronze, copied from the antique one of marble in
the gallery.

Another similar loggia, in which corn is sold, is
called Piazza del Grano. It vvas built in 1619.

200 FLORENCE.-ARCH OF FRANCIS OF LORRAIN.

Without the gate of San Gallo is a triiimphal
arch, ei’ected in 1739, on dccasion of the arrival of
the Emperor Francis I., vvhen he succeeded to the
sovereignty of 1 uscany after the extinction of the
Medici; the arch is from the design of Schamant
of Lorrain, and is loaded vvith ill-selected ornament.

Quays and Bridges.

The Arno, during its course through Florence,
is embanked on each side by Stone quays, vvith a
Street betvveen the quay and the front of the houses,
a disposition which gives an agreeable vievv of the
river and the opposite bank from the Street. At
Piša a similar arrangement is seen. And the quays
in Pariš, opposite to the gallery of the Louvre, pre¬
selit a vievv of the same kind, but decorated vvith
more magnificent buildings. The quay, by the side
of the Arno, at Florence, is stated by Sir G. Shuck-
burgh to be 190 English feet above the sea.

Of the four bridges over the Arno, the Ponte del-
la Trinita is celebrated for the agreeable flat elliptic
form of its three arches. The abutments of the
piers project much, so as to produce the disagree-
able effect of concealing the arches from the vievv
vvhen the bridge is looked at obliquely. It vvas built
after the design of Ammanati, in the reign of Cos-
mo I., in plače of a bridge vvashed away by the over-
flowing of the river in 1557.

There are tvvo vvears across the Arno at Florence
for the purpose of driving miliš. The boats that

MAGNESIAN SERPENTINE.

201

come up the river from Piša lie some distance be-
low the lovvest wear. When there is a sufficient
quantity of vvater in the river, the passage by the
boats from Florence to Piša is made speedily.

The Arno has deposited considerable banks of
sand, vvith some gravel, by the side of its channel,
just belovv Florence.

The spouting fountains at Florence are not nu-
merous. There are some in the Boboli garden.
They are supplied vvith vvater brought by a con-
duit from the neighbouring heights. It is at Rome
that spouting fountains are in greater abundance and
perfection than in any other city of Europe. In
Florence vvater for domestic purposes is got by
means of vvells šunk in different parts of the town.

Building Materials.

Dark green magnesian serpentine, called pietra
di garbo,  or gabro, * is got near Prato, at Imprune-
ta, and in other parts of Tuscany. It is employed,
along vvith vvhite marble, in facing the outer surface
of some of the old churches in Florence, dis-
posed in the form of pannels and other ornaments,
being set off and rendered conspicuous by the vvhite

* It is also called Verde di Prato, from the plače where
the quarries are. In the territory of Genoa, also, magnesian
serpentine is wrought, and called Polzevera, that being the
name of the plače where it is quarried.

202 FLORENCE.—MARBLE.—STYLE OF BUILDING.

marble, vvhich composes the rest of the incrustation.
The marble of Serravazza, near Carrara, which is
sometimes used in Florence for columns and other de-
corations, has veins of a purple colour. The varieties
of Serravazza marble resemble some of the antique
marbles, Pavonazzo, Africano, Fioi’ di Persico, and
sometimes pass by these names. The marmo paesino,
or landskip marble, called Florentine marble, got
near Florence, is a limestone of a grey colour, vvith
dark coloured dendritical veins, vvhich look like the
picture of ruins, when the stone is cut and polish-
ed ; it is only got in pieces of a moderate size.

The buildings in Florence are solid, with thick
vvalls. The dark-coloured stone of the secondary
strata, in the hills near Florence, * is much employ-
ed in building. Brick is also used.

The great houses, or palaces, generally have with-
in the building a court, vvith a colonade or loggia
round it on the ground floor. This court is often of
the small dimension of twehty- four feet square. The
vvhole edifice has a heavy and gloomy appearance,
arising both from the dark colour of the stone, and
from the style of architecture.

The sty]e of the great mansions, or palaces, in Ve-
nice is very different from those in Florence, and quite

* This stone is called, in Florence, Pietra forte ; and from its
bluish grey colour, Pietra serena. Pietra bigia, grey stone,
is another varietv.

X.

TILE F

at Florerzoe- aml Rome f m/e 203

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TILE S of the FLOORS ef ROOMS .

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ROOF TILE.—FLOOR PAVEMENT. 203

peculiar to Venice. They are lofty, generally vvith
three tier of high arched apertures and balconies on
the front, for the purpose of looking on the great
canal. The fronts are of unpolished Istrian marble,
vvhich is of a light colour, producing an agreeable
and cheerful effect in the exterior of a building.

The roofs at Florence are of a low pitch, and
covered vvith tile. Every roof is covered vvith tile
of tvvo different forms,—a fiat tile, vvith ledges on
the side, and a tile nearly semi-cylindrical, but a
little tapering upvvards, vvhich covers the interstice
betvveen the ledges of the fiat tiles, and is named
canale. These tiles are are also used at Rome,
and in many other parts of Italy; and tiles are found
in ancient Greek and Roman buildings, of a similar
form, and sometimes made of marble. The tiles at
Trieste and Venice are ali of the tapering cylindri-
cal form, a tile, vvith the convexity outvvards, being
laid, so as to cover the edges of tvvo tiles, of vvhich
the concave side is outvvards. The rooms at Flo¬
rence are lofty, and are not ali provided vvith
fire-places. Floors of rooms are usually> of large
oblong rectangular tiles, placed in the herring-
bone form, named spina di pešce in Italy, and
testacea spicata, by Vitruvius, the same form in
vvhich the small hard bricks called Dutch clinkers,
are laid in Holland and in Britain. The vvalls of
rooms are painted vvith landscapes, or parterres as

204<

FLORENCE.-MANUSCRIPTS.

seen through colonades, and with other ornaments ;
the ceilings also are painted vvith ornaments.

Ijibraries.

Another of the splendid collections, niade by the
Medici family, is the library of manuscripts, called
the Bibliotheca Mediceo Laurentiana. The build-
ing, in which these manuscripts are kept, forms one
side of the court of the monastery of San Lorenzo.
It is after the design of Michael Angelo ; and the
singular form of ornament he made use of is seen in
none of his works more strikingly, than in the vesti-
bule of the Mediceo Laurentian library, which is
adorned vvith columns, having capitals of a peculiar-
form. *

In the fifteenth century, at the period that im-
mediately preceded the use of printing, the princes
who encouraged the arts in Italy were active in
collecting manuscripts of ancient Greek and Ro¬
man authors. In consequence of this, many remark-
able manuscripts were discovered in the monasteries
of Saint Gali in Svvitzerland, of Montecassino in the
kingdom of Naples, and other monasteries.

* The peculiar style of Michael Angelo is also visible in
his other architectural works,—the Capella de’ Depositi at San
Lorenzo at Florence,—the part vvhich is his of Saint Peter’s
Basilic,—the Capitol,—the Porta Pia,—and Porta del Popolo
at Rome,—part of the Farnese palače.

MANUSCRIPT VIRGIL OF THE FIFTH CENT. 205

Cosmo de’ Medici Pater Patrias, collected many,
and formed a public library in the monastery of
Saint Mark at Florence. *

Lorenzo de Medici collected a great number of
manuscripts, and sent John Lascaris to Sultan Ba.
jazet for that purpose.

Pietro, the son of Lorenzo, having shewn himself
hostile to Charles VIII. of France, was driven from
Florence, and the library, collected by Lorenzo,
vvas pillaged by the French. The books that were
saved, together with Saint Mark’s library, were
bought, and removed to Rome, by Cardinal John
de’ Medici, aftervvards Leo X. Clement VIL de’
Medici t restored the library to Florence ; and, by
his orders, Michael Angelo began the building at
Saint Lorenzo for it,s reception, which was finished
under the inspection of Vasari in 1571, in the reign
of the Grand Duke Cosmo I.

Amongst the remarkable manuscripts, there is one
of Virgil of the fourth century in Roman capitals,
not very different in form from the letters on an-

* See the preface to the catalogue of the Biblioth. Medi-
ceo Laurentiana, by the Canons Biscione and Bandini.

f There were three Popes of the Medici family,—Leo X.,
who died in 1521; Clement VIL, who died in 1533 ; and
Leo XI., who died in 1605, after a very short reign. Pius
IV. was of a Milanese family of the same name, but distinct
from the Medici of Florence.

206 FLORENCE.—PANDECTS OF THE SIXTH CENT.

cient Roman marbles; it is on vellum of the size of’
a small quarto, with notes; the notes vvritten in
the fifth century by the Consul Turcius Rufus Apro-
nianus, as his signature attests. This is one of the
most ancient legible manuscript books in Europe, of
vvhich the period is authentic. The manuscript of
Virgil, in the Vatican library, with paintings, vvas
said to be of the fourth century, of the time of Con-
stantine. The manuscripts of the middle ages are no
longer in Roman capitals, but in letters resembling in
some degree the small Roman printed letter now in
use ; and, at a stili later period, the manuscripts are
in a running hand. * This library also possesses
the celebrated manuscript of the Pandects, suppo-
sed to be of the time of Justinian in the sixth cen-
tury, written in Capital letters, vvhich vary a little
from the capitals on ancient Roman marbles; it is
on vellum of the size of  a large folio book ; it vvas
brought from Piša, and Cosmo I. caused an edition
to be printed from it by Lelio Torelli. A Tacitus,
of the eleventh century, is in a running letter.

The library contains 7000 volumes of manuscripts.
Many of them are chained to the desks.

The building, called the Ufizi, contains several
public offices and courts of justice ; and the upper
floor is occupied by the gallery. It forms three

* See Maffei Verona Illustrata, parte terza, p. 246.

MAGLIABECHIAN LIBRARV.

207

sides of a rectangle ; and on the ground floor is an
open colonade or gallery for walking. The stones
of the cornice of this colonade are vvedge-formed,
and combined like the stones of an arch, in order to
free the architrave from weight, as in many build-
ings, ancient and modern, the architraves are crack-
ed by the superincumbent weight. * The architect
of the Ufizi was George Vasari.

In an apartment of this building is kept the Mag-
liabechian library, a numerous and valuable collec-
tion of printed books, left for the use of the public,
with an annual rent for its maintenance, by the cele-
brated Magliabechi. The collection has been aug-
mented since his time by the addition of other li-
braries.

The number of books is estimated at ninety
thousand. There is a large collection of the first
printed books of the fifteenth century, and some
manuscripts. The public have access to consult
books in the library.

The bust of Magliabechi is in the vestibule. He
was born at Florence in 1633, and died in 1*714'»
at the age of 81. He was librarian to the Grand
Duke, and passed his life sequestered amongst books,
which were his sole occupation and amusement.
He never was farther from Florence than Prato, a

* See Vasari Vite de' Pittori Introduzzione; and Architet-
tura di Palladio.

S08 FLORENCE.-FOSSIL BONES.-WAX MODELS.

distance of ten miles ; and that journey he went on-
ly once, and for the purpose of seeing a manuscript.
He retained in his memory the substance of the vast
number of books he had read. His correspondence
was extensive with men of letters, who consulted
him on questions of literary history. He published
some authors of the middle ages, but no work of
his own composition.

Another library, open for the use of the public,
is the Marucellian library.

Museum of Natural History.

Near the Palazzo Pitti is a building appropriated
to the museum of natural history and of anatomy,
the collection of philosophical instruments, and the
astronomical observatory. The botanic garden is
adjoining. These splendid collections were founded
by the Grand Duke Leopold.

The museum of natural history contains a collec¬
tion well arranged and named, of stuffed birds and
quadrupeds, and preparations in spirits, of fishes,
reptiles, worms. Amongst the minerals are fossil
bones of elephants, found in Val d’ Arno Superior,
the bones of a hippopotamus, and the jaw-bone of a
physiter whale from the same plače.

The anatomical collection consists of a large se-
ries of representations of dissections of the human
body, and of some dissections of animals, such as
the dissection of the cuttle fish, the progress of the

CHAMJEROPS PALM.

209

growth of the chick in the fecundated egg of a fowl,
the progress of the changes of the silk-vvorm, ali mo-
delled in wax. The wax is coloured, so that the
model resembles the parts in colour as well as in
shape. Many of these models were made by a fc-
male artist.

The Abbate Felice Fontana was director in 1771) *
and promoted the formation of this part of the col-
lection, and of the whole establishment.

The art of making wax models of anatomieal pre-
parations was practised by Italians in the end of the
seventeenth century. Zumbo, a Siracusan, present-
ed a wax model of a human head anatomized to the
Academv of Sciences of Pariš in 17O1.I

The botanic garden is furnished vvith convenient
hot-houses. The Chamaorops humilis grows in the
open air, and is the only palm that can endure the
winter’s cold in Florence. It grows, likewise, near
the sea coast, in the neighbourhood of Genoa. In
Rome, where the mid-day sun is nearly two de-
grees higher than at Florence, the date palm also
thrives in the open air.

In the Grand Duke’s collection of philosophical

* Fontana was professor of mathematics at Piša, and after-
wards naathematician to the Grand Duke. He published Re-
searches on the Venom of the Viper, and some other treatises.

j- See the History of the Academy of Sciences of Pariš for
the year 1701.

o

210

FLORENCE.—OBSERVATORA.

Instruments, which is very extensive, are some of
the Instruments used by Galileo, and by the Acade-
mia del Cimento. * There is a curious series of old
gnomonical and astronomical Instruments. The mo¬
dem Instruments are mostly by London makers.

The observatory is a quadrangular tower, furnish-
ed with a large transit instrument by Sisson, and
some other Instruments. There is another astrono¬
mical observatory at the Scuole Pie, in the collegio di
San Giovanni, where the Padre Ingherami makes
observations. It contains a circle by Reichenbach
of two feet, and another of nine inches by the same
artist. The latter instrument is employed for the
purposes of a geometrical survey now making of
Tuscany.

In the vestibule of the museum are busts of Ga-

* The Academy of Experiment, Academia del Cimento,
was formed in 1657, and assembled. in the palače of Prince
Leopold de’ Medici, who was always present at the experi-
ments. The academy published, in 1666, an account of ex-
periments in natura! philosophy, Saggi di Naturali Sperienze
fatte nell Academia del Cimento, of vvhich there is a modern
edition published by Targioni Tozzetti. Viviani, Toricelli,
and Borelli, were of the nine who composed the academy.
Auzout, the French academician, and Steno, a native of Den-
raark, vrere present, and assisted in the experiments.

In 1667, some of the members having left Florence, and
Prince Leopold being made Cardinal, the academy was dis>
solved, after an existence of ten years.

VESPUCCI.—SCUOLE PIE.

211

lileo and of Americo Vespucci. * An old terres-
trial globe, three feet in diameter, placed in the
portico, and now quite black, might, if cleaned, be
interesting to the history of maritime discoveries.
It is, I suppose, one of the globes made by Ignazio
Dante.

The college of San Giovanni, called San Giovan-
nino, is occupied by the religious order of monks of
the Scuole Pie, who are employed in teaching the
various branches of knowledge from the elements
upivards. The observatory of the college is under
the direction of the astronomer Father Ingherami,
and is furnished with good modern Instruments, as
before mentioned. This college of San Giovanni
formerly belonged to the Jesuits, and was founded
by them in 1551, eleven years after Loyola’s order
had received the papal approbation from Paul III.
Farnese. The college is a considerable building,
but the ambitious order of Jesuits has not left such
splendid fabrics at Florence as those which shew

* Amerigo Vespucci was born near Florence in 1451, and
lived to the age of 65. He went in the capacity of astrono-
mical observer in an expedition fitted out by the Spanish go-
vernment. This expedition landed on the main land, since
called South America, which Columbus had discovered a year
or two before. Amerigo was employed to draw the charts
of the new discoveries; and in these charts he called the
terra firma by his own name America.

212 FLORENCE.—ACADEMIES.—VVEATHER.

the vvealth and power they attained to in Rome,
Venice, and Prague.

Amongst the men eminent in natural Science
now living in Florence are, Fabroni, the celebrated
chemist; Targioni Tozzetti, author of Viaggi per
la Toscana, I76O, Travels in Tuscany, in vvhich he
treats of the physical topography and natural pro-
ductions; Nesti, professor of mkieralogy, vvho has
published Observations on the Fossil Bones found
in the upper Val d’Arno ; Ingherami, professor of
astronomy at the Scuole Pie.

The academy della Crusca published the first
edition of their vocabulary of the Italian language
in 1612.

In the eighteenth century, the academia della
Crusca, the academia Florentina, the academia degli
Apatisti, vvere united into one under the name of
the Academia Florentina, by the Grand Duke Leo¬
pold, aftervvards emperoi. There is an agricultural
society, 1’academia degli Georgofili.

From the Ist to the 20th of January, Fahrenheit’«
thermometer, on the outside of a window in the
shade, stood from 33° to 47° at eight in the morn-
ing. Of these twenty days ten or eleven were with-
out rain, and several of these were clear vvith few
clouds. The distant hills were covered vvith snow,
vvhich is the čase six or seven months in the year.

The cold in Florence now, in January 1818, is
such that fire is often reguired in rooms in the morn-

ORANGE TREES REQUIRE SHELTER.

213

ing 1  and evening. In the afternoon the heat of the
sun is considerable, and produces an agreeable
warmth. The common people make use of a scal-
dino,  an earthen pot containing burning charcoal;
this vessel they carry in their hands for the sake of
warmth. Men of the better classes, when they go
ont in vvinter, wrap themselves in a great-coat with
many capes, called pastrano ;  this is used also in
Venice, Rome, and other towns.

The plants that are cultivated and indigenous in
a country, serve as an indication of the prevalent
degree of heat and cold.

Orange trees scarcely bear the winter’s cold with-
out covering in Florence, although there are some
planted in the open ground in the courts of the mo-
nasteries. At Rome, nearly two degrees farther
south, orange trees bear the winter’s cold, but lemon
trees, citron, and some other varieties of the genus
Citrus, are covered in vvinter by houses formed of
reeds. On the Boromean islands in the Lago Mag-
giore, two degrees north of Florence, orange and
lemon trees require to be covered with houses of
boards during six months of the year. The Chamse-
rops humilis is the only palm that endures the win-
ter’s cold in the open air in Florence. There are
two kinds of cypress planted in the gardens at
Florence, the Cupressus sempervirens,  with erect
side branches, and the Cupressus dispersa,  with side
branches nearly horizonta]. The cypresses grow to

214 FLORENCE.—CVPRESS WOOD.—WINE.

the height of sixty or seventy feet. Their tapering
form and dark green colour render them a beautiful
ornament to the gardens and country houses. The
cypress is a coniferous tree, but its wood is heavier
than the wood of fir and several other pines, and
from the longitudinal disposition. of its fibres resists
being broken across. It is, therefore, used at Flo¬
rence for making window-frames and bars. The cy-
press vvas introduced into Italy from Crete, as Pliny
relates. *

Most of the ground moderately elevated in the
neighbourhood of the city is planted with olive trees,
Some of vvhich are of a great age, and bear fruit, al-
though the vvood in the interior of the trunk is quite
decayed ; they are planted like fruit trees, in an or-
chard, and wheat is sown under them. Fig trees
also are cultivated.

Vines are trained on trees in fields sovvn with
wheat or other grain, and they are not cultivated in
vineyards solely appropriated to the culture of the
vine, as in Burgundy and Auštria.

The common wine met with in Florence and in
Rome has little flavour. The more esteemed kinds
are the Monte Pulciano, the Orvieto vvine, and the
Aleatico.

The Monte Pulciano, the best of the Tuscan
vrineš, is compared by the English to a weak claret,

* Plin. Hist. Nat.

CHESNUT MEAL.

215

vvithout any particular flavour. The Tuscan vvines
do not bear carriage, and do not keep long. They
are sometimes sent to Britain in the thin glass flasks
vvoven round with plaited stravv, and with a little oil
on the surface of the vvine, to exclude the air; this
method is not so favourable for keeping the vvine as
the green bottles vreli corked.

Wine frotn the proprietor’s estate is sold by re-
tail in some of the large palaces in Florence ; they
have a little vvindovv or wicket in the wall j ust large
enough to admit the flask vvhich the purchaser hands
in to be filled.

Chesnut trees are cultivated in the mountainous
parts of Tuscany, of the dutchy of Modena, and in
other parts of the Apennines, and no grain being
produced in these elevated situations, chesnuts con-
stitute a principal part of the food of the moun-
taineers. Chesnuts are mentioned as the food of
the country people in Italy by Virgil. * It is on the
ground of a middle elevation, and not on the highest
of the mountains, that the chesnut trees grow. The
large-fruited kinds are propagated in Tuscany by
inoculation. A great part of the chesnuts are dried,
they are then hard, and may be ground into meal.
Of this meal, mixed vvith water and baked in a pan
over the fire, a mass of paste is made vvhich is used

* Virgil, Edog. I.

216 FLORENCE.-PLANTS.—GRANARY.

as food. Its taste is svveetish. It is met with in
Florence, Bologna, and Modena. In Tuscany it is
called Polenta, a name which, in the north of Italy,
is applied to a paste of a similar consistence made
of the meal of Indian coni.

The kernels of the nuts of  the Pinus pinea are
commonly eaten in Florence, and used as a dessert
after dinner.

Different kinds of garden-stuffs, which in Britain
are only produced in summer, are to be had ali the
year round in Florence and other parts of Italy.
Flowers of ranunculus, violet, narcissus, hyacinth,
pink, and others, are sold commonly in the market
at this season—January.

In the hedges about Florence grow the Mespilus
pyracantha, box, the Laurus nobilis, Viburnum tinus,
called Laurus tinus, a kind of Smilax. The caper
bush, Capparis spinosa, grows in the crevices of the
walls of the town.

Near Pistoja, going up towards the hills, are the
following plants: Vinca minor, or perivvinkle ; Ulex
Europeus, furze or whin ; Spanish broom, Clematis
vitalba, Cistus Italicus, a foot in height, Heleborus
viridis,

The puhlic granary is a mass of masonry about
twenty feet high, and containing pits or cavities
vvhich have their aperture on the Hat top or platform
of the edifice. Each aperture is round, and of a
diameter sufficient to allovv a man to go into the pit.

n

larra-ltoase' bcJweea .Florence^ aiicL Tis boja.

G-rartory ob F Lorence. poge. 216 .

Kduiha'</7i Pulilieheil bv A. Constalle A Co.l82(J.

INLAID AGATE AND MOSAIC. 217

When the pit is filled with grain the aperture is
covered with a stone made to lit, and the top of the
building is so disposed that rain-water runs off and
does not get into the grain-pits. From the ground
to the platform there is an inclined plane with low
rounded steps (a scala cordonata) by which horses
carry the grain to the pits.

Inlaid Work in Agate.

At the 1500, that period when the arts were at
the highest in Italy since their revival, several artists
vvrought in agate and rock crystal; of these materials
they made cups and vases, many of which are seen in
one of the rooms of the gallery of Florence. They
also made cameos; and Vasari gives an account of
several of these artists and of their works.

At the same period the art of Tarsia or inlaying
in wood of different colours, so as to form the repre-
sentation of buildings in perspective, was practised
at Verona and in Florence, as Vasari mentions.

From a combination of the arts of ivorking agate
and rock crystal, and of inlaid work, is formed the
art of inlaid work in agate (lavoro di commesso, la-
voro d’intersecatura J now practised in Florence.

In this manufactory, carried on at the expence of
the Grand Duke, agates and other bard stones are
cut into various figures, so as to form, vvhen put to-
gether, a flat surface exhibiting a picture of shells,
flovvers, foliage, or other objects. This kind of pic-

218

STONES USED FOR INLAID W0RK.

ture differs essentially, and in many respects, from
Mosaic ; the pieces of agate have a considerable sur-
face, and are cut into the form of the outline of the
object, and the colour of each piece is not uniform
over its whole surface; vvhereas, in Mosaic, the pieces
of enamel are small and ali nearly of one form, most
frequently square on the surface, and each piece is
of one colour. Mosaic is suited to represent the
most finished pictures with many variations of tint
and shade. Inlaid agate is only fit for simple de-
signs, composed of outline and a few colours, with-
out a gradual passage from one colour to the other.

The stones chiefly employed are,—agates of a light
colour, for the enlightened parts, and darker colour-
ed agates for the shadows; sometimes tli e piece of
agate is light coloured in one part and dark colour-
ed on the rest of its surface, and is employed to re¬
present a body partly enlightened and partly in the
shade,—chalcedony and jasper of different colours,
—lapis lazuli, and other stones suitable by their co¬
lour, hardness, and polish. Antique red porphyry
is frequently employed for the ground of the tables.
Some stones of less hardness, but distinguished by
their fine colour and polish, are also used, such as
antique yellow marble, oriental alabaster, and others.
Likewise substances not of the mineral class, mother-
of-pearl shell, and red coral.

Formerly, pictures of buildings and human figures
were made in this way, such as a View of the Pan-

BOW AND WIRE FOR SLITTING AGATES. 219
theon,—a View of  the Tomb of Cecilia Metella,—
Sčulpture represented by a Sculptor at work on a
Statue of Apollo, &c. These pictures are about
two feet long. But tliis inlaid work is not capable
of the details of outline, nor the gradation of colour
requisite for these subjects, so that, after much la-
bour and expence, the effect of a pleasing imitatioii
is as far from being produced as in the most ordi-
nary and cheapest print.

But the subjects now chosen admit of a better
imitation in inlaid work. These subjects are shells,
corals, flowers, vases, and grotesque foliage. They
are generally disposed so as to form a table, and
produce a beautiful effect. A round table of this
kind, with grotesque foliage, is admired in one of
the rooms of the gallery ; and severa! fine tables,
ornamented with figures of shells and corals, are in
the Pitti Palače, and were in the gallery of Apollo
in the Louvre, during Bonaparte’s reign.

The agates and other stones are slit by a bow
with an iron wire and emery, into slices about an
eightli of an inch thick. This iron wire effects the
same purpose as the thin iron vvheel used by our
lapidaries. The slices are then polished, and after-
vvards they are cut by the wire into the form requi-
site for the design of which the piece makes a part.
The different pieces that form the picture of a shell
or other object, are put together and cemented on
a slab of sandstone half an inch thick, which forms

220 FLORENCE.-ENGRAVING IN THE XV. CENT.

a temporary base. When ali the ornaments of a
table are done, pieces of antique red porphyry, cut
into slices of the same thickness as the agates, are
so adjusted as to cover entirely the table which it
is proposed to form. Out of this ground of por-
phyry pieces are cut by the wire, and taken out,
exactly of the form of each picture or ornament.
The pictures are then taken off from their tempor-
ary base, and the porphyry ground being cement-
ed on a slab of sandstone of the size of the table, the
pictures or ornaments are cemented in the vacuities
of the ground. The cement used is a composition
of wax, turpentine, and resins.

Copperplate Engraving.

Vasari relates, that the first who took impressions
from an engraved plate of metal in Florence was
Maso (that is Tomaso) Finiguerra, a Florentine
goldsmith, who flourished about the year 1460. It
was the fashion at that time to have casquets and
silver boxes engraved with designs cut by the grav-
ing tool, and the engraved lines were aftervvards
filled up by running into them a melted sulfuret of
silver, called Niello, the composition of which is
given in the printed works of Benvenuto Cellini.
Maso took impressions in clay from the engraved
silver plate, and on the clay he čast melted sul-
phur; the lines on the sulphur he filled with
lamp black, and from these, on a moist paper,

BELLA BELLA.—R. MORGHEN.

221

rolled on a wooden cylinder, he took an impres-
sion. After this, Andrea Mantegna, about the
year 1490, had his own pictures engraved in Rome.
Albert Durer, excellent in his engravings both on
wood and copper, as well as in his paintings, flou-
rished in the year 1500, and his works were so much
in request, that Marc Antonio Rahnondi of Bolog¬
na counterfeited his engravings, and his mark, and
sold the counterfeits at Venice, for which Albert
Durer sought redress from the tribunals of that
city. *

In the seventeenth century, two natives of Flo¬
rence were celebrated as copperplate engravers, An¬
tonio Tempesta, knovvn by his engravings of hunt-
ing scenes and wild beasts, pupil of the painter,
Santi di Tito ; and Stefano Della Bella, who passed
part of his life in France, and engraved the Siege
of Arras, of Saint Omer, &c.; Della Bella also paint-
ed, and some of his pictures are in the Louvre gal-
lery.

Many fine engravings, after celebrated pictures,
have been executed in Florence of late years, by
that excellent engraver, Raphael Morghen, and his
pupils.

Alabaster Figures.

There are several studii,  or manufactories of

Vasari, Vita di Marc Antonio Bolognese.

222

FLORENCE.-CARRARA MARBLE,

small statues, and other ornaments, sculptured in
white gypseous alabaster. This alabaster is brought
from Volterra, and other parts of Tuscany. It is
more easily cut than Carrara marble. It is not got
in large blocks; the largest statues made of it are
about tvvo feet in height.

Carrara marble excels ali others that are at this
day quarried in Europe for the purpose of the sta-
tuary, by reason of the large sized blocks that can
be obtained. Those from vvhich Michael Angelo’s
David, and Bandinelli’s Hercules, in the Piazza del
Granduca, were made, vvere about twenty feet
high, by ten feet square. The Carrara marble is
also, for the most part, free from fissures, and from
veins of quartz, both of vvhich are hurtful to the
sculptor, although sometimes cavities occur in it fil-
led with quartz crystals, of a beautiful lustre and
transparence, vvhich are to be seen in many collec-
tions of minerals. Many antique Roman statues
are of marble from Carrara, anciently called Luni.
Tbe marble of vvhich the Greek statues are made
is from Paros, and from Mount Pentelicon near
Athens.

The gypseous alabaster does not endure so long
as marble, when exposed to the vveather ; the sul-
phate of lime, of vvhich it consists, being more
readily dissolved and corroded by the rain than the
carbonate of lime, vvhich constitutes marble. At
Leghorn, also, there is an establishment vvhere these
alabaster statues are sold.

12

castelfranco’s majolica.

223

Manufacture of Earfhemvare.

Pliny States, that Etruria was the first country
of Italy in which the art of making pottery was
practised, and that the art was aftervvards carried to
the greatest perfection there ; and Arezzo was par-
ticularly celebrated for this kind of manufacture.

The ancient Romans made much use of vessels
of earthenware, called amphorae, for keeping vvine ;
vvooden casks, however, were employed for trans-
porting wine, as appears from the waggons loaded
with casks represented on the column of Antoni-
nus. At Madrid, at this day, wine is kept in earthen
vessels, and not in casks. *

It is uncertain vvhether the antigue ancient earth¬
en vases, painted with mythological subjects, were
made in Etruria ; most of them have been found in
the kingdom of Naples, and in Sicily, as before
mentioned, when speaking of the gallery. After
the revival of the arts in Europe, several ingenious
artists, in different countries, ameliorated the manu¬
facture. Castelfranco, at Faenza, in the beginning
of the sixteenth century, manufactured the Majo¬
lica, or earthenvvare, decorated with designs after
Raphael and Julio Romano, specimens of  which
are preserved in many collections. In France,

* See a paper of Percy, member of the Institute of France,
publislied about 1SOQ,

224 SAXON PORCELAIN.

Bernard de Palissy, versed in the Chemical knovv-
ledge of his time, improved the art of making Fa-
yence. Bottcher, an apothecary at Dresden, pro-
duced two or three kinds of pottery, one of which
is of a brovvnish red colour, semivitrified, and so
hard as to receive a polish on the lapidary’s vvheel,
and in that way to acquire the lustre of glazed earth-
envvare ; cups, and other vessels of this singular
earthenvvare, are seen in the Japan Palače at Dres¬
den. In 1709, * Bottcher first composed the vvhite
porcelain in imitation of the Chinese, vvhich is now
made at the King of Saxony’s manufactory at Meis-
sen. Other manufactories of porcelain of a semi¬
vitrified body, like the Chinese, have been establish-
ed at Sevres, Pariš, Berlin, Vienna, Naples, Flo¬
rence, Vicenza, in Staffbrdshire, Worcester, &c.

The decomposed Avhite granite of Limoges, of
which the French porcelain is made, and the de¬
composed vvhite granite of Cormvall, vvere found to
be similai’ to the materials used in making porcelain
in China, so that, with this material, the Europeans
have been able to form a porcelain in imitation of
the Chinese, and having the same semivitrified body.
The most considerable manufactory of this kind of
porcelain is the manufactory at Sevres, near Pariš,
vvhich belongs to the French goverliment.

* Engelhardt, Erdbeschreibung von Sacbsen.

luca della robbia’s earthen figures.  225

Wedgewood, and other Staffordshire manufactur-
ers, have produced the English stone-ware, made of
white pipe-clay, much lighter and better glazed than
the Delft, Fayence, and Majdiča. These three
kinds of pottery resemble each other; they are
thick and heavy, and composed of a clay which burns
to a yellow, or light red colour ; they are stili in
use in many parts of Europe. The manufacture of
English stonevvare is now introduced into several
places of France and Italy.

Amongst those who have distinguished themselves
in the manufactory of earthenware, is Luca della
Robbia, a Florentine goldsmith and statuary, born
in 1388. He made heads and human figures in re¬
lief, and architectural ornaments of glazed earthen-
ware, terra cotta invetriata.  These figures were
employed in the decoration of buildings, and many
of them, the works of the Della Robbias, are seen
in the churches of Florence to this day. They are
in a good style of sculpture, the colours of the glaz-
ing are white, blue, green, brovvn, and yellow. The
art of making these glazed earthen figures invented
by Luca, was taught by him to his brothers Otta-
viano and Agostino, and was afterwards practised by
his nephevv Andrea ; but the family and the art be-
came extinct in Florence about the year 1560. *

* See Vasari, Vita di Luca della Robbia.

P

226

PORCELAIN.-LARGE OIL JARŠ.

Other artists in unglazed terra cotta were, An-
drea da Sansovino, master of the celebrated sculptor
and architect Jacopo Sansovino j Antonio Begarelli,
of Modena, who died in 1565, and whose vvofks
were highly praised by Buonaroti, as Vasari relates
in his Life of Buonaroti.

Stoneware, after the Staffbrdshire manner, and
porcelain, of a pretty good quality, are made at
Doccia, near Florence, at the manufactory of the
Marquis Ginori. The porcelain earth is not got
in the country, but imported from Vicenza. This
manufactory of porcelain has been estaolished up-
vvards of fifty years.

Large vessels of red earthenware are made at
Florence and in other parts of Tuscany fot holding
oil and other purposes ; some of them are four feet
high. They are not made on the potter’s vvheel,
but are formed of rolls of clay, built lip one over the
other, round a cohical form of wood. The large oil
jars are contracted at the mouth, and are made in
two pieces, which are joined vvhilst the clay is wet.
Large earthen jars of thiš kind are also made at
Rome; and in Spain they are made, and used at
Madrid for holding vvine in plače of vvooden casks.

Glass Manufaciory.

At a small glasshouse in Florence, the flasks for
wine and oil, knovvn in England by the name of
Florence flasks, are made, and other vessels of thin

12

FLORENCE.—MANUFACTURES. 2'27’

glass. There are glasshouses also in Bologna and
Rome for making the thin wine decanters, and other
vessels commonly used in Italy. Some stronger
vessels of vvhite glass are imported from Bohemia.

Silk and Woollen Manufactory,

A considerable quantity of  silk is grown in Tus-
eany; and flovvered silks, like those of Lyons, are
manufactured at Florence. The apartments of the
Palazzo Pitti are hung vvith these Florentine silks,
the floors are covered vvith carpets made at Florence.
There are also manufactories of coarse vvoollen cloth
in the city, and several high open edifices are seen
in the town, called Tiratoii,  for exposing the cloth
on tenters. Fonnerly the vvoollen manufactory was
one of the principal branches of trade of the plače.

Essences.

Essence of orange flovvers, and other vegetable
essential oils, are obtained by distillation in Flo¬
rence, and are exported from Leghorn to Britain,
and the north of Europe ; as are also the preserved
citrons, plums, &c. made at Florence. A particular
mixture of preserved fruit bears the name of Mos-
tarda de Frutti.

Stra-do Plailing.

The Tuscan stravv hats are superior to those of
any other countrv in Europe, and the plaiting of

228

FLORENCE,

stravv for hats occupies the countrywomen and girls
in the neighbourhood of Florence. They have
stravv assorted into many different kinds, according
to its fineness, the one kind gradually more slender
than the preceding. The wheat for producing this
stravv is sown in March, and is cut before the grain
is ripe.

Coins.

In 1252 was first coined in Florence the Gigliato,
a money so called from the figure of the lily, the
arms of Florence, with vvhich it vvas stamped. The
Fiorino also derives its name from the flower im-
pressed on it.

The coins most common in circulation in Florence
are, The Scudo  or Francescone of sil ver equal to 10
paoli value in English money, about 53~ pence. The
half scudo of sil ver equal to 5 paoli. A coin of sil-
ver of 2 paoli. The paolo,  a silver coin, its current
value in English money is 5-^j- pence. The craz-
zla,  a small and very thin coin of copper, mixed
with a little silver, equal to 4 of a paolo, and its
current value in English money is of  a penny.

Hospitals.

The hospital of Santa Maria Nuova for the recep-
tion and treatment of sick is large, containing 600
beds for male, and600 forfemale patients, and appears
to be kept in good order. The beds, of vvhich there

HOSPITAL NUNS.

229

is one for each patient, are disposed in long and
spacious rooms, in two rows, one row on eačh side
of the room; these rooms are on the principal floor,
and have no floor above them. The hospitals at
Rome are built in a similar way. The sick are
vvaited on by nuns, a custom vvhich prevails also in
the hospitals in France, where the Soeurs hospita-
lieres  did before and during the revolution, and stili
continue to perform the duty of vvaiting on the sick.
They even assisted in the ambulatory hospitals of the
army, and during the vvar in France in 1814, the
Soeur Marthe was so distinguished by her activity
and škili in the čare of the vvounded, that she at-
tracted the notice of the allied sovereigns, and vvas
presented vvith the decorations of their orders.
There are also friars who wait on the male patients in
the hospitals at Florence. Attached to the hospital
of Santa Maria Nova is a school of medicine, and a
small botanic garden. The sick or vvounded are
carried to the hospital by the members of the
charitable company or fraternity delta misericordia,
who are inhabitants of Florence of the class of
tradesmen, and voluntarily perform this office.
Whilst on duty they are covered, so that they can-
not be knovvn, having a black cloak and hood, vvhich
covers the face vvith tvvo holes left for the eyes. *

* The confraternities for charitable pufposes in Italy bad

230

FLORENCE.—VVALLS 01’ THE TOVVN.

Another large hospital is that of Bonifazio. It
is allotted for the reception of patients affected vvith
chronic diseases.

The hospital degl’ Innocenti is for the reception of
children that are exposed.

There is a vvorkhouse in Florence, to vvhich ali
individuals found begging within the city are trans-
ferred,—an institution introduced by Bonaparte,
vvho also suppressed public street-begging in Pariš.
Prostitutes are not allovved to appear in the streets
in the evening ;-a regulation vvhich is also enforced
m Home, Bologna, and other tovvns of the Pope’s
territory.

Florence is surrounded by a vvall, vvith square
tovvers, in the old manner of fortification, vvhich
vvas sufficient before the use of cannon. In the
circuit of the vvall there are tvvo forts, vvith pen-
tagonal bastions in the more recent style. One of
them, the fortezza di Belvedere, constructed in
1500, under the direction of the architect Buonta-

their origin in the niiddle ages, and resembled in some degree
the Sodalitates of the ancient Romana, such as the Fratre«
Arvales, the Septemviri Epulonum, and others. The confra-
ternities were very numerous in Italy before the last invasion
of the French, there was, at least, one in every town, and
scveral stili exist. Each confraternity assenibles in a par-
ticular church.

The Scuole Grandi in Venice, vvhich were amongst the
most considerable of the confraternities in Italy, originated in

\o aVml?; ...

.■v.'. ■> ■ ■ ■. . ■•. "•' - .. 5:



«

XII

[Page 231, Vol. I.]

Pavement of the Streets of Florence.

Vertical Transverse Section.

Horizontal Plan.

Breadth of the Street.

10 15 feet.

I)rawn ly W. A. C.

Etched lry Lizars.

STREET PAVEMENT.

■

2^1
lenti, is situated on the elevated ground to the left
of the Arno, near the Boboli garden ; the other,
the Castello San Giovanni, is a pentagon on the
nojthern part of the wall.

The streets are rather sparingly lighted at iiight,
the lamps being too distant, about 500 feet from
each other.

The pavement of the streets, which was begun in
1250, by the architect Lapo di Colle and his son,
is formed of a stratified stone pf a secondary forma-
tion, somevvhat of the nature of sandstone, caHed
pietra forte, and from its grey and bluish colour,
pietra bigia, pietra turchina. These different names
are applied to different strata of this kind of stone,
according to their colour and other qualities. The
building stone of Florence is from the same quar-
ries. The stones employed in paving the streets,
when taken from the quarry, are nine inches or a
foot in thickness; the upper and under surfaces
plane and nearly parallel. They are irregular po-
lygonal prisms. The upper surface of each is equal

the tivelfth century. The word schola was used by the ancient
Ilomans to denote a Corporation of tradesmen, as was also the
word universitas, and the membersvvere called scholares. From
this application of the word schola, it čarne afterrvards to de¬
note the societies for works of mercy at Venice. See Mura-
tori Antiquitates Italicae medii aevi, dissertatio 75, de piis laico-
rum confraternitatibus.

232 FLORENTINE WRITTEN LANGUAGE.

to tvvo or three square feet. In order to form the
pavement, these stones are laid in mortar; and af-
tei' they are laid, the surfaces of the different stones
are hewn into one plane by the chisel. Lines are
also drove with the chisel, to rendei’ the surface less
slippery for horses. When a nevv stone is to be put
in, the vvorn-out stone being taken out, the edges
of the adjoining stones are cut, so as to give the
opening the form of the nevv stone that is to be in-
serted. The pavement of Florence is kept in good
repair. The pavement of Pistoja and other towns
of Tuscany, that are within reach of quarries of this
kind of stone, is similar; as is also the pavement of
Trieste, in the neighbourhood of vvhich strata of
this stone occur.

The Italian used by good vvriters, and in the con-
versation of the better classes, is called by Dante
Volgare Illustre. *’

This book and conversation language vvas found-
ed upon the Tuscan dialect, because the principal
authors, at the revival of letters, Dante, Petrarch,
and Bocaccio, were natives of Florence. After

* See Dante de Vulgari Eloquio, Pari«, 1572, a vvork in
vvhich the author enumerates fourteen different dialects of
Italian, which are very much altered by political changes and
other causes since his time. Some of them have become less
coarse. The Neapolitan is the least changed. Fontanini
della Eloquenza Volgare, is a commentary on Dante. Ven.
1737. See also Adelung’s Mithridates.

6

FLORENTINE DIALECT.

233

Dante’s time, therefore, it vvas called Tuscan, lin-
gua Toscana or Fiorentina.

The great reputation of the vvritings of these
three authors occasioned their language to be ge-
nerally adopted, and in particular the extensive cir-
culation of the Decameron, or Tales of Bocaccio, of
which Mazuchelli enumerates ninety-seven Italian
editions.

The reputation of the Florentine vvritten language
was fixed by the flourishing State of Florence under
the Medici family.

The Florentines have shewn much jealousy in re-
spect to the origin of the Italian vvritten language;
and, in 1717? Girolamo Gigli, who called in ques-
tion the claims of Florence, and asserted those of
his native city of Siena, was condemned to have his
work, Vocabolario delle Opere di Santa Caterina
de Siena e della lingua Sanese, publicly burnt, him-
self expelled from the Academia della Crusca, and
banished, at the request of the Archduke, forty
miles from Rome.

The pronunciation of Italian in Florence is pecu-
liar. The c is pronounced like the German ch, in
the vvord bach. Cavallo is pronounced havallo ;

časa is pronounced hasa.

The Tancia, a comedy by Michael Angelo Buo-

naroti, nephevv of the great

artist Buonaroti, is

vvritten in the language of the common people of

Florence and the vicinity.

234 ACADEMIE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURV.

Benvenuto Cellini’s life contains many peculiar
words and phrases, and is considered by Adelung as
an example of the provincial dialect of Florence in
the beginning of the sixteenth century.

In the fifteenth, but chiefly in the sixteenth cen-
tury, the societies called Academie were frequent
in different towns of Italy. The greatest number
were meetings held periodically, at which the mem-
bers read verses of their composition, discourses and
essays on literary subjects, and held literary conver-
sation; some collections of these verses are pub-
lished, and lives of the eminent members, as
those of the Arcadi of Rome. * Some were insti-
tuted for promoting mušic, painting, architecture,
and other arts and exercises. The Academia della
Virtu was instituted at Rome in the sixteenth cen-
tury, by Claudio Tolomeo, a poet and man of let-
ters, for the purpose of illustrating the vvritings of
Vitruvius. The Academia de’ Lincei, at Rome,
was foi' the study of natural history. The Acade¬
mia de’ Filarmonici, at Verona, for mušic. The
Academia Olimpica, at Vicenza, for theatrical re-
presentations. The Academia della Cavalerizza of
Vicenza for riding. Some academie attended to na¬
tural philosophy, as the Academia del Cimento, at
Florence, in the seventeenth century. The Aca-

£---

* Vite clegli Arcadi Illustri.

ACADEMIE.

235

demia della Crusca of Florence vvas employed in the
Italian language in the sixteenth century.

Many of these academie  vvere very inconsider-
able. The names they adopted are singular, and
often not in praise of the academy. There vvere in
different tovvns of Italy, the Academia degli Infiam-
mati, de’ Transformati of Milan in the sixteenth
century, de’ Costanti, degli Occulti, degli Intrepidi,
degli Affidati of Pavia in the sixteenth century,
degli Insensati of Pistoja, and a multitude of others.*
The name of the academy vvas connected vvith a de¬
vice and motto, (impresa.) That of the Academia
degli Incogniti of Turin had for its device a picture,
covered vvith a green veil, vvith the inscription, Pro-
feret aetas. The Academia della Crusca of Florence,
the picture of a bolting machine, vvhich separates
the fine flour from the bran, the vvord crusca signi-
fying bran. In the sixteenth century, devices vvere
much in fashion also for individuals ; and every per-
son that thought himself of some note, and above the
vulgar, had a device and motto.

One of Goldoni’s comedies contains a lively and
humorous representation of the academie  for read-
ing verses. The vvord academia is often used in
Italy to denote an evening party for the purpose of
conversation. Academia di mušica is a concert.

About the middle of the sixteenth century, three

* See Tiraboscbi st. deli, lett. Ital.

236 FLORENCE.—THEATRES«

academie,  or societies, vvere formed at Florence for
the encouragement of theatrical representations, the
Academia degli Infocati, degli Immobili, and de’
Sorgenti. Each had a theatre, and each strove to
excel. Some of the theatres novv in Florence be-
long to societies, called Academie, who let them out
to companies of comedians.

Dramas in mušic, vvith recitative, (called 11 cantar
recitativo, il cantar senza cantar,) came into use in
Italy at the end of the sixteenth century. Giulio
Caccini vvas the inventor of recitative, and composed
the mušic for the first musical dramas. The vvords
were vvritten by Rinuccini; and his Eurydice vvas
represented at Florence in 1600, at the celebration
of the nuptials of Mary de’ Medici with Henry IV.
of France.*

During the Carnival, vvhich vvas this year (1818)
from the Ist of January to the Ist of February, its
duration depending on the time that Easter hap-
pens, there vvere in Florence representations almost
every evening in seven different theatres. These
vvere the Pergola theatre, vvhere musical operas are
performed; three or four theatres, vvhere comedies
of Goldoni and others, and tragedies of Alfieri vvere
acted; the rest, in vvhich plays vvere performed, and
farces interspersed vvith songs, cantilene di trivia,
vvere lesser theatres, vvith inferior performers, and

* See Tiraboschi st. del!, lett. Ital.

MASKS.—INNS.

237

the priče of admission small. None of ali tliese
theatres is very remarkable for the size or beauty of
the house. At other times, out of the Carnival,
performances are exhibited on two only of the
theatres.

During the Carnival, there were public masked
balls in a room adjoining to the Pergola theatre ;
and masks walked the quay by the side of the river,
called Lung d’Arno, some time before sunset. It
is mostly women that are masked ; the better sort
dressed in black dominos, others as contadine, mon-
tagnare,  country girls, inhabitants of the mountains,
as pazze  or romps ; some of the common people are
as harlequins, &c.

There are many inns and hotels of various mag-
nitudes for the accommodation of travellers in Flo¬
rence. Schneider’s is the most noted, being a
large handsome house, on the left bank of the Arno,
with an establishment on a great scale.

CHAPTER V.

The (Micine.—Poggio Imperiale.— Fiesole.— Pistoja —Iron
Forge.—Florence to Piša Piša Leghorn. —Florence to
Rome l>y Perugia—Val di Chiana—Agriculture—Arez-
zo.— Trasimene Lake.— Perugia. —Earlij printed Books.—
Foligno—Cliiumnus.—Epoleto.—Cascade of Terni.—Nar-
ni.—Countrp ncar Rome.—Ponte Molle.

On  the right side of the Arno, a little below the
city, are the Cascine, * an extensive piece of ground,
laid out partly as a wood, and partly in pasture,
vvith a casino of the Grand Duke’s, built in 1787,
in the wings of vvhich are dairy rooms, and houses
ivhere milch cows are kept. This ground is the puh¬
lic vvalk of Florence, and contains a spacious way
betvveen trees, used as a drive for carriages.

On an eminence, a mile vvithout the gate called
Porta Romana, is situated a palače with a handsome
front, belonging to the Grand Duke, and called the



* Cascina signifies a field. or a dairy farm, where cows are
ted, for the purpose of making cheese; the word is derived
from Cacio, cheese.

POGGIO IMPER,—GLAZED EARTHEN STATVE. 239

Poggio * Imperiale. The ascent to the palače from.
the Porta Romana is by an avenue, planted with
cypresses and evergreen oaks. In the garden is a
statue of a Wounded Adonis, by Buonaroti.

Fiesole.

Fiesole is a village three miles from Florence,
upon a bili which is part of a ridge composed of
dark coloured sandstone, in secondary strata. Fiesole
is elevated perhaps 600 or 700 feet above Florence.
The vvhole way is an ascent, and passes amongst
villages and farms with olive plantations. Pliny,
in his Natural History, speaks of the Florentines,
Prasfluenti Arno adpositi, but there are no re-
mains of ancient Roman buildings at Florence.
Some inconsiderable remains of Roman buildings
are to be seen at Fiesole, which is named in Pliny
Fesulae.

The cathedral was built in 1028. The nave is
separated from the aisles by columns with Corin-
thian capitals, supporting round arches. In the
church is a seated statue of Saint Romulus, the
size of life, in glazed earthenvvare, (terra invetriata,)
made about 1560, by Luca della Robbia, or his ne-
phevvs.

• The word Poggio signifies a hill, and iš of the same ori-
gin as the old French word Puy, in Latin Podium, vvhich oc-
curs in the name of the mountain Puv de Dome in Auvergne,
Puy en Velay, and others.

240 VIEW FROM FIESOLE.—MONKS.

From the Monastery of the Franciscans, situated
on the highest part of the eminence, there is an ex-
tensive view of the country to the west, through which
the Arno runs ; Florence is seen below, and Pistoja
is perceived in the distance ; to the north, to the east,
and to the south, the view is composed of mountains.
This monastery is occupied by monks of a mendicant
order, and, in different places of Tuscany and the
Pope’s territory, communities of mendicant monks
begin to re-establish themselves, living on the alms
they collect. A Franciscan is frequently seen on
the road followed by a horse to carry the bread,
grain, and other articles he obtains from the devo-
tion of the farmers. The monastic societies of wo-
men and men engaged in the čare of the sick, and
the Scuole Pie,  at Florence, a society employed in
the education of youth, were found to be useful,
and therefore have subsisted amidst the general sup-
pression. The Jesuits are reinstated, and have a
college foi' the purposes of education at Kome.
Most of the other orders vvho subsisted vvithout di-
rect and daily begging, have not yet been able to
collect funds for their re-establishment.

Florence to Pistoja.

The road from Florence to Pistoja passes through
a plain and highly cultivated country, four to six
miles in breadth. Tli e hills vvhich confine this val-
ley of the Arno are mostly bare of wood, and rocky,

MULBERRV TREES.—ARUNDO DONAX. £41
vvith snovv on the highest parts of those to the north,
novv, on the 14th January 1818. Olive trees are
planted on the lovver part of the rising grounds.

Every foot of the plain is carefully cultivated.
The fields are planted vvith the vvhite mulberry tree,
called in Tuscany Gelso,  the leaves of which are
brought to market in the spring, and sold to those
vvho rear silk-vvorms. The ground under the trees
is occupied by vvheat, novv green, and sovvn on nar-
rovv ridges about eighteen inches broad, with deep
furrovvs betvveen the ridges. A good deal of flax
is grovvn here, and is novv, at this season, six inches
high. Poplar, and other pollard trees, vvith vines
trained on them, are planted on the edges of the
fields, and formed into an espalier vvith reeds. The
Arundo donax, a strong reed, eight feet high, is
cultivated for the purpose of forming these espaliers,
and for making pales for fences.

The fields are separated by ditches of running
vvater, vvhich are derived from torrents flovving from
the mountains. These torrents are embanked on
each side, to prevent their overflovving. The gra-
velly bed of the torrent is most frequently higher
than the adjacent country.

The fields are generally dug vvith a spade, and
not ploughed. Great attention is paid to the col-
lecting of manure, in consequence of which, the
streets of Florence are kept very clean. The dung

Q

242

IKON FORGES.

and dead leaves are carefully collected from the
high roads.

The road from Florence to Pistoja is well made
with river gravel, and kept in good order.

Pistoja.

Pistoja is a neat town, with some of the churches
built on the model of those at Florence, amongst
others a baptisterium, built in 1337 by Andrea Pi¬
sano, * like that of Florence and Piša. In like man-
ner in Padna, Pirano, and other towns situated in the
territory which formerly belonged to the Venetian
republic, the churches and towers are copied from
the buildings of the same description in Venice.

Amongst the hills three miles from Pistoja are
forges where iron is made into bars. The iron is
brought in blooms, or irregularly shaped masses, pos-
sessing an imperfect State of malleability, from fur-
naces situated in the Maremma, a district on the
sea-coast near the island of Elba, and the furnaces
are supplied with ore from the famous mine in that
island. + In the Maremma of Siena also there is

* Vasari Vit. di Andrea Pisano.

-j- The island of Elba is mentioned by Pliny, Ilist. Nat.
lib. iii. 12. “ Ilva cum ferri metallis ... a Graecis TEthalia
dieta,” The works supplied with Elba ore and those at Bre¬
scia are the principal manufaetories of iron in Italy Mineš
of other metals are rare in Italy, although Pliny thinks it for
the honour of the country to say that they exist, but the
Senate, with a view of sparing the ground of Italy, would not

WIRE-MILL.

243

a vem which contains iron, copper, and galena, si-
tuated between the limestone and the shist; the
copper was smelted and silver extracted from the
galena in I76O. Sulphuret of antimony occurs in
the same district. * *

A mile nearer to Pistoja is an establishment where
rods made at the forge are drawn out into iron-wire.
The machinery is put in motion by the impulsion of
water upon small wheels four or five feet in diameter.
The motic-n thus produced is rapid, and does not re-
quire to be accelerated and transferred to another
axis by toothed wheels, but the power of the vvateris
mudi more completely obtained by an overshot vvheel,
as Smeaton bas proved. Wire of various sizes is ma-
nufactured. After the wire has been drawn it is hard,
and,inordertorecover its flexibility, it must be heated
and suffered to cool gradually. For this process of
annealing large cast-iron vessels are employed, four
feet high, in form of a truncated cone with the base
uppermost. The wire is put into the vessels, which
are then covered and luted tight. The vessel is sur-
rounded by a brick wall at some distance from its
sides, and burning charcoal is put between the vessel
and the wall. These cast-iron vessels are made at the

allow the mineš to be worked, “ metallorum omnium fertili-
tate nullis cedit terris Italia. Sed interdictum id vetere con-
sulto patrom, Italije parci jubentium.” Hist. Nat. lib. iii. 24.

* Ferbers Letters.

244

PAPER MILL.—PINUS PINEA.

furnaces in the Maremma, and they are almost tlie
only articles of cast-iron I observed in Tuscany.

The vvater coming from the hills near Pistoja is
also emploved in vvorking a paper manufactory. A
small vvater-vvheel, three or four feet in diameter,
puts in motion vvooden hammers to reduce the mois-
tened rags into pulp, a mode vvhich is stili used
either solely or partially in Bohemia and some other
parts of Europe, although it has been abandoned
many years ago in Britain, and has given plače to
the engine in vvhich the moistened rags are convert-
ed into pulp by passing betvveen tvvo sharp edges of
steel, the one of vvhich is fixed on a revolving cy-
linder.

Florence to Piša.

The road from Florence to Piša and Leghorn
passes, after leaving Florence, through a cultivated
country on the left of the Arno, and then over sandy
hills, on vvhich trees of the Pinus pinea are dissemi-
nated. The large cones of this pine are in form like
a pine apple, and contain kernels inclosed in a hard
shell; these kernels are agreeable to the taste, and
are much eaten in Tuscany. The Pinus pinaster is
also indigenous in Tuscany.

At Montelupo there is a palače and preserve be-
longing to the Grand Duke. The preserve for
hares, partridges, and other game, consists of fifty
or sixty acres of vvood-land inclosed by a vvall. There
are vvild boars in the country, near the sea-coast.

When there is a sufficient quantity of vvater to

OCTAGONAL CHURCH AT PIŠA.

245

tover the gravel banks and shallovvs in the Arno,
the traveller may come by vvater from Florence to
Piša. The boats, loaded with merchandize, descend
at a good rate.

Piša.

Piša is built like Florence. Through the middle
of the city flows the Arno, embanked with Stone
quays and a broad Street on each side. The river
is larger than at Florence, and has several bridges
over it.

Some of the public buildings also are constructed
in the manner of those in the Capital of Tuscany.
The church of Saint John, or Baptisterium, re-
sembles in form the octagonal church of St John
the Baptist at Florence in its form and situation,
near the portal of the cathedral.* It is less spacious,

* Of the ancient churches of a round or octagonal form,
some of vvhich were constructed for baptistu, are,—the church
ef Santa Constanza at Rome, built in the time of Constantine;
the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, near Nocera, accord-
ing to the view in Cameron’s Ancient Badis, is quite like
Santa Constanza in form and size; San Stefano rotonda at
Rome, said to be built by Saint Simplicius, resembles Santa
Constantia in the general form, but is mucli larger ; the Bap-
tistery of San Giovanni, in fonte, near the Lateran Basilic at
Rome. Differing from these in architecture, and resembling
each other, are the churches of Saint John the Baptist at
Florence, Piša, and Pistoja; the octagonal round arched Bap-
tistery at Cremona, of which tbere is a vievv in Grtevii, Ihes.

246 PIŠA.—CATHEDRAL.—ČAMPO SANTO.

the interior is decorated with tvvo large columns of
reddish granite, about thirty feet high, said to be of
Elba granite, and with a pulpit of marble sculptur-
ed in relief; on the Baptisterium is inscribed the
year of its foundation, 1163.* *

The Cathedral, a fine old building with round
arches, is constructed of marble. It was built, as
Vasari relates, in 1016, by Buschetto, a Greek
architect. t The nave is separated from the aisles
by fifty or sixty large columns of greyish coloured
granite. Some of them are said to be from Elba
and Sardinia; they are surmounted by Corinthian
capitals. At the principal portal are three large
bronze doors, with sculptures in relief, by Giovanni
Bologna.

The Čampo Santo,  or burying-ground, is a rec-

Antiquitatum, Ital. Tom. III. There is a small ancient Bap-
tistery at Ravenna. The round building called Theodoric’s
tomb, at Ravenna, seems to belong to another class. The
round church of the Temple in London, of pointed-arched ar-
chitecture, and the round church at Cambridge, differ from
the Tuscan Baptisteries in the disposition of their parts. The
round form of the ancient Roman fabrics, the Pantheon, and
the small temple of Vesta at Rome, existed before they were
used as churches.

* Vasari says it was built in 1060, which does not agree
witb the inscription on the building—Vasari Vite de Pitt. proe.
mio delle Vite, p. 74.

+ Vasar. Vit. proem. p. 73.

6

PICTURES IN FRESCO. 247

kangle surrounded by a spacious corridor or portico,
the interior wall of which is perforated by round
arched windows, ornamented with pointed-arclied
ribs. The length is 383 English feet, the breadth
127. This structure was built in the year 1200, by
the architect Giovanni Pisano. Under the portico
are many sarcophagi and inscribed tomb-stones of
the ancient Roman times and of the middle ages.
A large antique vase of white marble, in relief, with
figures of bacchanals, approaches in size to the Me ■
dici vase. Amongst the tombs of modern times is
a monument in memory of Algarotti, erected by
Frederick II. King of Prussia. *

The fresco pictures on the wall of the portico
are the works of Giotto, and of his pupils Benozzo
Gozzoli, and Rondinelli. On another part of the
wall is a picture by Andrevv and Simon Orcag-
na, pupils of Giotto, + representing the infernal re-

* In the inscription, Frederick styles Algarotti the rival of
Ovid, and the disciple of Newton ;

Algarotti Ovidii oemulo, Netoloni discipulo Frcdericus.

Algarotti was born at Venice, and died at Piša in 1 765.  Fre¬
derick erected a monument over the tomb of another of his
literary friends, the Marquis D’Argens et Aix. Ile even
testified his remembrance of his favourite dogs by a monu¬
ment, and in front of the Sans Souci palače at Potsdam,
eleven tomb-stones are seen, cach inscribed vvith the name of
the dog that lies under it.

t Giotto died in 1336,  Andretv Orcagna died about 1360,
at the age of 70. See Vasari Vitte de’ Pittori.

Q4§

PIŠA.—INCLINED TOVVEIl.—VIEW.

gions and the last judgment, vvith figures lying on
the ground and breathing out their souls, which
have a human form. In a chapel, at one end of the
gallery, are kept some old pictures of a smaller size.
A virgin by Cimabue, and a picture by Giovanni
Pisano, the master of Cimabue.

The inclined or hanging tovver is constructed of
large squared blocks of a compact marble, which is
vvell adapted for building, and brought from the
quarries of Mount Saint Julian near Piša. The
outside is formed by several stories of round arched
open galleries. A stair three feet wide, formed in
the thickness of the vvall, leads to each of the galle¬
ries and to the top. The ground at Piša is alluvial
and insecure for foundations, vvhich require to be
laid on piles or upon arches, the piers of vvhich are
founded on piles, as Vasari * mentions. The founda¬
tions of this tower, it appears, vvere not sufficiently
solid, so that they šunk on one side, and gave the
building the inclined position it now has. The
sinking has taken plače vvithout producing any con-
siderable fissure in the vvalls. The deviation from
the perpendicular is sixteen feet on the outside,
and tvvelve feet vvithin.

The fine and extensive vievv from the top of the
tovver comprehends the plain to the vvest, vvith the

* Visari Vite de’ Pitt,

ANCIENT STATE.—UNIVERSITV. 249

Arno running through it, and beyond that the sea
and the small rocky island of Meloria. To the
north, mountains, the nearest of vvhich are free from
snow, but the more distant and higher are covered
with snow at this season, on the 27th of January
1818.

The ancient city of Piša vvas founded by a Greek
colony, according to Pliny. Piša, in the middle
ages, became a povverful republic, possessed of an ex-
tensive trade, and the rival of Genoa. But in 1298
the fleet of the Pisans vvas destroyed by the Geno-
ese, and the republic of Piša never recovered from
this calamity.

In the vvars betvveen the Florentines and Pisans
in 1862, the Pisan troops were commanded by an
English leader, John Aucud, (perhaps Havvkvvood,)
as Villani relates. The Florentines at last got pos-
session of Piša in 1406, by the treason of Gamba-
corta, the captain-general of the Pisans.

The remains of ancient Roman baths at Piša are
described by Montfaucon and others. The natura!
warm baths now in use are at a short distance from
Piša.

Piša in 1406 came into the possession of the
Florentines, vvho for some time encouraged the
schools at Florence, and allowed the university of
Piša to languish, but in 1472 they re-established
the university of Piša, and Lorenzo de’ Medici, then
at the head of affairs in Florence, vvas one of the

250

TORICELLI.—MAL PIGHI.

chief promoters of this new Foundation. The uni-
versity suffered. again from wa.r and pestilence, and
vvas revived by Cosmo I. Grand Duke of Tuscany,
in 1543. In the seventeenth century the university
vvas protected and encouraged by Cosmo II., Fer¬
dinand II., and Cosmo III.

Amongst the professors at Piša in the seventeenth
century vvas the great Galileo, and the eminent
names of Viviani, Toricelli, * Redi, t Malpighi,

* Toricelli  ivas born at Faenza in 1608, and died in 1647,
at the age of 39. He studied at Rome under Father Castelli,
and lived in the house with Galileo at Arcetri, for a few
raontlis before the death of Galileo. He vvas then appointed
mathematician to the Grand Duke. His most celebrated dis-
covery is the barometer ; and he vvas the first vvbo shewed
tbat the cause of the rise of the liguid in a pump, and of the
height at vvhich the mercury stands in the barometer, is the
pressure of the column of external air reaching to the top of
the atmosphere, and that this column of air is an exact coun-
terpoise to the column of fluid in the tube, and, therefore,
the column of mercury, a dense liguid, is shorter than the
column of vvater, a rarer liguid, the heights being inversely as
the densities. He also discovered the quadrature of the cy-
cloid.

j- Redi,  a native of Arezzo, died in 1694. He published Ob-
servations on Insects, on the Venom of the Viper, and other
vvorks.

Malpighi  vvas born near Bologna in 1628, and died 1694,
aged 66- He vvas professor of the theory of medicine at
Piša, and aftervvards at Messina, and at Bologna. Three
vears before his death he vvas appointed physician to Inno-

BORELLI.-CASTELLI.

2.51

Borelli, * * Castelli. t Some foreign professors were
employed at Piša in the seventeenth century,
amongst whom are mentioned Thomas Dempster,
Finch the English anatomist, the Dutch professor
Gronovius.

cent XII. A monument was erected over his tomb in the
church of Saint Gregory at Bologna. He published his Ana-
tomical and Microscopica] Observations on the Lungs, the
Spleen, the Gravid Uterus, &c. A treatise on Silk Worms ;
Observations on the Anatomy of Plants. Like to the Dutch
anatomist Ruysch, he employed the microscope in ali his re-
searches.

* Alfonza Borelli  was born at Naples in 1608, and died in
1679. He was professor at Piša for eleven years, and was pa-
tronized at Rome by Cristina, Queen of Stveden, and to gain
favour vvith her he incurred the blame of vvriting in defence
of judicial astrolog} 7 . His most celebrated work is that en-
titled de Motu Animalium, in which he explains the mo-
tion of the limbs upon mathematical principles. See Mazzu-
chelli Scritt. Ital.; and Vitee Ital, doctrin. excell. by Angiolo
Fabroni.

f Castelli  was born at Brescia in 1505, and died in 1644.
He was a Benedictine, and was professor of matbematics at
Piša, froin 1615 to 1625, and afterivards in the Sapienza at
Rome. He was the pupil and friend of Galileo, and the
first accurate writer on the measure of the quantity of wa-
ter in a running stream. His most celebrated tvorks are La
Misura delle acque correnti, and Le Dimostrazioni Geome-
triche della Misura delle acque correnti, published in the
Racolta d’Autori del moto delle acque, Fir. 1723. He vvrote
concerning the Laguna of Venice, and vvas employed in em-
banking the lake of Perugia.

PIŠA.—BOTANIC GARDEN.

‘25%

The university possesses an observatory and a bo-
tanic garden, which is kept in good order. I re-
marked in this garden a tree of the Salisburea or
Gingko biloba, thirty feet high, and the Sacharum
strictum, a tali arundinaceous plant, a native of the
coast of Tuscany. *

The winter at Piša is milder than at Florence,
Florence being nearer the mountains. On this ac-
count the Grand Duke passes part of the vvinter at
Piša, and had not yet left it at this time in the end
of January. Many English also reside in Piša for
the relief which a mild climate affbrds in affections
of the lungs.

Orange and lemon trees, extended on vvalls, are
now covered with ripe fruit; the climate, hovvever,

* The botanic .garden of Piša was formed in 1544, under
the inspection of the botanist Ghini, nine years after the
formation of the botanic garden at Padua. Andrea Cesal-
pino  was superintendent of the garden and professor in the
university of Piša for several years. After ieaving Piša he
was physician to Clement VIII., and professor of medicine
in the university of the Sapienza at Rome. He published, at
Florence, in 1583, his work on Plants, in sixteen books, and
was one of the first who formed a methodical arrangement of
plants, and this arrangement was founded on the form of the
fruit. He was also knovvn as a commentator on the dialectics
and metaphysics of Aristotle. He was a native of Arezzo,
and lived to the age of 84, from 1519 to 1603.

A history of this botanic garden is contained in the Ag-
grandementi, &c. of Dr Targione Tozetti.

POPULATION AND EXPORTS OF LEGHORN. 253

is cold enough to require that they should be some-
times covered vvith boards or mats.

Near Piša the Grand Duke has a park vvhere
dromedaries are kept; they breed, and are emplov-
ed as beasts of burden.

From Piša to Leghorn the country is little culti-
vated. Montfaucon speaks of this district as cover¬
ed vvith evergreen oaks when he savv it in 1701 j it
is novv cleared of trees and intersected by large
ditches full of vvater. A navigable canal serves for
conveying goods betvveen Leghorn and Piša.

Leghorn.

Leghorn, in the fifteenth century, vvas a small
and inconsiderable plače, and, in 1421, it vvas ceded
to the Grand Duke of Tuscany by Genoa in ex-
change for Sarzana. It is novv a plače of great im-
portance to Tuscany, by the revenue arising from its
trade, and it displays the activity of a flourishing
commercial city, being one of the principal places of
trade in the Mediterrancan. It contains from
50,000 to 60,000 inhabitants.

The exports from Leghorn, in 1818, vvere, ac-
cording to the list published in alphabetical order,
almonds  of Sicily, anchovies, argol, or rock moss,
vvhite and red; barilla  of Sicily, berries juniper, brira-
stone, or unrefined sulphur of Tuscanyand of Sicily,
brimstone in rolls ; camels' hair,  cheese Farmesan,
crearn of tartar ; cssence  of lemon, essence of ber-

251

LEGHORN.-EXPORTS AND IMPORTS.

gamot; Jruits,  including currants of Zante, figs,
raisins of Smyrna, raisins of Lipari; gum  arabic,
gum tragacanth, gall nuts of Aleppo, black gall nuts
of Smyrna ; irios  root of Florence ; liquorice  paste
of Calabria, liquorice paste of Sicily ; madder  roots
of Cyprus, madder roots of Smyrna, manna, marble
of Carrara is occasionally exported to Britain from
Leghorn, and other mischie or marbles of mixed
colours of Tuscany; opium,  olive oil of Lucca, of
Gallipoli, olive oil of the Morea and Levant; rags,
Tuscan; sqffl<ywer,  scammony of Aleppo, senna leaves
of Alexandria, shumac of Sicily ; skins, lamb and kid
skins; valonea  the acorn of a species of oak used
in dyeing.

The imports,— alum,  English ; cassia  lignea, cin-
namon, cloves, coccineal; cocoa of Caracca, of Marti-
nique, and of Marignon; coffee, West Indian, Bour-
bon and Mocha; cotton ; dye-woods,  including log-
wood, fustic ; Jish,  including, cod-fish called in
Italy Baccala, pilchards, red herrings of Yarmouth,
salmon, stockfish; flax of Riga, and of Petersburgh ;
hides,  Buenos Ayres, Brazil, Russia leather, and Ros-
wals; indigo,  Guatimala, Caracca, Bengal ; iron,
Russia, Swedisli$ lead;  English sole leather; nan-
keens,  nutmegs; pepper,  Jamama; pimento; rice,  Ča¬
robna ; rum, Jamama and Leevvard Island ; skeli lac,
refined sugar, crushed, brovvn, and other kinds ;
/m-plates, tin in bars ; tvheat  from Odessa, much
of vvhich is re-exported to England.

CORAL BEADS.—SHELLY LIMESTONE. 255

The manufacture of red coral beads is carried on
extensively at Leghorn, and chiefly by Jevvs. The
coral is fished near Sardinia. An extensive oil
vvarehouse is one of the objects of curiosity visited
by travellers. In the new baths that are construct-
ing, which are to be supplied with sea water, each
bathing vessel (bagnuola) is a trough fonned out of
one piece of marble, like the ancient Roman bathing
vessels.

Near the harbour is a statue of Ferdinand I.
Grand Duke of Tuscany, vvith four figures attached
to the pedestal, the vvork of Giovanni Bologna.

A great trading town requires the free exercise
of different forms of vvorship, and this liberty the
Catholic governments find it their interest to accord.

o

There is at Leghorn a chapel in which the church
of England Service is performed by the chaplain of
the English factory, a Greek church, and a large
synagogue.

The Čampo Inglese,  or English burying-ground,
contains many monuments in memory of consuls
and merchants who resided in Leghorn, and of
English carried off at Piša by pulnionary diseases.

The mole runs a considerable way out to sea; it
is founded on a rock of stratified shelly limestone.

Florence to Rome.

I left Florence for Rome by the way of Perugia.
The road passes along the Arno in the vallev cal-

Ž?56 VAL D’ARNO.-FOSSIL BONES.

led Val d’Arno Sziperior,  in which the bones of
the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, are
found.

It is now well known, that bones of these large
quadrupeds are found in a fossil State in most of
the countries of Europe ; and the deposition of ali
these bones seems to have taken plače at one period
and in similar circumstances, vvhatever these circum-
stances may have been. Many naturalists suppose,
that the heat of the temperate climates was once
greater than it novv is, and that the elephants and
other animals lived in the places where their bones
arefound. Cuvier has shevvn, that the bones of the va-
rious quadrupeds in the gypsum rock of Montmartre
differ in several respects from the bones of ali the
species of animals that are now knovvn to naturalists.
The bones calcareously incrusted in the crevices of
the rock of Gibraltar are more recent, and resemble
the quadrupeds that novv exist. Naturalists, with-
in the last fifty years, have collected and publishcd
a great many observations with respect to fossil
bones. A century ago some authors maintain-
ed, that the elephants’ bones of Val d’Arno Su-
perior vvere the remains of the elephants of Han-
nibal ; but Livy relates that of the fourteen with
which Hannibal began his journey across the Alps,
only one remained when he had got to the Val d’
Arno. It was in the marshes of this valley that

6

VAL Dl CHIANA. 257

Hannibal lost one of his eyes by inflammation from
exposure to cold and wet.

Amongst the mountains to the right of the Arno,
and twenty nriles from Florence, is the monastery
of Valombrosa, which was the chief monastery of
the order of monks called from the plače Valombro-
sani.

Before Arezzo we cross the river Chiana, ancient-
ly named Clanis, which runs into the Arno; ano-
ther part of the waters of the same valley of the
Chiana goes into the Tiber.

In the time of Tiberius, an inundation of the
Tiber having destroyed many buildings in Rome,
it was proposed to turn away some of the streams
that feed the Tiber. Amongst others, the waters
of the valley of Chiana were to be turned into the
Arno. The Florentines petitioned against this,
and the project was not put in execution. *

Cassini and Viviani were employed, the former
by the Pope, the latter by the Grand Duke of Tus-
cany, to regulate the distribution of the waters of
this valley.

Agriculture of the Val di Chiana.

The Val di Chiana is forty miles broad, and se-

* “ Seu preces coioniarum seu difficultas operum, sive su-
perstitio, valuit ut in sententiam Pisonis concederetur qui hil
mutandum censuerat.” Tacit. Annal. I. 7.9.

258

VAL Dl CHIANA.

ven to twelve broad, laid out in cultivated fields, di-
vided into rectangular inclosures and squares, with
ditches round every ten or twelve acres, and maples
and elms, supporting vines, on the banks of the
ditches.

It was converted into arable ground from the
state of a marsh, by Cosmo I. in 1560, soon after
he got possession of the territory of Siena, in which
territory half of the Val di Chiana is included.
The Chiana, in its whole length, was confined be-
tween embankments; and then the streains that run
into it were confined in a similar way.

The Val di Chiana is interspersed with con§ider-
able farm-houses, like gentlemen’s seats, vvith exten-
sive offices. Many of these are the property of the
Grand Duke, to whom a great part of the valley
belongs, and were built by the Grand Duke Leo¬
pold, * who also constructed roads, bridges, em¬
bankments, and drains in the Val di Chiana, and in
the Maremma of Siena, which has thereby become
less unhealthy ; and for these beneficial works, and
for the good regulations he made, his memory is
honoured in Tuscany.

Part of the Val di Chiana belonged formerly to
the miiitary order of San Stefano, which vvas sup-

* The Grand Duke Peter Leopold succeeded his brother
Joseph II. on the imperial throne in 1790.

MODE OF JLETTING LAND. 2i><)

pressed by the French ; and their territory is now
the property of the Grand Duke. This order vvas
in some measure re-established by the Grand Duke
in 1818.

In different parts of Britain we see as heavy crops
as can stand on the ground ; but they have in Tus-
eany a greater variety of produce, and can follow
a more speedy rotation of productive crops, advan-
tages which are owing to the warmth and fine wea-
ther of the climate. Tuscany is 120 Engiish miles
in length, on a meridian line from north to south,
and 100 miles in breadth from east to west; but
a great part of the surface is mountainous, and not
susceptible of  cultivation.

The farmers in the Val di Chiana, and in other
parts of Tuscany, are steel-bovv tenants, coloni par-
tiarii, the whole produce of the ground being divided
into two equal parts, of which the landlord gets one,
and the farmer the other. The landlord is at
the expence of manure, the repah 1  of walls and
other fences, reeds and stakes for vines, agricultural
implements, and live stock of oxen, &c. land-tax,
and of keeping a stevvard, or jattore,  who collects
and selis the landlord’s share of the produce ;—of
buildings for keeping the grain and produce, and of
houses, granaries, and stables for the farmer and
stock. The farmer, on his part, cultivates the
ground, and performs ali the requisite labour; he
also bears half the expence of seed and some other
articles.

260

RENT OF LAND.

In this mode of farming land, as in other cases
where tli e rents are paid in grain, the value of the
rent keeps pace with the priče of grain. The land-
lord is put to the expence of keeping a steward to
seli the produce, which expence he does not incur
in čase of a fixed rent. Writers on political econo-
my are of opinion, that this mode of letting ground
occurs chiefly in countries where the farmers are
not possessed of capital sufficient to purchase the
stock necessary for the farm, and maintain that it
tends more to the improvement of agriculture, when
the farmers are possessed of capital, and pay a sta-
ted rent.

In Scotland it used to be estimated, that the rent
paid to the landlord generally amounts to one-third
of the total produce of the farm. Of the other two-
thirds, one is employed in defraying the expence of
stock and cultivation, and the other is the profit of
the farmer. If it be supposed, that in Tuscany the
landlord’s expence on the farm is 16 per cent., or
betvveen a sixth and a seventh of his half share of
the produce, then his profit, or clear rent, will be
in this proportion of one-third of the produce.

The follovving is an account of the landlord’s
profit, or rent, from a piece of ground, not remark-
ably fertile, near Siena, which was estimated to con-
tain about an acre, and situated too far from the
town to be benefited by its vicinity. But the ac¬
count appears to be imperfect, as no mention is
made of the expence of stock, &c.

VALUE OF LAND.

261

Scud. lir. sol. den.

Wheat on one half of the ground, . 3 3 0 0

Beans on one half, . . . . 2 6 0 0

Wine, 250 quarts, . . . . 10 0 0 0

Olive oil, . . . . . . 2 6 0 0

Cherries, peaches, apples, &c. . . 0 4 0 0

Value of the landlord’s half of the gross pro-

duce of one acre, . . . . 19 5 0 0

Scud. lir. sol. den.

Deduct,  reeds and stakes for

vines, . . . 1 0 10 0

Repair of vvalls, &c. . . 0 2 6 8

Manure, . . . 13 0 0

Land-tax, . . . 0 4 0 0

3 2 6 8

The expence to be deducted, . . 3 2 6 8

The landlord’« profit, or rent, froni one acre, 16 2 3 4
equal to L. 4, Is. 8d. Sterling.

Land near Siena sells at twenty years’ purchase
of the nett annual profit, or free rent.

The mode of dividing the produce of the soil be-
tween landlord and farmer was in use in Italy in
the time of the ancient Romans. The farmers were
called Coloni partiarii, and are mentioned by Cato,
and other ancient vvriters on agriculture.

The system of the ancients, hovvever, differed in
respect to the slaves, vvhether saleable separately or

* Pandect. 1. 25, Locati.

262

METAVER.-OXEN.

attached to the land, glebas adscripti, who were eni-
ployed in its cultivation. The ancient Romans had
also lands let at fixed rent, as had the Italians of the
middle age, who employed to denote this rent the
vvord fitto from the Latin fixus, census fixus, vvritten
in the middle ages census fictus; and from this the
modern Italian vvord affitare, to let. *

Medietarius, in the middle ages, vvas used in the
same sense as partiarius, and from medietarius is
formed the French vvord metaver, vvhich originally
signilied a steelbovv tenant, but is novv applied to
farmers of every kind in vvhatever way their rent is
allotted, and metayrie is a farm generally.

The oxen used in the plough in Tuscany are very
tractable, but slovv. In the Val di Chiana, one pair,
vvrought by one man, ploughs an acre a day. This
is done in eight hours, and the man vvorks four hours
more in other labours of  the farm. The ground
vvhen prepared for seed is as fine as garden mould.

The oxen in Tuscany are beautiful, large, of a
grey colour, vvith fine deep chests, little bone, and,
vvhen fat for the butcher, at four years old, vveigh
seventy-five Stone English, and seli for a priče equal
to L. 21 Sterling.

At a great fair for the šale of these cattle at Cor-
tona, an astonishing number vvere seen, beautiful,

* Muratori, Ant. Ital. Dissert. Undecima.

12

MARKETS.—-ROTATION OF C ROP S.

263

and in good condition. They have abundance of
green food ali the year.

Beef and mutton are sold in the market at Siena
at fourpence Sterling for a quantity equal to an avoir-
dupois pound. Pork, majale,  is good, and fed entirely
in the vvoods on acorns and some chesnuts. Wild
boar, cignalet  is plenty and good in the market at
Siena, and is sold at fivepence Sterling for an avoir-
dupois pound.

Wheat is sovvn much thinner than in Britain, on
broad drills, and the seed is covered in vvith hand
hoes. They sovv wheat in the end of October and
beginning of November, and reap in the beginning
of July. The vvheat is well filled, clear, and hard.
The farms are so small that they cut dovvn the corn
vvith the labourers usually employed, and have only
occasion to hire one or two additional.

The country people, the conladini,  cut dovvn the
crop usually in six days, and during that time they
vvork very hard under the bright and elevated sun
ih July, from four in the morning till eight or nine
in the evening, vvith only tvvo hours of rest in the
day. Most of the country people are small farmers,
fevv of them are labourers only. The vvages in the
country ninepence, in Siena tenpence a-day.

After reaping, the corn is immediately thrashed
out and laid up in granaries, vvhich form part of the
farm-houses.

Near Siena they sovv vvheat every second year.

264 AGRICULTURE.—WINE.—S1LK,

The usual return of wheat is tvvelve to fourteen
after one ; when wheat is taken two years succes-
sively, the second year’s crop is somevvhat less pro-
ductive than the first.

The usual course of husbandry, in the Val di
Chiana, is two years wheat, with a little manure
each year. Then, after the second year’s wheat is
reaped, the land is plovved and turnips are sown ;
the turnips are off the ground by April. Then the
land is dug, manured, and planted with Indian corn,
beans, hemp; or, if the land is not manured, it is
sown with kidney beans, lupines, a kind of clover,
vetches mixed with oats, lupinelli; the three last are
for the cattle ; the lupines, aftei’ they have grown for
some time, are generally plowed in as manure.

The crop of turnips is great, and the turnips are
of a large size. It never freezes strong enough to
injure them. The profit from Indian corn and
hemp is greater than from vvheat, but they both
require more manure, and mu st be dug. The pro-
duce on wine is considerable, but the wine is of an
inferior quality in most parts of Tuscany. Vines
are planted on espaliers thirty or forty yards from
each other, and corn is cultivated on the ground
between them.

The Monte Pulciano, the most esteemed wine in
Tuscany, is like a weak claret, with little flavour,
and does not bear the voyage to England.

The profit on silk is also considerable. Of an

COLMATA.

265

estate in the Val di Chiana of L. 2500 Sterling a
year, L. 600 of the rent was frora the vvhite mulber-
ry trees called gelsi, and the rearing of silk-vvorms.

In many parts of Italy the proprietors of the
vvhite mulberry trees, vvhich are planted as hedge-
rovvs in the cultivated fields, do not grovv silk, but
send the leaves to market to supply those who have
silk-vvorms.

Ali the fallovv crops are vvell hoed. The vvheat
is sown in broad drills, and they often hoe betvveen
the drills. The vvheat vvhen grovvn is generally so
strong as to leave no visible marks of the drills, and
is higher than a man’s height.

Although the ground is lovver than the vvater in
the rivers, yet the Val di Chiana is said not to be
unhealthy. The countrymen never go out in the
morning vvithout eating bread, and drinking some
vvine. They look stout and healthy. The Val
d’Arno di Sopra is considered to be equal in fertility
to the Val di Chiana.

In the Val di Chiana, fields that are too Iow are
raised and fertilized by the process called colmata,
vvhich is done in the follovving manner. The field
is surrounded by an embankment to confine the
vvater. The dike of the rivulet is broken dovvn, so
as to admit the muddy vvater of the high floods.
The Chiana itself is too povverful a body of vvater to
be used for this purpose ; it is only the streams that
flovv into the Chiana that are used. This vvater is

6

266

COLMATA.

allovved to settle and deposit its mud on the field.
The vvater is then let off into the river at the lovver
end of the field, by a discharging course called
scolo, and in French canal d’ecoulment. The wa-
ter coui’se vvhich conducts the vvater from a river,
either to a field fbr irrigation, or to a mili, is
called gora. In this manner a field vvill be raised
five and a half, and sometimes seven and a half feet
in ten years. If the dike is broken dovvn to the
bottom, the field vvill be raised the same height in
seven years, but then in this čase gravel is also car-
ried in along vvith the mud. In a field of twenty-
five acres, which had been six years under the pro-
cess of colmata, in vvhich the dike vvas broken dovvn
to vvithin three feet of the bottom, the procešs vvas
seen to be so far advanced that only another year
vvas requisite for its completion. The floods in
this instance had been much charged vvith soil.
The vvater vvhich comes off cultivated land com-
pletes the process sooner then that vvhich comes off
bili and vvood-lands. Almost the vvhole of the Val
di Chiana has been raised by the process of col¬
mata.

A proprietor, vvhose field is not adjacent to a
stream, may conduct the stream through the inter-
vening lands of another proprietor, on paying the
damage he occasions. The process of colmata is
expensive, because the ground is unproductive dur-
ing the seven or eight years that the process lasts;

COLMATA. §6/

but this is soon repaid vvith great profit by the ferti-
lity of the nevvly deposited soil.

By the gravel which the rivers carry and deposit,
their bed is much raised above the level of the adjoin-
ing fields; so that, in order to carry off the rain-vva-
ter from the fields, drains are formed, vvhich pass in
arched conduits under the embanked rivers, and go
into larger drains, vvhich pass to the lovvest part of
the plain near Arezzo, and there enter the Chiana.

The soil in the Val di Chiana is generally the
same to the depth of six feet from the surface, and
under that is gravel or sand. After the com-
pletion of the process of colmata, the expence of
vvhich is always repaid vvith profit, the ground is
cultivated for five years on the proprietor’s ovvn ac-
count ; and the produce during these five years re-
pays the expence of the process of colmata vvith pro¬
fit. The two first years it is sovvn vvith Indian corn,
(gran turco,) and sometimes hemp, the soil being
then too strong for vvheat. The next three it is
sovvn vvith vvheat, vvithout any manure. The pro¬
duce of vvheat in this highly fertile State of the soil
is twenty from one, vvhilst, in the usual State of the
ground, the return of vvheat is from tvvelve to four-
teen after one. After this the field is let out in the
ordmary way to the farmers, the contadini. *

* The above remarks on the agriculture of’ the Val di

268

AREZZO.

An operation similar to the Colmata has been
practised near Gainsborough.

Arezzo was the birtli plače of several persons of
celebrity, of whom are the follovving:

Guido d’ Arezzo,  who improved the theory and
practice of church-music in the eleventh century,
was a monk in one of the monasteries of Arezzo
about the year 1U20. His treatise on mušic, called
Micro],ogus, has not been printed, but exists in ma-
nuscript in some libraries. *

Leonardo Bruni Arettino  vvasborn in 1369, and
died in 1444. He was apostolic secretary to Inno-
cent VIL, and aftervvards chancellor of the repub-
lic of Florence. He published in Latin the Histo-
ry of Florence from its Origin to 1404; De Ori-
gine Urbis Mantuae ; The Lives of Petrarch and
Dante. A monument is erected to his memory in
Santa Croce at Florence.

Chiana and of Tuscany are collccted from the notes of a gen-
tleman well acquainted with British agriculture, who lately
passed a year in that part of Italy

The follovving vvorks treat of the agriculture of Italy ;—Sis-
mondi, Tableau de 1’Agriculture Toscane, Genev. 1801 ;—
Lettres dTtalie, a M. Pietet, en 1812 et 1813, par de Chateau-
vieux, Pariš, 1816;—La Coltivazione is an esteemed poem
on the subject, vvritten in the sixteenth century, by Alaman-
ni, a Florentine, in the Service of Francis I. of France.

* Tiraboschi štor. deli. 1. It. Tom. III. p. 395.

VASARL—TRASIMENE LAKE.

269

Georgio Vasari,  born in 1512, painter and ar-
chitect, and author of the Lives of the Painters.
He was pupil of Buonaroti, and of Andrea del Sarto.
Many of his pictures are to be seen in Florence ;
they are generally much crovvded vvith figures.
The building, called the Ufizj, vvhich contains the
gallery, is his architecture. In his Lives of the
Painters, he is too partial to his countrymen the
Tuscans, and is deficient in accuracy, not citing au-
thors in support of his assertions in doubtful points
of the history of the arts.

Pietro Arettino, a  vvriter noted for the venality
and impudence of his satirical productions.

After Arezzo and Cortona the road passes along
the east side of the lake of Perugia, anciently called
Lacus Trasimenus. Betvveen the edge of the lake
and the precipitous banks there is only room for the
road.

In this plače, and in the year 217 before Christ, the
battle of the Trasimene lake took plače, one of the
fevv signal defeats the Romans met vvith vvhilst they
vvere grovving in povver. Hannibal was encamped
on the high ground vvhich is traversed by the road
from the lake to Perugia. He fell upon the Ro¬
man army vvhilst it vvas coming up in the narrovv
pass betvveen the lake and the hilis. The Romans,
not informed of the position of HannibaPs army,
did not expect an attack. They fought, but in the
greatest confusion, each man for himself, vvithout


BATTLE.—PLANTS.

any attention to military orders. After a desperate
contest fbr three hours, tlie Consul Flaminius bein<r
O
killed, the Romans gave up hopes and fled. Some
tried to save themselves by swimming, but the
breadth of the lake was too great, and they were
either drowned or compelled to return to the shore,
vvhere they were cut to pieces by the Carthaginian
cavalry. Fifteen thousand Romans were slain on
the field, ten thousand fled dispersed. The num-
ber of killed in the Carthaginian army was fifteen
hundred. *

The lake is about eight English miles broad. The
inhabitants of its banks are saliovv complexioned, and
subject to fevers.

The plantations of old olive trees, vvith the trunk
decayed internally, but the branches of the top
growing, have the appearance of pollard willows.
The yellow flower of the Helleborus hiemalis is
seen in the fields, it being now the 30th January.
On the precipitous bank that overhangs the road,
and descends from the town of Passignano to the
lake, there are several plants of the Agave Ameri¬
čana, which does not bear the climate of Milan, al-
though it grows a little farther north, in the shel-
tered situation of the Boromean islands.

The strata on the banks of the lake are of the fiat

* See the descriptions of this battlein Livy and Polybius.

PERUGIA. Q71

secondary kind. Some of them appear to be calca-
reous. There are strata of pit-coal, as I was inform-
ed, near the lake of Monte Pulciano.

Perugia is a considerable town, situated amongst
the hills. The coUegio del cambio, a room former-
ly used as the plače of meeting of the money-chan-
gers, has its walls painted by Pietro Perugino, the
master of Raphael. There are pictures by Pietro
and other esteemed masters in several of the church-
es. In the cathedral is the taking dovvn from the
cross by Barocci, a picture that is now returned to
its former plače, after having been at the Louvre.

The large edifice of Monte Morosini contains the
apartments appropriated to the university, vvhich
vvas founded in the year 1400; and also the aca-
demy of painting, or Scuola delle belle arti, vvhich
has a collection of pictures.

The puhlic library contains some early printed
editions. Baccius Ballionius brought German prin-
ters to Perugia, and the first vvork that appeared
there is a lavv book, entitled De Relationibus,  print¬
ed by Wydenast in 1470. The princeps edition
of the Codex of Justinian vvas printed at Perugia,
by Clayn of Ulm, in 1476. * The librarian also

* The art of printing was introduced into Itaiy soon after
its invention in Gernaany, and before it was practised in
France. The first book printed in Italy was in 1465; and
there is no mention of any work printed in Pariš before 1470.

272 FIRST PRINTED BOOKS IN ITALY.

shewed us a Greek manuscript of Stepbanus de Ur-
bibus, a geographical vvork, which has been pub-
lished by the Benedictine antiquary Montfaucon ;

The follovving is a list of the first books printed in different
places in Italy:

In or before 1465, Donatus pro Piterulis, a  grammar for
school-boys, named from the ancient grammarian Donatus,
the first book printed in Italy, and of which scarcelv anv co-
pies exist.

In 1465, Lactantii Firmiani Dminurum Institutionum,
Lib. FIL,  is the second book printed in Italy. Both ivere
printed at the monastery of German Monks at Subjaco,  on
the Teverone, tvventy miles above Tivoli, and forty miles from
Kome. Svveinheim and Pannartz were the printers.

In 1467, M. Tul. Ciceronis Epistolarum ud Familiares,
Lib. XVI.,  in domo Petri de Maximis. The first book print¬
ed in Rome.  It v,-as printed in one of the mansions of the
Massimi family.

Venice  is the next city in which printing was carried on.
The first book printed at Venice was in 1469, Ciceronis Epist.
ad Famil.  In that city the number of printers rapidly in-
ereased, and the art was soon brought to great perfection
there by the elder Aldus Manutius, who lived 68 years, from
1447 to 1515, and was succeeded by his son Paolo Manuzzio,
eelebrated for his Ciceronian Latin, and his editions of Cicero.
Paulo began to print in 1533. Aldus, the son of Paulus, vras
a man of letters, but not equal in eminence to his father and
grandfather.

The first book printed in Milan  was in 146$), Miracoli
debla Gloriosa Verzine Maria.

The first book printed at Perugia, as above mentioned, was
in 1470, the treatise De Relationibus.

ITALIAN NAMES OF THE VVINDS.

273

and the beautiful edition of Saint Augustin, printed
at Venice in 1470, and another early edition of the
same vvork printed at Rome.

The puhlic clock at Perugia bas four dial plates,
one of which shevvs the Italian hour, the hand mak-
ing a revolution in six hours;—the second shevvs
the hore ultramontane, or the hours reckoned from
the sun’s passing the meridian, in the way coni-
mon in other parts of Europe;—the third shevvs
the phases of the moon;—and the fourth is
marked on the circumference vvith the letters T,
G, +, S, O, L, P, M; it shevvs the direction of
the vvind, the hand being moved by a vveathercock.
The letters are the initials of the eight principal
rumbs. T, signifies Tramontana,  the north vvind ;
G, Greco,  the Aquilo of the ancient Romans,
the north-east 5 4-, Levante,  the east; S, Sirocco,
the Eurus of the ancient Romans, the south-east ;
O, Ostro,  the south ; L, Libecchio,  also named
Garbino,  the Africus of the ancient Romans, the
south-vvest ; P, Ponente,  the vvest ; M, Maestro,
the north-vvest; it is called Maestro on account of
its strength. In the Italian compass, the names

In 1471, the first book was printed at Nafles, Bartholi de
Saxo Ferrato Lectura in II. Cod. Justin, partem.

In almost every city of Italy printing-houses vvere esta-
blished before the end of the fifteenth centurv. See Tira-
boschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, Tom. VI.

S

<Ž}'4 FOLIGNO.-NEVVSFAPERS.

of the intermediate rumbs, which are each tvvo points
from those already mentioned, are Greco-Tramon-
tana, N.N.E. ; Greco-Levante, E.N.E. ; Sirocco-
Levante, E.S.E. ; Ostro-Sirocco, S.S.E. ; Ostro-
Eibecchio,  or Ostro-Garbino,  S.S.W. ; Ponente-
Maestro,  W.N.W. ; Maestro-Tramontana,  N.N.
W. The intermediate rumbs, one point distant
from the foregoing, are named tra Tramontana e
Greco-Tramontana,  and so forth in the same way.

Just after Perugia the road crosses the Tiber.

Foligno, situated in the fine valley of Spoleto,
has manufactories of wax and paper, and some in-
land trade. A nevvspaper is published here, which,
hovvever, is only a copy of the uninteresting and
meagre nevvspaper of Rome. Besides the nevvspa¬
per of Rome, and that of Foligno, there is no other
published in the pope’s territory, on this side west
of the Apennines. *

On the way to Spoleto, near a plače called le
Vene,  is a small ancient temple, situated on the
Clitumnus. It has a pediment, supported by four
columns vvith spiral flutings, and a Christian in-

* One nevvspaper is published at each of the follovving
places : Venice, Milan, Genoa, Bologna, Home, Naples; less
extensive papers at Foligno, Modena, and in some other
places in Italy. A nevvspaper in Italian is printed at Lugano,
in the Italian bailivvicks of Svvitzerland, and circulates in dif-
ferent parts of Italy.

CLITUMNUS.—SPOLETO. 275

scription on the front. This edifice is now used as
a  chapel.

The Clitumnus takes its course to join the Tiber
through fertile plains, which were famous in ancient
times for feeding cattle. The victimee maximae,
the white bullocks reserved for the sacrifices at the
Roman triumphs, were fed in these pastures. *

Spoleto may contain about 6OOO inhabitants.
Hannibal, after defeating the Roman army at the
Trasimene lake, marched to Spoleto, and having
laid vvaste the country, made an attempt to get pos-
session of the town, but was repulsed with loss.
An arched gate-way, through which the Street passes
in ascending the liill, is called the Porta d’ Anni-
bale, from having resisted the attacks of Hannibal.
There is another ancient arch, vvithout architectural
ornament, called the Arch of Drusus.

The mosaic on the front of the church was exe-
cuted in 1207, according to the inscription.

Theaqueductof Spoleto connectsthe hill on which
the.tovvn is situated with the adjacent hills, convey-
ing vvater to the town over a narrow and deep valley.

:r ' Hinc albi Clitumni greges, et maxima taurus

Victima; saepe tuo perfusi flumine sacro

Romanos ad templa Deuni duxere triumphos. Virg.

Clitumnus is mentioned also in Juvenal, Sat. xii., Proper-
fius, Lučan, Silius Italicus, and Claudian. *

VjG  AQUEDUCT.—ARCHITECTURE.

It serves also as a bridge, having a path for passen-
gers, and consists of ten pointed arches, and nine
piers. The middle piers are of a great height, by
reason of the great depth of the valley. This point-
ed-arched fabric, which has no ornamental mould-
ings, was built about the year 500, in the reign of
Theodoric, King of the Goths, and of Italy. It
does not appear, hovvever, that the pointed-arched
style of architecture vvas introduced into Italy by
the Goths ; this style seems to have arisen out of
the round-arched stvle, of which the commence-
ments are seen in the palače of Dioclesian at Spa-
latro, and an example twenty or thirty years after,
in the reign of Constantine, is the round church of
Santa Constanza, near Rome. The round-arched
style succeeded the ancient Greek and Roman man-
ner vvith straight architraves, and was adopted, pro-
bably, from the difficulty of procuring large stones
for architraves, and from the insecurity of these ar¬
chitraves, which most commonly break by the su-
perincumbent vveight, unless they are relieved by
arches, an accident visible in many ancient build-
ings.

The ancient Greeks seldom employed arches in
the ornamental parts of the fabric, and the ancient
Roman architecture vvas borrovved from the Greek,
and, in this respect, the Greek resembles the Egyp-
tian style. The Egyptians employed the largest
stones that have ever been vvrought, by which means,

ARCHITECTUBE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 277
they were enabled to construct their great fabrics
with architraves, and vvithout arches. The archi-
traved manner of building practised by the Egyp-
tians, the ancient Greeks, and Romans, came to be
laid aside in Italy in the fourth century, and round
arches were used, springing from the columns.
This round-arched, and sometimes the pointed-arch-
ed style, prevailed in Italy, and at Constantinople,
during the midddle ages. Santa Sophia, built by
Justinian, is in the round-arched manner. Both
these styles are coinmonly called Gothic in Italy, an
appellation which is to be understood only as eguiva-
lent to barbarous, or ungraceful, and not as signify-
ing a style introduced by the Goths, for Maffei,
Muratori, and Tiraboschi, have shewn that neither
the Goths nor the Lombarda introduced any par-
ticular style, but employed the architects they found
in Italy. There are raany buildings of pointed-
arched architecture on the banks of the Ganges, as
before mentioned ; * vvhether any connection ex-
isted between the architects of these, and of the
pointed-arched cathedrals in Europe, is not known.

Spoleto was on the road betvveen Theodoric’s
royal residence Ravenna, and Rome, which then
had only the second rank amongst the cities of his
kingdom, and in his reign of thirty-three years, the

* Pagegg.

278 SPOLETO.-ANCIENT COLUMNS.

country round Spoleto was improved by the drain-
ing of the marshy ground in the vaHeys.

In the church of the monastery of Saint Andrew,
a quarter of a mile from the town, there are some
handsome fluted columns of marmo pavonazzato, of
the Corinthian order, the remains of an ancient
Roman temple. These columns are in their origi¬
nal position, the church having been built round
them.

A nevv bridge is now making at the plače where
the Foligno road enters Spoleto. In clearing away
the gravel to form the foundations, two arches of an
ancient Roman bridge were discovered, called the
Ponte Sanguinaria, on account of the Christian
martyrs that are said to have been thrown from it.

From Spoleto, in the twelfth century, originated
the Ursini family, the head of a powerful faction,
and the rivals and antagonists of the faction of the
Colonna family in Rome. The feuds betvveen these
two families kept the city of Rome in a State of in-
ternal war for 250 years, including the seventy
years, during which the popes, from theii- inability
to control these factions, quitted Rome, and fixed
their seat at Avignon. The Colonna were Ghibe-
lines, and took the part of the German emperors;
The Ursini were Guelphs, and embraced the cause
of the church, but the real object of both par-
ties was to obtain dominio^ and pre-eminence in
Rome.

PLANTS.—STRATA.—MONTE SOMMA. 279

There have been two popes of the Ursini family,
Celestin III. and Nicholas III.

After Spoleto, the sides of the hills close by the
road are covered with box, intermixed with Cle-
matis viorna, Spanish broom, Helleborus viridis in
flower. There are some oak trees of a good size.

The strata are a fine grained greyish or drab-co-
loured limestone. Some of the strata contain no-
dules of opaque flint, and, in this respect, and also
frora their texture, tbey may be considered as indu-
rated chalk.

Between Spoleto and Strettura, on the way to
Terni, we ascend the Monte Somma, the highest
part of this road betvveen Perugia and Rome, and
covered novv, on the Ist February, with one or two
inches of snovv. According to Sir George Shuck-
burgh, the height of the summit of this Monte
Somma above the sea is 3738 English feet.

There is much copsevvood of evergreen oak,
Quercus ilex, called lecce,  in this part of Italy.
The acorns of another species of oak are used in
this part of the country as food for horses, and are
sometimes eaten by the poor. Another kind of a-
corn, vvith the cups called Valonia, is imported in-
to Britain in considerable quantity from the eastern
parts of the Mediterranean, for the purpose of tan-
ning. On old vvalls here, and also on the vvalls of
Rome and Florence, grovvs the Cotyledon umbili-
cus, a plant vvhich is found in similar situations in

280

PLANTS.-TERNI.-CASCADE.

Ireland, and on the west coast of Scotland, but not
in the eastern parts of Britain. A  certain degree
of humiditv, therefore, or some other circumstance
requisite for the grovvth of this plant, exists in this
part of Italy, and in the west of Britain, and is
vvanting in the eastern parts of Britain. There is
also seen the Cercis siliquastrum, called the Judas
tree, and Eriča Mediterranea six feethigh. Truffles
grow in this district.

The name of  the town of Terni is derived from
the ancient name Interamna, signifying a plače si-
tuated between rivers.

From Terni we went four miles off the highroad
to visit the Cascade, at which we arrive after vvalking
up the river Nera, in a narrovv valley or glen cover-
ed vvith copse of evergreen oak. The Cascade is
forraed by the waters of the Velino, which join the
Nera at the bottom of the fall. The body of vvater
is considerable. The height is stated to be 368
palms, that is, 266 English feet. The Velino con-
sists of the water issuing from the lake of Velino,
and in order to prevent the inundation of the val-
leys, was turned by Marcus Curius into a new chan-
nel conducting it to the brink of the precipice,
over which its vvaters form the Cascade. The for-
mation of this channel is mentioned by Cicero. *

* “ Reatini me ad sua rs/z/rz; duxerunt, ut agerem causam
centra Interamnates apud consulem et decem legatos, quod

N ARNI.

281

The river Nera, anciently called Nar, runs in a
roeky channel composed of limestone, and the vvater
of the Cascade deposits much calcareous tufa, vvhich
form large masses of rock, as at Tivoli.

Proceeding on the road tovvards Rome, we pass
along the beautiful and fertile valley of Terni, and
arrive at Narni, vvhich is situated on a stratified lime¬
stone rock. In a deep and vast fissure of this rock,
the river Nera runs and vvashes the foot of the rock
on vvhich the tovvn is built. The rock, in some
places, is a grey indurated chalk, with blotches of a
reddish brovvn. There are caverns in the rock
vvhich are used as habitations. At Narni are the
remains of an ancient Roman bridge.

Some miles after Narni, on a solitary part of the
road, is a post of infantry to protect travellers against
the attacks of banditti.

Before Crossing the Tiber there are extensive
banks of agglutinated gravel.

Betvveen Narni and Civita Castellana, the road
crosses the Tiber by a bridge of three arches of
brick. The arches are modern. There vvas a bridge
in this same situation built in the time of Augus-
tus.

At Nepi and Civita Castellana the rocks are
volcanic tufa.

lacus Velinus a M. Curio emissus interciso monte in Nar de-
fluit.” Ciceron. Epist. ad Attic. iv. 14.

£82

COUNTRV NEAR ROME.

At twenty-five or thirty miles from Rome, there
are vvell grovvn oak trees by the road for several
miles.

For sixteen miles before Rome, the country in
sight of the road is bare of trees, vvith only here and
there a fevv bushes of alder, sloe, and crab apple.
The surface is undulated vvith small eminences and
dry. Ruined farm-houses are seen, and no corn
fields, but the ridges on pasture fields shevv that
they have been once cultivated.

The neglect of agriculture in the neighbourhood
of Rome is attributed partly to the great extent of
the landed estates. The territory belongs to a fevv
great families, vvhose ancestors were the nephevvs
of some of the popes, * and vvhose lands are kept
together by majorats, substitutions, and entails.

The ground, varied vvith hill and valley, appears
dry on a general vievv, but the low ground betvveen
the hill s is so situated, that it becomes marshy unless
constant attention is paid to draining; and the
marshy ground thus formed renders the neighbour¬
hood unhealthy, the inhabitants being affected vvith
intermittent fevers, as in other marshy countries,
particularly vvhere the heat of the vveather is consi-

* The disadvantages vvhich are sometimes ascribed to
"reat landed estates, were felt likewise in ancient times in
Italy, according to Pliny. “ Verumque confitentibus latifundia
nerdidere Italiam.” Plin. Hist. Nat. XVIII. 7.

4

NEGLECT OF AGRICULTURE.—ANCIENT TOMB. 283
derable. If the lovv grounds vrere more carefully
cultivated and drained, the country would be less
unhealthy. Draining has been found to produce
this salutary effect in several places within the walls
of Rome. *

The want of demand for manure, in consequence
of the neglect of agriculture, occasions a great ac-
cumulation of filth in Rome. Filth prevails in the
streets, squares, and courts of palaces ; and, in par-
ticular streets there is an immondezzaio,  a part
of the Street where the inhabitants are allovved
to throw the dust and filth from the houses vvhich
accumulates for some time, and then is thrown into
the river.

Near the road, three miles from Rome, is a large
sarcophagus, upon a base of masonry, of vvhich only
the internal rough stones remain. It is the tomb of
Vibius Marianus, procurator and prasses of the pro¬
vince of Sardinia, &c. and of his wife, erected by their
daughter, Vibia Mariana Maxima, as the inscription
bears. + This sepulchre adds to the gloomy effect
of the desolate fields that surround it. It was vul-
garly and erroneously called the Tomb of Nero.

Near this, by the side of the ancient Via Cassia,
vvas discovered, in 1667, the sepulchre of the Na-

* Spe Lancisi de ceeli Romani qualitatibus.

•f See a figure and the inscription in Bartoli, Sepolchri
Antichi, pl. 41.

284

PONTE MOLLE.

sonii, containing chambers adorned with paintings
in fresco, which are drawn and published by Bel¬
lovi. Winkelmann mentions some pieces of these
fresco paintings, preserved at the Villa Albani.

The road again passes the Tiber two miles before
Rome, by the Ponte Molle, anciently Pons Milvius,
over vvhich Maxentius vvas precipitated in the flight,
after the defeat of his troops by Constantine.

This bridge consists of four large arches equal to
each other, and a small arch at each end. The two
great arches on the left-hand side are of the broad
thin ancient Roman brick, called in Rome tavoloni.
The other arches are of stone. Ali the arches have
lost their semi-circular shape, and the intrados has
assumed an irregular form. The width of the river,
measured on the bridge, is 138 paces, that is, about
380 feet.

The tower at the north end of the bridge was
built in the middle asres for defendinsj this entrance
to Rome, and bears an armorial shield vvith the
name of Pope Callistus, and the year 1458. The
pope now reigning, Plus VIL, perforated the tovrer
to give passage to the road.

We enter Rome by the Porta del Popolo, the
gate by which ali vvho come from the north of Italy
pass.

CHAPTER VI.

Rome_ Sect. I. Churches.— Sect. II. Ancient Build-

ings, and Public Collections of Works of Ait.— Sect. III.
Palaces and Villas.— Sect. IV. University, Libra.-
ries, and other Objects.



Sect. L Saint Peter’«. Sistine Chapel Monte Testaceo.
English Burying Ground. Pyramid of Cestius. Basilic
Church of Saint Paul. Ancient Columns—Saint John La-
teran. Porphyry Sarcophagus. Scala Santa Santa Ma¬
ria Maggiore. Column.—San Pietro in Vincoli. Michael
Angelo's Moses.—Church of the Minerva. Statue by Mi¬
chael Angelo.—Church of the Santi Apostoli. Tomi) by
Canova.—Santa Maria del Popolo. Statue by Raphael—
Santa Maria della Pace. Raphaels Sybils.—Saint Agnes.
Algardi-Sant Andrea della Valle. Domenichino. —

Churches of the Jesuits.—Saint Agnes uiithout the Porta.
Pia. Santa Constanza—Santa Prassede—Santa Maria
in Cosmedin.— Temple of Vesta—Temple of Fortuna Vi-
rilis.—Santa Maria della Navicella.—San Stefano Roton-
da.—San Giovanni e Paolo—San Lorenzo. Ambones—
Church of Saint Andreiv.—Saint Martin.—San Carlo.—
Torre delle Milizie.—San Pietro in Monlorio. Bramanle's
Temple.—Catacombs.

Saint Peter’’s Basilic.

HE basilic church of Saint Peter on the Vatican,
the largest and most splendid church in the world,

286 COLONADE OF SAINT PETEn’s.

holds the first plače among the modern fabrics of
Rome. The piazza in front of the eastern and prin¬
cipal portal is surrounded by a colonade which
forms a curve on each side. The colonade is com-
posed of four rovvs of columns, and the columns are
so placed in radii of a circle, that on each side there
is a central point, from whence the three columns
of the more distant rovvs are concealed and covered
by the columns of the nearest and interior row of
the colonade. It has been proposed to extend the
open plače from the colonade, as far as the river and
the Castle of Saint Angelo, by taking down the
houses that at present cover the ground. This
would add greatly to the magnificence of the ap-
proach to Saint Peter’s.

In the centre of this curvilinear colonade is erect-
ed an Egyptian obelisk of granite, vvithout hiero-
glyphics. This obelisk was the only one at Rome
that remained erect during the middle ages; it was
near Saint Peter’s, and was removed to its present
situation by order of Sixtus V., by the architect
Domenico Fontana, who was bom in 1543, in
the territory of Como. Fontana published an ac-
count of the operation, vvith engravings of the ma-
chines employed in elevating this great mass of gra¬
nite, which is eighty-three English feet in length,
seven feet, four inches square in the middle, and
vveighs nearly 300 ton. Fontana also erected the
obelisk at the Lateran, and that at Santa Maria

xur

2 SECTIONS OF SOME OF THE

Drawn on one Sedle.

MOST REMARKABLE CUPOLAS,

The Chureh of Santa Constanaa near Rome. teri»tyU Tempir at Tirali, Teniple by bramante.
built in the man af Cons fantine. p.3H. now ruinous bul here at San P utr« Montorur

represented as entire. p. 456. p. 32  7•

JruZp din-’’

MERIDIAN.—ILLUMINATION.

287

Maggiore, but they are broken, and the several
pieces were put up separately. He likevvise erected
the obelisk at the Piazza del Popolo.

A meridian line is dravvn to the north of this obe¬
lisk of the Vatican, with the signs of’ the zodiac,
marked so that when the sun is in the meridian,
the shadovv of the top of the obelisk falls upon the
line at the sign in which the sun is.

On each side of the obelisk is a magnificent foun-
tain constantly throvving up a large quantity of vvater
which falls down in spray.

From the foot of the obelisk the upper part only
of the cupola is seen, the rest being hid by the front
of the church. But, vvhen vievved from a distance, the
whole of the cupola is seen, and forms a magnificent
object. The outside of the cupola and front of Saint
Peter’s are illuminated on certain festivals. This
vvas the čase this year (1818) at Easter. It is first
illuminated with small lights, and these are after«
wards changed for more brilliant ones. In this State,
the illuminated outline of the building was seen to
much advantage from the walk near the Villa Medici.

The colonades terminate in the vestibule vvhich
forms the east front of the church, at each end of
the vestibule is an equestrian statue of marble, by
Bernini. These statues represent the tvvo great
protectors and benefactors of the papal throne ; the
one is Constantine, the first emperor who adopted
and promoted Christianity in the Koman empire,

288

CONSTANTINE AND CHAHLEMAGNE.

and vvho, as the popes pretend, made a donation of
Rome to them ; the other statue represents Charle-
magne, to vvhom they owe their territory on the
other side of the Apennines. Pepin le Bref, and his
son Charlemagne, gave the exarchate of Ravenna to
the popes; this vvas the origin of their temporal
povver. In the tvvelfth century the popes first got
the command of Rome, vvhen the authority of the
German emperors ceased in that city, as Muratori
observes; but in the fourteenth they vvere unable to
maintain their authority against the povverful factions
in Rome, and retired to Avignon, vvhere they re-
mained seventy years. *

The interior of the vestibule is adorned vvith co-
lumns of granite and of marble, taken from an-
cient buiidings.

The central door of the church is of bronze, with
bas-reliefs. On each side of the central door are
the doors commonly used for entrance from the ves¬
tibule into the church, and on one side is the porta
santa, a door-way vvalled up, vvhich is opened vvith
ceremony by the pope at the Jubilee. There is a
porta santa at the other three principal basilic
churches of Rome, Saint Paul, the Lateran, and
Santa Maria Maggiore. The year of Jubilee, or
the Holy Year, vvas instituted by Boniface VIII.
in 1300, vvith plenary indulgence to the faithful
vvho should visit the churches of  Saint Peter and
Saint Paul at Rome during that year. It had the
u

JUBILEES.

289

effect, at that time, of bringing vast numbers of pil-
grims to Rome, and rich offerings to the pope’s
treasury. The interval betvveen the years of Ju-
bilee vvas at first one hundred years, aftervvards it
was reduced to fifty, and the number of pilgrims
being found profitable to the popes and to the in-
habitants of Rome, the Jubilee vvas sometimes cele-
brated at the end of thirty-three, twenty-five ; and
even, at last, of ten years, during the simultaneous
existence of the rival popes. *

Saint Peter’s is built of Travertine stone. The
stones obtained, about 1587, from the demolition of
the Septizonium of Septimius Severus, vvhich had
become ruinouš, were employed in the construction
of Saint Peter’s by Sixtus V. t

The nave, vvith its great lateral pilasters, are of

* See Chais, Lettres Historiques sur les Jubilees et les In-
dulgences, a la Haye, 1751.

See Leti Vit. Sixt. V. The Septizonium of Septimius
Severus, vvhich Nardini does not admit to have been the tornb
of that emperor, consisted of three stories or tiers of colon-
ades, at the time of its demolition; it vvas situated at the foot
of the Palatine hill, opposite to the church of Saint Gregory.
A fortified tovver vvas built upon it in the middle ages, as
on many other ancient structures, and this fortress resisted
the attacks of the Emperor Henry IV.; Muratori Anah d’Ital.
Tom. IX. A vievv of the Septizonium, as it vvas in the six-
teenth eentury, is published in Donatus de urbe Roma, in
Grasv. Thes. Antiq. Rom. Tom. III. Fig. 31.

T

2<jO SAINT PETER’s.-MOSAICS.

Travertine Stone, painted to represent white marble
with blue veins. The cylindrically-arched ceiling of
the nave is covered with šunk pannels containing or¬
namenta richly gilt. The side aisles, or side naves
as they are termed in Italy, and by the French les
bas cotes, are incrusted with marbles of different co-
lours. The church receives a great deal of  light from
the windows, which are well disposed for that pur-
pose, and is free from the obscurity that prevails in
many large churches.

Ali the pictures in the church are composed of
Mosaic, which resists the effects of humidity better
than oil paintings do. Amongst these Mosaics
there are copies from the two celebrated master-
pieces, RaphaeFs Transfiguration, and Domenichi-
no’s Communion of St Jerom. The originals of
both of which are now in the picture gallery of the
Vatican Palače.

The chair at the west end of the nave, with the
colossal statues of bronze that support it, is designed
by Bernini. The effect of this huge fabric is ra-
thet heavy. It is an example of the degenerate or¬
namenta! style that prevailed in the seventeenth cen-
tury.

Under the cupola is the high altar, over vvhich is
the grand canopy, the baldachino of bronze support-
ed byfour spiral-shafted columns, also of bronze. This
canopv, čast out of the bronze beams taken from the
soffit of the portico of the Pantheon, is well propor-

ILLUMINATED CROSS.

291

tioned to the size of the church, and on account of
its being seen at the same time as the great pilasters
of the church, it appears of a moderate size, Its
height is said to be equal to that of the Farnese
Palače, which consists of three tiers of very lofty
windows.

On two evenings of Eastei’ week, the inside of
the church is illuminated by a cross suspended at
the eastern verge of the cupola. This cross is about
twenty-four feet high, covered with brass plates, on
which are fixed about 120 lamps. There is no
other light in the church, and the arms of the cross
being rectilinear and without ornament, a simple
and pleasing effect is produced. The idea may
have been borrowed by Bernini from the lustre, in
form of a four armed cross, in the church of Saint
Mark at Venice.

In a chapel, near the entrance, is a group of the
Virgin mourning over the dead body of Christ,
by Michael Angelo. The subject is called la Pieta.
It was the earliest of his celebrated statues. The
next vvas the David in the piazza del Grandu ca at
Florence. *

By the side of St Peter’s chair is the sepulchral
monument of Paul III. Farnese, with recumbent
emblematical female figures, after the design of

* Vasari, Vita di Michel Agnolo Bonarroti, Firenze, 1550.

292

SAINT PETElPs.—ALGARDI.

Michael Angelo, but not executed by him. Pru-
dence is represented by a female of an age some-
what advanced. The other figure was considered
too naked, and a drapery of bronze has been added.

In the south transept is the large marble sculp-
ture, in high relief, by Algardi, representing Saint
Leo, and the Apostles Peter and Paul, vvho appear
in the air compelling Attila to retreat from Italy. *
By Algardi also is the monument of Leo XI. de
Medici. Of the four statues larger than life, at
the great piers which support the cupola, that of St
Andrew, by Fiamingo, t is the best.

The sepuichral monuments are in considerable
number. Besides the two already mentioned, and
several others, there is one of Pope Clement XIII.
Rezzonico, who died in 1?69, and was succeeded by
Ganganelli, sculptured by Canova.—One in memory

* Near Verona and the Southern extremity of the Lake di
Garda,  Attila, in 452, was induced to withdraw his troops
front Italy by means of an embassy front Valentinian. Saint
Leo, bishop of Rome, was one of the ambassadors, but he
did not succeed, three years after, in prevailing on Geneseric,
king of the Vandals, to retire from before Rome, which
Geneseric took and piilaged. The Sermons and Epistles of
Saint Leo exist in libraries.

-J- Francois du Quesnoy, called in Italy ifFiamingo from his
country, was bom at Brussels, and died at Leghorn in 1644.
He executed bas reliefs of groups of children, which are
jnuch esteemed.

SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS.

293

of Christina, * queen of Sweden.—The monument
of Clementina Sobieski, styled in the epitaph Queen
of England, consort of the Pretender to the crovvn.
—That of the Countess Matilda, whose ashes were
brought from Mantua in 1630; she made a dona-
tion of her dominions to the popes, and Viterbo,
which they stili retain, was a part of this donation,
as mentioned before. t

Under the pavement of the cupola is the subter-
raneous edifice called the chiesa antica,  the old
church. It is low, being only eight or nine feet to
the top of the Hat elliptic arches vvhich compose the
ceiling. It contains various altars with lamps bum-
ing before them; the shrines in which are the
bodies of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, and a number
of large stone arks, sarcophagi, or quadrangular urns,
containing the remains of different popes. A granite
sarcophagus contains those of Pope Adrian, a native
of England, who was pope from 1154 to 1159.

* Christina, after resigning the crown of Sweden, em-
braced the Catholic religion and lived at Rome in 1668.
She formed an academy or meeting of learned men in her
palače for the cultivation of poetry. This meeting gave ori-
gin of the Academy deli’ Arcadia, which exists in Rome at
this day, and which was instituted in 1690 for the purpose of
correcting the bad taste in poetry which then prevailed.
Tiraboschi, štor, del lett. It.

f See page 176, and Fiorentini, Vita della Gran Contessa
Matilde.

2Q1 SAINT PETER’s.-VESTRY.

Near it are the urns holding the ashes of the Pre-
tender to the crown of England, who died in 1766,
aged 72; of the Cardinal of York; .and of Chris-
tina, queen of Sweden.

Women are not permitted to enter this subterra-
neous church, for fear the darkness of the plače
should invite to sensual rather than spiritual love.

The length of Saint Peter’s, within the walls, is
606 feet 9^ inches, taking the Roman palm at
8^5 English inches.*

The sacristy, or vestry, is attached to the south
side, and is more recent than the rest of the church,
having been constructed in 1777> in the time of Pius
VI. Braschi. It contains large presses of walnut-tree
for the reception of the church-plate, which was di-
minished in quantity during the last invasion of the

* On a line dratvn along the middle of the pavement of
Saint Peter’s, from the tvest end to the east door, are marked
the lengths of Saint Peter’s itself, and of five other large
churches; the length of each is set off from the tvest end of
St Peter’s, and is indicated by a brass star, and the name in-
serted in the pavement. These marks are as follotvs, begin-
ning from the east:

Templum Vaticanum, Saint Peter’s, measured tvithin tualls,
837 Roman palms; Londinense Paulianum, Saint Paul’s,
London,  710; Primarium Templum Mediolanense, the Ca-
thedral at Milan, 606;  Basilica Sancti Pauli via ostiensi,
Saint Paul’s near Rome, 572 ; Constantinopolitana Diva?
Sophise Ecclesia, Sanda Sophia at Constantinople,  4p2.

I

THE CUPOLA.

295

French. The relics, of which there is a great collec-
tion, are shewn to the puhlic from one of the high
galleries under the cupola at Easter and other great
festivals.

On the walls of the vestibule of the sacristy are
incrusted some ancient Roman inscriptions, found
in digging the foundations of the sacristy. Amongst
them are the acts of the college of priests, called
Fratres Arvales, in the year 218, in the reign of
Elagabalus, containing a hymn, which is considered
to be an example of the Latin language in its an¬
cient unimproved State.*

The way up to the roof is by a broad cordonated
spiral stair. The roof is terraced with brick, in planeš
gently inclined imvards so as to allow the water to
run into pipes disposed for carrying it away. The
roof, with the three principal cupolas and the other
smaller ones, to a spectator that is upon it, presents
the appearance of a piazza with different buildings.
The three principal cupolas are covered with lead,
and in some places with copper. In the vaulted
part of the great cupola, the stair is betvveen the
exterior and the interior vault, of which the cupola
is composed.

The view from the top of the cupola comprehends,

* This inscription is published under the title of Gli atti e
Monumenti de’ Fratelii Arvali, 1795.

296

SAINT PETER’s.—BONAROTL

like tliat from other eminences in Rome, the volcanic
group of the Latian hills, with Frascati and Albano ;
the more distant Apennines vvith Tivoli; the an-
cient Soracte to the left. The sea is seen in clear
weather. There is access into the bali, which is of
copper, and steps on the outside of the bali for go-
ing upon the cross. The height of the cross above
the base of the obelisk in the piazza is stated to be
471 English feet, and above the Tiber 502.

Saint Peter’s had at different times received injury
from lightning; to guard against such accidents it
was furnished with thunder-rods some years ago,
and ali the metallic parts on the roof are connected
together, and communicate with the ground by
metallic conductors.

Saint Peter’s was built in the space of about 100
years, from 1510 to 1610, duringthe pontificates of
Julius II., Leo X., and Sixtus V., and other popes,
and finished in the seventeenth eentury, in the time
of Paul V. Borghese ; some additions vrere made in
1650, under Innocent X. Pamfili.

That great genius Michael Angelo Bonaroti gave
the design which has been chiefly foliovved, super-
intended the building for seventeen years, and till his
death. Before his time the architects Bramante, Bal-
dassar Peruzzi, * Raphael and Sangallo had succes-

* A design of a flattish cupola for Saint Peter, by Baldas-
sar Peruzzi, is published in the Architettura de Sebastian Ser-

VIGNOLA.

297
sively the superintendence of the fabric, but nothing
of theirs is to be seen, Michael Angelo having pro-
ceeded on a design different fronti that foilowed by
his predecessors. At the death of Michael Angelo
the erect walls of the cupola were built, and he left
a model in wood, according to which the brick vault
©f the cupola and lantern were constructed after his
death.

After the death of Michael Angelo, which hap-
pened in 1564, Vignola * * was employed as architect
of Saint Peter’s, he followed the design of Michael
Angelo, and built the two small cupolas. The
front was constructed after the design and under
the inspection of Carlo Maderno. t The colonade
is after a  design of Bernini. Carlo Fontana esti-
mates that, up to 1694, a sum equal to ten millions
sterling had been expended on Saint Peter’s.

lio. Venet. 1663. The Massimi Palače at Rome is a work
of Peruzzi.

* Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola, born at Vignola, in the
dutchy of Modena, in 1507, and died in 1573, at the age of
66. His book on architecture, entitled the Rule of the Five
Orders of Architecture, has gone through many editions, in
different languages. The canal from Bologna to Ferrara ; the
aqueduct of the Acqua Vergine at Rome, which is a restora-
tion of the ancient Aqua Virgin« ; and was executed by order
of Julius III.; the octagonal palače of Capraola, between
Viterbo and Rome, built for Alexander Farnese, are some of
his principal vvorks. Tiraboschi, štor. deli. Lett. Ital.

f See Historia del Tempio del Vaticano, by Bonani, a Jesuit.

298 FRESCO PICTURES BY MICHAEL ANGELO.

Civitas Leonina.

The suburb of the Vatican was formed by the
Greek, Gothic, Lombard, and Saxon pilgrims, who
came to Rome, to visit the shrine of’ Saint Peter.
This suburb was surrounded by a wall, by Pope
Leo IV. in 849, and called the Civitas Leonina;
the name it is commonly known by is the Borgo San
Pietro. A fortified wall was afterwards made round
this suburb in 1548, under the direction of Jacopo
Castriotta of Urbino, by order of Paul III.

A covered passage forms a communication be-
tvveen the Vatican Palače and the castle of Saint
Angelo.

Sistine Chapel.

The Capella Sistina is in the Vatican Palače, ad-
jacent to Saint Peter’s. The ceiling is vaulted and
adorned vvith paintings, in fresco, representing the
Prophets and Sybils, by Michael Angelo. His ce-
lebrated fresco picture of the Last Judgment covers
the end wall of the chapel. Ali these pictures are
considerably injured by the smoke of the tapers used
in the church ceremonies.

In this chapel are performed the admired Services
of Tenebrae, on the Wednesday, Thursday, and
Friday of Easter week, in presence of the Pope and
Cardinals. The whole of the Service is sung by
voices, vvithout the accompaniment of any instrument.

THE pope’s ciiapels.  299

The chaunting of the lessons from the Lamenta-
tions of Jeremiah, and of the Miserere, is plaintive
and affecting. The great eftect of this mušic is ob-
tained by the perfect training of the band of singers
continually practised in singing together. The em-
peror procured a copy of the mušic from the pope,
and had it performed at Vienna, but vvithout the
effect that it produces in the Sistine.

The Capella Paulina,  which is near the Sistine,
both of them having their entrance from the hali
called the Sala Regia, contains, The Conversion of
Saint Paul, and the Crucification of Saint Peter, in
fresco, by Michael Angelo, much injured by the
smoke of tapers, which are lighted up in great num •
bers to receive the host, which the pope deposits in
the altar of this chapel on Good Friday.

The Scala Regia,  designed by Bernini, is a long
stair of one flight, which leads from the vestibule of
Saint Peter’s up to these chapels.

The Road leading to Saint Paul’s 'without the City.

To arrive at this church, we proceed by the way
vvhich passes between the river and the abrupt face
of the Aventine hill,  in which Virgil * describes the
den of Cacus to have been. Farther on, and on the
right hand, is the Monte Testaceo,  a considerable
eminence 174 feet in height, formed in ancient times

* JEneid. Lib. VIII.

300 MONTE TESTACEO.-PVRAMID OF CESTIUS.

by the broken pottery of Rome. The ancient Ro-
mans had a great variety of objects made of potter’s
clay, vessels for holding wine, tubes for conveying
water, large sarcophagi, bas reliefs, bricks of various
forms, tiles, and many others. The fragments of
earthenvvare vessels, of which Monte Testaceo con-
sists, are supposed to be the refuse collected from the
potteries of Rome, that it might not be thrown in-
to the river with injury to the depth of the channel. *
Monte Testaceo is now a plače to which the populace
resort for amusement in fine vveather; and at the
foot of the hill are drinking-houses for the reception
of the guests.

The pyramid ofCaius Cestius,  119 feet in height,
forms part of the wall of the city near the gate of
Saint Paul. Cestius was the friend of Agrippa.
The inscription bears, that he was one of the Sep-
temviri Epulonum, a fraternity or sodalitas, that had
the charge of the lectisternia, the feasts of the gods.
This fraternity was composed of persons of high
dignity, like the sodalitas of the Fratres Arvales,
whose decoration, the crown of ears of wheat, is seen
on the ancient busts of Lucius Verus and Antoninus
Pius. The paintings on the walls and ceiling of
the included chamber, which is small in proportion

* Marliani, Topog. Rom.

JACOB MORE.-—SAINT PAUl/s.

301

to the solid mass of masonry of the pyramid, are
drawn and published by Bartoli. *

Near the pyramid, and vvithin the walls of the
city, is the English bnrying ground.  Amongst the
monuments is one in memory of Sir James Macdo-
nald, erected by J. B. Piranesi, the engraver and
architect, in 1766. Another is placed over the re-
mains of Jacob More, the landscape painter, who was
a native of Edinburgh, and died in 1793. The
ground is uninclosed, and the monuments are de-
faeed by the mischievous, probably by reason of the
dislike which the populace bear to foreigners and
Protestants. The road from the gate of Saint Paul,
for a couple of miles, till we arrive at the church, is
between market gardens, in some of which the gar-
deners’ huts are perched upon masses of masonry,
the remains of old tombs, as if upon a piece of rock.

Saint Paul’s,

The basilic church of Saint Paul is the second of
the basilics in point of size. It wasrebui.lt byLeo III.
about the year 800.

The mosaic on the front of the church is of the
fourteenth century.

* Bartoli, Sepolchri Antichi, tav. 64, 65,  &c. A section of
the pyramid and cylindrically vaulted chamber is drawn in his
tav. 62. A dissertation on the pyramid of Cestius, by Falco-
nieri, is published in Graev. Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. IV.

302 SAINT PAUL’s.-ANCIENT COLUMNS.

The bronze door, which has only some rudely
engraved outlines of human figures, representing
scripture histories, was čast at Constantinople in
1070.

The interior of the church of Saint Paul is mag-
nificent, and exceeds ali others in Rome, by the
great number of large marble columns with which
it is constructed. There are five naves parallel to
each other, and separated by marble columns sup-
porting semicircular arches. The middle nave is
the largest, and has 40 magnificent marble columns,
37 feet in height; 24 of these columns are each of
one piece of pavonazzo marble, and formerly deco-
rated the tomb of Adrian, now called the castle of
Sant Angelo.

The number of marble columns in the side naves

is 80. At the Crossing, and in the transept, there
are ten large columns of granite, some of them of
red Egyptian granite, ,like that of the obelisks, the
others of grey granite. The vvhole number of co¬
lumns in the church is stated to be 120, ali taken
from ancient buildings. Above the arches in the
middle nave is a series of portraits of the popes
painted on the wall, and also subjects from scrip¬
ture, both much injured by time. There are some
small pointed arched windows in the side of the
church ; but the prevailing architecture of the build-
ing is the round-arched style.

There is some mosaic in the church, said to be of

BASILICA OF THE ROMANS.

303

the year 400, in the time of Saint Leo, bishop of
Rome. The carpentry of the roof is exposed to
view in the ceiling, and is said to be of cedar.

The church of Saint Paul is one of the four prin¬
cipal basilic churches of Rome, and has a porta San¬
ta, a walled door, opened by the pope at the jubilee.
The building, called Basilica amongst the ancient
Romans, according to the description given by Vi-
truvius, consisted of porticos formed of columns, in
which the public met for transacting business, and
containing apartments for courts of justice. The
first churches may have been formed of these an¬
cient basilicse, and the naves, or internal porticos of
which churches are formed, may have been derived
from the ancient Roman basilicae. The name also
of basilica, in the early times of Christianity, was
synonymous vvith church, and, in latter times, is ap-
plied to churches distinguished by certain privil eges,
as the seven basilic churches of Rome.

The original foundation of the church of Saint
Paul’s is ascribed to Constantine ; but the building
that now exists is not so ancient. The principal
columns were taken, it is said, from the Moles A-
driani, now the Castel Sant Angelo. That fabric
had not been stripped of its ornaments before 537,
in which year the Romans and the troops of Justi-
nian used it as a plače of defence, and threw the
fragments of statues upon the Goths, who were the
assailants; and this was 200 years after the death

304 SAINT PAUL’s.—MOSAIC COLUMNS.

of Constantine. Donati mentions, that the church
was rebuilt by Gregory II., who died in 731, and
aftenvards by Leo III., * who reigned from 795 to
816, and crovvned Charlemagne at Rome.

Adjacent to the church is a cloister, the columns
of vvhich are tvvisted and ornamented with gilded
mosaic, as is also the frieze.

The portico in front of the church was added by
Benedict XIII., Orsini, about 1726. Near the
church is a descent into catacombs, the old quarries
used as burying places by the primitive Christians.

Some way farther out on this road is the ancient
church AHe tre Fontane.

Saint John Lateran.

The four principal basilic churches in Rome are
the churches of Saint Peter, Saint John Lateran,
Santa Maria Maggiore, and Saint Paul. Of the
churches of Saint Peter and of Saint Paul we have
spoken already.

The church of Saint John Lateran is called the
principal church in Christendom, Lateranensis ec-
clesia urbis et orbis matei' et caput, and several ge¬
neral and provincial councils have been held in it.
The principal front, of Travertine stone, was erect-
ed about the year 1735 by Clement XII. Corsini,

* Donatus e Societate Jesu, de Urbe Roma, Lib. IV. cap 5.

11

THE LATERAN.-VERDE ANTICO COLUMNS. 305

under the direction of the architect Galilei, and has
a loggia or open gallery on the second tier, for the
pope to give his benediction from on solemn occa-
sions. The Lateran has another less modern front
and loggia by Domenico Fontana, in the time of
Sixtus V. There are similar benediction galleries on
thefronts of the other three principal basilicchurches.
The niches in the interior are adorned with columns
of 'o er de antico  from the baths of Diocletian. This
beautiful marble, verde antico, is said by Visconti to
have been imported from Thessalonica, * others say
from Lacedemonia. One of the columns of antique
yellow marble which support the organ was taken
from the arch of Constantine, and fonnerly belong-
ed to Trajan’s forum. In the highly decorated Cor-
sini chapel is the tomb of Clement XII. Corsini,
consisting of a large antique sarcophagus of red por-
phyry, which was found in the plače before the Pan-
theon.

The two antique chairs of ancient red marble, one
of which is now in the museum of the Vatican, and
the other in the Louvre, were formerly used as ponti-
fical chairs in the Lateran church. They are per-
forated, and, it is supposed, were used in the an¬
cient baths.

The Patriarchium or palače, adjoining to the La-

* See Visconti’« Catalogue of the Statues in the Louvre.

306

LATERAN PALAČE.—SCALA SANTA.

teran church, was once inhabited by the popes ; the
fabric that now exists was built by the architect Do-
menico Fontana, in the reign of Sixtus V. Sixtus
V. also began the fabric of the Belvidere palače of
the Vatican. The popes at different times had their
residence at different churches in Rome ; at Santa
Sabina on the Aventine, at Santa Maria Maggiore,
at Saint John Lateran, and, lastly, at Saint Peter’s
on the Vatican. * This palače of the Lateran is
now used as an hospital for indigent girls, Conser-
vatorio di Zitelle.

Near the Lateran church is a chapel vvhich fomi-
ed part of the old church destroyed byfire in 1308.
This chapel contains the scala santa,  the stair, ac-
cording to tradition, of the house of Pontius Pilate
brought from Jerusalem. The faithful ascend this
stair on their knees; the steps are protected from
being worn by a covering of boards. Adjoining to
this is a tribuna vvith Mosaic, the remains of a hali
of the ancient pontifical palače, originally construct-
ed in the time of Leo III.

Near the Lateran is an ancient octagonal church
called the Church of San Giovanni in Fonte, or
the Baptisterium. The cupola vvithin is supported
by columns of porphyry, and the general form of

* Fabricii Descriptio Urbis Romae, cap. 2^, in Gracv
Thes. Antiq. Kom. Tom. III.

OBELISK OF THE LATERAN. 30/'

the edifice is like that of the church of Santa Con-
stanza and the church of San Stefano Rotonda.

The largest obelisk in Rome is erected on the
piazza of the Lateran. It is one of the four which
were placed by the architect Domenico Fontana by
order of Sixtus V. The other three are the obelisk
of Saint Peter’s, which was the only one then erect
and unbroken, and was at that time removed to its
present situation; the obelisk of the Piazza del Popolo;
and that of Santa Maria Maggiore, vvhich was
broken into three pieces. The mechanism employ-
ed in removing the obelisks, and an account of the
fabrics of Sixtus V., are published by the architect
D. Fontana, with engravings. *

The obelisk of the Lateran lay buried twenty feet
belovv the surface in the soil of the Circus Maximus,
which, by the ruin of the drains, had become a
marsh. t By order of Sixtus V., and under the di-
rection of Domenico Fontana, it was removed a dis¬
tance of a mile and a half up hill, and erected in its
present situation ; SuO men were constantly at work
in the removal. When found it was broken into
three pieces ; each piece was lifted up by ropes tied
round it; furrovvs in form of a cross were cut on

* Delta transportatione deli’ obelisco Vaticano et delle fa-
briche di N. S. Papa Sisto V. fatte dal CavaHier Domenita
Fontana, architetto di sna santita. In Roma 1500.

f Marliani Topog. Rom, 1544.

308

OBELISK,

the upper and under surfaces of the pieces; these
furrovvs were in form of a dovetail, in coda di ron-
dine; the ropes were passed in these furrovvs;
when the pieces were placed erect one above the
other, in the situation in which they were to re-
main, the ropes vvere vvithdravvn, and one cross
groove being directly over the other, dovetailed
pieces of granite, fitting exactly, vvere put into the
dovetailed cavities, and run in with lead ; in this
way the three fragments vvere fixed together. *

A broken pedestal vvas found in the Circus near
this obelisk, vvith an inscription, which shevvs that
the obelisk vvas brought from Thebes to Rome by the
Emperor Constantius. The obelisk of the Piazza
del Popolo also vvas found in the Circus Maximus,
and erected in its present situation by Sixtus V.

Santa Maria Maggiore.

The church of Santa Maria Maggiore, called the
Basilica Liberiana, having been originally founded by
Liberius,bishop of Rome, vvho began his reign m35 č 2,
is adorned internally vvith magnificent old lonic eo-
lumns of marble. It contains some Mosaic of the
year 434. The Borghese chapel is highly ornament-
ed, and contains the tomb of Paul V. Borghese. Of
the two cupolas vvhich are seen on the outside of the

* See Dom. Fontana, del. tr. deli' obelisco.

COLUMN OF SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE. 309
edifice,the one covers the chapel of Paul III. Farnese,
the other the chapel of Sixtus V. Felice Peretti.

Before the principal front of this church is erect-
ed a very large fluted column of cipollino marble,
vvhich was the last column that remained of the
Temple of Peace, the ruins of vvhich now exist in
the Forum Romanum, and was placed in its present
situation by Paul V. The height of the shaft is
46 English feet, 4 inches. It is surmounted by a
Corinthian Capital, on the entablature of vvhich is
placed a statue of the Virgin. This column vvas erect
at the Temple of Peace in the time of Poggio in
1430, and is mentioned in the account he gives of
the appearance of Rome in his book de Varietate
Fortunae. In old dravvings this column is represented
in the interior of the temple, and placed against one
of the piers vvhich support the arches. On medals of
Vespasian, who built the Temple of Peace, the tem¬
ple is represented with six columns in front. *

On the plače behind the tribuna of the church is
erected an Egyptian obelisk vvithout hieroglyphics,
brought to Rome by Claudius, and formerly placed
on the mausoleum of Augustus.

Michael Angelo’s Moses, in San Pietro in Vincoli.

The Moses of Bonaroti is placed oh the tomb
of Julius II. in the church of San Pietro in Vin-

* See Nardini Roma Antiča.

310

STATUE OF MOSES.

coli. It is larger than life, and seated ; and remark-
able for the noble commanding expression of the
lavvmver, and for the correctness of execution. It
is considered as Michael Angelo’« chief niasterpiece
in sculpture. The tomb vvhich this statue adorns
has no inscription, nor even the name of Julius II.
to whose memory it was erected. There are only
some oak branches sculptured on a frieze, the em¬
blem of the family della Rovere to vvhich he belong-
ed ; the name Rovere signifying robur, oak.

Some time ago the statue vvas brought forvvard a
little out of its rectangular niche in order to take a
mould from it, and since the mould vvas taken the
statue has been allowed to remain thus dravvn for¬
vvard, it being thought that the statue is seen to
more advantage than vvhen pushed back into the
niche. A čast from the above-mentioned mould vvas
lately exhibited in London.

Julius II. vvas violent and ambitious, and employ-
ed the arts to hand dovvn his name to posterity.
Raphael painted for him the rooms in the Vatican
palače, and in these paintings the portrait of Julius
is introduced several times.

The tomb vvas begun during the life, and by or-
ders of Julius, and vvas to have been of great inagni-
ficence. According to Michael Angelo’s original
design it vvas to consist of an insulated quadrangu-
lar fabric of marble 18 braccie, or about 33 English
feet, in length, and 12 braccie, or 22 feet inbreadth,

TOMB OF JULIUS II.

311

and within this there vvas to be an elliptic chapel,
with a recumbent statue of Julius. The portion
that vvas executed, and vvhich is seen at this day, is
only one of the smaller sides of the quadrangular
edifice. * Besides the statue of Moses, it is adorn-
ed vvith female figures representing la Vita Con-
templativa, or meditation, and la Vita Attiva, or ac-
tive life, and some others, not executed by Michael
Angelo, but after his design.

The church of San Pietro in Vincoli, vvhich con-
tains this admirable statue, is so called from its pos-
sessing the chain vvith vvhich Saint Peter vvas bound.
The interior is handsome, the nave being separated
from the aisles by tvventy-tvvo large antique fluted
columns of marmo Greco, vvith lonic capitals ; an
antique marble, so called at Rome, vvhich has light
blue veins, in parallel straight lines, running along
the length of the columns, and a large grained cry-
stalline fracture. The ceiling is a flattish arch.

Works of Art in other Churches,

In Santa Maria sopra Minerva  is the upright
statue of Christ holding the Cross, by Michel An¬
gelo,  and the monuments of Leo X. de’ Medici and
Clement VIL de’ Medici, by Baccio Bandinelli.

In the church of AxeSantiXIl. Apostoli  is the mo-

* Vasari, Vita di Michel Agnolo Bonarroti,

312

TOMB OF GANGANELLI.

nument of Clement XIV. Ganganelli, by Canova;
and in the vestibule a sculpture in relief, represent-
ing an emblematic figure of Friendship mourning
over a medallionof the copperplate engraver Volpato,
the work of Canova, and erected at his expence. In
this church is the tomb of Besarion. *

In the church of Santa Maria del Popolo  is a
statue of Jonas, executed after the model and un-
der the direction of Raphael. It is recorded by
an inscription on an altar in this church, that
Paschal II. drove away the evil spirits who were
perched on the branches of a vvalijut tree by the way
side, and insulted passengers. t According to the
tales of the middle ages, these demons were the
guardians of the ashes of Nero, who was buried in
the sepulchre of the Domitia family, t near the site
of this church.

In the church of Saint Augustine  is a picture of
Isaiah by Raphael, painted in emulation of Bona-
roti’s prophets in the Capella Sistina.

In the church of Santa Maria detla Pace  are the

* See p. 46.

f The inscription given byMontfaucon, in his Diarium, is as
follows: “ Altare a Paschaii Papa II. divino afflatu,ritu solenni
hoc loco erectutn ; quo dasmones proceros nucis arbori insi-
dentes transeuntem hinc populum dire insultantes confestim
expulit, Urbani VIII. Pont. Max. Auctoritate excelsiorem in
locum quem conspicis translatum fuit. An. Dom. MD CXXVII.”
See also the History of the Church, by Alberici.

J Sueton. Nero,

SANT ANDREA DELLA VALLE.—PASCHAL CYCLE. 313
paintings of the Sybils, by Raphael, but much in-
jured by time.

In the vault under the church of Santa Agnese,
in the Piazza Navona, is the celebrated sculpture,
by Algardi, in high relief, representing Saint Agnes
miraculously protected byher long flowing hair. The
two belfries in the front of this church resemble those
of Saint PauFs in London. The architecture of the
church and cupola is by Borromini.

In the church of Sant Andrea detla Vatle  are
the beautiful fresco pictures, on the vault of the
Apsis or Tribuna, by Domenichino.

The chapel pf the Strozzi family, in this church,
is after a design of Bonaroti, and contains tvvo
sarcophagi of black marble, of a form similar to
those designed by him in the chapel of the church
of San Lorenzo at Florence. There are bronze
statues on the altar, and the whole chapel is of dark
coloured materials.

In this church is a copy, in marble, of the statue
in the Vatican library, representing Saint Hypolite,
with the Paschal cycle in Greek engraved on the
chair, and here a Latin translation is added. The
original of this statue is of the time of Alexander
Severus; and, according to Winkelmann, is the
most ancient Christian figure in stone that exists.
The head pn the original is modern. *

* Winkelmann, Hist. de 1’Art, Tora. III. p. 252.

314

TASSO.

In the church of San Carla ai Catinari,  on the
four angles of the cupola, are fresco paintings by
Domenichino.

In San Luigi dei Francesi  are Acts of Saint
Cecilia, in fresco, by Domenichino.

The cupola of the church of San Silvestra  con-
tains some paintings by Domenichino.

In the portico of the church of Sant Onofrio  are
some fresco pictures, representing the actions of
Saint Jerome, by Domenichino. In this chulch is
the tomb of Tasso. *

* Torquato Tasso was born of a Bergamasc family, in
1514. His father, Bernardo, was author of two poems, on
subjects taken from romance, Amadigi, and Fioridante. Tor-
quato was patronized by Alfonso II., d’Este Duke of Ferrara,
and lived at his court. After the publication of his poem Tor-
quato fell into a State of melaneholy, and was on that account
confined at Ferrara, in the hospital of Saint Anne. He vvas after-
wards in Mantuaunder the protection of the Duke of Mantua,
on whose death he went to Naples, stili in a desponding State
of tnind, and suffering from the narrowness of his peeuniary
circumstanees. A short time before his death he came to
Rome, Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini having the intention
that Torquato sliould be crovvned with the poetic laurel in the
Capitol. But Tasso was taken ill, and had himself removed,
on account of the salubrity of the situation, and from religious
motives, to the convent of Saint Onofrio, then belonging to
the order of Saint Jerome, where he died soon after in 1595,
at the age of 51.

Soon after the appearance of his Gierusalemme Liberata,
a great contest began amongst the literary critics of Italy,

J2

SAN GREGORIO. 315

In the church of San Gregorio,  on the Mons
Caelius, are two celebrated fresco pictures : The Fla-
gellation of Saint Andrevv, by Domenichino, and the
crucifixion of Saint Andrevv, by Gnido. These tvvo
great masters painted these pictures at the same
time, each trying to excel, and to produce a work
superior to that of his rival.

In the church of the Santissima Concezione  is
the celebrated picture of the Archangel Michael, by
Guido, and Saint Francis, by Domenichino.

Santa Maria in Transtevere  is a fine old church,
with twenty two large lonic columns of granite, and
the pavement adorned vvith porphyry. On the ceil-
ing is the Assumption, by Domenichino. There is
a chapel, the architecture of which is by that master,
and also the painting on the ceiling. In this church
is some Mosaic of the year 1143.

on the question, whether the preference was <lue to that poein
or to the Orlando Furioso.

The Gierusalemme Liberata is considered as the first epic
poem in the Italian language ; Orlando Furioso as the first
poem of romance. Ariosto has a more fertile imagination;
Tasso’s expressions are more select and noble.

Metastasio is inclined to give the preference to Tasso, al-
though the general opinion is rather in favour of Ariosto.

Tasso’s pastoral drama l’Aminta is much esteemed. He
published many other works, the morbid state of his mind not
being of such a nature as to prevent his vvriting. See Tira-
boschi, štor. deli. lelt. Ital.

316

CHURCHES OF THE JESUITS.

Contiguous to the Jesuits’ College, called Col-
legium Romanum, is the church of Saint Ignatius,
the front of which is by Algardi, and the ceiling is
painted with an architectural design and figures in
perspective, by Pozzo, * a Jesuit, author of a trea-
tise on Perspective-

Another magnificent church belonging to the
Jesuits in Rome, is the church del Gesu,  adjacent
to the časa professa of their order. The interior of
this church is highly decorated with marbles-

In another church of the Jesuits is a recumbent
statue of Saint Stanislas.

Without the Porta Pia, the interior front of
which is after the design of Michael Angelo, is the
ancient church of Sant Agnese,  adorned inter-
nally with antique columns of pavonazzato and por-
ta santa niarble,t two of which have a double fluting
of a singular kind- The descent into this church
is by a flight of forty-five steps. The walls of this
staircase are covered with ancient Christian epi-
taphs.

Hard by is the round church of Santa Constan-

* Pozzo was a native of Trent, and died in 1709, at the age
pf67.

-j- Pavonazzato  is an antique marble, white, with purple
viens. Porta Santa  is so called from the door-posts of the
Porta Santa of St Peter’s being made of it; it is an antique
marble, with spots and veins of a brownish red colour.

SANTA CONSTANZA.—PORPHYRY URN. 317
za.  The church is seventy-six feet in diameter.
The central part is separated from the rest by gra¬
nite columns, in pairs, which support the arehes and
the cupola. The cupola is a hemispherical vault with-
out an aperture at top to admit the light. Each pair
of columns is placed in the direction of a radius.
According to the drawing of Cameron, * the round
church of Santa Maria Maggiore, near Nocera, very
much resembles this, having pairs of columns placed
diametrically. In the internal and external form
also, Santa Constanza is like the church of San
Stefano Rotonda, and the Baptisterium of the Late-
ran.

The ashes of Constantia the sister, and Constan-
tia the daughter, of Constantine the Great, were de-
posited in this church, in a large sarcophagus of
porphyry, sculptured with foliage in relief. The
sarcophagus was removed by Pius VI. to the Vati-
can Museum, of which, with its companion, the sar¬
cophagus of St Helena, it forms a conspicuous or¬
nament. There is some ancient mosaic on the walls
of this church, representing fauns employed in the
labour of the vintage, like the sculptures on the
porphyry sarcophagus of Saint Constantia.

The columns of this church appear to have been
taken from some more ancient fabric. The com-

* Camerons Ancient Baths.

SIS SANTA PRASSEDE.

posite capitals do not fit the shafts, some of the ca-
pitals being of a larger diameter than the shaft,
others of a smaller. * The arches, springing from
the entablature, constitute that style, from which
the round arched architecture of the middle ages
arose. The intrados of the arches does not coin-
cide with the plane of the bands of the architrave of
the entablature, from which the arches spring, but
is farther out;—this is evidently improper. From
the style of architecture, it is the opinion of Win-
kelmann + and others, that the church was built by
Constantine, his daughter Constantia having been
baptized there; that the fauns, grapes, and vine fo-
liage are only the remains of the pagan ornaments
which, at that time, continued to be employed in
Christian churches ; and that the edifice never was
a temple of Bacchus, as Ciampini and others have
maintained.

In the church of Santa Prassede  is a column
two feet high, called the column of the flagellation
of Christ, brought from Jerusalem, in 1223, by
Cardinal John Colonna. It consists of an uncom-
mon kind of granite or syenite, whose surface pre-
sents large vvhite angular spots with black angular
spots of hornblend ; it is called large spotted an-
tique black granite by the marble-cutters of Rome.

* Piranesi Ant. di Rom. Tom II. tav. 21, 22, 23.
f Winkelmann, Hisf. de l’Art, Liv. VI. chap. 8.

ScuLptures in, the, of the, Arahesgues oi' dieALhambrco. piuje.319.

In, lite. (Imrch, of‘

SantooiProssede, at: Rome..

ir. a  c. m.

iEtiinbunjii Puiiiiheil /•!■ I. Icnslnhle  r-

MOSAIC OF THE PASCHAL LAMB.

319

The door-post of the chapel of the column is
sculptured vvith an interlaced design like those that
are seen on tombs at Icolmkill, the island in Loch-
awe, and other old churches in the west of Scot-
land; and no doubt ali these sculptures are of the
same period, and by artists of the same school. In
the middle ages, the monastic establishments in
tbese countries had intercourse vvith Italy; and
Saint Columbanus, a native of Ireland, founded the
monastery of Robbio in Italy, in 612.*

On the hemispherical vault of the Tribuna or
Apsis, in old mosaic, is the Paschal lamb, and on
each side six sheep representing the Apostles. The
same subject is represented in mosaic in the tribu¬
na of the church of Santi Cosmo e Damiano, for-
merly the Temple of Remus, in the Forum Roma-
num.

Near the Arch of Januš is the church of Santa
Maria in Cosmedin.  Cosmedin is a Greek word,
$ignifying a part of the ornamental dress of the
priests. The temple of Pudicitia Patricia vvas on
this site in the year 261, and the ancient temple
has been altered and transformed into the church.
The ancient marble columns of  the temple vvith
Corinthian capitals are enveloped and hid by the
front of the organ loft, and are to be seen behind it.

* Mabillon Anqal. Bensd.—Tiraboschi, st. d. 1. T. III. 13J.

320

BOCCA DELLA VERITA.

This edifice was called Schola Graeca in tlie time
of Adrian, and Saint Augustine is said to have
taught rhetoric in it.

In the portico of the church is a large round slab
of marble, five or six feet in diameter, sculptured
with the representation of a human face in low re¬
lief, and perforated at the mouth, noše, and eyes.
It is said to have been in a temple of Jupiter, and
that those who made a solemn oath, placed their
hand in the mouth of the figure. Others suppose
that this stone was placed in a pavement, and served
to let the water pass into the sevver beneath. From
this figure, the church and the neighbouring plače
have the name of Bocca della verita.

In this church, and several other old churches in
Rome, are the tvvo marble reading desks called
ambones, that on one side of the church for the
epistle, that on the other side more elevated for the
gospel.

In the piazza della Bocca della verita, near the
side of the river, is the small round temple, said to
be of Vesta, with fluted Corinthian columns, now
the chapel of Saint Stephen,  called also Santa Ma¬
ria del Sole, in form and size like the round temple
at Tivoli. The temple of the Sun at Balbec, also
a Roman work, is somewhat similar.

Under this temple is the stone arch by which the
Cloaca Maxima issues into the Tiber. This arch

11

COLA Dl RIENŽI.

321

iš best scen from the opposite side of the river,
near the end of the Ponte Rotto. The arch is
semicircular, and composed of three courses of large
blocks of stone, which is said to be Piperino, one
over the other. The vacuity of the Cloaca is thirteen
feet in height, and thirteen feet in vvidth. A short
way from the issue, and near the Arch of Januš, a
stream of water, employed in turning a paper-mill,
flows into the Cloaca Maxima.

On the other side of the way is the church of
Santa Maria Egyptiaca,  anciently the temple of
Fortuna Virilis. The columns are lonic, and half
engaged in the wall, which formed the side of the
ancient temple; the front or pediment is gone ; part
of the building is of Piperino. * This church be-
longs to the Armenians.

Hard by is the house of Cola de Rienzi t in a
singular style of architecture.

* Piranesi Ant. di Rom.

t Nicola di Lorenzo, commonly called Cola di Rienzi, in
1347 had the supreme power in Rome, with the title of tri¬
bune of Rome. But from his imprudent conduct, his domi-
nion lasted only for a feiv months. For five hundred years,
from the beginning of the tenth to the end of the fourteenth
century, the city of Rome was in a State of lawless anarchy,
and afflicted by the private wars of the powerful citizens.
During the short time that Rienzi governed, he checked the
povver and punished the disorders of the Colonna and Ursi-
ni families and other barons, who possessed fortresses in the

322

CHURCHES—ANTIQUE SHIP.

The ancient church of Santa Maria in Domni-
ca,  called della Navicella,  on the Caelian hill, near
the Villa Mattei, is adorned with ancient columns
within, and was restored, with a new front, under the
direction of Raphael, by order of Leo X., who was
Cardinal of this church.

In the plače before the church is the model of
an ancient ship in marble, about fifteen feet in
length. A čast of this ship, from which the plače
is called piazza della navicella, is to be seen in
Greenvvich Hospital.

Not far from this is the ancient church of San
Stefana Rotonda,  which some suppose to have
been a temple of Faunus; but from its round-
arched style of architecture, the account, which
ascribes its construction to Saint Simplicius, bishop
of Rome, in the reign of Theodoric, is more pro-
bable. The figure of the church is round, and
140 feet in diameter. The central part is divid-
ed from the exterior parts, by a circle of ancient
columns, with lonic capitals. Many of these
columns are of granite. Through the centre runs
in a straight line a lofty arcade, supported by Co-
rinthian columns, an anomalous part of the build-

city and adjacent country, and vrere the protectors of every
kind of violence, when committed by their partisans. Rienzi
enjoyed the friendship of Petrarch, who entertaiijed hopes
that Rienzi was to bring back the prosperous days of Rome.

XV.

SAZNFTT GIOVANNI E PA O LO . P. 323.

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ROUND-ARCHED GALLERY.

323

ing which is perhaps necessary for its support.
The number of columns in the church is 58, the
spoils of more ancient buildings. The ancient
buildings have furnished a vast quantity of  columns
of marble and of granite, vvhich novv form the chief
ornament of many of the churches in Rome. Other
ancient columns are savved up by the marble-cutters
for various uses. This circular church resembles in
its general form the church of Saint Constantia and
the Baptisterium of the Lateran, but is of a larger
size.

A chair of vvhite marble is here preserved, from
which Saint Gregory the Great delivered his fourth
homily.

The church of Santi Giovanni e Paulo,  on the
Cselian Mount, near Saint Gregory, has an open
gallery of small arches, supported by columns, run-
ning on the outside of the round extremity of the
church ; this gallery is in the round-arched style of
architecture, vvhich commenced in the decline of the
Roman empire, and occurs in old churches in Eng-
land. Almost no pointed-arched architecture is
seen in the churches of Rome. At Florence there
is some.

In the basilic church of San Lorenza,  originally
founded by Constantine, and situated vvithout the
gate of San Lorenzo, are two ancient sculptured
sarcophagi, one of vvhich serves as the tomb of a
Cardinal, vvho died in the thirteenth century.

324 CHURCHES—AMBONES—CERA PASQUALE.

In the Tribuna are twelve ancient fluted columns
of pavonazzato marble, with Corinthian capitals.
Some of the capitals are ornamented in a singular
manner, with well scujptured human figures, inter-
mixed with the foliage of the Capital.

The two marble reading desks, called ambones,
here ornamented with round slabs of red porphyry
and green serpentine of the statuaries, and the twist-
ed column, with gilded mosaic for supporting the
paschal taper, are seen in this ancient church, and
in others of the old churches of Rome. The taper,
or cera pasquale, is a large wax-candle, painted with
foliage and ornaments, vvhich is lighted at Easter,
and continues to be lighted on certain subsequent
festivals.

Without the Porta del Popolo, near the Ponte
Molle, is the small polygonal church of Saint An-
drew,  with a round cupola, designed by Vignola. *

The church of Saint Martin  is adorned by a set
of landscapes, painted on the walls of the side aisles,
by Gaspar Dughet, commonly called Gaspar Pous-
sin, containing some figures by Nicholas Poussin.
The nave is separated from the ailes by twenty-four
antique columns of marble. The subterraneous
church underneath was bnilt by Saint Silvester, who
held a council there about tile year 324, at which
Constantine was present.

* See page 297.

BRICK TOWERS.

325

The church and convent of San Carlo alle quatro
fontane, called, on account of its small size, San
Carlino,  were constructed by Borromini in 1610,
on a space equal to the ground plan of one of the
four piers that support the cupola of Saint Peter’s.
This space is equal to a square, whose side is about
fifty-six English feet.

The church of Santa Maria delta Vittoria  con-
tains the statue of Saint Theresa with the Angel,
by Bernini, considered to be one of his best vvorks.

In the church of Santa Maria di l.oreto,  near
Trajan’s column, is a statue of Saint Susanna, by
the celebrated sculptor Francis du Quesnoy, called
il Fiamingo. *

In the court of the monastery of Saint Catherine,
on the descent which leads from Monte Cavallo to
Trajan’s column, is a brick tovver, built as a private
fortress by Gregory IX., in 1280, called Torre det¬
le Milizie.  It is one of these tovvers, constructed
in the middle ages as private fortresses, of vvhich
several stili exist in Rome, Florence, Bologna, Pa¬
via, and other cities in Italy. Another similar
brick tovver at Rome is called Torre de’ Conti, and
vvas built by the architect Marchione, by orders of
Innocent III., of the same family of Conti di Segin,
about the year 1200. t

* Concerning this sculptor, see page 292.

f Donatus de Urbe Roma, Lib. IV. cap. 8. Qua? post.
Leoneni IV. asdificata sur.t.

326

CHURCHES.—PHILIPPINI.

The interior of the church of Santa Maria in V a-
licella  is architecturally decorated by Pietro da Cor-
tona. There is a statue of Saint Philip Neri by
Algardi, and some pictures by Rubens and others.
The church belongs to the Oratorians of Saint
Philip Neri, who perform some musical orato-
rios during Lent, in a chapel contiguous to the
church. Before the oratorio a short discourse is de-
livered, vvith Iively expression, by one of the boys
vvho are educated in the monastery. To these
representations women are not admitted, in order
to prevent indecent behaviour, which might take
plače by reason of the darkness of the chapel. The
Philippini or Oratorians are secular, and not subject
to monastic vovrs. The front of the monastery is by
Borromini, in the seventeenth century, and, like
his other fabrics, crovvded with ill-selected orna¬
ment.

The Janiculine hill is called Monte Aureo, from
the yellow colour of the gravel and sand, of which
its surface is composed ; and from this circumstance
is named the church of San Pietro in Montorio,  on
the Janiculine hill. In this church is a chapel
painted after the designs of Bonaroti, by Sebastian
del Piombo. * RaphaeFs Transfiguration, formerly

* Sebastian del Piombo, so called from the office of Frate
del Piombo, which he held at Rome, and which was so Ju-
crative as to make him idle and negligent of his art, as Vasari

6

FRANCISCAN FRIARS.

327

in this church, is now in the picture gallery of the
Vatican. In the middle of the cloister is a small
round temple, with a cupola, and circular por-
tico of sixteen Doric columns of grey granite,
built by the celebrated architect Bramante, by order
of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, who founded the
monastery ; the temple is said to be on the plače
where Saint Peter suffered martyrdom. This tem¬
ple is small, being only about twelve feet in diame-
ter vvithin. The principal floor is a chapel, and un-
derneath is a subterraneous chapel. It is, in its ge¬
neral form, an imitation of the round temple at Ti¬
voli, and that by the side of the Tyber, now the
chapel of Saint Stephan, both which are something
larger than Bramante’s temple. The temple of the
Sun at Balbec, a Roman work, is also nearly of this
kind.

The church and convent are now occupied by
monks of a mendicant order, Franciscans. These
monks make long journies into foreign countries;
the one that accompanied us to shew the monastery
had lately been at Constantinople ; he travelled ge-

relates, was a Venetian, as before mentioned, in p. 63.  His
martyrdom of Saint Agatha, in the Pitti palače, in ivhich pic¬
ture the executioners are represented tearing off the breasts
of the saint, who had refused to gratify the lust of Quin-
tianus, governor of Sicily, in the year 251, is mentioned in
p. 191.

328 CHURCHES—VIEW FROM THE JANICULINE.

nerally on foot, and sometimes, he said, on a sorry
nag a cavalluccio, when he could procure one. *

From the esplanade before the church is a fine
view of Rome. The white villas at Frascati are
seen on the Latian hilis, and Tivoli is perceived less
distinctly on the more distant mountains, vvhich form
part of the Apennines. This view from the Jani-
culine is mentioned by Martial, in his description
of the villa of Julius Martialis, situated on that
hill. t

* The friars are accustomed to a hard life, and are put to
the use of various expedients to maintain themselves, and
make converts. They can turn their hands to any thing. In
a voyage published by Ramusio, there is an account of one
of them vvho vvas in the country near the river Don, and eni-
ployed himself in catching wild fovvl vvith a net, by vvhich in-
dustry he gained so much money as to purchase a Circassian
boy, to whom he gave the name of Partridge, (Pernice.) and
made him a friar.

“ Ritrovandosi a quel tempo nella Tana, (the country ncar
the Tanais, or Don,) un Frate Thermo deli’ ordine di San
Francesco, con un rizaglio faccendo di due cerchi uno grande,
e ficcando un palo alquanto storto in terra fuor delle mura;
ne (di gallinaccie, a large kind of tetrao, or grouse) pigliava
dieci e venti al tratto; e vendendole, trovo tanti danari: che
di quelli comprd un garzon Cercasso, alquale pose nome Per¬
nice, e fecelo frate.” Viag. di Barbaro, in 1434, in Ramusio,
Tom. II. fol. 93, E.

j- Juli jugera pauca Martialis,
Hortis hesperidum beatiora,
Longo Janiculi Jugo recumbunt.

THE SEVEN CHURCHES.

329

In the church of the Trinita de’ Pellegrini  is a
picture of the Trinity, by Gnido.

In the church of Santa Maria detla Traspon-
tina,  near Saint Peter’s, is the tomb of Nicola
Zabaglia, who died in 1750, eminent for his ine-
chanical inventions. * *

The church of San Luca e Santa Martina,  be-
longing to the Academy of Painters of Saint Luke,
near the Arch of Severus, is designed by Pietro da
Cortona, and is ornamented vvith an octagonal cu-
pola.

Catacombs of the early Christians.

In allusion to the seven churches of Asia Minor,
Ephesus, Laodicea, Sardis, Thyatira, Pergamus,
Smyrna, Philadelphia, typified by the seven candle-
sticks, the like number of churches in Rome were
endovved vvith particular indulgences, granted to
the faithful who visit them, and aftervvards the

Puris leniter admoventur astris,

Celsae culmina delicata vili®,
Hinc septem dominos videre montes
Et totam licet ®stimare Romam.

Albanos quoque, Tusculosque colles

Et quodcunque jacet sub urbe frigus.

Mart. Epigr. IV. 64.

* Zabaglia vvas a carpentcr, and, in the reign of Benedict
XIV. Lambertini, he erected the large obelisk of the Campus
Martius at Monte Citorio. A description of the machines
invented by Zabaglia vvas published by Bollari in 1743.

330 TOMBS IN THE OLD QUARRIES OF POZZOLANA.
popes extended these indulgences to seven altars,
situated in certain churches in different parts of
Italy; so that there is often seen vvritten over an
altar, for the information of the devout vvhe desire
to gain the indulgences, unum e septem altaribus.
The seven churches of Glendallough, in the coun-
ty of Wicklovv, derive their number from the same
source. *

These seven basilic churches of Rome are Saint
Peter’s, Saint John Lateran, Santa Maria Mag-
giore, Saint Paul, Santa Croce in Gierusalem, San
Sebastian, and San Lorenzo; three of them are
vvithout the vvalls.

San Lorenzo, one of these seven churches, is si¬
tuated about two miles vvithout the gate of San Lo¬
renzo. From this church there is an entrance to
one of the ancient arenaria, or pozzolana quarries.
This arenarium, called the cemetery of Saint Ciriaca,
is a low and ill formed gallery of a mine, driven
through the volcanic tufa. It is a small depth un-
der the surface, perhaps fifteen feet. On the side
of the gallery are rude ill formed shelves, on vvhich
the bodies of the primitive Christians vvere deposit-
ed. This galllery is said to extend to the church
of  Santa Agnese, two miles distant.

The volcanic tufa, in vvhich the catacombs are
formed, is considered to be an argillaceous stratum

* See Smith’s Survey of'the Seven Churches of Asia.

POZZOLANA USED FOR MORTAR.

331

which has been burnt by volcanic fire, and is of a
reddish bvown colour. It is the subsoil in the
eastern part of Rome, and the adjacent country.
In some places it is in a pulverulent State, and then
it is called Pozzolana, and is used in Rome for
making mortar, which acquires great hardness. Ter¬
ra Pozzolana is so called from Pozzuoli, near Naples,
where the best was got, as Vitruvius mentions. For-
merly considerable quantities of pozzolana used to
be imported into Britain for mixing with lime to
form the mortar of bridge piers, canal-lock basins,
harbours, light-houses, and other fabrics, situated
under water. But vvithin the last twenty years it
has been found that clay ironstone, calcined in the
fire and reduced to powder, has the same eflfect, and
when made into a paste with water soon becomes
hard, and is not washed away by the water in which
the fabric is constructed ; this has been named Ro¬
man cement, and in the neighbourhood of London is
made of the nodules of clay ironstone that occur in
the London clay; on the banks of the Firth of
Forth it is made of a stratified clay ironstone, also
near Whitby. It is now generally used for the pur-
poses for which pozzolana was formerly imported,
and likewise for smooth plastering the fronts of
houses in London.

There is an entrance into another extensive range
of catacombs in the basilic church of Saint Sebastian,

332

AGNUS DEL.

near the circus of Caracalla ; there are other cata-
combs near Saint Paul’s.

The bones found in the above-mentioned cata-
combs have been for centuries of years sold as re-
lics of martyrs. Only these tombs, hovvever, that
contain a small glass vessel of red liquor called a
Lacrymatory, and have the letters B. M. in-
scribed, that is, Beatus Martyr, are considered by
antiquaries as the tombs of martyrs. * The glass
phials vvere used for holding balsams and other li-
quors, of vvhich libations were made on the ashes of
the dead.

A paste composed of tvax and the pulverized
bones from the catacombs, after receiving the papal
benediction, is stamped into medallions, bearing the
figure of a lamb, and distributed to the faithful.
This kind of medallion is called Agnus Dei, from
the figure imprinted on it. The ceremony of  be-
stovving the benediction on this paste was performed
by the pope in Easter week of this year, 1818.

Rome.— Sect. II.— Ancient Works of Art.— Coliseum.

—Pantheon.—Column of Trajan—Column of Antoninus.

—Arches—Monument of the Claudian Aqueduct Obelisks.

—Circus of Caracalla—Tomb of Metella.—Baths of Ti-

* See Muratori Antiq. Ital. Dissert. LVIII.

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AMPHITHEATRE.

333

(us,—Moles Hadriani.—Mausoleum of Augustus—Forum
Romanum Forum of Nerva—Palače of the Ccesars.—
Theatre of Marcellus—Quirinal Hill; Colossal Statues.
 Amphitheatrum Caslrense Temple of Minerva Medi¬
ca.—Piazza Navona ; Pasquino.—Museum ofthe Fatican ;
Garden of the Belvedere of the Vatican.—Museum of the
Capitol.

Coliseum.

T he  most remarkable * of ali that remains of
ancient buildings in Rome, and the largest Roman
building of stone that exists, is the Coliseum.

The name Coliseum, othervvise vvritten Colosseum,
is derived by some from a colossal statue of Nero,
placed in the vicinity. Maffei derives the name from
the magnitude of the building. The amphitheatre



* It is described by Martial as exceeding ali other fabrics :
“ Omnis Csesareo cedat tabor ampliitheatro;

Unum pras cunctis farna loquatur opus.”

Ammianus, in 350, mentions the Coliseum : “ Amphitheatri
molem solidatam lapidis Tiburtini compage, ad cujus summi-
tatem aegre visio humana conscendit.” Ammian. lib. xvi.
And Cassiodorus. in the time of Theodoric, in the year 500 :
‘ c  Hoc Titi potentia principalis divitiarum profuso flumine co-
gitavit aedificium fieri, unde caput urbium potuisset.” Cassio-
dor. lib. v. ep. 42. Bede relates that, in his time, in 735, the
pilgrims who visited Rome were wont to say that the Colise¬
um was made to endure as long as the great globe itself;—
“ Quamdiu stabit Colyseus, stabic etRoma; quando cadet
Colyseus cadet Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mun-
dus”

334

MAGNITUDE OF THE COLISEUM.

of Capua, of which little now remains, was next to
the Coliseum in size.

This vast amphitheatre, built by Vespasian about
the year 75» and completed by his son Titus, was
1702 English feet in its external elliptic circumfer-
ence, which was composed of eighty piers, and as
many apertures on each tier. The long axis of the
external circumference is 612 English feet, the short
axis 507, the height of the external wall 163.*
According to Publius Victor, the Coliseum contained
77,000 seats. +

The external wall consists of four tiers, the three
lowest with arcades and columns, the highest with
rectangular pilasters and windows.

The external vvall is of the calcareous tufa of Ti¬
voli, called Travertine Stone ; the vaults on vvhich
the seats were supported are of large flat brick.
Some of the pavement of the corridors is of small
brick set in the herring-bone form.

The part that remains erect of the great external
wall is the northern and long side, extending over
about half of the original elliptic circumference,

* See Maffei, Verona Illustrata;—L’anfiteatroFlavio descrit-
to e delineato dal Cavaliere Carlo Fontana, nell’Haia, 1725
Les Edifiees Antiques de Rome mesures par Antoine Des-
godetz, dedie a M. Colbert.—Architettura di Serlio.

f “ Regio III., Amphitheatrum qaod capit loca LXXVII
Millia; in other editions LXXXVII Milila,” P. Victoris de
Region. Urbis Romee liber.

DILAPIDATIONS.

335

the rest has been demolished for the sake of the
materials, and the Travertine Stone, of vvhich it was
composed, was used for building.

The arch of Trajan was demolished to form the
arch of Constantine, and churches built in the time
of Constantine are seen to be formed of coiumns
taken from more ancient fabrics. And, aftervvards,
in the fifth century, the inhabitants of Rome vvere
in the habit of demolishing ancient public edifices
to employ the materials in building, as appears from
an edict of Majorian, Emperor of the West, for-
bidding these dilapidations. *

Theodoric was at pains to maintain the ancient
fabrics in Rome, as appears from the vvritings of his
minister Cassiodorus; an officer called Custos niten-
tium rerum had the charge of the ornamented pub¬
lic buildings and statues.

Barthelmy speaks of a letter in the Vatican vvhich
treats of an agreement betvveen the Colonna and
the Ursini, in the fourteenth century, about the
right of taking Travertine stone (Tiburtinus) from
the Coliseum. + The stones served both for building
and for burning into lime. At that period, how-
ever, few building materials vvere vvanted. The fa¬
brics constructed in these times of anarchy vvere

• Novell® Majorianae, Lib. VI.

f Mem. sur les Ane. Mon. de Rome, par l’Abbe Barthe-
lemy, in the Mem. de l’Acad. des Inscript.  Vol. XXVIII.

336

COLISEUM—PERFORATIONS.

only a fevv brick tovvers, serving as fortresses,
and erected upon the solid masonry of the ancient
buildings; Rome being then thinly peopled, the
inhabitants poor, having neither arts, Com¬
merce, nor a regular govermnent, and divided
into factions at war with each other. The di-
lapidations, therefore, vvere for a long time in-
considerable, and confined to the interior parts
of the amphitheatre. The building suffered most
after the revival of the arts, when large palaces
came to be erected, for vvhich the squared Traver-
tine stones of the Coliseum afforded a good mate¬
rial, and saved the trouble of quarrying and bring-
ing the stones from the rock tvventy miles distant.
The exterior wall remained entire till the middle of
the sixteenth century, vvhen the nephevvs of Paul III.
Farnese demolished a great part of the exterior vvall,
and employed the stones in building the Farnese
palače. The palače of the Cancelleria, by Bra-
mante, is also built of the Coliseum Travertine.

A strong and lofty buttress has been constructed
by the reigning pope, Pius VIL, to support the
extremity of the remaining part of this external vvall.

The perforations, vvhich are numerous, betvveen
the stones of the piers in the outer wall appear to
have been made for taking out the iron pins by vvhich
the stones vvere connected. * The stones vvere laid

* Salengre Thesaurus Romanus; and Montfaucon Dia-

COLISEUM.—PERFORATIONS. 337

vvithout mortar, as in the elliptic theatre at Pola and
many other Roman fabrics. Maffei observed similar
perforations in the stones of the Roman arch at
Suša, and having made a perforation in one of the
stones that was entire, he came to an iron pin, run
vvith lead into a cavity in the bed of the lovver stone. * *
Some of these perforations in the Coliseum seem
also to have been made for the insertion of rafters
to support the roofs of booths and small shops,
vvhich may have existed there during the middle
ages.

Barthelemy, from a measurement he made in com-
pany with Jaquier, calculates that the external
vvall of the Coliseum vvould have coSt, in his time,
(1761,) a sum equal to L. 680,000 sterling ; la-
bour vvas then cheaper than it is novv, and the ex-
ternal vvall may be only a third or fourth part of the
vvhole vvork.

The sanguinary exhibitions of the gladiators, t for
vvhich this fabric was constructed, vvere notabolished
till the reign of Honorius. t In the year 1332 a buli

ritim Italicum. Many treatises have been published concern-
ing the perforations in the Coliseum.

* Maffei, Ver. 111. The pins, vvhich are sometimes of bronze,
and the cavities for receiving them, are dravvn in Piranesi,
Antich. di Roma. Tom. IV. tav. 6.

t Maffei, Ver. 111.

t Seneca exclaims against the atrocity and the immoral
effect of this Roman entertainment, vvhich is said to have

838

COLISEUM,

feast was exhibited in the Coliseum, in which the
Colonna and Ursini factions were conspicuous. * *
At that time, probably, the stone seats remained
vvhich are now entirely demolished.

Round the elliptical circumference of the arena
are placed the altars or stations of the via crucis,t
and two or three friars live in one of the damp
vaults of the ruin, to officiate, and to receive the
contributions of the charitable. The plače is con-
sidered as holy, on account of the martyrdom of
many of the early Christians, who were exposed to
wild beasts in the arena.

been borrowed from the Etruscans, and which was unknown
to the Greeks and other nations of antiquity. “ Nihil vero est
tam damnosum bonis moribus, quam in aliquo spectaculo de-
sidere ... crudelior et inhumanior redeo ... Mane leonibus et
ursis homines, meridie spectatoribus suis objiciuntur. Inter-
fectores interfecturis jubentur objici, et victorem in aliam
detinent coedem. Exitus pugnantium mors est, ferro et igne
res geritur.” Senec. Epist, 7. See also Cassiodor. lib. v.
ep. 42.

* See an historical dissertation on the games of the middle
ages, in Muratori, Antiq. Italic. Disser. XXIX.

-f- The via crucis  is a representation of the different circum-
stances of the passion that occurred in ascending the hill to
the crucifixion. It consists of a path, with a certain number
of stations ; at each station is a picture representing one of
the events. The whole is intended to impress the mind with
an image of the passion, and the devout Roman Catholic pro-
ceeds along the path repeating certain prayers at each station.

ASRIPPA.

339

The French, when they had possession of Rome,
made excavations in the arena, and found several
sewers for leading off the water from the building.

The Pantheon.

The Pantheon was built by Marcus Agrippa, and
restored, 230 years after, by Septimius Severus, and
his son Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, called Cara-
calla, as the two ancient inscriptions attest. The
first of these inscriptions is on the frieze of the por-
tico, the other on the two bands of the architrave. *
The third consulship of Agrippa, in wllich the
portico was erected, happened in the twenty-
seventh year before Christ. Adjacent to the Pan¬
theon were the baths, vvhich vvere amongst the
many public works executed by Agrippa, the son-
in-law and friend of Augustus. + Ide bequeath-

* On the frieze, in large letters, M. AGRIPPA. L. F. =
COS. TERTIUM. FEC1T.

The other, on the two fascie of the architrave, and in smaller
letters. imp. c.t.s . septimius . severus .pius . pertinax .=
ARABICUS . ADI ABEN1CUS . PARTHICUS . MAXIMUS . PONTIF. =
MAT. TRIB. POT. XI. COS. IH. P. P. PROCOS. ET.

IMP. C-ffiS. M. AURELIUS ANTONINUS . PIUS . FELIX . AUG.=
TRIB. POTEST. V. COS. PROCOS. PANTHEUM . VETUSTATE . =
CORRUPTUM . CUM OMNI CULTU RESTITUERUNT.

d “ M. Agrippa ... qui tot in urhe maxima opera excitavit
quae et priorem magnificentiam vincerent, et nulla postea vin-
cerentur.” Seneca de Beneficiis, lib. 3.

340

PANTHEON.

ed these baths and the annexed gardens to the Ro¬
man people for the general use. He also construct-
ed the aqueducts of the Aqua Virginis and Aqua
Julia, * and formed 10.5 fountains, (salientes,) in the
city ; he restored the Aqua Marcia ; he repaired
the Cloaca Maxima, and other sewers, and con-
structed new ones.

The Pantheon was first dedicated as a church in
609, to the Virgin and the holy martyrs, by Saint
Bonifacius IV., bishop of Rome. It is now called
la Rotonda, and is dedicated to Santa Maria ad
martyres.

The portico produces a noble effect, being sup-
ported by eight large columns in front, and eight
columns vvithin, and on the sides. The shaft of
each column is of one piece of granite, forty feet in
height. Two of the front columns at the east cor-
ner were avvanting, and vvere replaced in 1660. The
beams that formed the ceiling of the portico over
the door vvere of bronze, + vvhich Urban VIII.,
Barberini, took about the year 1680, and formed
of it the canopy ovei’ the high altar of Saint Peter’s,
and the chair of Saint Peter. The two belfries are
by Bernini, erected by order of Urban VIII. In

* Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. 36. c. 15.

f See a figure of these bronze beams in the Architettura
di Serlio. lib. iii.

PANTHEON.

341

erecting these belfries, the middle of the second pedi-
ment vvas taken away. This second pediment is re-
presented as entire in Palladio’s dravvings. The six
projecting stones on the face of the second pedi¬
ment, of vvhich Palladio says he did not conjec-
ture the use, are supposed by Piranesi to have ser-
ved for fixing tent poles on particular occasions,
like the apparatus for fixing the tent poles that is
seen on the upper tier of the Coliseum.

The round part of the building is constructed of
brick, vvhich vvas anciently coated vvith lime stucco.
Some of the bricks are disposed in arches in the
vvall. The diameter within the vvalls is 140 feet.
The height from the floor to the ceiling is also 140
feet. * The portico has been added, and did not
form part of the original design, as is visible in the
cornices of the round building, vvhich do not fit,
and join those of the portico.

In the interior of the building the hemispherical
surface of the cupola is covered vvith šunk quadran-
gular pannels, or cassettoni, vvhich formerly contain-
ed ornaments. There are thirty-two pannels in
the circumference, and five tier of pannels. The
exterior surface of the cupola is a lovv curve. The
round aperture at the top is not covered vvith glass,

* See the dimensions in Desgodetz, and in the Architett.
di Palladio.

342 BUSTS OF ARTISTS.

so that the rain falls on the pavement, the lovrest
part of which is in the middle, and is perforated by
holes, to allovv the water to pass into the drain be-
neath. This exposure to the vveather gives the in-
terior a dirty appearance. The Tiber sometimes
overflovvs so as to inundate the pavement of the
Pantheon.

A fraternity of artists is attached to this church,
and they have placed around the interior the busts
of eminent artists and authors, natives or inhabit-
ants of Italy. Some of these busts are represen-
tations of Raphael and Annibal Caracci, erected at
the expence of Carlo Maratt;—Corregio,—Nicolas
Poussin,—Palladio,—Mengs, the Saxon painter,
erected by the Spanish ambassador Azara;—Piranesi
the architect and copperplate engraver,—Angelica
Kaufmann the painter; this Iady was a native of the
Tyrol,—Pichler the elder, the engraver of cameos
and gems,—Bodoni of Parma, the eminent printer,
—Corelli, the celebrated violin performer and com-
poser,—Sacchini of Naples, the musical composer,
—Winkelmann, erected by Reiffenstein Metas-
tasio, who died in 1782, andmany others. Several
of these busts were erected at the expence of Ca-
nova.

The two Latin verses by Cardinal Bembo, under
the bust of Raphael, are remarkable only for their
extravagance, representing the Creator of the uni-
verse as emulous of a painter.

CAMPUS MARTI US.

343

The plače before the Pantheon is occupied by a
fish market, and is in a State of excessive filth. The
flat and low ground on which the Pantheon is si-
tuated was part of the Campus Martius. It was
first built upon in the time of Leo X.,* who brought
colonies from Lombardy and other regions to in-
crease the population of Rome, and the site of the
Campus Martius is now the most populous part of
Rome. A part of it is stili knovvn by the name of
Čampo Maržo.

Trajan's Column,

The column erected in the beginning of the
second century, in honour of Trajan, and sculptured
with a representation of his victories in Dacia, was
anciently surrounded by the forum of Trajan;
and, some years ago, the ground was cleared away
dovvn to a pavement composed of squared flag stones,
the pavement of the ancient forum. The shaft
consists of twenty-three large blocks of white marble
placed over each other, and perforated by a spiral
stair-case, the newel of which is solid.

The solidity of the structure of the columns of
Trajan and of Antoninus is proved by their having
stood to this day. They are mentioned by Poggio

♦ Lancisi de caali Romani qualitatibas.

344 SCULPTURES ON TRAJAN’s COLUMN.

in 1430, vvhen ali the obelisks in Rome lay pro-
strate, except the obelisk of the Vatican. *

The outer surface is sculptured with figures in
relief, representing the expedition against the Da-
cians. The sculpture is excellent, and superior to
that on the column of Antoninus ; but on both co-
lumns the figures are too distant from the eye, and
cannot be distinctly seen. The astonishing variety
of expression in the figures is best seen in casts ta-
ken from the column. + The pedestal is adorned
vvith trophies disposed in an agreeable manner.
The joint betvreen two stones often passes through
the middle of the sculptured heads, and therefore
Palladio is of opinion that the sculptures were exe-
cuted after the stones had been placed. The
height of the column, including the pedestal and
Capital, is 113 English feet 9 inches, a height, ac-
cording to the ancient inscription, equal to that of
the part of the adjacent Quirinal hill, vvhich was re-
moved to make the forum. The height of the co¬
lumn of Antoninus is eighteen inches less.

* Poggius de Varietate Fortuna:.

f The modellers of Home obtain plaster casts of heads and
parts of figures of the columns by means of a workman sus-
pended from the top, who takes a mould in clay ; from this
mould one plaster čast can be taken, and then the mould
becomes useless, by the shrinking of the clay.

To obtain a correct mould in plaster of ali the sculptures
on the column, would require an expensive scaffold.


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34>5

The forum of Trajan, in vvhich the column vvas
situated, vvas magnificently adorned with sculptures
by the able artists of that period, and vvas sur-
rounded by porticos vvith one or more triumphal
arches. The bas-relief sculptures of these arches
vvere taken dovvn and employed to adorn the arch of
Constantine, on vvhich they are seen to this day ;
the arts, at the time of  Constantine, having fallen
into decline, from vvhich they did not recover till
1100 years after, vvere not able to furnish enough
of sculptures for the arch, and what they did exe-
cute is far inferior to those taken from Trajan’s
arch. On the top of the column is a bronze statue
of Saint Peter, placed there by Sixtus V.

Column of Antoninus.

The column in the piazza colonna vvas dedicated
to Antoninus Pius, as appears from ancient medals.
The sculptures represent the victories of his succes-
sor M. Aurelius over the Marcomanni, and other
German nations. The column, it is supposed,
vvas erected after the death of Marcus, vvhich hap-
pened in 180. The sculptures are disposed in a
spiral line, like those of Trajan’s column, but are
considerably inferior in point of execution and ex-
pression. It is impossible for a spectator placed on
the ground to follovv the historieš on the column,
unless, perhaps, by means of a telescope and much

346 SCULPTURES OF THE WARS OF M. AURELIUS.

time, the figures being at too great a distance ; but
the whole series of reliefs of the Antonine column is
engraved by Bartoli, from dravvings that were in the
Barberini collection. The reliefs, as is seen in these
engravings, represent battles,—the passage of rivers,
—Marcus haranguing the troops, or the adlocutio,
as seen on his coins ;—camps,—burning of vil-
lages,—and the first series is terminated by tro-
phies, and a vvinged figure of victory inscribing
on a shield. This series is understood by anti-
quarians to represent the expedition of Marcus on
the Danube and the Maruš, now called the Morava.
After the figure of victory, a second series com-
mences, terminated at the top of the spiral by a
triumphal procession, with Marcus on horseback,
and is supposed to represent the expedition on the
Granua, or perhaps the Elbe. One of the sculp-
tures represents the rain in form of the Rainy Jupi¬
ter, or Jupiter Pluvius, which relieved the army
suffering from thirst, as historians mention. With-
out the explanations drawn from written histories of
the time of Marcus, these sculptures would be as
unintelligible now as the Egyptian hieroglyphics.

The column was surrounded by the forum of An-
toninus Pius, a part of which is now occupied by the
Piazza colonna. The column had suffered injury by
fires of the adjacent houses, and by a stroke of light-
ning. Sixtus V. in 1587, employed Domenico

i

COLUMNjE COCLIDES. 347

Fontana to repair these, and placed the bronze
statue of Saint Paul upon the top. *

The name of Columna Coclis is given to the co-
lumns of Trajan and Antonine, in Publius Victor’s
list of the fabrics of Rome.

There were two columns at Constantinople adorn-
ed with sculptures in relief, disposed spirally, like
the columns of Trajan and of Antonine. One of
these was erected in honoui' of Arcadius, and was
demolished in the beginning of  the eighteenth cen-
tury, because the neighbouring houses were in dan-
ger of being injured by its Fali. Of this column
there are engravings, after dravvings of Gentil Belli-
no, the Venetian painter, who was called to Con¬
stantinople by Mahomet II. t

The other, the column of Constantine, is called
the burnt column, having-been injured by fires. It
consists of seven large cylinders of porphyry, ex-
clusive of the base, t

There is an ancient column of antique red marble,
four or five feet high, sculptured spirally with the
representation of a triumph, in the gallery of the
Colonna palače at Rome.

Copies of Trajan’s column, two or three feet

* See Delle Fabriche di N. S. Papa Sisto V. fatte da Do-
menico Fontana Archittetto di sna santita, Rom. 1500.

f Banduri Imp. Orient. Tom. II.

| Winkelmann, Hist. de l’Art. liv. vi. chap. viii. de l’Art
depuis Septime Severe jusqua son dernier sort.

318

SPIRAL COLUMNS.

high, with the bas-reliefs, have been made in gilded
bronze by goldsmiths in Rome. The column erect-
ed by Bonaparte, in the Plače Vendome at Pariš, is
an imitation of those of Trajan and of Antonine, but
the reliefs are not sculptured on the column itself,
they are only bronze reliefs applied round a stone
column. Sir Christopher Wren’s column, the Monu-
ment in London, is remarkable for its size, but has
neither the sculptures nor the solid and massive
structure of the two Roman columns.

Triumphal Arches.

The Three Triumphal Arches  at Rome are those
of Titus, of Septimius Severus, and of Constantine.
The Arch of Titus  is the most ancient of the tri¬
umphal arches now remaining in Rome. It is not
so large a mass of architecture as either of the others,
and is the only one of the three which has sculptures
of a good style originally made for it. It has co¬
lumns of the composite order. The sculpture is ex-
cellent, but in many places defaced. On each side
of the arched passage are bas reliefs, the one repre-
senting the Emperor Titus, in a chariot drawn by
four horses, and accompanied by soldiers, crovvned
vvith lautel. In the sculpture on the other side is
seen the seven-branched candlestick, and other spoils
of Jerusalem. * In the middle ages, a tovver was

* See Reland de Spoliis Templi Hierosolomvtani in aren
Titiano Roma: conspicuis, 1716.

ARCH OF SEPT. SEVERUS.

349

built upon this arch. The arch vvas undergoing re-
pairs in IS 18, by orders of the pope.

The Arch of Septimius Severus,  in the forum Ho¬
manom, at the foot of the Capitolini hill, is perfo-
rated by three vaulted passages. The architecture
is esteemed good, but the sculpture is poor, and is
also much disfigured by time. Although these
sculptures, executed at the beginning of the third
century, are unskilfully designed, yet it appears
from other monuments and statues, that there vvere
stili some able artists at that period, and duringthe
third century.* The troubles that preceded the
reign of Constantine, in the end of the third centu-
ry, seem to have extinguished the school of arts,
vvhich vvas not revived in Europe till 1100 years
after, in the fifteenth century. The arch vvas ereeted
in honour of Septimius Severus and his tvvo sons, as
appears from the large inseription vvhich occupies the
upper part of the fabric. Caracalla, after he had
murdered his brother Geta, caused the name of Geta
to be effaced, but it is stili legible under the addi-
tional line that vvas substituted. Barthelemy has
published the original and the alteration. + The

* Winkelmann, Hist. de l’Art. liv. vi. chap. viii. de l’Art
depuis Septime Severe j usqua son dernier sort.

j- Memoire sur les Anciens Monumens de Rome par l’Abbe
Barthelemy, in the Mem. de l’Acad. des Inscriptions, Tom.
XXVIII.

350

ARCHES.

triumphal arch built by orders of Bonaparte, in the
Plače du Carousel, at Pariš, is copied chiefly from
this arch of Septimius Severus.

The Arch of Constantine  was erected in honour
of that emperor, in the beginning of the fourth
century, three years after he had got possession
of Rome, by defeating the forces of Maxentius at
the Milvian Bridge, the Ponte Molle. The sculp-
tures in relief that represent the victories of Con¬
stantine are in a style that testifies how much the
arts had declined. But a great many of the reliefs
on this arch are in a good style, having been taken
from an arch of Trajan that was in the forum of
Trajan, near Trajan’s column, and these sculptures
represent huntings, and other actions of Trajan ; *
Trajan is represented with the golden circle called
Nimbus over his head. +

The Arch of the Goldsmiths.

The small arch, or rather architraved gate-way,
erected in honour of Septimius Severus, by the gold¬
smiths, is situated in the Forum Boarium near the
Arch of Januš, and by the ancient church of San
Giorgio in Velabro. The sculpture is in little es-
timation. The figure of Geta was erased by or-
der of Caracalla.

* These bas reliefs are published in the Admiranda Roma-
narum Antiquitaturn Vestigia, engraved by Bartoli.

j- See Plin. panegyric.

JANUŠ.-—BRICK T0WERS.

351

The Arch of Januš.

The arch of Januš Ouadrifrons  is a quadrilateral
mass of building, composed of large squared pieces
of marble, and perforated by two spacious passages,
so that each of the sides is occupied by a great arch,
by the side of vvhich are a number of niches. The
buildings of this kind, called Jani, in ancient Rome,
were used as places of meeting for merchants and
money-dealers, * and were different from the temple
of Januš. Thirty-six Jani are mentioned by Victor
in his list of the fabrics of Rome. The temple of
Januš Bifrons, which was shut in time of peace, was
in the Forum Romanum, and of a different shape,
as appears from its figure on ancient medals.

When Rome had passed from the command of one
of the largest empires recorded in history, and had
become in the middle ages a small plače of 30,000 in-
habitants, without government, and divided into seve-
ral factions at war with each other, the chiefs of these
factions erected towers, or fortresses, to defend their
power. One of these brick fabrics is seen on the
Januš, which was called the tower of Cencio Fran-
gipani, + from the name of the baron who built the

* “ Sed toto hoc genere de quaerenda, de collocanda pecu-
nia etiam de utenda commodius a quibusdam viris ad medium
Janum sedentibus, quam ab ullis philosophis, ulla in schola dis-
putatur.”—Cie.

f Cencio Frangipani  was a powerful baron in Rome in

352

ARCHES.

tower. The tomb of Adrian became the tower of
Crescentius, the greatest of ali the fortresses; others
are seen erected on the tomb of Metella, on the
tomb of Plautius, on the arch of Titus, on the arch
of Septimius Severus as figured in Donati. There
was one on the Septizonium.

The Arch of Gallienus.

The arch of Gallienus, erected in honour of that
emperor about 265, has no sculpture of human fi-
gures, and little merit in point of architecture.

The Arch of Drusus.

The arch of Drusus, near the gate of Saint Sebas-
tian, is built of large blocks of Travertine stone,
and is not ornamented with sculpture. One of the
ancient aqueducts passed over this arch.

Hip. Pandulphus Pisanus relates, that Frangipani dragged
Pope Gelasius II. from the altar of the church, and kept him
a prisoner in chains till the pope was rescued by the factions
who opposed Frangipani.

Brancaleone of Bologna, who was governor of Rome, inde-
pendent of the pope, in 1253, demolished in Rome and the
vicinity 140 towers, used as strongholds by the rapacious and
mischievous barons.

Fabricius, in 1550, mentions 360 towers in Rome, some of
them at that time falling to ruin; see G. Fabricii Chemni-
censis Roma, cap. 2. in Graev. Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. III.

4

bp^LConStable aCoJ-820.

CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT.

353

Monument of the Aqua Claudia.

The magnificent fabric, which commemorates the
Aqua Claudia at the Porta Maggiore, was a part of
the arched edifice for conveying the two streams
brought into Rome by Claudius, and formed at the
same time one of the gates of ancient Rome. It was
perforated by two arched-ways, one of which serves
for the gate-way of the Porta Maggiore. Within the
town, over the arched-ways, are three inscriptions
of a great size, the largest that exist in Rome. The
highest of the three commemorates the formation
of the aqueduct by Claudius, the second its restora-
tion by Vespasian, and the third the restoration by
Titus. * There were two formae, or conduits, for

* The three magnificent inscriptions, as given by Marlia-
nus, are,

TI. CLAUDIUS . DRUSI . F. CAISAR . AUGUSTUS . GERMANICUS

PONTIF. MAX1M.

TRIBUNICIA . POTESTATE . Xlj.' COS. V. IMPERATOR . XVII.

PATER PATRIŽE.

AQUAS . CLAUDIAM . EX . FONTIBUS . QUI . VOCABANTUR . CIE-
RULEUS . ET . CURTIUS . A MILLIARIO . XXXV.

'ITEM . ANIENEM . NOVAM . A MILLIARIO . LX1I. SUA . IMPEN-

SA . CURAVIT.

IMP. C7ESAR . VESPASIANUS . AUGUST. PONTIF. MAX. TRIB.
pot.  n. imp.  vi. cos. ni. desig.  uii. p. p.

z

354)  INSCRIPTIONS OF THE claudian aqueduct.

higher level, and consequently that conduit vras
above the other.

Pliny mentions the Aqua Claudia as a greater
work than any of the aqueducts that preceded; it
was brought from the distance of forty miles, on so
high a level, as to supply the most elevated of the
hills in the city. * *

Other fountains were taken in near Sublaqueum,

AQUAS . CURTIAM . ET . CAERULEAM . PERDUCTAS . A . DIVO

CLAUDIO ET POSTEA.INTERMISSAS.DILAPSAS.QUE

PER . ANNOS . NOVEM . SUA . 1MPENSA . URBI . RESTITUIT.

IMP. T. CŽESAR . DIVI . F. VESPASIANUS . AUGUSTUS . PON-

TIFEX. MAXIMUS . TRIBUNIC.

POTESTATE . X. IMPERATOR . XVII- PATER PATRI2E . CEN*
sor  . cos. vin.

AQUAS . CURTIAM . ET . CjERULEAM  . PERDUCTAS . A . DI¬

VO . CLAUDIO . ET POSTEA.

A , DIVO . VESPASIANO . PATRE . SUO . URBI . RESTITUTAS .=
CUM . A . CAPITE . AOUARUM . A . SOLO . VETUSTATE . DI-
LAPS.E . ESSENT NOVA . FORMA . REDUCENDAS . SUA . IM-
PENSA . CURAVIT.

See Urbis Rornae Topographia Bartholomei Marliani, lib.
iv. cap. xi.; also Grater’s CoIIection of Inscriptions.

* “ Vicit antecedentes aquarum ductus novissimum impen-
dium operiš inchoati a  C. Caesare et peracti a Claudio; quippe
a lapide quadragesimo ad eam excelsitatem, ut in omnes urbis
montes levarentur, influxere Curtius atque Caeruleus fons :
erogata ad id opus sestertia 555,000.” Plin. Hist. Nat,

CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT.

355

now Subiaco, tvventy miles above Tivoli, on the A-
nio, so that the whole length of the forma, or con-
duit, was forty-six ancient miles, of which thii*ty-
six miles were subterraneous, and nine miles sup-
ported on arches. *

Egyptian Obelisks.

The obelisk is called by Herodotus o /3sXo?, by the
Italians guglia, needle. Pliny, Ammianus Marcel-
linus, and Publius Victor, mention six or seven large
obelisks, and Publius Victor, in the time of Va-
lentinian, enumerates forty-two small obelisks at
Rome, t The number of Egyptian obelisks in

* See Frontinus de Aquaeductibus urbis Rom®.

j- “ Obelisci magni sex.

II. In circo maximo major est pedum CXXXII. (now at the
Lateran.)

Minor pedum LXXXVIII. semis, (now at the Porta del
Popolo.)

Unus in Vaticano pedum LXXII. (now at Saint Peter’s.)

Unus in Čampo Martio pedum LXXII. (now at Monte
Citorio.)

Duo in Mausoleo Augusti pares singuli pedum XLII.
semis, (nov; at Santa Maria Maggiore and Monte Cavallo.)

In insula Tiberis unus, (this is not mentioned in the older
editions.)

Obelisci parvi quadraginta duo. In plerisque sunt nota;
2Egyptiorum.” P. Victoris de regionibus urbis liber. Some
of the lengths mentioned by Victor and Pliny do not agree
with the actual measurement.

356 OBELISKS PROSTRATE IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

Rome at this day is tvvelve, of vvhich eleven are
erect, three are vvithout hieroglyphics, and three
are of a smaller size than the others. Ali are of
large-grained red granite, and some of them are
remarkable for their size. Each was originally of
one piece, but some of the largest are broken in-
to several pieces. This granite is of such amature,
as to resist the action of the weather, so that the
hieroglyphics remain quite entire, after having been
esposed for 3000 years. The hieroglyphics are in
relief, but this relief is on the surface of the cavity
šunk in the stone ; the cavity is of the form of the
outline of the figure, and serves to protect it.

In the time of Pog-gio, in 1130, ali the obelisks
vvere down, and most of them broken, except the
obelisk of the Vatican. * The four obelisks of the
Vatican, the Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore, and
the Piazza del Popolo, vvere erected by Sixtus V.
about the year 1590. Other three obelisks of con-
siderable size have been erected more recently at
Monte Citorio, at the Trinita de’ Monti, and at
Monte Cavallo.

I. The obelisk of the Vatican is vvithout hiero-
glyphics. It is of one piece unbroken, and was the
only one that remained erect during the middle
ages, near Saint Peter’s. It bears an ancient in-
scription, vvhich attests that it was dedicated to Au-

* Poggius de Varietate Fortun®.

xvr.

Rmeral Tine "t'tir JUechanim emploved h- DomenieoTontana forRemmnng
JtJUrectiiuj "Sit-OleUflt ofthz VcftuMin ■ 1^357.

L« a Jope pa.^ Srem the Mehek b oru, afihp 44 eapstans- The /ran^reree
and diagonal iunta-a. sereral of theStave and viher paeticulore are not dram.

JEdinlnir^h^PuTjli-flied bvA- Constalle. &■ CoJ82O.

REMOVAL OF THE OBELISK.

35/

gustus by Tiberius. Its height to the apex is eighty-
three English feet nine inches. It is seven feet se-
ven inches square in the middle of its height, and
its weight is above 300 tons. * It was removed
to its present situation in front of the church by
Domenico Fontana, by order of Sixtus V.

In 1584, it was erect near the old vestry of Saint
Peter’s, and was buried, by the accumulation of
marshy soil, up to the top of the pedestal. The
four lovver angles rested on four pieces of metal,
fixed with lead in the pedestal. There was an in¬
terval betvveen the lower surface of the obelisk and
the pedestal. The operations to remove it vvere as
foliovvs. +

The castellum.— A castellum, or shears, was con-

* The length, exclusive of the pyramid at the apex, is
77j% English feet. The transverse section at the middle is
7^ feet square. The solid eontents are I66J-® cubic yards.
Each cubic yard of granite weighs, as Smeaton estimates,
2 tons ; the weight of the shaft of the obelisk, therefore, is
upvrards of 332 tons. The pyramid at top is upvrards of
4 tons; and the whole weight of the obelisk, upwards of 336
tons.—The height of the shaft, excluding the pyramid at top,
is 107| palnis ; each of the four sides at bottom is 12| palms,
at top 8 J the height of the pyi amid at top is seven palms ;
the palm is taken at 8 t ^j  English inches.

j- See Della Trasportazione deli Obelisco Vaticano e delle
fabriche di nostro Signore Papa Sisto V. fatte dal Cavallier
Domenico Fontana Architetto di sua Santita. In Roma, 1590.

358

REMOVAL OF THE OBELISK.

structed, seven £eet higher than the length of the
obelisk.

The eight principal uprights, four on each side,
were eighty-nine feet in height from the Foundation.
They were built of beams of oak and vvalnut, four
beams in thickness; the ends of the beams making
band, or not meeting; hooped at every nine feet with
strongironhoops,locked at two oppositepoints byiron
wedges; the beams vvere also held together by iron
bolts passing through them, secured by wedges in a
slit at the end. Moreover, the four pieces vvere tied
together at certain distances with bands of rope.
The whole scaffolding was made so as to be put up
again ; it being first used in taking down the obe¬
lisk, and then removed and employed in erecting
it. When the castellum was employed in erecting
the obelisk, the principal posts were fixed in holes
three feet square, in a  Travertine stone platform,
tvhich was part of the Foundation of the pedestal.

Coating of the Obelisk.— After the castellum, or
shears, was erected over it, the obelisk was wrap-
ped round with double mats, to protect it from in-
jury. And over these it vvas covered with two-inch
plank ; then iron bars, four inches broad, three of
them running along each face, connected in the
length by stirrups, and connected together belovv
the foot of the obelisk. They vvere introduced
under the obelisk by the interval between the
obelisk and the pedestal. The bars vvere kept close

REMOVAL OF THE OBELISK.

359

to the planks by nine transverse iron hoops. The
iron rods and hoops vvere for the purpose of  fixing
the blocks to. This coating of mat, vvood, and
iron, weighed about a tvvelfth part of the vveight
of the obelisk. Some of the hoops of iron broke
in lifting the obelisk from its pedestal, and ropes
vvere substituted, surrounding the obelisk trans-
versely, and fixed by ropes vvhich passed longitudi-
nally under the foot of the obelisk. The ropes vvere
found to stand better than the iron.

Lifting and Lowering the Obelisk.— The obe¬
lisk, covered in this way, vvas lifted up from its pe¬
destal, by means of the capstanes and blocks attach-
ed to the iron hoops on the obelisk, and the blocks
attached to the cross beams of the shears.

When the obelisk vvas lifted up two feet perpen-
dicularly, a platform of vvood vvas introduced under
the foot of the obelisk. This platform vvas placed
on vvooden rollers, nine inches in diameter, hooped
vvith iron at the ends. The ropes of the blocks at¬
tached to the four angles of the foot of the obelisk
being then dravvn, the platform bearing the foot slid
along on the rollers, and the ropes of the blocks, at¬
tached to the upper part of the obelisk, being slack-
ened, the obelisk descended gradually till it lay ho¬
rizontal on the platform. During the descent, the
obelisk vvas supported by two beams fixed to its mid-
dle, and moveable on an axis, that the ropes might
not be strained.

360

REMOVAL OF THE OBELISK

Removing the Obelisk.— A plane-way, of suffi-
cient breadth, was formed by a mound of earth,
from the first plače to the present situation of the
obelisk. The distance was about 100 feet. This
plane-way had a gentle descent. The sides of the
mound were supported by timbers, and cased with
boards. The surface of the plane-vvay coincided
vvith the top of the pedestal, on vvhich the obelisk
vvas to be placed, a mound of earth, strengthened
by beams, having been raised round the pedestal.

Erecting the Obelisk.— After the obelisk had
been taken dovvn, and moved to the plače appoint-
ed on vvooden rollers, it vvas erected by means of
forty-four capstanes; the capstanes vvere on the
plače round the mound ; the ropes passed up to the
mound from the capstanes on the plače over pul-
leys, vvhich gave the ropes their direction to the
blocks at the top of the castellum or shears, and
from these to the blocks fixed on three of the sides
of the obelisk. The capstanes vvere fixed on the
ground on each side, and each had four anns ; at the
first and third arm there was a horse, the second
and fourth vvere each vvrought by six to ten men.
Four of the capstanes served to dravv the foot of
the obelisk forvvard, acting upon four blocks, one
near each of the angles of the foot of the obelisk
forvvard. The rest vvere employed in raising the
obelisk till it vvas brought into a vertical position.

Foundation.— The foundation on vvhich Fontana

BY DOMENICO FONTANA.

361

erected the obelisk, was formed by an excavation
forty-three feet square and twenty-four feet deep;
the bottom of this proving clay and wet, was piled
with piles of oak and of chesnut, both with the bark
taken off, eighteen feet long, and nine inches in
diameter. The masonry in the foundation is of
small broken stones of basalt and pieces of brick,
with mortar made of lime and pozzolana.

At the time of the erection of the obelisk by Fon¬
tana, the edifice of Saint Peter’s was considerably
advanced. The windows and the erect part of the
cupola was formed, but not the vaulted part. *

Fontana is of opinion, that the upper part of this
obelisk was broken off and a nevv point formed on it;
because the height is not so many diameters as in
the obelisk of the Lateran, and the point is less acu-
minated, and not so smoothly finished as the rest of
the obelisk.

The obelisk reposed on four pieces of metal, which
were firmly run in with lead into the pedestal, and
a piece of iron, enveloped in the lead, was found un-
coroded by rust. On the top of the obelisk was a
hollow bali Of bronze čast in one piece, in which
were holes produced by mušket bullets fired at it in
the sack of Rome. It did not contain the ashes of
any mortal ; the vulgar belief was, that it contained
the ashes of Augustus.

* See the view in D. Fontana’« book.

362

OBELISKS.

The largest masses of stone have been vvrought
by the Egyptians. Also, in the ruins of the temple
of Balbec in Syi’ia, there are blocks of granite of a
very great size. Smeaton mentions one vvhich, ac-
cording to the measurement taken from the engrav-
ing in Wood’s account of Balbec, vveighs 1500
tons. *

The vvorking of these large blocks is an art un-
known to the Europeans both ancient and modern,
and there are fevv rocks in vvhich sound pieces of
such a size occur.

Of the obelisks brought from Egypt by the an-
eient Romans, the obelisk of the Vatican is the
largest that remains entire, and is the largest vvrought
Stone in Europe. The obelisk of the Lateran vvas
greater, but is broken into three pieces, vvhich were
moved separately vvhen it vvas put up by Fontana.
Another large mass of granite that has been moved
in more recent times, is the block vvhich serves as
base to the statue of Peter at Petersburgh ; but this
block is not squared or vvrought, being in the form
in vvhich it vvas found. It is an alluvial fragment,
like other rolled stones, and vvas not quarried from
the rock. The carriage on vvhich it vvas conveyed
moved on balls of metal, vvhich fitted into semicylin-
drical grooves in the lovver surface of the carriage,

* See Smeatons Account of the Construction of tiie Edy-»
stone Light-house.

OBELISKS.

S63

and in the upper surface of the beams of the
way. *

II. The obelisk of Saint John Lateran is the
largest in Rome, but is broken into three pieces. It
lay buried in the soil of the Circus M aximus, vvhich
had become a marsh from the neglect of the sevvers.
The obelisk was removed from that to the distance of
a mile and a half, and erected opposite the loggia of
the church of the Lateran by Domenico Fontana.
Its height is 107 Ret, 3 inches. It is covered with
hieroglyphics, of vvhich Ammianus Marcellinus has
given the explanation, taken from a Greek author,
Hermapion. According to this explanation, the
hieroglyphics form an inscription in praise of King
Rhamestes. “ The sun, the lord of heaven, be-
stowed power on the King Rhamestes ; Apollo, the
lover of truth and ruler of the seasons, and Vulcan,
the father of the gods, chose Rhamestes for their
vvarrior,” and so forth.t This obelisk was placed
before the Temple of the Sun at Heliopolis, and
Constantine intended to removeit to Constantinople;
but, on the death of Constantine, his son Constantius
had itbrought to Rome in the year 357.

111. The obelisk in the Piazza del Popolo, vvith
hieroglyphics, seventy-nine feet, nine inches in

* See Carburi, Travaux pour transporter un Rocher. Pariš,
1777.

f Ammian. Marceli, lib. xvii. ; and Bargsei Commcntarius
de Obelisco in Grjev. Thes. Antiq. Rom. Tora. IV.

S(54> OBELISK OF THE CAMPUS MARTIUS.
height, was removed to its present situation from
the Circus Maximus, and was brought to Rome by
Augustus.

IV. The obelisk, without hieroglyphics, at Santa
Maria Maggiore, forty-seven feet ten inches in
height. It is broken into three pieces, and was
brought from the mausoleum of Augustus. *

These four were erected by Domenico Fontana,
and the machines he employed are described in his
book.+

V. The obelisk on the plače of Monte Citorio is
of considerable size, with hieroglyphics. Many of
the hieroglyphics are broken off, and the fractures
have been repaired with the granite of the column
of the Apotheosis of Antoninus ; the sculptured
marble pedestal of that column was found near
Monte Citorio, and is novv in the garden of the
Vatican.

The erection of this obelisk, the largest that has
been removed at Rome since the time of Fontana,was
performed by the mechanist Zabaglia, about 17'12. t
This obelisk was anciently erected in the Campus Mar-

* A dravving of the fractures is given by Fontana.

t Bella trasportatione deli’ obelisco Vaticano, et delle fa- '
briche di nostro signore Papa Sisto V. fatte dal Cavallier Do¬
menico Fontana da Mili diocese di Como, architetto, di sua
santita. In Roma, 1590.

+ See an account of the inventions of Zabaglia, published
by Bollari. See also p. 329.

6

OBELISKS.

365

tius, not far from the plače vvhere it novv stands ;
and on the pavement, proceeding northvvard from
its base, Pliny relates, that a meridian line was
dravvn by order of Augustus, with marks to shew
the length of the mid-day shadovv, or the me¬
ridian height of the sun at different seasons of the
year; the shadovv of a bali on the top of the obelisk
falling upon the mark vvhich belonged to the day of
observation. * Montfaucon mentions, that some
fragments of this meridian line were found. +

VI. The obelisk at the Trinita de’ Monti, co-
vered with hieroglyphics, is forty or fifty feet long.

VII. The obelisk at Monte Cavallo, placed be-
tween the two colossal groups, appears to be forty
feet in length. It is vvithout hieroglyphics, and was
anciently on the tomb of Augustus.

* “ Is obeliscus qui est in Čampo Martio CX. pedum est,
a Mersotide inscriptus: reruraque interpretationem TEgvp-
tiorum philosophiae continet. Cui Divus Augustus addidit
mirabilem usum ad deprehendendas solis umbras, dierum-
que ac noctium magnitudines, strato lapide ad obelisci mag-
nitudinem, cui par fieret umbra Romae (brumae according
to Salmasius)  confecta diei sexta hora, (that is, at mid-day,)
paulatimque per regulas (quae sunt ex sere inclusae) singulis
diebus decresceret et rursus augesceret, digna cognitu res, et
ingenio fecundo, Manlius Mathematicus apici pilam auream
addidit.” Plin. Hist. Nat.

f Montfaucon, Diarium Italicum and Marliani topog.
Romaš.

366

OBELISKS.

VIII. The obelisk lying broken in two or three
pieces in a court at the Belvidere of the Vatican, is
of considerable size. On each of the sides that are
seen there are two rows of' hieroglyphics, the figures
looking to the right of the spectator. It has no
hieroglyphics inclosed in a border. The inclosed
hieroglyphics are the proper name of the king, as
Dr Young has shevvn in his explanation of the stone
in the Bntish Museum, on which one and the same
inscription is given both in Greek and in hierogly-
phics.

The other obelisks are of a smaller size.

IX. The obelisk on Bernini’s fountain, in the
Piazza Navona, was brought from the Circus of Cara-
calla, vvhere it lay broken.

X. The obelisk, vvith some hieroglyphics, appa-
rently tvventy feet high, in the garden of the Villa
Mattei.

XI. The obelisk in the plače before Santa Ma¬
ria della Minerva, vvith hieroglyphics, is fourteen
feet three inches in height. It is, perhaps, only a
fragment of an obelisk, as its height is only five di-
ameters to the foot of the pyramid at top, vvhereas
the height of the Lateran obelisk is nine or nine
and a half.

XII. The obelisk, vvith hieroglyphics, on the
piazza before the Pantheon, is ten or twelve feet in
length.

Part of the shaft of a broken obelisk vvith hiero-

ANCIENT LATIN LANGUAGE. 367

glyphics, is placed before the church of Saint Bar-
tholomevv, in the Isola Tiberina. *

The Via Appia leading to Capo di Bove.

Tomb of the Scipios. —On the left hand of the
road, before going out of the city, is the tomb of the
Scipios, discovered in 1780. A gardener’s house is
perched upon the ruins of the tomb, and under-
neath are the vaults in vvhich vvas found the parallel-
sided urn, or sarcophagus, of Piperino, novv in
the Vatican museum, tvvo busts, and some inscrip-
tions, of vvhich copies are placed in the vault. The
inscription on the urn is one of the exampies of the
ancient Latin before it was refined ; t other exam-
ples are the fragment of the inscription of Duilius,
in the Capitol, and the hymn of the Fratres Arvales,
in the vestry of Saint Peter’s. Before the situation
of the tomb of the Scipios vvas ascertained by the
discovery of this urn, the tomb on the Via Appia,
opposite to the church Domine quo vadiš, was sup-
posed to be the tomb of the Scipios. $

From the Porta San Sebastiano, anciently Porta
Capena, vve proceed along the road vvhich vvas an-
ciently the Via Appia, the ground on each side
of vvhich is occupied by market gardens. The small

* It is figured in Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. IV. tav. 14.

f See the inscription, in a subsequent page in the account
of the museum of the Vatican.

J Piranesi, Antichita di Roma, Tom. II. tav. 28.

368

POTS USED IN FORMING ARCHES.

houses, inhabited by those who cultivate the gardens,
are perched as it vvere on rocks, on the ruins of an-
cient tombs. These tombs are composed of masses
of small fragmenta of stones and pozzolana mortar, a
kind of masonry which possesses great firmness, and
has resisted the action of time, vvhilst the external
ornaments of the fabric have perished.

On the right hand near the road is the church of
Saint Sebastian, vvhich is one of the seven basilic
churches of Rome, and from vvhich there is a descent
leading into a set of catacombs or tombs, formed by
the ancient Christiana in the old quarries of pozzo¬
lana.

Circus of Caracalla.— On the other side of the
road is the Circus of Caracalla. The spine run-
ning along the middle of the oblong space vvhich
constitutes the circus, and on vvhich the obelisk and
metae stood, is stili visible. This is the only fabric in
vvhich the form of the ancient circus can be traced.
The circus Maximus and others are utterly destroy-
ed. The figure of the circus is seen on some an¬
cient coins.

The Egyptian obelisk, now on Bernini’s fountain
in the Piazzo Navona, was removed from this circus
of Caracalla, vvhere it lay broken, about the year
1650, by Innocent X. Pamfili.

The half arches, forming a projection from the
vvall that surrounds the circus, are composed of large
narrovv-mouthed eartheuvvare pots, of an oval form.

CAPO Dl BOVE.

369

and about eighteen inches in diameter. These pots
are imbedded in the mortar, but have no mortar with-
in them. Each pot has a narrovv mouth and two
handles. These pots occur also in the ancient fabric
called the tomb of Saint Helena, at Tor pignatara,
near Rome, and in other fabrics ; they are figured
by Piranesi. * They were used for the purpose of
diminishing the weight of the arch.

The vvalls of the circus are of brick, and near it
is a lofty quadrangular building of brick called the
Stables of the Circus, and considered by some to
have been a market. /

Tomb ofMetella.— Farther on the road ascends,
and on an eminence is the round building vvhich
formed the sepulchre of Caecilia Metella, daughter
of Quintus Creticus, and wife of the Triumvir
Crassus, as is attested by the ancient inscription in
large letters belovv the frieze. +

This massive structure has a square base, on which
is placed a circular building, 88 feet 6 inches in dia¬
meter, t the exterior of vvhich is of large blocks of
Travertine. The void space vvithin is in form of a

* Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. III.

+ Caecilia.

Q. Cretici.

Metellce.

Crassi.

t Piranesi, Ant. di Rom.

A a

370 CAPO Dl boVe.

cone, and about tvventy feet in diameter at the vvidest
and lower part. The mass of masonry is of great
thickness, coraposed of mortar and small fragment«
of stone čast in irregularly. The blocks of Traver-
tine vvhich form the exterior are built in along vvith
the irregular mass, and, according to Piranesi, the
blocks are fixed together by cramps of iron inserted
in cavities formed in the beds and run in with
lead. This kind of building vvith irregular masses
of stone is seen in many other ancient buildings ; at
the distance of every three or four feet there is a
level course of regularly laid pieces.

Within the tovver was found, in the time of Paul
III* Farnese, the large sarcophagus of white marble
novv in the court of the Farnese palače. The tovver
is surmounted vvith battlements constructed in the
middle ages, and there are buildings of the same
period attached to the tower. Over the gate of this
castle is the armorial bearing of the Gaetani family,
a bulPs head, for vvhich reason the vvhole building is
called Capo di Bove. It was an important fortress,
and gave protection to a small town of several habi-
tations that are built around it, during the long pe¬
riod that the rival factions of the Colonna and Ur-
sini, and other families, vvere contending for the
command of Rome and the neighbouring district.

The tomb of Cecilia Metella forms the extremity
of one of the bases measured by the learned mathe-
G

BASALI.—ANCIENT ROAD-PAVEMENT. 371

niatician and Jesuit, Boscovich, in his geometrical
survey of the ecclesiastical State.

Near Capo di Bove is a dike or vein of basalt,
which is considered by some geologists to have been
formed by a current of lava that flovred before the
times recorded in history, from the volcanic hills of
Albano. This basalt is not divided into polygonal
columns ; but columnar basalt is to be seen near
Bolsena, on the road betvveen Rome and Siena.

This basalt of Capo di Bove was quarried by the
ancient Romans, and formed into their large pave-
ment stones, such as are stili seen in ancient pave-
ments of the Via Appia, near Capo di Bove, also
betvveen the arch of Titus and the arch of Constan-
tine, and in other places. In these ancient pave-
ments the surface of each stone is one or two square
feet. The figure of the upper surface of the stones
is an irregular polygon. The breadth of these an¬
cient Roman paved roads is about twenty-five feet.

The streets of modern Rome are also paved with
basalt from Capo di Bove, but the stones are small,
the upper surface of each being only two or three
inches square. To form the pavement these stones
are imbedded in mortar made with pozzolana, which
becomes very hard. This pavement is defective on
account of the small size of the stones.

From the eminence of Capo di Bove are seen the
long ranges of lofty arches of the ancient Roman
aqueducts. The arches are composed of large fiat

3j e 2  SMALL TEMPLES NEAR CAPO Dl BOVE.

bricks, two feet square, called in Rome tavoloni.
And the Acqua Felice, one of the three aqueducts
used for the supply of modem Rome, is seen sup-
ported upon arches by the side of the ancient.

Walking through the fields from Capo di Bove
we pass an ancient temple of a quadrangular form,
situated on the rising ground. It is built of brick,
and is supposed to have been dedicated to Bacchus.
It is now a half deserted chapel.

Fountain of Egeria.— In the hollovv is the grotto
and fountain della Caffarella, which is understood to
be that vvhich was consecrated to the nyraph Egeria,
from vvhom Numa pretended to receive his laws. *
The spring of vvater rises under a lofty antique vault,
the vvalls of vvhich are covered with Opus reticula-
tum. A mutilated recumbent statue is placed above
the source. There is one niche in the end vvall,
and three niches on each of the sides.

Follovving the course of the sluggish and muddy
brook Acquataccio, anciently called Almo,  into vvhich
the vvater of the fountain runs, vve pass a small
quadrangular temple of brick, called the temple of

♦ “ Egeria est quae pracbet aquas, dea grata camoenis.

lila Numte conjux consiliumque fuit.”—Ovid. Fast. 3.

See also Livy and Plutarch. Juvenal complains that
the grotto was adorned with too much neatness, and not in
the rural manner, as a grotto ought to be, with mossy margin
and natural rock. Time has now again brought the grotto
to the rustic form that Juvenal wished for.

THE ALMO.

373

Rediculus, the deity to whom the Romans ascribed
tlie retreat of Hannibal, when he quitted his encamp-
ment near Rome.* The architecture, however, of
this temple is evidently not of such remote antiquity
as the time of the republic. The Acquataccio re-
ceives the water of a spring called Acqua Santa,
vvhich is used for curing cutaneous diseases in cattle,
and also for some affections of the human body.
The Acquataccio runs parallel to the Via Appia;
it does not pass through Rome, but Tališ into the
Tiber a little below the city.

Proceeding, vve enter Rome again by the Porta
San Sebastiano.

Ancient Baths.

The baths of Titus,  the Termi di Tito, are si-
tuated not far from the Coliseum, and consist of
large vaulted halls, which are in part subter-
raneous, the building being applied to the side
of the hill. In these vaults were the baths, and
on the story above them may have been halls
for exercise, libraries, and other rooms. Where
the vault is broken, the light of day is admitted;
the halls, whose vaults are entire, are quite dark,

* “ Rediculi fanum extra portam Capenam Cornificius
ait fecisse, qui Rediculus propterea appellatus est, quia
accedens ad urbem Annibal ex eo loco redierit quibusdam
visis perterritus.” Fest.

374’ GROTESQUE PAINTINGS.

and in order to render visible the fresco paint-
ings on the lofty ceilings, the keeper is provided
with lighted tapers fixed on a long reed. The walls
and vaulted ceilings of the different apartments are
covered with stucco, the surface of which is smooth,
and on this smooth stucco the fresco paintings are
executed. The stucco is composed of quicklime and
pounded marble, and was susceptible of being polish-
ed after it was dry. These paintings consist of the
ornaments called grottesque, which include, in dif¬
ferent places, pictures in which the human figure
is painted in an excellent style ; the colours are weli
preserved.

Raphael, and his pupil Giovanni da Udine, copied
this fanciful kind of ornament in the loggie of the
Vatican ; and the word grottesca  was applied to
ornaments of this kind, from the circumstance of
their occurring in the grottos or subterraneous halls
of the ancient ruins at Rome.

These are the principal ancient fresco paintings
now remaining in Rome. Engravings of them are
published. Since the publication another apartment
has been cleared of rubbish by the French. The
celebrated antique fresco picture, the Aldobrandini
Marriage, in which the marriage of Thetis and
Peleus is represented, was found near Santa Maria
Maggiore, andvvasat this time(1818)forsale in Rome,
inthepossession ofSignor Nelli. Havingbeendetach-
ed from its original wall, it is fixed in a frame. The

BATHS OF TITUS.—SALTPETRE BEDS.

375

colours have suffered and lost their lustre. A copy
of this picture by Nicholas Poussin is to be seen in
the Doria palače in Rome. Other fresco paintings
and ceilings, ornamented vvith stucco in relief, have
been found at Rome, and the neighbourhood, in
Adrian’s Villa, in the sepulchre of the Nasonii, in
the pyramid of Cestius, and in other tombs. *

The ground incumbent on the vaults of the baths
of Titus is occupied with saltpetre beds, composed
of alternate layers of stable litter, and the rubbish
of old walls, and placed under lofty sheds open at
the sides.

In the adjacent market gardens is the ancient
ruin called the Sette Šale,  vvhich contained the re-
servoirs of water for the baths.

The celebrated group of Loucoon, now in the
Vatican, vvas found in 1506, in the time of Julius
II., in the ruins of the palače of Titus near these
baths. It is supposed to be the statue described by
Pliny.

The baths of Diode lian,  or Terme Diocletiane,
form one of the most extensive ruins in Rome;
they were built and dedicated by that emperor, in
the year 304, a few years before he abdicated the
empire. t

* Some of them are figured in Catneron’s Ancient Baths;
in Bartoli Sepolchr. Ant.; in Piranesi, Ant. di Rom.

f See the Inscription in Gruter, Inscrip. p. 178.

376 TERME DI0CLET1ANE.—O1L CISTERNS.

The Therma?, in ancient Rome, were places of
public resort, and contained, besides the baths, por-
ticoes for vvalking, places of exercise, large public
libraries, and schools for various Sciences.

The size and magnificence of the baths in Rome
in the time of Nero are described by Seneca, in his
86th epistle, and compared with their simplicity in
the time of the elder Scipio.

These baths of Diocletian covered a great space
of ground, and much of the building yet remains,
consisting of massive brick arches. The vestiges of
the square, vvhich included the vvhole edifice, are
represented as measuring 1196 English feet each
side. * Some parts of the building are now occu-
pied as warehouses for keeping oil, and as granaries,
formed about 1710, by Clement XI. Albani. The
oil magazines belong to the papal government;
they are subterraneous, and vaulted over like a cellar.
In the floor are formed the pozzi or vvells for contain-
ing the oil. These vvells are, perhaps, ten feet
deep; their aperture at top is three or four feet in
diameter ; they are made of mortar, vvhich, like ali
the mortar used in Rome, is composed of lime and
pozzolana, and acquires great hardness. Round
the wall of the cellar is a range of masonry raised

* 1650 palms, Piranesi, Antichitadi Roma, Tom. I.

4

CHURCH OF THE CERTOSA.

377

two or three feet from the floor, containing smaller
oil cisterns, likevvise of mortar.

After a design of Michael Angelo Bonaroti, one
of the spacious halls of the baths, said to have been
the Pinacotheca, or picture gallery, was converted
into the church of the Certosa or Carthusian monas-
tery, dedicated to Santa Maria degli Angeli. Far-
ther decorations were aftervvards added under the di-
rection of Carlo Maratti, vvhose tomb is in the round
vestibule of the church, opposite to that of Salvator
Rosa. The church is in form of a Greek cross.
Two hundred columns anciently decorated these
baths, and eight of these of granite stili remain in
the church. These columns are of different lengths ;
and, in order that the visible parts of the shafts may
be equal, the longest ones have the Iower part šunk
in the ground, the ancient pavement having been
elevated by Michael Angelo.

Diocletian did not import the columns from
Egypt, but only collected them from other build-
ings, constructed in the more flourishing times of
Rome. The graphic arts had declined much at
the time of Diocletian, as is visible in his medals.
The baths of Diocletian are novv a great mass of
arched brick building, completely stript of the co¬
lumns and marble incrustations, but there is a spe-
cimen of the architecture of that period in the
palače of Diocletian, at Spalatro in Dalmatia, of
which there are good engravings, with a description

378 THE CERTOSA.-MERIDIAN.—CLOISTER.

published by Adam. * The use of round arches,
springing from the entablature of the columns, is
seen in the palače of Spalatro, a practice which af-
tervvards passed into the round-arched style of the
middle ase.

In this church of the Certosa is a long meridian
line drawn on the pavement, in 1701, by Bianchini,
on vvhich the iraage of the sun is received from a
vvindovv in the upper part of the building. The
declination of the principal stars is marked on the
line, and a note of certain remarkable events is made
by the side of the line, opposite to the day of the
month on which they happened. The apparent
orbits described by the polar star, as visiblc through
an aperture in the vvindovv, during eight hundred
years, to the year 2500, are projected in ellipses on
the pavement, near the meridian line.

In the church are several pictures, of  vvhich there
are copies in mosaic in Saint Peter’s, and a picture
in fresco, of the martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, by
Domenichino. Near the church is the cloister of
the Certosa, of 100 moderate-sized columns, the
work of Michael Angelo. The architecture is simple
and pleasing, with few ornaments. It forms the
four sides of a square, and consists of a corridor,
vvith an open arcade, and above that an attic story.

* The ruins of the palače of Diocletian at Spalatro, by
Robert Adam, architect, London, 176'4.

xvm.

OLD CTPRESSES, and Part of the CLOISTER. of the CERTOSA..

in Riocletians Ji aths. at Rome . P.37R .379.

Edinlninih l^iUishr.d l>y A. ( ^orurtalle <t ( '<> • 1K20.

BATHS OF CARACALLA.

379

The number of arches on eaeh side is twenty-five.
The columns, supporting the arches, are about
tvrelve feet high, of stone, and the vvhole is plaster-
ed andvvhitened. It is the largest cloister in Rome.
In the middle are three fine old cypresses.

The remains of the Thermas Antoninianae, or
baths of Antoninus Caracalla,  situated in the mar¬
ket gardens on the Aventine hill, consist of lofty
and extensive brick vvalls, with arches. They vvere
built by the son of Septimius Severus, vvho is styled
on inscriptions Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius,
but is knovvn in history by the appellation of Cara¬
calla, vvhich vvas a nickname given him from a kind
of cloak used in Gaul, called Caracalla, vvhich he
distributed to the people of Rome. * The space
of ground they covered appears nearly equal to the
extent of Diocletian’s baths. According to architects,
the vestiges of the extreme precinct in vvhich these
baths vvere included, forms nearly a square, each side
being 1160 English feet. t In these baths of Cara¬
calla vvere found the celebrated statues, called the
Farnesian Buli, the Hercules Farnese, and the Flora
Farnese, vvhich vvere formerly in the Farnese palače
at Rome, and are now at Naples.

* “ Vixit diu in odio populi Antoninus, quamvis et vesti-
menta populo dederit, unde Caracallus est dictus, et Ther.
snas magnificentissimas fecerit.” Spartian.

f 1600 palms. Piranesi, Ant* di Roma, Tom. I.

380

MOLES HADRIANI.

The baths of Livia,  situated on the Palatine hill,
are subterraneous, and of much smaller extent than
the three above mentioned.

Castel Sant Angelo.

. The Moles Hadriani was built by that emperor,
as a sepulchre fbr himself, and for persons of the im-
perial family ; * and was also the tomb of his succes-
sors, the Antonines. In the siege of Rome, in
537, the Romans made use of it as a plače of de-
fence, and threw down the statues and other orna-
ments upon the assailing Goths. t Its remains
consist of a round building, 219 English feet in dia-
meter, t placed on a large square base, and composed
of a great mass of masonry, of courses of irregular
fragments of stone and mortar. These courses are
bound together by large squared blocks of piperino, §
placed at a distance from each other. The exterior
is also composed of large squared stones. This kind
of masonry, called emplecton by Vitruvius and Pli-

* “ Sepultus est Hadrianus in ripa fluvii, juxta pontem 2E-
]ium. Ulic enim sepulchrum conditum. Jam enim Augusti
monimentum repletum erat; nec quisquam amplius in eo se«
peliebatur.” Dion.

+ See Procopius de Bello Gothico, and Winkelmann, Hist.
de 1’Art.

J S02 palms. Bartoli, Sepolchri Antich.

6 Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. IV.

■fheJLoles Sadna m. nov called CasteL Sani Angelo S. 380.

Thžs Sectnmis Tr<rm.the arrtičlii SepaleTrrt šla Tartob.

JS.fhe stpiare Trase. R.the circular part ol f/ie Tndldmg extemally coviposed o£ TravertineStone. C Jneirnteorrulor.

D.E. (piadrangular chanibers.T.sgunre supposedto \ave contnuiel a Staži'. The laishadelpartGTL ij- not-

-arieient. itivas Truzit in2500> hy.Al£xander JT;  G. coattng dfhncK on the icpper part o£the ancient circiflar Jdtdlding .

rrom D urami <oul ^Bartoli.

EaMurghPulKJied ^.J.Censlalle .tCoJBZO.

It. 7) .Jlvrarr SculprEJm T

MOLES HADRIANI.

381

ny, * is of great solidity, and. is seen in many tombs
and other ancient buildings at Rome.

In this mass of masonry there were some sepul-
chral chambers and passages, small in comparison to
the whole mass, as is seen in the section given by
Bartoli.

It is similar in form to the mausoleum of Augus-
tus, of vvhich there are some remains; and several
ancient Roman tombs exist like these two, both in
theii' cylindrical form, and in the nature of the ma-
- terials of vvhich they consist; such are the tomb of
Metella, of Plautius near Tivoli, and of Munatius
Plancus near Gaeta. f

In the middle ages, there vvere fortresses on the
Coliseum, the baths of Titus, at the arch of Titus,
on the Januš, and a great many others occupied by
the povverful families. Of these fortresses, the Moles
Hadriani vvas the most important, both from its si-
tuation commanding the entrance to Rome, and by
reason of its massive structure.

When the Pons Milvius vvas broken dovvn during
the middle ages, and impassable, the sepulchre of
Adrian served to command the 2Elian bridge, vvhich
vvas then the only entrance into Rome from the

* fl  Emplecton, tantummodo frontibus politis, reliqua
fortuito collocata.’’ Plin. Hist. Nat. 36, cap. 22. See also
Vitruv. lib. ii. cap. 8.

+ See B artoli, Sepolchri Antichi.

382

MOLES HADRTANL

north. In the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries,
it was occupied as a fortress, sometimes by the
popes, sometimes by their adversaries ; from  one of
these it was called the tovver of Crescentius. In
the eleventh century, it was sometimes called the
house of Theodoric. *

The upper vvorks of brick were built on the an-
cient solid mass by Alexander VL Lencoli, father of
the infamous Ctesar Borgia. Clement VII. was be-
sieged in this castle by the troops of Charles V. Ben-
venuto Cellini was with the pope, and acted as chief
gunner to his holiness. t The Moles Hadriani is
now called the Castel Sant Angelo, from the Vi¬
sion of an angel sheathing his svvord, which Gre-
gory the Great saw resplendent on the top of
the mole, when that pope vvent to offer up pravers
for the deliverance of Rome from the pestilence. t
A statue of this angel is placed on the top. The
building vvas surrounded by a ditch and rampart, in
form of a pentagon, with bastions, by Urban VIIL
Barberini. It is now garrisoned, and used as a
prison for criminals.

Thcre is a communication betvveen the castle of
Saint Angelo and the Vatican palače, by means of
a covered gallery, vvhich vvas constructed about the

* Donat. de Urbe Rom. lib. iv. cap. 7.

j- Benvenuto Cellini’« Life, written by himself.

J Donat. de Urbe Rom. lib. iv. cap. 7.

THE GIRANDOLA.

383

year 1500, by Alexander VI. On certain feštivals,
a great fire-vvork, composed of multitudes of rockets,
called the girandola, is discharged fronl the castle
of Saint Angelo ; and proves that the Roman artifi-
cial fire-vvorkers are deservedly famous. This giran¬
dola was exhibited this year, 1818, on the evening.
of the pope’s birth-day, a fevv days after Easter.

Mausoleum of Augustus.

Not far from the Porta del Popolo is the Mau¬
soleum of Augustus, novv much dilapidated and con-
cealed by modern buildings. It vvas built by
Augmstus.* It was circular. The Moles Hadriani
vvas aftervvards constructed of that form. The di-
ameter 139 English feet. t The walls that stili re-
main are of great thickness. The Campus Martius,
in vvhich this mausoleum vvas situated, extended, ac-
cording to Nardini, from the Pantheon, up along the
Tiber about an English mile, to near the Porta del
Popolo, and perhaps farther up, towards the Ponte
Molle. It vvas laid out in grass, and vvas used for a
plače of exercise and recreation, as the public vvalks
in the vicinity of London, Pariš, Vienna, or Flo¬
rence.

The Campus Martius is the principal object in
the follovving description of Rome given by Strabo.

* Sueton. in Augusto, c. 100.

f 192 palms. Bartoli, Sepolcri Antich.

384 STRABo’s DESCRIPTION 01' ROME.

“ The ancient Romans attended little to the em-
bellishment of Rome, being occupied vvith more
urgent affairs ; but their posterity, and especially
the princes of the present day, have not been defec-
tive in ‘this, having filled the city vvith numerous
and beautiful buildings. For Pompey, Ctesar, Au-
gustus, his sons, his friends, his consort, and his
sister, exceeded the liberality and activity of ali their
predecessors, in the edifices they erected for the
public use. The greatest number of these buildings
are in the Campus Martius, vvhich is adorned by
nature and by human art, for the magnitude of the
plain is admirable, and it is accommodated to chariot
and horse races, and to the multitude of people vvho
are engaged in playing at bali, in the game called
circus, and in the palestra; likevvise the edifices
that surround it, and the ground laid out in grass,
vvhich is green ali the year, and the crovvns of hills
vvhich come even to the river, form a scene vvhich
the spectator does not willingly leave. Near this
plain is another plain, and many porticos ali around
and groves, and three theatres, an amphitheatre, and
magnificent temples, numerous and close to each
other, so that the city appears only an accessory and
secondary object in respect to the Campus Martius.
Therefore, in this plače, vvhich is considered as
most sacred, the monuments of the most illustrious
citizens are erected ; the most remarkable of these
is that called the mausoleum, a building of vvhite

CAMPUS MARTIUS.

385

Stone erected on lofty arches by the river, and orna-
mented to the top with evergreen trees; on the
summit is a statue of Augustus ; in the vaults are
the tombs of Augustus and of his relations and
domestic friends ; behind is an extensive grove with
beautiful walks. In the middle of the plain is the
funeral pile of Augustus of white stone, surround-
ed by a circular iron rail, which incloses a planta-
tionof alders, and if the spectator proceeds

to the old forum, and views the many temples and
basilic porticos, and if he then inspects the capitol
and its splendid works, and those of the Palatium,
and the covered walk of Livia, he will easily forget
every thing out of the metropolis. And such is
the city of Rome.”*

The beauty of the Campus Martius has perished ;
it is now occupied by houses, and is one of the most
populous parts of the city. t

Temple of Antoninus.— Near the Piazza Colon-
na are eleven large columns of Marmo Greco, sup-
porting a cornice, supposed to be the remains of the
temple erected to Antoninus Pius, in the Forum of
Antoninus. It is now the front of the land custom-
house.

• Strabo s Geograpby, Book v. vvritten in the reign of Ti-
berius.

j- See page 343.

b  b

386

COLUMNS IN THE FORUM.

Forum Romanum and Ancient Buildings in its
vicinitp.

The Forum Romanum is now a large open plače
with a double row of small trees, unpaved, and used
as a cattle market; and, therefore, called the Čampo
Vaccino. It contains many remains of ancient build¬
ings.

At the extremity near the Capitoline hill is the
Arch oj Septimius Severus.

The three very large fluted Corinthian columns
of Marmo Greco, with their entablature, which
formed the angle of the portico, are supposed to be
part of the Temple of Jupiter Tonans.

The eight lonic columns, each of one piece of
granite, with their architrave, are the remains of the
Temple oj Cone or d ;  six of the columns formed the
front of the portico. This edifice was repaired in
the time of Constantine, as appeared from an in-
seription that is now gone ; and Winkelmann says,
that a remarkable mistake has been committed in
placing two of the columns with their diminished
part undermost. *

An insulated Corinthian column of Marmo Greco,
from the pedestal of which the earth has lately been

* Winkelmann, Hist. de l’Art, liv. vi. chap. 8. de l’Art.
sous les Empereurs.

TEMPLE OP ANTONINUS AND FAUSTINA. 387

itemoved, and the inscription discovered, which shews,
that the column was erected in honour of the Em-
peror Phocas, by Samargdus, Exarch of Ravenna,
about the year 608. The column is not of that pe¬
riod, but had been taken from some more ancient
building. Marlianus conjectured the use of this co¬
lumn. *

The three large columns supporting a straight
piece of cornice, are supposed to be the remains of
the ternple of Jupiter Stator.

Farther on, and on the other side of the Čampo
Vaccino, is the portico of the Ternple oj Antoninus
and Faustina,  erected in 168, by M. Aurelius.
This portico consists of ten large columns, each of
one piece of Cipollino marble, t with Corinthian

* “ Stat adhuc in foro unica columna cui ut videtur nil erat
adjunctum ideo honoris virtutisque causa alicui horum posi-
tam fuisse existimamus; presertim quod in uno latere plinti
cernuntur adhuc quaedam literae sed vetustate ita con-
sumpiae, ut nullum percipias sensuna.” Urbis Romee topo-
graphia B. Marliani, Romaš, 1544.

f Cipollino marble is an antique marble, that is to say, it is
now not quarried from the rock, but only got in the remains
of ancient buildings. It contains mica, and belongs to that
formation of rocks called primitive, and consists of shistose
layers, which form veins in parallel straight lines running
longitudinally along the surface of the columns. The veins
are of a light green colour. From the colour and also from
the shistose structure, by vvhich qualities this marble resem-
bles a leek, cipollo,  the name Cipollino is given to it. Seve-

388

TEMPLE OF REMUS.

capitals, and supporting an entablature of large
blocks of marble ; six of the columns are in front.
On the frieze is inscribed Divo Antonino et Divae
Faustinae ex S. C.  Faustina, the daughter of Antoni-
nus Pius, and wife of Marcus Aurelius, was declared
a goddess, after her death, by the senate, at the re-
quest of Marcus. Her irregularities are recorded
by historians. * * Behind the portico is the church
belonging to the Corporation of druggists, Santa
Maria in Miranda de’ Speziali.

Nearer the Coliseum is the circular Temple of
Remus,  which serves as the vestibule to the church
of Santi Cosmo e Damiano. On the hemispheri-
cal vault of the Tribuna or Apsis is some Mosaic
of the middle ages ; and in the subterraneous church
underneath, the light of day shines, with a yellow
colour, through a thin slab of pavonazzato marble,
placed like glass in a window.

Next are the three large brickarches, the remains
of the magnificent Temple of Peace,  built by Ves-
pasian about the year 77. + The vault of the mid¬
dle arch is a portion of a sphere, the two others

ral columns of this marble, latelv brought from the eastern
part of the Mediterranean, are seen in the court of the Bri-
tish Museum.

* Hist. Aug.

f “ Templum pacis D. Vespasiani Imp. Augusti pulcherrima
operam quse unquam.” Plin. Hist. Nat.

TEMPLE OF PEACE.

389

are cylindrical; ali the three are adorned with šunk
pannels.

Ali that now remains of this temple is of brick,
stripped of the marble with which it was formerly
ornamented. One of the columns was in plače,
and removed, about 1610, by Paul V. Borghese, to
the piazza of Saint Maria Maggiore, where it now
stands. This column is of the shistose marble, cal-
led Cipoliino, and of agreat size;* it stood by one of
the piers that support the arches of the temple, as
is seen in old views. Palladio has given a design of
what he supposes this temple to have been when
entire; he considers the three arches as forming the
side of the temple in the interior, and the front with
the pediment, he supposes, was at right angles to
the wall which closed the back part of the arches. t

On the other side of the Forum Romanum is the
Arch of Titus.

Nearer the Coliseum are two tribune  ornamented
with šunk pannels, supposed to be the remains of the
Temple of the Sun.

Forum of Nerva.

The remains of the forum of Nerva consist of a
large wall of piperino, perforated by a semicircular

* See page 309 and page 387.

•j- Architettura di Palladio. The same plan is given in Mar-
iiani, Topogr. Rom.

390

FORUM OF NERVA.

arch called 1’Arco dei Pantani, and of three fluted
Corinthian columns, the shafts of wliich are compos-
ed of several pieces. The foliage of the capitals is
pretty well preserved. The foliage of the capitals
at the pantheon is broken off.

The volcanic stone called piperino, of which the
wall of Nerva’s forum is built, is quarried near Ma¬
rino, on the Latian hills. It does not occur so fre-
quently in buildings at Rome as the calcareous tufa
of Tivoli, called Travertine.

On taking down a wall of the forum of Nerva,
the stones were found to have dove-tailed cavities,
into which a piece of wood was fitted, connecting
the two adjacent stones. The wood was stili entire,
as Montfaucon relates. * The same contrivance is
described by Piranesi, in another ancient building.t

Near the forum of Nerva is a temple or altar
of Pallas, with two Corinthian columns, called the
Colonacce, and a fine figure of Minerva, in relief,
of a large size, on the attic. This edifice is said to
have been a part of the forum of Domitian, and is
cited by Winkelmann as a specimen of the art in
the time of that emperor. $

Palatine Hill.— On the brow of the Palatine hill
are the massive arched buildings of brick, the remains

* Montfaucon Diarium.

f Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. III. tav. 9.

J See Winkelmann, Hist. de 1’Art, Livre vi. chap. v.

PALAČE OF THE C^ESARS.

391

of the palače of the Caesars. Ceilings ornamented
with painting, and relief in stucco, vvere found in the
ruins,* but these ceilings have perished. From this
situation, the spectator overlooks the valley betvveen
the Palatine and Coelian hills, in which the circus
Maximus vvas situated, and commands a view of the
great brick ruins of the baths of Antoninus Caracalla,
on the Ccelian hill. The name Palatium arose from
the mansion of the Ctesars being situated on the Pa¬
latine hill, and the word palače vvas aftervvards used
to signify any great mansion.

The Palatine hill is novv chiefly occupied by mar¬
ket gardens. In one of these are the baths of Li-
via, which are of small extent, and consist of subter-
raneous vaulted chambers of brick.

The Circus Mcurimus,  in the valley beneath, vvas
2329 feet, or less than half a mile, in length. The
seats placed around vvere capable of accommodating
150,000 spectators + to vievv the chariot races, and
other exhibitions. The obelisk of the plače of Saint
John Lateran, and that of the Piazza del Popolo,
vvere found in the circus Maximus. Scarcely any
vestiges remain of the buildings that formed the cir¬
cus.

At the foot of the Palatine hill, tovvards the Cam-

* See the figures in Cameron’s Ancient Baths.

•j- Dion. Halyc. According to Pliny, 260,000. Accord-
ing to Publius Victor, 380,000.

392

PORTICO OF OCTAVIA.

po Vaccino, was the lupercal, a cave, so called from
the wolf of Romulus and Remus, and consecrated to
the Lycean Pan.*

Theatre of Marcellus.

The theatre of Marcellus was built by Augustus,
and dedicated by him to his nephew Marcellus. The
remains of this building consist of a semicircular
wall, ornamented with two orders of architecture,
one above the other.

In the middle ages it was used as a fortress by
the Savelli family, and afterwards a palače of the
Massimi family was erected on it, by the architect
Baldassar Peruzzi. It is now the mansion of the
Orsini family. In the court are two sarcophagi
with bas reliefs, and over the door of the hali is one
of the beautiful reliefs taken from the arch of M.
Aurelius, which stood in the Corso.

An arch with Corinthian columns, not far from
the theatre, is part of the Portico of Octavia,  built
by Augustus, and restored by Septimius Severus
and Caracalla, as appears from the inscription. This
portico was built for the use of the people who fre-
quented the theatre. It is of brick, and was an-
ciently incrusted with thin slabs of marble. Some of

* Virgil. 2Eneid. Lib. vili.

THE MARBLE HORSES.

393

the marble stili remains. * The vicinity of the por-
tico is occupied as a fish-market, which cannot be
mentioned as a model of cleanliness, and the plače
near the theatre is called the Piazza Montanara,
from the number of country people from the moun-
tains who frequent it. This part of the city is poor,
and even exceeds in filth the other parts of Rome.

Monte Cavallo.

The large palače on the Quirinal hill, now the
usual residence of the pope, was begun, by Gregory
XIII., about 1574, and was continued, at different
times, under the direction of various architects,
Fontana, Maderno, Bernini, and others. Bona-
parte had apartments fitted up in this palače, for his
reception, when he chose to visit Rome, which he
styled the second city in the French empire ; Am¬
sterdam was the third. Adjoining to the palače is
an extensive garden,

The Quirinal hill is called also Monte Cavallo,
from the tvvo celebrated colossal statues of Castol-
and Pollux, placed on the piazza near the Quirinal
palače. Each of these figures is eighteen English
feet in height, and is represented holding a horse

* The marble incrustation is mentioned by Ovid :

Aut ubi muneribus nati ( the theatre of Marceline )  sua munera mater
Addidit, esterno marmore dives opus.

Ov. de Art. Am. I.

394

FABLES OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY.

by the bridle. They are of a shistose marble. A
plaster čast of one of these colossal human figures
has been for some time exhibited in London. Be-
tween the two groups is erected an obelisk, and a
large basin, of one piece of granite, is now (in March
1818) placing before the obelisk. In digging the
foundation for the pedestal of this basin, the work-
men penetrated through the friable pozzolana, and
came to the solid piperino rock.

The pedestals are inscribed vvith the vvords Opus
Phidiee and Opus Praxitelis. These inscriptions be-
in<i in Latin, vvere made after the statues had been
brought from Greece to Rome, and therefore are no
authentic proof of the statues being the vvorkman-
ship of these artists.

In the thirteenth century, most of the antique
statues in Rome that had escaped the destructive
action of time and neglect, lay buried amongst the
ruins. Amongst the fevv that vvere then to be
seen vvere these two colossal groups on Monte Ca-
vallo. They are described in an account of Rome,
vvritten about 1191, and published by Montfau-
con, * in vvhich account the author relates that
they are the statues of two giants, vvho liberated
Rome from a siege ; a like fabulous story he gives
of the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. At

* Montfaucon. Diarium Italicum.

ANCIENT FABRICS OF BRICK.

395

tliat period of the middle ages, the authentic records
of history were forgotten, and fable supplied their
plače ; Virgil was represented as a great magician,
who being put in gaol in Rome, conveyed himself
and his fellovv prisoners avvay to Naples in a boat,
sailing through the air. Poggio, in 1430, speaks of
only five or six statues, in vvhich number these two
colossal groups are the most remarkable. *

The Amphitheatrum Castrense  is a fabric of no
great magnitude, forming part of the wall of Rome,
and situated near the basilic church of Santa Croce
and the gate of Saint John. The Coliseum and the
amphitheatre of Verona shevv vvhat the ancient am-
phitheatres vvere, and this building is too small to be
ranked in the same class vvith them. The circular
vvall that remains of this building is entirely of brick.
It is ornamented vvith Corinthian columns, the
shafts of vvhich are built of bricks, forming sextants,
or other segments of a circie. The capitals are also
of brick.

Near the Porta Maggiore, in a market garden, is
the fabric supposed to be the temple of Minerva Me¬
dica.  It is of brick, of a decagonal form, vvith a large
semicircular niche on each of the sides. The roof, a
vault of brick, composed of a rib, or costata, spring-
ing from each angle, is ruinous, and seems nearly
falling. Several statues have been found in this
o

* Poggius de varietate Fortunae.

396

PIAZZA NAVONA.

building, and amongst them, one of Minerva, from
which, and from Publius Victor’s ancient list of
the buildings of Rome, this fabric is supposed to
be a temple of Minerva. The diametei' is 72 feet,
the height 94 feet.

A large open plače, called the Piazza Navo¬
na,  was anciently the Circus Agonalis,  formed
by Alexander Severus near his baths. In the
middle ages, it was called Inagone, then Nagone,
and latterly Navona. It retains the oblong form
of the circus, the houses being built vvhere the
seats were. The largest of the fountains in this
piazza is decorated with an Egyptian obelisk, and
statues after the models of Bernini. A smaller
sized model of this fountain by Bernini is in the
gardens at Blenheim. A market is held in this
plače, and on the Saturdays and Sundays of the
month of August the Piazza Navona is laid under
vvater, and the people pass through it on foot and in
carriages to enjoy the coolness of the vvater. The
filth must be removed before the vvater is laid on,
and after it is taken off; if this is neglected, the air
next day is infected with putrid exhalations. *

Near the Piazza Navona, at the point formed by
the Braschi palače, is the mutilated and disfigured
statue called Pasquino. It is supposed to represent
Menelaus supporting the dead body of Patroclus.

* Lancisi de cceli Rom. qualit.

FASQUINO.

397

In the time of Leo X., a satirical tailor, called Pas-
quino, kept his shop near the plače where the statue
now stands. Pasquino and his men were the daily
collectors and distributors of the scandalous history
of the pope and cardinals. After the death of Pas-
quino, the statue, which lay half buried, and served
as a stepping-stone in the muddy way, was erected,
and called by his name. In the sixteenth century
it was the plače in vvhich satirical vvritings were
posted, and which are therefore called pasquinades ;
they were feigned to be vvritten by the špirit of the
deceased Pasquino. Lampoons were stili posted at
Pasquino in Evelyn’s time in 1645.

The statue, now in the capitol, representing the
Rhine, and called Marforio, from having been in
the forum near the temple of Mars, shared with
Pasquino the office of promulgating satirical produc-
tions. The ansvvers to the satires of Pasquino were
stuck up at Marforio.

Museuvi of the Vatican.

The Museum of the Vatican had its commence-
ment in the sixteenth century, by Cardinal Marcello
Cervini’s collection of statues and medals, and other
antiquities, which were deposited in the Vatican pa¬
lače. It is called the Museo Pio Clementino,  from
the names of the popes Clement XIV. Ganganelli,
and Pius VI. Braschi, to whom, and especially te

398 GALLERY OF INSCRIPT1ONS.

Pius VI., the great augmentation of the collection
in latter times is due. Pius VI. began his reign
in 1775. The splendid book, entitled Museo Pio-
Clementino, contains engravings of the statues in
the Vatican, accompanied with their history and
description, by the learned antiquary Visconti, who
was called from Rome, and established at Pariš by
Bonaparte, and died lately in Pariš, (1818.)

The entrance to the Museum of the Vatican is
through a long gallery, called the Corridore delte la-
pidi,  the vvalls being covered with ancient inscrip-
tions, which are arranged under different classes •
the epitaphs of primitive Christians form a nume-
rous class. The follovving part of the gallery isr
adorned with antique statues, and some rooms fol-
Iow, in which the celebrated torso of Hercules,
and the piperino sarcophagus of Scipio, * with the
inscription, are to be remarked. The torso of the

* The vaults in which this sarcophagus was found in 1780
are to be seen near the Porta S. Sebastiano, as already men-
tioned. L. Corneiius Scipio Barbatus died 298 years before
Christ, about thirty years before the inscription of Duilius in
the Capitol. The inscription on the sarcophagus is in old La¬
tin. “ Corneiius Lucius Scipio Barbatus Cnaivod  (that is
Cnaeio) patre prognatus fortis mr sapiensg. guojus forma vir-
tutei parisuma  (parissima) Juit consol censor aidilis quei Juit
apud vos taurasia cisauna samnio cepil subicit omne lucanaa ob-
sidesgue abdouciti’— See Monumenti degli Scipioni pub. dal.
C. Tr. Piranesi, 1785, and Lanzi saggio della lingua Etrusca,
1789.

4

STATUES OF THE BELVEDERE.

399

Belvedere was found at Rome, in the Čampo di
Fiore, and ačquired and placed in the Belvedere
by Julius II. It bears the name of the statuary
in Greek, and from the form of the letters, Vis-
conti judges the work not to be more ancient than
the time of Pompey. Michael Angelo and the
other artists in the 1500 at Rome studied this frag¬
ment. Flaxman has designed a restoration of it,
representing Hercules deified, and received into
Heaven, after the end of his earthly career on the
funeral pile of mount ('Eta, and attended by Hebe,
the goddess of youth. *

After these there is an octagonal open court, with
a fountain in the middle; this court is the Cortile
delle Statue,  in which Julius II. placed the celebrat-
ed masterpieces, the Apollo, the Laocoon ; and
Paul III. the Mercury, callederroneously Antinous.
Around this court are rooms, one of vvhich contains
the most sublime of ancient statues, the Apollo of
the Belvedere,  so called from its being placed in that
part of the Vatican palače, called the Belvedere.
The right fore-arm and the left hand are restored by
Giovanni da Montorsoli, pupil of Michael Angelo.
The Apollo was found at Capo d’Anzo, the ancient
Antium, in the fifteenth century, and vvas acquired

* Notice des statues du Musee Napoleon, (by Visconti,)
a Pariš, 1803.

400

LAOCOON.

by Julius II. Visconti considers the marble to be
Greek, although differing from the ancient Greek
marble which occurs most frequently. Dolomieu
held it to be Carrara marble.

Anotlier of the rooms, which surround the oc-
tagonal court, contains the Laocoon, one of the
three masterpieces of ancient statuary. It was found
in 1506, in the reign of Julius II., in the ruins
of the palače of Titus, near the baths of Titus,
Pliny describes it as in that plače, and mentions
the names of the three sculptors of Rhodes, whose
work it is. Pliny says it is of one piece, * but it
has been found to consist of five pieces of marble,
united so perfectly that the joints are not easily
seen. The ancient right arm of Laocoon, and
two of the arms of the sons, are lost. The oc-
tagonal court and rooms contain a variety of an-
tique statues, sarcophagi; and baths of porphyry,
and of red and of grey granite. Two of these
bathing vessels of granite are each nine feet in length;
Vessels of this kind are seen in different parts of
Rome ; two large ones of granite receive the water
of the two fountains in the plače before the Palazzo
Farnese.  In one of the rooms is the statue of Per-

* “ Laocoon in Titi imperatoris domo opus omnibus, et
picturae et statuariae artis preeferendum; ex uno lapide eum,
et liberos, draconumque mirabiles nexus de concilii senten-
tia fecere surami artifices Agesander, et Polydorus, et Atheno-
dorus Rhodii.” Plin. Hist. Nat.

VATICAN MUSEUM.

401

šeus holding Medusa’s head, and two pancratiastas,
or boxers ; these three statues are by Canova, vvho
is director of the museum.

Animals.— From this octagonal courtvveproceed to
a room containing a collection of antique figures of
different animals. The stone of which some of these
are formed is of the colour of the animal represented.
Amongst these are a crocodile of black marble,
three feet in length; figures of tygers in grey syen-
ite, containing large light-coloured oblong crystals of
felspar ; a panther in light-coloured alabaster, inlaid
with pieces of black marble, to represent the spots of
the skin; a lobster in green serpentine, the green
porphyry of mineralogists. Under this head of ani¬
mals, we may mention the two Egyptian lions of
black syenite at the foot of the stair of the Capitol.

Stanza of the Muses.— After this is a gallery pav-
ed with antique mosaic, containing the statues of the
Muses, found in the villa of Cassius, called la Pia-
nella di Cassio, at Tivoli, and added to the Vatican
museum by Pius VI. These muses vverc at Pariš. In
this part of the gallery there are also some termini,
vvith the heads of the Greek philosophers, and their
sayings vvritten in Greek on the breast of the ter-
minus; these ancient inscriptions are, Know thyself,
and the other sayings.

The Rotonda.— This gallery leads to a spacious
circular hali, likewise paved vvith antique mosaic.
Some of this mosaic represents figures of Tritons and

c c

402

VATICAN MUSEUM.

Nereids, in black, on a white ground ; it was found
at Otricoli. In other parts of the pavement are
representations of scenic masks, and comedians in
coloured mosaic.* This round hali contains many
fine statues; and in the middle is a large fiat basin
of red porphyry, of great size, about tvrenty feet
in diameter. In one of the rooms near this is
Marble  perforated chair of antique red marble,
Chairs.  the companion of which has not returned
from Pariš, and remains in the Louvre ; it is sup-
posed that this kind of perforated chair was used in
the ancient Roman baths. These two chairs were
afterwards emp]oyed as pontifical chairs in the church
of Saint John Lateran.

Great Vestibule. —From the circular hali vre pass
into the great vestibule, La Sala a Croce Greca,
in which are tvvo very large and beautiful sarco-
phagi, or quadrangular urns, of red porphyry sculptu-
red in relief. The one vvith the figures of men

* There was to be seen at this time at Rome a piece ofancient
Roman mosaic, vvhich had formed part of the pavement of
an ancient Roman dvvelling house, and had been lately dug
up in a garden belonging to the Dutchess of Chablais, situat-
ed vvithout the Porta San Giovanni.  The effect and colour-
ing are excellent. The objects, vrhich are of the natural size,
are, a common fowl stripped of the feathers, a basket of cray-
fish, a small cuttle-fish, a bunch of green vegetables something
like asparagus, afish of the dorade species, (sparus,) a bunch
of dates.

VATICAN MUSEUM.

403

on horseback in high relief was originally in the
sepulchre of Saint Helena, calledTorpignatara, with-
out the Porta Maggiore of Rome. Saint Helena
was converted to Christianity by her son Constan¬
tine. * The urn was afterwards in the cloister of
the Lateran. It was much broken, but is restored.t
The other, which contained the remains of Constan-
tia the daughter of Constantine, is adorned with ara-
besque foliage, and figures of boys collecting the
grapes and pressing tlie juice, and vvas removed from
the church of Santa Constanza, situated without the
walls of Rome, as before mentioned in page 317 ;
each of them is eight feet long, and four in height.
These urns are admirable from their size, and the
nature of the stone, which is very difficult to be
worked on account of its hardness’, but the sculpture
is an example of the fallen State of the arts of
design in the time of Constantine, a decline which
is visible in the medals of Constantine. The sur-
face of the porphyry is brought to a fine polish. A
part of the musemn is sometimes lighted up to shew
the statues by candle-light.

Great Staircase.— We come now to the grand.
staircase of the Museum. This is the farthest ex-
tremity of the Vatican palače, and we return to the

* See Eusebius, Vita Constantin.

f See a view of both these urns in Piranesi, Antichita di
Roma.

404

VATICAN MUSEUM.

loggie through a succession of galleries, the first of
which contains antique vases made of marble and
other stones. There is one of these vases of that
compound rock called Verde di Corsica.

Galleria Geografica.— Then comes a long galle-
ry, on the walls of which are painted geographical
maps of different districts of Italy on a large scale.
They were painted in 1581, by order of Gregory
XIII. The painter was Paolo Brighi, and they
were executed under the direction of Ignazio Dan ti
the astronomer, * and repaired in the time of Urban
VIII., Barberini.

Tapestrp.— From the end of this gallery there is
an entrance to some rooms containing tapestry wo-
ven at Arras in Flanders, t by order of Leo X., af-
ter six of the cartoons of Raphael which are at WnuL
sor, and after some other cartoons of that great mas.
ter. The strong lights are effected in these pieces
of tapestry by gold thread.

Stanze of Raphael.— Next come the four rooms,
the Stanze  of Raphael, the walls and ceilings of which
are painted mostly in fresco, some in oil, by Raphael,
and by his pupil Julio Romano, after the designs of
Raphael. In the Sala di Constantino, which is deco-
rated with the actions of that emperor, is the large

* See page 160.

f Vasari, Vite de' Pittori.

VATICAN FALACE.

405

picture of the Victory of Constantine over Maxen-
tius at the Ponte Molle. Betvvccn the windows is
the Donation of Rome by Constantine to Saint Sil¬
vester ; the emperor presents a golden image of
the goddess Roma to the bishop of Rome, a fine
and pleasing picture. This donation, which, ac-
cording to the best historians, never really took
plače, bas been held out by the popes as the foun-
dation of their temporal power in Rome. The Li¬
beration of Saint Peter from Prison is over one of
the windows of another room. The Conference of
the Fathers of the Church concerning the Sacra-
ment occupies a side of one of the rooms. In the
picture called the School of Athens, Raphael has
introduced a portrait of himself, and of his master
Pietro Perugino ; the portraits of the architect
Bramante as Archimedes; that of Balthassar Cas-
tiglione, * and others. There are many other pic-

* Balthassar Castiglione was born at Mantua iti 1468, and
died in 1529, at the age of 61. He was for some time in the
Service of the Duke of Urbino, and was ambassador from that
duke at the court of Henry VIL King of England. He was
aftenvards employed by Frederic Gonzago, Marquis of Man¬
tua, and by the pope, in embassies at different courts of Eu-
rope. His work, II Cortigiano, containing rules of conduct
for a courtier, was in much estimation, and has gone through
many editions. The style is held to be classical. He was
the friend of Raphael, and brought Julio Romano to Mantua,
where the fresco paintings of that artist are stili admired, as
we have mentioned in speaking of that city. A mpnument.

406 VATICAN PALAČE.

tures, the vvhole of the vvalls and ceilings being co-
vered with painting, vvhich is mostly in fresco. The
pavement of some of the Stanze  is inlaid vvith red
porphyry and green, in spiral foliage, like that of
the Lateran, and some other old churches in Rome
and Florence, and contains the name of Julius II.,
by vvhose order Raphael painted these rooms. The
portrait of Julius II. is also introduced into severa!
of the pictures.

The Loggia of Raphael. — From the stanze vve
go out into the loggie,  or corridors, vvhich are
open on one side vvith arcades, and go round
three sides of a quadrangular court. One of these
corridors is celebrated as having been painted in
fresco after the designs of Raphael, and under his
direction, by Giovanni da Udine. On the ceil-
ing, vvhich corresponds to each of the arches,
there are four pictures representing subjects from
the Old Testament. The series of the Old Testa¬
ment is complete, and there are a fevv from the
commencement of the Nevv. Some of these pic¬
tures are executed by Raphael himself; many of
them are in good preservation, the colours having
retained their original brilliancy. The Creation of
Eve and the Finding of Moses are very pleasing.
The piers and vvalls of this loggia are painted vvith

designed by Julio Romano, was erected to the memory of
Castiglione in the church ofthe Madonna delle Grazie, some
miles from Mantua. Tiraboschi, Štor. del. let. It.

VATICAN PALAČE.

407

foliage, flovvers, and fruit, disposed in a style which
Raphael borrovved from the paintings on the stucco
of the baths of Titus. The ceilings are painted
with architectural designs in very correct perspec-
tive. In some places the sky is represented with
swallows, distant flights of cranes, and other birds.
Stucco rnedallions in bas relief, by Giovanni da
Udine, are introduced amongst the painted orna-
ments.

The rest of the loggie that surround the court
are painted after the designs of other artists.

Picture Gallery.— From the loggie we enter a
suit of rooms in which some valuable pictures are
kept. The famous picture of the Transfiguration—<■
the Virgin with the portrait of the donor—the
small uncoloured figures of the theological virtues,
Faith, Hope, and Charity,-—ali by Raphael.

The Communion of Saint Jerome, by Domeni-
chino, one of the greatest productions of the art,
and ranked near to RaphaePs Transfiguration.

The Burial of Christ, by Caravaggio.

Fortune, by Gnido ; and other pictures.

Ali the above mentioned pictures of Raphael, of
Domenichino, and Caravaggio are returned, after
having adorned the gallery of the Louvre during
the years of Bonaparte’s reign.

Garden of the Vatican.

The extensive garden of the Vatican palače occu-

40§

GARDEN OF THE VATICAN.

pies a rising ground; and, from the fine view over
Rome to the Apennines, both the garden and the
palače had the name of Belvedere. The garden is
laid out vvith broad walks between hedges of box
and of bay, (Laurus nobilis,) twelve feet in height.
There are two ornamenta! summer-houses.

Pedestal of the Column of Antoninus.— In this
garden is seen the marble pedestal of a granite
column that was erected in honour of Antoninus
Pius. The column vvas forty-nine feet in length,
but, having been injured by a fire, it was cut into
pieces to repair the obelisk of Monte Citorio. The
pedestal is a great block of marble, nine feet square
and six feet high. On one side of the pedestal is
sculptured the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and
Faustina senior, his consort, in high relief.

Branže Pine Cone.- —In front of 'that part of the
palače of the Vatican vvhich surrounds the flower
parterre, is placed the great bronze cone, made in
the form of the cone of the Pinus pinea, vvhich is
supposed to have been placed on the summit of the
Moles Adriani. * On each side of the cone is an
antique bronze peacock.

Capitoline Hill.

Of the temples and magnificent buildings that

* Winkelmann, Hist. ds l’Art.

THE CAPITOL.

409

adorned the ancient capitol scarcely a vestige re-
mains.

The modern capitol consists of three buildings,
occupying three sides of a quadrangle. On the
fourth side is a ballustrade, and the inclined surface
or scala cordonata, vvhich leads from the foot of the
hill. External stairs of this kind are frequently
employed in Italy. They admit of the passage
of beasts of burden. The edges of the steps are
semicylindrical bars of Stone, and only tvvo or three
inches high. The upper surface of the step is an
inclined plane formed either of pavement stones or
bricks. These three buildings were erected about
1540, by Paul III. Farnese, after a design of Bo-
naroti.

Egyptian Lions.— At the foot of the stair are
tvvo Egyptian lions of syenite, dark coloured, vvith
some veins of red. This stone is different from the
syenite of the obelisks, and resembles the stone of
the colossal head lately brought from Egypt, and
placed in the British Museum.

Sculptures on the Ballustrade.— On the ballus¬
trade, at the top of the ascent, are statues of Castor
and Pollux, each vvith a horse ; tvvo antique tro-
phies vvhich vvere formerly placed under tvvo arches
on each side of a large niche or tribuna, at a cas-
tellum of the Aqua Marcia near the arch of Galli-
enus. They are figured in their ancient situation in

410

THE CAPITOL.

Donati. * On the ballustrade of the capitol is like-
wise an ancient mile-stone with the number L, and
some other sculptures.

'Equestrian Siatue.— In the middle of the square
formed by the three buildings is the celebrated
bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which
Michel Agnolo admired for its animated expression.

Palače of the Senator.—Of  the three buildings,
that in the middle, called the Palače of the Senator,
contains a great hali, vvhere courts of justice are
held, and a prison. The senate of ancient Kome
continued under the emperors long after its power
was gone, but in course of time even the nominal
senate ceased to exist.

Rome vvas taken five times during sixteen years,
from 536 to 552, in the reign of Justinian ; twice
by Belisarius, tvvice by Totila the Gothic king of
Italy, and once by Narses, Justinian’s general. By
these sieges the senators of Rome were dispersed,
the senate ceased to exist, and never again assem-
bled as a council.

In 1144, the inhabitants of Rome revived a sem-
blance of the senate. In 1278, Nicholas III. claim-
ed the temporal sovereignty of Rome, founding his
claim on the alleged donation of Constantine to the
bishop of Rome, and established the annual election
of the senator of Rome, t The senator, whose duty

* Donatus de Urbe Roma. Lib. III. cap. xi.

f See Statutae almae urbis Romae auctoritate S. D. N. Gre¬

li

MUSEUM or THE CAPITOL.

411

is confined to the administration of justice, must be
an alien, and of a plače at least forty miles from
Rome. In 1818, Prince Corsini, a Florentine, was
elected senator.

From the belfry of the senator’s palače is a good
view of Rome.

Museum of Sculptures.— The building to the
right of the senator’« palače contains the Capitoline
museum, consisting of a noble collection of statues
which was begun by Clement XII. Corsini, about
the year 1735; it is the second collection in Rome
after the museum of the Vatican.

Ground Floor.— On the ground floor, in a court,
is the recumbent statue of the river Rhine, called
Marforio, formerly placed at the ascent to the Capi-
tol, near the arch of Septimius Severus, and at that
time celebrated for the lampoons that used to be post-
ed near it, in answer to those posted at Pasquino.

Urn.— Another remarkable object is a celebrated
marble urn, with parallel sides, and two recum¬
bent statues on the top, of the size of life, and
with histories in relief on the front, and less fi-
nished histories on the other side. This urn was
found, as Flaminio Vacca, the sculptor, relates, * *

gorii XIII. Pont. Max. a Senatu Populoque Rom. reformatas
et cditae. Rom. 1580. These statutes form part of the mo¬
dem law of the city.

* See the notes of Flaminio Vacca on the different antiqui-

412

MUSEUM OP THE CAPITOL.

in the vault of a considerable ancient sepulchre, the
ruins covering vvhich formed a mount called Monte
di Grano, betvveen Capo di Bove and the Frascati
road, near Rome. * * The urn was called the urn
of Alexander Severus and his mother, Julia Mamea,
from some resemblance to the heads on the medals
of that emperor; but Winkelmann dissents from
this opinion, and considers that the tvvo recumbent
figures on the top represent a husband and wife.
The histories sculptured in relief on the sides have
received different explanations. According to de-
scription by Venuti in the Museum Capitolinum,
the front is Breseis, Achilles, and Agamemnon,
the other of the long sides Achilles and Priam.
Within this marble urn was found the singular
Portland  an d beautifully sculptured vase acquired

Vase.  by the Dutchess of Portland from the
Barberini family, and now in the British Mu¬
seum ; it is of a dark coloured glass, vvhich was
coated exteriorly with opaque vvhite glass ; the ex-
terior coat of wbite glass was sculptured so as to
leave the figures in relief vvhite, and the ground is
the dark coloured glass of the vase. The history
represented by the figures on the vase has received

ties found at Rome in his time, about 1580, published in
Montfaucon, Diar. Italic.

* See dravvings of the urn and the sepulchre in J. B. Pi-
ranesi, Antich. di Roma; and Bartoli, Sepolchri Antichi, Tav.
85.

MUSEUM OF THE CAPITOL.

413

various explanations; according to Winkelmann, it
is the story of Thetis transformed into a serpent to
avoid the pursuit of Peleus. * Darvvin conjectures
it to be a representation of the passage of the soul
into the Elvsian fields. + This vase was skilfully
imitated in fine earthenware and porcelain by Wedge-
vvood.

On the ground floor is also a room containing
Egyptian idols, many of them in hasalt, from the
Egyptian temple in the Villa Adriana near Tivoli.

Ancient Plan of Rome.— The walls of the stair-
čase leading to the principal floor are covered with
the fragments of an ancient plan of Rome, engraved
on white marble, on a very large scale. This plan
anciently formed a pavement which was broken
when the empire and every thing in the city went
to ruin, and the pieces, disjointed and confused, were
employed to incrust the wall of the church of Santi
Cosmo e  Damiano, formerly the temple of  Remus.
From some letters of an inscription on one of the
fragments, it is supposed to have been engraved in
the time of Septimius Severus. In the reign of
Paul III. Farnese, about 1540, the fragments vvere
collected and placed by that pope in the Farnese
palače. An engraving and description of the dis¬
jointed and imperfect fragments of this ancient plan,

* Winkelmann, Ilist. de l’Art. Liv. vi. chap. viii. de l’Art
depuis Septime Severe jusqua son dernier sort a Rome.

t See the Botanic Garden, a poem, by Erasmus Darwin.

414

MUSEUM OF THE CAPITOL.

leaving out the pieces that represent only private
buildings, is published by Bellori.* So many are
lost that the remaining fragmenta of this plan do
not join, and, therefore, are not sufficient to give
the idea of the whole extent of the  city. Of the
names there are only a few words that are entire, as
ludus magnus, theatrum arcelli, theatrum, affix-
ed to the plan of another theatre. Of most of the
other names only a fevv letters remain. A marble
fragment of another ancient topographical plan,
serving for the distribution of water from the aque-
ducts, is published by Fabretti. t Frontinus, who
was director of the aqueducts in the time of Nerva,
mentions, that he introduced the use of plans of the
aqueducts for the convenience of the overseers.

Statues.— In this museum is the celebrated statue
of Antinous, vvhich was found in the Villa Adriana
at Tivoli; Antinous in the Egyptian habit, also
found in the Villa Adriana ; the celebrated statue
caUed the Dying Gladiator. These three statues
were in Pariš, and have been returned since the se-
cond occupation of that city by the Allies. The
Venus of the Capitol, vvhich was also in Pariš. A
young Hercules in basalt. A laughing Faun in
antique red marble. There are some Mosaics  from

* Fragmenta vestigii veteris Romae ex lapidibus Farnesi-
anis, cum notis Bellorii, in Grsev. Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. IV.

t Fabretti de Aquseductibus, Diss. III. in Grsev. Thes.

Ant. Rom. Tom. IV.

MUSECM OP THE CAPITOL.

415

a pavement in the Villa Adriana, one representing
doves perched on the edge of a cup ; this Mosaic
was once in the possession of Cardinal Furietti, who
published a description of it.

Busts.— One of the rooms contains a collection
of antique busts of philosophers, poets, orators, and
other eminent men. In another room are busts of
emperors and persons of the imperial family, arrang-
ed chronologically. With respect to some of these
busts it is doubtful vvhether they are really portraits
of the persons vvhose names have been affixed to
them by the moderns. The authenticity of an an-
tique portrait can only be ascertained by the antique
name affixed to it, or by the resemblance to the por¬
traits of the individuals on antique medals which
have the name affixed. Cardinal Alexander Albani
doubted whether there existed any vvell authenticat-
ed portrait in marble of Julius Caesar. *

Palače ofthe Conservators.— The building to the
left of the senator’s palače is the palače of the con¬
servators. The three conservators have the čare of
the Capitol, the treasury, and the government of
the city and its territory. In the court are the
hand and head of a colossal statue of bronze vvhich
represented Commodus, a colossal head in marble
of Domitian, and some other fragments of colossal
statues.

Measures.— In this court of the conservators’

* Winkelmann, Hist. de 1’ArU

416

THE CAPITOL.

palače the modern Roman measures of lengtli, the
palm, and others, and some ancient measures, are
engraved on marble, executed under the direction
of Lucas Poetus. *

Inscription of Duilius.— On the first landing
plače of the stair is the very ancient inscription in
honour of the naval victory gained by Duilius over
the Carthaginians, in the year 261 before Christ.
The inscription is in old Latin. Over it is placed
a column adorned with the rostra of ships in marble;
this column is modern, and has been copied from
the figure of the columna rostrata on ancient medals.
The inscription is much mutilated; it is given by
Grsevius. t

Bas Reliefs of M. Aurelius.— In the staircase
are some fine large reliefs representing acts of Mar-
cus Aurelius Antoninus, two of which adorned the
arch of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, called 1’Arco
di Portogallo, from the Cardinal Legate of Portu-
gal, who lived near it. This arch was situated in
the Corso, and, having become ruinous, was taken
down in 1662. One of the sculptures from this
arch represents, as Nardini interprets it, the apo-
theosis of Faustina. The other is Marcus Aurelius,

* See Poetus de mens. et ponder.

-j- Grsevii Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. IV. praefat. The expla-
nation and restoration by Ciacconius is in the same volume.

There are some observations on this inscription in Ads-
lung’s Mithridates.

‘THE CAPIT0L. 417

or L. Verus, receiving petitions. A view of the
arch is published in Donatus. *

The rooms of the conservators contain fresco
paintings, of vvhich some by Annibal Carracci; and
statues, amongst vvhich are a bronze bust of Michel
Agnolo, executed by himself ; the antique bronze
vvolf ; and the Boy plucking a thorn from his foot,
an ancient bronze statue vvhich is full of life ; this
statue vvas in Pariš.

Fasti.— In the vvall of one of the rooms are in-
serted the fragments, in marble, of the consular fasti
to the time of Augustus, found in the Forum Ro-
manum, and in another plače are the modern fasti
of the senators of Rome.

Picture Gallery.— The collection of pictures
formed by Benedict XIV., about 1750, occupies
tvvo large rooms of this building. Amongst the
pictures are, Bacchus and Ariadne by Guido ; Ju¬
piter and Europa by Paul Veronese ; and several
other pictures by eminent masters.

Tarpeian Rock.— The precipitous side of the
Capitoline hill, behind the palače of the conserva¬
tors, is the Tarpeian rock, from vvhich condemned
criminals vvere anciently throvvn. Its height, vvhich
has been diminished by the falling dovvn of the earth,

* Donatus de Urbe Roma, Lib. III. cap. xvi.; Roma An¬
tiča di Famiano Nardini; Museum Capitolinunt, Rom. 1750,
1775, Vol. L

D d

418

THE CAPITOL.

is now fifty feet. Tacitus mentions that the ascent
to it was by a stair of 100 steps. In the tables of
heights measured by Sir George Shuckburgh, the
height of the Capitoline hill above the valley is stat-
ed to be 150 English feet.

By the side of the stair to the Capitol is that
which forms the ascent to the church of Araceli,
consisting of 122 steps. On the Capitoline hill
there are the remains of ancient walls of Piperino,
which some have supposed to be part of the fortress
that resisted the attack of the Gauls who destroyed
the rest of the city, in the year 387 before Christ.
At the foot of the Capitoline hill, tovvards the Cam-
pus Martius, is the ancient sepulchre of C. Bibulus.

Rome.— Sect. III. PaLaces  and V/llas.-— Farnese Palače.
Annibal Caraccis Paintings.—Farnesina. RaphaeVs Cu-
pid and Psyche.—Rospigliosi Palače. Guidos Aurora.—
Colonna Palače. Beatrice Cenci. Antique Entablature.—
Borghese Palače. The Sybil of Domenichino. Porphyry
Urn.—Justiniani Palače. Statues.—Corsini Palače. Pic-
tures.—Cancellaria.—Palazzo Madama.—Doria Palače.
Landscapes.—Chigi Palače.—Barberini Palače. Charles
IV. of Spain.—Braschi Palače.—Stoppani Palače, design-
ed by Raphael—Spada Palače. Stuccoes. Pictures.—
Vigna di Papa Julio. Church of Saint Andrevi, by Vig-
nola.—Madonna de’ Candelabri.—Cardinal Fesch Cos-
taguti Palače. Ceilings by Domenichino.—Mattei Palače.
Fontana delle Tartarughe—Lanti Palače. Satirical Pic¬
ture.—Massimi Palače. Baldassar Peruzzi the Architect.

Discobulus. First Printing Establishment in Rome.

FARNESE PALAČE.

419

Villa  Borghese—Villa Pamfili—Vlila Albam. JVinhel-
mann.—Villa Ludovisi.— Villa Mattel. Godoy.—Monte
Mario. Villa Madama.

Albano, — Lake of Albano Castel Gandolfo.— Frascati.

Villa Aldobrandini. La Rtifinella.

Tivoli. Aqueducts. Banditti. Tomb of Plautius. Calca-
reous Deposit. Travertine Stone. Medallions. Cascade
at Tivoli. Iron Forges and other Machines. Ancient
Aqueducts. Ancient Temple. Villa d' Es te. Villa of
Mcecenas. Adrian s Villa.

Aoueducts of Rome. Bridges.  Landing Quays. IValls
of  THE City.  Population.

i he Farnese Palače,  the Unest in Rome, both on
account of its size and of its architecture, was begun
by Paul III., Farnese, whilst he was yet Cardinal,
about 1530, after the design of the architect An¬
tonio da Sangallo, and finished by his nephew, Car¬
dinal Alexander Farnese, under the direction of
Bonaroti and Giacomo della Porta. *

The Travertine stone of which it is built was ob-
tained by the demolition of a part of the external
wall of the Coliseum, and from the Theatre of Mar-
cellus.

This palače, as well as the other possessions of
the Farnese family, now belongs to the king of
Naples, and is the residence of his ambassador at
Rome ; it is neglected, and almost dismantled.

* A view of the Farnese Palače is published in Graevii
Thes. Antiq. Romanorum, Tom. VI.

420

FARNESE PALAČE.

The palače is quadrangular, and the vvalls are
quite detached from other buildings. Opposite to
the principal front is a large open plače with tvvo
fountains, vvith ancient granite bathing vessels. In
the middle of that front vvhich is towards the river,
the upper story is occupied by a loggia, or portico
of three arches, by Vignola. The court is an exact
square, and is decorated with three orders of archi-
tecture, one above the other. The two lovvest,
Doric and lonic, support arcades, forming porticoes
ali round. The third is composed of Corinthian
pilasters, vvith vvindovvs betvveen. In this court
vvere fonnerly placed the Farnese Hercules, and the
Farnese Flora; and in the court behind the palače
vvas the group of Dirce, called the Farnese Buli,
ali vvhich vvere renioved to Naples during the eigh-
teenth century. The only piece of ancient sculp-
ture that remains in the court is the large urn of
vvhite marble, vvith carved fluting, found in the
tomb of Caecilia Metella.

Annibal Caracci’s Fresco Paintings.— In the a-
partment on the first floor are the celebrated fres¬
co paintings on the ceiling, painted by Annibal
Caracci, vvith the assistance of his pupils. That
on the fiat part of the ceiling represents the Tri-
utnph of Bacchus and Ariadne. On the curved
sides of the ceiling are, Galatea on the Sea, sur-
rounded by Tritons, Nymphs, and Cupids; Cepha-
lus and Aurora; Polyphemus and Galatea; Poly-

FARNESE PALAČE.—FARNESINA.

421

phemus throvring the Rock at Acis; Jupiter and
Juno ; Diana and Edimion ; Hercules and Jole ;
Venus and Anchises ; Apollo and Hyacinthus ;
Ganymede and the Eagle. There are some other
smaller frescos. The vvalls are painted with An¬
dromeda chained to the Rock, and Perseus with the
Head of Medusa. The fresco pictures on the ceil-
ing are admirable for their execution, and the bril-
liancy of their colours, which have resisted the ef-
fects of time, and remain uninjured after the lapse
of 220 years.

These, and the fresco paintings by Raphael at
the Farnesina, are the linest in Rome. RaphaePs
Loggie of the Vatican are not so well preserved.
The frescos of Domenichino in Sant Andrea della
Valle, San Carlo ai Catinari, and Saint Gregory
come next in rank.

One of the rooms is painted by Zuccari and Va-
sari with subjects relating to the hostility of Paul
III. Farnese against the Protestants. This Pope
excommunicated Henry VIII. of England in 1546.

In another room are more fresco pictures by An-
nibal Caracci. In the great saloon is an antique
equestrian statue, smaller than life.

The Farnesina,  or small Farnese Palače, is on
the opposite side of the river. It was built after
the design of Baldassar Peruzzi, by Agostino Chigi,
an eminent banker in the time of Leo X., and af-
tervvards was purchased by the Farnese family. It
is inhabited by the Neapolitan consul.

422 FARNESINA.—OTHER PALACES.

Paintings of Cupid and Psijcke.— On the ceil-
ina of the liall of entrance are the beautiful fres-
co pictures of the story of Cupid and Psyche, af-
ter the design, and painted under the inspection
of Raphael. The tvvo large pictures on the flat
part of the ceiling represent Venus and Cupid
pleading their cause before the Assembly of the
Gods, and the Marriage of Cupid and Psyche in
presence of the Deities. The ten pictures on the
sides of the ceiling represent different parts of the
same story, as related in the tale vvhich Apuleius, a
writer of the time of Antoninus Pius, has introduc-
ed in his metamorphosis, as told by the old woman
in the den of robbers. These histories here design-
ed by Raphael have not the advantage of explaining
themselves, a defect which arises from the story of
Cupid and Psyche being a kind of fairy tale.

In another room is a fresco painting of Galatea
upon a Shell drawn by Dolphins, by the hand of
Raphael himself. In this room is a colossal head,
drawn with charcoal by Bonaroti, when he came to
visit Daniel da Volterra, who was employed in
painting the apartments of this palače. The gar¬
den of the Farnesina extends along the banks of
the river.

Farnese Garden.—The  Farnese garden on the
Palatine liill is now stripped of its ornaments and
neglected. The gate is by Vignola.

In the Raspigliosi Palače,  on the ceiling of a sa-

COLONNA PALAČE.

423

looii of the Casino in the garden, is the Aurora
painted by Gnido. The exterior of the Casino is
richly decorated vvith antique sculptures in relief in-
crusted in the vvall. In the palače are many other
fine pictures.

Portrait of the Cenci.— A masterpieee which is
admired in the great collection of pictures in the
Palazzo Colonna  is a most beautiful and inte-
resting head, the portrait of Beatrice Cenci, by
Guido, apparently only fifteen, although the ma-
nuscript account says she vvas twenty-two. This
young lady was beheaded on the plače at the bridge
of Saint Angelo, on the accusation of having con-
spired to murder her father. The father vvas a
monster of vice, addicted to disordinate lust, had
attempted to violate the chastity of his daughter,
and treated ali the members of his family vvith ty-
rannical cruelty. He passed from this life in a
rocca or castle in the country, vvhere he had retired
from Rome vvith his family for the summer. A
considerable time after his death, the stepmother,
the daughter Beatrice, and two of the sons, vvere
accused of having murdered him, and vvere throvvn
into prison. By means of the torture, the step¬
mother and the sons vvere brought to confess them-
selves guilty. Beatrice undervvent the torture with-
out confessing; but at last, at the entreaty of her
brothers, she made an imperfect avovval. The proofs
vvere inadequate, and it has been said, that the con*

424  COLONNA PALAČE.

fiscation of tlie property of tlie Cenci family, which
was considerable, was a motive that induced tlie Pope,
Paul V. Borghese, to procure tlie condemnation of
the Cenci. The villa Pinciana, vvhich is now the
villa Borghese, belonged to the Cenci family. The
portrait of Beatrice was painted by Gnido after her
condemnation. She undervvent the execution with
great firmness. In the edition of Lavater’s Phy-
siognomy, published at the Hague, there are several
vague and unimportant remarks on the portrait of
Beatrice Cenci.

In one of the apartments of this palače is admir-
ed a spacious gallery, ornamented with marble pi-
lasters. Amongst other pictures there are two
called Melpomene and Thalia, by Salviati; these
two figures are copied from Michael Angelo’s statues
of Night and Aurora, in the Capella de’ Depositi of
San Lorenzo at Florence.

Ancient Entablature.— In the garden of the Co-
lonna Palače, which occupies the face of the hill,
there are pieces of a very large entablature of marble,
supposed by some to have belonged to a temple of
the Sun, built by Aurelian. Nardini thinks these
entablatures are of better workmanship than vvhat
was done in Aurelian’s time, and that they were
part of the temple Salus, on the Quirinal, of vvhich
Livy makes mention. Winkelmann, hoivever, main-
tains, that they may be of the time of Aurelian, as
the buildings erected by that emperor at Palmyra
shevv that the art of carving architecturai ornaments

BORGHESE PALAČE,—JUSTINIANI PALAČE. 42,5

in the Corinthian style and proportions was stili in
vigour.

The Borghese Palače,  a large edifice, the ground
plan of which is compared to the form of a harpsi-
chord, was completed about 1615, in the time of
Paul V. Borghese. Prince Borghese, to whom this
palače belongs, is possessed of large property; he
is one of the richest of the Roman princes, and re-
sides at Florence.

Pictures.— This palače contains a numerous col-
lection, and amongst vvhich are several pictures by
the great masters, Raphael, Titian, Domenichino,
Julio Romano. Of these we shall mention only
the celebrated masterpiece, the Sybil, by Domeni¬
chino. It is a half-length picture of a beautiful fe-
male with auburn hair. Domenichino has repeated
this head in some of his other works.

Porphyry Urn.— In this palače is a porphyry
sarcophagus found in the mausoleum of Adrian,
now the Castle of Saint Angelo.

The Justiniani Palače  is situated between the
Pantheon and the Piazza Navona, on the ground
where stood the baths of Nero, aftervvards called
Thermm Alexandrinae, from Alexander Severus.
Flaminio Vacca, the sculptor, mentions a row of six
large marble columns discovered in this plače, and
aftervvards savved up for various purposes. * This

* See the Notes of Flaminio Vacca in Montfaucon, Diari-
um Italicum.

426

CORSINI PALAČE.

palače was finished in the seventeenth century, by
the architect Boromini, and is loaded with orna¬
ment in the degenerate manner of that time. The
collection of statues is one of the largest private col-
lectioDS in Rome. The court also is adorned with
numerous reliefs and statues. Amongst them is an
ancient mile stone, with the number VII., like that
on the balustrade of the Capitol. There is likewise
a valuable collection of pictures.

The Corsini Palače,  situated in the long Street of
the Transtevere, called the Lungara, is a large edi-
fice in which Cristina Queen of Svveden resided
and died in 1689. It was purchased and enlarged by
the Corsini family about 1735, in the time of Cle-
ment XII. Corsini. The Corsini is a Florentine
family. The gallery of pictures in their palače at
Florence vve have mentioned in speakingof that city.*

Pictures.— The collection of pictures is very con-
siderable ; amongst them is a portrait of Julius II.
by Raphael, like that in the tribune of the gallery at
Florence ; Philip II. by Titian ; Paul III. Farnese,
whilst Cardinal, by Titian ; tvvo Sons of Charles V.
by the same ; a Holy Family, and a picture of the
Annunciation, both by Bonaroti; Herodias with the
head of John the Baptist, a celebrated picture by
Guido; Innocent X. by Velasquez ; Velasquez was
a native of Seville, and died in 1660.

* See page 195.

PALACES. 427

The library contains many books printed in the
fifteenth century, and 400 volumes of prints.

Piew.— The garden occupies the declivity of the
Janiculine bili, and from a casino in the upper part
of the garden there is a fine view of the city.
A large engraving of Rome seen from this point,
was published by Vasi. The view is like that
from San Pietro Montorio, which is not far dis-
tant. *

The Palače of the Cancellaria  vvas built of the
travertine from the Coliseum by Bramante.

The Palazzo Madama,  so called from having
been the residence of Madama Caterina de’ Medici,
niece of Leo X. and aftenvards Queen of France,
is situated between the Piazza Navona and the Pan-
theon. It is now the residence of the governor of
Rome, and in this building is the office in which
foreigners must deposit their passports during their
residence in Rome.

The Doria Pamfli Palače  in the Corso is a
large edifice loaded with ornament, in the degene-
rate style of the seventeenth century, partly after
the design of Boromini.

The collection of pictures is extensive, and con¬
tains many works of the most eininent masters.
There are a great number of landscapes by Gaspar

* See page 328.

428

BARBERINI PALAČE.

Dughet, commonly called Gaspar Poussin; * and
landscapes by Rosa di Tivoli. +

The Chigi Palače,  forming tke angle of the Piaz-
za Colonna and the Corso, was built about 1670,
for the nephevvsof Alexander VII. Chigi. Part of
the architecture is by Carlo Maderno. It contains a
large collection of pictures and some statues, like-
wise a considerable library.

The Barberini Palače.— Urban VIII. Barberini,
dur ing a long reign of twenty-one years, from 1623
to 1644, was much ruled byhis nephews, who made
a bad use of their povver. A proof of the riches
they acquired is the Barberini palače, one of the
largest palaces in Rome, which was built about the
yearl630,bythenephevvsofUrbanVIII. Itwasbe¬
gun by the architect Maderno, continued by Boro-
mini, and finished by Bernini.

King of Spain.— It is now (1818) the residence
of Carlo IV. the abdicated King of Spain. This old
king appeared very fervent in his devotions at the
pope’s chapel in Easter of 1818. He was travelled
about by Bonaparte from Spain toFontainebleau, and
then to Compiegne, and at last vvas allowed to reside
in Rome; he died at Rome in 1819. The prime

* Gaspar Dughet, called Gaspar Poussin, was born at
Rome in 1613.

+ Philip Roos, cotnmonly called Rosa di Tivoli, was born
at Frankfort on the Main in 1655.

PICTURES IN THE SPADA PALAČE.

429

minister and creature of the king and queen, Godoy,
the Prince of Peace, died also at Rome soon after,
possessed, it is said, of property amounting to ten
millions Sterling, placed in the puhlic funds of dif-
ferent nations of Europe.

The Braschi Palače,  situated at the Piazza di’
Pasquino, is a large and handsome modem building
constructed near the end of  the eighteenth century,
by the relations of Pius VI. Braschi, vvho reigned from
1775 to 1800. The staircase is grand, and is adorn-
ed with beautiful large polished columns of red
Egyptian granite. There is an unfinished gallery
containing several ancient marbles.

Neai’ the church of Sant Andrea della Valle is
the Palazzo Stoppani,  formerly Caffarelli, built af¬
ter the design of Raphael. The front has been
late]y repaired, and consists of a ground floor with
rustic arches. The principal floor, ornamented with
Doric columns, and an attic story vvith pilasters.

The Palazzo Spada  is situated near the Farnese
palače, and vvas built about 1540, in the time of
Paul III. Farnese. The architecture is by Giulio
Mazzoni, a native of Placentia, pupil of Daniel da
Volterra. The front to the Street and the vvalls of
the court are covered vvith a great number of sculp-
tures in stucco. There is a fine staircase ascending
in one line without turnings. Amongst many fine
paintings is Pariš embarking vvith Helen by Guido ;
Cleopatra by the same master ; a portrait of Paul

480

PALACES.

III. Farnese by Titian. There is also a collec-
tion of statues.

The palače of Pope Julius III., the Vigna dl Pa-
pa Julio,  vvithout the Porta del Popolo, is admired
for its architecture, which is by Vignola. It is now
occupied as a farm house and quite neglected. Far-
ther on, on the same road, is the small polygonal
church of Saint Andrevv by the same architect.

Madonna de' Candelabri.— In the palače of Lu¬
cian Bonaparte, together with many other fine pic-
tures, is the Madonna de’ Candelabri by Raphael,
formerly in the Borghese collection ; it is a round
picture of the same form as RaphaePs Madonna
della Seggiola.

~O

Cardinal Fesch also, the maternal uncle of Bo¬
naparte, possesses a valuable collection of pictures
in his palače.

In the Costaguti Palače  is a picture on the ceil-
ing by Domenichino, of vvhich the subject is Time
unveiling Truth. There is another ceiling by Al-
bano, and one by Guercino.

In the court of the Mattel Palače  are many an¬
tične sculptures in relief, and in the apartments pic¬
tures and statues, some of vvhich vvere lately sold
and carried to Pariš.

Fountain.— In the piazza near the Mattei palače
is the fountain of the Tarlarughe  or Tortoises, a
pleasing design of Giacomo della Porta.

Satirical Picture.— In the Palazzo Lanti  is a

MASSIMI PALAČE.

431

large satrrical picture by Zuccari, in which is repre-
sented the Pope, Paul III. Farnese, with asses’ ears,
and accompanied by emblematical figures of hatred
and lust, coveting the wife of Zuccari, and stretching
forth his arm to persecute Zuccari, who is leading
away his wife. The wife is represented naked.
This picture is kept veiled.

Massimi Palače.— The Massimi family is one of
the old families of the middle ages. * The Massimi
palače is remarkable for its architectural decora-
tions, and the convenient disposition of the apart-
ments, though it occupies but a small space of
ground. The principal front is curved, so as to suit
the angle formed by the Street, and the ground
floor is a portico supported by six Doric columns.
Baldassar Peruzzi of Siena was the architect. t In
this palače are several pictures, and a celebrated an->
tique statue of a Discobulus, of large grained mar-
ble, and quite entire.

* See Storia de’ cinque antiche Famiglie di Roma cioe de’
Frangipani, de’ Savelli, de’ Massimi, de’ Cenci, e de’ Mattei,
by Onofrio Panvinio.

-j- Baldassar Peruzzi was born in 1475, and died in 1550.
He was celebrated as a painter and architect, and for his škili
in perspective. He was employed as architect at Saint Peters
before Michael Angelo had the charge of the building, and
the design he proposed for rebuilding Saint Peter’s is publish-
ed in the Architettura di Serlio. An account of Baldassar is
published in Le Vite de’ piu eccellenti pittori, scultori et ar-
chitetti di Giorgio Vasari. Firenze, 1540.

432

VILLA BORGHESE.

Printmg.— In an adjoining house, vvhich belongs
also to the Massimi family, was the first establish-
ment for printing books in Rome, by the German
printers Svveynheim and Panartz, in 1470.

Augustin de Civitate Dei was printed in the house
of the Massimi in 1470, and a Bible in 1471, as the
follovving verses at the end of the book testify:

Conradus Sweynhem, Arnoldus Pannartsque magistri
Romee impresserunt talia multa simul.

Petrus cum fratre Francisco Maximus Ambo

Huic operi optatam contribuere domum mcdlxxi.

Villas.

Villa signifies at Rome a pleasure garden, consi-
derable for extent and magnificence. The Casino
is the principal house built in this pleasure ground.
The name Vigna is given to a garden, or small
farm, which is partly, or altogether cultivated for
supplying the markets.

The villa Borghese, belonging to the prince of
that name, situated just without the vvalls, was form-
ed about 1610, by Cardinal Scipio Borghese, ne-
phew of Paul V. This pope, during a reign of fif-
teen years, bestovved great riches on his nephevvs,
vvhich their descendants the Borghese family possess
at this day. The villa is an extensive piece of ground,
three Roman miles in circuit, part of vvhich is laid
out with broad vvalks betvveen hedges of eight to

11

VILLA BORGHESE.

433

tvvelve feet high. Another part consists of uneven
ground interspersed with trees, having something
the appearance of an English park. There are se-
veral roads for driving in carriages through this ex-
tensive villa.

Plants.— The ground is adorned vvith evergreen
oak ; Laurus nobilis; Viburnum tinus, novv, on the
13th February, in flovver; and many large trees of
the Pinus pinea. Cactus opuntia, Yucca gloriosa,
and Agave Američana, grow in the open air, and
the Agave is usually placed in pots to ornament the
top of a vvall, or the gate posts.

Orange trees ripen their fruit, and, in general, do
not suffer by the cold when exposed to the air during
vvinter at Rome ; but lemon trees, and some other
species of citrus, are apt to lose their leaves, and
to have their small branches killed by the cold, and
therefore they are kept in pots, and covered in vvin¬
ter by a house made of reeds (Arundo donax) and
stravv, vvith apertures vvhich admit the light in the
day, and are closed at night by shutters of reeds and
stravv.

Buildings.— There are several casinos in the
villa, and many small ornamental buildings, amongst
vvhich are an artificial ruin, representing a temple
of Antoninus and Faustina; a temple of Esculapius,
surrounded by a piece of vvater; an imitation of
an ancient circus, or hippodrome. There are, in
different parts of the ground, statues, ancient in-

e  e

434

VILLA PAMFILI.

scriptions, old sepulchral monuments, and foun-
tains. The conduit of the Acqua vergine, one of
the three aqueducts that supply Rome, passes
through the villa.

The principal casino is a handsome building, and
formerly contained the Borghese collection of sta-
tues, which vvas sold to France, and is novv in the
Louvre.

Villa Pamfili.— The villa Pamfili, vvhich rivals
the Borghese villa in beauty, and perhaps surpasses
it in extent, was formed by Prince Pamfili about
1650, in the time of Innocent X. Pamfili. Part
of this extensive pleasure ground is laid out vvith
broad vvalks and high hedges, in the Italian style,
and the rest is like an English park, vvith large
groves of old pines, (Pinus pinea,) some artificial
ruins, and ornamental buildings. There is a con-
siderable piece of vvater. The vievvs are beautiful,
and are terminated by the Latian hills, on vvhich
the vvhite villas of Frascati are discerned.

Plants.— The Ulex Europeus, vvhin, or furze, is
cultivated as a shrub. There is much of the Ane¬
mone pulsatilla, and other anemones, grovving native
in the pasture, and novv, on the 24th February, in
flovver. In this villa is a pretty large cedar of Le-
banon, the diameter of the trunk eighteen inches.
This kind of tree is not frequent in Italy.

Casino by Algardi.— The casino is designed hy
Algardi, and highly ornamented exteriorly vvith
1

VILLA ALBANI.

435

sculpture in relief. In the interior the rooms are
also decorated with reliefs. There are pictures and
busts, amongst vvhich is the bust of Donna Olimpia
Maidalchini, niece of Innocent X. Pamfili. Dur-
ing a reign of eleven years, from 1644 to 1655,
Innocent X. became unpopular by the great povver
he gave to this lady.

Fountains.— Near the casino are some fountains,
and a water organ, vvhich is nothing more than a
barrel organ put in motion by a vvater vvheel.

Villa Albani.— The villa Albani is a garden of
moderate extent, laid out vvith vvalks and hedges.

It is visited on account of the large and valuable
collection of antique statues vvhich are kept in the
casino. The casino itself is adorned vvith colonades
and porticos. Opposite to the casino is an orna-
mental building vvhich likevvise contains statues.
This building is called the Cafehaus, a German
name sometimes applied in Rome to a building in a
garden appropriated for refreshment in the after-
noon.

The villa Albani and the collection of statues
was formed in the latter half of the eighteenth cen-
tury, by Cardinal AIexander Albani, an excellent
judge of sculpture, and vvho continued to estimate
the merit of statues even after he had become blind.
The French took many articles from this collection,
Cardinal Albani having opposed their vievvs, and
having gone to reside at Vienna. The eminent

436

VILLA ALBANI.

antiquary Winkelmann was librarian to Cardinal
Alexander Albani. *

* Winkelmann was a native of the country of Brandenburg.
He was employed in the library of the Saxon minister Count
Bunau, a copious collection of historical books, of \vhich there
is a well arranged catalogue by Frank, and which now forms
part of the king’s library in the Japan palače at Dresden.
VVinkelmann desired ardently to visit Rome for the purpose of
studying the remains of ancient art; to obtain a livelihood
there, he submitted to the degradation of changing his religion,
and became a Roman Catholic, and Rome was his resi-
dence during the rest of his life. He was librarian to Cardi¬
nal Alexander Albani, and held the places of scrittoro in the
Vatican library, and of prefetto d’antichita di Roma, or anti-
quary to the Pope. Winkelmann employs too much the lan-
guage of a pedant and an infallible judge, and willingly cen-
sures the mistakes of others. This humour excited opposition
and detraction. A painter, Casanova, exhibited two pictures
as antiques, and Winkelmann gave credit to the painter’s story,
and published an account of the pictures; the painter, after-
vvards, to the confusion of VVinkelmann, shewed that the pic¬
tures were works of his own pencil. Winkelmann bestows the
most exaggerated praise on the productions of his friend and
countryman Mengs.

Winkelmann, in a depressed stale of mind, returning from a
journey he had made to Vienna, met an individual, of whom
he had no knowledge; he had the imprudence, without having
made any inquiry concerning character or pursuits, to admit
this man into his confidence, and shewed him some gold me-
dals he had got at Vienna ; the man, to get possession of the
treasure, murdered Winkelmann in the inn called the Locanda
Grande at Trieste. This liappened in 1768, when Winkelmann
was 51. The assassin did not escape the hand of justice ; he.

VILLA LUDOVISI.

437

Villa Ludovisi.— The villa Ludovisi is vvithin
the vvalls of Rome, and contains several fine statues,
amongst vvhich is the group erroneously called Petus
and Aria, vvhich Winkelmann supposes to be the
messenger sent to Canacea by her father Eolus
King of the Tyrrhenians, to present her vvith the
svvord vvith vvhich she vvas condemned to kili her-
self, '* for the incestuous love vvhich she bore to her
brother. Another celebrated group in this collec-
tion, vvhich vvas called Papyrius and his Mother, is
considered by Winkelmann to represent the Meet-
ing of Orestes vvith his Sister Electra.

The villas and palaces of Rome are shevvn to
strangers vvithout any difficulty. The villa Ludo¬
visi is one of the fevv exceptions; the proprietor re-
fuses admission except to those vvho are particularly
recommended to him.

vvas found to be a nalive of Pistoja, had been a cook in a gen-
tleman’s family at Vienna ; vvhen Winkelmann met vvith him,
he had already been convicted of crimes, and vvas just got
out of gaol.

Winkelmann’s successor as director of the antiquities of Rome
vvas Visconti, a native of Rome, vvho vvas aftervvards removed
to Pariš by Bonaparte, and had the inspection of the statues in
the Louvre gallery. Visconti vvrote the descriptions in the Museo
Pio Clementino, the descriptions of the statues in the Louvre,
and other valuable vvorks. He died at Pariš in 1818. His
brother deals in sulphur-casts of medals in the Strada Julia.

* Winkelmann, Hist. de PArt. Liv. VI. Chap. 6.

438

VILLAS.

The Villa Mattel  is situated on the Coelian Hill.
It now belongs to Emanuel Godoy, Prince of Peace.
The garden contains some ancient marbles, and a
small Egvptian obelisk fifteen or twenty feet in
height, with hieroglyphics tovvards the top. On
the pedestal an inscription testifies that the obelisk
was restored by Emanuel Godoy, who came here to
seek quiet retirement, vvhich he had long desired.
In 1819, and after the above was written, Godoy
died, possessed of property to a great amount. *

The villa Mattei commands a view of the exten-
sive and lofty brick vvalls, the remains of the baths
of Antoninus Caracalla, situated on the Aventine
Mount.

Monte Mario,— The name Monte Mario is mo¬
dem, and derived from the villa of Mario Millini,
situated on its summit. It vvas anciently called the
Hill of Cinna. From this hill, vvhich is on the
right side of the Tiber, there is an agreeable view
of Rome and the adjacent country.

Shells.— Sea-shells are seen in the sand and gra-
vel of vvhich this hill consists.

Villa Madama.—On  the side of Monte Mario is
the villa Madama, constructed in the year 1520.
It vvas the residence of Madama Caterina de’ Me¬
dici, niece of Leo X., and aftervvards consort of
Henry II. of France ; the marriage took plače in

* See page 428.

THE ALBANO HTLLS.

439

1533, during the life of his father Francis I. Ca-
therine was conducted to France by her uncle Cle-
ment VII.

The house was begun under the direction of
Raphael, and after his death was continued by Ju¬
ho  Romano. By Julio Romano is the frieze of
one of the large rooms painted in fresco, with fes-
toons supported by dancing nymphs. The portico
is painted by Julio Romano and Giovanni da U-
dine.

The villa is now occupied as a farm, and the
house, become the habitation and the granary of
the farmer, is quite neglected and going to decay.
It belongs to the King of Naples.

Albano. Marino. Frascati.

Albano, Marino, and Frascati, are situated on
that side of the Latian hills vvhich looks tovrards
Rome. The Albano or Latian hills are a volcanic
group of hills, rising from the plain, not attached to
the Apennines. The highest summit is the Monte
Cavi,  from vvhich there is an extensive vievv, com-
prehending the lakes of Albano and of Nemi, suppos-
ed to be two ancient craters of  this volcanic group.

Piperino.— At Marino and the lake of Albano
the rock is piperino, a volcanic breccia containing
mica, large pieces of primitive rock, and sometimes
vvood.

Ouarries at Marino.— The piperino is suscepti-

440

THE ALBAN0 HILLS.

ble of being hewed into squared stones, and is quar-
ried near Marino for the purposes of building. The
sarcophagus of Scipio, now in the museum of the
Vatican, is composed of it.

Latialite. —In the piperino is found the latialite,
called by some mineralogists Hanine, a blue colour-
ed mineral discovered by Gismondi, professor of mi-
neralogy in the university of Rome. It is general-
ly found without a regularly crystallized form, but
in the collection at the Sapienza there is a rare spe¬
čim en of it in form of an octahedron, each side of
which is two-tenths of an inch, of a light blue colour
and translucid.

Lava of Capo di Bove.— The lava or basalt at
Capo di Bove, which is quarried for pavement, is
supposed by some to proceed from the ancient vol-
canoes of the Latian hills.

Snoto for the Supphj ofRome.— Every winter there
falls snow on the Monte Cavi,  the highest part of
this volcanic group. A provision of this snow is
made by placing the snow in pits, the upper part of
the pit being left void and then filled with straw.
The snow is brought from these pits at Monte Ca¬
vi to similar pits in Rome, as, occasion requires. The
šale of snow in Rome is an exclusive privilege grant-
ed by government. This privileged establishment
for the šale of snow is called Appalto generale delte
Neve.

In Italy, exclusive of the Alps, there are only

4

ALBANO.

441

two summits on which there is perpetual snow, and
that in small quantity; they are in the kingdom of
Naples, the Sasso Grande, which Sir G. Shuckburgh
found to be 9577 English feet above the sea, and
another. On the Apennines of the dutchy of Mo-
dena, there are some caverns in which, as in a na¬
tura! icehouse, the snow, protected from the action
of the sun, endures through the year.

The way from Rome to Albano passes through the
gate of Saint John, called Juxta Lateranos, near
the site where anciently the Porta Caelimontana vvas.
The road is that which leads to Naples, at two or
three miles from Rome, and at some distance from
the road is a mineral water, used for medicinal pur-
poses, called Acqua Santa.

Albano.— Albano is on the situation where was
anciently Alba longa, founded by Ascanius, as Virgil
relates.

Ancient Tomb.—Emplecton.— Near Albano is an
ancient mausoleum, now reduced to an irregular mass
of masonry, in which is seen the same manner of build-
ing as in the Moles Hadriani and the tomb of Me-
tella, large squared stones being inserted at some dis¬
tance from each other, in a massof small irregular frag-
ments, called scaglie in Italy, and pozzolana mortar.
This kind of building is not practised in modem
times. Most of the ancient sepulchres near Rome
are composed of it, the mausoleum of Augustus, the
Moles Hadriani, the tomb of Metella, Monte de
Grano, and many others. It forms a mass of great

442

ALBANO.

solidity like a rock; and tliese buildings, therefore,
served as the base for the brick towers or fortresses
of the chieftains in the middle ages. The solidity,
and the long resistance to the action of time that this
kind of structure exhibits, is owing in a great measure
to the hard mass which the pozzolana forms; the
piers of the aqueduct of Lyons, hovvever, which are
made in this way, and not with pozzolana, have also
endured since the time of the Roman power. It is
named by the ancients opus incertum and em-
plecton, * and by the Italians opera incerta and
reimpietura. It was formed in a way similar to
that in which the mud walls are constructed in
Oxfordshire and at Lyons. A layer of three feet
deep, consisting of the fragments of stone and
liquid mortar, was put on at one time. The
sides were confined by boards, or by the stones
which formed the outside of the building. In some
buildings, squared blocks of travertine or of piperino
were placed in the courses of opus incertum to bind
the courses together; this is seen in the moles Ha-
driani, in the tomb of Metella, in the building just
spoken of, and in others, and is figured by Piranesi. t
Sometimes, the interior being of opus incertum, the
face of the wall was of opus reticulatum, as in the
piers of the aqueduct of Lyons, sometimes of fiat
triangular brick; and the whole is bound together, at

* See page 380.

f Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. IV, tav. 6.

ALBANO.

443

every three feet in height, by a horizontal stratum of
fiat quadrangular brick. * * * §

On the other side of the town is an ancient tomb,
with two or three cones of masonry, remaining erect
on a quadrangular mass of building, said to be the
sepulchre of Pompey, who had a villa here ; it has
been vulgarly and erroneously called the tomb of the
Curatii. t

At Albano are villas frequented in autumn by the
inhabitants of Rome.

At Albano there are considerable remains of an¬
cient buildings, a reservoir for water composed of
many large vaulted chambers, ruins supposed to be
of an ampitheatre, and others. t

Cora.— Twenty miles beyond Albano towards Ter-
racina, at Cora, near Velletri, are walls composed of
large irregular polygonal prisms, an example of a
kind of building which occurs in different parts of
Italy, and supposed to be fortresses constructed by
the Etrusci, Pelasgi, or some other ancient inhabit¬
ants of Italy. Petit Radel, who has ivritten parti-
cularly on this kind of structure, terms it Cyclopean
architecture. A view of the ancient buildings at
Cora is published by Piranesi. §

* See figures in Piranesi, Antichita di Roma.

t See a view of this tomb in Bartoli, Sepolchri antichi. tav.
80.

j These remains are figured in Piranesi, Antichita d’Albano.

§ G. B. Piranesi, Antichita di Cora.

'lil

LAKE OF ALBANO.

Castel Gandolfo.— A mile from Albano is the
village of Castel Gandolfo, situated on an eminence,
at the foot of vvhich is the lake of Albano, other-
vvise called lago di Castello. The villa, or country
palače of the popes, is in this village.

Lake of Albano.— The viewof the lake, vvhich is
five miles in circumference, is singular. The water
occupies the lower part of a basin, surrounded on ali
sides by high ground, so that the lake presents the
appearance of a crater.

Emissarium.— We descend the steep banks in or-
der to see the mouth of the emissarium, vvhich gives
the only issue to the waters of the lake. This outlet
vvas made by the Romans whilst they besieged Veii,
393 years before Christ. It is a mine of five feet in
height, driven through the volcanic rock for a mile
and a half. * There is an arch of stone over the
entrance of the emissarium. At the other extre-
mity of the emissarium, where it gives out its water,
there is also some masonry.

It is said that the emissarium vvas driven at a time
vvhen the vvater in the lake stood high. The con-
structors of the vvork may have begun, therefore, by
sinking a shaft some way above the vvater’s edge to
the depth of the level to vvhich they vvished to re-

* 11,000 palins — to 7975 English feet, which is 55 feet
more than a mile and a half. G. B. Piranesi, Descrizione del
Emissario del lago d’Albano.

ALBANO TO FRASCATI.

445

duce the water. From tlie bottom of this shaft they
drove the mine outwards till they got to the day on
the other side of the hill; they might then bore
through the inundated ground into the sides of the
shaft, and let the water go off into the mine, and,
using the boring instrument several times, the level
of the water would be reduced nearly to the level of
the mine ; and, lastly, when the height of the water
was diminished by these bleedings, they would ex-
tend the mine from the bottom of the shaft to the
lake. *

At the foot of the banks, and near the lake, is
a nimpheum, a cylindrically vaulted building con-
structed over a spring of water, like that called the
fountain of Egeria, near Rome.

In a monastery at Palazzuolo, near Albano, is a
tomb with tvvelve fasces cut on the rock. It is un-
knovvn to whose memory it was erected. +

The way from Castel Gandolfo to Marino lies
through a wood of hornbeam and deciduous oak.

Marino  is a neat town, and pleasantly situated.
A picture by Guercino, and one by Guido, are to
be seen in the churches.

In going from Marino to Frascati, Grottaferrata
is visited, on account of the fresco paintings by Do-
menichino in the church. The Tusculan villa of

* Piranesi, Descrizione del Emissario del lago d’Albano.
j- See a figure in Piranesi, Antichita d’Albano.

446

FRASCATI.

Cicero is said to have been situated on the plače
vvhere the church of Grottaferrata now is.

Frascati.— Frascati is built near the situation of’
the ancient Tusculum. It is styled a city from be-
ing the seat of a bishop. The name Frascati arises
from the frasche,  the branches of trees with which
the inhabitants formed their houses after the de-
struction of their tovvn in 1191, by the inhabitants
of Rome. In the cathedral church is an epitaph
in memory of Charles Edward, son of James III.,
the pretender to the crovvn of England, erected by
his brother the Cardinal of York, bishop of Tuscu¬
lum, that is, of Frascati. The face of the hill on
which Frascati is situated is adorned with several
magnificent villas.

Vitla Aldobrandini.— The villa Aldobrandini,
called the Villa di Belvedere on account of the a-
greeable view it commands towards Rome, was
formed by Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of Cle-
ment VIIL, about the year 1600, and now belongs
to the Borghese family. The casino, or principal
house of this villa, is handsome ; and, facing the ca¬
sino, there is a building with fountains, and a hali
with paintings in fresco by Domenichino, consisting
of landscape, with some figures. Some of these
pictures have been sawed out and taken to Rome.

Another villa belonging to the Borghese family,
called villa Taverna, was constructed by Cardinal
Borghese, nephew of Paul V., about 1610.

FRASCATI.

447

The villa Mondragone, belonging also to the
Borghese family, is laid out with spacious walks,
and adorned with fountains.

Lucian Bonaparte’s Villa.— The villa called La
Rufinella formerly belonged to the Jesuits, and now
to Lucian Bonaparte. The casino is handsome,
and commands a fine view of the plain, and of
Rome.

From Frascati the whole height of Saint Peter’s,
from the base of the building to the top of the cu-
polina, subtends about 21 minuteš of a vertical cir-
cle, measured by a raother-of-pearl micrometer. This
corresponds to the distance which is laid down on
large maps 12^ English miles, if the height of Saint
Peter’s is taken at 413 feet.

Eacavations.— A mile up the hill Lucian has
made excavations on the site of the ancient city of
Tusculum, and has discovered a small theatre, con-
sisting of five or six rows of stone seats in a curve.
At some distance from this, an ancient Street and a
conduit for water are laid open.

On the road from Frascati to Rome are seen the
long ranges of arches that supported the ancient a-
queducts, the Aqua Marcia, and the Aqua Claudia ;
the first of which was celebrated as being the best
vvater, and the other was on the highest level of ali
the aqueducts. By the side of these run the arches
which sustain the Acqua Felice, constructed by
Sixtus V.; it is on. a lower level than the two an-

448

TIVOLI.

cient aqueducts; its source is near the Palestrina
Road, and much of its course is subterraneous, or in
a channel excavated in the ground.

Tivoli.

Tivoli, anciently called Tibur, is eighteen miles
from Rome. We leave Rome by the gate of San
Lorenzo. Some of the principal ancient aqueducts
were on this side of Rome; they derived the water
from the sources that flow into the Anio, and the
long extended lines of their arcades are seen near
the road, with those of the modem aqueduct of the
Aqua Felice, vvhich has been constructed near the
ancient ones.

In the times of the prosperity of ancient Rome
the road to Tivoli was thickly set with habitations,
so that it is said by Florus to have been ahnost a
suburb of Rome. * Few houses are now to be seen,
and the road is through a pasture country, which is
in general a plain, with some inconsiderable eleva-
tions and vallies, and destitute of trees.

The road is not kept in good order, and many ar-
ticles are carried on pack-saddles by horses or mules.

Briganti.— In different places by the side of the
road are exposed the detached limbs of malefactors,
suspended on posts, a practice which has not pro-

* Tibur nune suburbanum. Flor. I. 11.

TIVOLI.

449

duced the effect of preventing robberies on the road
near Tivoli. There is a inilitary post for keeping
the robbers in awe, and ali the paths near Tivoli
vvere at this time, 4th March 1818, occupied by
military, engaged in the pursuit of some banditti
that seized two inhabitants of Tivoli vvho had gone
out to shoot. The practice of these banditti is
to seize on persons at a distance from the town,
and to send a shepherd from the mountains to the
habitation of  their prisoner in the town, for the pur-
pose of demanding a ransom.

The papal govermnent soon after this made an
agreement with several of these robbers, who deli-
vered themselves up on condition that no Capital
nor severe punishment should be inflicted on them.
They were lodged in the Castle of Saint Angelo,
and boasted of the number of murders they had
committed.

The banditti have long existed in this district.
In the time of Evelyn, in 1645, it was usual for
travellers to take a military escort betvveen Rome
and Naples, * and the banditti continued their de-
predations even during the French govermnent,
notvvithstanding the activity and strong military
force of that administration. t

In 1584, Sixtus V., by his active and vigorous

* Evelyn’s Memoirs. London, 1819-

f Letters d’Italie, par De Chateauvieux, en 1813.

F f

450

TIVOLI.

administration, suppressed the banditti during his
reign, and this is recorded on one of his coins, which
has the figure of a man sleeping in the country un-
der a tree, and the inscription “ Perfecta securitas.”

Hydro-sulfurated Water.— In the plain below
the hills of Tivoli is a small lake, the water of which
contains sulphur in solution, and, four miles from
Tivoli, the road crosses a canal which has been cut
to let off the water from the lake. The sides of this
channel in which the stream runs are white by the
deposit of sulphur which is precipitated from the
vvater. These deposits of sulphur are sometimes of
a considerable thickness, and have a concentric sphe-
roidal structure, like calcareous stalactite. The wa-
ter runs into the Teverone.

River.— The Teverone is crossed twice by the
road from Rome to Tivoli, first at the Ponte Ma-
molo, and then at the Ponte Lucano. This river,
the Anio of the ancients, has its course amongst the
Apennines till it comes to Tivoli, and there it falls
over the rocks, forming the caseade; its course af-
ter that is in the plain. It falls into the Tiber three
guarters of a mile above the Ponte Molle.

Rridges, and Monument of the Plautia Family.
—Some time before vre come to the mountain on
tvhich Tivoli is situated, the road passes over the
bridge called Ponte Lucano, at the end of which is
the circular monument of the Plautia family. This

TIVOLI.

451

monument, overgrovvn with ivy, is an agreeable object,
and a frequent subject amongst landscape-painters.
By the side of the round building, which is sixty
English feet in diameter, * there are large tablets with
inscriptions in large letters in memory of M. Plau-
tius, and other persons of the Plautian family. +

This monument was built in the time of Ves-
pasian, and is constructed in the same manner as
the Moles Hadriani, or castle Saint Angelo, and
the tomb of Caecilia Metella. The vvalls of these
buildings are of great thickness, and are composed
interiorly of small stones and pozzolana mortar,
in this mass large squared stones are imbedded, and
placed regularly and at a considerable distance from
each other. The same structure is visible in the
tomb of Metella and the castle Saint Angelo. This
monument, like other ancient buildings, served as
a fortress in the middle ages, and it is terminated
by battlements constructed at that period. Near
the monument is stationed a military post for keep-
ing the banditti in awe.

Before we come to the monument of Plautius

* Eighty palms, Piranesi.

j- The following is one of the inscriptions.

M. Plautius M. F. An. Silvanus Cos. VII. vir. Epulonum
huic senatus triumphalia monumenta decrevit ob
res in lllyria bene gestas Lartia qu. f. uxor

A. Plautius M. F. Virgulanius vizit an. IX.

Respecting the septemviri epulorum, see page 300.

-152 TIVOLI.

the town of Tivoli is seen amongst the mountains,
and, to the right of the town, a large building be-
longing to the Jesuits of the Collegium Romanum,
and used by them as a residence in autumn.

Oliveri.— The face of the mountain below Tivoli
is covered with olive plantations ; many of  the olive
trees are very old, and, though the wood of the
trunk is decayed, they continue to bear fruit. Many
years must elapse before a young olive tree comes to
bear fruit, the old trees therefore are preserved.
Ripe olives are somethnes eaten by the country
people, but they are not agreeable, being of a very
astringent taste.

Calcareous Rock.— The mountain on which Ti¬
voli is situated is part of the Apennines, and con-
sists of calcareous rock; a considerable portion of
this calcareous rock is formed by the deposition of
calcareous matter, which is held in solution by the
vvater of the Teverone, and great bodies of rock,
formed in this way, are seen under the Cascade.
This rock, in its structure, is like other calcareous sta-
lactites, being composed of curved concentric layers.

Travertine Stone.— The Travertine stone, for-
merly called Tiburtine, which is the principal build¬
ing stone used in Rome, and of which the Coliseum,
Saint Peter’s, and most of the other stone edifices in
Rome are formed, is quarried in the neighbourhood
of Tivoli, and owes its formation to the deposition of
calcareous matter from vvater; it is a calcareous tufa.

10

TIVOLI.

453

This calcareous stone of recent deposition, restš
upon the less recent limestone of the Apennines.

The water of some of the principal ancient aque-
ducts, and of those of vvhich the water was thought
most wholesome, the Marcia and the Claudia, vvas
brought from sources vvhich flovved into the Teve-
rone. Some of the ancient conduits of these aque-
ducts are found thickly incrusted vvith a calcareous
deposit, vvhich, in some cases, is of such densitythat
it can be polished, and is ranked by the marble-cutters
under the class of figured alabaster, alabastro fiorito.

Medallions.— Many of the vvaters from the Apen¬
nines, running over limestone, become charged vvith
calcareous matter, and form deposits similar to these
at Tivoli. Rocks thus formed occur at the Cascade
of Terni, as before mentioned; and at the vvarm
baths of San Filippo, near Radicofani, betvveen Siena
and Rome, casts of medallions are obtained by the
deposition of the stalactitical substance from the hot
water in a mould. For this purpose, water is made to
fall on cross sticks, and is thereby dispersed on the
surface of the moulds placed in a vessel beneath. Af-
ter some time, the mould is taken out, covered vvith a
crystallized calcareous crust, vvhich, being detached,
is a correct impression and counterpart of the mould.
By passing the vvater through logvvood, the calca¬
reous deposit acquires a red colour.

Calcareous matter is deposited from vvater so as to
form a compact crystallized crust, and penetrates in-

454

TIVOLI.

to the minute pores of substances immersed in the
water. Entire unbroken hazel-nut shells are found
in the north of Ireland, near Belfast, having their
cavity lil led with this stalactitical matter.

The inn, usually frequented by those who visit
Tivoli, is called la Sybilla,  and is close by the cir-
cular temple and the Cascade.

Cascade.— The Cascade of Tivoli is formed by the
Teverone. The height is considerable, 100 feet
and upvvards, I suppose. There is a zigzag path,
formed in a precipitous bank, leading down to the
grotto of Neptune, near the foot of the Cascade. This
grotto is constantly surrounded by a cloud of spray,
in which the morning sun in March is seen reflected
in beautiful rainbows. The zigzag path, leading down
to the grotto, was formed by General Miollis, the
French governor of Rome in 1809, as an inscrip-
tion testifies.

Derivations from the River.— Above the cascade,
sfreams of vvater are taken off from the Teverone,
some of vvhich are employed in driving vvater vvheels,
others supply the fountains of the villa d’Este, and run
through the villa of Mecaenas, and under its lofty se-
micylindrical vaults. After having served for the miliš
and the fountains, the water is conducted to the edge
of the precipice in different places, and falling over,
forms the lesser fajls called the cascatelle,  and after-
wards reunites itself to the Teverone in the valley.

Various machines are dri ven by the derivations
from the Teverone at Tivoli.

TIVOLI.

455

Ir on Forges.— Amongst these are iron forges,
in which irregularly shaped semimalleable lumps of
iron are formed into bars by means of hammers driven
by vvater. The operation of reducing the iron into
semimalleable lumps or blooms, is performed in the
country tovvards the sea coast, vvhere they make use
of ore from the island of Elba, and the lumps or
blooms are sent to Tivoli to be manufactured.

Water Bello^s.—lhe  furnace of these forges is
blown by a water trunk, consisting of a long perpenr
dicular pipe, which receives at the top a stream of
vvater, and terminates in a trunk with free issue for
the water; from this trunk the air has no other issue
but the blovving pipe, vvhich goes off from the trunk,
and conveys the blast to the furnace. The blast
arises from the air vvhich is hurried dovvn along vvith
the current of vvater. This kind of bellovvs has long
been used in different parts of Europe.

Construction of the Water-Wheels.— The vvater-
vvheels made use of for driving the machinery at
Tivoli are small, being about four feet in diameter,
like those used in other parts of the Roman state
and in Tuscany, and upon these vvheels the vvater is
let fall through a tunnel from the height of twenty
or thirty feet. The vvhole of the machinery is con-
structed in a very rude way, so that much of the
povver of this high and copious vvaterfall goes to
vvaste. The same may be said of the water-wheels
in Rome, driven by the vvater of the Paoline aque-

456

TIVOLI.

duet, as it descends from the Porta San Pancra-
zio,  and falls down the side of the Janiculine.

Other Water Mills.— The other machines driven
by the vvater of the Teverone  at Tivoli are, a hammer
for beating out copper, a gunpowder mili, grain-mills,
coarse-paper miliš, and some others.

Aqueducts.— Subiaco,ancientlycalledSublaqueum,
is on the Anio, twenty miles above Tivoli. In the
country betvveen Tivoli and Subiaco, were the sources
of the three principal aqueducts of ancient Rome ;
the Aqua Marcia, the vvater of vvhich vvas the most
vvholesome, the Anio Nova, and the Aqua Claudia,
vvhich was on a higher level than any of the others.
Fabretti has published a map of the district betvveen
Tivoli and Subiaco, in vvhich are marked the remains
of arched vvork for conveying the conduits over
brooks and valleys, and other vestiges of these aque-
ducts, and the several springs vvhich, according to
his conjecture, supplied these aqueducts. At Su¬
biaco there are some galleries cut in the rock, and
some arched vvork. *

Round Temple.— The circular temple, with a peri-
style vvhich overlooks the gulf into vvhich the Cascade
falls, is supposed to have been dedicated to Vesta,
although it is usually called the Temple of the Sybil.
The inseription on this temple does not mention
either of these deities. t

* Fabretti de Aguseduct. veteris Romae, Dissertatio II. J 680.

f The inseription is, L. Gellio L. F.

TIVOLI.

457

Rectangular Temple. —  The small rectangular
temple near it is said to have been the temple of the
Sybil, and is now used as a church.

Small Rotonda.— Another ancient fabric, situated
in a market garden near Tivoli, is a small round
vaulted building said to have been dedicated to the
deity Tussis. It is something like the brick temple
of Minerva Medica at Rome.

Villa d’Este.— The villa d’Este belongs to the
Duke of Modena, the representative of the ancient
family of Este. This villa is laid out with terraces
011 the face of the hill, and adorned with a variety
of fountains, old cypresses, and some fine lofty and
spreading trees of the Platanus orientalis. The dia-
meterofthetrunkofoneofthelatteristhreefeet. This
beautiful species of platanus was much used by the
Romans for the sake of shade,and was first introduced
amongst them from the Archipelago and Asia Mi-
nor. * It will not grow to a tree in that part of
Britain which is so far north as the 56th degree, the
summer’s grovvth being frequently killed by the cold
of the follovving winter, and almost ali those in the
south of England were killed some years ago in one
season.

In the villa d’Este the Viburnum tinus, other-
wise called Laurustinus, grovvs to the size of a large
shrub, having stems the thickness of the wrist.

Plin. Hist. Nat. XIL 3,  4.

TIVOLI.

458

The villa d’Este commands an extensive view
over the plain towards Rome. There are some
fresco paintings in the house by Zuccari and others.
This villa is at present in a neglected State.

There is a description of the villa d’Este by the
esteemed historical writer Uberto Foglietta of Ge-
noa, who died in 1581. The Cardinal Hippolito
d’Este, son of Alfonso Duke of Ferrara, and patron
of Ariosto, was the founder of the villa.

Villa of Meccmas.— Belovv the declivity on which
the villa d’Este is formed are the extensive remains
of the villa of Mecaenas. They consist of spacious
vaulted galleries, through vvhich runs a copious
stream of water, forming cascades amongst the ruins,
and derived from the Teverone.

Iron Manufactory.— Ten or twelve years ago
this water was employed to work iron forges and a
small blast furnace for smelting Elba iron ore.
The vvater wheels of this establishment are of the
same rude structure as the other miliš at Tivoli.
The height of the furnace is about eighteen feet.
It is built of refractory stone from Pietra Santa near
Carrara.

Ali these, with a manufactory of cannon bali,
mušket barrels, and sword blades, were established
under the antique vaults of the villa. The arms
produced at this manufactory vvere for the armies of
Bonaparte, and the establishment vvas formed by his
brother Luciaji, who is the proprietor of Mecaenas’«

TIVOLI.

459

villa ; but it failed of success, and the raachinery and
furnaces are now deserted and at a stand, and the
ruin contains no other machine in action but an olive
oil press.

Lucian Bonaparte bas also some forges at Canino
and Bracciano in the pope’s territory. In the Ro¬
man State he has the title of Prince of Canino.

Opus Reticulatum..—In  Mecaenas’s villa are seen
columns whose surface is formed of opus reticulatum
of calcareous stone. The opus reticulatum, or che-
quered masonry, consists of pieces of stone of a form
approaching to that of a pyramid. The base of the
stone is smooth, and forpis the outer surface of the
edifice, the small end being stuck into the mortar, the
outer surface of each piece is a square whose side is
about three inches, and the diagonal of this square
surface is placed verticallv. The stones are insert-
ed in the mortar as the pieces pf enamel in mosaic.
The opus reticulatum is here used to form the round
surface of a column, but it is more frequently seen
constituting a plane surface. There is much of it
in the remains of Adrian’s villa, and in several ruins
in Rome. The piers of the Roman aqueduct at
Lyons are faced with it. Sometimes basalt, in other
fabrics calcareous stone, was used fpr the opus reticu¬
latum. Although the stones are only kept in their
plače by the adhesion of the mortar, they are gene-
rally quite firm after a lapse of many centuries. The
vvalls faced in this way seem to have been formed in

460

TIVOLI.

a wooden čase, to the sides of vvhich the flat surfaces
of the pieces of opus reticulatum were applied, then
liquid mortar and small stones were put in to fill the
centre, then another course of the reticular pieces
and mortar again, and so on til! the vvooden čase was
filled. The vvooden čase was supported on the out-
side. In this way the piers of the aqueducts of
Lyons appear to have been constructed, in courses
of three feet high, in a way similar to that in vvhich
mud vvalls are built in Oxfordshire and at Lyons.

Other Ruins.— On the side of the precipitous
hollovv or glen opposite to that on vvhich the tovvn
of Tivoli, with its narrovv and crooked streets, and
the villa of Mecasnas stand, there are several re-
mains of ancient villas, one of vvhich is called the
Villa of Horace.

View of Rome.— From the brovv of the heights
is an interesting vievv over the extensive plain in
vvhich Rome is situated. The chief object that is
to be distinguished is the cupola of Saint Peter’s, and
the lofty eastern front of the Lateran church, vvhich
is on the side of Rome nearest Tivoli, is seen en-
lightened by the morning sun. The portion of the
cupola of Saint Peter’s, seen from Tivoli, subtends
nine minutes of a vertical circle, and is, therefore,
about 250  feet in height, taking the distance at
eighteen English miles.

Villa Adriana.— At the foot of the mountain
on vvhich Tivoli is situated, are the remains of

AQUEDUCTS OF ROME.

461

Adrian’s villa. The inclosure, which is extensive,
is now occupied as a farm ; and in different parts of
. it are situated tlie ruins of the temples, librarieš,
baths, and habitations for soldiers, which com-
posed the magnificent establishment of the emperor.
There were imitations of the most celebrated edi-
fices of different countries in the world, and even a
representatioil of the dominions of Pluto in the
world to come. *

A vaulted corridor, which goes round a quadran-
gle, is covered with white polished stucco, with a
small ornamental border painted in fresco, and run-
ning the whole length of the corridor; the colours
of the painting are stili entire, but more varied spe-
cimens of the fresco painting of the ancients are seen
in the baths of Titus at Rome. The Egyptian
idols in the museum of the Capitol were found in
Adrian’s villa, and the mosaic of the Pigeons which
belonged to Cardinal Furietti.

AQUEDUCTS.

JVaters tkat supply the Anio.r-Motf, of  the aque-
ducts which supplied ancient Rome were derived

* “ Tiburtinam villam mire exaedificavit, ita ut in ea et pro¬
vincialnim et locorura celeberrima loca inscriberet, velut Ly-
ceum, Academiam, Prytaneum, Canopum, Paecilen, Tempe
vocaret, et ut nihil praetermitteret, etiam inferos finxit.”—
Spartianus in Hadrian. C. 14.

462

AQUEDUCTS OF ROMEa

from springs that belong to the Anio, now the Te-
verone, which runs into the Tiber above Rome ;
these aqueducts were in this respect like the water
courses which are brought in a conduit moderately
inclined from the upper part of a river for the pur-
pose of turning a mili. They brought water to ani-
mate the great machine of the metropoli«, and one
of them really served for working the miliš. It
does not appear that the Romans were acquainted
with the use of large pumps; for these machines,
if they had been known, would have been employed
to raise water from the Tiber at Rome, as they are
now used in London and Pariš. Neither did they
employ large pipes to convey water along the curva-
ture of the vallies, from one hill to another hill of
the same altitude, although it is said that there is
some appearance of this having been practised in
the aqueduct at Lyons. London is now very copi-
ously supplied with water by the seven water com-
panies. Ancient Rome, in the first century, was
supplied perhaps more abundantly. There is no
doubt, hovvever, that Rome was supplied by means
of more laborious and costly structures, the water
being derived from a much greater distance, vvith-
out the aid of pumps, or of large conducting main
pipes.

Castella.— Castellum is a reservoir, from which
the water of the aqueduct was distributed in con-
duits and pipes to individuals and to the puhlic

AQUEDUCTS OF ROME.

463

baths. The word is used by Vitruvius to denote
the reservoir into which the water is poured by a
water-raising wheel. *

The water was given out from the castella, or
reservoirs, to those who had bought a grant of vva-
ter from the emperor; it was given out by pipes,
the orifice of which was of brass, and the rest of the
pipe of lead. Some large ancient lead pipes of per-
haps a foot in diameter were found near the Pan-
theon, + of a pear-formed section.

—The most common measure used in
the grants of vvater was called quinaria. This
measure was a pipe of the diameter of five qua-
drantes or quarters of a digitus, according to Fron-
tinus, placed at a certain depth under the surface
of the water.

Dijferent Qualities of the JVaters.— Thewaterof
some aqueducts was more agreable for bathing, that
of others was preferable for drinking. t

Galen mentions that the water brought from the

* “ Ita cum rota a calcantibus versabatur, modioli pleni
ad summum dati rursus ad imum revertentes infundent in
castellum ipsi per se quod extulerunt.”—Vitruv. Lib. X.
cap. 9.

| See the figure in Donatus, de Urbe Roma.

| “ Quantum Virgo tactu, tantum praestat Martia haustn,”
—Plin. Hist. Nat. Lib. XXXI.

464 AQUEDUCTS OF KOME.

hills near Tivoli vvas hard and unfit for boiling Ve-
getables, vvhich arises from the carbonate of linie it
contains; and some of the anCient conduits of the
aqueducts are found incrusted with a thick coat of
carbonate of lime deposited by the vvater, and which
sometimes has been polished by the Roman marble
cutters, and called an alabastro fiorito.

The Anio Vetus vvas unvvholesome water, not
used for drinking, but only for watering gardens
and for cleansing the sevvers. *

Some of the waters vvere injured by their junc-
tion vvith other aqueducts of muddy vvater. +

Size of the Conduits.— Many of the forinte, or
vvater courses of the aqueducts, remain at this day.
In one of the aqueducts Frontinus mentions that
the volume of the vvater in the vvater course was
5 feet deep, and of a foot wide.

Officers of the A(/ueducts.—The  aqueducts vvere
kept in order by the continual attention of nu-
merous officers, vvhich vvas necessary for the repair
of the fabrics, and to prevent the neighbouring pro-
prietors from leading off the vvater for their ovvn use,
a kind of depredation that vvas commonly practis-
ed. t

* Frontinus.

+ “ Rivus purissimussed mixtusgratiam splendoris sui amit-
tit.”—Frontin.

{ See Frontinus, de Aguaeductibus.

AQUEDUCTS OF KOME.

463

Agrippa appointed a familia or regiment of men
constantly employed in keeping the aqueducts in
repair. Another familia was appointed by Claudius.
These two were in number about 700 men.

When Rome declined from her prosperity, the
constant attention that was necessary ceased, the
aqueducts soon went to ruin; they were cut dur-
ing the sieges, and the water resumed its natural
course in spite of the lofty arched fabrics, which
Frontinus, on account of their usefulness, prefers to
the pyramids, and the “ idle architectural vvorks of
Greece.” *

liach Aqueduct on a different Level.— Each of the
aqueducts came to the city on a different level. t
Two, the Anio Nova and Claudia, were high
enough to supply the most elevated parts of the
town.

The Aqua Virgo, not being brought from so far
up the Anio, was of a low level; there were six
aqueducts that had a higher level.

The Alseatina in the Transtevere was the lovvest,
according to Frontinus.

* “ Tot aquarum tam rnultis necessariis molibus, pyramidas
videlicet otiosas comparem, ant cajtera inertia, sed farna cele,
brata Grascorum opera ?”—Frontin. de Aqu®ductibus Romse,
Lib. I.

t “ Aqute omnes diversa in urbem libra proveniunt.”—Frontin.
Lib. I.; some were, “ ad libram collis Viminalis,” and so forth.
Front,

Gg

466

AQUEDUCTS OF ROME.

The oldest of the aqueducts were made with a
considei’able declivity, and level vvas thereby lost; *
they vvere carried along the sides of the hill, and
vvith less arched vvork than the aqueducts made af-
tervvards.

Trno Conduits on one Substructure— In some
cases, one line of arches served for the support and
passage of two or three different conduits. + Two
conduits, one over the other, are seen at this day
near the Porta Maggiore. And over the monument
of the Aqua Claudia, at the Porta Maggiore, there
passed two conduits; that of the Anio Nova, being on
a higher level, vvas in the highest, and belovv it the
Claudia.

Pisemce.— Several of the aqueducts had turbid vva-
ter; and to clarify the water, they had each a pis-
cina or reservoir, vvithin the distance of seven miles
from Rome, in vvhich the vvater was allovved to rest
and deposit its impurities. t Fabretti has given

* “ Sed veteres humiliore directura perduxerunt, sive nondum
subtili explorata arte librandi seu quia ex industria terrani
aquas uiergebant, ne facile ab hostibus intereiperentur, cum fre-
quentia adhuc contra Italicos bella gererentur.”—Frontin.
Lib. I.

j- “ Plures aquas singuli sustinent.”—Frontinus de Aqua?duct.

J “ Ex his, via Latina, sex intra VIL miliarium contentis pis*
cinis excipiuntur, ubi quasi respirante rivorutn cursu limum
deponunt.”—Frontin. Lib. I,

AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 467

drawings of some of these piscina, having guessed
at their ancient form from their remains. *

The Virgo and two others had no piscina.

Abundance ofJVater.— The quantity of water was
so great in ancient Rome, that almost every house
had a water-pipe, as Strabo mentions. t Much was
also employed for the puhlic baths, the puhlic foun-
tains, the floating of the circus, in the vvorkshops of
the many fullers employed in washing the woollen
garments, no linen being worn, and for other pur-
poses. After the vvater had served for these va-
rious purposes, it was made to run into the sevvers
in seven streams.

Salubrity.— The superfluous water that overflow-
ed from the castella or reservoirs served to keep the
streets clean, and thereby removed the causes of un»
healthiness, for which Rome was noted in more an¬
cient times. t

* Fabretti de Aquajductibus.

j- “ The Romans attended to some kind of civil structure
which the Greeks neglected, paved roads, aqueducts, and
sevvers. So great is the quantity of vvater brought into Rome
by the acjueducts, that rivers flovv along the streets and through
the sevvers, and almost every house bas a water-pipe and a cis¬
tern constantly supplied. On vvhich subject much industry vvas
bestovved by Marcus Agrippa, vvho adorned the city vvith many
other puhlic vvorks. ’—The Geography of Strabo, Book V.

j “ Ne pereuntes quidem aquas ctiosas sunt; nam immundi.
tiarum facics, ct impurior spiritus, et causae gravioris cceli, qui»

468

AQUEDUCTS OF ROME.

Frontinus States the quantity of water brought in-
to Rome by each of the aqueducts ; but it is doubt-
ful, vvhether the whole quantity could be accurately
deduced in modern measures from the numbers
given by Frontinus.

According to Frontinus, there was no water
brought to Rome in aqueducts before the 440th year
after the Foundation of the city, that is, 314 years
before the beginning of the Christian era. The
inhabitants, before that, made use of the turbid wa-
ter of the Tiber, and the water of vvells.

Frontinus, who was director of the aqueducts of
Rome, in the reign of Nerva, in the year 97, enu-
merates nine aqueducts existing at Rome in hiš
time. * *

I. Aqua Appia.— The Aqua Appia was the
most ancient, formed by Appius Claudius, who made
the Via Appia. t The Aqua Appia was brought
from the Palestrina Road, (anciently Prameste,) the
distance of eleven ancient Roman miles, t carried

bus apud veteres urbis infamis aer fuit sunt remotas.”—Sexti
Julii Frontini de Aquaeductibus Romae.

* Sexti Julii Frontini de Aquaeductibus Romee, libri duo.

+ Liv. Lib.ix.

t The ancient Roman mile  was the seventy-fifth part of a
degree, according to D’Anville, consequently was 4892^ 5  Eng-
lish feet, the English mile being 5280; and it was called mille
passuum, a thousand passus. The passus  was originally the
rectilinear distance between the extremitiesof the fingers of the

AQUEDUCTS OF ROME.

469

along the ground, or subterraneous, except before
entering Rome, where it passed over arches for the
sixteenth part of a mile. * *

II. Anio Vetus.— The Arno Vetus vvas the next
brought to the city. It was derived from a greater
distance from springs that flowed into the river
Anio, now called Teverone, above Tivoli, in the
mountains. Its length was forty-two ancient Ro¬
man miles, in which distance it passed over seven-
tenths of a mile of substructure.

III. Aqua Marcia.— The next aqueduct formed
was the Aqua Marcia, t the water of which was
conducted to the capitol. It was brought from
fountains in the neighbourhood of Subiaco on the
Anio, twenty miles above Tivoli, in the mountains,
and was in length sixty ancient Roman miles, seven
miles of vvhich were above ground; and part of
these seven miles was composed of the arches for
Crossing the brooks and vallies, and of the arches
near the city. It was the most vvholesome water
of ali the aqueducts.

right and left hand of a man, (manibus expansis,) when the arms
are stretched out on each side at right angles to the body; this
is the geometrical pace, and is stated by Frontinus to be five
feet; the coramon walking pace was called Gradus,  and mea-
sured 2| ancient Roman feet. From the ancient name mille
passuum, the modern word mile is formed.

* Frontin. Lib. I.

f Plin. Ilist. Nat 36, cap. 15.

470

AQUEDUCTS OF ROME.

IV. The next wasthe Aqua Tepula.

V. After this the Aqua Julia was formed by
Agrippa, fifteen and a half ancient Roman miles in
length. Agrippa also repaired the old aqueducts.

VI. Aqua Virgo.— The Aqua Virgo, so called
from a young girl who first pointed out the spring
to the workmen, * was brought to the city by Agrip¬
pa. It rises in a marsh, round which a basin of
brick and mortar (opus signinum, so called from
Segni, the plače where the bricks were made) was
constructed to retain the springs. The length of
the conduit is 11 T %- ancient Roman miles, of which
one mile and two-tenths was above ground, and in
that one mile and two-tenths there was the length
of seven-tenths of a mile on arches,

The Modern Acqua Vergine.— This aqueduct
was restored by Pius IV. about 1560. It passes
through the villa Borghese, and goes to the foun-
tain of Trevi: a branch goes off along the Strada de’
Condotti. The fountains in the Piazza Navona are
supplied by the Acqua Vergine.

VII. Aqua Alseatina.— The Aqua Alseatina
was brought in by Augustus to the Transtevere.
The water was of an unwholesome quality, and ser-
ved only for the naumachia and for watering gar-
dens. Its conduit was twenty-two miles long.

Vlil. Aqua Claudia.— Caligula and his successor

• Frontmus.

AQUEDUCTS OF  ROME.

471

Claudius brought into the city the Aqua Claudia,
and the Anio Novus. The Aqua Claudia was next
to the Marcia in wholesomeness, and the Anio Nova.
The Claudia was brought from the way to Subiaco,
in the mountains. Its length was forty-six ancient
Roman miles; thirty-six miles under ground, ten
miles above ground, of vvhich ten there were nine
miles on arches, and in the nine there was a conti-
nuous line of arches near the city of six miles in
length.

IX. Anio Novus.— The Anio Novus was deriv-
ed immediately from the Teverone * near Subiaco,
and was 58-^ ancient Roman miles in length ;
near Rome it was supported by the same arches as
the Aqua Claudia. Some of the arches were of a
great height, 109 ancient Roman feet. These two
vvere on a higher level than any of the other aque-
ducts; the Anio Novus was the highest; they vvere
the greatest of the aqueducts of Rome, and their
remains at this day are also the most considerable ;
many of their lofty brick arches stili remain betvveen
the Porta Maggiore and San Stefano Rotondo, and
also vvithout the Porta Maggiore and on the way to
Frascati. Both these vvaters passed over the mag-
nificent monument at the Porta Maggiore, f which
was constructed as a memorial of the great work.

Modem Acqua Felice.— By the side of the arches

* Frontin.

f See page 353.


AQUEDUCTS OF ROME.

of the ancient Aqua Claudia, on the road to Marino
and Frascati, are seen the arches of the modern
aqueduct the Acqua Felice, on a lower level, form-
ed by Sixtus V. in 1587-

Time has hitherto spared many of the arches
used in carrying the conduits over the hollows and
brooks, and from these remains antiquaries have
been enabled to trače, in some degree, the eight
aqu‘. ducts enumerated by Frontinus. *

From the construction of the first to that of the
last aqueduct mentioned by Frontinus, 850 years
intervened.

Some of the aqueducts had become ruinous, and
tvere choked by the calcareous matter deposited by
the water when Frontinus was appointed to the čare
of them in the reign of Nerva.

Some aqueducts were formed after the reign of
Nerva.

Aqua Sabatina,— the modern Acqua Paola. —Of
these was the Aqua Sabatina, of vvhich aqueduct
much of the arched structure remains. It is sup-
posed to have been constructed by Trajan, t The
Alseatina, in the Transtevere, is considered by
some to be different, because Frontinus says that
the Alseatina was on a lovver level than any of the
other aqueducts. Venuti, hovvever, is of opinion,

* See Fabreiii, de Aqu<eductibus.
f Fabretti, de Acjuaeductibus.

AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 473

that the Alseatina, the Sabatina, and the Trajana,
vvere the same aqueduct. The Sabatina was re-
stored by Paul V. Borghese about 1610, and brings
vvater from the vicinity of the lake of Bracciano,
anciently called Lacus Sabatinus, to the Janiculine
hill, Saint Peter’s, and the Transtevere. The water
of this aqueduct vvas anciently employed for vvork-
ing miliš, * as it descended along the steep face of
the Janiculine, and it is employed for the same pur-
pose at this day.

In Publius Victor’s list of the fabrics of Rome,
vvhich is supposed to have been vvritten in the reign
of Valentinian, twenty aqueducts are named, several
of vvhich are supposed to have been only branches. t
Some of  the aqueducts of Rome vvere repaired by
Theodoric, as Cassiodorus relates. Procopius, in
the reign of Justinian, enmnerates fourteen aque-
ducts at Rome, but it is probable also that some of
these were only branches.

Demolition of the Aqueducts.— Many of the a-
queducts vvere destroyed in the sieges of Rome in
the time of Justinian. If any remained entire after
these sieges, they were neglected, and vvent to ruin ;
so that, in the middle ages, Rome vvas again brought
to use the vvater of the Tiber, and of vvells, vvhich

* Procop. de Bell. Goth.

f Homa Antiča di Famiano Nardini, p. 1666; and Fa-
bretti, de Aquseductibus in Graev. Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. IV.

474 FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS.

were sufficient for the small and uncultivated popu-
lation of the town. An ancient aqueduct, however,
was sometimes imperfectly repaired, so as to supply
a little water, as Donato mentions. *

Modem Aqueducts.— The three aqueducts that
now supply Rome copiously were formed in 1560,
1587, and 1610. Of these the waterof the Acqua
Vergine, which supplies the fountain of Trevi, is
the best.

The Brook Maranna.— Besides these aqueducts,
a brook called Maranna, and anciently Aqua Cra-
bra, runs through the town and falls into the Tiber;
it is muddy, and not lit for domestic use, but it
gives motion to a large paper-mill belonging to go-
vernment, and is used by the makers of parchment,
carta pecora, which is manufactured of an excellent
quality at Rome from sheep and goat skins. A
small stream also rises near the Januš, and falls into
the Tiber by the Cloaca Maxima.

The Brook Aquataccio.— Another muddy brook,
the Aquataccio, anciently called Almo, flows into
the Tiber a little below the town.

Fountains.

The three principal fountains in Rome, each sup-
plied by one of the three modern aqueducts, are thq

* Doaatas de U"be Roma.

TOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS. 475
fountain of San Pietro Moniorio,  that of the Acqua
Felice,  and the Fountain oj Trevi.

Aqua Paola.— The fountain of San Pietro Mon-
torio, otherwise II Fontanone Paolino, was con-
structed by Paul V. Borghese in 1612, with Tra-
vertine stone froin the Forum of Nerva; Stefano
Maderno was the architect. The fountain is adorn-
ed with six lonic columns of red granite. On the
attic is a large inscription commeniorating the for-
mation of the aqueduct of the Acqua Paola by
Paul V. The water which supplies the fountain is
brought by this aqueduct from the lake of Brac-
ciano ; the length of the aqueduct is thirty-five Ro¬
man miles, as the inscription attests. *

This aqueduct + vvas originally constructed by
Trajan to supply the Transtevere, and called the
Aqua Sabatina, from the ancient name of the lake
of Bracciano. Paul V. restored this aqueduct. and
built new arches where they were wanting, for
Crossing the low ground. Like the other aque-
ducts, it is partly subterraneous, or conducted along
the surface of the ground, and is supported on
arches only vvhere the ground is lovver than the
gently inclined plane vvhich forms the bottom of

* The modern Roman mile, according to Lalande, is a-
bout of an English mile: 74| Roman miles being equal
to a degree of latitude. It is 1000 passi geometrichi; the
passo is five Roman feet.

-j- Fabretti, de Aquseduct.

476 FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS.

the conduit. branch goes off two miles from the
city to supply the garden of the Vatican, the foun-
tains before Saint Peter’s, and the other fountains
in the Civitas Leonina, or Borgo San Pietro.

Mills.— From this fountain of San Pietro Mon-
torio the water descends along the steep face of the
Janiculine tovvards the Tiber, and in its course puts
in motion a great many miliš, employed in making
paper, in fulling cloth, and in grinding corn.

The miliš of ancient Rome also vvere on the brow
of this hill, and driven by the water of the aque-
duct; and when the aqueduct was cut by the Goths
during the siege, Belisarius was obliged to have re-
course to a boat mili, vvhich he caused to be con-
structed for grinding corn on the river, at the rapid
formed by an arch of the Janiculine bridge, novv
the Ponte Sisto, as Procopius describes. *

* “ Beyond the Tiber is a considerable hill, and there the
miliš were anciently situated; a large stream of vvater is
brought to the top of the hill by an artificial aqueduct, and
falls down along the face of the hill vvith great force. When
these aqueducts vvere cut by the enemy, as we have already
mentioned, the miliš vvere stopped for vvant of vvater. Beli¬
sarius, hovvever, being a man vvho had many resources, in
the intelligent activity of his mind, devised a remedy for this
urgent vvant. Immediately belovv the bridge of vvhich vve
have spoken, near the vvalls of the Janiculine, he stretched
strong cables across the river; to these cables be attaciicd
tvvo boats of equal size, in the plače vvhere the stream was
most rapid, passing through the arch of the bridge; in one

FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS. 477

Behind this fountain is the botanic garden, vvhich
is not in a flourishing condition.

Fontana di Ponte Sisto.— Part of the Acqua
Paola passes the river by the Ponte Sisto, and sup-
plies the large fountain of the Ponte Sisto, at the
end of the Strada Julia, and the two fountains in
front of the Farnese Palače.

Acqua Felice.— The fountain of the Acqua Fe-
lice  is adorned with a statue of Moses striking the
rock, and two other figures, with four lonic columns
of granite, and two Egyptian lions of basalt, with
hieroglyphics on their base. These lions were for-
merly in front of the Pantheon. * * The muscles of
the shoulder and other parts are skilfully and accu-
rately expressed. f

This fountain was built under the direction of
Domenico Fontana, in 1587, by Sixtus V., and re-
ceives the water of the Acqua Felice, an aqueduct
constructed by that pope in the years 1585, 1586,
and 1587- This aqueduct brings the water from
the Čampo Colonna, situated to the left of the Pa-
lestrina road, fourteen Roman nriles from Rome,
and enters by the Porta Maggiore, vvhere its con-

ef the boats were the mill-stones, which were put in motion
by a water wheel situated between the two boats.” — History
ef the Gothic War, by Procopius.

* See Le Statue di Roma, per M, Ulisse Aldrovandi, in Ve-
uetia, 1558.

+ See Winkelmanu, Hist. de l’Art. Liv. II. cap. i.

478 FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS.

duit is driven through that remarkable ancient edi-
fice, the monument of the Aqua Claudia. * The
length of the aqueduct is twenty-two Roman miles,
as the large inscription on the attic of the fountain
attests. The Acqua Felice follovvs a course ap-
proaching to that of the Acqua Marcia and Acqua
Claudia, but is on a Iower level than these ancient
aqueducts; it is not brought from so high up the
Anio.

The name of Sixtus V. was Felice Peretti, and
hence the aqueduct is called Acqua Felice. f

* See p. 353, and p. 471.

+ Sixtus V. Felice Peretti was bom at the Grotta di Mon-
talto in the March of Ancona. He was a swine-herd, and af-
terrvards a Franciscan friar. He became general of that or-
der. He was Cardinal with the name of Cardinal di Montalto.
He was elected pope in J 585, and reigned fiveyears. From po-
litical motives, he excommunicated Queen Elizabeth, but was
more inclined to favour her party than that of Philip II., and
was pleased at the defeat of the Spanish Armada. He was se¬
vere in punishing the banditti, and thereby brought them to or-
der. Besides the aqueduct of the Acqua Felice, he embellish-
ed the city with many other public edifices. He erected the
four large obelisks, and repaired the column of Antoninus. He
advanced the building of Saint Petefs, and formed the vauit that
constitutes the cupola. He began to repair the Vatican libra-
ry, injured and dissipated by the sack of Rome in 152/. He
laid on heavy taxes, and the populace, after his death, destroy-
ed his statue. He left a large sum of money to the Holy See.
His death is ascribed by some to poison administered by the
Spanish faction.

FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS. 479

Fontana, * in 1696, found that the reservoir of
'the Acqua Felice, at Torre San Giovanni, yielded
1080 oncie of vvater.

Oncia d’/icqua.— The Oncia d’Acqua is a mea-
sure of the same kind with the French ponče d’eau
de Fontainier. The oncia d’acqua at Rome, ac-
cording to Lalande, is the quantity of vvater vvhich
flovvs through a circular aperture, vvhose area is equal
to tvvelve square minuti; t the centre of the pipe
being always a palm and a quarter under the surface
of the vvater, and an adjutage or tube of that same
length being placed for the vvater to flovv through.

Acqua Vergine.—Fontana di Treti.— The foun-
tain of Trevi is so called from Trivium, on ac-
count of the three principal streets that termi-
nate in the plače. The fountain is supplied by the
Acqua Vergine,  vvhich is brought from a source
7| English miles distant, betvveen the Tivoli road
and the Palestrina road. The aqueduct in vvhich
this vvater is brought is, for the most part, under
ground. It passes through the villa Borghese, and
a branch goes along the Strada Condotti, from

* Fontana, Relazione dello stato veechio e nuovo deli’ Ac-
qua Felice.

+ The Palmo or Špan at Rome is divided into tivelve oncie,
the oncia into five minuti. The Palmo da Muratore, the Ar-
chitects’ Palm, according to Boscovich, is, huit pouces trois
lignes et un trentihme de ligne French, whičh makes
English inches.

480 FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS.

vvhence the Street has its name. This water was
brought into ancient Rome by Agrippa, and sup-
plied his baths at the Pantheon. About 1450, the
aqueduct was imperfectly repaired by Nicolas V.,
and the fountain was brought to its present magni-
ficent State by Clement XII. and Clement XIII.
about I76O. The architectural decorations of the
fountain vvere designed by Nicola Salvi.

Of the three modern aqueducts, the Acqua Ver-
gine is the most vvholesome and the best for domes-
tic use ; and the pipes of this vvater are sold by the
apostolic chamber at a higher priče than pipes from
the other aqueducts.

Smaller Fountains.— There are likevvise a num-
ber of smaller fountains ornamented vvith sculpture
in different parts of the city, each supplied vvith
vvater from one of the three aqueducts.

Want of Cleanliness.— Notvvithstanding the a-
bundant supply of vvater, the vvant of cleanliness is
remarkable in every Street and plače of Rome.

Mode of raising JVater to the Upper Floors.—
The vvater is not conveyed by pipes to the upper
stories of houses; and in order to raise the vvater from
the fountain in the court, there is a strong iron vvire
vvith one end fixed above the fountain and the other
above the vvindovv. Along this iron vvire a bucket
is made to slide. The bucket has a rope attached
to it, by which the bucket is let dovvn to the vvater.

6

BRIDGES.

481

The rope passes over a pulley fixed above the win-
dow ; the end of the rope is held by the person in
the vvindovv, and, vvhen the bucket is filled, it is
pulled up by means of the rope, and sliding along
the iron vvire arrives at the window. This mode of
raising vvater to the upper stories is also practised
in Venice and some other tovvns of Italy.

BRIDGES.

There are four bridges over the Tiber at present
in use at Rome.

L The Ponte Molle, anciently Pons Milvius, is a
mile and three quarters up the river from the Porta
del Popolo. It was built by JEmilius Scaurus, and
called Pons JEmilius, vvhich was corrupted into Pons
Milvius. * The breadth of the river at this bridge
is 406 English feet. In the middie ages the Ponte
Molle was broken dovvn and rendered impassable.

II. The bridge of Saint Angelo, anciently called
Pons 2Elius, from the Emperor AElius Hadrianus,
who built it to serve as a passage to his tomb, the
Moles Hadriani, of vvhich fabric this bridge forms
a part. A figure of the bridge is seen on me-
dals of Adrian. The span of each of the three
principal semicircular arches is 59j English feet. t
The breadth of the river at this bridge is 311 Eng-

* Nardini, Rom. Vet. Lib. VIII. cap. 3.
+ 82 palms, Piranesi, Ant. di Rom.

H h

482

BRIDGES.

lish feet. * The marble statues on the parapet, re-
presenting angels, each of which holds one of the
Instruments of the passion, are designed by Berni-
ni.

III. The Ponte Sisto, so called from Sixtus IV.,
who rebuilt it in 1474, on the ruins of the ancient
Janiculine bridge.

IV. The Island.— The small island called the
Isola Tiberina was formed, as Pliny relates, by the
corn which grew on Tarquin’s fields; the people
threw the sheaves of corn into the river, and the ac-
cumulation of mud on the sheaves, which were stop-
ped by the shallows at this plače, formed the island. t
The field of Tarquin was aftenvards made public,
and formed the Campus Martius.

Ponte Quattro Capi.-- The island divides the ri¬
ver into two branches ; over the left hand branch
is the Ponte Quattro Capi, anciently Pons Fabri-
cius. The name Quattro Capi is taken from some
ancient Termini of Januš Quadrifrons, one of which
with four bearded faces is placed near the bridge.

The diameter of each of the two principal arches
is eighty-two English feet. t Inscriptions that were
once legible on the arch stones of the two principal
arches, shevv that the bridge was built under the in-

* Donati Roma.

f Plin. Hist. Nat. Lib. II.

^114 palms, Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tora. IV. tav. 20.

BEIDGES.

483

spection of  L. Fabricius, curator of the roads, who
was consul in the year 1 of the Christian era. *

Suppositions of' Piranesi.— Piranesi has given a
dravring of an imaginary section, in which he sup-
poses that this bridge was constructed by turning off
the water, and forming an excavation across the chan-
nel, then driving piles and building several courses
of squared stones ali the way across; on these the
bridge was formed, the arches being complete cylin-
ders, only the upper half of which is seen, the rest be¬
ing hid by the foundation. But this design of Pi¬
ranesi is merely supposition, as he could have no
opportunity of seeing the foundations. Of a si-
milar kind are his designs of the foundations of the
Pons 2E1 ius and of the Moles Hadriani. He repre-
sents the stones in these foundations as dove-tailed
into one another, ahnost in the manner of the
granites of the Edystone light-house as executed by
Smeaton. t

Ponte Ferrato.— The Ponte Ferrato, of which
name the meaning is not known, is otherwise called
the Bridge of Saint Bartholomew, and anciently
Pons Cestius. It completes the communication in
this part between Rome and the Transtevere, and is

* L. Fabricius, C. F. cur. mar. Faciundum curavit;  and
over the sraali arches, eidemque probavit.  See Piranesi, An-
tichita di Roma, and Venuti, Descr. delle Antich. di Roma.

f See Smeaton’s description of the Edystone.

484

BRIDGES.

built over the right hand branch of the river. This
bridge consists of three arches, the span of the cen¬
tral and largest being seventy-seven English feet. *
It was built by Valentinian, Valens, and Gratian, as
the inscription shews in large letters on the fascia of
travertine that runs the whole length of the bridge
above the arches.

At the lower end of the island was the represen-
tation of the ship in which the sacred serpent of
Esculapius was brought from Epidaurus. Of some
remains of this ship, built and sculptured in stone,
with the figure of a serpent, Piranesi has published
a drawing. t

Ferry-Boats.— There are ferry-boats for Cros¬
sing the river at four different places. A haw-
ser is stretched across the river, and fixed on each
side, and along this havvser a pulley is moveable.
The head of the boat is connected with the pulley
by a long rope, and the boat swings in the current
with its head up the stream, and by the action of
the current the boat moves across in either direction,
according as the helm is put.

Ritined Bridges.-—Theve.  are Vestiges of three
other bridges. 1. The Pons Triumphalis. 2. The
Ponte Rotto, anciently Pons Palatinus, three arches
of vvhich remain. It had been restored, but vvas

* 106 palms, Piranesi, Ant. <li Rom. Tom. IV. tav. 22.
j- G. B. Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. IV. tav. 15.

THE TIBER.

485

again broken dovvn by the inundation of 1598, and
remains in that broken state. 3.  The Pons Subli-
cius. Of the first and third little remains. Pub-
lius Victor, in his list of the fabrics of Rome, vvrit-
ten in the time of Valentinian, enumerates eight
bridges, vvhich agrees vvith the number here men-
tioned ; tvvo bridges being reckoned at the passage
of the river at the Isola Tiberina.

Breadth of the Tiber.■ —The breadth of the river
at the bridge of Saint Angelo and the Ponte Sisto
is from 310 to 320 English feet, as before mention-
ed. The height of the Tiber at Rome above the
. sea is stated to be thirty-three English feet, and
the height of the Corso Street ninety-four English
feet above the sea. The depth and rapidity of the
stream are considerable. It is from ten to twenty
English feet in depth at mid-channel at Rome in
summer, vvhen at the lovvest. It is sufficiently ra-
pid to turn boat-mills, of vvhich there are three or
four moored vvith chains. The vvater is turbid, and
of a dujl yellowish colour, being loaded vvith sandy
mud, part of vvhich it deposits on the banks. The
vvater is not generally used for domestic purposes,
most parts of the tovvn being supplied vvith vvater
from one of the three aqueducts ; but the vvater of
the Tiber is not considered to be unvvholesome, if
allovved to deposit for a long time in cisterns, as
Lancisi mentions. *

* Lancisi, de Cceli Romani Qualitatibus.

486

THE TIBER.

Length ofits Course.— The length of the Tiber’s
course from the source near Borgo San Sepolcro in
the mountains of Tuscany to Rome, is about 160
English miles; and in this course it receives the wa-
ters from the Val di Chiana, which have a course
of forty miles ; the Nera with a course of seventy,
and the Teverone of forty-five miles, and some
smaller streams. It consists, therefore, of the rain-
water which falls over a considerable extent of
country, and is a much larger body of vvater than
the Arno, of which the course from the source to
Florence is only seventy miles, the Chiana which the
Arno receives is forty, and the length of the course
to the sea near Piša 127«

The course of the Thames to London is about
140 miles.

Floats of vrood are sent down the Tiber from Pe¬
rugia, but it is not navigable for boats so far up, by
reason of some rapids.

Sea-gulls are occasionally seen flying about the
Tiber at Rome, in particular States of the weather ;
they come up from the sea, which is fourteen Eng¬
lish miles distant.

Ancient Course.— It appears that the Tiber once
had its course betvveen the Palatine and the Capi-
toline hills, and flowed over the plače where the
Forum Romanum aftenvards was. *

* “ Hic ubi nune fora sunt lintres errare videres.”—Ovid.

10

THE TIBER.

487

The course of the river in Rome was altered in
some respects by Augustus. * * * §

There were officers in ancient Rome, called
curatores riparum et alvei Tiberis, who had the
charge of keeping the banks and the channel in
order. +

Inundations.— The channel of the Tiber is nar-
rower at Rome than it is some distance above the
city ; and this, together with the obstructions occa-
sioned by bridges and boat-mills, may be the cause
of the inundations happening more frequently in
Rome than in the adjacent parts of the river’s
course, although the banks of the river at Rome are
pretty high, as Pliny observes, being in many places
sixty feet above the bottom of the channel. J

The inundations of the river have often been in-
jurious to the city. It was before mentioned, § that,
in consequence of a destructive inundation which
happened in the reign of Tiberius, it was proposed
to turn away some of the streams that flow into the
Tiber. This, hovrever, was not executed.

In the time of Clement VIL there was a remark-
able inundation of the Tiber in Rome, in the month

* “.Amnis

Doctus iter melius.”—Horat. ad Pisones.

f See Suetonius and ancient inscriptipns.

J Donati Roma.

§ See page 257.

488

BRIDGES ON THE TEVERONE.

of October, occasioned by the breaking of the dikes
of the lake of Velino. *

The inundations, besides injuring the buildings,
produce also a deleterious effect on the health of the
inhabitants. After the vvater has subsided, the walls
of the houses that were overflowed remain imbibed
with moisture, and the cellars fuU of mud, and the
inhabitants are affected with intermittent fevers.
After the inundation in December 1702, Lancisi
recommended' to dry the walls by means of fires in
the chimneys, and obtained an order from the pope
to have the mud removed from the cellars ; and he
found, that, in consequence of these measures, the
number of fevers was diminished. t

Bridges over the Amo.— The bridges in the vi-
cinity of Rome over the Teverone, anciently called
Anio, are four : The Ponte Salario, of one principal
arch and two smaller arches, is situated not far from
the plače where the Teverone Tališ into the Tiber ;
it was built in the sixth century by Narses, the ge¬
neral of Justinian’s army, as the ancient inscriptions
on the bridge testify. t The next is the Ponte No-
mentana, commonly called Ponte Alla Mentana, be-

* Fabricii, Descr. Urb. Rom. cap. 15.

t Lancisi, de Creli Romani Qualitatibus.

t The inscriptions on the Ponte Salario, as given by Marii«,
anus and Venuti, are,

imperante . d . n , piissimo .

ac . triumphali . semper . juštiniano •

Pp . aug . anno , xxxviii.—

BRIDGES ON THE TEVERONE.

489

eause it is situated on the road to the ancient No-
mentum, now called La Mentana ; this bridge also
was built by Narses. The third, the Ponte Mam
snolo, which is crossed by the road from Rome to

narses . vir . gloriosissimus .
ex . praeposito . sacri . palatii.
ex . cons .—atque . patricius .
post . victoriam . gothicam .
ipsis . et . eorum . regibus .—
celeritate . mirabili . conflictu .
publico . superatis .

atque . prostratis .—
libertate . urbis . romae.
ac . totius . italite . restituta .
pontetn . viae . salarite .

us—que . ad . aquam .

a . nefandissimo . totila .

tyranno. distructum .

purgato . fluminis . alveo .—
in . meliorem . statum .

quam . quondam .

fuerat . renovavit .—

On the other side are the follovving verses :

quam . bene . curbati . directa . est. semita . pontis
atque . interruptum . continuatnr . iter
calcamus . rapidas . subjecti . gurgitis . undas
et . libet . iratae . cernere . murmur . aqu:e
ite . igitur . faciles . per gaudia . vestra . quirites
et . narsin . resonans . plausus . ubique . canat
qui . potuit . rigidas . gothorum . subdere . mentes
hic . docuit . durum . flumina . ferre . jugum

A large view of the Ponte Salario is published in Piranesi,
Antichita dl Roma.

490

QUAYS.

Tivoli; the name is supposed to be derived from
Mammea, the mother of Alexander Severus. The
fourth, the Ponte Lucano, at the tomb of Plautius,
near Tivoli, which is crossed by the same road; this
bridge was rebuilt by Tiberius Plautius in the time
of the Emperor Claudius, as an inscription publish-
ed by Gruter testifies.

Landing Quays.

The Ripetta.— At the Porta della Ripetta, above
the bridges, ali the boats are unloaded that bring
wood, charcoal, and provisions of different kinds
down the Tiber from the Sabine and from Umbria.

The Ripetta was constructed by Clement XI.
Albani about 1710, of the Travertine stones of one
arch of the second tier of the outer wall of the coli-
seum. This arch had fallen to the ground, and af-
forded stones for the Ripetta and for some other
fabrics. *

Ripa Grande.— The Porto di Ripa Grande, si-
tuated below the bridges, and on the right bank of
the river, is the landing-place for vessels that come up
the river to Rome ; and here the Sea Customhouse,
la Dogana di Mare, is established.

Ospizio di San Micheli.— Near this is the hos-
pital of Saint Michael, a large building, begun in
1686, and appropriated to the education of poor
children, the reception of old invalids, and as a
house of correction for delinquent women.

* Venuti, Descr. delle Ant. di Rom. Capo Primo.

WALLS OF ROME.

491

Navali Antichi.— The landing quay of ancient
Rome was on the left side of the river, opposite to
the Ripa Grande. The marble brought from
Greece, Asia, and Egypt, was landed in this plače ;
and there have been found in its vicinity blocks
of marble, marked vvith letters which are supposed
to denote the day of the marbles being shipped, the
name of the merchant vvho shipped them, and of
the consuls to signify the year. One of these in-
scriptions is given by Winkelmann. *

Near this, when the river is lovv, the remains of
one of the piers of the ancient Pons Sublicius are
seen.

Salt Works.— The ancient salt works were not
far from the Navali Antichi, near the ascent to the
Aventine ; and Venuti says, that salt is stili made
betvveen the Aventine hill and the Tiber. t

fflalls of Rome.

TValls.— The walls that surround the principal
part of Rome on the left of the Tiber are mostly of
brick, and have tovvers projecting at intervals. Some
of these tovvers are round, some quadrangular. In
the wall of the city near the Porta del Popolo, an-
ciently called Porta Flaminia, and nearly opposite to
the entrance of the Villa Borghese, is an ancient
piece of wall inclined from the perpendicular, called

* VVinkeltnaun, Mist. de l’Art.

f Venuti, Descr. delle Antichita di Roma, Parte II. cap. ii.

492

GATES OF THE CITY.

tlie Muro Torto. It is mentioned by Procopius ; *
Venuti considers it to be the remains of the sepul-
chre of the Domitia family. In the vvall betvveen
the Porta Maggiore and the Porta San Giovanni, over
an old gate now shut up, is an ancient inscription
vvhich testifies that the vvalls vvere repaired by Arca-
dius and Honorius, vvith the advice of Stilicho.
The vvalls of the Transtevere are more modern ;
they were built about 1630 by Urban VIII. Barbe-
rini, and have triangular bastions vvith gorges ; and
the castle of Saint Angelo is surrounded vvith a poly-
gon, composed of bastions, a ditch, and glacis.

Gates.

Porta del Popolo.— The outside of the Porta del
Popolo is built after a design of Michael Angelo,
and executed by Vignola.

Porta Pia.— The ir«’ 4 ^ front of the Porta Pia,
anciently Porta Noir ■ , is by Michael Angelo

in his peculiar style . ornament.

Porta San Lorenza.— At the Porta San Lorenzo
is a monument vvith three ancient inscriptions, to
commemorate the restoration of the Aqua Marcia,
the Tepula, and the Julia. The highest inscription
ascribes the restoration to Augustus; but it is sup-
posed that this vvas a compliment paid to Augustus
by Agrippa, because Frontinus mentions that the
restoration vvas the vvork of Agrippa. The second

* Procop. de Bello Gothico, lib. I.

GATES OF THE CITY.

493

inscription, which is the last in point of time, men-
tions the restoration by M. Aurelius Antoninus,
knovvn in history by the name of Caracalla. The
third inscription, vvhich is the second in point of
time, records the restoration by Titus. * In Fa-
bretti’s dravving of this monument the three con-
duits are seen; the lovvest of these, as is deduced
from Frontinus, is that of the Aqua Marcia, above it
the conduit of the Aqua Tepula, and above that
the conduit of the Julia. t

Porta Maggiore.— The Porta Maggiore is
formed of that remarkable ancient fabric the monu-
ment of the Claudian aqueduct, vvhich consists of

* The inscriptions are,

“ imp . caes . divi . juli . f . augustus .

pontifex . maximus . cos . xii .

tribunic . potestat. xix . imp . xiii .

rivos . aquarum . orani um . refecit .

imp . caes . m . aurelius. antoninus . pius . felix . aug parth .
maxim .

brit . maximus . pontifex . maximus . aquam . marciam . variis.
kasibus. impeditam . purgato . fonte. excisis. et perforatis.
montibus . restituta . forma . adquisito . etiam . fonte . novo .

antoniano .

in sacram . urbem . suam . perducendam . curavit.

imp . titus. caesar. divi. f. vespasianus . august. pont max.

tribuniciae. potestat. ix , imp. xv. cens. cos. vii. design . viii •
rivom. aquae . marciae. vetustate . dilapsum . refecit.

et. aquam . quae . in . usu . esse . desierat. reduxit. ’

f Fabretti, de Aquaeductibus, dissertatio pnma.

491

EXTENT OF ROME.

very large ancient inscriptions, supported by two
arched ways with rusticated columns between. *
One of the arched ways is used as the gate, and
some walls vvith merli or battlements, the vvork of
the middle ages, compose the fortifications of the
gate, and conceal a part of the ancient monument.

Arch of Drusus.— Within the Porta San Sebas-
tiano is the arch of Drusus. + Over this arch there
passed an aqueduct, a branch of the Aqua Marcia.
This arch is built of large blocks of Travertine.
Each of the tvvo stones forming the key of the arch
is about nine feet long. There is no ancient in-
scription on the arch by which its original destina-
tion might be ascertained, but it is supposed by
Venuti to be the arch mentioned by Tacitus built in
honour of Nero Claudius Drusus; t and, according
to Venuti, Caracalla aftervvards made use of this arch
for the passage of the aqueduct or branch vvhich he
added to the Aqua Marcia. This branch is men¬
tioned in the inscription of Caracalla in page 493.

Eztent of Ground 'within the JValls.— The
walls of Rome in the time of Vespasian, as men¬
tioned by Pliny, were thirteen Roman miles in Cir¬
cuit, and included the seven hills. § The present
walls, which, according to Donato, [j occupy nearly

* See page 353, and page 471.

-j- See page 352.

J Venuti, Descrizione delle Antichita di Roma, 1763.

J Plin. Hist. Nat. III. 9.

|| Donati Roma, Lib. I. cap. 16.

POPULATION OF KOME.

495

the same circuit as the most extended ancient wall,
built by Aurelian in 270, are 12| English miles in
circuit, and the space included within them is about
five square English miles, of vvhich only about one
square mile and a half is occupied by dvvellings, the
rest of the ground is chiefly laid out in market
gardens, vigne. *

No Account Preserved of the Population of
Rome in the First Centuries of the Christian
Era.— The account given by Pliny of the extent of
Rome is obscure. Ancient vvriters have not men-
tioned the number of inhabitants, t but as Rome, in
the time of its prosperitv, was the metropolis of a
much larger empire than any that now exists in Eu-
rope, it may be concluded that the number of in¬
habitants in Rome and the suburbs was greater
than in any of the modem cities of Europe.

Conjecture concerning the Population in the year
400.—Brotier has made an estimate of the number of
inhabitants in Rome, deduced from the number of
houses mentioned in Publius Victor’s List of the
Fabrics in the Fourteen Regions of Rome, written
in the time of Valentinian, about the year 400, and
before the sack of the city by Alaric. In the work of

* These dimensions are taken from Vasis Map of Rome.

f “ Incolarum (Romae veteris) quod attinet numerum,
illum admodum difficile fuerit investigare, cum nullus eorum
habitus unquam fuerit census, neque constet quando borum
numerus fuerit maximus.”—Isaaci Vosii de Magnit. Romae
Veteris, in Graev. Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. IV.

496

POPULATION OP ROME.

Publius Victor the number of dvvelling-houses is
stated at 48,382, of vvhich l?8O were domus, that
is, houses occupied each by one family of the richer
cla^s, and 46,602 * insulte buildings of many apart-
ments, each apartment being occupied by a separate
family. Reckoning twenty-five individuals to each
house, the result is 1,209,550 inhabitants. Gibbon
adopts this estimate of the population of Rome, f

Supposing the number of houses included in the
fourteen regions within the walls as stated by Vic¬
tor to be accurate, there is much uncertainty with
respect to the number of inhabitants to be allowed
to each house.

The space 'mthin the Walls not sufficient to con-
tain a Miliion.— The population, 1,209,550, is too
great to be included in five square miles, even al-
lovving for the crovvded habitations of the poor,
which were built to the height of many stories, t
considering also that much of the space vvas occu¬
pied by gardens of the rich, circi, baths, and other
public buildings, and the public walk the Campus

* See Publii Victoris de Regionibus Urbis Liber in Nar¬
dini, Rom. Antič. Lib. VIII. cap. 1, and in Graev. Thes. Ant.
Rom. Tom. III.

f Gibbon, Hist. Decl. Rom. Emp.

I “ In ea autem majestate urbis et civiurn infinita frequen-
tia innumerabiles habitationes opus fuit explicare. Ergo cutn
recipere non posset area plana tantam multitudinem in urbe, ad
auxiiium altitudinis aediticiorum res ipsa coegit devenire.”— -
Vitruv.

POPULATION OF  ROME.

497

Martius, which was anciently not included vvithin
the vvalls. This space of five square miles vvould
be very much crowded even vvith half a million of
inhabitants. With half a million it vvould be much
more crovvded than either London or Pariš is at
this day.

The 1,200,000 inhabitants in London occupy a
space of more than fifteen square miles.

The barrier wall of Pariš, vvith a circuit of 13|
miles, includes a space of about nine English square
miles, and a population of 713,000 inhabitants. A
good deal of this space, however, is unoccupied by
buildings. The poorer classes in Pariš live in houses
of several stories; in London they inhabit houses
of two floors, and sometimes of a ground floor only.

As it appears that the space included vvithin the
wall of Aurelian, which was the most extended wall
of Rome, is not sufficient for containing a popula¬
tion so large as that of London, nor even one equal
to that of Pariš, it may be supposed that a great
part of the vast population belonging to such a me¬
tropoli« as Rome dvvelt beyond the limits of the
fourteen regions, and of Aurelian’s wall, in the
suburbs and neighbouring villages, the extent of
vvhich is mentioned by Pliny and other ancient au-
thors. *

* “ Ulterius postea non transiit murus civitatis vetantibus
ut dicunt religionibus ; sed sunt loca circum habitata omnia
multa et ingentia et aperta, captuque facilia ab hostibus, et si

i i

498

FOPULATION OF ROME.

Great Number ofPoor.— A great part of the in¬
habitants of ancient Rome lived in a State of pover-
ty and idleness, and was maintained by daily distri-
butions of bread and other provisions at the public
expence.

Cicero * says there were not 2000 persons of in-
dependent fortune in Rome. A small number of
individuals possessed overgrown fortunes, and drew
their revenues from large landed estates situated in
the different provinces of the empire, and dispersed
over that large portion of the globe which extends
in latitude from Britain to Africa, in longitude from
Spain to Persia.

Fali of Ancient Rome.-^-Rovae  declined after
the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople,
and many of the inhabitants emigrated in conse-
quence of the sieges that afflicted the city in the
reign of Justinian. It is the inhabitants, and not
quisquam hoc intuens civitatis magnitudinem vellet investiga-
re, errare cogeretur nec signum teneret aliquod quo ipsa se
cxtendat vel quo desinat; sic exterius civitati junctum est et
civitatis in infinitum protensae prscfert speciem.”—Dion. Halic.

“ Exspatiantia tecta multas addidere urbes."—PJin. Hist.
Nat. Lib. III. c. v.

“ Tibur nune Suburbanuin.”—Flor. I. 11.

Thesuburbs were comprehended under the name of Rome:

“ Urbis appellatio muris, Romee autem continentibus aedi-
ficiis finitur quod latius patet.”—Pandect. Lib. 50, de Verbo-
rum Significatione, Tit. xvi. L. urbis. See also L. 2Edificia
and L. ut Alfenus in the same title.

* Cicero de Offic. II. 21.

POPULATION O F ROME.

499

the buildings that constitute a city, and ancient
Rome may be considered then to have perished.
Totila had determined to destroy Rome utterly, so
that the plače should no longer be a town for the
habitation of men ; but he was prevailed upon to re-
lent and špare it by the letters of Belisarius, as Pro-
copius relates.

The population was at the lovvest in the seventh
or eighth century, when under the dominion of the
Lombards. *

In the ninth, tenth, eleventh, tvvelfth, thirteenth,
and fourteenth centuries, Rome was without regu-
lar government, and the population, therefore,
could not be considerable. It increased after the
revival of the arts.

The following are statements of the population of
Rome at different periods :

In the year400, Rome, it is conjectured, contained 1,200,000 f
In the fourteenth century, • - 33,000

In the time ofLeo. X. . 85,000 {

In 1709, including 10,000 Jews, • 148,5b8§

In I7t»5, exclusive of Jcvvs, - • 161,899 ||

In 1817, ineluding 8000 Jews, - 153,000



Rome  Sed.  IV.— La Sapienza.—The Jesuits' College 
Congregafion de Propaganda Fide.—Academie.— Valican


* Muratori, Antiquitat. Italic. Diss. 21, de Italiae Statu
Temporibus Barbaricis.

f Brotier and Gibbon.

I Lancisi de Romani Cceli Qualitatibus.

o Labat. II Gibbon.

500

LA SAPIENZA.

Library.—Library of the Minerva —Library of the Sa-
pienza Imperiali Librarp.

Academy of Painting of Saint Luke.—French Academy of
Painting.—Sculptors, Canova, Tortvaldson.—-Manufac-
iory of Mosaic.—Mint.—Scagliola.—Gut-strings.—Parch~
ment Shell Cameos.—Goldsmiths.

Courts ofJusticeat Monte Citorio.— Sanctuaries.—Lotteries.—
Monte di Piela.—Current Coins.—Priče of Bread.—Pro-
hibited Boolcs.—Toleration.—Jevos.—Church of England
Service.—Hosp ital.—Funerals.

Carnival Amusements Improvisatore.—Ceremonies in East-
er Wee1c.—Public Walks.— Drese.

Buffaloes.—Goats.—Plants—IVeather.—Of the Insalubrity of
the Atmosphere.

The  edifice for the use of the university of Rome,
called la Sapienza,  was begun by Leo X. under
the direction of Bonaroti, and finished by the ar-
chitect Boromini in the seventeenth century, in a
style much degenerated from the simplicity and
proper selection of ornaments conspicuous in the
architects of the sixteenth. At one end of the ob-
long court is the church, with a cupola terminating
in a cone, having a spiral bas relief around it, an ex-
ample of the exaggerated style practised by Boromini.

In this building the professors of the university
of Rome deliver lectures on the various branches
of Science. The university was first established in
the fifteenth century by Eugenius IV.

Library.— After the holy see had acquired the
dutchy of Urbino, * the printed books of the exten~



* See the Note in page I91.

10

LA SAPIENZA.

501

sive library of the Dukes of Urbino were given to
the Sapienza ; the manuscripts were placed in the
Vatican. The library is open for the use of stu-
dents, and contains 23,000 volumes.

Botanic Garden.— Alexander VII. Chigi, who
finished the building about the year 1660, institut-
ed also the botanic garden of the university, situat-
ed behind the fountain of San Pietro Montorio.
This botanic garden, as before mentioned, is very
inconsiderable. *

Collection of Minerals.— There is a collection of
minerals formed in Germany and France; it was pur-
chased by the pope about tvvelve years ago. To
this are added the minerals of different parts of the
pope’s territory.

Latialite.— Amongst these last is a crystal of
latialite, in form of an octahedron, of which the side
is two or three tenths of an inch. Of this mineral
mention has been made already in speaking of Ma¬
rino where it is found.

Alum Rock of la Tolfa*— There are specimens of
another remarkable mineral of the pope’s territory,
the alum rock of La Tolfa, situated ten miles east of
Civita Vecchia. Professor Gismondi considers this
alum rock to be a species of mineral distinct from
others, andcharacterized byapeculiar crystallineform.
Klaproth found the alum rock of La Tolfa to con-
tain silica, sulphuric acid, argil, and potass. It is sup-

* See page 276.

502

LA SAPIENZA.

posed to have got the sulphuric acid by exposure to
volcanic vapours. By reason ofthe potass it contains, it
affords alum vvithout requiring any addition, vvhilst
the shale which is used near Whitby and near Glas-
gow does not yield alum in octahedral crystals, un-
less potass or ammonia be added ; because the consti-
tuent parts of alum are sulphuric acid, argil, and
potass or ammonia. The alum obtained from the
rock of La Tolfa is esteemed above ali other alum
in commerce for the purpose of dyeing delicate co-
lours.

Eminent Professors.— Amongst the eminent men
who have taught in the university of Rome are the
follovving: *

Copernicus  taught astronomy for a short time in
1500, at the age of twenty-seven.

Eustachius,  celebrated amongst anatomists for
his works on the organ of hearing, his engraved a-
natomical tables, and his observations on the tho-
racic duet, was professor of medicine in 1562.

Baglivi,  an eminent medical praetitioner, and
author of a work, De Praxi Medica, was professor
of surgery and anatomy. He was a native of Ra-
gusa, and died at 38, in 1707.

Gravina  was professor of jurisprudence. His
work on the origin and history of the civil law is
much esteemed. He was an admirer of poetry, and
one of the founders of the Academy deli’ Arcadia.

* See Caraffa de Gymnasio Romano.

COLLEGIUM ROMANUM.

<503

11 e left his property to the escellent dramatic wri-
ter Metastasio, whom he had maintained and edu-
cated. Gravina vvas bom in Calabria, and died in
1717 at the age of fifty-three.

Jesuits' College.— The Collegium Romanom has
returned into the possession of the Jesuits since the
re-establishment of the order. The order of Je¬
suits received the papal approbation from Paul III.
Farnese in 1540, and they soon after established
this college. The order having acquired excessive
povver by means of its artful and ambitious constitu-
tion, was abolished by a brief of Clement XIV.
Ganganelli in 1762, and re-established by the pope
novv reigning, Pius VII. about 1815. Various
branches of Science are taught by the Jesuits in this
establishment.

Kircher's Museum.— The museum formed by
the Jesuit Kircher is to be seen in the Collegium
Romanum. It is dusty and ill kept, and offers no-
thing remarkable on a general view. It contains
some Egyptian hieroglyphics and some ancient
bronzes. The Jesuit Buonanni made additions to
Kircher’s museum, and published a descriptive cata-
logue of it in 1709.

Eminent Projessors.— Amongst the eminent Je¬
suits who have taught in this college are, Kircher,
who wrote on some branches of natura! philosophy,
on gnomonics, pn hieroglyphics, and other subjects ;
Strada,  who died in 1649, professor of rhetoric,
author of Latin Poems, vvhich are esteemed, and of

504

COLLEGIUM ROMANDM.

a History of the Wars of Flanders ; Boscovich,  the
celebrated mathematician, born at Ragusa in 17'11.

Obsenatory. —  In the astronomical observatory of
the college they are putting up a three or four feet
transit instrument by Reichenbach. There is a theo-
dolite by the same artist, and a clock with a gridiron
pendulum, by Pons of  Pariš. Mathematical instru¬
ment makers have little employment at Rome, and
consequently their number is very small. There is
one, I was informed, who had vvorked and learnt
his art under Fortin of Pariš.

Observatory of the Vatican.— Another observa-
tory at Rome is in the Vatican, but it is not at pre-
sent furnished with instruments.

Congregation de Propaganda Pide A large
building in the Piazza di Spagna is occupied by the
Congregation de Propaganda Fide, which was estab-
lished in 1622 by Gregory XV. for the education
of missionaries destined for distant countries, and
of natives of these countries, who are instructed in
theological doctrine.

Printing-House.— In 1627 the printing-house
of this college contained founts of letter in fifteen
different languages, and this number was afterwards
augmented to twenty-three, and latterly to a great-
er number.

Academia dei Lincei.— The Academia dei Lincei
was instituted about 1620 by Prince Frederic Cesi,
a distinguished encourager of Science, at the early
age of eighteen.

ACADEMIE.

505

This academy had for emblem a lynx, to denote
the acuteness with which the phenomena of nature
require to be examined ; and the object of the aca-
demy was to promote the study of natural history. '

They were occupied in publishing Hernandes’s
Natural History of Mexico.

Fabio Colonna, born at Naples in 1567, author
of a work on the plants mentioned by the ancients,
was one of the most distinguished members. Bian-
chi, under the name of Planco, has vvritten a his-
tory of this academy.

Modem Academg dei Lincei.— There exists at
this day in Rome an academy of the same name,
in which papers on physical Science and natural his-
tory are read.

Arcadia.— The Academia deli’ Arcadia vvas in-
stituted for the purpose of correcting the bad taste
in poetry which prevailed in the seventeenth cen-
tury. A collection of the lives of the eminent
members has been published, with the title of Vite
degli Arcadi Illustri. This academy stili exists, and
holds its meetings every Thursday at the 22d  Italian
hour, that is, about two hours before sun-set.

Vatican Library.

Origin of the Collection of Manuscripts.— Cle-
ment V. having fixed his seat at Avignon, removed
the papal library to that plače, where it remained
till 1417, when Martin V. Colonna brought it to

506

VATICAN LIBRARV.

Rome, and placed it in tlie Vatican palače. In
1432 this library vvas inconsiderable. To Niclun
las V., and his successor Calistus III. Borgia, two
pontiffs who reigned from 1447 to 1458, is dne a
great part of tlie collection of manuscripts that now
forms the Vatican library. Transcribers vvere em-
ployed by these two popes in many different coun-
tries in copying manuscripts; and they had persons
employed in collecting manuscripts in France, Ger-
many, England, and Greece. Under some of the
following popes the library vvas neglected. *

In 1472 Sixtus IV. della Rovere added to the
library, and vvas the first vvho opened it for the use
of the public, and allotted revenues for its main?
tenance.

Leo X. made considerable additions. In the time
of Clement VII. de’ Medici in 1527, happened
the sack of Rome by the troops of the Emperor
Charles V., and many of the books in the Vatican
library were destroved by the ignorance of the sol-
diers.

Vatican Library Built.— Sixtus V., about the
year 1587, built the present library. Domenico
Fontana vvas the architect.

Cardinal Baronius vvas librarian from 1568 to
1607> and vvas employed by the popes in composing

* Praef. ad Catalogum Codd. Manuscript. Bibliothec® Va-
ticanae, by Assemanni.

VATICAN LIBRART.

507

an ecclesiastical history in ansvver to the history pub-
lished by Luther and the other reformers. The
work of the reformers is entitled Centuriee Magde-
burgicm, that of Baronius Annales Ecclesiasticae.

In the seventeenth century the Vatican Iibrary
was increased by three considerable additions; the
first was the library of manuscripts that belonged to
the Elector Palatine at Heidelberg, presented to the
pope by Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria ; the second,
the manuscripts of the library of the Dukes of Ur-
bino ; and the third, the collection of manuscripts,
which Christina, Queen of Svveden, left to the Va¬
tican.

Number of Volumes.— The Vatican library is
said to contain 30,000 volumes of manuscripts.
Amongst the manuscripts that are celebrated is a
Virgil with paintings, and written in carettere ma-
jusculo, in letters nearly of the form of the ancient
Roman lapidary letters. A copy of the form of the
letters of this manuscript is published in Astle’s
History of the Origin of Writing ; this manuscript
has been supposed to be of the fourth century of the
time of Constantine. * There is also a manuscript
of Terence in letters of a similar form. Several of
these manuscripts vvere carried to Pariš, as well as
the collection of medals, which last has disappeared,
as the keeper informed me.

See page 206.

508

VATICAN LIBRARV.

First Galleri/.— The first gallery of the Vaticaa
library is 230 feet in length, and is adorned vvith
paintings representing the aetions of Sixtus V. The
manuscripts are in lovv book cases, vvith imperforat-
ed doors, placed along the vvalls. In this gallery is
an ancient calendar in form of a cross, vvith full
length miniature« of the saints, placed at the day de-
dicated to each ; tvvo very large tables of granite,
and some other objects of curiosity.

Greek Vases.— In this, and some of the other gal-
leries, which are very extensive, is a valuable collec-
tion of the Greek painted earthen vases, formerly
called Etruscan. It is the oldest collection of these
vases, and vvas formed at Naples by Valetta. * One
of the vases is painted vvith a ludicrous caricature of
Jupiter and Amphytrio’s vvife. The vvife of Am-
phytrio is looking from a window, Jupiter vvith a
ladder prepared to scale the vvindovv, and Mercury.
This vase belonged to Mengs, and is described by
Winkelmann. t

Acts of Status V.— Amongst the paintings on the
vvall and ceiling is the elevation of the obelisk in the
piazza of Saint Peter’s.

Paschal Cgcle.— In one of the rooms is the mar-
ble statue of Saint Hippolite, bishop of Porto. The
figure is seated, and on the chair is engraved the

* Winkelmann, Hist. de l’Art.

+ Winkelmann, Hist. de l’Art. and Monumenti inediti.

VATICAN LIBRARV.

509

Paschal Cycle in Greek. This Winkelmann consi-
ders as the oldest Christian statue that is knovvn.
A copy in marble is in Saint Andria della Valle. *
Many ancient Christian works, consisting of rectan-
gular sepulchral urns with relief sculptures of scrip-
ture histories are seen at Rome ; some of these are
rudely dravvn in the Roma Subterranea of Bosio.

Christian Antiquities.— The fourth room contains
a collection of Christian antiquities formed about
1750 by Benedict XIV. They are kept in cases,
placed on each wall, vvith imperforated vvooden
doors.

Papyri.—Ancient Running Hand.— The last
room has the walls hung round vvith manuscripts on
papyrus extended and exposed to view in frames pro-
tected by glass. They are conveyances of land in the
country near Ravenna, and some adjacent parts of
Italy. They are in Latin, and in the ancient Ro¬
man running hand. An exact copy of the form of
the letters of one of them, which is a grant of land
to the church of Ravenna in the sixth century, is
engraved in the Nouveau Traite de Deplomatique,
and in Astle’s History of Writing, plate 29. Maf-
fei, without giving the form of the letters, has pub-
lished some legal deeds relating to the šale of lands,
vvritten at Ravenna on papyrus, in the same La¬
tin running hand, in the fifth century, before the

* See page 313.

510

VATICAN LIBRARY.

Goths got possession of Italy. * It is supposed,
that the Romans, in the flourishing times of the
empire, employed a running hand for common and
daily purposes, in vvhich the pen was not lifted,
different from the square letters which are seen on
their inscriptions on stone ; and the running hand
on these papyri, of the fifth and sixth centuries, is
probably a modification of the running hand vvhich
was used at the beginning of the empire. This run¬
ning hand is Roman, and has been erroneously call-
ed Gothic ; the Goths and Lombards brought no
letters nor arts with them, but made use of those
that vvere prevalent in Italy. The word Gothic in
common language in Italy is frequently used to de-
note the ungraceful form of a building, or of letters,
vvithout signifying that these forms vvere derived
from the Goths.

The letters of inscriptions on stone of the middle
age, vvhich have been called Gothic,—the letters of
European manuscript books ofthe middle age,—the
black letter,—the Anglo-Saxon letters, are ali visi-
bly derived from the Roman Capital letters, vvhich
vve see on ancient inscriptions on stone, and vvhich
are a modification of the Greek letters. The small
letters, now commonly used in printing, called
by the Italians carattere stampatello, are found in
manuscripts of the middle age, and arise from the
---—

* Verona Illustrata dal Marchese Scipione Maffei, Parte
Prima, p. 371.

VATICAN LIBRARV. O 1 1

same source, as may be seen by comparing the let-
ters of different periods of the middle ages, publish-
ed in Astle’s Account of the Origin and Progress of
Writing; although the resemblance of the a, the e,
the g, the h, the m, and others, to the letters of an-
cient Roman inscriptions, is not obvious at first
sight, nevertheless their origin becomes evident,
when the different steps of the transition are laid
before the eye, and when the modifications of form
are compared in manuscripts of the different periods.

The ceiling of this papyrus room is painted by
Raphael Mengs, with an emblematical figure of
History, and two figures seated, one representing
Saint Peter the other Moses. They are in perspec-
tive, as seen from below. These pictures possess
great merit. The accessory parts of the painting of
this room are the Sphinx and other Egyptian figures,
in allusion to the papyrus.

FrenchPorcelain.— In the same room are twolarge
candelabra of Sevres porcelain, six feet high, pre-
sented by Bonaparte to Pius VIL, now reigning,
after Pius had travelled across the Alps and assisted
at the ceremony of the coronation in the church of
Notre Dame of Pariš.

There is another gallery subdivided transversely
by arcades.

Small Bronzes.— In the last room of this suite
is a eollection of gems, small statues of bronze, and
ancient instrumenta of bronze.

512

LIBKARIES.

Penates.— One čase contains a number of ancient
images of household gods, Penates. These ima-
ges are rude representations of the human figure,
being formed merely of a plate of bronze, cut out
with projections representing the legs and arms, as
imperfectly as the figure which a child cuts out of a
card with scissors.

Scala Regia.— Prom this there is a door which
opens to the foot of the great staircase, or Scala
Regia, leading to the equal branched cross room,
the Sala a Croce Greca, of the Museo Pio Clemen-
tino. * This staircase, as well as the cross room,
the large rotonda, the gaHery of the muses, and
others, and many statues, were added to the mu-
seum of the Vatican by Pius VI. Braschi about
1780. The staircase is magnificentlyadornedwith po-
lished columns of red Egyptian granite, with columns
of breccia corallina, and with beautiful door-posts
of granite from the baths of Nero, which were situ-
ated betvveen the Pantheon and the Piazza Navona.

The library of the Vatican is open for the use of
those who wish to consult manuscripts.

Library of the Minerva.— Another considerable
public library is the Biblioteca Casanattense della
Minerva, situated in the Piazza della Minerva. It
was founded in 1655 by Gregory XV.’s physician,
Castellani, who left his books to the monastery of

* See page 403.

ACADEMV OF PAINTING.

513

Santa Maria sopra Minerva. The library was mudi
augmented in 1608 by a donation from Cardinal
Casanatta, a Neapolitan, and, for that reason, is
called by his name. This library is open to the
public, and is frequented by a considerable number
of students. The monastery and library is novv again
in possession of Premonstratensian monks, who wear
a white dress.

Strahlhof— One of the handsomest libraries in
Europe is the library of the monastery of Strahlhof
at Prague in Bohemia, belonging to this same order,
and which stili exists unsuppressed, in 1817.

Library of the Sapienza.— The library of the
Sapienza, which has been mentioned already, is also
frequented by many students.

Imperiali Library.— The library founded by Car¬
dinal Imperiali, of which there is a catalogue published
by Fontanini, was kept in the Piazza Colonna, but was
sold and dispersed by the Imperiali family during
the last invasion of Italy by the French, notvvith-
standing the destination of the founder, who be-
queathed it to be preserved for the use of the public.

Academy for the Education of Painters.— The
academy of Saint Luke, for the instruction of young
artists, is near the Piazza Navona. The expence of
the institution is defrayed by government. Instruc-
tions are given by different professors in drawing,
painting, sculpture, architecture, geometry, perspec-
tive, anatomv, mythology, and the manners of an«

k  k

514

FRENCH ACADEMT.

cient nations. There is a large collection of plaster-
casts, and opportunities to draw from life. Canova
is the president.

Gallery of the Academy of Saint Luke.— The
academy of Saint Luke is a society of artists with
many honorary members. Adjoining to the church
of Saint Luke, in the Forum Romanum, is the gal-
lery of pictures belonging to the academy. It con-
tains the pictures painted by each member on his
admission into the academy.

The Prince Francesco di Paula, brother of the
reigning King of Spain, was ambitious of becoming
a member of this academy, and his own portrait,
painted by himself, is seen amongst the other ad¬
mission pictures. The gallery contains many por-
traits of artists painted by themselves. The most
ceiebrated work in the collection is RaphaeFs pic-
ture of Saint Luke painting the portrait of the Vir¬
gin.

Vlila Medici.— The palače of the villa Medici
was built about the year 1550. The garden front
is ascribed to Bonaroti. It was acquired by Cardi¬
nal Alexander de’ Medici, afterwards Leo XI. The
garden is extensive, and commands a fine view.

French Academy.  — This palače and villa having
become the property of the crown of France, it was
appropriated to the use of the French academy of
painting, established at Rome by Louis XIV. For-
merly the French academy occupied a palače in the

KANOVA.

515

Corso. The academy consists of a director and
twenty-four pensioned students, who have gained
the prize for painting, sculpture, and architecture in
Pariš.

The last director was Le Thierre the historical
painter.

There is a collection of plaster casts of the most
esteemed works of sculpture.

Other Pensioners.— Some pensioned students of
painting are also maintained in the Palazzo di Ve-
nezia, where the offices of the Austrian embassy
are.

Canova. —-In the studio or workshop of Canova,
the most celebrated sculptor of the present age, are
seen many of his marbles, finished or on hand, and
plaster casts of most of his other works. He is novv
(1818) employed with tbe monument in memory of
the Cardinal of York, which is to be erected in
Saint Peter’s at the expence of the British govern-
ment.

Canova is a native of the neighbourhood of Bas-
sano, in the country that formerly belonged to Ve-
nice. The follovving are some of his works :

The monument erected in memory of the Arch-
dutchess Christina, by her husband the Duke Albert
of Saxe-Teschen, in the Augustine church at Vienna.
A work consisting of a great many emblematical fi-
gures. This is one of Canova’s largest works. It
eost L. 10,000 Sterling.

516

MODERN SCULPTORŠ.

The tombs of Clement XIV. Ganganelli, and of
Volpato, in the church of the Apostles at Rome.

The tomb of Clement XIII. Rezzonico, in Saint
Peter’«.

The tomb of Alfieri, in the church of Santa Cro¬
ce at Florence.

Perseus, and two Greek Boxers, in the Cortilet-
to delle Statue in the Vatican.

Venus, in the Pitti palače at Florence.

A Magdalen kneeling.

Polyhymnia seated, in the school of painting at
Venice.

A seated statue of Madame Letitia Bonaparte,
mother of Napoleon, called, according to the form
of h er son’s court, Madame Mere, and aftenvards,
when fortune deserted him, her name Letitia was
translated by the Parisians into the ludicrous appel-
lation of La Mere la Joie. It is said this statue was
bought by the Duke of Beclford at a šale in Pariš,
in 1819, for L. 1000.

A statue of tlie Princess of Lichtenstein seated,
now sending from the workshop to Vienna.

The Three Graces, now, in February 1818, in
Canova’s workshop for the Prince Regent.

Bas-reliefs of subjects from Homer.

Helen, a bust in the possession of Madame Al-
bricci at Venice, who has published a description of
Canova’s statues.

Torzvaldson.— Torvvaldson, a native of the King

MANUFACTORY OF MOSAIC.

517

of Denmark’s dominions, is the sculptor next in ce-
lebrity in Rome. Casts of his two bas-reliefs of
Night and Aurora, representing figures floating in
the air, are seen in many of the collections of the
academies in Italy.

Painters.— The most esteemed painter at this
time in Rome is Camuccini, a n ati ve of the kingdom
of Naples.

Manufactory of Mosaic.

The manufactory of Mosaic pictures belonging
to the pope is in a large building to the south of
Saint Petei’’s.

Enamels.— The building in which the establish-
ment is situated is large, and contains a collection of
enamels drawn into the form of sticks. These are
arranged, according to their colours, in an extensive
suit of rooms. The number of shades of colour is
17,000.

Paste.— The mastic or paste in which the pieces
of enamel are stuck is composed of powdered Tra-
vertine stone, quicklime, and lintseed oil. This
paste has the advantage of receiving little injury
from damp.

The sticks of enamel are placed on a small anvil
shaped like a chisel, and broken into pieces of the
requisite size by an edged hammer. The enamel is
very fusible, so that the small sticks can be melted

518

MANUFACTORV OF MOSAIC.

and drawn out into a finer size at the flame of a cau-
dle, vvithout the assistance of the blow-pipe.

After the bits of enamel are fixed into the paste,
and the vvhole allowed to dry for two months, their
upper surface is brought to a plane, and polished by
means of a flat stone and emery. A lapidary’s
wheel and emery is also used for polishing the sur¬
face of individual bits before their insertion. After
the surface of the picture is polished, the interstices be-
tween the pieces of enamel are filled up with a paste
of the same colour vvith the adjacent pieces.

Mosaic pictures of a moderate size are imbedded
in a čase of copper, which has projecting crooked
pieces of copper soldered to the bottom, in order ta
fasten the paste.

Large pictures are imbedded on a  slab of stone.
The volcanic stone called Piperino, and also Tra-
vertine stone, is used for this purpose. The large
Mosaics, of the size of the Transfiguration, cost be-
tween L. 4000 and L. 5000 Sterling.

Cammucini, who is one of the most esteemed
painters of the present time in Rome, has the in-
spection of this establishment.

The manufactory is about to be removed to ano-
ther situation, in order to make room for the Inqui-
sition, vvhich is to be established in the house now,
in 1818, occupied by the manufactory of Mosaic.

Rome is the principal, or rather the only, school
of Mosaic painting at this day in Europe. The

ARTS.

519

great Mosaic picture of Leonardo da Vinci’s Last
Supper, executed at Milan, was by an artist from
the Roman school.

Musaichisti.— Besides this great establishment
there are many artists who work in Mosaic in Rome,
and a variety of small Mosaic pictures are made for
ornamenting rings, snuff-boxes, and other toys.

Mint.— In the vicinity of Saint Peter’s is situated
the mint, of vvhich the rolling machines, and some
other parts, are set in motion by water-wheels. *

Bronze Manufactory. —In the same suburb is
the pope’s foundery of bronze figures.

Pittura a Scagliola.— There are some artists in
Rome who make tables ornamented with designs
in Scagliola, which produce a tolerable effect. The
gypseous plaster stone is roasted, pounded, and
sifted, and mixed with a solution of animal glue. A
coat of this white plaster is laid on for the ground
of the picture, and then cavities of the form of the
intended design are made in the white ground by
means of an engraving tool, and the cavities are af-
terwards filled up with coloured plaster, so as to form
the representation of the object intended to be imi-
tated, a bird, flovver, or foliage. This art was first
practised in 1615 byanative of Carpi. Much de-
pends on the proper proportion of glue, The scag-

* See Giacomo Acami deli’ origine e deli’ Antichita della
zecca pontificia.

520'

ARTS.

liola or stucco is polished vvith pumice stone, hone,
and hasmatites or colcothar ; the wliite plaster, which
is made with isinglass, is polished with Dutch rush.

Yellow marble is the kind of marble which the
artists succeed best in imitating in stucco ; the yel-
low is formed by some oxide or salt of lead.

Gut Strings for Musical Instruments.— The gut
strings for musical instrument« made at Rome and
Naples are more esteemed than those made in other
parts of Europe. According to the accounts that
have been published of the process, the strings are
made in the months of August and September of
the bowels of lambs seven or eight months old. The
degree of heat that prevails in August and Septem¬
ber is necessary for the success of the operation ; and
it is probable, that the superior quality of the Roman
strings arises from the particular temperature of heat
at Rome, being suitable for macerating the bowels.
The bowels, after having been steeped for a consi-
derable time in lees of wine, are twisted into strings ;
small strings are made by twisting two ; large harp
strings are composed of a greater number; and the
largest string used for musical Instruments consists
of 150 bovvels tvvisted together.

Parchment.— Parchment is well manufactured at
Rome from the skins of sheep and goats, of which
latter the number is considerable in the neighbour-
hood of Rome.

Cipria.  — The hair-powder made at Rome is called

ARTS.

521

Cipria, and is said to be perfumed vvitli a kind of
lichen.

Cameos.— There are in Rome several artists who
engrave šunk figures and cameos on Cornelian.
Amongst them, Pichler the son is eminent as his
father vvas formerly.

Shell Cameos.—A  great many cameos, vvhich seli
at a cheaper rate, are made of shell. Those in which
the raised figure is vvhite, and the ground of a darker
colour, are made of the large shell from the Red
Sea, vvhich seems to be the Cassis Rufa of Lamark.
The shell cameos in vvhich the figure and the ground
are of the same colour are made of the large shell of
the Murex Atlanticus from Sicily.

Goldsmiths.— The art of the goldsmith is prac-
tised vvitli škili in Rome. In 1786, Ludovici vvas
celebrated in this art, and made a model of Trajan’«
pillar three feet in height, in vvhich the reliefs vvere
accurately represented in silver. Similar copies are
made by the goldsmiths of the present day.

Monte Citorio.— Monte Citorio is a small eleva-
tion, vvhich Venuti considers to be composed of ruins
and rubbish, accumulated during the middle ages.
The name he supposes to have been Mons Citato-
rius, and derived from the citations of the heralds in-
viting the people to enter into the Septa * of the

* The Septa vvere “ loca in Čampo Martio inclusa tabulatis ;
inguibus stans populus Romanus suffragia ferre consueverat.”-—
jsueton.

C0URTS OF JUSTICE.

Comitia for the election of consuls, tribunes, or
aediles.

The palače of Monte Citorio is a large building,
completed by Innocent XII., who, about the year
1695, established in it the tribunals called Curia
Innocenziana.

The Ruota.—Of  these the Ruota is the chief
court in the pontifical dominions.

The name Ruota originates from the round form
of the table at which the judges sit, or according to
the Dictionary of the Academy della Crusca, from
the judges giving their opinions in rotation.

The public are not admitted to the pleadings be-
fore this court, as I was informed. The laws collect-
ed by Justinian regulate their proceedings chiefly.
The pleadings are in Latin. *

Sanctuaries Abolished.— According to the ac-
counts of Rome, thirty years ago, the threshholds
and porticoes of churches were inhabited by assassins
and other criminals, who took refuge in these sanc¬
tuaries, where they could not be seized by the offi-
cers of justice. This is not to be seen now. The
sanctuaries appear not to have been revived since the
French had possession of the city; and the crime of
assassination, for the checking of vvhich the French
issued many salutary enactments, is probably less
frequent. I saw no appearance of the churches be-

* See Cancell. Lunadoro stato della corte di Roma, 1765.

11

LOTTERY.

523

ing used as sanctuaries by criminals in any part of
Italy that I visited.

Lottery.— On the balcony of tbe palače of tlie
courts of  justice at Monte Citorio, the government
lottery is drawn twice every month. The lotteries
in Italy are within the reach of ali, even the poorer
classes, and on that account are the more extensively
pernicious. Of 100 numbers, five only are taken
out at each drawing of the lottery. The person
who buys a ticket fixes upon one number, and if
that number is one of those drawn, h e gains perhaps
twenty times the stake he has made; the amount of
this stake which he has paid on receiving the ticket
is optional, and may be a very trifling sum. If he
lixes on two numbers, then, in čase of these comina:
out, he gains perhaps 100 times his stake. If  he
fixes on three, he has the chance of gaining a much
larger multiple of the stake, and stili more when he
fixes on four or five.

The lottery in France, vvhich is dravm every
week, is on the same principle, being copied from
the lottery of Genoa.

Monte di Pieta.— The Monte di Pieta, opposite
the church of La Trinita de’ Pellegrini, for lending
money to the poor on pawns, without interest, if
the sum does not exceed ten scudi, that is, L. 2 Ster-
ling, was established as early as 1539.

In several countries of Europe the trade of pawn-
broker is monopol ized by government; this conti-

5<M

CURRENT COINS.

Tiiies to be the čase in Pariš, where the business of
lending money on pavvns is carried on exclusively
by the Mont de Piete, vvhich belongs to the govern-
ment.

Money.

The coins most frequent in currency in Rome
are,

English Pence.

The large silver crown called scudo,
or moneta,  vvhich is equal to ten paoli,
is in value about ... 53

The half scudo,  a silver coin equal
to five paoli.

The testone,  a silver coin equal to
three paoli.

The papeto,  a silver coin equal to
two paoli.

The paolo,  a silver coin equal to
ten bajocchi, and in value about 5 ~~~

The bajocco,  a copper coin equal to
the tenth of a paola, in value some-
thing more than a halfpenny . O

The quattrino, a small copper coin, is one-fifth of
the bajocco.

Spanish piasters or dollars vvere frequent in circu-
lation in 1818, and were vvorth 102 j bajocchi, vvhich
is a little more than the Roman scudo.

The crovvns of Tuscany pass in Rome, but the
Tuscan half scudi, and other Tuscan coins of smal-
ler value, do not.

PROHIBITED BOOKS.

525

The silver current coin is sufficiently abundant,
the bankers paid letters of credit in Roman crowns,
or Spanish dollars, and not in paper money, as is
described to have been the practice thirty years
ago.

Priče of Bread.

According to the assize of bread published in
Rome in March 1818, the finest bread must be
sold by the bakers at 2 bajocchi fifths of bajoc-
co, that is, about three halfpence Sterling for a
pound, * Roman weight.

Prohibited Books.

The Congregation deli Indice, or committee of car-
dinals, whose office it is to form a list of prohibited
books, affix the titles of such books as they condemn
at the doors of Saint Peter’s, and other churches. +

Amongst the books prohibited by the decree of
December 1817 are,

Darwin’s Zoonomia, translated into Italian, and
published at Milan, 1805.

Sismondi, Histoire des Republiques Italiennes du
Moyen age, a Pariš, 1809.

Villars, sur 1’Esprit et Plnfluence de la Refor-
mation de Luther, a Pariš, 1811.

* The Roman pound is of an avoirdupois pound.
f 8ee Catalano, de Secret. Congreg. Indicis.

526

JEWS.

Parny, la Guerre des Dieux Anciens et Mo-
dernes, a Pariš, 1799-

The books prohibited at Rome from 1808 to
1817 are only forty in number. Amongst them
are,

Zimmerman on Solitude, translated into Italian,
1804.

Memoirs de Gramont, translated into Italian,
Milan, 1814.

Transactions of the Bible Society, in Italian,
Naples, 1817.

Ali translations of the Bible into living languages,
except those approved by the Apostolic See, and
those published with notes taken from the fathers
of the church, or from learned Catholic authors.

The congregation of the index was first establish-
ed by Pius V. in 1570. The complete index down
to the time of each publication has been printed
several times, and forms a thick octavo volume.

Jetos.— In the advertisements published by the
Inquisition, and posted in the churches in the pope’s
territory, in 1818, ali Catholics are required to
denounce to the Inquisition any heretics, misbe-
lievers, Mahometans, Jews, or Gentiles ; but, in
practice, the Jews are suffered, and their number at
Rome is stated to be 8000. The Ghetto de’
Ebrei, Jewry, or the quarter inhabited by the
Jews, is near the Ponte Quattro Capi, on the side
of the river. This plače was assigned them in

HOSPITAL.

527

1557 by Paul IV. The inquisition in Rome
was not remarkable for severity during the last cen-
tury.

Toleration of the English Service.— The tolera-
tion in the spring of 1818 extended so far as to al-
low the English to assemble in a room for the pur-
pose of hearing the Church of England Service
read, but they were not allowed a regular and for¬
ma! cliapel.

During Lent in the public eating-houses in Rome
there were two bills of fare, one consisting of fish,
and meagre for the Catholics, the other of  meat for
those who did not chuse meagre. This last was some-
times entitled, Lista di grasso per gli ammalati, bili
of meat for the sick.

Hospital.— The hospital of the Santo Spirito,
situated near Saint Peter’s, and originally instituted
for pilgrims, is the largest in Rome. The building is
extensive, and consists of a ground floor, and one
principal floor above. The beds of the sick are pla-
ced in spacious halls on the principal floor, but, from
some economical regulations, beds are crowded to-
gether in some of the halls, whilst the others are lefc
empty. The management of  the hospital is in the
hands of ecclesiastics. Evelyn in 1645 describes this
hospital, and observes that it is kept with “ as much
čare, svveetnesse, and conveniency, as can beimagin-
ed •” and this observation is stili applicable to the hos-

528

CARNIVAL.

pitals in Italy at this day. * He adds, “ the Italian^
being generally very neatethis vvould scarcely
be said now by any one accustomed to the cleanli-
ness of England, vvhich has improved much since
the time of Evelvn, and had made some progress
even at that time, for Erasmus, who vvas in England
in the time of Henry VIIL, and compared the man-
ner of living vvith vvhat he had seen in various parts
of Europe, was disgusted vvith the dirtiness of the
apartments in England, vvhich he describes as strevv-
ed vvith rushes, seldom renewed, and the receptacle
of various kinds of filth. f

Funerals.— In Rome the dead are carried in pro-
eession to the church extended on a bier, vvith the
face and hands uncovered, and exposed to view.

Carnival Amusements.

The Corso.— The long narrovvish Street called
the Corso, whichextends an English mile in length
from the Porta del Popolo to the vicinity of the
Capitol, is ill paved vvith small stones of basalt from
Capi di Bove, and the sides of the Street are incum-
bered vvith esplanades elevated to the height of tvvo
or three feet, vvhich oblige foot passengers to vvalk
in the middle of the Street. This Street is used as

* Meinoirs of John Evelyn, Esq. London, 1818.
f Erasmi EpistoJse.

CARNIVAL.

529

the fashionable drive in the afternoon, and is walked
by masks in the carnival.

Berlingaccio.— Shrove-Tuesday, or the last day
of the carnival, is a scene of merry-making in Italy.
This day is called Berlingaccio, a word which in the
Dictionary Bella Crusca is derived from bere and
linguare, as denoting drinking and noise in which
the people pass the day. Muratori derives the word
from burlingi, a kind of cake made of flour vvhich
used to be eaten on that day.

On this last day of the carnival the Corso at Rome
is crovvded with spectators and with masks, some on
foot and some in carriages. The principal amuse-
ment of the masks is to throw handfuls of powder-
ed chalk at their acquaintances. Amongst the
numerous masks some men are seen with carabines
and in the dress of Neapolitan robbers.

Horse Race.— In the midst of  ali this some dra-
goons ride along and clear the Street for the race,
which consists of half a dozen small horses vvithout
riders. The horses are let loose from the obelisk
in the Piazza del Popolo, and have a kind of spur
with iron points attached on their back.

This kind of horse race was first introduced into
Rome in 1470. It is called correre il palio, from
the palium or silk cloak that used to be the prize. *

* Muratori, Ant. Italicaa, Diss. 29-

L 1

580

CARNTVAL.

The masks, after sunset, light up a vast number
of small tapers, which they hold in their hands, and
soon after they are obliged to disperse by the orders
of police.

Festino di Ballo.— In the evening of this last
day of the carnival there is a puhlic masked bali in
the theatre d’Aliberti, where an immense crowd of
people of various ranks is assembled. There is
much dancing. Many of the young women are
dressed as Frascatane,  country girls of Frascati,
and in dresses of the country people of other parts
of the Roman and Neapolitan territory.

This theatre d’Aliberti is the largest theatre in
Rome, and is used for the representation of musical
operas. It was first established by Alibert, who
came to Rome in the suite of Christina of Sweden,
The interior of the house is tolerably decorated,
but far inferior to the theatre Delle Scala at Milan,
and to the principal theatres in London and Pariš.
The passages for entrance and communication to
different parts of the house are low and inconvenient.

Improvisatore.

The Improvisatore Sgricci, a young man of twen-
ty-five, gave some exhibitions in Rome in February
1818, during the absence of public amusements,
which takes plače in Lent. Different subjects were
proposed by individuals of the audience, and each
subject was written on a slip of paper. These were

EASTER CEREMONIES.

531

put togethcr, and three of them were drawn out by
some friends of the poet, who, it is to be supposed,
drevv out the three subjects that the poet had pre-
viously fixed upon and studied. The subjects were,
J • The Dispute betvveen Ajax and Ulysses for the
Arms of Achilles. 2. The Creation of the World.

3. Sophonisbe. On the first subject he recited a
poem of three quarters of an hour. The second was
a poem of shorter duration. Of the third subject
he formed a tragedy, in which he personated six
characters, and a chorus of Afričan matrons; this
dramatic piece lasted two hours and a half. The
whole was declaimed vvith great animation.

Preaching in Lent.

Homilies and sermons are frequent in the churches
at Rome during Lent, by preachers of celebrity, who
come from different parts of the country to exercise
their eloquence. The other tovvns of Italy and of
France are also frequented by preachers during Lent.

Le Funzione, or Ceremonies in Easter Week.

The ceremonies in the pope’s chapel during Easter
week, la settimana santa, attract a great many
strangers to Rome. The nuraber of English pass-
ports this year, 1818, during that week, was about
700; some of these passports included a whole fa¬
rni^.

Distribution of the Palms.— On Palm Sunday in
the chapel in the Quirinal palače the pope performs

532

EASTER CEREMONIES.

the ceremony of distributing the palms. They are
leaves of the date palm, which are brought from
Naples, or taken from the three or four date palms
that grow in the gardens at Rome.

Service in the Sistine Chapel.— In the Sistine
chapel on the Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of
Easter week, is chaunted the Service of Tenebra?,
at the twenty-second Italian hour, which is about
an hour and a half before sunset. The plaintive and
solemn mušic of the lessons taken from the Lamen-
tations of Jeremiah, and the Psalm Miserere, are
sung by such excellent and well trained voices, that
it has been found impossible to execute the same
mušic with equal effect in other countries ofEurope.
The composition of the mušic of the Miserere is ad-
mirable ; that performed on the Wednesday is by
Allegri; on another day a Miserere of the compo¬
sition of lomelli is sung. No musical instrument is
employed in these Services in the pope’s chapel.

The pope is present on his throne, and the car¬
dinals in their robes, attended by their train-bear-
ers.

Fans of Peacocks' Feathers.— Two flabelli or
large fans of peacocks’ feathers are carried before the
pope. They may have been originally used to drive
away flies; and the eyes of the peacocks’ feathers are
said to signify the vvatchfulness the pope ought to
have over the church.

Cardinals.— The number of cardinals has varied

EASTER CEREMONIES. 583

since the ninth century, vvlien there was a Cardinal
priest appointed to govern each of the twenty-eight
parishes of Rome. * The definite number is now
seventy-two ; frequently this number is not com-
plete. Sixtus V. ordained that there should alvvays
he three cardinals taken from mendicant orders, and
by this regulation a chance of the sovereignty is
given to persons of the lovvest degree. The Cardi¬
nal Camerlingo, so called because he is at the head
of the Camera Apostolica, has the most eminent dig-
nity at court. The cardinals are commonly chosen
from three professions, the ecclesiastics, the mem-
bers of monastic orders, and the judges of the courts
of law at Rome. The reigning pope was of a mo¬
nastic order. Of the cardinals who have held places
in the courts of justice is Gonsalvi, the most active
of the pope’s ministers.

Conclave.— For the election of a pope the cardi¬
nals are inclosed in conclave in the Vatican palače,
and if the election is not made in eight days, the
cardinals are reduced to bread and water for their
only sustenance. There is an account of the con¬
clave at vvhich Cardinal de Retz was present in
1 655, in the memoirs of that Cardinal, and the con-
claves from Alexander VII. are described in the
work entitled, Conclavi de’ Pontifici Romani, I667.

* See Thomassin Discipline de 1’Eglise; Mosheim’s Eccle*
siastical History; and Muratori Antiq. Ital. Diss. LXL, de
Cardinaliura Institutione.

53i

EASTER CEREMONIES.

Royal Bozes.— Three boxes were allotted in the
Sixtine chapel to persons of royal birth, this year,
(1818,) at Rome ; the first to Charles IV. the ab-
dicated king of Spain ; the second to the abdicated
king of Sardinia, brother of the reigning king, and
the Dutchess of Chablais of the Sardinian family;
and the third to the Prince Royal of Bavaria.

Swiss Guards.— The doors of the chapel are
guarded by the Svviss guard of the pope, in old
fashioned party-coloured uniforms and cuirasses.
These soldiers are natives of the Roman Catholic
Cantons of Switzerland ; many of them scarcely un-
derstand Italian, and speak only German.

IVashing the Feet of the Pilgrims.— In an apart-
ment of the Vatican palače the pope, though old and
feeble, performed the ceremony of washing the feet
of twelve poor men called pilgrims ; they are per¬
sons in deacon’s orders; they are dressed ali uniform-
ly in white camlet. The pope afterwards handed
the dishes to them whilst they sat at table. The
ceremony of washing the feet of tvvelve poor men
is performed in Easter week in several Catholic
courts ; at Florence by the grand duke ; in France,
since the return of the Bourbon family, by a prince
of the blood. In the time of Charles I. it was the
custom to wash the feet of twelve poor men at
Whitehall, as Evelyn mentions. *

* Evelyn’s Memoirs. Lond. 18H).

11

EASTER CEREMONIES.

5S5

On Thursday evening after mass the pope depo-
sits the host in the altar of the Pauline chapel, vvhich
is lighted with a multitude of tapers. This ceremony
represents the deposition of the body of Christ in
the tomb.

Illuminated Cross.— On Good Friday the hundred
lamps of the shrine of Saint Peter are put out, and
an illuminated cross is suspended on the eastern
verge of the cupola within Saint Peter’s.

The Benediction.— On the forenoon of Easter
Sunday the pope in his tiara, or triregno, and sur-
rounded by the cardinals, delivers his benediction
from the gallery on the front of Saint Peter’s. The
people are in great numbers, their heads uncovered
and kneeling. Immediatelv after the benediction
bas been pronounced, a paper is throvvn from the
gallery amongst the people, inscribed with the in-
dulgences conferred on different churches. The
pope in his tiara attends at the Service in Saint Pe¬
ter’?. The features of the pope are of a mild and
dignified character.

Pilgrims.— Afew pilgrims, not above half-a-dozen,
vvere seen at Rome in Easter week, 1818. They
vvear a cloak of black waxed cloth, having a large
flap covering the shoulders, and a long staff.

Tire- Works.— After Easter Sunday, in honour of
the birth-day of the reigning pope, the outside of Saint
Peter’s was illuminated, and the fire-vvorks called
the Girandola vvere discharged from the castle of

536

CEREMONIES.

Saint Angelo. There were also some houses illumi-
nated in the town.

Procession on Corpus Christi Day.— The cere-
monies of Corpus Christi day, or Corpus Domini,
a moveable feast happening in May and June, the
Fete Dieu of the French, vvhich were established in
1261 by Urban IV., in commemoration of the insti-
tution of mass, are also to be mentioned amongst
the most magnificent at Rome. The pope is carried
in procession on a kind of throne under a canopy.
He is seated, but the ehair is so formed that he ap-
pears to kneel before an altar with the host placed
on it. The streets are not hung with tapestry as
on the Fete Dieu at Pariš before the revolution, and
since the return of the Bourbons, but tapestry is
displayed in the colonade of Saint Peter’s.

The churcb ceremonies of Rome are described in
Catalano Caeremon. S. Rom. Eccl. ; Gattico acta
Selecta Caerimonialia S. Rom. Eccles., and other
more recent works.

Public Walks.— The public ride and walk along
the hill in front of the Trinita de’ Monti and Villa
Medici is much frequented by company in carriages
and on foot; and walks have been laid out on the
adjacent ground, which extends to the walls. This
public walk, and one near the Coliseum, were begun
some years ago by the French when they had pos-
session of Rome. The French made public vvalks
also in Venice and other tovvns. The Corso is the
common drive for carriages in the afternoon.

12

BUFFALOES.

537

Dress of the Country People.— The country
people in the neighbourhood of Rome are dressed
in very coarse clothing, and shew no attention to
cleanliness. Even on Easter Sunday, the chief fes¬
tival of the church, groups of country people, men
and women, were seen in Saint Peter’s in their
coarse and squalid dress. The figures and peculiai’
dress of the country women of' Frascati, the Fras-
eatane, and of other places near Rome, are often
introduced in pictures, and there the disagreeable
part of the figure is concealed, for the art of paint-
ing'is not able to denote very precisely the differ-
ence betvveen cleanliness and the contrary.

The country men, in the neighbourhood of
Rome, generally carry an oiled-cloth umbrella for
protection against the rain.

The broad cloth used in the dress of the bettev
classes is imported from England and from France.

Buffaloes.— Buffaloes are sometimes used in draw-
ing waggons in Rome, and the neighbouring coun-
try, but oxen are more frequently employed for that
purpose. Buffaloes thrive in marsby situations.
There are many in the Pontine marshes, as Lalande
observes, and they are accustomed to roli themselves
in the mud. Their flesh is not esteemed good for
eating.

Cheese of Buffalo Milk.— Small cheeses of buda¬
lo milk are common in Rome. They are of the
size of the fist; they have a fibrous texture vvhen

538

PLANTS AT ROME.

broken, and a peculiar taste, vvhich is not disagree-
able.

Buffaloes, (Bubali,) accordingto Paul Warnefrid,
were introduced into Italy by tlie Lombards about
580; but there is some doubt about the meaning of
the word Bubali employed by Warnefrid.

Goats.— Goats are frequent; flocks of them are
driven along and milked in the streets in the morn-
ing. Kid is a common kind of meat in the mar-
kets in March.

Amongst the fish in the market at Rome is stur-
geon, which is caught in the Tiber. Frogs are sold
in the markets and eaten.

Plants.-— In the gardens in Rome, on the 16th
of March, violets, stock-july-flowers, hyacinths, tulips,
peach trees, green gage plum trees, were in flower.
Garden beans a foot high and in flower.

Lazarelli. —-The Crataagus azarohis, which bears
the fruit called Lazarelli, is common in the gardens.
This tree is called by Wildenow Pyrus azarolus, and
is described by Scopoli; * the leaves resemble the
common hawthorn ; the fruit is of the form of a
very small apple, and is of an agreeable taste. The
tree requires a warm temperature like that of Italy.
Gooseberry and currant bushes are rarely seen in
the gardens. Lemon trees are the only fruit trees
that are extended upon walls, and they require to

* Scopoli Carniol. II. No. 5[)7.

PLANTS AT ROME. 53$

be covered in vvinter by small houses or sheds of
boards and reeds, as before mentioned. *

Palms.— There are two or three date palms twen-
ty to thirty feet high in gardens in the open air,
but the vveather is scarcely warm enough ; they
grow more freely at Naples, vvhere small vvalking
canes are made of the middle rib of the leaf. That
kind of Cvnara called Cardoon is cultivated in great
quantities for the table.

The root called Pastinaca at Rome, used as an es-
culent vegetable, is not cultivated, but collected in
the fields. The leaves resemble those of a thistle.

Small channels conduct water alongside the beds
in gardens, and from these channels the gardener
throvvs the water on the beds vvith a scoop.

The botanic garden is inconsiderable, and vvith a
small conservatory, poorly furnished vvith plants, is
situated near the fountain of the Acqua Paola, as
before mentioned. +

Spontaneous Plants.— The follovving plants are
amongst those that grow spontaneously in Rome: the
small creeping Antirrhinum on vvalls, called Antirrhi-
num cymbalaria ; Antirrhinum majus ; Capparis spi-
nosa; Cotyledon umbilicus; ali these arefound on the
old vvalls. Viburnum tinus; Phylirea alaternus; the
common wild fig, called by the ancients Capri ficus.;
the Cheiranthus, called stock-july-Hower; Cheiran-

* See p. 433.

f See p. 477 and p. 501.

540

VVEATHEft Al’ R0S1E.

thus murofum, or wallflower; bramble ; two kihds of
hyacinth ; these grow on the rubbish amongst the
ruins, as at the Coliseum, and on the ruins of the
Coliseum many other plants are found.

Cyclamen Europeum under hedges ; Asplenium
ceterach on the sides of wells and in subterraneous
vaults ; Anemone pulsatilla and our garden anemone
in dry fields.

Weather. —At Rome during fifty-two days, from
the 3d of February to the 27th of March 1818,
there were nineteen days in which it rained, and
some of these were cold and disagreeable. On most
of the other days there was snnshine, sometimes the
sky vvas free from clouds, and the vvarmth of the sun
in the afternoon vvas considerable.

Fahrenheiti thermometer, placed on the outside
of a vvindovv about eight in the morning, during the
above mentioned period of fifty-two days, stood from
41° to 51 Q , and sometimes as high as 57 Q .

Annual Quantity of Rain.— The quantity of rain
that falls during the year in Rome is considerably
greater than the annual quantity in Pariš or London,
as Lalande States. November and December are the
most rainy months, and in these two months the
quantity of rain that falls at Rome is very consider¬
able.

JNSALUBRITV OF THE LOW GROUNDS. 541

Of the Qualily of the Atmosphere at Home in re-
spect to Salubritg.

The situation of Rome, Strabo observes, was fix-
ed by necessity, not by choice. *

The Campus Martius and other Iow parts of the
town are subject to inundations of the river; and
it appears, that, in remote times, the course of the
river was betvveen the Capitoline and Palatine hill,

* “ The first inland city after Ostia is Rome, the only city
situated on the Tiber; concerning which, we have observed, that
its situation was originally fixed upon by necessity, and not
by choice. It may be added, that those who aftenvards enlarged
the city were not the masters of \vhat was best, but were obliged
to suit the new additions to theold structures of their predeces-
sors. In the beginning of Rome, any one judging from the si¬
tuation, would not have predicted its future prosperity and un-
exampled fortune ; but by activity and valour, the Romans hav-
ing got possession of the surrounding territory, there appeared a
concourse of advantages which exceeded those of ali the places
on the globe, however favoured by their natural position.”—
The Geography of Strabo, Book V.—The advantages of the si¬
tuation of Rome, which Livy introduces in the speech of Ca-
millus, are, the healthiness of the hills, the convenience of the
river for bringing provision from the inland regions, and also
from the sea; the sea not too distant, and not so near as to ex-
pose the city to the attack of Corsairs ; the situation of the city
in the middle of Italy.

542 INSALUBRITV OF THE LOW GROUNDS.

and where the Forum Romanum vvas aftervvards si-
tuated. *

The low grounds situated between the small hills
in Rome and the neighbouring country have no out-
let for the water, and if artificial drains are not made
these low grounds become marshes. Stagnant wa-
ter, in countries where the heat is considerable, is
found by experience to affect the inhabitants with
intermittent fevers. This effect probably arises from
the effluvia of putrid, animal, and vegetable matter,
contained in the water. In cold vvinters, and in
countries where there is little heat, the unhealthi-
ness from the vicinity of stagnant water is not re-

* “ Hic ubi nune fora sunt udaa tremuere paludes;

Anine redundatis fossa madebat aquis.

Curtius ille lacus, siccas qui sustinet aras,
Nune solida est tellus, sed lacus ante fuit.

Qua velabra solent in circum ducere pompas,
Nil praeter salices, crassave canna fuit.

S®pe suburbanas rediens conviva per undas,

Cantat; et ad nautas ebria verba jacit.

Nondum conveniens diversis iste figuris

Nomen ab averso ceperat amne Deus. (Vertumnus)

Hic quoque lucus erat juncis, et arundine densus,
Et pede velato non adeunda palus.

Stagna recesserunt; et aquas sua ripa coercet;

Siccaque nune tellus ; mos tamen ille manet.

Hic ubi nune fora sunt lintres errare videres,
Quaque jacent valles, Maxime Circe tuae.”

Ovid. Fast. Lib. II.

INSALUBRITY OF THE LOVV GROUNDS. 543

marketi. Chemistry has not been able to detect any
thing peculiar in the gases composing the air of the
places vvhere interarittent fevers prevail.

At Rome, a rainy season, Lancisi observes, is the
most unhealthy, and in such seasons the hospitals
receive a greater numberof labourers from the country
affected with fever. A dry and warm summer is
more healthy, and the labourers do not take the
fever from exposure to the direct and violent heat of
the sun.

It is the opinion of Lancisi that ali the unhealthy
situations in Rome and the neighbouring country
are marshes formed in the low grounds, from the
rain and hill water which collects in the valleys, and
which does not run off unless a channel is formed
by artificial drains. Any low, hollow, and moist si-
tuation in this district is found to be unhealthy; an
elevated situation exposed to the winds is healthy,
and places that were unhealthy have become healthy
after having been drained and freed from the stag-
nant water.

Insalubrity mentioned by the Ancients.— The un-
healthiness of the neighbourhood of Rome is men¬
tioned by Livy; * the Vatican is mentioned as un-
healthy by Tacitus ; t Strabo speaks of the unheal-

* Liv. Lib. VIL

f “ Postremo ne salutis quidem CUra infamibus Vaticani
locis magna pars tetendit, unde crebrae in vulgus mortes, et

54A  INSAEUBRITY OF THE LOW GROUNDS.

thiness of the Pontine marshes; * * Seneca of the
unhealthiness of Ardea.

Insalubrity diminished by the Drains and Aque-
ducts.— During the growth and prosperity of an-
cient Rome, sewers were fonned to carry off the
water from the valleys in the city, + and there was a
plentiful supply of running water from the aque-
ducts, which, by carrying away the impurities, di¬
minished the unhealthiness that formerly prevailed,
as Frontinus observes. t

Destruction of the Aqueducts. —-During the three
years siege of Rome by Totila and Vitiges, the aque-
ducts vvere cut, as Procopius relates, and the water
continuing to flow through the upper part of the
conduit might form marshes, and render the coun-
try unhealthy for a long time after.

Insalubrity of Rome in the Middle Ages.— In
the eleventh century Rome is described by Saint

adjacentia Tiberi Germanorum Gallorumque obnoxia mor-
bis corpora fluminis aviditas et aestus impatientia labefecit.”—
Tacit.

* Strab. Lib. V. cap. 12.

f “ Tarquinius infima urbis loca circa forum aliasque in-
terjectas collibus convalles, quia ex planis locis haud facile eve-
hebant aquas, cloacis e fastigio in Tiberim ductis siccat.”—
Liv.

J “ Ne pereuntes quidem aquae ociosae sunt, nam immun-
ditiarum facies, et impurior spiritus, [et causae gravioris coeli,
quibus apud veteres urbis infamis aer fuit, sunt remotae.”—-
Frontin. de Aqueduct.

D1MINISHED BY DRAINING. 545

Peter Damian as much inflicted with fevers, ferax
febrium, and at the end of the twelfth century, In-
nocent III. speaks of the unhealthiness of Rome;
by reason of the prevailing unhealthiness, the Empe-
ror Frederic I. was obliged to withdraw his troops
from Rome to the hills.

The city became stili more ruinous, marshy,
and neglected, during the seventy years that the
popes resided at Avignon.

At the return of Gregory XI. from Avignon
the number of inhabitants in Rome was 33,000.

Improvement of Rome.— Julius II. began to im-
prove Rome by buildings. He commenced the o-
perations for erecting the new basilic of Saint Pe-
ter’s, and laid out the Strada Julia, formerly the
Via Recta, vvhich is stili one of the principal streets
of Rome, extending half a mile in a straight line up
the river from the Ponte Sisto.

Leo X., during his ten years reign, brought new in¬
habitants to settle in Rome from Como and Bergamo;
they built in the Campus Martius, which in ancient
Rome was an open plain; and in building they ne-
cessarily formed drains to carry off the water from the
marshy places. The number of  inhabitants was in-
creased to 80,000.

By reason of the troubles and the sack of Rome,
in the reign of Clement VII., the city relapsed into
desolation, and, according to Jovius, the number of
inhabitants fell to 32,000.

m  m

546

INSALUBRITV DIMINISHED,

From the death of Clement VII. to the time of
Lancisi, a period of nearly two centuries, Rome was
improved by the formation of sewers, new buildings,
the opening and paving of streets, ali which opera-
tions tend to dry the ground, and to drain off stag-
nant water, thereby making the situation less un-
healthy.

Improvement of the Vatican.— The Vatican be-
came more healthy after the establishment of the
brick and tile kilns, and the manufacture of coarse
pottery, which is carried on to the south-east of
Saint Peter’s, and stili more, by the building of the
church of Saint Peter’s, which was much advanced by
Sixtus V., and the Vatican library and palače by the
same pontiff; and afterwards by Alexander VIL, who
built the colonade of Saint Peter’s, cleared the ditch
of the Castel Sant Angelo, and formed drains through
the neighbouring fields. By these improvements
the Vatican has become as healthy as any of the less
elevated parts of Rome; but it is not so healthy
as the more elevated parts of the hills of Rome. It
happened that the cleaning of the drains was
neglected for one or two years, and unhealthiness
again appeared in the Vatican and Civitas Leonina,
or Borgo.

Improvement of the Čampo Maržo.— The Cam-
pus Martius was rendered more healthy by the
building of the Borghese palače by Paul III., and
afterwards by the building of Monte Citorio by In-
' 6'

BY BUILDING AND DRAINING.

547

nocent XII., and tlie construction of the landing
quay, la Ripetta, in an unhealthy plače by Clement
XL, in Lancisi’s time.

The Pincian valley became more healthy by the
building of the College de Propaganda Fide by
Urban VIII., and by collecting the water in sewers.

Innocent X. rendered the Piazza Navona more
healthy by building the church of Santa Agnese.

Improvement of the Termi.— The baths of Dio-
cletian were improved and rendered more healthy
by the broad and rectilinear Street from the Quiri-
nal bili to the Porta Pia, opened by Pius IV., and
the continuation of that Street from Santa Susanna
to the pope’s palače at the marble horses, by Sixtus
V.; and afterwards the baths of Diocletian were as
healthy as any of the higher parts of the hills in
Rome.

Clement XI., by the advice of Lancisi, had sewers
constructed from the south slope of the Quirinal hill
to the Tiber.

The region of San Francesco,  near the Ripa
Grande, was unhealthy by reason of the gardens,
which must be irrigated, and give out the effluvia of
stagnant water; but aftenvards, when houses were
built there, in the reign of Clement X., the unheal-
thiness disappeared.

The Circus Marimus,  in Lancisi’s time, was
marshy, and one of the most unhealthy parts of the
town.

548 UNHEALTHINESS FROM INUNDATIONS.

Inundations of the River.— The overflovving of
the Tiber, vvhich takes plače more in Rome than on
other parts of the river, is a cause of unhealthiness
to the Čampo Maržo, and other places subject to
the inundation. The Tiber carries in its vvater and
deposits a muddy sand, and after the water has re-
tired the cellars and low parts of the houses are co-
vered with this wet slime. After the inundation in
December 170^, Lancisi obtained an order from
the pope to have the slime removed from the cellars
and houses that had been under water; and he says,
that, in consequence, the intermittent fevers were
less frequent for some years than they had been be-
fore. After these inundations the walls of the
houses are left imbibed with moisture, and they
ought to be dried by lighting fires in the rooms ;
the neglect of this produces fevers.

The River obstructed by Boat-Mills and Piers
of Bridges.— Belisarius, during the siege by the
Goths, first established floating-miliš on the Tiber, *
and there are stili four or five moored on the river
by chains, although there is a great fall of a copious
stream from the Acqua Paola down the face of the
Janiculine employed for driving miliš, which might
do more work if they vvere constructed according to
the rational improvements of Smeaton and other
modern engineers.

The disadvantage of the floating-mills is, that they

* See page 476,

SUMMER HEAT IN ROME.

549

obstruct the course of the river, dam up the water,
and make the inundations rise higher than they
othervvise would.

The thick piers and moderate sized arches of the
bridges contribute also to increase the inundation ;
the channel would be less encumbered if the arches
were of a greater span, as many of the modern bridges
in London and Pariš are.

Heat in the T(rwn and Winds.— Horace mentions
the autumnal heat as unhealthy in Rome. * * * §

Nero was most hurtful to the State by his extra-
vagant taste for building, as Suetonius mentions. t
Some admired his public buildings, but detested the
tyrant. t After the tire, hovvever, in the reign of
Nero, a great part of the city was rebuilt with regular
and wide streets; and Nero made many useful regu-
lations with respect to the form of the houses and for
the prevention of fires; but it was thought that the
old narrovv streets and high houses contributed more
to the health of the inhabitants, affording shelter from
the violent heat of the sun, to which the wide streets
were too much exposed. §

* Hor. Epist. Lib. I. ch. 7.

•j- “ Non in alia re damnosior (Nero) quam aedificando.”
Sueton.

J “ Quid Nerone pejus

Quid thermis melius Neronianis.”

Martial, Lib. VII. Epig. 42.

§ “ Domus non ut post Gallica incendia nulla distinctione,
vel passim erectse ; sed dimensis vicorum ordinibus et latis via-

550

SUMMER HEAT.

In modem Rome the great heat of the sun in
summer is very inconvenient to those who walk the
streets, and a carriage is therefore said to be a fifth
element, and almost as essential and indispensable
to an inhabitant of the city as earth, air, fire, and
water.

The unhealthy season of the year in Rome is con-
sidered to be from the 22d of July to the first rains
in October; and during that period it is thought
dangerous for the health to dwell in any part of the
country near Rome except the liigh grounds.

rum spatiis, cohibita mdificiorum altitudine, affabre factis areis,
additisque porticibus, quae frontem insularum proregerent. Eas
porticus Nerosua pecunia extructurum, purgatasque areas do-
minis traditurum poliicitus est. Addidit prajmia pro cujusque
ordine, et rei familiaris copiis, finivitque tempus intra quod ef-
fectis domibus, aut insulis adipiscerentur. Ruderi accipiendo
Ilostienses paludes destinabat, utque naves, quas frumentum
Tiberi subvectassent, onustae rudere decurrerent. jEdificiaque
ipsa ccrta sui parte sine trabibus, saxo Gabino, Albanoque so-
lidarentur, (the Albano Stone is piperino,) quod is lapis igni
impervius est. Jam aqua privatorum licentia intercepta, quo
largior, et pluribus in locis in publicum flueret, custodes; et
subsidia reprimendis ignibus in propatulo quisque haberet; nec
communione parietum, sed propriis quoque muris ambirentur.
Ea ex utilitate accepta decorem quoque nova? urbi attulere.
Erant qui crederent, veterem iilam formam salubritati magis
eonduxisse ; quoniam angustiae itinerum et altitudo tectorum
non perinde solis vapore perrumperentur; at nune patulam
latitudinem, et nulia umbra defensam, graviore aestu ardes-
cere.”—Tacit. Annal. L. XV. 43.

SOUTH-EAST WIND.

551

On Sundays, in autumn, the Piazza Navona is laid
under water for the sake of. coolness, and people go
through this water in carriages and on foot; but it
is found necessary to remove carefully ali corrupti-
ble filth from the piazza, both before letting on the
vvater and after it is taken oft‘; for if thevvetted im-
purities remain during the ensuing night, the air
becomes filled vvith effluvia most offensive to the
sense and hurtful to health.

By the advice of Lancisi an edict, or what is term-
ed a Motu Proprio, from the form of vvords at the
beginning, was issued by the pope, in 1709, for clean-
ing the streets of Rome. In the present day the
cleaning of the streets is very much neglected.

Sometimes too dry a summer"is detrimental to the
health in Rome, but Lancisi found, that unhealthi-
ness more frequently appeared in vret summers.

The Sirocco.— The south-east wind, called, in Ita-
han,* Sirocco, is unhealthy and debilitating at Rome,
but does not produce fevers. Some of the injurious
qualities of this wind may be derived from its blovv-
ing over the Pontine marshes, which are eighteen
English miles in length, nine broad, and their near-
est point is thirty-five English miles from Rome;
but the south-east is an unhealthy vvind also in other
parts of the Mediterranean, as Hippocrates men-
tions. t

* See page 273.

t Hippocrat. Aphorism. 5.

552  EPIDEMICS AT ROME.

A hundred years before Lancisi’s time it was cus-
tomary to construct the houses at Rome so that
they had no windows to the south ; but, in his time,
in consequence of the draining of some marshes, it
was found that there was no inconvenience in hav-
ing windows to the south, and the houses were then
built with the greatest part of their windows to the
south.

Occasional Cause of Epidemics at Rome.— Science
has not been able to give a satisfactory account of the
causes of the appearance of epidemics at particular
thnes and in particular countries. The ancient Ro-
mans, when violent epidemics prevailed, knew not
what to do, and had recourse to the books of the
Sybill. The moderns are as much at fault, and are
stili to seek in such cases. *

Lancisi is of opinion, that the chief causes of the
epidemic diseases which occur at Rome, are the ef-
fluvia of marshes and of stagnant water, and also the
cold north wind in spring, succeeded by a south
wind. The diseases produced by these two causes
are intermittent fevers or agues, which he terms
febris castrensis, catarrhs, continued fevers, and in-
flammation of the throat and lungs.

Villas.— Alexander Petronius, a medica! author,

* “ Gravis pestilensque omnibus animalibus aestas exce-
pit, cujus insanabili pernicie, quando nec causa, nec finis in-
veniebatur, libri Sibyllini ex S. C. aditi sjint.”—Liv. Lib. V.

QUALITY OF THE WATER AT ROME.

553

has written a treatise conceming the unhealthiness
of the country-houses near Rome, which is citecl by
Donati. On account of this unhealthiness, the
villas to which the wealthy inhabitants of Rome
resort in autumn, are built on the Latian hills at
Albano and Frascati, and on the Apennine at Ti¬
voli. Lancisi, however, is of opinion, that many
diseases are ascribed to the unhealthiness of the coun-
try-houses, which, in reality, have been occasioned
by fatigue j he mentions cases in which persons were
affected with fever after having gone to their villa
at Frascati or Tivoli and returned in a day, and these
places are not suspected of being unhealthy. Sleep
after dinner is a piece of regimen he recommends.
In the opinion of Lancisi, no situations near Rome
are unhealthy, except those which are in the vicini-
ty of marshes and stagnant water.

The sulphureous soil, the nitrous soil, and the poz-
zolana, which occur in and near Rome, he considers
not to be unhealthy, unless they are combined with
dampness.

Water.— The water of the Fontana di Trevi,
which is supplied by the aqueduct of the Acqua
Virgo, is the best water of ali the three aqueducts
that supply Rome.

The water of the Tiber, if allovved to deposit dur-
ing six months in a cistern, is fit for drinking, and
was used by some of the monasteries in the time of
Lancisi in 1710.

n  n

551

QUALITY OF THE WATER.

The vvells in Rome rise and fall or librete vvith
the water of the Tiber, vvith which, therefore, it
appears they communicate. Their vvater is vvhole-
some, except when contaminated vvith extraneous
putrid niatter. *

Lancisi.— The eminent medical author Lancisi,
from one of whose vvorks most of the preceding ob-
servations respecting the salubrity of the atmosphere
at Rome are taken, vvas physician to Clement XI.;
he is rather disposed to represent the question on
the salubrity of Rome in a favourable point of vievv.
This treatise, de Romani Coeli Qualitatibus, publish-
ed in 1710, and dedicated to Cardinal Annibal Al-
bani, nephevv of Clement XI., is contained in the
second volume of the vvorks of Lancisi, published at
Rome in 1 /45. The third volume contains a trea¬
tise on the Pontine marshes, entitled, De Noxiis
Paludum Eflluviis.

* Lancisi, de Cceli Romani Qualitatibus.

END OF VOLUME FIRST.

Printed by George Ramsay and Company 9
Edinburgh #  1819.

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