Grain production of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) at different altitudes in Garhwal
Himalaya, India
Munesh Kumar1 and Govind Singh Rajwar2
1 Department of Forestry, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal. Uttarakhand, India, 2Deputy Director, Higher Education, Govt. of Uttarakhand, India
To estimate the grain production of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.), at three different altitudinal regions (i.e., tropical, sub-tropical and temperate) were selected. At each altitude two villages one of irrigated and another rain fed agriculture systems were taken to compare grain production between the agriculture systems and further agriculture systems of each altitude was compared along altitudinal basis. The irrigated villages were Ganga Bhogpur, Bhainswara and Dhaulana in the tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions and rain fed villages were Kunow, Ghargoan and Chunnikhal in respective regions. Among the irrigated villages, maximum production of wheat was in the village Bhainswara (sub-tropical region) followed by the village Ganga Bhogpur (tropical region) and Dhaulana (temperate region). The highest grain production of wheat in the village Bhainswara could be due to highest input of labour energy and optimum availability of nutrients in the soil. In rain fed villages the production of wheat was comparatively lower then irrigated. Similarly, for rice higher inputs (human and bullock labour, chemical fertilizer) favoured highest grain production in Ganga Bhogpur. Among the villages Ganga Bohpur produced 1.79 kg/capita/day grain production of wheat followed by 1.0 kg/capita/day of rice which was observed sufficient food production for subsistence to the villagers (as villagers opinion said) whereas, other villages have comparatively lower grain production. The average output: input ratio across all the study regions were 1.73 (tropical), 0.99 (sub-tropical), and 0.91 (temperate), which decreased with increasing altitudes. The agriculture productions in lower altitudes are comparatively good for the villager subsistence requirement than the higher hilly agriculture production. Although throughout the year nutrient level (phosphorus and potassium) were lowest in the temperate region. The grain production of crop reduced with increasing altitude because of low photoperiod in the high altitude which influences the grain production of both the crop with increasing altitude therefore increasing altitude people are not getting their proper food requirement and migrating towards plain to fulfill their subsistence need. Thus these traditional agricultural production can be saved through encourage people by producing organic farming for high economic value for livelihood security.
Key words: yield production, energy budget, nutrient status, Garhwal Himalaya
INTRODUCTION
In the Garhwal Himalaya, agriculture is closely linked with the forestry sectors. Farming systems developed in the hills are managed by village farmers. The terraces and terrain agricultural field in hill is difficult to use with modern practices and therefore only traditional methods are dominant. The agricultural filed based on irrigation in the hills are of two types, one is irrigated where agricultural fields depend on natural streams (brook) for irrigation and second is rain fed agriculture where agriculture depends on seasonal monsoon.
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) are the main rotational crops of this region with association of other important traditional crops. Wheat is a chief source of food for a great deal of population of the world. The high demand and adaptability, wheat is grown on a large area of the world all round the year. Wheat is regarded as the most important cereal both in respect of area and dietary need of people. A healthy wheat crop is a symbol of prosperity and also an important source of strength for the nation (Shafi et
* Correspondence to: Telefax: +911370267529 E-mail: muneshmzu@yahoo.com
al. 2004). India produces about 70 million tones per year or about 12 percent of world production. India being the second largest country in population, it is also the second largest in wheat producer and consumer after China. It is cultivated from a sea level up to even 3000 meter. More than 95 percent of the wheat area in India is situated in the northern part. It has wide range of climatic zones form tropical to temperate. It can tolerate sever cold and snow and optimum temperature for germination range from 20-25oC and for plant maturity range from 14-15oC. A well distributed winter rainfall of 1520 cm is required for rain fed cropping pattern and plants required humidity of 50-60%. Sandy loams and black soil conditions and pH of neutral range of 6-8 are good for plants.
After wheat production, the second large produced crop of India is rice which also considered the most important food crop of the world. It has been the primary staple food for millions of people, for centuries. Rice is also the main livelihood of rural population in many Asian, African and Latin American countries (Labrada 1998). According to the food and Agriculture Organization, the global rice requirement in 2050 will be 800 million tones. The present production is little less than 600 million tones and an additional 200 million tones will have to be produced by increasing productivity per
hectare to meet the future requirement (Swaminathan 2006). Of the total of 43 m ha of area under rice, about 46 percent is irrigated and 54 percent is rain fed.
Agricultural is the main stay of the people of Uttarakhand. Of the total population, more than 75% people are engaged either with the main occupation of agriculture or its allied practices (Sati 2005). Among the principal crops wheat, rice, millets, barley, pulses and oil-seeds are grown in the entire state. Source data of Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Dheradun, Uttarakhand, wheat occupies highest percent in the total sown area followed by rice and other crops, wheat and rice are grown as major rotational crops in winter (rabi) and summer (kharif) seasons respectively (Sati 2005).
Considering the importance of wheat and rice production and major consumption in different parts of country as general and in Uttarakhand region of Garhwal Himalaya as particular, the present study was undertaken in Garhwal region of Himalaya to understand (1) The grain production of wheat and rice crops in irrigated and rainfed fields at different altitude and (2) Soil nutrients status of irrigated and rainfed fields at different altitudes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Six agricultural fields, two each in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions were selected for the study (Table 1). Between the agricultural fields at each altitude one was irrigated and another rain fed in nature, were selected to compared grain production, and further grain production was compared along altitudinal gradients. Climatically spring, summer, rainy and winter are well marked seasons in this region. The summer in the tropical region are very hot and mean annual temperature was over 18-24o C. In sub-tropical region the mean annual temperature ranges between 17-23o C which is mild hot in summer and in temperate region the mean annual temperature was quite lower between 7-15o C which reach some time below freezing point in winter. The photoperiod of the hills is slightly lower due to valley of hilly terrain. Although in lower region particularly in tropical, plants get maximum time for photosynthesis period and influence yield of crops. In each region the maximum average rainfall received during mid June to September (monsoon season). Snowfall usually occurs plenty in temperate region in winter season. Kharif (April-October) and Rabi (November-
March) were the dominant cropping pattern in a year. Oryza sativa, Eleusine coracana, Vigna mungo, Glycine soja, Echinochloa frumentacea were associated crops of kharif in summer season however, Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare, Brassica campestris, Pisum stivum were of rabi crops in winter season. The natural streams and brooks were the important source of irrigation in agricultural field however; other agricultural fields where stream flows are below agricultural land fully rain fed in nature.
The agriculture depended villages were selected and a complete survey was made at a household level for each village. All the relevant informations were collected form the villagers by repeated field visits over a period of complete year. The energy budget for each crop was calculated through personal observations in the filed when farmers were engaged in agricultural activities. Grain production of both crops was taken at the time of harvest at maturity. Grain production of crops was measured using ten quadrats of 1 m x 1 m2 size and all the plants in each quadrate of crops were harvested. The energy budget was calculated separately for each crop as described by Maikhuri and Ramakrishnan (1990). The input values were calculated in terms of work human (man-days) and bullock (bullock-days) power and quantities of seed and fertilizer used. The output was calculated as grain production of crop and other components as by-products separately. The output and input values were converted into energy by multiplying the quantities (days) using the caloric equivalents reported by Mitchell (1979). The caloric equivalent was based on data from Pimentel et al. (1973) and Gopalan et al. (1978). The energy efficiency of each crop was calculated as a ratio between outputs and inputs.
The soil samples for analysis were collected from 0-15 cm depth for both the crops separately. The soil pH (1:2.5 ratio of soil: disttle water) was calculated using dynamic digital pH meter. The percent soil organic carbon (SOC) was determined by Walkley and Black's rapid titration method (Walkley and Black 1934). Available phosphorus (P) was determined by phosphomolybdnum blue colorimetric methods (Jackson 1958). The exchangeable potassium (K) was determined by Flame Photometer after leaching the soil with I.P ammonium acetate solution (Jackson 1958).
Table 1. Preliminary survey of the study villages
Parameter
Tropical
Sub-tropical
Temperate
Altitude (masl) Latitude & longitude
Villages
Mode of irrigation Mode of irrigation Cultivated land ha-1 Human density ha-1
300-400
300 6' N &
Ganga Bhogpur
(irrigated)
irrigated
225
0.25
	900-1300		1900-2400	
38'E	300 29' N & 780 24' E		300 23' N & 780 20' E	
Kunow	Bhainswara	Ghargoan	Dhaulana	Chunnikhal
rain fed	(irrigated)	rain fed	(irrigated)	rain fed
rainfed	irrigated	rainfed	irrigated	rainfed
15	24.42	18.32	50.16	14.32
0.06	0.10	0.12	0.16	0.09
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Agriculture production is the main occupation of vast majority of the people of this region except few landless people. The highest cultivable agriculture area was in the village Ganga Bhogpur of tropical region and the lowest in the agriculture of village Chunnikhal of temperate region. Energy values for different items used in the villages are presented in Table 2. Among the irrigated fields maximum grain production of Triticum aestivum was in the village Bhainswara followed by Ganga Bhogpur and Dhaulana (Fig.1). However, in rainfed villages the grain production was maximum in the village Kunow followed by Chunnikhal and Ghargoan (Fig.1). Among the irrigated villages the highest grain production of Triticum aestivum in the village Bhainswara could be due to optimum inputs and amount of availability soil nutrients (Fig. 3 a and 3b) in the agricultural filed. The lowest production of Triticum aestivum in Dhaulana village agriculture might be lower inputs and lower amount of phosphorus and potassium nutrients in the soil (Fig. 3b). Among the rain fed villages, maximum grain production of Triticum aestivum was in village Kunow because of higher amount of organic carbon, phosphorus, potassium. Similarly the lowest production was in the village Ghargoan which mighty be due to lower availability of soil organic carbon.
The production of Triticum aestivum in rain fed villages was comparatively lower than irrigated agriculture filed because of low moisture content in soil and agriculture field were invaded by weeds which reduced the total grain production. Among the various factors affect wheat production, the role of irrigation and fertilizers inputs assume greater significance. Water and fertilizer resources
need judicious use for obtaining maximum output (Jadhav et al. 1981). Misra et al. (1969) and Fischer et al. (1977) reported an increase in yield of wheat with an increase in the wetness of regimes and recommended adequate irrigation throughout the growing season without subjecting to water stress. Chowdhary and Pandey (1975) and Shekhawat et al. (1975) have reported that the proper integration of soil moisture and fertilization can boost the yields to the levels higher than their singular effects. May suggest other thing
The higher production of Oryza sativa in village Ganga Bhogpur might be due to higher input values of human and bullock labours, moreover the villagers also used chemical fertilizer in the crop which provides favourable conditions for its better production. The lower production of Oryza sativa was in the agriculture of village Dhaulana where labour input was lower. In rain fed, the lower production of Oryza sativa was in Kunow where the labour and compost inputs also were lower. It was interesting to note that as observed from the village Chunnikhal, the production of Oryza sativa was not recorded. Villagers suggested that in adjacent villages Oryza sativa is normally grown, but in Chunnikhal complete plant of Oryza sativa grows and no grain production occurred, therefore people neglect its production. It is expected that the grain production of Oryza sativa in Chunnikhal village affected due lower amount of phosphorus in the soil and may also some physiological problems in root activity of plant. Bhardwaj and Wright (1967) observed that in many soils deficient in available phosphorus would be impossible to get the potential yield without adding the amount of phosphorus.
The agricultural field of different villages were
3000 m 2500 2000 % 1500 1000 13 500
3 Triticum aestivum
aBhogpur I Kunow Tropical
Bhainswara | Ghargoan Sub-tropical
Dhaulana | Chunnikhal Temperate
Fig. 1: Grain production of wheat at six different villages
m	1600 -,
'S, 1400 " ■f 1200 -
J	1000 -
1	800 -
1	600 -
Ç	400 -
I	=00 J
I a Oiyza sativa \
Fig. 2: Grain production of rice at six different villages
Tables 2. Energy value for different items used in the villages (values expressed as dry wt. MJ per kg)
C Category	MJ per kg	MJ per day
aGrain	16.2	-
aStraw	14.0	-
cRice barn	16.4	-
cFarmyard manure	7.3	-
cGoat dung	2.0	-
cCow dung	2.1	-
aOne man day-1	-	16.6
aOne bullock day-1	-	72.4
■Mitchell (1979), bGopalan et al. (1978), cMaikhuri and Ramakrishnan (1991)
analyzed for per capita per day grain production and among those villages only Ganga Bhogpur produced more that 1.79 kg/capita/day of Triticum aestivum and 1.0 kg per capita per day of Oryza sativa, which can be considered only sufficient food production for subsistence for the villagers as the villagers suggested that they produced enough grain production throughout the year. Whereas, other villages have shown lower production of crop. The average output: input
ratio across all the study regions were 1.73 for tropical, 0.99 for sub-tropical, and 0.91 for temperate region (Table.3). These values were quite higher than the values reported (0.43) by Pandey and Singh (1984) for Central Himalaya. It is found that output: input ratio decreased with increasing altitudes.
Grain production of both the crop was higher in irrigated fields compared to rain fed. Irrigation usually helps
Fig. 3 a, b (wheat) and c, d (rice) of nutrients at six different village
Table 3. Grain production (per capita per day) and energy budget (MJ per ha X105) in the form of input:output of wheat and rice in six villages in Garhwal Himalaya
Villages/Region
Crop
Grain Production
Total Input
Total Output
O/I ratio
Tropical
Ganga Bhogpur
Kunow
Sub-tropical Bhainswara
Ghargoan
Temperate Dhaulana
Chunni khal
Triticum aestivum Oryza sativa Triticum aestivum Oryza sativa
Triticum aestivum Oryza sativa Triticum aestivum Oryza sativa
Triticum aestivum Oryza sativa Triticum aestivum Oryza sativa
1.79 1.00 0.34 0.14
0.73 0.33 0.26 0.33
0.67 0.48 0.36
4.41 3.80 4.24 2.97
6.43 5.97 5.85 5.20
10.65
5.79
7.00
10.70 6.62 6.70 3.44
9.07 6.69 5.39 2.87
7.51 6.94 6.21
2.43 1.74 1.58 1.16
1.41 1.12 0.92 0.55
0.70 1.19 0.89
to increase the air humidity and decrease air temperature in crops and creating favorable conditions for vital processes, which provide higher production to the plant. Maintaining irrigation favoured to microclimate and enhances total crop production.
The average (irrigated and rain fed) grain production of Triticum aestivum and Oryza sativa reduced with increasing altitude, subsequently phosphorus and potassium also reduced. The reduction in grain production with altitude could be due to these nutrients with altitude. Although pH and soil organic carbon did not show any specific trend with altitude. The increasing altitude reduced the mean annual temperature of the regions. It is assumed that temperate played imported role with altitude which reduced grain production with increasing altitudes. Solar radiation is the main source of photosynthesis. In the lower altitudes solar radiation influenced biomass and yield production with prolonged solar radiation for stem elongation and grain filling while in higher altitude due to low intensity of solar ration negatively influences grain yield. Thus with increasing altitude the reduction in grain production of both the crops may be influenced with the temperature effect. It was interested to not that the tropical region are using fertilizer for the grain production but stilly hilly regions (sub-tropical and temperate) are using only organic fertilizer for grain production.
Thus the study suggests that the high inputs over low outputs have forced people to migrate toward cities in the search of other alternate sources of subsistence. The migration is reducing existing grain production of agriculture from Garhwal Himalaya especially in hilly region. Therefore, special attention need be given to the traditional agricultural systems in other dimensions by providing necessary modern facilities to enhance over all grain production to fulfill the villagers requirement in hill region and also promoting organic farming systems which has high economic values for livelihood security of hilly people thus, traditional agriculture systems and other depended resources could be saved for future.
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Recived: September 10, 2010 Accepted in final form: May 7, 2011