REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ISSN 2350-4803 (SPLET/ONLINE) ISSN 1855-4431 (TISK/PRINT) Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Odgovorni urednik: Matjaž Duh (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Urednica za podrocje družboslovja: Silva Bratož (Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Urednica za podrocje humanistike: Sonja Starc (Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Urednik za podrocje naravoslovja in Tomaž Bratina informatike: (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Tehnicna urednika: Jerneja Herzog (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija Jan Perša (Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba) MEDNARODNI UREDNIŠKI ODBOR dr. Renate Seebauer, (Pädagogische Hochschule Wien, Avstrija), dr. Ligita Stramkale, (Latvijas Universitate, Riga, Latvia), dr. Herbert Zoglowek, (UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsř, Norveška), dr. Maria Aleksandrovich, (Akademia Pomorska w Slupsku, Poljska), dr. Nevenka Tatkovic, (Fakultet za odgojne i obrazovne znanosti, Sveucilište Jurja Dobrile u Puli, Hrvaška), dr. Grozdanka Gojkov, (Uciteljski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Srbija), dr. Jelena Prtljaga, (Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitaca»Mihailo Palov« Vršac, Srbija), ddr. Jürgen Kühnis, (Pädagogische Hochschule Schwyz, Švica), dr. Marie Fulková, (Pedagogická fakulta, Univerzite Karlove, Praha, Ceška), dr. Vera Janíková, (Pedagogická fakulta, Masarykova univerzita, Brno, Ceška), dr. Oliver Holz, Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Lueven, Belgija, (dr. Ljubica Marjanovic Umek, (Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Janez Vogrinc, (Pedagoška fakulteta Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Milena Valencic Zuljan, (Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Mateja Pšunder, (Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija), dddr. Joca Zurc (Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Alenka Valh Lopert (Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Michelle Gadpaille, (Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Majda Schmidt Krajnc, (Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Alenka Lipovec, (Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Sonja Rutar (Univerza naPrimorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija), dr. Tina Štemberger, (Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) NASLOV UREDNIŠTVA Revija za elementarno izobraževanje, Uredništvo revije Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Koroška cesta 160, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenija, e-pošta: rei.pef@um.si, http://rei.um.si ZALOŽNIK Univerzitetna založba Univerze v Mariboru Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenija e-pošta: zalozba@um.si, http://press.um.si/, http://journals.um.si/ Clanki se referirajo v: SCOPUS (Elsevier Bibliografhic Databases), DOAJ, ERIH PLUS, EBSCO (EBSCOhostweb), Ulrich`s Periodicals Directory, IBZ (Internationale Bibliographie der Zeitschriftenliteratur), Proquest, dLib.si, DKUM, COBISS (Co-operative Online Bibliographic System and Services). Clanki v reviji so recenzirani. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje je revija, ki jo izdaja Univerzitetna založba Univerze v Mariboru v soizdajateljstvu Pedagoške fakultete Univerze v Mariboru, Pedagoške fakultete Univerze na Primorskem in Pedagoške fakultete Karlove Univerze v Pragi. V njej so objavljeni prispevki s podrocja vzgoje in izobraževanja zlasti na predšolski in osnovnošolski stopnji. Avtorji prispevkov z znanstvenega vidika pišejo o problemih, ki zadevajo vzgojo in izobraževanje. Namen revije je spodbujati objavo znanstvenoraziskovalnih clankov. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje izhaja štirikrat letno. V njej so objavljeni prispevki v slovenskem ali angleškem jeziku oz. nemškem jeziku. Prispevke pošljite na naslov uredništva ali po e-pošti na naslov: rei.pef@um.si Journal of Elementary Education Editor-in-Chief: Matjaž Duh (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Editor for Social Sciences: Silva Bratož (Universitiy of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Editor for Humanities: Sonja Starc (Universitiy of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Editor for Nature and Information Tomaž Bratina Sciences: (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Technical Editors: Jerneja Herzog (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Jan Perša (University of Maribor) INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD Renate Seebauer, PhD (University College of Teacher Education, Vienna, Austria), Ligita Stramkale, PhD (University of Latvia, Faculty of Education, Psychology and Art, Riga, Latvia), Herbert Zoglowek, PhD (University of Trřmso, Norwegian Arctic University, Alta, Norway), Maria Aleksandrovich, PhD (Pomeranian University in Slupsk, Faculty of Social Science, Slupsk, Poland ), Nevenka Tatkovic, PhD (Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Faculty of Educational Sciences. Pula, Croatia), Grozdanka Gojkov, PhD (University of Belgrade, Teacher Education Faculty, Belgrade, Serbia), Jelena Prtljaga, PhD (Preschool Teacher Training College »Mihailo Palov«, Vršac, Serbia), Jürgen Kühnis, Phd, (The Schwyz University of Teacher Education, Goldau, Switzerland), Marie Fulková, PhD (Charles University, Faculty of Education, Prague, Czech Republic), Vera Janíková, PhD (Masaryk University, Faculty of Education, Brno, Czech Republic), Oliver Holz, PhD (Faculty of Economics and Busines, KU Leuven, Belgium, Ljubica Marjanovic Umek, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Ljubljana, Slovenia) Janez Vogrinc, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia), Milena Valencic Zuljan, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia), Mateja Pšunder, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Maribor, Slovenia), Alenka Valh Lopert, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Maribor, Slovenia), Michelle Gadpaille, PhD (University of Maribor, FAculty of Arts, Maribor, Slovenia), Majda Schmidt Krajnc, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia), Joca Zurc, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Maribor, Slovenia), Alenka Lipovec, PhD (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia), Sonja Rutar, PhD (Univesrity of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper,Slovenia) Tina Štemberger, PhD (Univesrity of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia) EDITORIAL OFFICE ADDRESS Journal of Elementary Education, Editorial Board of Journal of Elementary Education Koroška cesta 160, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenija , e-pošta: rei.pef@um.si, http://rei.um.si PUBLISHED BY University of Maribor Press Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia e-mail: zalozba@um.si, http://press.um.si/, http://journals.um.si/ Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: SCOPUS (Elsevier Bibliografhic Databases), DOAJ, ERIH PLUS, EBSCO (EBSCOhostweb), Ulrich`s Periodicals Directory, IBZ (Internationale Bibliographie der Zeitschriftenliteratur), Proquest, dLib.si, DKUM, COBISS (Co-operative Online Bibliographic System and Services). Journal of Elementary Education is a peer-reviewed journal, open access journal that publishes scientific articles primarly but not limited to the area of elementary school education. JEE is published four times yearly and accepts articles in Slovene, English and German. JEE is published by the University Press University of Maribor with cooperate Faculty of Education University of Maribor, Faculty of Education University of Primorska and Charles University, Faculty of Education, Prague. Articles may be sent electronically to: rei.pef@um.si Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Journal of Elementary Education Volume 14 Number 4 December 2021 Kazalo / Table of Contents Prispevki / Articles Does Socioeconomic Status Influence Achievement? An analysis of the Performance of Kosovar Students on the 2015 and 2018 PISA Assessment Ali socioekonomski status vpliva na dosežke? Analiza uspešnosti kosovskih ucencev pri ocenjevanju znanja 393 PISA 2015 in 2018 Arif Shala, Albulene Grajcevci & Fadil Latifi Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers 409 Uporaba Kolbovega modela ucenja v organiziranih oblikah strokovnega izpopolnjevanja uciteljev Snježana Mocinic & Sanja Tatkovic Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Slovenes in Neighbouring Countries as Part of the Curriculum in Primary and Secondary Schools in Slovenia 435 Lucija Cok Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektiveReading Culture from the Psychological and Educational Perspectives 461 Sonja Pecjak Statisticna znacilnost in/ali velikost ucinka?Statistical Significance and/or Effect Size? 485 Tina Štemberger Student-Centred Instruction in Science and Technology: a Model of Factors at Organizational and Individual Levels 501 Na ucenca osredinjen pouk naravoslovja in tehnike: model dejavnikov na organizacijski in individualni ravni Petra Pejic Papak, Darjo Zuljan & Milena Valencic Zuljan REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 393–408, December 2021 Potrjeno/Accepted 4. 3. 2020 Objavljeno/Published 10. 12. 2021 Keywords: Socioeconomic status, Student achievement PISA, Kosovo. Kljucne besede: socioekonomski status, dosežki ucencev, PISA Kosovo. UDK/UDC 37.091.212.6­057.874(497.115) DOES SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS INFLUENCE ACHIEVEMENT? AN ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE OF KOSOVAR STUDENTS ON THE 2015 AND 2018 PISA ASSESSMENT ARIF SHALA1, ALBULENE GRAJCEVCI2 & FADIL LATIFI1 1 AAB College, Faculty of Social Sciences, Prishtinë, Kosovë 2 University Isa Boletini Mitrovice, Faculty of Education, Mitrovicë, Kosovë CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENCNI AVTOR albulene.grajcevci@umib.net Abstract/Izvlecek Socioeconomic status has long been considered an influential factor in student achievement. Similar to existing literature, results of this analysis reveal that socioeconomic status influenced student achievement in the 2015 and 2018 PISA assessments. However, the achievement gap between categories widened between 2015 and 2018. Results reveal that home possessions, school location, parental education played a role in achievement. Furthermore, students who attended private schools outperformed students in public schools, a gap that widened considerably between assessments. Results of the current analysis reveal the importance of socioeconomic factors in achievement and, the need for policy builders to mitigate this impact. Ali socioekonomski status vpliva na dosežke? Analiza uspešnosti kosovskih ucencev pri ocenjevanju znanja PISA 2015 in 2018 Socialnoekonomski status je dolgo veljal za vpliven dejavnik pri uspehu študentov. Podobno kot v obstojeci literaturi tudi rezultati te analize kažejo, da je socialnoekonomski status vplival na uspehe ucencev pri ocenjevanjih PISA v letih 2015 in 2018. Vendar pa se je razlika v dosežkih med kategorijami med letoma 2015 in 2018 povecala. Rezultati kažejo, da so imeli vlogo pri dosežkih lastnina doma, lokacija šole, izobrazba staršev. Poleg tega so ucenci, ki so obiskovali zasebne šole, prekašali ucence v javnih šolah, pri cemer se je razlika med ocenami znatno povecala. Rezultati trenutne analize razkrivajo pomen socialno-ekonomskih dejavnikov pri doseganju in potrebo, da oblikovalci politike ublažijo ta vpliv. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.14.4.393-408.2021 Besedilo / Text © 2021 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobcitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction Understanding what influences learning is among the main topics of research in education science. In responding to this issue, familial socioeconomic status is a factor often researched to explain differences in learning and achievement (Sirin, 2005). Socioeconomic status has been widely researched on the premise that it shapes performance and achievement. Literature has continuously reported support for a link between educational attainment and the socioeconomic status of students (Noel and de Broucker, 2001; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2004). Evidently, the correlation between the two variables is a positive one, indicating that the higher the socioeconomic status of a student, the higher the educational attainment (Perry, 2010). According to Haveman and Wolfe (1984), familial socioeconomic standing influences learning and achievement; more specifically, as socioeconomic standing increases, so does the performance and learning of the student. In the literature, socioeconomic status is thus considered an important factor shaping achievement (Caponera and Losito, 2016). To elaborate, students who had better educated parents and more home possessions performed the highest in mathematics (Clements and Sarama, 2009; Topcu, Erbilgin, and Arikan, 2011). Considering the undeniable link between socioeconomic status and achievement, international assessment tests such as PISA have assessed both variables in an attempt to explore the link between the two. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a cooperative project between the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and member countries, the aim of which is to test the achievement of students in reading literacy, mathematics and science (Entorf and Minoi, 2004). Over the years, the number of countries participating in PISA has increased. A minimum of 4500 students from 150 schools participates in the assessment (Krawchuk and Rust, 2002). This assessment is particularly important for developing economies such as Kosovo, for which PISA remains the one and only assessment project to provide information on student learning and achievement. So far, Kosovo has participated in only two assessments: 2015 and 2018. The achievement of Kosovar students has been low, but PISA data provide valuable information on the link between achievement and socioeconomic status. A. Shala, A. Grajcevci & F. Latific: Does Socioeconomic Status Influence Achievement? An Analysis of the Performance of Kosovar Students on the 2015 and 2018 PISA Assessment The current analysis explores the impact of SES indicators, parental education and home possessions, on student achievement in mathematics, science and reading literacy. The results reveal that higher socioeconomic status is linked to higher achievement among Kosovar students. Additionally, school location and school type also influenced performance. More specifically, students in private schools performed better compared to students in public schools, while students attending schools in villages and small towns performed more poorly in comparison to students attending city schools. The trends remained the same in 2015 and 2018; however, the achievement gap widened considerably between assessments. Literature review Socio-economic status (SES) determines educational achievement as much as it influences the development and health of children (Schulz, 2005), with socioeconomic standing correlating to social and emotional wellbeing as well as cognitive outcomes (Bradley and Corwyn, 2002). Educational achievement and performance have always been shown to reflect the family background of a given student. To elaborate, parents with high socioeconomic status have more financial resources to support the learning of their children. These parents also offer a home environment that promotes learning and cognitive development (Schulz, 2005). Socioeconomic status is composed of three main variables: occupation, education level and income of parents (Hauser, 1994); in the literature, these variables are used together and not separately to analyze socioeconomic status (Entwisle and Astone, 1994; Hauser, 1994). Similarly, in international assessment, socioeconomic standing is assessed through these variables: parental education, parental occupation and household items (Schulz, 2005). The PISA data have continuously provided evidence that measuring socioeconomic status is important, first, to account for gaps in the equity of education systems and, secondly, to explore how SES links to other characteristics in an education system when influencing achievement and performance (Schulz, 2005). Household possession scales have proven to be important family variables, and in the PISA assessment they have been valuable in explaining differences in achievement when parental education and occupation have failed to do so (Schulz, 2005). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The 2015 PISA assessment revealed that students from lower SES backgrounds were three times more likely to fail in achieving basic competences in reading literacy, mathematics and science, compared to students who came from higher SES backgrounds (OECD, 2016). The OECD report (2016) notes that the background of students impacted the benefits students could receive from education. Other studies have also reported that as the familial SES increases, so does achievement and learning (Boocock, 1972), and familial SES is a greater influencer of education, earnings and professional career than IQ (Bowles and Nelson, 1974). Analysis across countries shows that students with high SES families performed better on the PISA assessments compared to students from low SES families. Although the effect changes from country to country, the trend remains the same. In the German education system, for example, students with low socioeconomic standing who also happened to have a minority background performed the worst (Entorf & Minoi, 2004). Parental education is a variable that influences performance on PISA assessments; more specifically, the education of fathers was a powerful predicting variable for the performance of Turkish students (Anil, 2009). The results conduced on the PISA assessment data reveal that learning and achievement are shaped by indicators of familial socioeconomic status such as parents’ education level and household possessions, including but not limited to rooms, study desks, internet, books and computers (Mullis, Martin, Ruddock, O’Sullivan, and Preuschoff, 2009). Consequently, the argument that improving familial socioeconomic status will lead to an increase in achievement is often embraced (Guven, 2019). According to existing studies, familial socioeconomic status explains 20% of student achievement, while homework explains only 1% (Guven, 2017). Furthermore, according to the OECD analysis of 2016, the student’s socio-economic status explained 12.9% of student performance. While there are many research studies supporting the argument that familial socioeconomic status influences student learning, the reality is that the link between the variables is still questioned by many researchers. Accordingly, Sirin (2005) notes that the link between familial socioeconomic status and achievement is of medium strength. Similarly, Letourneau, Du.ett-Leger, Levac, Watson, and Young (2013) maintain that the variables are only weakly linked. A. Shala, A. Grajcevci & F. Latific: Does Socioeconomic Status Influence Achievement? An Analysis of the Performance of Kosovar Students on the 2015 and 2018 PISA Assessment The underlying argument is that just because socioeconomic status and educational achievement are linked, this should not encourage policy builders to think that the relationship is detrimental—that it is proof of socioeconomic status determining learning and achievement. Arguing that students do better when they have educated parents who are wealthy, is not the same as the imperative that these students do better exclusively because they have such parents. This argument neglects the impact of cognitive abilities, which strongly influence learning and achievement (Deary, Strand, Smith, and Fernandes, 2007; Roth et al., 2015). Evidently, the link between socioeconomic status and student achievement is still debated among researchers. Considering the existing literature, the current paper aims to explore the link between socioeconomic status and the achievement of Kosovar students on PISA. The results focus on the impact of variables such as school location, school type and parental education, on one hand, and household possessions, on the other, as measures of familial socioeconomic status, on student performance in reading literacy, mathematics and science. Methodology Current research makes use of the PISA Data Explorer available on the website of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD PISA Explorer, 2015; OECD PISA Explorer, 2018). The online dataset provides information on all variables for all countries participating in the PISA assessment. For this publication, only the data for Kosovo were analyzed. In 2018, 5058 students from 224 schools participated in the assessment, representing 25,739 students at the age of 15 in Kosovo. The 2015 PISA assessment had a smaller number of participants: 4,826 students participated, representing 31,546 students across the country. The data explorer allows researchers to conduct several statistical procedures, such as T-tests and Anova and obtain p-values. The analyses were done in the PISA data explorer, which enables researchers to select variables and conduct tests on their relation to the PISA results. The study used four variables: school location, school type, parental education and household possessions. The hypotheses of this study are built on the existing literature. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Therefore, we expect to find a significant positive correlation between student performance in reading literacy, mathematics and science, on one hand, and socioeconomic variables, on the other. Furthermore, the study aims to explore whether trends are consistent across PISA assessments in 2015 and 2018. H1. There is a significant positive correlation between maternal education and student performance on PISA. H2. There is a significant positive correlation between paternal education and student performance on PISA. H3. There is a significant positive correlation between household possessions and student performance on PISA. H4. Students attending city schools will outperform students attending schools in small towns and villages. H5. Students attending private schools will outperform students attending public schools. H6. The impact of parental education and household possessions on student performance on the PISA assessment is consistent across assessment years (2015, 2018). Results The current analysis relied on data made available by the OECD. The figure below provides information on the performance of Kosovar students on the PISA assessment for 2015 and 2018. In 2015 there was an increase of 6 points which was not a significant difference in reading literacy. Similarly, in mathematics, an increase of 6 points was observed, but this increase was not significant. Finally, in 2018, students performed worse in science compared to 2015, a difference of 13 points, which was significant at p<0.05. Figure 1: Student performance on PISA 2015 and 2018. A. Shala, A. Grajcevci & F. Latific: Does Socioeconomic Status Influence Achievement? An Analysis of the Performance of Kosovar Students on the 2015 and 2018 PISA Assessment One variable that was linked to achievement in both 2015 and 2018 was school type. Across all domains and both years, students in private schools outperformed students in public schools. The differences were significant, and the achievement gap increased from 2015 to 2018, by 49 points in reading literacy, 38 points in mathematics, and 35 points in science. In the 2018 assessments, students in private schools outperformed students in public schools by 94 points in reading literacy, 96 points in mathematics and 96 points in science; all the differences were significant at p<0.01 (see Table 1 below). Similar to school type, there was also a relationship between school location and student achievement. More specifically, students in cities outperformed students in other areas in both assessment years and all domains (see Table 1 below). The least performing students were those whose school was located in a village, followed by students who attended school in small towns, and those who attended school in towns. In terms of the impact of parental education, the data shows that in both years, students performed better in all domains when the parents had secondary or tertiary education. Students who had the lowest levels of achievement had parents who had completed primary education or whose parents had not even completed primary education Table 1: PISA results according to year, school type, school location, and parental education. Education level Education level Father Location Type Mother Reading literacy Mathematics Science SE SE SE SE SE SE 2018 2015 2018 2015 2018 2015 447 1.2 398 1.4 464 10.6 426 14.3 460 9.3 425 13.5 Public 353 6.6 346 11.7 365 1.6 360 1.5 364 1.3 377 1.6 Private Village 329 4.4 320 5.1 343 5.2 339 4.1 348 4.1 356 4.3 Small town 338 3.8 333 3.7 353 4.9 350 3.9 350 3.6 367 3.2 Town 352 1.5 348 2.2 363 2.0 363 2.1 362 1.7 380 2.2 City 378 2.7 370 3.3 392 2.9 378 3.5 389 2.5 395 3.2 No primary 319 8.8 315 11.7 343 10.0 329 11.3 343 9.1 352 9.5 education Primary Edu. 338 3.5 328 4.8 352 4.1 335 5.3 346 3.5 363 3.8 355 2.1 345 2.6 367 2.5 359 2.9 370 2.0 376 2.9 Lower second. 349 2.5 353 4.0 362 3.2 370 3.5 363 2.6 384 3.5 Tertiary education 362 1.8 359 2.4 375 2.4 374 2.7 371 2.0 389 2.4 No primary Second. education 279 10.7 283 16.5 313 14.2 311 19.6 311 12.3 342 15.7 education Primary Edu. 318 4.2 304 5.9 333 5.6 318 7.0 323 3.3 350 5.3 334 2.7 315 4.3 344 3.3 332 4.3 353 3.0 350 3.8 Second. Lower second. 360 2.0 346 2.8 373 2.4 379 2.8 371 1.9 393 2.7 education Tertiary education 362 1.6 353 2.3 375 2.2 366 2.5 373 1.9 382 2.2 A. Shala, A. Grajcevci & F. Latific: Does Socioeconomic Status Influence Achievement? An Analysis of the Performance of Kosovar Students on the 2015 and 2018 PISA Assessment Table 2 presents the link between household possessions and achievement on PISA. The data shows that having a room of their own is not positively linked to the performance of students on PISA; the trend was similar in both years. Having internet access, on the other hand, was linked to achievement on the PISA scales, since students who had internet access outperformed those who did not. The achievement gap in both years was larger for mathematics and science, with 44 and 36 points in 2018 and 43 and 33 points in 2015. A quiet place to study was also linked to student achievement in both years, since students who had such a place to study performed better in all domains than students who did not have such a place (see Table 2 below). The possession of a desk was also linked to student achievement, since students who had a desk for study outperformed those who did not in 2018 by 1 point in reading literacy, 20 points in mathematics and 30 points in science (see Table 2 below). On the other hand, in the 2015 PISA assessment, students who had a desk for study performed better than students who did not, by 11 points in reading literacy, 42 points in mathematics and 38 points in science. Apart from the difference in reading literacy in the 2018 assessment (p>0.05), all other differences were significant p< 0.01. Additionally, students who had a computer to use for school work also performed better than those who did not have such a computer, in both years and across all domains. Table 2: PISA performance across years according to household possessions. Reading literacy Mathematics Science 2018 SE 2015 SE 2018 SE 2015 SE 2018 SE 2015 SE 355 1.1 362 1.6 367 1.6 363 1.7 366 1.3 379 1.7 Yes A room of your own No 349 4.9 365 5.5 382 5.9 374 6.4 380 5.1 393 6.0 A link to the 358 1.2 324 1.5 371 1.6 368 1.7 370 1.2 384 1.8 Yes Internet No 353 3.5 317 5.5 327 4.8 325 5.8 334 3.5 351 4.8 A quiet place to Yes 356 1.1 337 1.4 369 1.5 365 1.7 368 1.2 382 1.7 study No 351 5.9 332 8.2 358 6.4 350 7.6 353 5.9 365 8.5 365 1.3 328 1.6 367 1.6 377 2.0 375 1.2 392 1.8 Yes A desk for study No 364 2.7 317 3.3 347 3.2 335 2.9 345 2.8 354 3.3 358 1.3 345 1.5 371 1.4 367 1.7 370 1.3 383 1.8 Yes A computer 353 2.6 328 5.6 355 3.7 344 4.4 356 2.7 363 4.1 No 310 4.6 305 5.1 318 5.7 323 5.0 327 4.3 341 4.0 None 329 2.1 322 3.4 337 2.8 335 3.8 340 2.5 360 3.3 one Cell phones at home two 337 3.6 352 3.6 349 5.0 361 3.4 355 3.7 380 3.0 three or more 371 1.3 368 1.9 386 1.9 384 1.9 382 1.6 395 2.1 333 3.0 316 5.1 343 3.9 332 4.6 347 2.7 353 4.2 None 351 1.5 348 2.3 361 1.9 362 2.2 361 1.7 378 2.4 one Computers at home two 372 2.3 366 2.9 390 3.3 375 3.3 385 2.5 393 3.0 three or more 365 3.3 357 4.3 379 4.7 384 4.4 378 3.3 392 3.4 A. Shala, A. Grajcevci & F. Latific: Does Socioeconomic Status Influence Achievement? An Analysis of the Performance of Kosovar Students on the 2015 and 2018 PISA Assessment Available data also indicates that the possession of a cell phone is linked to student achievement on PISA, with student performance improving with an increase in the number of cell phones at home. This trend is evident across assessment years and domains. Students who performed the lowest were the ones who reported having no cell phone at home or just one, while students who had three or more cell phones at home were the highest performing group. In terms of available computers at home and student performance on PISA assessment, the data reveals that students with the highest performance report having two computers at home. Students who performed the lowest had no computers at home. Students who had two computers at home outperformed students who had no computers at home in the 2018 assessment by 39 points in reading literacy, 47 points in mathematics and 36 points in science. The same trend was also evident in the 2015 PISA assessment, when the difference was 50 points in reading literacy, 47 points in mathematics and 40 points in science (see Table 2). Interestingly, the data shows that students who had three or more computers at home performed worse than students who had two computers at home; this trend was visible across both assessments and all domains. Conclusion The reason behind the pressure to achieve a high quality education system generally comes from the understanding that such an education system leads to long-term economic growth (Hanushek and Woessmann, 2008), along with enhanced human capital (Glewwe et al., 2011). Research suggests that a quality education system has not only learning and teaching quality but also equity in educational attainment (OECD, 2013). Generally, an education system is considered to possess quality when it fosters literacy skills in its students (Ho, 2013). On the other hand, equity in education has been receiving more and more attention as a prerequisite for high attainment education systems (OECD 2013). The definition of equity in education refers to a fair education system in which all students, regardless of their gender, ethnicity or family background, acquire at least the minimum skills, and such differences are never an obstacle to achievement and performance (OECD 2013). The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a triennial international assessment aiming to assess the capacity of students to apply existing knowledge and skills to solve problems and challenges (OECD 2013). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION PISA provides information to policy makers on the quality of the education system at a national level, while also providing valuable information on the performance of individual schools. PISA began in 2000 and to date, seven assessments have been done of the attainment of 15-year-old students in mathematics, reading literacy, and science (Thien, 2016). According to the OECD (2016), socioeconomic status is linked to differences in achievement across countries and economies. Students who have an advantaged socioeconomic standing outperform by a large margin students who are disadvantaged. While this relationship may be stronger for some countries and weaker for others, this positive relationship between the two variables exists in every single country that participates in PISA (OECD, 2016). According to PISA data, in Australia, students who have the highest socioeconomic status are three years ahead of students with low socioeconomic standing (Thomson, 2018). Researchers postulate that students bring to school the inequality that is imposed on them by their family and neighborhood. They carry these inequalities through their education and leave school with them, without much having been done to mitigate the situation (Thomson, 2018). The gap between students with an advantage and those with a disadvantage persists, mainly because it is still unclear how socioeconomic status predicts student learning and achievement. Many researchers continue to argue that socioeconomic status impacts student learning to a lesser degree compared to the impact that cognitive abilities exert over learning and achievement. Cognitive abilities are generally considered to be based on genetics, and as such, not much can be done to exert influence. However, many large-scale international studies do not support this hypothesis. Researchers maintain that students who come from a low socioeconomic position face an undeniable disadvantage because their home environment does not exactly foster academic learning. These studies maintain that the number of books at home influences achievement and learning; keeping this in mind, parents who have a higher socioeconomic position can provide more resources at home to foster learning. These parents are also more likely to promote cognitive development in their children by offering them a stimulating environment. Furthermore, these parents are also more likely to provide psychological support for their children, while also fostering the development of skills and approaches that are linked to better learning in school (Thomson, 2018). A. Shala, A. Grajcevci & F. Latific: Does Socioeconomic Status Influence Achievement? An Analysis of the Performance of Kosovar Students on the 2015 and 2018 PISA Assessment Considering the available literature, the current analysis focuses on the impact of SES on the achievement of Kosovar students on the 2015 and 2018 PISA assessments, in an attempt to understand whether the trend of impact is the same in Kosovo as in other countries. Data on the performance of Kosovar students on PISA 2015 and 2018 reveal that school type and school location do influence achievement. More specifically, students in private schools outperformed students attending public schools in both years, with the achievement gap rising dramatically from 2015 to 2018, a gap that now exceeds 90 difference points across all domains. Additionally, differences were observed by school location, with students attending village schools performing the worst in both years, followed by those attending schools in small towns and cities. Students who performed the best were those who attended large urban schools. Experts and policy makers understand how socioeconomic differences impact the quality and equity of education systems and therefore attempt to direct greater support towards students with lower familial socioeconomic standing. To that end, many education systems have decreased the student-teacher ratio for schools in impoverished neighborhoods. According to the OECD (2014), many countries have adopted a similar approach in mitigating the impact of SES on achievement, that is, by employing more teachers in schools that have many students from disadvantaged backgrounds. The Netherlands, Chile and France direct more funding to disadvantaged schools, which also have more teachers compared to other schools (Brandt, 2010; Ladd and Fiske, 2009; Benabou, Kramarz and Prost, 2009). In France, schools with a high intake of low SES students obtain an increase of 16% in funds per student (Moisan, 2011). Other systems have also used the quota approach to make schools admit students from disadvantaged backgrounds. This approach is adopted by countries such as Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain (Calero, 2005; Ladd, Fiske, and Ruijs, 2009). As with the findings from the literature, the present analysis reveals that household possessions as a measure of socioeconomic status do play an important role in student achievement. Students who had study desk, internet at home, and computers at home performed better than students who lacked such resources in both assessment years. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION This trend provides support for the impact of familial settings on student learning and achievement. Mullis, Martin, Ruddock, O’Sullivan, and Preuschoff, (2009) maintain that student achievement on PISA is determined by the availability of a room, a desk, a computer and the internet. 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Quality and inequality in children’s literacy: The effects on families, schools, and communities. In D. P. Keating and C. Hertzman (Eds.), Developmental Health and the Wealth of Nations: Social, biological, and educational dynamics (pp. 72–93). New York: Guilford Press. Authors Arif Shala, PhD AAB College, Rr. Elez Berisha Nr-56, 10000 Prishtine, Republik of Kosove, e-mail: arif.shala@universitetiaab.com Visoka šola AAB, Rr. Elez Berisha Nr-56, 10000 Priština, Republika Kosovo, e-pošta: arif.shala@universitetiaab.com Albulene Grajcevci Researcher, University Isa Boletini Mitrovice, Rr. Ukshin Kovacica 40000 Mitrovice, Republic of Kosove, e-mail: albulene.grajcevci@umib.net Raziskovalec, Univerza Isa Boletini Mitrovice, Rr. Ukshin Kovacica, 40000 Mitrovice, Republika Kosovo, e-pošta: albulene.grajcevci@umib.net Fadil Latifi, PhD AAB College, Rr. Elez Berisha Nr-56, Zona industriale Fushe Kosove 10000 Republika of Kosove, fadil.latifi@universitetiaab.com Visoka šola AAB, Rr. Elez Berisha Nr-56, 10000 Priština, Republika Kosovo, e-pošta: fadil.latifi@universitetiaab.com REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 409–433, December 2021 Potrjeno/Accepted 30. 4. 2020 Objavljeno/Published 10. 12. 2021 Keywords: lifelong learning, Kolb's learning model, structured types of learning, professional education and training, teachers. Kljucne besede: vseživljenjsko izobraževanje, Kolbov model, organizirane oblike ucenja, strokovno izpopolnjevanje, ucitelji. UDK/UDC 374.7:37.011.3-051 USING KOLB'S LEARNING MODEL IN STRUCTURED TYPES OF PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR TEACHERS SNJEŽANA MOCINIC1 & SANJA TATKOVIC1 1 Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Pula, Croatia CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENCNI AVTOR/ smocinic@unipu.hr Abstract/Izvlecek The use of Kolb's model enhances the effects of professional development because the model allows the exchange of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation, and provides the connection between theory and practice. The empirical part of this paper analyses the results of a survey conducted among teachers from Croatian primary schools regarding the presence of the four stages of Kolb’s learning model in structured types of professional education and training. The survey shows teachers’ dissatisfaction regarding the presence of activities such as reflection on teaching, linking theory to practice and stimulating research activities in teaching practice. Uporaba Kolbovega modela ucenja v organiziranih oblikah strokovnega izpopolnjevanja uciteljev Uporaba Kolbovega modela izboljšuje rezultate profesionalnega dela in izpopolnjevanja, saj model ponuja priložnost za izmenjavo konkretnih izkušenj, refleksivnega opazovanja, abstraktnega razmišljanja in aktivnega eksperimentiranja ter omogoca povezavo med teorijo in prakso. V empiricnem delu prispevka smo analizirali rezultate ankete med uciteljimi hrvaških osnovnih šol o prisotnosti štirih faz ucnega procesa po Kolbovem modelu v organiziranih oblikah strokovnega izpopolnjevanja. Raziskava je pokazala nezadovoljstvo uciteljev s strokovnim izpopolnjevanjem v smislu dejavnosti refleksije o poucevanju, povezovanja teorije s prakticnim delom in spodbujanja raziskovalnih dejavnosti v uciteljski praksi. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.14.4.409-433.2021 Besedilo / Text © 2021 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobcitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction No course of initial teacher education can equip teachers with all the knowledge and competences they will require during their work in an educational institution (Tatkovic, Mocinic, 2012; Tatkovic, Catic, 2010). Therefore, professional education and training, as integral parts of lifelong learning, are indispensable for navigating the modern-day society characterized by rapid and continuous changes on both the national and international level. Currently, nothing can replace professional education and training. It is a necessity, because it brings benefits not only for an individual, but also for the society as a whole. Educators can access a broad range of types, methods and procedures for professional improvement only through constant training and education, which need to be continuously encouraged at the level of the educational institution and the Ministry of Education (Tatkovic, 2016). Research has shown that professional education and training should be systematic and planned, as well as aligned with the development needs of all staff members. There is a need for a paradigm shift from the traditional approach to initial training and professional development to a model of continuous professional education and training through the implementation of modern forms of training such as e-learning and various other advantages offered by information and communications technology. That would allow professional education and training to take place “anywhere and anytime”, reducing the amount of time and necessary expense, improving organization and increasing the forms and quality of professional education and training (Tatkovic, 2016). In this sense, motivation plays an extremely important role, both for participation in professional education and training and persistence in achieving the set objectives, as well as for learning outcomes (Lepicnik Vodopivec, 2018, Javornik Krecic, Konecnik Kotnik, 2011), because human resources are the strongest asset of the current professional education and training system. Without autonomy and personal professional responsibility, only the formal requirements are met, but there is no quality of knowledge, ability and skills. S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers Furthermore, research has also shown that professional education and training and development of competences is an important motivating factor from the perspective of improving one’s personal reputation, building a positive self-image and advancement opportunities, and increasing the quality of work with children (Tatkovic, 2016), as well as pursuing one’s own personal interests (Lepicnik – Vodopivec, 2018), which is why educators have high expectations from professional education and training (Hmelak 2012, Hmelak, Lepicnik Vodopivec, 2013). While seeking better options and changes in the professional education and training system, which do not occur simultaneously with social change, everyone should be given equal lifelong learning opportunities, i.e. professional development and personal advancement opportunities, so that they can assume the new roles required by the knowledge society (Tatkovic, Mocinic, 2012). It is a known fact that well thought out and efficiently organised professional education and training allow not only professional development of teachers, but their academic advancement as well, thus contributing to the improved quality of work of the educational institution where they work. Therefore, to establish a more efficient professional education and training system, it is advisable to follow and implement EU recommendations and objectives (OECD, 2009): -to update individuals’ knowledge of the teaching subject as part of improvement in a given area: -to update individuals’ skills, attitudes and objectives in line with the new research results in the field of education; -to allow individuals to introduce changes to curricula or other aspects of teaching practice; -to allow schools to develop and implement new strategies related to the curriculum and other aspects of teaching practice; -to exchange information and expert knowledge among teachers and other stakeholders, such as academics, experts in specific areas, etc.; -to help less successful teachers become more effective. Change is the agent of development or the continuation of well-started reform. It is important to know how to deal with change, but efficient change management requires not only a high level of personal motivation but also support from everyone affected by the change (Potts, 2005). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Research studies in this area have shown that many types of teacher professional development are insufficiently effective in supporting changes in teaching practice and student progress (Darling-Hammond, Hyler, Gardner, 2017; Bilac, Tavas, 2011; Strugar, 2012). Darling-Hammond, Hyler and Gardner believe that high-quality professional development needs to do the following: a) focus on the content of the curriculum; b) involve active learning; c) foster cooperation among participants; d) use practical examples of good practice; e) provide professional support focused on individual needs of participants; f) provide feedback and encourage reflection on one’s own teaching practice; g) ensure sufficient time for studying, practising, reflecting and implementing new strategies and other changes in one’s teaching practice (Darling-Hammond, Hyler, Gardner, 2017). Implementation of professional education and training of teachers in the Republic of Croatia In the Republic of Croatia, professional education and training of teachers is implemented on the individual, school, county and national levels. All further considerations presented in this paper refer only to the county and national levels of professional education and training because the individual and school levels are much too varied and therefore difficult to examine systematically. High-quality professional education and training courses on the national and county levels usually combine plenary lectures during conferences attended by a large number of participants and small-group work during workshops and projects, in learning communities, through various forms of experiential learning, via video-conferences, webinars and active participation in seminars, lectures, conferences, round tables, debates, study visits and participation in online forums (Petljak Zekic et al., 2013: 10; AZOO, 2014). Traditional types of professional education and training completely neglected practical exercises and presentation of examples of good practice (Tatkovic, 2016). Apart from short theoretical lectures, modern forms of professional education and training usually consist of workshop-type activities, which allows active participation of teachers and improves communication through the exchange of successful practical experience and good practices. Since the academic year 2008/2009, modular professional education and training has been implemented in Zagreb County, involving quite small groups of teachers and based on the principle of participation in a given topic, which is analysed in the course of three meetings, i.e. modules (Petljak Zekic et al., 2013: 14). S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers The first module begins with a theoretical background, the second module involves practical exercises (workshops), while the third module is reserved for the demonstration of practical examples and an exchange of experiences among participants. A learning community is another form of professional education and training, during which teachers meet to exchange their teaching experiences and learn from one another how to improve their teaching practice (Tatkovic, 2016). The participants are required to describe their everyday classroom teaching experiences in relation to research insights related to child development, learning and teaching theories, and similar. In doing so, teachers need to be ready to critically revise their personal knowledge and convictions, to be open and flexible towards other people’s opinions, to be willing to undergo an in-depth analysis of reasons on which their approach to education is based, to have highly developed communication competence, and to know how to apply the maieutic method of systematic examining of all aspects of the analysed experience (Mortari, 2011: 112-113). Strugar (2012: 108) expressed strong criticism of the manner in which topics of professional conferences in Croatia are planned, during which the needs of teachers and projects that are being introduced in the school system are not taken into consideration, and where the topic titles are usually defined on the basis of the affinity of the invited speakers. His criticism probably refers to the traditional concept of professional education and training, which was mostly implemented in the form of lectures, seminars, professional conferences and presentations for a large number of teachers (Petljak Zekic et al., 2013: 12). Gradually, however, a new concept of professional development of teachers is being introduced, in which a teacher is an active and reflective practitioner and researcher of his/her teaching practice. Thus, numerous research studies have shown that reflection and discussion with other teachers about their experiences related to the pursuits of a modern school foster professional development better than reading books or attending lectures (Bognar, B. 2011). A thorough examination of the relevant literature clearly shows that traditional forms of professional education and training, whose purpose is to disseminate instructions about how teaching should be organized on the basis of someone else’s guidelines and examples, without active reflection about them, have still not been abandoned. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Some studies show that the frequency of organizing professional training can contribute to improving the quality of teaching (Javornik Krecic et al., 2015). However, the traditional form of professional training and development combined with the large number of participants at the county and state levels makes it difficult for teachers to actively participate in pedagogical workshops and other forms of communication. Furthermore, useful practical experiences are insufficiently presented in professional conferences and in national and foreign journals. A possible reason for this is that teachers receive insufficient material, emotional and professional support in their school environments to share their education solutions and experiences with others. For this reason, numerous valuable experiences of practitioners remain unknown to a broader pedagogical public (Laneve, 2009). Moreover, there is no basis for building the learning community and learning organization characterised by joint learning, critical questioning and generalization of experiences, continuous development of one’s own potential, openness towards cooperation and new forms of coexistence, equal participation in tasks and obligations, and common values of freedom, autonomy and respect (Tatkovic, N., 2016, Slunjski, 2006, Senge 2003). A learning community refers to a group of people who share common interests and problems and who are building their knowledge and skills in a given area through constant mutual cooperation and communication (Wenger, McDermott, Snyder, 2002, according to Bognar, 2009). We are aware of the fact that active experimentation was not feasible in the traditional model of professional education and training because large numbers of teachers attended professional conferences and plenary lectures which did not require them to actively participate in the work. Hence, in modern models of professional education and training, there is no room for the outdated forms of work. Instead, active involvement of teacher-practitioners is necessary, as well as simulations of educational situations and other forms of experimentation. In order to be competent, teacher-practitioners need to possess three types of knowledge: theoretical knowledge (academic, higher-education knowledge and research results aimed at improving teaching practice); professional knowledge (knowledge acquired through teaching), and practical knowledge (knowledge stemming from reflection on one’s own experience) (Meyer, 2002: 186). S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers Research methodology Introduction to empirical research The starting point for this research is the experiential learning model (Kolb, 1984), which is implemented through four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation, and active experimentation and which, in the author’s opinion, ensures an in-depth approach to learning and understanding of the connection between theoretical concepts and specific practical issues, as well as the development of competences that allow one to integrate declarative, procedural and meta-cognitive knowledge. Kolb and Fry (1975) claim that the learning cycle can begin at any of the four stages, and that the learning process should be approached as a continuous spiral development. Additionally, all four stages of the process need to occur in order for learning to actually take place. Hence, the construction of our measurement instruments stemmed from Kolb’s experiential learning model, which we applied to the professional education and training of teachers. For the purpose of this research, the following pedagogical/didactic meanings were attributed to Kolb’s psychological model: concrete experience refers to the observation of teaching or personal delivery of a teaching unit; reflective observation includes reflection on someone else’s or one’s own practical activity by examining a pedagogical situation from various perspectives; abstract conceptualisation refers to the logical analysis of experience, identification of behaviour patterns, connection with theoretical knowledge, planning and forecasting on the basis of what has been observed; and active experimentation refers to the validation of conclusions drawn from a new pedagogical situation (Vizek Vidovic, editor, 2005: 294-295). Each measurement instrument includes a theoretical construct related to the previously acquired knowledge as the basis for further learning and development of teacher competences through various types of structured professional education and training. Owing to a lack and unavailability of original instruments to meet the needs of this research, an entirely new instrument has been created, adapted to the objectives of this research. We created a questionnaire for the area of professional education and training of teachers, containing 84 items. The items were developed and grouped into scales in accordance with Kolb’s theoretical model of experiential learning. Each questionnaire contained the following scales: REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1. the knowledge acquisition scale, which refers to the acquisition of theoretical knowledge as the basis for further learning and which is not part of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle; 2. the concrete experience scale, which assesses personal experience of observing, planning and implementation of teaching; 3. the reflective observation scale, which refers to reflection during and after one’s own lesson delivery or after having seen someone else deliver a lesson, i.e. videos showing examples of good practice; 4. the abstract conceptualisation scale, which includes items used for the assessment of logical analysis and explanation of various pedagogical situations, connection with theoretical knowledge and anticipation of innovations on the basis of the acquired knowledge and insights; 5. the active experimentation scale, which contains items used in assessing the use of the acquired knowledge and insights in a new pedagogical situation. Using the five-point Likert scale (in which 1 stands for “not at all”, and 5 stands for “completely”), the respondents were asked to assess the extent to which each stage of Kolb’s experiential learning model was present in the scales provided. Each instrument was tested for satisfactory metric characteristics. Sensitivity was tested by means of dispersion measures, and the construct validity was tested by means of factor analysis, while reliability was tested by the internal consistency method – Cronbach's alpha. Internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach's alpha) obtained for each of these scales were rather high, ranging between 0.803 and 0.955. Research procedure For the purpose of conducting a survey among teachers, some of the questionnaires were personally distributed in primary schools in the city of Pula, while others were sent via mail to the towns of Rovinj, Porec, Umag and Buje. We approached the principals, asking for their approval; some of them gladly agreed to cooperate, while others excused their teachers on account of numerous other obligations. The response rate among lower-year teachers in schools whose headmasters agreed to cooperate was not satisfactory, which could be explained by a multitude of reasons, including the complexity and length of the questionnaire, insufficient interest, lack of time, etc. S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers Teacher Sample Table 1: The number of respondents who completed the questionnaire regarding professional education and training of teachers. Measurement Qualification level instrument 1st to 4th year Teachers with a Master of Other (teachers Professional teachers with a university primary teaching Total education and university degree, education specific training of teachers degree specialized in subjects, etc.) questionnaire teaching a specific subject 78 15 6 7 106 A school year in which the teacher works 1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year Subject Total teacher 24 28 21 24 9 106 The study involved a total of 106 teachers of lower grades of primary schools (grades 1 to 4) from Pula, Rovinj, Porec, Umag and Buje in Istria County; 99 of them were female and only 6 were male, while one respondent did not specify his/her answer regarding this demographic variable. The largest number of respondents were 1st to 4th year teachers (6th and 7th education level), making up 73.6% of the overall sample; a considerably smaller number of teachers with a university degree specialized in teaching a specific subject (7th level), while there were very few masters of primary education (7th level), and none with a master’s or doctoral degree in science (Table 1). From the total number of respondents (N=106), the majority were second-grade teachers (N=28); there was an equal representation of the first-and fourth-grade teachers (N=24); and the lowest number of respondents were third-grade teachers (N=21). Also, 9 subject teachers participated in the research, i.e. foreign language teachers or native language teachers. Data processing methods and procedures The research was based on quantitative and qualitative methodology, with specific data processing methods and procedures that will be described later. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION To analyse teachers’ opinions, the authors used the descriptive research method of pedagogical research (Mužic, 2004), combined with survey and opinion assessment, as well as parallel data analysis. Data processing was conducted by means of the SPSS 18.0 programme for statistical analysis. Considering the fundamental experiential learning model and the additional aspect of the necessary basic knowledge, we conducted analyses of the basic stages of the model using groups of items that define the content of each aspect of experiential learning (constructs: knowledge acquisition, concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation, active experimentation). Results of the survey on teacher opinions regarding their professional improvement The factor analysis that was conducted shows that knowledge acquisition in the context of professional education and training of teachers is a multi-dimensional construct. Two factors whose characteristic roots were greater than 1 were singled out (characteristic root for the two singled-out factors: 11.347, 1.878), which explain a total of 60.115% of the scale outcome variance. Considering the size of the coefficient in the pattern matrix shown in Table 2, the first factor was called Familiarity with Developmental Characteristics of Students and Classroom Management (items 1 to 11), while the second was called Familiarity with Didactic/Methodological Aspect of Teaching (items 12 to 22). On the basis of the factor analysis, two eponymous sub-scales were constructed. The highest values (M=3.22) were attributed to the Familiarity with Developmental Characteristics of Students and Classroom Management sub-scale (Table 2), while the lowest standard dispersion (SD=.97) was observed for the item Defining the Possibility of Individualization and Personalization. The lowest arithmetic mean (M=2.61) was observed for the item Defining Strategies for Effective Inclusion of Gifted Students in the Education Process. The item Describing Manners of Classroom Management and Maintaining Classroom Discipline exhibited the highest standard dispersion of results (SD=1.24). S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers Table 2: Factor matrix of the Knowledge acquisition scale in the context of professional education and training of teachers and descriptive statistics for items on the scale. Acquisition of knowledge in the context of professional Factor* M SD education and training of teachers 1 2 1. Defining criteria for identifying gifted and talented children .946 2.839 1.113 2. Defining learning difficulties (dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia) .868 3.094 1.064 3. Defining strategies for effective inclusion of gifted students in the education process .865 2.613 1.199 4. Defining the process of emotional development of students .748 3.103 1.059 5. Describing students with behavioural disorders (students with ADHD, aggressive students, depressive students, etc.) .721 3.217 1.095 6. Describing techniques of classroom management and maintaining classroom discipline .683 2.754 1.248 7. Defining the possibilities for resolving cognitive conflicts of a methodological/didactic nature during the teaching process .681 2.886 1.053 8. Defining the process of social development of students .638 3.141 1.090 9. Defining the possibility of individualization and personalization .629 3.226 .978 10. Defining the terms multiple intelligences and learning styles .580 3.047 1.115 11. Defining the process of intellectual development of students .575 3.217 1.086 12. Defining the possibility of stimulating the development of communication skills .781 3.641 1.025 13. Defining the possibility of using information and communications technology in teaching .771 3.603 .922 14. Defining the basic components of cooperative learning .770 3.311 .959 15. Defining the possibility of intra-subject and inter-subject correlation of the subject content .763 3.877 .836 16. Defining strategies for stimulating linguistic expression and creation .760 3.481 1.006 17. Defining strategies for enhancing reading motivation and development of reading literacy in children .628 3.424 1.086 18. Defining planning and programming of the teaching process focused on the development of competences .611 3.462 .852 19. Defining opportunities for adopting an active approach to learning during the teaching process .595 3.660 .934 20. Defining partnership with parents .549 3.245 1.093 21. Defining opportunities for stimulating critical thinking in children .361 .538 3.509 .968 22. Describing processes and criteria for evaluating student achievements .503 3.490 .928 Factor 1: Familiarity with developmental characteristics of students and classroom management Factor 2: Familiarity with the didactic/methodological aspect of teaching *In order to facilitate interpretation, we have listed the factorial saturations whose absolute value exceeds 0.3. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Based on analysis of the results (Table 2) for the Familiarity with Didactic/Methodological Aspect of Teaching sub-scale, we observe the highest median value (M=3.87) and the lowest standard dispersion of results (SD=1.01) for the item Defining the possibility of intra-subject and inter-subject correlation of the subject content. The lowest median value (M=3.24) and the highest standard dispersion of results (SD=1.09) were identified for the item Defining Partnership with Parents. Based on the results obtained by conducting factor and descriptive statistical analysis, it can be concluded that the acquisition of knowledge in the area of familiarity with developmental characteristics of students and classroom management is less frequently encountered than familiarity with the didactic/methodological aspect of teaching (Table 2). The difference is evident from the lower median values and higher dispersion of results in the first sub-scale in comparison to the second sub-scale. One possible reason for this might be the teachers’ lack of knowledge about how to implement differentiation and personalization of teaching. Recently, there has been growing demand for differentiation and personalization in the education process, owing to increased awareness about significant differences in students’ abilities, learning styles, social background, previously acquired knowledge, attitudes and beliefs. Such a demand, however, justifiably challenges the campaign for standardization of education (Cindric et al., 2010: 234; Strugar, 2012: 114), which opposes the cultivation of unique talents and development of both general and specific competences in students. Furthermore, teachers recognize a lack of classroom management knowledge, probably due to an outdated approach to maintenance of discipline that they adopted during their studies or in the course of their own teaching practice. According to the German author Bueb (2007: 48-49), in the past, students had a moral obligation to demonstrate submission to authority, while in post-modern society, the legitimacy of a teacher’s authority needs to be based on dialogue and recognition of affective and emotional influences on the interpersonal relationships that are forged in the classroom. Therefore, in the past forty years, the approach to maintaining discipline in the classroom has changed, which is further confirmed by the introduction of the term classroom management, which has replaced the former concept of maintenance of discipline (D'Alonzo, 2004: 10-11). S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers The new term is much broader, encompassing the entire organization of work in the classroom and involving numerous factors, including a motivating atmosphere sensitive to the needs of each student, interesting teaching content, active participation of students and their cooperation with teachers, dynamic teaching methods, interesting course materials, sufficient time for learning and a careful selection of conflict resolution procedures (Castoldi et al., 2007: 157-160). Table 3: Factorial matrix of the concrete experience scale in the context of professional education and training of teachers and descriptive statistics of items on the scale Concrete experience in the context of professional education and Factor* M SD training of teachers 1 1. Developing units of learning outcomes in the Science curriculum .886 3.087 1.221 2. Developing units of learning outcomes in the Mathematics .876 3.087 1.213 curriculum 3. Developing units of learning outcomes in the Croatian language .867 3.068 1.254 curriculum 4. Analysis of concrete barriers to learning (insufficient prior .860 2.786 1.072 knowledge, lack of effective learning strategies, etc.) 5. Finding solutions to difficulties, problems and obstacles in various .823 2.990 1.158 teaching situations 6. Analysis of the partnership building process between the school and .822 3.213 1.081 the family 7. Analysis of the possibility to adapt teaching to different learning .792 2.708 1.134 styles and needs of students in a concrete teaching situation 8. Analysis and assessment of objective-type assignments .785 3.291 1.090 9. Developing criteria for assessing student achievements on several .784 3.271 1.077 levels in a given subject area 10. Analysis of different learning styles and individual needs of .763 3.310 .980 students 11. Analysis of the process for resolving concrete teaching situations .760 2.912 1.067 12. Analysis and assessment of students’ written assignments (essay .733 3.019 1.084 questions) 13. Stimulating children’s fantasy and creativity in expressing .705 3.572 .996 emotions, moods and ideas Factor 1: Experience in using didactic/methodological knowledge and insights in teaching * In order to facilitate interpretation, we have listed factorial saturations whose absolute value exceeds 0.3. The factor analysis shows that concrete experience in the context of professional education and training of teachers is a one-dimensional construct. We have singled out one factor whose characteristic root is greater than 1 (characteristic root for the factor: 8.451), which explains a total of 65.006% of the scale outcome variance. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION In the pattern matrix shown in Table 3, this factor was called Experience with Using Didactic/Methodological Knowledge and Insights in Teaching (items 1 to 13). On the basis of the factor analysis, an eponymous scale was constructed. On the basis of the analysis of the results (Table 3), the highest median value (M=3.57) on the Experience with Using Didactic/Methodological Knowledge and Insights in Teaching scale was observed for the item Stimulating Children’s Fantasy and Creativity in Expressing Emotions and Ideas, while the lowest median value (M=2.70) was observed for the item Analysis of the Possibility to Adapt Teaching to Different Learning Styles and Needs of Students in a Concrete Teaching Situation. The highest standard dispersion of results (SD=1.25) was observed for the item Development of Units of Learning Outcomes in the Croatian Language Curriculum, while the lowest standard dispersion was observed for the item Analysis of Different Learning Styles and Individual Needs of Students. Results of the factor analysis and descriptive analysis seem to indicate insufficient concrete experience with structured professional education and training of teachers. Strugar (2012: 108) strongly criticised the planning of professional conference topics, during which the needs of teachers and projects that are being introduced into the education system are not taken into consideration; instead, the topics are usually selected on the basis of affinities of invited speakers. His criticism probably refers to the traditional concept of professional education and training, which was mostly implemented in the form of lectures, seminars, professional conferences and presentations for a large number of teachers (Petljak Zekic et al., 2013: 12). The factor analysis shows that reflexive observation in the context of professional education and training of teachers is a one-dimensional construct. We singled out one factor whose characteristic root is greater than 1 (characteristic root for the factor: 8.348), which explains a total of 59.632% of the scale outcome variance. In the pattern matrix shown in Table 4, this factor was called Reflection on Teaching Practice in the Light of Psychological, Pedagogical and Didactic Insights (items 1 to 14). On the basis of the factor analysis, an eponymous scale was constructed. On the scale Reflection on the Teaching Practice in the Light of Psychological, Pedagogical and Didactic Knowledge and Insights (Table 4), respondents awarded the highest values (M=3.45) to the item called Analysis of School Documentation, while the lowest median value (M=2.35) was observed for the item called Explaining Personal Difficulties Related to Teaching. S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers Table 4: Factorial matrix of the reflective observation scale in the context of professional education and training of teachers and descriptive statistics for items on the scale. Reflective observation in the context of professional education and training of teachers Factor* 1 M SD 1. Explaining personal methodological mistakes in the delivery of classes .849 2.528 1.180 2. Analysis of an educational show or a children’s magazine .821 2.452 1.196 3. Describing one’s actual practical experience and linking it with psychological and pedagogical theoretical postulates .804 2.971 1.064 4. Discussion of emotions caused by experiencing and/or evoking a personal teaching experience .792 2.981 1.112 5. Discussion of modifying planned activities with regard to the lesson plan on the basis of unexpected reactions from students .791 2.849 1.076 6. Explaining personal difficulties encountered in teaching .790 2.358 1.097 7. Explaining applied knowledge from pedagogy, psychology, didactics and methodology in the course of teaching experience .789 2.603 1.247 8. Analysis of personal actions, convictions, values and motives in teaching .768 2.896 1.077 9. Explaining the didactic theories used in the teaching process .764 2.622 1.182 10. Discussion of fears, doubts and difficulties related to teaching .760 3.009 1.091 11. Parallel analysis of the defined and achieved goals and tasks after class delivery .756 3.122 1.110 12. Discussion about experiences from professional education and training (on internet forums, among school staff) .754 3.141 1.116 13. Analysis of class delivery by other teachers (visits to other schools) .716 2.745 1.317 14. Analysis of school documentation (Education Act, Ethical Code, Ordinance on Student Assessment etc.) .634 3.452 .996 Factor 1.: Reflection on teaching practice in the light of psychological, pedagogical and didactic insights *In order to facilitate interpretation, we have listed factorial saturations whose absolute value exceeds 0.3. The range of standard dispersion of results (from SD= .99 to SD= 1.31) indicates rather non-homogeneous assessments attributed to the items of this scale. On the basis of analysis of results obtained by means of factor analysis and descriptive analysis, it can be concluded that the reflection activities are poorly represented in various types of professional education and training of teachers, even though a new concept of professional development of teachers has been gradually introduced, in which the teacher is an active and reflective practitioner and a researcher of his/her teaching practice. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Numerous research studies have shown that reflection and discussion with other teachers about their experiences regarding the pursuits of a modern school foster professional development better than reading books or attending lectures (Bognar, B., 2011, Bilac, Miljkovic, 2017). The results clearly show that traditional forms of professional education and training, whose purpose is to disseminate instruction on how to organize teaching by following someone else’s guidelines and examples without actively reflecting on these, have still not been abandoned. One of the possible reasons for this certainly lies in the large number of participants in professional education and training of teachers on both the county and the national levels, which makes their active participation in pedagogical workshops and other forms of communication difficult. The factor analysis shows that abstract conceptualisation in the context of professional education and training of teachers is a one-dimensional construct. We singled out one factor whose characteristic root is greater than 1 (characteristic root for the factor: 6.737), which explains a total of 67.370% of the scale outcome variance. This factor was called Critical Analysis of the Connection between Theoretical Knowledge in Education and Teaching Practice (items 1 to 10). On the basis of this factor analysis, an eponymous scale was constructed. The analysis of results (Table 5) of the Critical Analysis of the Connection between Theoretical Knowledge in Education and Teaching Practice scale shows that the highest average median value (M=3.15) was attributed to the item Proposing New Approaches to Methodological Issues, while the lowest median value (M=2.49) was attributed to the item Outlining Personal Insights from the Area of Didactics and Methodology in Papers Written for Professional/Scientific Conferences or Pedagogical Journals. The highest standard dispersion of results (SD=1.29) was observed for the item Devising and Proposing Changes for the School of the Future, while the lowest standard dispersion (SD=1.01) was observed for the item Linking the Acquired Knowledge about Teaching Issues to Learning and Teaching Theories. S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers Table 5: Factorial matrix of the abstract conceptualisation scale in the context of professional education and training of teachers and descriptive statistics of the items on the scale. Abstract conceptualisation in the context of professional education and Factor* M SD training of teachers 1 1. Linking the acquired knowledge about teaching issues to learning .881 2.858 1.008 and teaching theories 2. Outlining learning theories on which one teaching activity from .878 2.943 1.102 your own personal experience was based 3.Linking experiential insights to theoretical knowledge about .875 3.037 1.154 methodology of specific subjects 4. Creating proposals for new approaches to methodological issues (e. .839 3.150 1.049 g. use of experiential learning in teaching) 5.Linking concrete didactic issues to didactic theories and models .829 2.839 1.122 6. Discussion about general values, principles and assumptions on .823 3.141 1.072 which education system is based 7. Suggesting solutions for current pedagogical and didactic issues (e. .818 2.924 1.075 g. barriers to communication in the classroom, education crisis etc.) 8. Finding connections between certain factors in the teaching process .813 3.103 1.013 9. Outlining personal insights from the area of didactics and methodology in papers written for professional/scientific .718 2.490 1.205 conferences or pedagogical journals 10. Devising and proposing changes for the school of the future .713 2.783 1.294 Factor 1: Critical analysis of the connection between theoretical knowledge in education and teaching practice * In order to facilitate interpretation, we have listed factorial saturations whose absolute value exceeds 0.3. The data obtained by means of factor and descriptive analysis of this scale show that the abstract conceptualisation activity, i.e. linking theoretical knowledge to teaching practice, is moderately or poorly represented in various types of professional education and training. Furthermore, useful practical experiences are insufficiently represented at conferences, professional presentations and in national or foreign journals. A possible reason for this is the insufficient material, emotional and professional support teachers receive in their school environment, preventing them from sharing their education solutions with others. For this reason, valuable practitioner experiences often remain unknown to the broader pedagogical public. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION A good preparation for stimulating implementation of widely accepted scientific theories and practices adapted to the education context and a search for new paths in education, as well as critical examination and generalization of experiences, can be seen as activities supporting the creation of learning communities (Wenger, McDermott, Snyder, 2002, according to Bognar, 2009). The factor analysis shows that Active experimentation in the context of professional education and training of teachers is a multi-dimensional construct. Two factors were singled out, whose characteristic root is greater than 1 (characteristic root for the two selected factors: 9.747, 1.228), which explains a total of 64.557% of the scale outcome variance. With regard to the size of coefficients in the pattern matrix shown in Table 6, the first factor was called Research Activities in Teaching Practice (items 1 to 9), while the second factor was called Use of New Knowledge and Insights in Teaching Activities (items 10 to 17). On the basis of the factor analysis, two eponymous sub­scales were created. On the Research Activities in Teaching Practice sub-scale (Table 6), respondents attributed the highest average value (M=2.93) to the item called Developing an Additional Instrument for Monitoring Student Progress, while the lowest value (M=2.12) was attributed to the item called Microteaching. The lowest dispersion of results (SD=1.02) with a rather low median value (M=2.40) was observed for the item called Carrying Out Smaller Research Assignments. The lowest dispersion of results (SD=1.12), with a relatively low median value (M=2.62), was observed for the item called Designing Activities for the Cognitive and Socio-Emotional Development of Gifted Students, while the highest dispersion (SD=1.30) was observed for the item called Re-delivery of the Same Teaching Unit. Furthermore, analysis of results (Table 6) for all the items of the Use of New Knowledge and Insights in Teaching Activities sub-scale shows that the highest average median value (M=3.46) was attributed to the item Creating Didactic Games, while the lowest average median value (M=2.79) was attributed to the item Developing a Plan for Establishing Partnership with Parents. S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers Table 6: Factorial matrix of the active experimentation scale in the context of professional education and training of teachers and descriptive statistics for items on the scale. Active experimentation in the context of professional education and training of teachers Factor* 1 2 M SD 1. Microteaching – a short simulation of teaching situations recorded by means of a video-camera and later analysed .985 2.122 1.285 2. Introducing innovations in school practice, based on action research and reflective practice .913 2.603 1.126 3. Conducting action research on concrete teaching issues .853 2.386 1.126 4. Re-delivery of the same teaching unit and introducing new elements .814 2.330 1.307 5. Designing activities for the cognitive and socio-emotional development of gifted students .723 2.622 1.125 6. Planning a stimulating environment for excellence for gifted students .722 2.603 1.135 7. Developing an additional instrument for monitoring student progress (e.g. in the cognitive area, in oral expression etc.) .656 2.934 1.181 8. Identifying gifted and talented children/students by using multi-dimensional models (e.g. Gardner questionnaire) .651 2.547 1.196 9. Introducing new educational activities during winter holidays, in outdoor education programmes, during school trips .526 2.915 1.130 10. Developing one’s own multimedia content .890 3.198 1.260 11. Using techniques that foster divergent and creative thinking .860 3.028 1.073 12. Evaluation and assessment of student essays in accordance with the agreed descriptors .813 3.169 1.182 13. Developing an Ethical Code as an integral part of the subject curriculum .651 2.886 1.149 14. Assessment of one’s own actions during the assessment process on the basis of the defined theoretical guidelines .646 3.075 1.030 15. Development of a plan for achieving partnership with parents .568 2.792 1.255 16. Creating didactic games (for practising logical thinking, improving memory, microspatial orientation etc.) .489 3.462 1.114 17. Defining precise criteria for assessing student knowledge at different levels in accordance with the chosen taxonomy .482 3.056 1.067 Factor 1: Research activities in teaching practice Factor 2: Use of new knowledge and insights in teaching activities * In order to facilitate interpretation, we have listed factorial saturations whose absolute values exceed 0.3. The highest dispersion of results (SD=1.26) was observed for the item Developing One’s Own Multimedia Content, while the lowest dispersion of results (SD=1.03) was observed for the item Assessment of One’s Own Actions. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The results obtained by means of factor analysis and descriptive analysis of both sub-scales (Table 6) show that active experimentation in the context of professional education and training of teachers is poorly or moderately present. We are aware of the fact that active experimentation was not feasible in the traditional model of professional education and training because a large number of teachers attended professional conferences and plenary lectures, without having to actively participate. However, in modern forms of professional education and training, there is no room for outdated methods. Instead, more emphasis should be placed on active involvement of teacher-practitioners, simulation of education situations and other forms of experimentation, thus developing competences for active participation among all participants. Table 7: Descriptive statistics, symmetricity, kurtosis and reliability of scales and sub-scales (Professional education and training of teachers). Titles of scales and sub-scales N M SD S K Cronbach alpha iringledge1.a Familiarity with developmental characteristics 106 of students and classroom management 3.012 .864 .207 -.764 .937 Acquknow1.b Familiarity with didactic/methodological 106 aspect of teaching 3.518 .722 -.218 -.487 .920 Concrete experien2. Experience in using didactic/methodological 103 knowledge and insights in teaching 3.101 .874 -.279 -.380 .955 Reflectobserv3. Reflection on teaching practice in the light of 106 psychological, pedagogical and didactic insights 2.838 .980 -.093 -.420 .947 Abstr.concep.4. Critical analysis of connection between theoretical knowledge in education and teaching 106 2.927 .906 -.049 -.710 .944 practice vem.5.a Research activities in teaching practice 106 2.562 .980 .255 -.729 .943 Actiexperi5.b Use of new knowledge and insights in teaching 106 activities 3.083 .865 .035 -.557 .893 Since the questionnaire was created for the purpose of this study, the reliability of each scale and sub-scale was tested. It was established that all of them have satisfactory reliability coefficients demonstrating internal consistency, with Cronbach alpha coefficients ranging between .89 (a = .893) and .95 (a = .955). S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers To get a clearer image of average results obtained for each scale and sub-scale, we conducted a factor reduction and calculated the descriptive statistics, symmetricity and kurtosis (Table 7). The highest average and relatively homogeneous result (M=3.51; SD=.72) with a negative kurtosis (K=-.764) was obtained for the Familiarity with Didactic/Methodological Aspect of Teaching sub-scale. The lowest average value (M=2.56) and negative kurtosis (K=-.729) can be observed on the Research Activities in Teaching Practice sub-scale. The highest dispersion of results (SD=.98) was achieved in Reflection on Teaching Practice and Research Activities in Teaching Practice sub-scales. According to this data, it can be concluded that reflective and research activities are poorly or moderately present in the professional education and training of teachers. Therefore, these results based on respondents’ answers are an indicator of teachers’ dissatisfaction with this type of professional education and training, which does not contribute to their professional development in a satisfactory manner. The three types of knowledge necessary for competent work of teachers are theoretical knowledge (academic, higher education knowledge and research results whose function is to improve teaching practice); professional knowledge (knowledge acquired through teaching); and practical knowledge (knowledge based on the reflection on one’s own experience) (Meyer, 2002: 186). In respondents’ professional education and training, the least emphasis is placed on the development of teachers’ research and reflective abilities. Correlations between all scales and sub-scales (Table 8) are positive and statistically significant, whereby the highest degree of positive correlation (r=.866; p.0.01) was observed between the scales Experience in Using Didactic/Methodological Knowledge and Insights in Teaching and Reflection on Teaching Practice; followed by the correlation between the scale Reflection on Teaching Practice (r=.857; p.0.01) and the sub-scale Research Activities in Teaching Practice, as well as between the scale Reflection on Teaching Practice (r=.833; p.0.01) and the sub­scale Use of New Knowledge and Insights in Teaching Activities. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Table 8: Correlations between scales and sub-scales of the Professional education and training of teachers questionnaire. Correlations between scales and sub-scales Titles of scales and sub-scales 1.a 1.b 2. 3. 4. 5.a 5.b 1.a Familiarity with developmental characteristics of students and classroom 1 management 1.b Familiarity with didactic/methodological .745** 1 aspect of teaching 2. Experience in using didactic/methodological knowledge and .801** .820** 1 insights in teaching 3. Reflection on teaching practice in the light of psychological, pedagogical and .725** .712** .866** 1 didactic knowledge and insights 4. Critical analysis of the connection between theoretical knowledge in .714** .601** .801** .796** 1 education and teaching practice 5.a Research activities in teaching practice .715** .535** .793** .857** .774** 1 5.b Use of new knowledge and insights in .731** .694** .777** .833** .751** .789** teaching activities ** p.0.01 The degree of correlation indicates that respondents do not distinguish between these constructs and that these should be revised and more clearly differentiated. The difficulty in developing those constructs stems from the choice of topics and manner of delivering professional education and training, which are limited by the number of participants and the time available for the delivery of planned activities. Conclusions On the basis of the study conducted among teachers in Istria County, we have obtained concrete indicators about the presence and integration of theoretical and practical components in structured types of professional education and training. On the basis of the statistical results, it can be concluded that theoretical components are the most frequently encountered in professional education and training, i.e. memorizing and explaining factual and conceptual knowledge. S. Mocinic & S. Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers Moderate and low median values indicate that there is a relatively low presence of concrete experience, poor linking of theory to practice and insufficient practical application of the new knowledge and insights acquired. Teachers’ answers indicate dissatisfaction with the number of activities focused on their reflection on teaching and learning in the light of theoretical knowledge and insights, linking theory to practice, stimulating research activity in teaching practice, and using new knowledge and insights in teaching. The results show that a teacher’s expertise is still not sufficiently valorised to be used for stimulating action research and active participation at professional and scientific conferences. It can also be concluded that traditional types of professional education and training, whose purpose is to disseminate instructions on how to organize teaching by implementing guidelines provided by scientific experts, have still not been abandoned in favour of outlining examples of good practice and reflecting on them, or in favour of using new knowledge and insights in experimental-type workshops. We hope and believe that the situation is different in other counties in the Republic of Croatia, as this research included only teachers from Istria County. References Agencija za odgoj i obrazovanje (2014). Strategija strucnog usavršavanja za profesionalni razvoj odgojno-obrazovnih radnika (2014 – 2020). Retrieved from https://www.azoo.hr/imag­es/pkssuor/Strategija_HR2-Final.pdf (Accessed: 20. 3. 2019). Bilac S., and Miljkovic D. (2017). Model refleksivne prakse – ucinkovit nacin strucnoga usavršavanja u podrucju upravljanja razredom, ACTA Iadertina 14(2), 53–72 Bilac, S., and Tavas, D. 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Tatkovic: Using Kolb's Learning Model in Structured Types of Professional Education and Training for Teachers Authors Snježana Mocinic, PhD Assistant Professor, Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Palisina 6, 52100 Pula, Croatia, e-mail: smocinic@unipu.hr Docentka, Univerza Jurja Dobrile u Puli, Fakulteta za vzgojne in izobraževalne znanosti, Palisina 6, 52100 Pula, Hrvaška, e-pošta: smocinic@unipu.hr Sanja Tatkovic, MSc Research Assistant, Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Zagrebacka 30, 52100 Pula, Croatia, statkovic@gmail.com Asistentka, Univerza Jurja Dobrile u Puli, Fakulteta za vzgojne in izobraževalne znanosti, Zagrebacka 30, 52100 Pula, Hrvaška, e-pošta: statkovic@unipu.hr REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 435–459, December 2021 Potrjeno/Accepted 10. 7. 2020 Objavljeno/Published 10. 12. 2001 Kljucne besede: Slovenci v zamejstvu, osnovna in srednja šola, kurikuli, analiticen pregled, izboljšave. Keywords: Slovenians in neighbouring countries, primary and secondary school, curricula, analytical review, improvements. UDK/UDC 37.016:323.15(=163.6) SLOVENSKO ZAMEJSTVO KOT VSEBINE KURIKULA OSNOVNIH IN SREDNJIH ŠOL V SLOVENIJI LUCIJA COK Znanstveno-raziskovalno središce Koper, Slovenija KORESPONDENCNI AVTOR/CORRESPONDING AUTHOR lucija.cok@zrs-kp.si Izvlecek/Abstract Slovenci v zamejstvu kot avtohtona manjšina živijo v obmejnih obmocjih Italije, Avstrije, Madžarske in Hrvaške. Skupni evropski prostor jim omogoca razvoj kulturnega prostora z daljnosežnimi implikacijami. Analiticen pregled obravnave slovenskega zamejstva skozi prizmo vsebin, ki jo dolocajo ucni nacrti osnovnih in srednjih šol, dejansko izkazuje navzocnost njim namenjene tematike. Raziskovalci so pregledali vsebine osnovnošolskega in srednješolskega kurikula in ucbenikov, s pomocjo posebnega vprašalnika za ucence, dijake in javnost pa pridobili védenja o dejanskem stanju v šolski praksi. Po obdelavi kvantitativnih podatkov in posvetovalnih srecanjih s strokovnjaki so izdelali predloge sprememb ucnih nacrtov in izboljšav osnovnošolskega in srednješolskega kurikula. Slovenes in Neighbouring Countries as Part of the Curriculum in Primary and Secondary Schools in Slovenia Slovenes live as an autochthonous minority in neighbouring countries of Italy, Austria, Hungary and Croatia. The common European space allows them to develop a cultural area with far-reaching implications. An analytical review of Slovenian minorities through the content of curricula of primary and secondary schools examined the presence of topics related to them. Researchers that analysed the school curricula and textbooks with a special questionnaire for pupils, students and general population assessed the current situation in school practice. Following the processing of quantitative data and consultation meetings with experts changes and additions to the curricula of primary and secondary schools were proposed. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.14.4.435-459.2021 Besedilo / Text © 2021 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobcitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Temeljna izhodišca raziskave Ciljni projekt z naslovom Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji, ki ga je izvajalo troje inštitutov (Znanstveno-raziskovalno središce Koper, Inštitut za narodnostna vprašanja v Ljubljani in Slovenski raziskovalni inštitut v Trstu), je izhodišca raziskave znotraj naslovne tematike in dolocanje podobe Slovencev zunaj njenih meja v percepciji državljanov Slovenije zasnoval na dolocilih pravnih dokumentov ter na konceptu enotnega slovenskega kulturnega prostora. Omenjeni koncept je bil v sedemdesetih in osemdesetih letih 20. stoletja pogosto predmet živahne razprave (Peršak, 1984). Enotni kulturni prostor je obstajal od zmeraj povsod: … kjer živijo Slovenci, ki so še Slovenci, in ki predvsem to hocejo biti. Kulturni prostor je najbrž povsod, kjer nastaja kultura, ki jo mislimo tu v ožjem pomenu besede, ne kot celoto materialnih in nematerialnih (duhovnih) stvaritev dolocene družbe, temvec zlasti kot celoto duhovnih stvaritev (umetnost, znanost, filozofija itd.). Ce govorimo o slovenskem kulturnem prostoru, mislimo s tem na prostor, kjer nastaja kultura, ki jo opredeljuje pridevnik »slovenski«, torej kultura, ki je posebna po svoji slovenskosti, po svoji nacionalni znacilnosti, kar pomeni tudi poseben nacin odzivanja na vse drugorodno (zapisal sem odzivanja in ne odklanjanja!), in ki demokraticno vkljucuje vse, kar kulturnega nastaja znotraj slovenskega, ne glede na idejne posebnosti. Ce dodamo še pridevnik »enoten«, ocitno predpostavljamo enotnost znotraj slovenskega in ne kakšno drugo enotnost (Peršak, 1984, 842). Po osamosvojitvi Slovenije ta besedna zveza ni prepricala politicne elite oz. ji je ta le obcasno namenjala doloceno pozornost, saj naj ne bi zajemala Slovencev v diaspori oziroma v prostorih, v katerih živijo in so oddaljeni od obmejnih prostorov s slovensko državo. Temelje manjšinskega vprašanja, ki ga združena Evropa ureja v okviru izobraževalnih in kulturnih politik, postavlja tudi slovenska zakonodaja, vendar ureja predvsem posebne pravice avtohtonih narodnosti. Enoten slovenski kulturni prostor opredeljuje Zakon o odnosih RS s Slovenci zunaj njenih meja (ZORSSZNM, 2010) v svojem 6. clenu kot nalogo, ki naj uresnicuje enega temeljnih ciljev Republike Slovenije. Definira ga kot koncept o uresnicevanju in utrjevanju slovenstva, h kateremu so poklicane vse kulturne ter politicne strukture v Sloveniji in zamejstvu. Obmocja sosednjih držav, na katerih živijo slovenske avtohtone manjšine, je kot skupni slovenski kulturni prostor opredelila tudi Resolucija o položaju slovenskih avtohtonih manjšin v sosednjih državah in s tem povezanimi nalogami državnih in drugih dejavnikov RS (1996). L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Idejo o skupnem slovenskem kulturnem prostoru omenjajo še razni drugi podzakonski akti, nacionalne resolucije in strategije. Ob tem velja izpostaviti, da slovenska manjšina predstavlja del slovenskega narodnega telesa in v skupnem evropskem prostoru omogoca razvoj skupnega slovenskega kulturnega prostora z daljnosežnimi implikacijami na podrocjih kolektivne slovenske identitete in prepoznavnosti, medsosedskih in meddržavnih politik, ekonomskega razvoja in drugega. Slovenci v zamejstvu kot avtohtona manjšina živijo na vseh štirih obmejnih obmocjih, in sicer koroški in štajerski Slovenci v Avstriji, primorski Slovenci na Tržaškem, goriški, kanalski, Beneški, Slovenci in Rezijani v Italiji, porabski Slovenci na Madžarskem ter istrski, reški, žumberški, zagorski in medmurski na Hrvaškem. V vecini imajo tudi status uradno priznane manjšine. Po podatkih na spletni strani Urada za Slovence v zamejstvu in po svetu je v zamejstvu (brez Hrvaške) okoli 130.000 Slovencev. Ocena je nezanesljiva, kajti v statisticnih virih (na osnovi popisa prebivalstva 2011) je podatek za Slovence v Italiji 51.000 (Bufon, 2019, str. 121) in ne 80.000 kot pravi spletni vir. V zavesti 'maticnih' Slovencev na splošno so neprisotni in neprepoznani. Njihovo zapostavljenost je zaslediti tako v medijih, politicnem diskurzu, kulturnem življenju kot tudi v raziskovalni sferi. Še posebno to velja za Slovence na Hrvaškem, katerih problematika je manj prisotna tako v javnosti kot v politiki, posledicno je zanjo manj raziskovalnega interesa. Cetudi je na temo Slovencev v zamejstvu v ideološkem, politicnem in ekonomskem smislu posvecenega kar nekaj zanimanja, pa je bilo doslej opaziti zelo malo pozornosti, namenjene ožji prezentaciji Slovencev v zamejstvu v ucnih gradivih slovenskih ucencev in dijakov. Na spletu lahko najdemo predvsem zakljucna diplomska dela (Herakovic, K. 2009, Koncut, A. 2015) ali elaborat J. Stergarja (1987). Namen, cilji in metodologija raziskovalnega dela Analiticen pregled udejanjanja obravnave slovenskega zamejstva v sosednjih državah skozi prizmo vsebin, ki jo dolocajo ucni nacrti v drugem in tretjem obdobju osnovne šole ter v srednji šoli, je osnova, na kateri raziskovalni rezultati prikazujejo dejansko stanje. Pricakovati je namrec, da znanje o zamejskih Slovencih od osnovne šole do univerze utrjuje zavest Slovencev, da se slovenski kulturni, gospodarski in družbeni prostor ne zakljucuje na državnih mejah Slovenije. Ob tem je tudi pomembno vedeti, koliko teh vsebin si ucenci in dijaki v resnici uzavestijo ter pripraviti pregled stališc javnosti do te tematike in s podatki iz razlicnih virov zagotoviti celovitejši vpogled v preucevani problem. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Cilji raziskave so bili naslednji: 1. Preuciti trenutno navzocnost zamejske tematike v kurikulu (ucnih nacrtih in ucbenikih ter njihovo dejansko izvajanje te tematike); 2. preuciti posredni vpliv obstojecih ucnih nacrtov na poznavanje zamejske tematike med populacijo v osnovnih in srednjih šolah; 3. analizirati stopnjo poznavanja omenjene tematike med populacijo drugega in tretjega obdobja osnovne šole in vseh letnikov srednje šole ter v javnosti; 4. na osnovi podatkov pripraviti vsebinsko zasnovo za dopolnitev vsebin v ucnih nacrtih s predmetnimi vsebinami, ki obravnavajo tematiko slovenskega zamejstva; 5. predstaviti predlagan nabor sprememb ucnih nacrtov z zamejsko tematiko v osnovnih in srednjih šolah Slovenije izbrani strokovni javnosti. Raziskovalno delo je sledilo metodologiji deskriptivne analize vsebin osnovnošolskega in srednješolskega kurikula in ucbenikov, ki vkljucujejo podatke, predstavitve in zgodovinske sklice, geostrateška dejstva in družbeno-pedagoške interpretacije, identitetne, kulturne in druge posebnosti o Slovencih v zamejstvu. Z deskriptivno analizo virov, primerjalno analizo anketiranja vzorca, vodenim intervjujem in s kvantitativno in kvalitativno obdelavo ter interpretacijo podatkov je raziskovalna skupina (Bufon, M., Cok, L., Cok, T., Grafenaver, D., Lenarcic, B., Medaric, Z., Nemac, K., Riman, B., Sedmak, M., Smotlak, M., in Zadel, M.) dejansko ugotavila, v kolikšni meri šolska in deloma tudi splošna javnost poznata in uzavešcata zamejsko problematiko ter kakšen je njun odnos do nje. Raziskovalci so najprej opravili analizo vsebin osnovno-in srednješolskih kurikulov ter ucbenikov z izbrano predmetno vsebino. Na osnovi ciljev iz objavljenih veljavnih ucnih nacrtov za osnovno šolo in njim pripadajocih ucbenikov iz kataloga MIZŠ Trubar (2019) so ugotavljali posredno izvajanje nacrtovanih vsebin. V delovnih sklopih 1 in 2 (september 2018–februar 2019) je raziskovalna skupina ugotovila navzocnost zamejske tematike v ucnih nacrtih in v ucbenikih ter s tem v zvezi je z vodenimi intervjuji z ucitelji preverila njihovo dejansko izvajanje. Metodologija zbiranja podatkov se je opirala na ciljne vsebine ucnih nacrtov in ucbenikov na vzorcu osnovnih šol s slovenskim jezikom, šol z italijanskim jezikom v Slovenski Istri, dvojezicnih osnovnih in srednjih šol v Prekmurju in vzorcu šol v južnem obmejnem pasu s Hrvaško pri izbranih predmetih: slovenšcina kot prvi in kot drugi jezik, zgodovina, geografija, domovinska in državljanska kultura in etika, glasbena umetnost ter družba v osnovni šoli. L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Zbiranje podatkov predmetnih vsebin za srednjo šolo (splošna in strokovna gimnazija) istih obmocij se ni bistveno razlikovalo od zbiranja podatkov za osnovno šolo. Poleg naštetih predmetov so raziskovalci pregledali še ucne nacrte in ucbenike za družboslovje, sociologijo ter dodatni program priprave na maturo. Za projekt pomembne podatke so uvrstili v tabelo pricakovanih ciljev, postavljenih na osnovi smernic in dolocil Zakona o odnosih Republike Slovenije s Slovenci zunaj njenih meja, preoblikovanih za pedagoško uporabo. Da bi se približali ciljem ucnih nacrtov ter ugotovili njihovo ekvivalenco v ucbenikih smo jih v postopkih združevanja podatkov razdelili v kognitivne in konativne. Projektni/pricakovani cilji so bili naslednji: a) Kognitivni cilji Ucenci/ucenke: -spoznavajo razlicnost prebivalstva Slovenije kot maticne domovine (narodne manjšine, priseljenci); -spoznavajo osnovna dejstva o Slovencih v zamejstvu in po svetu; -spoznavajo izobraževalne in kulturne ustanove Slovencev v zamejstvu; -znajo predstaviti zgodovinske danosti Slovencev v zamejstvu; -znajo predstaviti družbene in politicne razsežnosti Slovencev v zamejstvu; -znajo predstaviti kulturne danosti in dosežke Slovencev v zamejstvu; -interdisciplinarno povezujejo informacije o Slovencih v zamejstvu: jezik, zgodovina, književnost, geografija, družba itd.; -nacrtujejo dejavnosti, raziskave za poglabljanje vedenja in poznavanja Slovencev v zamejstvu; -nacrtujejo srecanja z vidnimi predstavniki Slovencev v zamejstvu z razlicnih podrocij (kultura, gospodarstvo itd.); -prepoznavajo prednosti in pomanjkljivosti položaja zamejskih Slovencev v državi prebivanja (v izobraževanju, kulturi, družbi). b) Konativni cilji Ucenci/ucenke: -spoznajo posebnosti slovenskega jezika v zamejstvu, identiteto in kulturo; -spoznavajo specificne vrednote povezovanja ljudi na narodnostno mešanih ozemljih; -analizirajo posledice mejnega vprašanja sosedskih držav; -poznajo skupni kulturni prostor kot koncept in njegovo dejansko dojemanje; -spremljajo sodelovanje maticne države Slovenije s Slovenci v zamejstvu. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Sledilo je anketiranje šolske populacije, izvedeno med 15. marcem in 20. junijem 2019. Iz povezav splošnih ciljev osnovno-in srednješolskega izobraževanja s specificnimi cilji, s katerimi šole v jezikovno in etnicno mešanem okolju prispevajo k socializaciji ter k ohranjanju identitete in razvijanju izvornega jezika slovenske narodnostne skupnosti zunaj maticnega ozemlja, je bilo mogoce sklepati, ali so ucenci osnovnih šol in dijaki srednjih šol ozavešceni ter pouceni o posebnostih slovenskega narodnega telesa in zamejskih Slovencev. S pomocjo posebnega vprašalnika, s katerim so na osnovi podatkov kombiniranega kvantitativnega (zaprta vprašanja) in kvalitativnega raziskovanja (kvantifikacija in interpretacija stališc in znanj) raziskovalci pridobili védenja o dejanskem stanju pri izvedbi predmetnih vsebin z zamejsko tematiko, so izpostavili prednosti in primanjkljaje njihove izvedbe pri pouku. Zbiranje podatkov je potekalo s spletnim (CAWI – ang. computer-assisted web interviewing) racunalniško podprtim anketiranjem. V raziskavi je sodelovalo 449 osnovnošolcev (48,6 % ucencev in 51,4 % ucenk) in 237 srednješolcev (40,1 % dijakov in 59,9 % dijakinj). Ucenci, ki so sodelovali v raziskavi, so obiskovali peti (47,9 %) in osmi razred (52,1 %), dijaki so obiskovali prvi (47,3 %) in tretji letnik (52,7 %). Za potrebe telefonskega anketiranja javnosti je Center za ugotavljanje javnega mnenja Znanstveno-raziskovalnega središca Koper uporabil dvostopenjski nakljucni vzorec, stratificiran na osnovi regijske strukture. Osnova vzorcenja je bil telefonski imenik Slovenije, iz katerega so bila nakljucno izbrana gospodinjstva celotne Slovenije. Anketiranje je potekalo s telefonskim (CATI – ang. computer-assisted telephone interviewing) racunalniško podprtim anketiranjem. V raziskavi je sodelovalo 629 posameznikov, in sicer 40,1 % moških in 59,9 % žensk. Sodelujoci so se locevali po starosti, in sicer: 26,9 % starih med 62 in 72 let ali vec, 18,6 % med 51 in 61 let, 15,6 % med 40 in 50 let, 14,4 % med 29 in 39 let ter 3,8 % med 18 in 28 let. Da bi lahko preucili posredni vpliv obstojecih ucnih nacrtov na poznavanje zamejske tematike med populacijo v osnovnih in srednjih šolah, je bilo s pomocjo posebnega vprašalnika vkljucenih dvajset uciteljev. Z interpretacijo podatkov polstrukturiranega vodenega intervju je bilo pridobljeno zavedanje uciteljev o dejanskem stanju pri izvedbi predmetnih vsebin s to tematiko ter so bile izpostavljene prednosti in primanjkljaji njihove izvedbe. Za natancnejše védenje o tej izvedbi v ucnih nacrtih in ucbenikih so sodelovali ucitelji šestih osnovnih in šestih srednjih šol vseh regij Slovenije. Ucitelji slovenšcine, zgodovine, geografije, družbe, in sociologije so prostovoljno pristopili k intervjuju, ki je obsegal: L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji -vprašanja, povezana z ucnimi nacrti in ucbeniki dolocenega predmeta, -splošna odprta vprašanja (pomembnost tematike podrocja glede na vsebine ucnih nacrtov, elementi teh vsebin, možnosti izboljšav), -specificna vprašanja glede na predmetno podrocje. Na principu interpretativne raziskovalne metodologije so po koncanem terenskem delu raziskovalci preucili kvalitativne podatke in jih primerjali z obdelavo kvantitativnih podatkov. Po temeljiti analizi podatkov, pridobljenih v posameznih fazah projekta, so izdelali predloge dopolnil k ucnim nacrtom in dodatkov k osnovnošolskemu in srednješolskemu kurikulu. Na strokovni in utemeljen nacin so pripravili predloge za izboljšanje in uveljavitev védenja o zamejskih Slovencih in o pomenu prepoznavanja dejstev glede raziskovalne teme pri osnovno-in srednješolski mladini. Interpretacija podatkov z diskusijo Preslikava ciljev in vsebin ucnih nacrtov izbranih predmetnih vsebin v njim pripadajocih ucbenikih Raziskovalci so si razdelili predmetna podrocja, in sicer: slovenski jezik: Cok L., Cok, T., Smotlak, M.; zgodovina: Riman, B.; geografija: Bufon, M., Nemac, K.; dvojezicno šolstvo: Grafenauer, D.; družba, domovinska in državljanska kultura in etika, glasbena umetnost: Lenarcic, B.; sociologija: Sedmak, M. Na osnovi analize pridobljenih podatkov so ugotavljali posredno izvajanje nacrtovanih vsebin tudi v luci projektnih ciljev, saj so želeli pridobiti širšo sliko obravnave podrocja. Poznavanje zamejskih vsebin naj ne bi ucenci pridobili le s pomnjenjem podatkov znotraj posameznega predmeta, temvec tudi z medpredmetnim povezovanjem védenj in znanj, z izkušenjskim ucenjem v stikih z zamejstvom in širšim pogledom na manjšinsko problematiko. Ob vsakem cilju, katerega namembnost so raziskovalci prepoznali v ucbeniku, so vpisali tudi nacin obravnave posamezne ciljne vsebine, in sicer z 0, kadar vsebine ni bilo, z 1, kadar je bila podana le podatkovna vsebina, z 2, ce je obravnava bila tudi obrazložena, in s 3, kadar so za dosego cilja bile predlagane dejavnosti (naloge, raziskave) za poglabljanje védenj in znanj. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Slovenski jezik kot J1 in J2 Raziskovalci so slovenski jezik v osnovni šoli analizirali kot prvi jezik in ucni predmet ter kot drugi jezik. Ucni cilji in vsebine v ucbenikih slovenšcine v šolah s slovenskim jezikom so pomanjkljivi v informativnem smislu (kognitivni cilji), kajti ucenci ne poznajo dovolj razsežnosti poselitve Slovencev v zamejstvu, njihovih izobraževalnih in kulturnih ustanov, smiselno ne nacrtujejo medpredmetnega povezovanja védenj o zamejstvu (jezik in književnost, družba, zgodovina, geografija) in ne nacrtujejo oblik neposrednih stikov s Slovenci v zamejstvu ali njihovimi organizacijami (šole, društva idr.). Vzgojna vsebina o slovenskem zamejstvu (konativni cilji) je tudi skromna ali povsem izpušcena. Še skromnejša je prisotnost teh vsebin v ucnih nacrtih in ucbenikih za slovenski jezik kot drugi jezik v šolah z italijanskim ucnim jezikom. Ucna nacrta za 8. in 9. razred teh šol Slovence v zamejstvu le omenjata. Ucitelji uporabljajo ucbenike za slovenski jezik kot prvi jezik, vendar priredijo cilje na nižjo raven težavnosti. Med predlogi raziskovalcev za dopolnitev ucnih nacrtov slovenšcine kot prvega jezika v osnovni šoli je predvsem spoznavanje enotnega slovenskega kulturnega prostora v vec razsežnostih (šolstvo, književnost, kulturna in družbena dejavnost) ter interdisciplinarno povezovanje predmetnih vsebin. Ob poglobljenem vedenju o rabi in funkcionalni prisotnosti slovenskega jezika v zamejstvu bi ucenci razvili motivacijo za zahtevnejše vsebine (kulturne, jezikovne, družbene in politicne razsežnosti zamejskega prostora). Obmejna slovensko-italijanska in slovensko­madžarska obmocja, dvojezicna po definiciji, so še posebej laboratorij povezovanja in sobivanja, oboje pa je mogoce uresnicevati tudi v neposrednem stiku in izobraževanju. Ucence višjih razredov osnovne šole je mogoce pritegniti k razmišljanju o slovenstvu v širšem smislu, zacenši z zamejskimi Slovenci v sosednjih državah. Poznavanje narodnostnih etnicnih skupnosti v mejnih prostorih je za vecinsko skupnost nujna, manjšinski skupnosti pa omogoca boljše razumevanje lastnega statusa in bivanja. Nujno bi bilo vsaj v zadnjem razredu osnovne šole z italijanskim jezikom, kjer se sicer seznanijo o razširjenosti maticnega jezika zunaj meja, nameniti Slovencem zunaj maticne domovine nekaj prostora. Dolgoletno raziskovanje, oblikovanje specialne didaktike slovenšcine kot drugega jezika in usposabljanje uciteljev, dejavnosti pedagoških visokih šol in raziskovalnih inštitutov bi morali ponuditi tudi ucbenike slovenšcine kot J2, ki ne morejo biti enaki ucbenikom slovenšcine kot J1. L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Ucbeniki za slovenski jezik v srednji šoli sicer vkljucujejo informacije o zamejskih Slovencih in predstavljajo raznolikost domacega prostora s posebnimi poudarki na avtohtonih manjšinah, vendar so te vsebine podane bežno in predvsem podatkovno. Spoznavanje književnosti zamejskih ustvarjalcev je skromno, saj manjkajo najsodobnejša in najbolj znana dela zamejskih piscev (npr. Borisa Pahorja). Predstavitev geografsko-zgodovinskih dejstev iz zgodnjega obdobja, povezanih z naselitvijo Slovencev in razvojem slovenšcine v cetrtem letniku, bi lahko šteli kot medpredmetno povezovanje. Vsebina je posvecena predstavitvam razlicnih rokopisov (Starogorskega, Cedajskega, Videmskega) in raznih narecij. Ucni nacrt in ucbeniki, ki se uporabljajo pri pouku slovenšcine kot drugega jezika v srednjih šolah z italijanskim jezikom, so enaki ucbenikom, ki so v uporabi pri predmetu slovenšcina kot prvi jezik v šolah s slovenskim jezikom. Prilagojeni ucni nacrti za slovenšcino v dvojezicnih šolah v Prekmurju in njim pripadajoci ucbeniki redko vsebujejo cilje, ki bi bili neposredno povezani s porabskimi Slovenci. Poseben sklop vsebin, posvecen zamejski književnosti in književnosti Slovencev po svetu ter povezovanju zgodovinskega védenja z njihovim ustvarjanjem, predstavlja širšo razsežnost razumevanja slovenstva na sploh. Zato je nujno nameniti nacionalnim manjšinam kot razširjenemu pojavu v svetu ter slovenski diaspori nekaj prostora v ucnih nacrtih slovenšcine kot prvega in drugega jezika. Umešcanje narodov in narodnostnih manjšin v svetovni in evropski prostor pospeši razumevanje preteklega in aktualnega dogajanja v svetu ter prepoznavanje razlicnih identitet in razumevanje drugosti in drugacnosti. Zgodovina Pri pouku zgodovine v osnovnih šolah se tematiki Slovencev v sosednjih deželah namenja sorazmerno malo prostora, vendar lahko trdimo, da je vsebinam, povezanim s Slovenci v Avstriji in Italiji, namenjeno vec pozornosti v ucbenikih, kot Slovencem v Porabju. Slovenci na Hrvaškem kot avtohtona skupnost pa so v ucbenikih komaj zajeti. Ne ucni nacrti ne ucbeniki ne vkljucujejo nekaterih višjih kognitivnih ciljev, prav tako ne vkljucujejo konativnih ciljev, ki so jih raziskovalci opredelili kot pomembne. Pri pregledu izbranih predmetnih vsebin je bilo ugotovljeno, da se cilji v ucnih nacrtih osnovne šole pogosto ne preslikavajo v vsebinah, ki bi jih z ucbeniki omogocili doseci. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Ce bi tematika slovenstva v sosednjih državah bila nekoliko širše zastavljena, bi postopoma razvijali pri ucencih vpogled v zgodovino širšega slovenskega prostora; poleg tega bi primerjalna analiza omogocala spoznavanje položaja slovenske skupnosti v Italiji, Avstriji, na Madžarskem in Hrvaškem. Raziskovalci ob tem še ugotavljajo, kako pomembno bi bilo posvetiti posebno ucno enoto o zgodovini in položaju Slovencev v sosednjih državah v 9. razredu osnovne šole (kronološki pregled), s cimer bi ucenci dosegli višje ravni znanj, kar je za razvoj zgodovinskega mišljenja nujno. Zaradi specificnosti dvojezicne osnovne šole v Prekmurju je v ucnih nacrtih za zgodovino v teh šolah poudarek na spoštovanju razlicnih kultur ter na pomenu spodbujanja strpnosti do razlicnih kultur in medkulturnega sodelovanja. Ucenci se seznanijo s problematiko slovenskih meja po prvi svetovni vojni, porabskimi Slovenci in Slovenci na Koroškem, v Julijski krajini in Porabju v zelo omejenem obsegu. Problematika Slovencev na Hrvaškem ni omenjena. Zaradi specificnega razvoja slovenskega naroda in zgodovine, ki je pustila po letu 1920 precejšen del narodnega telesa izven Slovenije, je treba še posebej s primernim pristopom k zgodovinskim dejstvom vzgajati zavedanje o slovenstvu in Slovencih zunaj državnih meja. Analiza ucnih nacrtov in ucbenikov za zgodovino v srednji šoli ne daje bistveno drugacnih ugotovitev, kot smo jih predstavili za osnovno šolo. Poleg tega ucitelji v cetrtem letniku gimnazij ugotavljajo, da v obsegu ur, ki so jim na voljo za predmet, zmanjka casa za obravnavo zgodovinskih danosti po letu 1991. Prav to obdobje je na primer za Slovence na Hrvaškem pomembno. Ker v ucbenikih vsebin ni, si morajo pripravljati dodatna gradiva, vendar imajo težave pri pridobivanju informacij. Zgodovina ima v prilagojenem predmetniku dvojezicne srednje šole v Prekmurju poudarjeno vlogo, saj ne prispeva le k oblikovanju narodne zavesti in identitete pri dijakih madžarske narodne manjšine, temvec hkrati prispeva tudi k toleranci in sožitju z vecinskim narodom in z drugimi narodnimi skupnostmi v Sloveniji. Na dvojezicni srednji šoli ohranja v svojih ciljih in strukturi isto zasnovo kot splošni ucni nacrt za zgodovino, vendar se razporeditev vsebin in obseg obravnave posameznih tem prilagajata specificnim ciljem. Ucni nacrt vkljucuje natancnejšo obravnavo in spoznavanje zgodovine maticnega naroda, madžarske manjšine v Prekmurju, zgodovine Slovencev ter svetovne zgodovine. Teme se pri zgodovini vseskozi medpredmetno povezujejo, predvsem z geografijo. L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Vendar analiza ucnih nacrtov in ucbenikov za zgodovino pokaže, da je zamejska tematika premalo zastopana; vanje niso vkljuceni višji cilji in vsebine, opredeljeni kot vzorcni v projektu. Podatki v ucbenikih skromni, uvideti je tudi mogoce, da vse štiri slovenske skupnosti v sosednjih državah niso enakopravno obravnavane. Na osnovi pricujoce analize raziskovalci predlagajo vkljucitev dodatnih ciljev v ucne nacrte zgodovine in njim ustrezne ucbenike ter nameniti že pred zakljuckom srednje šole (torej v nižjih letnikih in ne le v cetrtem) dodatni sklop vsebin s zamejsko tematiko. Geografija Analiza ucnih nacrtov in ucbenikov za geografijo v osnovni šoli je pokazala, da se med zastavljenimi kognitivnimi in konativnimi cilji udejanja v praksi le nekaj. Zanimivo je, da je tudi med standardi znanja v ucnih nacrtih za osnovno šolo najti poznavanje vzrokov za opredelitev dvojezicnih ozemelj v Sloveniji in pomena varovanja narodnih skupnosti in narodnih manjšin, cesar pa v ucbenikih ne zasledimo kot naloge, ki bi omogocila ucencem ta standard doseci. Konativna cilja »Ucenci spoznavajo specificne vrednote povezovanja ljudi na narodnostno mešanih ozemljih« in »analizirajo posledice mejnega vprašanja s sosednjimi državami«, lahko zasledimo v 9. razredu. V obravnavi sta le obsredozemska in obpanonska pokrajini v Sloveniji, vendar ne predstavljata razmerij Slovenije z Italijo in Hrvaško. Pri poglobljeni obravnavi ucbenikov za osnovno šolo so raziskovalci ugotovili, da je vkljucenost zamejskih vsebin pri geografiji nižja od tiste v ucnih nacrtih, saj pri nekaterih ucbenikih vsebine, ki bi omogocala dosegati cilje, sploh ni, ali je le obravnavana na ravni skopih podatkov. Presenetljivo je, da med vsemi obravnavanimi ucbeniki še najbolj izcrpno izpolnjuje zahteve ucnega nacrta le najstarejši (Novak, 2003 za 9. razred in 2004 za 8. razred). Novakova ucbenika ponujata poleg informacije in podatkovne vsebine še obravnavo in interpretacijo dejstev ter predlagata dejavnosti (naloge, raziskave) za poglabljanje znanj. Ucbenika novejšega datuma za isto stopnjo (Senegacnik, 2012 za 9. razred in interaktivni ucbenik Janžekovic, Jeršin Tomassini, 2015 za 8. razred), ne dajeta smernic za neposredne dejavnosti, ki bi poglobile vedenje ucencev o zamejstvu. Pri pouku geografije v dvojezicnih osnovnih šolah naj bi ucenci z medpredmetnim povezovanjem vsebin razvijali pozitivna custva do domovine, obcutek pripadnosti svojemu narodu in državi, spoštovanju razlicnosti in razvijanju pozitivnih custev do naravne in kulturne dedišcine. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Eden izmed splošnih ciljev ucnega nacrta je »razvijanje in spodbujanje veckulturnosti ter zagotavljanje narodnih pravic; tako na obmocju, kjer sobivata madžarski in slovenski narod, kot na državni ravni«, vendar je vsebina, ki bi omogocala dosegati ta cilj, vkljucena v ucbenike le posredno. Ucni nacrt za 9. razred obravnava Slovenijo in Madžarsko tako, da so vsebine in cilji povezani s poznavanjem razlicnih družbeno-in naravnogeografskih znacilnosti Slovenije, posredno tudi s slovenskimi manjšinami v zamejstvu, narodnostno sestavo v Sloveniji in podobno. Bolj poglobljeno se doseganju teh ciljev posvecajo vsebine najnovejšega Senegacnikovega ucbenika (Senegacnik in dr., 2015). Ta ucencem nakazuje, da državne meje niso tudi narodne meje, omenja avtohtone manjšine in jih umesti v prostor s plasticnimi prikazi. Pri družbenogeografskih znacilnostih se ucenci seznanijo na kratko z usodo kocevskih Nemcev in s slovenskim izseljenstvom, še posebno z obstojem slovenskih politicnih izseljencev v Argentini. Pri narodni sestavi ucenci slišijo za avtohtono in priseljeno prebivalstvo. Posebna poglavja so namenjena Slovencem v zamejstvu, v Avstriji, Italiji, na Madžarskem in Hrvaškem. Zemljevidi so opremljeni z dvojezicnimi imeni za kraje na slovenskem etnicnem ozemlju in izven maticne domovine. Opravljeni pregled ucnih nacrtov in ucbenikov za geografijo/družboslovje­geografijo v srednji šoli (splošna in strokovna gimnazija) kaže na to, da ima geografija v ucnih nacrtih pomembno vlogo pri obravnavi vsebin, ki so vezane na manjšinska vprašanja. Ce pa napovedane cilje vsaj deloma »preslikamo« na obravnavo v ucbenikih, je ta slika skromna (fizicnogeografski opisi) in vsebina le poredko dosega ali presega minimalne standarde znanj. Dijaki v splošni gimnaziji poglobijo predvidene vsebine iz ucnih nacrtov pri pripravi za maturo, tako da omejijo obmocja v Italiji, Avstriji in na Madžarskem, na katerih žive Slovenci, analizirajo neenake narodnostne pravice na razlicnih obmocjih in glavne razloge za vecjo ali manjšo asimilacijo posameznih obmocij ter znajo razložiti spremembe v narodnostni in družbeni strukturi naseljevanja Slovencev. Geografija v strokovnih gimnazijah pa sloni na ucbenikih iz leta 1999, ki – zaradi svoje zastarelosti – le v zelo omejenem obsegu omogocajo doseganje ciljev iz ucnega nacrta. Vendar so v ucnih nacrtih geografije v strokovnih šolah tudi cilji, ki spodbujajo razumevanje slovenske družbene pestrosti in njene cezmejne regionalne povezanosti, oboje v marsicem povezano z njeno geografsko konfiguracijo. L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Družba Ob pregledu ucnih nacrtov in ucbenikov za predmet družba v osnovni šoli je razvidno, da se v okviru tega predmeta ne posveca zamejstvu v tolikšni meri, kot bi se lahko glede na vsebinsko podrocje, ki ga pokriva. V ucnem nacrtu za 4. in 5. razred je najti le en kognitivni cilj, in sicer: »Ucenci spoznavajo osnovna dejstva o Slovencih v zamejstvu in po svetu«, ki ga posredno lahko povezujemo s ciljem: »[...] spoznavajo razlicnost prebivalstva Slovenije kot maticne domovine«. Sklenemo lahko, da v sklopu predmeta družba ucenci dobijo informacijo o tem, da v Sloveniji sobivajo razlicni narodi in spoznajo osnovna dejstva o Slovencih v zamejstvu in po svetu. Na zanimiv nacin bi lahko obogatili vsebino z obiskom zamejske šole ali z obiskom predstavnika slovenske manjšine v sosednjih državah, na katerem bi jim bilo podrobneje predstavljeno zamejsko življenje. Poleg tega bi se predmet moral interdisciplinarno povezovati s predmeti, kot so domovinska in državljanska kultura in etika, zgodovina, geografija in slovenšcina. Splošna ugotovitev ob pregledu prilagojenih ucnih nacrtov za predmet družba v dvojezicni osnovni šoli in njemu pripadajocih ucbenikih je, da ucni nacrt izpostavi razlicnost kultur in morebitne predsodke, povezane s tem. Vsebine, ki jih ucbeniki obravnavajo, izpostavljajo narodno istovetnost, pozitiven odnos do naravne in kulturne dedišcine, osnovna dejstva o Slovencih v zamejstvu, o slovenskih izseljencih in zdomcih. Glede na starost ucencev in njihovo dojemljivost za omenjeno tematiko raziskovalci predlagajo dopolnitev ucnega nacrta ter ucbenika in delovnega zvezka z dvojezicnim zemljevidom slovenskega zamejstva ter vkljucitev v kurikul, kot že zapisano, sodelovanje z eno od šol v zamejstvu sosedskih držav. Glasbena umetnost Ucni nacrt in ucbeniki za predmet glasbena umetnost v osnovni šoli ne vkljucujejo nobenega izmed kognitivnih in konativnih ciljev, ki so jih raziskovalci kot splošno izobraževalno vsebino za spoznavanje Slovencev v zamejstvu opredelili kot pomembne. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Domovinska in državljanska kultura in etika Ceprav ucni nacrt za ta osnovnošolski predmet v 7. in 8. razredu vkljucuje konativne cilje, kot na primer: »[...] ucenci spoznavajo specificne vrednote povezovanja ljudi na narodnostno mešanih ozemljih« in »[...] poznajo skupni kulturni prostor kot koncept in dejanski obstoj«, je v ucbenikih najti o teh vsebinah le malo obravnave; nekoliko jih zasledimo le v ucbenikih za sedmi razred. Predmet sam po sebi ponuja možnosti medpredmetnega povezovanja, ki bi iz razlicnih vidikov obravnavalo zamejske teme. Sinergijski ucinek bi, na primer, lahko dosegli s kombinacijo kulturnega dne in ekskurzije, ki bi bila namenjena obravnavi izkljucno zamejskih tematik. Raziskava je namrec pokazala, da obstaja sodelovanje med šolami v Sloveniji in zamejstvom na podrocjih športa, glasbe in plesa, vendar bi bilo nujno razširiti te stike tudi na druga podrocja. Sociologija in družboslovje (gimnazijski program), Sociologija (strokovni srednješolski program) Ne ucni nacrti ne ucbeniki družboslovja in sociologije za srednje šole ne vkljucujejo kognitivnih in konativnih ciljev v zvezi z zamejstvom. V ucbeniku za tretji kot tudi za cetrti letnik gimnazijskega programa (izbirni predmet za maturo) ter ucbeniku za družboslovje za strokovne šole ni vsebin, ki se nanašajo na zamejske teme. Edina bežna navedba, ki se navezuje na obravnavane teme, se nahaja v ucbeniku gimnazijskega programa za tretji letnik, v katerem je v zelo kratkem podpoglavju »Etnicna slojevitost« (poglavje »Družbene razlicnosti in neenakosti«) navedena opredelitev pojmov etnicne skupine in etnicne manjšine ter diskriminacije (v navezavi na Rome in z omembo italijanske manjšine) in etnicna slojevitost, vendar na zelo abstraktni ravni. Omenjeno dejstvo je zaskrbljujoce, saj so bile v predhodnih ucbenikih omenjene vsebine vkljucene, poleg tega pa je podrocje sociologije in družboslovja tisto, v okviru katerega pricakujemo, da bi se zamejske in manjšinske tematike morale obravnavati. Sociologija kot veda umešca etnicnost, manjšinska vprašanja, zamejsko tematiko in sorodne teme med prioritetne teme raziskovalnega zanimanja, zato je toliko bolj nenavadno, da ucni nacrti teh tem ne vkljucujejo. L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Raziskovalci so preucili možnosti za dopolnitev ucnih nacrtov in še posebno ucbenika gimnazijskega programa s konkretnimi predlogi vsebin, kot na primer: razlicnosti prebivalstva Slovenije kot maticne domovine, obstoj Slovencev v zamejstvu in po svetu ter njihove družbene in politicne razsežnosti, njihove izobraževalne in kulturne ustanove, prednosti in pomanjkljivosti njihovega življenja v državi prebivanja (v izobraževanju, kulturi, družbi) ter znacilnosti, ki jih opredeljujejo. Za ucbenik za sociologijo v strokovnih srednjih šolah naj se enotni slovenski kulturni prostor opredeli in prilagodi ravni strokovnega izobraževanja. Pridobljena stališca in mnenja osnovnošolcev in dijakov ter javnosti s pomocjo anketiranja Rezultati anketiranja ucencev osnovnih šol Osnovnošolci, ki so izpolnjevali spletno anketo, so najprej iz vnaprej pripravljenega nabora izbirali izvorne države priseljencev v Sloveniji. Možnih je bilo vec odgovorov. Ucenci so ocenili, da je najvec priseljencev iz Bosne in Hercegovine (78,8 %), Hrvaške (69,7 %) in Srbije (63,7 %). Manj naj bi jih prišlo iz Makedonije (43 %) in iz Turcije (10,5 %). Iz vecine odgovorov lahko sklepamo, da ucenci osnovnih šol poznajo priseljevanje v Slovenijo, predvsem iz nekdanjih republik Jugoslavije. Ucenci izbranih osnovnih šol so nato izmed naštetih možnosti (italijanska, hrvaška, srbska, avstrijsko-nemška, madžarska manjšina in romska etnicna skupnost) morali izbrati dve manjšini z uradnim statusom manjšine in eno s posebnim statusom. Pri tem je 80,5 % anketiranih izbralo italijansko manjšino, 70,4 % madžarsko manjšino in le 31,8 % romsko etnicno skupnost. Osnovnošolci vecinoma poznajo zakonsko zašcito avtohtonih manjšin v Sloveniji. Poleg tega pa je 42,8 % izbralo še hrvaško, 21,6 % avstrijsko-nemško in 14 % srbsko manjšino. Ucenci so izmed ponujenih možnosti izbirali države, v katerih imajo skupnosti Slovencev priznan manjšinski status. Vec kot polovica anketiranih ucencev tako meni, da so Slovenci priznana manjšina v vseh sosednjih državah: v Italiji (77,2 %), na Madžarskem (62,2 %), v Avstriji (55,3 %) in na Hrvaškem (52,8 %). Poleg tega pa jih je nekaj izbralo tudi Nemcijo (10,5 %) in Argentino (8,9 %). Podatki kažejo, da osnovnošolci vedo o zakonski zašciti Slovencev v sosednih državah. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Anketirani ucenci so v nadaljevanju izmed ponujenih možnosti izbirali tudi, katere pravice imajo pripadniki slovenske manjšine v sosednjih državah. Vec kot 80 % jih meni, da imajo pravice, vezane na šolstvo; 85,9 % meni, da imajo Slovenci v sosednjih državah pravico do ucenja slovenšcine v vseh šolah na dvojezicnem ozemlju, in 80,9 % meni, da imajo pravico do šol, kjer pouk poteka v slovenšcini. Tri cetrtine anketiranih meni, da imajo pravico uporabljati slovenšcino v javnosti (76,9 %), imeti svojega predstavnika v parlamentu (75,6 %) in imeti osebne dvojezicne dokumente ter uporabljati slovenšcino v javnih ustanovah (75,1 %). Nekaj manj (70 %) jih meni, da imajo slovenske manjšine v sosednjih državah tudi pravico uveljavljati in razvijati slovensko kulturo. Osnovnošolci so na osnovi visokega deleža izbire pravic zamejcev seznanjeni s pravicami Slovencev v zamejstvu. Na vprašanje, ali poznajo kakšnega zamejskega pesnika, pisatelja ali katerega drugega umetnika, jih je 15 % odgovorilo pozitivno, vendar se je zataknilo pri navedbi imena. Le manjši delež ucencev je navedel zamejske umetnike. Navedli so Janka Ferka in estradnike, umetnike migrantskega ozadja in umetnike sosedskih dežel, ki pa niso Slovenci. Ocitno osnovnošolci niso seznanjeni z delovanjem Slovencev v zamejstvu na kulturniško-umetniškem podrocju. Anketirani so bili tudi naprošeni, da izmed predlaganih definicij, ki opredeljujejo »izseljenstvo«, izberejo njim najbolj primernega. Kar 79,1 % anketiranih je izbralo odgovor, da so izseljenci ljudje, ki so se za stalno odselili v tujino, medtem ko jih je manjši del izbral, da so to ljudje, ki so se zacasno odselili v tujino (11,2 %), ali ljudje, ki so se za stalno odselili v drugo obcino v isti državi (9,6 %). Osnovnošolcem ni popolnoma poznana definicija izseljenca. Navajanje države ali celine, kamor so se Slovenci izselili, jim tudi ni bilo lahko. Na odprto vprašanje je Argentino navedlo le 4,4 % osnovnošolcev, kar cetrtina na to vprašanje ni odgovorila. Anketiranim ucencem se zdi najbolj pomembno uciti se o razlicnih kulturah (74,9 %), o ljudeh razlicnih narodnosti, ki živijo v Sloveniji (66,5 %), o avtohtonih manjšinah v Sloveniji (53 %), o zamejcih (51,1 %) in Slovencih, izseljenih po svetu (49,8 %). Rezultati anketiranja dijakov srednjih šol Srednješolci vedo za slovensko izseljenstvo. Vecina anketiranih dijakov ocenjuje, da so se ljudje s slovenskega ozemlja v najvecji meri izseljevali v ZDA (42,4 %), Argentino (40,5 %), Nemcijo (32,8 %) in Avstralijo (24,4 %). L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Slaba petina (19,2 %) anketiranih srednješolcev je kot ciljno državo slovenskih izseljencev izbrala tudi Avstrijo, nekaj manj Kanado (17,6 %), Italijo (15,6 %) in Švico (14,4 %). Slaba desetina anketiranih je izbrala še sosednji Hrvaško (9,2 %) in Madžarsko (7,2 %). Anketirani dijaki so izbirali države, v katerih živijo slovenski zamejci. Velika vecina jih je izbrala Italijo (94,9 %) in Madžarsko (86,4 %), nekaj manj (74,6 %) pa Avstrijo. Hrvaško je izbrala slaba polovica (44,5 %). Nekaj anketiranih je izbralo tudi Argentino (11 %) in Nemcijo (2,5 %). Anketirani dijaki so nato izbirali pokrajine, kjer živijo zamejski Slovenci: 87,7 % anketiranih je med možnimi italijanskimi pokrajinami izbralo Benecijo (Julijsko krajino), 89,3 % je med hrvaškimi obmocji izbralo Istrsko županijo, 92,4 % je izbralo Koroško med avstrijskimi pokrajinami in 75,6 % Porabje med madžarskimi. Dijaki in osnovnošolci poznajo manjšine v Sloveniji. Vedo, da imata dve manjšini uradno priznan status v Sloveniji (italijanska 90,8 % in madžarska manjšina 80,6 %). Poseben status so pripisali romski etnicni skupnosti, vendar le s 36,2 %. Pri treh možnih odgovorih je 24,2 % anketiranih izbralo avstrijsko manjšino in 16,4 % hrvaško. Kot dvojezicna, narodnostno mešana obmocja anketirani dijaki prepoznavajo del obalnih obcin (96,1 %) in del Prekmurja (86,3 %), slaba polovica (48,1 %) pa jih meni, da je tudi Koroška uradno dvojezicna. Anketirani srednješolci med pravicami Slovencev v zamejstvu vecinoma ocenjujejo, da Slovenija namenja posebno skrb ohranjanju in razvoju slovenskega jezika in kulture med Slovenci v zamejstvu (59,6 %) ter da ima slovenska manjšina v vseh sosednjih državah možnost izobraževanja v slovenskem jeziku (56,6 %), nekaj manj pa tudi, da je slovenšcina uradni jezik na dvojezicnih obmocjih v vseh sosednjih državah (39,6 %). Anketirani dijaki so opredeljevali slovenski kulturni prostor. Med danimi trditvami so vecinoma (51,5 %) izbrali odgovor: »Skupen slovenski kulturni prostor tvorijo Republika Slovenija in obmocja držav, kjer prebiva avtohtona slovenska narodna skupnost«; 44,2 % pa je izbralo odgovor »Skupen slovenski kulturni prostor tvorijo Republika Slovenija in obmocja držav, kjer prebiva slovenska narodna skupnost ter slovenski izseljenci in zdomci.« Na vprašanje kako pa slovenski izseljenci ohranjajo svojo izvorno kulturo, so anketirani odgovorili prosto. Možnih je bilo vec odgovorov. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Odgovarjala je le polovica anketiranih in od teh vecina meni, da se s stiki z drugimi izseljenci ali sorodniki oziroma s prijatelji v Sloveniji ter obiskovanjem Slovenije ohranja elemente slovenstva (62 odgovorov), poleg tega je pomembno ustanavljanje društev in organiziranje dogodkov v njihovem okviru. Kot pomembne še naštevajo: uporaba slovenšcine doma in v okviru društev, ohranjanje slovenskih obicajev (kulinarika, folklora) in sodelovanje na tecajih slovenšcine. Ob vprašanju ali gre pri posameznih množicnih primerih izseljevanja iz slovenskega ozemlja za politicno ali gospodarsko motivirane selitve, meni 81,5 % anketiranih, da so bila odseljevanja v sedemdesetih letih dvajsetega stoletja gospodarskega znacaja, 56,9 % jih enako meni tudi pri odseljevanju v ZDA pred drugo svetovno vojno, medtem ko je 60,3 % anektiranih mnenja, da so se v Argentino po drugi svetovni vojni preseljevali zaradi politicnih razlogov. Velika vecina anketiranih dijakov same veckulturnosti ni opredelila, tisti, ki pa so jo, so v vecini primerov izpostavili geografsko opredeljeno veckulturnost (67 odgovorov). Pomen veckulturnosti anketirani dijaki opredeljujejo kot pot do strpnosti in spoštovanja drugih (41 odgovorov), ohranjanju kultur, pestrosti, samostojnosti (34 odgovorov) ter spoznavanju drugih kultur, širjenju obzorij ipd. (33 odgovorov). Kot osnovnošolci so bili tudi dijaki vprašani, ali poznajo katerega zamejskega pesnika, pisatelja ali drugega umetnika. Kljub temu da so odgovorili pritrdilno, jih je le 13 navedlo nekaj imen: Borisa Pahorja, Florjana Lipuša, Miroslava Košuto, Marka Kravosa in Maksa Fabianija. Poleg tega je 27 anketiranih odgovorilo, da poznajo kakšno zamejsko športno ali kulturno društvo. Ceprav je bilo veliko napacnih odgovorov, so jih nekaj navedli tudi pravilno. Anketiranje javnosti Anketiranje javnosti (628 posameznikov) je pokazalo zanimive podatke, ki jih bomo tu le na kratko povzeli. Natancni podatki so dosegljivi na spletu projekta (sklic v poglavju o virih). Dogajanja med Slovenci v sosednjih državah slovenska javnost zelo malo spremlja: dogajanj med Slovenci v Italiji ne spremlja 60,9 % vprašanih, dogajanj v Avstriji 60,3 %, na Hrvaškem 74,2 %, najmanj slovenska javnost spremlja dogajanja med Slovenci na Madžarskem, tj. 76,8 % anketiranih. L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Vendar pri natancnejši opredelitvi podrocja slovensko javnost dogajanja v zamejstvu vendarle zanimajo, in sicer na podrocju gospodarstva (med Slovenci v Avstriji 50,2 %, v Italiji 43,8 %, na Hrvaškem 41,3 % in na Madžarskem 43 % vprašanih), kulture (v Avstriji 49 %, v Italiji 55,6 %, na Hrvaškem 43,3 % in na Madžarskem 37,5 % vprašanih). Sledita podrocji politike (v Avstriji 43,6 %, v Italiji 43,1 %, na Hrvaškem 40,2 % in na Madžarskem 35 % vprašanih) in izobraževanja (v Avstriji 48,1 %, v Italiji 47,9 %, na Hrvaškem 42,6 % in na Madžarskem 34,2 % vprašanih). Lahko ugotovimo, da je najmanj zanimanja javnosti za dogajanja med Slovenci na Madžarskem. Po mnenju anketirancev ima slovenska manjšina težave: z vlogo in rabo slovenskega jezika kot uradnega jezika (na Hrvaškem 52,9 %, v Italiji 51,2 %, v Avstriji 48,6 % in na Madžarskem 43,5 %) ter s priznanjem pravic Slovencev kot enakovrednih v zakonodaji (v Italiji 48,3 %, v Avstriji 42,2 %, na Hrvaškem 42,8 % in na Madžarskem 37,7 %). V vseh štirih državah je na tretjem mestu težava z zastopanostjo predstavnikov manjšine v državnih organih. Težava, s katero se po mnenju anketirancev še sooca slovenska manjšina, je funkcionalna raba slovenskega jezika v okolju, kjer živi (Italija 42,1 %, Avstrija 42 %, na Hrvaškem 52,9 % in na Madžarskem 37,7 %). V primeru Italije je šest anketirancev navedlo med odprtimi vprašanji tudi težave zaradi sodobnega ogrožajocega italijanskega nacionalizma (fašizma). Vecina (77,9 %) anketirancev ne spremlja manjšinskih medijev. Med tistimi, ki jih spremljajo, je najvecji delež takšnih, ki spremlja manjšinske medije iz Italije (11,9 %), sledijo tisti, ki spremljajo medije iz Avstrije (8,3 %). Najmanj anketiranih spremlja manjšinske medije iz Hrvaške (4,6 %) in Madžarske (3,9 %). Med manjšinskimi mediji, ki jih anketiranci najpogosteje spremljajo na Hrvaškem, se najveckrat pojavita televizija in radio. Casopisov in spletnih strani ne spremljajo. Anketirani se v splošnem strinjajo, da Slovencem v zamejstvu namenja Slovenija premalo pozornosti. Ocenjujejo, da v gospodarstvu (56,7 %), politiki (50,5 %), izobraževanju (47,9 %) in kulturi (43,4 %) zamejskim temam nasploh ni namenjene dovolj pozornosti. Anketirani ocenjujejo povezovanje s slovenskim zamejstvom kot pomembno na razlicnih podrocjih: na podrocju kulture (80,2 %), izobraževanja (79 %) gospodarstva (78,4 %) in politike (64,5 %). Vendar se velika vecina anketiranih dogodkov, ki jih organizira slovenska skupnost v zamejstvu, ne udeležuje: na Hrvaškem 90,7 %, v Italiji 84,9 %, v Avstriji 88,1 % in na Madžarskem 95,5 %. Anketa je pokazala, da ima med zamejskimi Slovenci na Hrvaškem sorodnike 12,8 % vprašanih, med zamejci v Italiji 12,4 % in med zamejci v Avstriji 13,7 %. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Med zamejskimi Slovenci na Madžarskem ima sorodnike le 0,9 % anketirancev. Anketiranci imajo med zamejskimi Slovenci prijatelje: v Italiji 16,5 %, na Hrvaškem 15 %, v Avstriji 11,8 % in le 2,5 % na Madžarskem. Mnenja in predlogi uciteljev izbranih predmetnih vsebin iz vodenih intervjujev Iz intervjujev z ucitelji osnovnih in srednjih šol je v splošnem zaznati, da pogrešajo tematike, povezane z zamejstvom, izseljenci, manjšinami, s kulturnimi razlicnostmi, z veckulturnostjo ipd. Izpostavljajo, da je stanje slabše, kot je bilo pred leti, saj so omenjene tematike v ucnih nacrtih in ucbenikih okrnjene ali jih sploh ni. Glede na cilje ucnih nacrtov za osnovno šolo so zamejske vsebine prepušcene uciteljem samim, njihovemu znanju in interesom: kaj, kako in na kakšen nacin naj bi predstavili vsebine, povezane z zamejstvom. Ucitelji menijo, da bi tem vsebinam morali nameniti vec ur, a se casovno težko izide, saj se na ta nacin lahko okrnijo druge teme. Nekateri so sicer opozorili, da je težava le v razvrstitvi tem, saj so zamejske umešcene na konec šolskega leta in posledicno zanje zmanjkuje casa. Ucitelji izpostavljajo tudi ucenje preko osebne izkušnje ucencev in dijakov, pri cemer se jim zdijo izredno pomembne ekskurzije, izmenjave ucencev in dijakov z zamejskimi šolami in drugi stiki. Vse omenjeno razkriva problematicno stanje, saj je poucevanje omenjenih tem pravzaprav prepušceno sami senzibilnosti, samoiniciativnosti in volji uciteljev. V splošnem so izpostavljali pomen poucevanja omenjenih tem za nacionalno identifikacijo, medtem ko so ucitelji sociologije opozorili tudi na problematiko zaznavanja odklonilnih stališc do drugih kultur, priseljencev, medkulturnih stikov, prisotnost etnicnih predsodkov in etnicnih stereotipov. V intervjujih je bilo veckrat povedano, da bi bilo potrebnih vec medpredmetnih povezav, predvsem med slovenšcino, zgodovino in geografijo, pa tudi drugimi predmeti. V spletni povezavi na porocilo projekta so predstavljene specificne težave, ki so jih ucitelji navedli po posameznih predmetih. Preverjanje raziskovalnih ugotovitev na panelih strokovne javnosti Pred redakcijo koncnega predloga kurikularnih sprememb so raziskovalci njihovo utemeljenost in ustreznost preverjali na treh panelih strokovnjakov v Kopru, Ljubljani in Lendavi, na katerih so sodelovali predstavniki Strokovnega sveta za splošno izobraževanje, Zavoda RS za šolstvo, ministrstva, zadolženega za izobraževanje, in Urada za Slovence v zamejstvu in po svetu. L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Njihov odziv na porocilo o rezultatih projekta je bil izredno pozitiven. V razpravi je bilo poudarjeno predvsem: zamejske tematike je treba bolj vkljucevati v ucne nacrte osnovnih in srednjih šol, treba je vec promocije o zamejskih vsebinah in ozavestiti pisce ucbenikov, da jih vkljucijo. O postopkih nastajanja ucnih nacrtov so prisotni strokovnjaki ugotavljali, da jim je težko slediti. Koncipirani so vecstopenjsko, šele po predhodni obravnavi v komisijah strokovnih svetov jih ti potrjujejo. Kljub pomembnosti zamejske tematike se dogaja, da ostaja prezrta. Strokovni svet, ki ucne nacrte potrjuje, meni, da bi njihovo izvajanje in posodabljanje morale spremljati temu namenjene smernice. Primeri dobre prakse, ki je odvisna od senzibilnosti in afinitete uciteljev in drugih strokovnih delavcev do zamejske tematike, so številni, ni pa izdelanega sistemskega pristopa k zaokroževanju védenja šolske in dijaške populacije o zamejstvu. Poseben problem je namrec financiranje dejavnosti, ki omogocajo medinstitucionalno povezovanje in združevanje ucencev in uciteljev z obeh strani meje. Za zamejsko tematiko je nujno in pomembno usposabljanje uciteljev na ciljno oblikovanih seminarjih ter izmenjava dobrih praks med njimi. Poleg tega je pomembno uvideti, da so zamejske tematike tudi sestavni del visokošolskega izobraževanja bodocih uciteljev in profesorjev. Temeljni zakljucek panelov je bilo tudi priporocilo, da se rezultati teh in podobnih raziskav objavijo, na ustrezen nacin se o njih seznani strokovna javnost, da jih lahko upošteva pri nastajanju tako ucnih nacrtov kot smernic za njihovo uresnicevanje. Zakljucki Slovenske narodne skupnosti spadajo v skupni imaginarij slovenske zgodovine in družbe. Narodnostne manjšine so v Republiki Sloveniji ustavna kategorija, država se zavezuje tako v Ustavi kot v drugih zakonskih aktih, resolucijah in predpisih, da bo pospeševala povezovanje in razvijanje demokraticnih in egalitarnih odnosov med vecinskim narodom in manjšinami ter s Slovenci v zamejstvu in po svetu. V casu, ko medetnicni odnosi, pomen in vloga manjšin in zamejskih skupnosti sodijo med prioritetne teme evropskih politik, družboslovna refleksija na to temo v slovenskih ucbenikih povsem umanjka. Zaradi specificnega razvoja slovenskega naroda in zgodovine je treba z »mehkimi« vsebinami vzgajati mlade in z ustreznimi posegi v njihovo vzgojo razvijati zavest, da se slovenski kulturni prostor ne konca na slovenskih državnih mejah, temvec sega na etnicna ozemlja izven državnih meja. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Predlogi raziskovalcev za dopolnitev ucnih nacrtov za osnovno šolo so predvsem namenjeni pospešitvi razumevanja in poglobitvi poznavanja slovenske družbene pestrosti, v našem primeru tudi cezmejne regionalne soodvisnosti, ker sta obe v marsicem povezani z njeno geografsko konfiguracijo. Podatki v ucbenikih so pogosto zelo skopi, poleg tega vse štiri slovenske skupnosti v sosednjih državah v njih niso enakovredno obravnavane. Refleksija o narodnih manjšinah v Sloveniji in izven nje je spodbuda uciteljem, da ucence nagovorijo k razmišljanju o pomenu varovanja teh skupnosti v Sloveniji in v Evropi, saj je to pomemben dejavnik odpravljanja potencialnih konfliktov, ohranjanja slovenske in evropske družbeno-kulturne pestrosti ter razvijanja medkulturne in cezmejne povezanosti. Na srednješolski ravni bi bilo treba, tudi v luci ohranjanja in razvijanja skupnega slovenskega kulturnega prostora ter tako imenovanega »evropskega« razumevanja lastnega in širšega splošnogeografskega in družbenogeografskega položaja, dijake temeljiteje ozavešcati, da državni in družbeni sistemi niso nekaj trajnega, še posebej pa ne nekaj koncnega. Opise in razlage raznolikosti narodnostnih manjšinv sosednjih državah bi morali v ucbenikih preseci raven, s katero so ta vprašanja sedaj obravnavana. Pogosto je ta obravnava le ponavljanje, pristop k tej tematiki pa zastarel in presežen. Zato je poleg domace manjšinske tematike nujno nameniti prostor in cas zamejskim temam ne le v zadnjem letniku gimnazij, temvec že v predhodnih letnikih. Poleg dodatnih gradiv z zamejsko tematiko je treba vkljuciti v kurikule srednjih šol tudi ekskurzije ucencev in uciteljev ter skupne projekte ob navezovanju razlicnih stikov maticnih šol z zamejskimi slovenskimi šolami. Ponudba dodatnega izpopolnjevanja in usposabljanja, ki bi združevala ucitelje iz maticne domovine in ucitelje zgodovine iz zamejstva, bi predstavljala dobro priložnost za izmenjavo mnenj in stališc, analizo aktualnih dogajanj v zamejstvu ter oblikovanju skupnega pristopa k preteklosti in sedanjosti slovenstva v sosedstvu in širšem evropskem prostoru. Nekatere dejavnosti, ki so v preteklosti bistveno doprinesle k uresnicevanju specificnih ciljev (na primer ekskurzija na avstrijsko Koroško in plasticen prikaz razvoja karantanske družbe z vsemi postulati slovenske mitološke državnosti), so opušcene oziroma prepušcene uciteljevi pobudi. V usposabljanja, ki jih razpisuje Zavod RS za šolstvo, je nujno vkljuciti organizacijo dodatnih seminarjev v sklopu srecanj aktivov uciteljev posameznih predmetnih podrocij ali kot posebno izobraževanje v sklopu napredovanj uciteljev. L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Poleg tega je priporocljivo ponuditi uciteljem dodatno interaktivno ucno gradivo spoznavanja zamejstva, pripraviti itinerarje za ekskurzije v zamejstvo in jih dati na razpolago uciteljem, spodbujati navezavo stikov s slovenskimi šolami v zamejstvu ter organizirati srecanja ucencev in uciteljev z obeh strani meje. Za revitalizacijo védenja o Slovencih v zamejstvu in njihovo ponovno integracijo v skupni imaginarij je podrocje šolstva izjemno pomembno. Ce si starejše generacije, živece v Sloveniji, še delijo kolektivni spomin na spreminjanje državnih meja ob koncu druge svetovne vojne in geopoliticne ter zgodovinske odlocitve, ki so locile zamejske Slovence od maticnega naroda, pa ta vednost povsem umanjka pri mlajših in najmlajših generacijah. Prav zato so za posredovanje védenja o zamejskih Slovencih in o prednostih njihovega prepoznavanja prav osnovnošolske in srednješolske institucije kljucnega pomena. Summary The education sector and school curricular content are proving to be extremely important in the effort to revitalize knowledge about Slovenian national minorities in the neighbouring countries and their reintegration into the common imaginary. Slovenes live as an autochthonous minority in neighbouring countries in all four border regions, with an estimated total population of around 130,000 people. It should be emphasized that the Slovenian minority represents part of the Slovenian national body, and that the common European space also allows the development of a common Slovenian cultural area with far-reaching implications. A periodic analytical review is necessary of the treatment of Slovenian communities and minorities in neighbouring countries (Italy, Austria, Hungary and Croatia) through the prism of the content defined by the curricula in the second and third periods of primary schools and in secondary schools. In order to examine the level of knowledge on topics related to Slovenian national minorities in the neighbouring countries among students in the upper grades of primary schools and in all grades of secondary schools in Slovenia, researchers analysed the content of primary and secondary school curricula and textbooks for these subjects: Slovenian as the first and second language, history, geography, homeland and civic culture and ethics, society and music in primary school, and Slovenian language, history, geography and sociology in secondary school. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION With a special questionnaire completed by pupils and students and by a sample group of the general population, researhers were able to acquire knowledge about the actual situation in the implementation of the selected subject content and to reach conclusions regarding the impact of this content on how attitudes are formed towards Slovenian culture, language and the lives of Slovenes in neighbouring countries. Following the processing of quantitative data and consultation meetings with experts, changes to the curricula were proposed. The Institute for Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana and the Slovenian Research Institute in Trieste collaborated with the Scientific Research Centre in Koper in the research process. In the implementation phase, the project partners will work alongside the Government Office for Slovenians Abroad, the National Education Institute and the Expert Council for General Education. References Bufon, M. (2019). Lo spazio con/diviso. Geografia economico-politica. Aracne editrice. Cernigoj, M., in Žvelc, M. (2013). Svet smo mi 7. Ucbenik za domovinsko in državljansko kulturo ter etiko. DZS. Herakovic, K. (2009) Slovenci v zamejstvu v ucnih nacrtih in ucnih gradivih pri pouku geografije in slovenšcine v gimnazijah. Diplomsko delo. Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta. Pridobljeno s https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/ Dostopno: 3.6.2020. Justin, J., ur. (2014). Državljanska in domovinska vzgoja ter etika. Ucbenik za državljansko kulturo in etiko v 7. razredu osnovne šole. 12 d. o. o. Ucbeniška gradiva. Koncut, A. (2015). Tematika zamejstva pri geografiji in zgodovini v osnovni šoli. Magistrsko delo. Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta. Pridobljeno s https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/ Dostopno: 3. 6. 2020. Novak, F. (2003). Geografija Slovenije za 9. (8.) razred. Ucbenik za 9. razred devetletne in 8. razred osemletne osnovne šole. DZS, Ljubljana. Peršak, T. (1984). Politika enotnega slovenskega kulturnega prostora. Sodobnost. Letnik 32/8, 9. str. 842. Senegacnik, J., idr. (2015). Geografija Slovenije/Szlovénia földrajza. Ucbenik za 9. razred dvojezicne OŠ/Tankönyv a kétnyelvü általános iskolák 9. Osztálya számára, Modrijan. Stergar, J. (1987). Narodnostna problematika v osnovnošolskih ucbenikih spoznavanja družbe in zemljepisa v SR Sloveniji. Razprave in gradivo. INV Ljubljana. Tomassini, K., in Janžekovic, M. (2015). Geografija 9, i-ucbenik za geografijo v 9. razredu osnovne šole. Zavod RS za šolstvo. Zakoni, pravne podlage in spletni viri Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji. Zakljucno porocilo projekta ARRS Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije. Pridobljeno s https://zamejstvovkurikulu.splet.arnes.si/ (Dostopno 3. 6. 2020) Zakon o odnosih Republike Slovenije s Slovenci zunaj njenih meja (Uradni list RS, št. 43/06 in 76/10). L. Cok: Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji Resolucija o položaju avtohtonih slovenskih manjšin v sosednjih državah in s tem povezanimi nalogami državnih in drugih dejavnikov Republike Slovenije (Uradni list RS, št. 35/96). Teze zakona o odnosih republike Slovenije s Slovenci zunaj njenih meja. SKGZ Trst. Pridobljeno s http://www.skgz.org/sl/teze-zakona-o-odnosih-republike-slovenije-s-slovenci-zunaj­njenih-meja. (Dostopno 4. 3. 2020.) Ucni nacrti: Pridobljeno s http://www.mizs.gov.si/delovna_podrocja/direktorat_za_predsolsko_vzgojo_in_osn­ovno_solstvo/osnovno_solstvo/ucni_nacrti/posodobljeni_ucni_nacrti_za_obvezne_pred mete/ (Dostopno 4. 4. 2018.) Ucbeniki: Pridobljeno s http://www.mizs.gov.si/si/delovna_podrocja/urad_za_razvoj_in_kakovo– st_izobrazevanja/sektor_za_razvoj_izobrazevanja/ucbeniki/ (Dostopno 4. 4. 2018.) Zahvala Projekt Slovensko zamejstvo kot vsebine kurikula osnovnih in srednjih šol v Sloveniji V5-1709 je sofinancirala Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost RS iz državnega proracuna. Avtorica Dr. Lucija Cok, znanstvena stetnica Redna profesorica, Znanstveno-raziskovalno središce, Garibaldijeva 1, 6000 Koper, Slovenija, e-pošta: lucija.cok@zrs-kp.si Full professor, Scientific Counsellor, Science and Research Centre, Garibaldi Str. 1, 6000 Koper, Slovenia, e-mail: lucija.cok@zrs-kp.si REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 461–483, December 2021 Potrjeno/Accepted 15. 1. 2021 Objavljeno/Published 10. 12. 2021 Kljucne besede: bralna kultura, razvijanje bralne kulture, družina, šola oz. ucitelji in izobraževanje uciteljev Keywords: reading culture, development of reading culture, family, school – teachers and teacher education UDK/UDC: 37.015.3:159.9:028.8 BRALNA KULTURA S PSIHOLOŠKE IN Z VZGOJNO­IZOBRAŽEVALNE PERSPEKTIVE SONJA PECJAK Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta, Ljubljana, Slovenija CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENCNI AVTOR sonja.pecjak@ff.uni-lj.si Izvlecek/Abstract V prispevku pišemo o bralni kulturi in branju kot vrednoti v slovenskem prostoru, pri cemer so teoreticni razmisleki podprti z empiricnimi izsledki tujih in domacih psiholoških in vzgojno-izobraževalnih študij o bralni kulturi. S psihološkega vidika poskušamo odgovoriti na vprašanja, kaj je bralna kultura in kateri so njeni elementi, kdaj branje lahko postane vrednota in katere so ovire pri razvoju bralne kulture. Na ta vprašanja odgovarjamo s perspektive družinskega in šolskega okolja ter nakazujemo nekatere možnosti spoprijemanja z ovirami, predvsem z vidika vloge družine in šole oz. uciteljev, kot jih nakazuje tudi Nacionalna strategija razvoja bralne pismenosti. Reading Culture from the Psychological and Educational Perspectives The article discusses reading culture and reading as a value in Slovenia, with theoretical considerations supported by empirical results of foreign and domestic psychological and educational studies on reading culture. In this paper we try to answer the questions of what reading culture is and what its elements are, when reading can become a value and what the obstacles are in the development of reading culture from the psychological perspective. We answer these questions from the perspective of the family and school environment and suggest some ways of dealing with these obstacles, especially from the perspective of the role of the family and the school or teachers, as pointed out by the National Strategy for the Development of Reading Literacy. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.14.4.461-483.2021 Besedilo / Text © 2021 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobcitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Uvod Pri raziskovanju branja in bralne pismenosti je v psiholoških raziskavah navadno v ospredju preucevanje kognitivnih dejavnikov, ki so neposredno in mocneje povezani z bralnimi dosežki. Manj raziskovalne pozornosti psihologov (pa tudi raziskovalcev drugih strok) so deležni afektivni, tj. custveno-motivacijski dejavniki, ki predstavljajo jedro bralne kulture. Temu pritrjuje tudi zadnje porocilo Mednarodnega združenja za pismenost (ang. International Literacy Association – ILA) What's hot in literacy (2020). Med 20 temami s podrocja bralne pismenosti sta samo dve taki, ki se nanašata na bralno kulturo in za kateri so se raziskovalci, bralni eksperti in ucitelji odlocili, da sta »vroci« (pomembni, aktualni, zanimivi …) za preucevanje. Prvo tematsko podrocje je zagotavljanje dostopa do kakovostnega in raznolikega bralnega gradiva (na 5. mestu po rangu), drugo pa spodbujanje razvoja socialno-emocionalnih kompetenc s pomocjo pouka pismenosti (na 13. mestu). Kaj je bralna kultura in kateri so njeni psihološki elementi? Bralna kultura v psihološkem smislu oznacuje sklop prevladujocih prepricanj in vrednot, povezanih z branjem. Gre za to, kakšen pomen ljudje pripisujejo branju in knjigam na splošno, kakšno vlogo imajo pri osebnem razvoju posameznika itn. Ta prepricanja in vrednote pa so nato podlaga za oblikovanje stališc, pricakovanj, predsodkov, stereotipov in navad ljudi do branja in knjig. Ta naravnanost ljudi vpliva na njihov interes in bralno vedęnje, ki se kaže v pogostosti in dolžini branja, prostocasnem branju, kolicini prebranih knjig, obiskovanju knjižnic, v številu izposojenih in kupljenih knjig itn. Nyam (2015) opredeljuje bralno kulturo skozi vedęnje bralca – z uporabo branja kot redne dejavnosti in s tem gojenje (pozitivnega, op. avtorice) odnosa do branja ter posedovanje spretnosti, zaradi katerih je branje prijetna, redna in stalna dejavnost. O bralni kulturi govorimo, kadar branje postane navada. Pri tem raziskovalci razlicnih strok navajajo, da se bralne navade ljudi pozitivno povezujejo z njihovo bralno pismenostjo in izobraževalnimi dosežki. Na to opozarja tudi Grosman (2003), ko piše, da moramo »[...] nepoznavanje ali pomanjkljivo poznavanje pomena branja za posameznika in družbo šteti za pomemben vzrok nebranja in posledicne pomanjkljive pismenosti« (prav tam, str. 10). S. Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive Ce želimo kar koli spreminjati na podrocju bralne kulture, moramo – na kratko receno – pri otrocih, mladostnikih in odraslih oblikovati prepricanja in vrednote, da so branje in knjige nekaj pomembnega ter vrednega za razvoj posameznika in družbe na splošno. Pri spreminjanju teh prepricanj in preoblikovanju vrednot pri otrocih in mladostnikih pa tudi odraslih pomaga, ce razumemo, kaj so vrednote in kako se oblikujejo. V slovenskem prostoru se je s psihološkim raziskovanjem vrednot veliko ukvarjal Janek Musek. Musek (2000) opredeljuje vrednote kot splošna in relativno trajna pojmovanja o ciljih in pojavih, ki jih visoko cenimo, ki usmerjajo naše interese in naše vedęnje. Gre za najsplošnejše motivacijske cilje, ki jih razumemo kot življenjska vodila. Naše vedęnje na najnižji ravni usmerjajo zelo specificni, konkretni cilji. Na višji ravni gre za splošnejše, abstraktnejše cilje, ki se združujejo v vrednote. Znana je Muskova hierarhija vrednot s štirimi ravnmi vrednot, potrjena z empiricnimi raziskavami (Musek, 1993). Tabela 1: Kategorizacija vrednot (Musek, 1993). Najvišja raven: Vrednotne kategorije Najnižja raven: Velekatego-riji srednjega obsega: posamezne vrednote vrednot hedonisticne cutno uživanje, veselje, zabava, vznemirljivo Dionizicne vrednote družbeni hedonizem življenje, udobje, uživanje vrednote potencne statusne moc, slava, ugled, denar vrednote patriotske spoštovanje zakonov, ljubezen do uspešnost in dosežki domovine uspeh moralne tradicionalne poštenost, ljubezen, zvestoba vrednote demokraticne zdravje Apolonske harmonije in blagostanja enakopravnost, enakost vrednote mir, sloga izpopolnitve­ poznavne resnica, modrost ne kulturne umetnost, kultura, ustvarjanje vrednote religiozne vera samoizpopolnitvene samoizpopolnjevanje, znanje, svoboda Na najnižji ravni Musek (1993) navaja 54 posameznih vrednot; na drugi ravni, vrednotnih kategorij srednjega obsega, je 9–13 vrednot, med katerimi najdemo tudi te, ki se z razlicnih vidikov dotikajo branja. Z branjem tako lahko povežemo, recimo, spoznavne vrednote, kadar bralca vodijo motivi, da bi se z branjem nekaj naucil ali da bi z branjem rešil dolocene ucne ali življenjske probleme. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Branje se povezuje še z estetskimi vrednotami, recimo, kadar bralec želi uživati v lepoti jezika pri branju leposlovja; z aktualizacijskimi vrednotami, kadar bere z namenom, da osebnostno raste in se notranje bogati, ter s kulturnimi vrednotami na splošno. Branje se povezuje tudi s hedonisticnimi vrednotami, kadar bralec uživa v branju. Kako posameznik z branjem razvija posamezne vrednote, zelo lepo v nagovoru knjigi Beremo skupaj: Prirocnik za spodbujanje branja povzema Košir (2003), ko piše »Kdor bere, ta tudi misli. Kdor bere, bolje razume samega sebe in svet, v katerem živi … Lažje razume, kaj je v življenju pomembno in kaj ne, kaj je prav in kaj narobe« (prav tam, str. 5). Muskove raziskave v 90. letih preteklega stoletja (1994, 1995) so pokazale, kako mladostniki in odrasli (med 16. in 65. letom) razvršcajo te vrednote po pomembnosti. Pokazalo se je, da odrasli Slovenci najbolj cenijo apolonske vrednote, predvsem moralne (manj izpopolnitvene), med kategorijami vrednot srednjega obsega pa socialne, varnostne, demokraticne in tradicionalne vrednote. Med posameznimi vrednotami so kot najpomembnejše v našem prostoru ocenjene zdravje, ljubezen, svoboda, mir, družinske vrednote, poštenost, prijateljstvo in pravica. Kulturne vrednote, med katere sodi tudi bralna kultura, so relativno nizko na lestvici vseh vrednot – najnižje, poleg verskih in statusnih vrednot. Pri tem so njegove raziskave pokazale na nekatere splošne zakonitosti v razvoju oblikovanja vrednotnih usmeritev. Te se kažejo v t. i. razvojni hierarhiji vrednot: v mladostniškem obdobju so poudarjene in najviše cenjene hedonske vrednote, nato postanejo relativno pomembne potencne vrednote (ko posameznik dela kariero in si postavlja materialne temelje svoje eksistence), nato pa moralne in izpolnitvene vrednote. S starostjo precej izrazito narašca pomen verskih in patriotskih vrednot, upada pa pomen cutnih vrednot. Raziskave glede spola pa so pokazale na relativno vecjo usmerjenost žensk k apolonskim (moralnim in izpolnitvenim) in relativno vecjo usmerjenost moških k dionizicnim vrednotam. Na osnovi avtorjevih ugotovitev bi lahko sklenili, da razvoj bralne kulture (kot kulturne vrednote) ni nekaj, kar bi se pri otrocih in mladostnikih lahko razvijalo samo od sebe, ampak je treba za razvoj bralne kulture poskrbeti z dolocenimi sistematicnimi vplivi. Ob tem pa se je treba zavedati, da je vrednotni sistem posameznika vpet v matriko vrednotnih sistemov, ki jim pripada (družine, šole, vrstnikov, soseske, cerkvenih ustanov itn.), in družbe kot najširšega sistema. Vsaka družba in kultura imata svoj znacilni sistem vrednot, ki delujejo enosmerno na nižje sisteme. S. Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive Vrednotni sistem družbe na eni strani usmerja družbene in kulturne dejavnike in ustanove (starše, šolo, knjižnice), da posredno pri posamezniku oblikujejo individualni vrednotni sistem. Hkrati pa ta sistem neposredno usmerja posameznike v njihovem ravnanju in medsebojnih odnosih, tako da to ustreza temeljnim družbenim vrednotam, kar omogoca reprodukcijo družbe in kulture iz ene generacije v naslednjo. Vrednotni sistem družbe tako posreduje med družbo (kulturo) in posameznikom posredno in neposredno. Pomemben del tega dogajanja, ki mu pravimo socializacija, predstavljata procesa vzgoje in izobraževanja. V tem procesu socializacije sta pomembna zlasti dva socialna sistema – družinski in šolski (še zlasti sistem obveznega osnovnošolskega izobraževanja) ali – kot piše Saksida (2016) –, da so bralne navade posameznika odraz visoko ali nizko ovrednotene bralne kulture družbe. Preden pogledamo, kako oblikovati bralno kulturo pri posameznikih, podajamo pregled trenutnega stanja bralne kulture v Sloveniji. Stanje bralne kulture v Sloveniji Aktualno stanje na podrocju bralne kulture v Sloveniji med odraslimi (od 18. do 75. leta) prikazuje zadnja raziskava o bralni kulturi in nakupovanju knjig v Sloveniji iz leta 2019 (Rupar, Blatnik, Kovac in Rugelj, 2019). Iz nje povzemamo kljucne poudarke. Nekatere osnovne podatke, povezane z branjem in izposojo knjig med letoma 2014 in 2019, prikazuje tabela 2. Tabela 2: Trendi bralnih navad med letoma 2014 in 2019 (Blatnik, 2019, str. 33). Branje in izposoja 2014 2019 Trend Berejo knjige vsak dan. 12 % 9 % Letno preberejo 20 knjig in vec. 16 % 11 % Povprecno število prebranih knjig. 11 10 Obišcejo knjižnico vsaj enkrat mesecno. 41 % 38 % Berejo knjige tudi v tujih jezikih. 32 % 35 % Berejo tudi e-knjige. 18 % 18 % Se ne oznacujejo za bralce knjig. 32 % 37 % Iz prikaza je razvidno, da se je povecal odstotek ljudi, ki se oznacujejo za nebralce. Hkrati pa zaznavamo upad bralcev, ki berejo vsak dan, nadalje pa upad tistih, ki letno preberejo vec kot 20 knjig, in tistih, ki obiskujejo knjižnico vsaj enkrat mesecno. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Kot slikovito opisuje Blatnik (2019), »[...] postajamo družba brez branja knjig, tisti pa, ki berejo, vse vec berejo brezplacno in vse vec berejo v anglešcini. In tudi ti berejo vse manj« (prav tam, str. 33). Pri tem Kovac (2019) kot osnovno ugotovitev izpostavlja, »[...] da je po blagem upadanju v 90. letih število nebralcev v Sloveniji znova naraslo, saj jih je trenutno toliko, kot jih je bilo leta 1979« (prav tam, str. 78), in »[...] da smo glede števila nebralcev tam, kjer smo bili pred 50 leti« (prav tam). Pri tem pa se je pokazalo, da so udeleženci raziskave kot najpomembnejši dejavnik, ki vpliva na to, da berejo, izpostavili starše, sorodnike oziroma domace okolje, na drugem mestu šolo in obšolske dejavnosti, na tretjem mestu pa prijatelje in znance (prav tam, str. 19). Kot najpomembnejši dejavnik oblikovanja dobrih bralnih navad se je torej pokazalo družinsko okolje, pri cemer pa ista raziskava ugotavlja, da so slovenski starši otrokom leta 2019 brali manj, kot so jim brali leta 2014. Leta 2019 je dnevno bralo otrokom le 12 % staršev, veckrat tedensko pa 17 % staršev (leta 2014 pa je dnevno bralo otrokom 15 % staršev, medtem ko je bil odstotek tistih, ki so brali veckrat tedensko, enak). Ce poudarimo, da velja družinska socializacija za kljucni element oblikovanja dobrih bralnih navad, je to eden izmed verjetnih razlogov, ki pojasnjuje (slabe) bralne navade pri odraslih Slovencih, poudarjajo avtorji raziskave. Iz omenjenih izsledkov izhaja vprašanje, kako oblikovati dobre bralne navade pri otrocih in mladostnikih, ki se kažejo v njihovem zanimanju in notranji motivaciji za branje, v vedęnju pa kot redno branje, preživljanje prostega casa ob branju in uživanje v tej dejavnosti, izposojanje in kupovanje knjig itn. Ob tem velja poudariti, da dobre bralne navade niso dobre same po sebi, ampak (tudi) zato, ker so tesno povezane z vecjo bralno ucinkovitostjo na splošno, pa tudi vecjo ucno uspešnostjo otrok in mladostnikov. Tudi v slovenskem prostoru je precej raziskav, ki potrjujejo pozitivno povezanost med bralnimi navadami in višjo bralno/ucno ucinkovitostjo pri osnovno-in srednješolskih ucencih. Taka je tudi raziskava avtoric Pecjak in Bucik (2004) na velikem vzorcu 2355 ucencev 3. in 7. razreda osnovne šole. Ugotavljali sta dve dimenziji bralne motivacije – kompetentnost oziroma obcutje samoucinkovitosti za branje ter interes in pojmovanje pomembnosti branja. Ugotovili sta, da tretješolci kažejo nekoliko višjo kompetentnost in pomembno višje zanimanje za branje kot sedmošolci, pri cemer so bile razlike v obeh razredih v prid dekletom. S. Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive Bralna kompetentnost ter zanimanje za branje in pojmovanje pomembnosti branja pa sta se odražala tudi v dejanskem bralnem vedęnju ucencev – kompetentnejši ucenci ter tisti z vecjim zanimanjem in pojmovanjem pomembnosti branja so brali pogosteje in dlje casa ter se veckrat samoiniciativno odlocili za branje kot njihovi bralno manj motivirani vrstniki. Boljša bralna motivacija pa se je pokazala tudi v boljšem bralnem dosežku ucencev. Tudi v mednarodni raziskavi bralne pismenosti PIRLS 2011 (ang. Progress in International Reading Literacy Study) pri 10-letnih ucencih se je pokazalo, da je višja motivacija ucencev za branje napovednik boljšega bralnega dosežka (Mullis idr., 2012). V Sloveniji so imeli 10-letni ucenci, ki radi berejo (takih je bilo 28 %), pomembno višji bralni dosežek kot ucenci, ki berejo še kar radi (55 %), in ti pomembno višji dosežek kot tisti, ki ne berejo radi (takih je bilo 16 % ucencev). O enakem trendu porocajo rezultati mednarodne raziskave PISA (ang. Programme for International Student Assessment) o bralni pismenosti pri 15-letnikih. Kažejo na konsistentno povezanost dobrih bralnih navad z višjo bralno pismenostjo, ki je osnova za ucinkovito izobraževanje, pri ucencih iz razlicnih držav (Klauda in Guthrie, 2015; Legault, Green -Demers in Pelletier, 2006), tudi pri slovenskih ucencih (Štigl, 2020). Enako je v sekundarni analizi rezultatov PISE 2008 pri 7.764 slovenskih 15-letnikih ugotovila Pecjak (2011), in sicer da se interes za branje, izkazan skozi vsakodnevno branje v prostem casu, pomembno pozitivno povezuje z bralno pismenostjo in da je pomembno višji pri dekletih kot fantih. Ce kot enega izmed pokazateljev bralne kulture vzamemo obiskovanje knjižnic, so zelo povedni podatki, zbrani v okviru projekta Javne agencije za knjigo »Rastem s knjigo«, o deležu osnovnošolcev in srednješolcev (Rastem s knjigo: statistika projekta JAK 2009/2010–2018/2019, str. 4). V desetih letih – od 2009/10 do 2018/19 – je od osnovnošolcev, ki so sodelovali v projektu, obiskovalo knjižnico 71–76 %, pri cemer je prisoten trend rahlega upadanja obiskovanja (v letih 2017 – 2019 je bil obisk 71 % in 72 %). Bistveno slabše je stanje pri srednješolcih, pri katerih je prišlo v 10 letih do izrazitega trenda upadanja obiska knjižnic, in sicer s 57 na 43 % v letih 2017 – 2019. Pri tem rezultati študije PIRLS (2006) kažejo, da je bralni dosežek 10-letnikov premosorazmeren s pogostostjo obiskovanja šolske in/ali javne knjižnice. Tisti 10­letniki, ki so obiskovali knjižnico vsaj dvakrat mesecno ali pogosteje, so bili pomembno višje bralno pismeni kot tisti, ki so to poceli redkeje. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Z višjo bralno pismenostjo teh ucencev pa so se povezovale tudi naslednje pogostejše družinske prakse: pogostejše glasno branje otrok družinskim clanom, pogostejše branje družinskih clanov otroku in pogostejši pogovori o prebranem v družini. Melavc (2017) je v svoji magistrski nalogi opozorila na nekatere razlike v bralnih navadah med podeželskimi in mestnimi osnovnošolci. Ugotovila je, da podeželski otroci berejo vec, da knjige, ki jih berejo pri pouku in za domace branje, ocenjujejo kot zanimivejše ter da vecji delež podeželskih otrok bere doma s starši in se po branju o prebranem pogovarja. Ob koncu tega poglavja lahko povzamemo, da se razvita bralna kultura odraža v boljši bralni pismenosti pri otrocih, mladostnikih in odraslih ter da je seveda logicno vprašanje, kako jo izboljšati, ker bo njeno izboljšanje vodilo k boljšim bralnim in izobraževalnim dosežkom posameznikov v družbi in družbe kot celote. Kako izboljšati bralno kulturo? Ce jedro bralne kulture predstavljajo vrednote, se vprašanje o izboljšanju bralne kulture lahko glasi tudi, kaj narediti, da bosta branje in knjiga postala vecji vrednoti, kot sta trenutno. Da je to dejansko aktualen izziv ne le slovenske, ampak širše družbe, govori že omenjeno letno porocilo ILE (ang. International Literacy Association) What's hot in literacy (2020), v katerem strokovnjaki in praktiki med pet najvecjih izzivov za razvoj pismenosti v naslednjih desetih letih uvršcajo angažiranje družin pri razvoju otrokove pismenosti ter gradnjo in ohranjanje ljubezni do branja. Predpogoj za razvoj bralne kulture pri posamezniku je razvijanje prepricanj o pomembnosti branja in dojemanje branja ter knjig kot vrednote. Zato je pomembno vedeti, kako poteka proces oblikovanja vrednot. Pri tem je lahko v pomoc taksonomija vzgojno-izobraževalnih ciljev za custveno-motivacijsko podrocje (Krathwohl, Bloom in Masia, 1973). Ta taksonomija je mišljena predvsem kot opora oziroma vodilo pri razvijanju posameznikovih interesov, stališc in vrednot na splošno, pri cemer jo mi v nadaljevanju predstavljamo v povezavi z branjem in bralnim gradivom. Po drugi strani pa je lahko v pomoc tudi pri ocenjevanju bralne kulture, saj pomaga locevati med stališci in resnicnim ravnanjem posameznika. S. Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive Avtorji razvršcajo bralne cilje v taksonomiji v pet hierarhicnih stopenj (tabela 3), pri cemer je osnova za razvršcanje teh ciljev stopnja ponotranjenja interesov, stališc, custev in vrednot v povezavi z branjem in bralnim gradivom. Pri tem je ponotranjenje pojmovano kot proces, v katerem na zacetku posameznik nekaj sprejme le delno, bolj zaradi zunanjih dejavnikov, pozneje pa vse bolj vkljuci v lastni vrednostni sistem. Tabela 3: Prirejena taksonomija za oblikovanje vrednot v povezavi z branjem in s knjigami. Primeri dejavnosti bralca, ki kažejo na bralno Stopnja Znacilnosti kulturo. 1. Sprejemanje 2. Odzivanje 3. Usvajanje vrednot zavedanje in sprejemanje branja usmerjanje pozornosti na branje/knjige pasivno odzivanje samoiniciativno odzivanje odzivanje z zadovoljstvom dajanje prednosti vrednoti zavzemanje za vrednoto Otrok v vrtcu opazuje vrstnika, ki gleda slikanico. Otrok opazuje knjigo s policami v knjižnici. Otrok posluša in spremlja, ko mu ucitelj/starši bere/-jo. Z uciteljem obišce šolsko knjižnico in si izbere knjigo. Ucenec upošteva navodila ucitelja, da doma vsak dan glasno bere pet minut. Ucenec se v prostem casu samoiniciativno odloci za branje. Mladostnik z veseljem vzame knjigo v roke. Odrasli se veseli, da bo imel med dopustom cas za branje knjig. Ucenec v podaljšanem bivanju namesto družabne igre bere. Ucenec svojim sošolcem z navdušenjem pripoveduje o prebrani knjigi in jih spodbuja, da jo tudi oni preberejo. 4.Organiziranje vrednot analizira, pretehtava, organizacija vrednostnega sistema Branje posamezniku predstavlja vrednoto, ki jo vkljuci med preostale. Razmišlja o tem, kaj mu branje prinaša – prispeva k njegovi osebnostni rasti, širšemu pogledu na svet in družbene dogodke, bogati njegovo jezikovno zmožnost … 5. Internalizaci­ja vrednot splošna usmerjenost karakterizacija (razvoj celovitega znacaja) Brez branja in knjig si posameznik ne predstavlja življenja. Knjige bere redno, jih podarja drugim, se z znanci pogovarja o knjigah, je reden obiskovalec knjižnice, knjižnih sejmov in drugih prireditev v povezavi z branjem/s knjigami. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Na prvi stopnji razvijanja bralne kulture – pri sprejemanju – gre za zacetni razvoj interesov. Posamezniku usmerimo pozornost na dražljaj, povezan z branjem in s knjigo (npr. na osebo, ki bere; situacijo – npr. knjige v izložbi knjigarne, knjižnico), da se sploh zave obstoja branja. To je najnižja raven interesa. Na drugi taksonomski stopnji – odzivanje – je posameznik v interakcijo z osebo/s situacijo/podrocjem. Najprej gre za oblikovanje t. i. situacijskega interesa, ko pobuda za branje in ukvarjanje z bralnim gradivom prihaja od zunaj (od staršev ali drugih družinskih clanov, ucitelja). Npr. starši berejo otroku. Ucitelji odpelje ucence v šolsko knjižnico, da jo spoznajo in da si vsak izbere knjigo po lastni izbiri. Na tej stopnji govorimo še o pasivnem interesu za branje, ki se navadno pojavi na osnovi zunanjih pobud, redkeje pa samoiniciativno. Ce so ponavljajoce se izkušnje otroka s knjigo in z branjem prijetne, se razvije t. i. osebni (aktivni) interes, ko otrok samoiniciativno predlaga, da mu nekdo bere ali med razlicnimi dejavnostmi sam izbere knjigo/branje. Npr. otrok prosti cas preživlja ob branju. Tako se interesi in stališca pri posamezniku postopno utrjujejo ter se naprej povezujejo z drugimi interesi, stališci in vrednotami v kompleksnejši sistem do koncnega oblikovanja celostnega sistema vrednot, tj. življenjskega nazora o knjigi kot nujnem sestavnem delu življenja posameznika. Ponotranjanje interesov/stališc/prepricanj o branju in njihovo povezovanje v vedno kompleksnejši sistem spremlja razvoj custev: od nevtralnih v obdobju zacetnega razvoja interesa prek rahlo pozitivnih do izrazito pozitivnih. Ko ima posameznik že jasno izoblikovano vrednoto branja, se zanj zavzema, se je na racun branja pripravljen marsicemu odpovedati, se bori zanj itn. Ta taksonomija omogoca pedagoškim delavcem, knjižnicarjem, staršem in drugim, da lahko operativno razmišljajo, kako (s pomocjo katerih dejavnosti) branje kot vrednoto razvijati v posameznih obdobjih življenja posameznika. K oblikovanju dobre bralne kulture vodi proces socializacije posameznika, v katerem imajo kljucno vlogo dejavniki znotraj treh socialnih sistemov, to so: družinski sistem, vzgojno-izobraževalni sistem (od vrtca do konca srednje šole/študija) in širša družba, ki drugima dvema sistemoma na razlicne nacine sporoca, kako vrednoti kulturo na splošno in znotraj nje tudi bralno kulturo. Zato v nadaljevanju poudarjamo nekatere dejavnike, ki so – izhajajoc iz empiricnih raziskav (glejte npr. Pecjak, Grosman, Bucik, Gomivnik Thuma in Stritar, 2011; Rupar, Blatnik, Kovac in Rugelj, 2019) – kljucni za razvoj bralne kulture pri posamezniku. S. Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive Razvijanje bralne kulture v okviru družine Družina oziroma starši so generatorji bralne kulture – zacetniki otrokovega interesa za branje in razvoja vrednot, povezanih z branjem in s knjigo. Mednarodne raziskave PIRLS, v katerih je Slovenija sodelovala od leta 2001 do leta 2016, kažejo na povezave med domacim okoljem in bralno pismenostjo 10-letnih otrok. Tako raziskava PIRLS 2011 (Mullis idr., 2012) kaže, da so vecji gmotni viri (vecje število knjig doma, otroških ter vseh knjig in posedovanje racunalnika) pomembni dejavniki višje bralne pismenosti ucencev. Ucenci z veliko viri so izkazovali pomembno višjo bralno pismenost kot tisti z manj viri. Z višjo bralno pismenostjo je povezano tudi to, kakšen bralni model svojim otrokom predstavljajo starši. Pogostost prostocasnega branja staršev je eden izmed posrednih kazalnikov družinske bralne kulture. Slovenski ucenci, katerih starši so porocali, da radi berejo, so imeli pomembno višji bralni dosežek kot ucenci, katerih starši še kar radi berejo, in ti pomembno višji dosežek kot ucenci staršev, ki so izjavili, da ne berejo radi (PIRLS, 2011, Domace okolje in bralna pismenost). Zanimivo je, da razlik med ucenci v bralni pismenosti, ki izhajajo iz dejavnikov družinskega okolja, slovenska šola ne uspe kompenzirati oziroma zmanjšati, kot to uspe nekaterim drugim državam. To pomeni, da se izhodišcne razlike v bralni kulturi družine ohranjajo tudi med izobraževalnim procesom. To potrjuje tudi raziskava bralne pismenosti odraslih PIAAC (2016), ki kaže, da je višja izobrazbena raven staršev (navadno povezana z višjo bralno kulturo) tudi pri odraslih Slovencih povezana z njihovo višjo besedilno pismenostjo. To pomeni, da se slabša družinska pismenost prenaša tudi v naslednjo generacijo. Tretji pomemben dejavnik pa so bralne aktivnosti staršev z otrokom. Empiricne dokaze za to ponujajo tudi domace raziskave o pomenu skupnega branja staršev in otroka v predšolskem obdobju in obdobju zacetnega šolanja (glej Marjanovic Umek, Fekonja Peklaj in Pecjak, 2012). Pri tem raziskovalci ugotavljajo, da pogostost skupnega branja staršev z otrokom vpliva na obseg besednjaka in skladenjske sposobnosti pri malckih že pri dveh letih in pol (Marjanovic Umek, Fekonja Peklaj in Socan, 2017). Zanimiva je študija Bakerja in Milligrana (2013), ki sta pri kanadskih in ameriških starših ugotovila, da ti v predšolskem obdobju berejo vec deklicam kot deckom. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Ceprav so starši sami porocali, da berejo obema spoloma enako, pa sta z natancnim merjenjem ugotovila, da berejo (in se pogovarjajo o prebranem) z deklicami v povprecju vsako bralno seanso tri minute vec, kar ob rednem branju znese približno 100 ur letno in v celotnem predšolskem obdobju približno 500 ur vec branja (in pogovora o prebranem) z deklicami kot decki. Ce vemo, da s poslušanjem starševskega branja predšolski otrok razvija obcutljivost za glasove (ki je pomembna predbralna sposobnost in najmocnejši napovednik uspešnega opismenjevanja v zacetnih razredih šolanja), s pogovorom o prebranem pa svoje govorne zmožnosti in obseg besedišca, so boljše bralne zmožnosti deklet in njihovo zanimanje za branje v obdobju šolanja razumljivejši. To potrjujejo tudi ugotovitve Mišmaš (2018), ki kažejo, da so odnos mater do branja, aktivnosti skupnega branja z otrokom v predšolskem obdobju in skupno obiskovanje knjižnic pomembno povezani z bralnimi dosežki otrok v 3. razredu. Pri skupnem branju staršev z otrokom pa ni pomembna samo kolicina, ampak predvsem kakovost tega branja. Slovenske raziskovalke (Marjanovic Umek, Fekonja in Hacin Beyazoglu, 2020) ugotavljajo, da je bila kakovost skupnega branja med materjo in otrokom pri petih letih povezana z otrokovo sposobnostjo koherentnega pripovedovanja prebranih zgodb. Pri tem so dejavniki družinskega okolja (otrokova starost, ko so mu starši zaceli brati, število vseh knjig in število otroških knjig doma) skupaj pojasnili kar 43 % razlik v kakovosti skupnega branja. Sklep, ki bi ga lahko na osnovi tega izpeljali, je, da je zato treba delati s starši predšolskih in osnovnošolskih otrok pri razvijanju njihove pismenosti in modifikaciji njihovih prepricanj ter vrednot v povezavi s knjigo in z branjem. Družina postavlja temelje odnosa do branja, prepricanj o pomembnosti knjig in bralnega gradiva. V okviru Andragoškega centra RS so oblikovali »Program usposabljanja za življenjsko uspešnost – Beremo in pišemo skupaj« ali na kratko UŽU – BIPS, namenjen manj izobraženim staršem otrok v nižjih razredih osnovne šole (Knaflic, Žalec, Klemencic, 2002). Na spletni strani Andragoškega centra RS obstaja tudi portal o družinski pismenosti (https://družina.pismen.si/), s katerim si lahko pomagajo starši in strokovnjaki, ki delajo z njimi pri razvijanju družinske bralne pismenosti in v njenem okviru tudi bralne kulture, vendar je treba upoštevati, da se z družinsko bralno kulturo le dopolnjuje strokovno delo vzgojiteljev in uciteljev (Pecjak s sod., 2011), o cemer pišemo v nadaljevanju. S. Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive Razvijanje bralne kulture v procesu vzgoje in izobraževanja Razvijanje bralne kulture v procesu obveznega formalnega izobraževanja je sestavni del kurikuluma, predvsem v okviru razvijanja kompetenc pri maternem jeziku pa tudi pri tujih jezikih. Tako npr. v ucnem nacrtu za slovenšcino v OŠ (Program osnovna šola. Slovenšcina. Ucni nacrt, 2018) beremo: »Ucenci in ucenke razvijajo zmožnost sprejemanja, razumevanja, doživljanja in vrednotenja ter tvorjenja besedil v slovenskem knjižnem jeziku. Hkrati si oblikujejo jezikovno in književno kulturo« (tudi bralno, op. avt.) (prav tam, str. 6). In še: »Ucenci in ucenke razvijajo in ohranjajo pozitiven odnos do branja neumetnostnih in umetnostnih besedil« (prav tam, str. 7). Pri tem pa bi kot še posebej pomembno poudarili povezanost med prepricanji in vrednotami o branju in knjigah (kot pokazateljem bralne kulture) in pa spoznavnimi cilji oziroma dosežki ucencev, ki deluje po nacelu povratne zanke. To pomeni, da je bralna kultura povezana z bralnimi dosežki posameznika, ti pa povratno vplivajo nazaj na odnos posameznika do branja in zaznavo branja kot vrednote. Zato bralne kulture kot vzgojnega cilja ne moremo razvijati loceno od izobraževanja oziroma izobraževalnih ciljev. Doseganje izobraževalnih ciljev pri branju, kot npr. da ucenec obvlada tehniko branja, da razvija besedišce, kar mu omogoca razumevanje prebranega, da uporablja bralne strategije, ki mu omogocajo ucinkovito reševanje ucnih nalog itn., vedno deluje na odnos posameznika do branja in njegovo vrednotenje te aktivnosti. Doseženi cilji ohranjajo oziroma povecujejo pozitivni odnos (motivacijo) do dejavnosti branja, neuspehi pri doseganju ciljev pa povecujejo negativni odnos oziroma odklanjanje branja. Zato je kljucno vprašanje pri razvoju bralne kulture v formalnem izobraževanju, kako pomagati ucencu k zanj dobremu bralnemu dosežku, ki ga bo motiviral za nadaljnje branje. Odgovor na to vprašanje je – z izbiro ciljev, ki so za ucenca realno dosegljivi. Doseganje dolocenega bralnega cilja namrec s seboj prinaša pozitivna obcutja, krepi obcutek kompetentnosti bralca in njegovo bralno samopodobo. Vse to pa povecuje njegovo pripravljenost (motivacijo) za branje in odprtost za ukvarjanje z bralnim gradivom v okviru šole in zunaj nje, s cimer pa hkrati razvija svojo bralno kompetenco in si s tem povecuje možnosti za doseganje bralnih ciljev v prihodnje. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Ce je ucenec v branju slabo izurjen (npr. ne bere tekoce, ima revno besedišce, kar mu otežkoca razumevanje), je treba poiskati zanj primerno bralno gradivo (manj zahtevno, knjige z malo besedila), saj mu prezahtevno gradivo povzroca frustracijo, kar zmanjšuje njegovo pripravljenost za branje oziroma knjige. Velja pa tudi nasprotno – kadar se morajo dobro izurjeni bralci ukvarjati z zanje premalo zahtevnimi nalogami, ki jim ne predstavljajo izziva, jih to vodi v dolgcas in nemotiviranost. Pozitiven odnos do branja se torej v šoli lahko ohranja in razvija, le ce ucenci delujejo v obmocju »prilagojenega branja« – ce se srecujejo z bralnimi nalogami, ki so primerne njihovi ravni bralne kompetentnosti. Samo bralno visokokompetentni ucenci se lahko potopijo v branje, kar Csikszentmihalyi (1991) imenuje »flow«. Zatopljenost v branje, ko bralec izgubi obcutek za prostor in cas, v psihološkem smislu združuje kognitivne in custvene procese. Gre za visoko miselno pozornost na gradivo, ki ga bralec predeluje, in hkrati užitek, za katerega pa avtor pravi, da ni samo hedonisticne narave, ampak tak, ki poganja posameznika k višjim ravnem miselnega delovanja in doživljanja. Tudi slovenska raziskava (Pecjak s sod., 2006) je pri ucencih 8. razreda osnovne šole potrdila to povezavo. Pri uspešnejših bralcih – fantih in dekletih – so avtorice ugotovile pomembno vecjo prisotnost zatopljenosti v branje v primerjavi z manj uspešnimi bralci. Zato je ena najpomembnejših pa tudi najzahtevnejših nalog uciteljev pri razvoju bralne kulture, da ponudijo ucencem bralno gradivo, ki je zanje primerno oziroma ustrezno. To je pot, da postanejo branje in knjige ucencem vrednote. Hkrati pa to pomeni, da je treba z ucenci v zacetnem obdobju šolanja dobro izuriti njihovo bralno spretnost, da berejo tekoce in sprošceno ter da jim sama bralna tehnika ne predstavlja frustracije. Pri tem pa velja opozoriti, da samo zapis vrednot v ucnih nacrtih, povezanih z branjem, ne zadostuje. Te vrednote je treba spraviti v življenje oziroma razrede. Ucitelji dajejo na deklarativni ravni sicer bralni kulturi veliki pomen, je pa vprašanje, koliko jim uspe to kulturo tudi dejansko razvijati pri delu z ucenci. To je v veliki meri odvisno od znanja uciteljev o branju, ki ga pridobijo s študijem. Slovenska raziskava (Grosman in Pecjak 2005) na vzorcu 136 uciteljev osnovne in srednje šole kaže, da so ucitelji med študijem sicer dobili doloceno znanje s podrocja pismenosti, vendar je bilo to znanje posredovano posamicno, in še to le pri redkih predmetih posameznih študijskih smeri. Njihova ocena je, da jim to znanje le delno (59 %) ali sploh ne zadostuje (30 %) za ucinkovito delo v razredu. S. Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive Ceprav sta skoraj dve tretjini uciteljev ocenili, da so vec znanja s podrocja pismenosti dobili po študiju, pa rezultati kažejo, da se ucitelji le malo izobražujejo s tega podrocja pismenosti – na seminarjih, interno na šolah ali prek prebiranja strokovne literature. Na deklarativni ravni pa so si edini, da je znanje o pismenosti (zelo) pomembno za ucinkovito delo v razredu. Tezo o pomembnosti uciteljevega znanja za razvoj bralne pismenosti ucencev potrjuje tudi raziskava PIRLS 2011 pri slovenskih ucencih (poglavje 7_Ucitelji). Ta kaže, da je znanje uciteljev o branju – o teorijah in poucevanju branja – tesno povezano z bralno pismenostjo njihovih ucencev. Ucenci, katerih ucitelji so med študijem dobili vec znanja, so izkazovali pomembno višjo bralno pismenost kot tisti, katerih ucitelji so imeli manj tovrstnega znanja. Ta podatek, ki je splošen in velja za vecino držav, vkljucenih v raziskavo PIRLS, kaže, da so teoreticne in didakticne vsebine o branju nujni element kurikuluma bodocih uciteljev. Na razkorak med deklariranjem branja kot vrednote in dejansko aktivnostjo uciteljev v razredu opozarjata Pecjak in Košir (2006) v raziskavi, v kateri je sodelovalo 61 uciteljic 4. razreda osnovne šole. Pokazalo se je, da uciteljice deklarirajo branje in bralne cilje kot zelo pomembno vešcino za ucno uspešnost in osebni razvoj ucencev, vendar pa med uciteljicami, ki pripisujejo branju vecji, in tistimi, ki mu pripisujejo manjši pomen, v njihovem delovanju v razredu ni bilo razlik. Ravno tako ni bilo razlik v prakticnem delovanju med bolj in manj entuziasticnimi uciteljicami za branje. Edina razlika med njimi se je pokazala v bralni motivaciji ucencev, in sicer se ucenci entuziasticnih uciteljic zaznavali kot kompetentnejše pri glasnem branju. Ti rezultati opozarjajo, da samo spremembe v prepricanjih pri uciteljih še ne pripeljejo do vedenjskih sprememb – torej do sprememb njihovega delovanju v razredu. Ce želi ucitelj pomagati ucencem, da postanejo entuziasticni bralci (Applegate in Applegate, 2004), katerim branje nudi užitek in ki se »potapljajo« v branje, je potrebna prisotnost ucinkovitega bralnega modela, ki deluje na ucence. To je lahko nekdo iz domacega okolja (starši), šolskega okolja (ucitelji) ali pa nekdo tretji (prijatelji, vrstniki). Borg (2003) posebej poudarja, da so pri vzgoji entuziasticnih bralcev pomembni ucitelji, njihova prepricanja o pomembnosti branja in to, kar v razredu pocnejo za spodbujanje bralne motivacije. Lundberg in Linnakyla (1993) porocata celo o povezavi med obsegom branja ucitelja in bralno uspešnostjo ucencev. Poudarjata, da imajo prepricanja ucitelja o branju pa tudi uciteljeve bralne navade pomemben ucinek na bralno motivacijo/angažiranost njihovih ucencev. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Navdušenje za branje lahko deli torej le tisti ucitelj, ki je tudi sam navdušen bralec, kar je znano kot »Petrov ucinek«. Appelgate in Appelgate (2004) v svoji longitudinalni študiji porocata o razširjenosti Petrovega ucinka med študenti, bodocimi razrednimi ucitelji. Zacetna analiza stanja med študenti zacetniki je pokazala, da je kar 27 % študentov nenavdušenih bralcev, 48 % povprecno entuziasticnih bralcev in 25 % entuziasticnih bralcev – takih, ki uživajo v branju in se dejansko potapljajo v branje. Ob koncu študija sta ponovila preizkušnjo in ugotovila pomemben upad števila študentov, ki niso uživali v branju (na 13 %), pomemben porast števila povprecno entuziasticnih študentov (na 60 %) in rahel porast števila študentov, ki uživajo in se potapljajo v branje (na 27 %). Pri tem Pecjak in Košir (2006) opozarjata, da bi mogoce pri izobraževanju študentov in uciteljev pomagalo, da bi jim nacrtno ozavestili naravo (njihovega) stališca do branja. Pojasniti bi jim veljalo, da ima vsako stališce do branja svoj kognitivni vidik (prepricanje o pomembnosti branja), custveni vidik (uživanje ob branju) in vedenjski vidik (veliko branja). Ce vedo, da je za razvoj bralne kulture pri ucencih pomembno razviti njihova prepricanja o pomembnosti branja, ucitelj lahko nacrtno in zavestno deluje na ucence kot bralni model, ceprav sam ni entuziasticen bralec (ne uživa posebej v branju in ne bere veliko). V razredu pa lahko poudarja pomembnost branja in skladno s svojo profesionalno držo vkljucuje v pouk razlicne bralne aktivnosti, ceprav to prej ni bila njegova praksa. Poleg vpliva uciteljev pa bi se morali v šolskem prostoru bolj zavedati tudi vpliva vrstniške kulture na branje posameznika, zlasti pri mladostnikih. Mladostnikom sta izjemno pomembna vloga vrstnikov in vrstniški konformizem, ki ga lahko opredelimo kot pripravljenost mladostnika za prevzemanje pravil in norm vrstnikov, zato da je ta sprejet od vrstnikov oziroma da ga ti ne izlocijo (Peklaj in Pecjak, 2015). Norme vrstniške kulture pa pogosto niso skladne z normami, ki jih deklarirajo šola oziroma starši. Zaradi tega se mladostniki velikokrat znajdejo v konfliktu med težnjo po sprejetosti pri vrstnikih ter težnjo po upoštevanju šolskih pravil in sledenju vzgojno-izobraževalnim ciljem, tudi na podrocju bralne kulture. Ce torej skupini vrstnikov, ki ji pripada mladostnik, branje ni posebna vrednota (nisi ''kul'', ce bereš), tudi mladostniki, ki bi sicer brali, ne berejo oziroma o tem vsaj ne govorijo radi na glas. Pogovor o branju in knjigah lahko zacne tudi ucitelj, izhajajoc mogoce iz pisanja mladostnikov na spletnih družbenih omrežjih o dolocenih knjigah oziroma problematikah, ki jih knjige nagovarjajo. S. Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive Zato predstavlja pomemben vidik bralne kulture delovanje v smeri razvijanja prepricanj pri mladostnikih, da je branje ravno tako ''kul'' kot druge prostocasne aktivnosti, ki vlecejo mladostnike. K temu veliko prispevajo vsakoletne akcije, kot so Nacionalni mesec branja, ki v Sloveniji poteka septembra od leta 2018 naprej (pod pokroviteljstvom Ministrstva za kulturo in UNESCA), projekt Rastem s knjigo za ucence 7. razreda osnovne šole (od leta 2010 naprej) ali drugi projekti za mladostnike (npr. Branje je kul, Bodi kul, beri ful). Sklep Kovac (2019) se ob koncu predstavitve rezultatov Knjiga in bralci VI sprašuje, »[...] ali kot družba bralne navade sploh želimo ohraniti kot vrednoto« in »[...] ali so bralne navade in z njimi povezana pismenost nekaj, kar je za dolgorocno preživetje slovenske skupnosti pomembno« (str. 80). Problem, ki ga vidimo danes v družbi, povezan z vrednotami na splošno in tudi z bralnimi vrednotami, je na eni strani v ignoriranju kulturnih vrednot kot necesa, kar je manj pomembno v primerjavi, recimo, z gospodarstvom (kar se je lepo pokazalo tudi pri ukrepih države med koronakrizo). Po drugi strani pa je še vecji problem v nezmožnosti, da bi deklarirane vrednote dejansko »prevajali« v obnašanje, vendar – kot pravi Musek (2003) – nismo izgubili vrednot, ampak se je izjemno povecala moc dejavnikov, ki ustvarjajo neskladje med našim obnašanjem in vrednotami v družbi na splošno. Nedvomno so med temi dejavniki tudi povecane možnosti, da si posamezniki pridobijo koristi na nacin, ki nasprotuje splošno sprejetim vrednotam. Relativiziranje morale in razblinjanje odgovornosti sta pokazatelja aktualnih družbenih trendov, tudi v odnosu do branja in knjig. Zato je še toliko pomembneje, da država poskuša zavestno in sistematicno skrbeti za razvoj bralne pismenosti in bralne kulture svojih prebivalcev – tudi s sprejetjem Nacionalne strategije za razvoj bralne pismenosti (NSRBP) za obdobje 2019–2030 decembra 2019. Razlicna ministrstva (ministrstvo, pristojno za vzgojo, izobraževanje in znanost, pa tudi ministrstva, pristojna za kulturo, družinske zadeve, zdravje, ter druga) naj bi s svojim sinergicnim delovanjem poskrbela za uresnicevanje strategije na sistemski ravni. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Pri tem NSRBP jasno kaže na štiri kljucna podrocja delovanja: a) razvoj in izvajanje programov za spodbujanje pismenosti (na razlicnih ravneh in z razlicnimi ciljnimi skupinami); b) izobraževanje in usposabljanje kadrov (s posodabljanjem vsebin v kurikulumih izobraževanja pedagoških kadrov, kulture visokih pricakovanj, stalnega strokovnega spopolnjevanja); c) mreženje izvajalcev (med ministrskimi resorji in ustanovami na razlicnih ravneh); c) dostopnost do bralnega gradiva (zagotavljanje dostopnosti do informacijskih virov s pomocjo sodobne tehnologije ter do kakovostnega in raznovrstnega bralnega gradiva v vseh oblikah). Iz NSRBP bi poudarili tocko, ki se nanaša na izobraževanje in usposabljanje strokovnih delavcev na podrocju vzgoje in izobraževanja. Prvi korak predstavlja kakovostno izobraževanje uciteljev vseh predmetnih podrocij na fakultetah o pomenu branja za uspešno izobraževanje in osebni razvoj ucencev. Med kompetence uciteljev sodita tudi: a) njihovo zavedanje o potrebi po zavestnem in premišljenem vkljucevanju bralnih aktivnosti pri vseh predmetih, s katerim ucencem omogocajo spoznavanje raznovrstnega bralnega gradiva razlicnih žanrov; b) spodbujanje ucencev k vkljucevanju v razlicne akcije, ki promovirajo branje. Hkrati s tem pa to pomeni, da je treba vzgojitelje in ucitelje spodbujati k stalnemu strokovnemu spopolnjevanju s podrocij bralne pismenosti in bralne kulture. Kot pozitivno vodilo, da so spremembe mogoce, naj služi zapis najmlajše Nobelove nagrajenke za mir in borke za enakopravnost žensk v izobraževanju Malale Youfazai: »Ena knjiga, eno pero, en otrok in en ucitelj lahko spremenijo svet.« Zato velja realen optimizem, da se ob sistemski podpori in vkljucenosti veliko akterjev (še posebej izobraževalcev bodocih vzgojiteljev in uciteljev), ki si že zdaj prizadevajo za razvoj bralne kulture otrok, mladostnikov in odraslih, spirala razvoja bralne kulture v prihodnjem desetletju obrne v pozitivno smer. Summary The article addresses the issue of reading culture and reading as values in Slovenia from a psychological perspective. We support our theoretical considerations with numerous empirical results from foreign and domestic (especially psychological) studies on reading culture. In this article we first try to answer the question from a psychological perspective of what reading culture is and what elements it contains. Briefly, reading culture is a set of prevailing beliefs and values associated with reading. S. Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive These beliefs and values are then the basis for forming people’s attitudes, expectations, prejudices and stereotypes towards reading and books, which in turn influence their reading behaviour, which is reflected in the frequency and length of leisure reading, the number of books read, library visits, the number of books borrowed and/or purchased, etc. Since these represent the core of reading culture, values are placed in the broader context of Musek's categorisation of values (Musek, 1993). Next, we describe the most recent study on reading culture in Slovenia (Rupar, Blatnik, Kovac and Rugelj, 2019), which reports a deterioration in this area in the adult population: an increase in the proportion of non-readers and a decrease in the proportion of regular readers and regular library users. We emphasize the connection between a developed reading culture and the reading and educational achievements of children, adolescents and adults through international studies on reading literacy in which Slovenia participates (PIRLS, PISA, PIAAC) and through domestic psychological research. To answer the question of how to improve reading culture, which is a challenge not only for Slovenian society but for societies in general, we first present the taxonomy of educational goals in the affective domain (Krathwoh, Bloom and Masia, 1973), adapted for reading and books. This taxonomy provides good theoretical support, as it shows how we can systematically develop the reading culture of an individual in five hierarchical levels, from the initial development of interests, through passive-situational interest, to personal-active interest in reading/books. With a guarantee of positive experiences and reading achievements for the individual, which give him or her a feeling of competence, reading interests and reading as a value deepen, and the individual internalizes these to create a complex life view of books and reading as an integral part of his or her life. However, this process of internalization is accompanied by an appropriate emotional basis, ranging from neutral emotions during the initial interest in reading/books, through slightly positive to distinctly positive emotions when the reader is immersed in reading (flow, Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). Throughout this research, we repeatedly point out the intertwining of the functioning of cognitive and affective factors for the development of a good reading culture in the individual. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The process of socialization of the individual leads to the development of a good reading culture, in which factors within the three social systems -family, education and society -play a decisive role. Therefore, in the last part of the paper, we present the factors within each of these subsystems. In developing the factors within the family, we highlight material resources (a larger number of books at home -both children's and others), the role of parents as reading models, and the reading activities of parents with children -especially in preschool and primary school. Through local research, we illustrate the importance of quality group reading in the preschool period for the development of preschool children's language skills (faster development of vocabulary, syntactic skills, coherent narrative skills) and better reading literacy in the early years of school. In the educational system, we emphasize the interrelation between the value of reading/books and student achievement, which in turn has a reciprocal effect on the individual's attitude towards reading/books and his perception of reading/books as values. We highlight that one of the most important (and also most challenging) tasks of teachers in the development of reading culture is to provide students with appropriate reading material and reading tasks. In the following, we draw attention to the gap between teachers' declaration of reading as a value and their actual activity in the classroom, also with the help of research in the local area (Pecjak and Košir, 2006), and emphasize the role of peers in the development of reading culture, which has been poorly researched. From a broader societal perspective, we highlight the recognized importance of reading culture within the National Strategy for the Development of Reading Literacy for the period 2019-2030 (2019). 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Pecjak: Bralna kultura s psihološke in z vzgojno-izobraževalne perspektive What's hot in literacy: 2020 Report. International Literacy Association. Pridobljeno s https://www.literacyworldwide.org/docs/default-source/resource-documents/whatshotr– eport_2020_final.pdf (Dostopno 7. 9. 2020.) dr. Sonja Pecjak Redna profesorica, Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta, Aškerceva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, sonja.pecjak@ff.uni-lj.si Full Professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Aškerceva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, sonja.pecjak@ff.uni-lj.si REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 485–500, December 2021 STATISTICNA ZNACILNOST IN/ALI VELIKOST UCINKA? Potrjeno/Accepted 23. 4. 2021 Objavljeno/Published 10. 12. 2021 Kljucne besede: statisticni preizkusi, statisticna znacilnost, zakljucki, mere ucinka Keywords: predisposition towards sustainable behaviour, Pre-school Education UDK/UDC: 311.1:37.01 TINA ŠTEMBERGER Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Koper, Slovenija KORESPONDENCNI AVTOR/CORRESPONDING AUTHOR tina.stemberger@pef.upr.si Izvlecek/Abstract V prispevku predstavljamo dileme o uporabi statisticne znacilnosti nekega statisticnega preizkusa kot edinega merila interpretacije rezultatov in sklepanja ter nekatere mere velikosti ucinka kot možnega dopolnila pri interpretaciji rezultatov statisticne znacilnosti. Pojasnjujemo koncept mer velikosti ucinka ter pomen njegove rabe v raziskovanju. Izpostavljamo mere velikosti ucinka, za katere menimo, da bi lahko smiselno dopolnjevale najpogosteje uporabljene statisticne preizkuse na pedagoškem podrocju. Opozarjamo tudi na omejitve pri uporabi mer velikosti ucinka ter previdnost pri interpretaciji rezultatov. Statistical Significance and/or Effect Size? In the paper, we present some dilemmas concerning the use of statistical significance as the only measure for interpreting results and drawing conclusions. We also introduce effect size measures as a complementary measure in interpretation of the results of statistical tests. We explain the concept of effect size and emphasise the importance of its use in research. We highlight some measures of effect size that we believe could usefully complement the most commonly used statistical test in educational research. We also point out the limitations of using effect size and urge caution in interpreting results. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.14.4.485-500.2021 Besedilo / Text © 2021 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobcitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Uvod V tujini je že dlje casa zaslediti prispevke s pomenljivimi, do neke mere celo provokativnimi naslovi, kot denimo The Earth is round (p < .05) (Cohen, 1994) ali Using Effect Size – or Why the P Value is Not Enough (Sullivan in Feinn, 2012), It's the Effect Size, Stupid (Coe, 2002), v katerih avtorji opozarjajo, da pri kvantitativnih raziskavah ustaljeno porocanje o zgolj statisticni pomembnosti (znacilnosti) rezultatov ter sklepanje na tej osnovi ni dovolj, da je celo nedopustno. Kot pomembno dopolnitev predlagajo uporabo mer velikosti ucinka. Pri nas je bilo na drugi strani na to temo zaslediti le clanek Velikost ucinka kot dopolnilo testiranju statisticne pomembnosti razlik (Cankar in Bajec, 2003). Izhodišce utemeljevanja nujnosti uporabe mer velikosti ucinka sloni na predpostavkah preverjanja nicelne hipoteze ter arbitrarno doloceni mejni vrednosti presojanja o statisticni pomembnosti (znacilnosti). V prispevku se zato najprej usmerjamo v problematiko sklepanja na osnovi statisticne pomembnosti, nato pa predstavimo vlogo mer velikosti ucinka in razlicne vrste teh mer. Zakljucimo s kriticnim pogledom na interpretacijo tako dobljenih rezultatov. Koncept statisticne pomembnosti (znacilnosti) V kvantitativnih raziskavah obicajno zbiramo kvantitativne podatke, ki jih nato obdelamo z uporabo statisticnih metod oziroma statisticnih preizkusov, na osnovi katerih dobimo rezultate, ki jih je treba še interpretirati. Pri interpretaciji dobljenih rezultatov navadno rezultate, ki smo jih dobili, primerjamo z neko uveljavljeno porazdelitvijo, kar nam omogoca, da ugotovimo, kakšna je možnost, da dobimo to vrednost, ce ne bi bilo ucinka v populaciji (ali drugace: ce bi potrdili nicelno hipotezo). Ce je le malo verjetno, da bi bili rezultati takšni, kot smo jih dobili, potem to pripišemo ucinku v naših podatkih in to imenujemo statisticna pomembnost. Ta postopek imenujemo tudi preverjanje nicelne hipoteze (Field, 2005). Preverjanje nicelne hipoteze je najpogosteje uporabljena metoda v psihologiji (Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori, 2005), pa tudi v pedagogiki, kar pa, zlasti zaradi arbitrarno dolocene vrednosti p, lahko privede tudi do napacnega razumevanja rezultatov in do napak pri interpretaciji in sklepanju. T.Štemberger: Statisticna znacilnost in/ali velikost ucinka? Na problematicnost preverjanja nicelne hipoteze so že v 30-ih letih prejšnjega stoletja opozarjali zelo vidni raziskovalci, recimo Duncan Luce, ki jo je celo imel za oviro znanstvenega napredka, pa Skinner, ki se je želel izogniti preverjanju nicelne hipoteze in je s tem celo zasnoval svojo znanstveno revijo (Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori, 2005). Pri raziskovanju pogosto preverjamo hipoteze, ki se nanašajo na ugotavljanje pomembnosti razlik med dvema vzorcema ali vec, pri cemer pa se premalo zavedamo in posledicno premalo upoštevamo omejitve takšnega preverjanja (Field, 2005). Pri tem pa velja izpostaviti, da se ti dvomi porajajo, ko imamo opravka z intervalnimi ali zveznimi lestvicami, medtem ko je v primerih nominalnih lestvic (imenovanih tudi neurejenih kategorij) in ordinalnih lestvic (asimetricnih odnosov) takšno preverjanje zadostno (Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori, 2005). Ob tem Field (2005) opozarja tudi na napacno razumevanje pomena vrednosti p pri preverjanju nicelne hipoteze. Trdi namrec, da številni raziskovalci, ki preverjajo nicelno hipotezo, ne vedo, kaj preverjajo, zato so posledicno zakljucki pogosto netocni. Izpostavlja, da je dodatna težava vrednosti p ta, da v družboslovnih znanostih nicelna hipoteza nikoli ne drži, to pomeni, da je p popolnoma brez pomena, ker temelji na predpostavki, ki je sploh ni možno uresniciti. Cohen (1990) opozarja, da nicelna hipoteza pomeni, da ni ucinka v populaciji. To seveda ne more držati, saj je jasno, da imamo – denimo – med dvema slucajnostnima vzorcema vsaj majhne razlike v aritmeticnih sredinah; cetudi so še tako majhne, razlike so. Pravzaprav bi se, ob primerno velikem vzorcu, tudi zelo majhne razlike pokazale kot statisticno znacilne. S tega vidika je uporaba izraza, da razlike niso statisticno znacilne, neupravicena. (Ceprav je, jasno, pogosto rabljena.) Ko torej primerjamo pomembnost razlik med dvema vzorcema ali vec, obicajno presojamo, ali so te razlike statisticno pomembne (znacilne) ali ne. Statisticna pomembnost pove, ali so rezultati na odvisni spremenljivki posameznih vzorcev posledica slucaja ali so posledica razlik v neodvisni spremenljivki (Cankar in Bajec, 2003) ali kot meni Cohen (1999): statisticna pomembnost pomeni, da rezultat kot tak ni posledica nakljucja. In prav na konceptu statisticne pomembnosti sloni veliko število statisticnih preizkusov (Cohen, Manion, Morrison, 2007). Ob tem izpostavljamo še nekoliko bolj semanticni vidik poimenovanja statisticne pomembnosti oziroma znacilnosti. Košmelj idr. (2001) navajajo, da je izraz statisticna znacilnost bolj kot izraz statisticna pomembnost zavarovan pred nevarnostjo, da bi ga kdo napacno razumel v pomenu prakticne (pedagoške in siceršnje) pomembnosti, zato predlagajo rabo izraza statisticna znacilnost. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Na problematiko razumevanja pojma statisticne pomembnosti so opozarjali tudi drugi avtorji. Tako je denimo Sagadin (2003, str. 217) poudaril, da pojem statisticne pomembnosti ni istoveten s pojmom prakticne pomembnosti; Cohen, Manion in Morrison (2007) pa so izpostavili, da je pri uporabi besedne zveze statisticna pomembnost potrebna previdnost, saj statisticna pomembnost še ne pomeni dejanske edukacijske pomembnosti. Omenjeni avtorji slednje ilustrirajo s primerom: Možno je, da se med casom, ki ga porabimo za ucenje matematike, in casom, ki ga porabimo za gledanje televizije, pokaže statisticno pomembna razlika, kar pa je lahko popolnoma nepomembno. Podobno, navajajo, lahko ugotovimo, da med ženskami in moškimi ni statisticno znacilne razlike v priljubljenosti fizike, vendar pa že nekoliko bližji pogled kaže, da je. Sicer se lahko pokaže, da je povprecje pri moških vecje kot pri ženskah, ampak razlika ne doseže kriticne tocke 0,05, pac pa je denimo 0,065. Da bi v tem primeru trdili, da razlike ni, ne bi bilo korektno. Podobno navajata primer tudi Cankar in Bajec (2003), ki se naslonita na situacije, ko je rezultat preizkusa statisticne znacilnosti razlik zelo odvisen od tega, kakšna je velikost vzorca in s tem statisticna moc preizkusa. Pogosto se namrec zgodi, da pri majhnih vzorcih vecina preizkusov ne pokaže obstoja statisticno pomembnih razlik, pa ceprav smo kot raziskovalci povsem prepricani v to. Avtorja pri tem kot tipicen primer takšne situacije izpostavita tudi preizkušanje ucinkovitosti izobraževalnih programov ali pa naravo raziskovalnega problema, kjer so na voljo le majhni vzorci. Drugi vidik pa je ta, da se ob uporabi zelo velikih vzorcev zelo pogosto potrdijo alternativne hipoteze. Slednje je po mnenju avtorjev z vidika razvoja znanosti še bolj problematicno, saj smo z obstojem razlik obicajno zadovoljni in se ne sprašujemo o vrednosti teh razlik, ki so tako v resnici zelo majhne. Statisticni preizkusi se ukvarjajo z vprašanjem, kakšna je verjetnost, da so neki rezultati posledica slucaja (nakljucja) in spremenljivosti vzorca ob predpostavki, da nicelna hipoteza v populaciji popolnoma drži. Prakticna uporabnost pa skuša odgovoriti, kako uporabni so ti rezultati (Field, 2005). Izraz pomembnost se tako pogosto tudi samovoljno razume kot pomembnost v smislu relevantnosti. Prav zato je bilo predlagano, da naj bi izraz pomembnost vedno spremljal pridevnik statisticna – da se torej izloci ucinek nejasnosti, ki ga spremlja (Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori, 2005). Thomson (2003) je opredelil tri tipe pomembnosti: statisticno, prakticno in klinicno ter ob tem poudaril, da statisticna pomembnost ne pove, ali so rezultati prakticno pomembni. Po njegovem namrec obstajajo doloceni redki in nenavadni dogodki, ki niso relevantni, hkrati pa tudi pogosti in verjetni, ki pa so zelo pomembni. T.Štemberger: Statisticna znacilnost in/ali velikost ucinka? V povezavi s preverjanjem statisticne znacilnosti (ker se strinjamo s Košmelj idr. (2001), bomo v nadaljevanju uporabili besedno zvezo statisticna znacilnost) je treba najprej ponoviti sicer že dobro poznano dejstvo, tj. da je mejo za statisticno znacilnost p = 0,05 arbitrarno dolocil Fisher (Field, 2005), ki je sicer na osnovi nekih postopkov presodil, da je ta mera dovolj zanesljiva, da dokaže, da obstaja resnicni ucinek. Cankar in Bajec (2003) ob tem opozarjata, da je stopnja tveganja 5 % postala tako rigiden kriterij, da ima lahko povsem sistematicen vpliv na razvoj znanosti. To omenjata zlasti v kontekstu metaanaliz, ki navadno vkljucujejo le raziskave, v katerih so se pokazale statisticno znacilne razlike, take raziskave imajo namrec vecje možnosti za objavo kot raziskave, v katerih obstoja statisticnih razlik ni bilo možno potrditi. Opaziti je tudi, da se rezultati, pri katerih mejna vrednost 0,05 pokaže, da statisticno znacilnih razlik ni, obicajno interpretira ne glede na statisticno moc oziroma velikost vzorca, da torej ucinka ni. Cankar in Bajec (2003) navajata tudi kritiko Rosnowa in Rosetnhala iz leta 1999, ki sta se v reviji American Psychologist spraševala, ali naj se zavrže informacije študije, samo zato, ker so bili rezultati statisticno znacilni na stopnji tveganja 0,06. Vse navedeno vodi v razmišljanje o uporabi metode velikosti ucnika kot alternativi statisticne znacilnosti (Cohen, Manion, Morrison, 2007). Kritike na uporabo statisticne znacilnosti kot prakticno edinega kriterija presojanja pomembnosti razlik se pojavljajo že dlje casa; pomisleke so izrazili tudi nekateri uveljavljeni statistiki, ki so zapisali tudi zelo ilustrativne izjave. Fitz-Gibbon (1997) je navedel, da je arbitrarno dolocena meja statisticne pomembnosti neustrezna, celo zavajajoca in pravzaprav prej ovira kot prednost pri znanstvenem raziskovanju. Field (2005) navaja pomenljiva razmišljanja nekaterih uglednih raziskovalcev, in sicer: Schmidt in Hunter (2002, str. 65, po Field, 2005): »Preverjanje statisticne znacilnosti skoraj nezadržno preprecuje ustvarjanje znanja, s tem ko producira napacne zakljucke o raziskovalnem problemu.« Meehl (1978, str. 817, po Field, 2005): »Skoraj univerzalno zanašanje na zavracanje nicelne hipoteze je grozljiva napaka, je v svojem bistvu nezdrav, šibek znanstveni pristop in ena najslabših zadev, ki so se kadarkoli zgodile v psihologiji.« Glass (v Sullivan in Feinn, 2012) je bil mnenja: »Statisticna znacilnost je ena od najmanj zanimivih stvari pri rezultatih. V raziskavi bi moralo biti navedeno ne le, ali neka stvar povzroci statisticno znacilno razliko, ampak v kolikšni meri dejansko vpliva na ljudi.« REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION In še zelo dobro poznani Cohen (1994, str. 997): »Glavni rezultat raziskave je ena ali vec mer ucinka in ne vrednost p.« Številni avtorji (Cankar in Bajec, 2003; Capraro and Capraro 2002; Fitz-Gibbon 1997, 43; Kline 2004; Olejnik in Algina 2000; Thompson 1994; Thompson in Snyder 1997; Wilkinson and The Task Force on Statistical Inference, APA Board of Scienti.c Affairs 1999; Wright 2003) so kot zelo pomembno pomanjkljivost pri ugotavljanju statisticne znacilnosti izpostavljali njeno odvisnost od velikosti vzorca. Cankar in Bajec (2003) navajata, da je od velikosti vzorca odvisna statisticna moc nekega statisticnega preizkusa ter da je velikost ucinka statisticna mera, ki lahko, za razliko od statisticne znacilnosti, premosti težave, vezane na velikost vzorca. Mere velikosti ucinka V literaturi (Cohen, 1994; Kline 2004; Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 1994, 18; Wilkinson and the Task Force on Statistical Inference, APA Board of Scienti.c Affairs, 1999) je zaslediti številne pozive k temu, da bi raziskovalci pri porocanju o rezultatih podatku o statisticni znacilnosti dodali tudi podatek o velikosti ucinka, v nekaterih primerih je zaslediti celo poziv k porocanju o velikosti ucinka in opušcanju porocanja o statisticni znacilnosti. Olejnik in Algija (2000) porocata tudi o tem, da so mnoge ugledne revije ali opustile porocanje o statisticni znacilnosti ali pa pricakujejo, da je ob statisticni znacilnosti porocana tudi velikost ucinka, saj slednja dejansko sporoca ucinek neke neodvisne spremenljivke. Coe (2000, str. 1) je velikost ucinka definiral kot »[…] nacin kvantifikacije razlike med dvema skupinama«. Ce je bila denimo pri eksperimentalni skupini vpeljana novost, pri kontrolni pa ne, potem je velikost ucinka mera ucinkovitosti te novosti. Wright (2003, str. 125) navaja, da velikost ucinka pove tudi, kako velik je ta ucinek, torej nekaj, cesar statisticna znacilnost ne sporoca. Coe (2002) dodaja še, da je velikost ucinka dokaj lahko izracunati in se ga lahko aplicira na vse rezultate na podrocju izobraževanja in družboslovja nasploh, posebno je uporaben, ko želimo kvantificirati ucinek neke intervencije. Mere velikosti ucinka se na podrocju raziskovanja vzgoje in izobraževanja vecinoma uporabljajo v metaanalizah, zelo redko drugih študijah (Keselman idr. 1998). T.Štemberger: Statisticna znacilnost in/ali velikost ucinka? Mere velikosti ucinka so postale znane že po 2. sv. vojni, k porocanju o ucinkih je Ameriško psihološko združenje (ang. American Psychological Association; Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 1994), vendar pri tem niso bili ravno uspešni. Verjetno zato, ker se jih premalo poudarja v procesu usposabljanja za raziskovanje, ker niso velikokrat omenjeni v statisticnih ucbenikih, pa tudi zato, ker niso vsi izracuni na voljo v racunalniških programih za obdelavo podatkov. (Coe, 2002). Sullivan in Feinn (2012) menita, da je velikost ucinka glavno spoznanje kvantitativne raziskave. Po njunem prepricanju vrednost p bralca informira, ali ucinek obstaja, ne sporoca pa velikosti ucinka. Njuno stališce je, da je pri porocanju in interpretaciji rezultatov treba upoštevati tako vrednost p kot tudi mere velikosti ucinka. Opozarjata pa na problematicnost postavljenih arbitrarnih mej za presojanje ucinka. Thompson (2000) mere velikosti ucinka deli v dve skupini: standardizirane razlike med aritmeticnimi sredinami in mere povezanosti. Pri standardiziranih razlikah aritmeticnih sredin gre za prikaz razdalj med aritmeticnimi sredinami vzorcev v enotah dolocenega standardnega odklona. Najbolj znana sta Glassov .5 ter Cohenov d. Med mere povezanosti pa sodijo vse statistike, ki prikazujejo delež pojasnjene variance, ki so tudi trenutno najpogosteje uporabljene (verjetno zaradi enostavnega racunalniškega izpisa). Mere povezanosti se lahko interpretira kot stopnjo povezanosti med ucinkom in odvisno spremenljivko (Thomson, 2000) oziroma s tem, koliko variance odvisne spremenljivke je povezano z variiranjem neodvisne spremenljivke (Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori, 2005). V nadaljevanju predstavljamo nekaj mer velikosti ucinka, ki naj bi dopolnjevale najpogosteje uporabljene statisticne preizkuse na podrocju raziskovanja vzgoje in izobraževanja. Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient (r) kot mera ucinka Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient je sicer v splošnem najbolj poznan kot mera povezanosti dveh numericnih spremenljivk (vec Sagadin, 2003; Kožuh, 2011), kot pa navaja Field (2005), je korelacijski koeficient verjetno ena izmed najbolj obicajnih mer velikosti ucinka, zlasti eksperimentalnega ucinka. Po Fieldovem (2005) zgledu predstavljamo primer korelacijskega koeficienta kot mere ucinka. Poglejmo najprej spodnje izpise iz programa za statisticno obdelavo podatkov. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Tabela 1: Izpis osnovne deskriptivne statistike za oceno lastne jezikovne ustvarjalnosti glede na delovno mesto. Group Statistics Delovno mesto N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Ocena lastne jezikovne ustvarjalnosti vzgojiteljica 255 3,9922 ,77861 ,04876 pomocnica vzgojiteljice 111 3,9009 ,75021 ,07121 Tabela 2: Izpis t-preizkusa za neodvisne vzorce za oceno lastne jezikovne ustvarjalnosti glede na delovno mesto. Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2­tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Ocena lastne jezikovne ustvarjalnosti Equal variances assumed ,188 ,665 1,042 364 ,298 ,09126 ,08757 -,08096 ,26347 Equal variances not assumed 1,057 216,704 ,291 ,09126 ,08630 -,07884 ,26135 Iz tabele 2 je razvidno, da rezultat t-preizkusa za neodvisne vzorce (t = 2,569, g = 364, 2P = 0,011) kaže, da med vzgojiteljicami in pomocnicami vzgojiteljic obstaja statisticno znacilna razlika v oceni lastne jezikovne ustvarjalnosti. Tudi pogled na aritmeticno sredino (tabela 1) kaže, da sta aritmeticni sredini ocen razlicni, vendar ta razlika ni zelo velika. Sedaj pa zaženemo še Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient z istimi podatki. V tabeli 3 lahko razberemo, da je statisticna znacilnost izracunanega korelacijskega koeficienta 2 p = 0,011, torej enaka kot statisticna znacilnost pri prej opravljenem t-preizkusu za neodvisne spremenljivke za isti spremenljivki, delovno mesto in oceno lastne jezikovne ustvarjalnosti. Po Fieldu (2003) gre za povsem legitimen izracun, pri cemer korelacija izraža razliko med tema dvema skupinama. Korelacija in t-preizkus za neodvisne vzorce sta neposredno povezana, r lahko denimo izracunamo tudi po formuli, ki kot eno izmed vrednosti predpostavlja prav vrednost t (vec v Field, 2005). T.Štemberger: Statisticna znacilnost in/ali velikost ucinka? Tabela 3: Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient za preverjanje povezanosti med delovnim mestom in oceno lastne jezikovne ustvarjalnosti Correlations Delovna doba Ocena lastne jezikovne ustvarjalnosti Delovna doba Pearson Correlation 1 ,188** Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 N 365 365 Ocena lastne jezikovne ustvarjalnosti Pearson Correlation ,188** 1 Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 N 365 366 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Kontingencni koeficient (C) Za kontingencni koeficient velja, da se ga v splošnem najbolj uporablja kot mero povezanosti dveh atributivnih spremenljivk (vec npr. Sagadin, 2003; Kožuh, 2011), lahko pa se ga uporabi in interpretira tudi v kontekstu ugotavljanja ucinkov (Cankar in Bajec, 2003). Kontingencni koeficient (C), ki prav tako variira med 0 (odsotnost ucinka) do 1 (zgornja meja). Obrazec za kontingencni koeficient (C) je sledec: = . .2 .... .2 + .... Iz obrazca lahko razberemo, da je kontingencni koeficient korenjena vrednost kolicnika .2 vrednosti z vsoto .2 in števila vkljucenih v raziskavo. Cohenov d Cohenov d sodi v skupino mer ucinkov, ki temeljijo na standardiziranih razlikah aritmeticnih sredin, gre za prikaz razdalj med aritmeticnimi sredinami vzorcev v enotah dolocenega standardnega odklona. Cohenov d se kot mero ucinka uporablja pri t-preizkusu za neodvisne vzorce. Zaenkrat ga v obicajnih programih za statisticno obdelavo podatkov ni možno izracunati in se ga racuna po spodnjem obrazcu (Cankar in Bajec, 2003). Obrazec za Cohenov d je sledec: REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ....1 - ....2 .... = ............................ Razliko aritmeticnih sredin delimo s skupnim standardnim odklonom. To pomeni, da v primeru homogenih varianc v imenovalec vstavimo standardni odklon ene od skupin, pri nehomogenih pa združeni standardni odklon (pooled SD) (Cankar in Bajec, 2003; Field, 2005). Na podoben nacin bi lahko uporabili tudi Glassov .5, vendar se zaradi dejstva, da se je v praksi najbolj uveljavil Cohenov d, v tem prispevku z njim ne ukvarjamo. Verjetno pa se je Cohenov d bolj uveljavil tudi zato, ker je bil prav Cohen tisti, ki je edini zapisal smernice za interpretacijo velikosti ucinka (Kirk, 1996). Cohen, Manion in Morrison (2007) tako navajajo, da je Cohen opredelil naslednje usmeritve: -Ucinek okrog 0,50 naj bi bil opazen »s prostim ocesom«. -Vrednosti okrog 0,2 naj bi predstavljale majhen ucinek. -Vrednosti okrog 0,8 pa velik ucinek. Cankar in Bajec (2003) pojasnjujeta, da rezultat lahko razumemo na nacin, da si predstavljamo, kolikšen del porazdelitve ene skupine se prekriva s porazdelitvijo druge skupine. Eta kvadrat .2 in delni (parcialni) eta kvadrat .p2 Eta kvadrat .2 in delni (parcialni) eta kvadrat .p2 sta meri ucinka, ki se uporabljata ob analizi variance. Eta kvadrat .2 in delni (parcialni) eta kvadrat .p2 sta oceni stopnje povezanosti, racunani na vzorcu, odvisni sta od števila in velikosti drugih ucinkov (Cankar in Bajec, 2003). Za merjenje ucinka kot dopolnila k analizi variance se lahko uporablja tudi omega kvadrat (.2), ki temelji na parametrih populacije, ki so navadno nepoznani in bi jih tako morali oceniti na osnovi podatkov vzorca (Cankar in Bajec, 2003). Omega kvadrat (.2) je tako ocena stopnje povezanosti, racunane na populaciji, eta kvadrat (.2) in parcialni (delni) eta kvadrat (.2) ocenita stopnje povezanosti, racunane na vzorcu (Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori, 2005). V nadaljevanju v luci znacilnosti raziskav na pedagoškem podrocju tako predstavljamo dve meri: eta kvadrat (.2) in parcialni (delni) eta kvadrat (.2). T.Štemberger: Statisticna znacilnost in/ali velikost ucinka? Eta kvadrat (.2) je korelacijsko razmerje, ki predstavlja odstotek totalne variance, ki ga lahko pripišemo ucinku. Dobimo ga z odnosom med odklonom zaradi ucinka (SSeff) in totalnim odklonom (SSt): .................... ....2 = ............ Pri eti kvadrat (.2) se zaradi dejstva, da je njena vrednost pri enem od ucinkov odvisna od števila in velikosti drugih proucevanih ucinkov, pojavi težava, ko bi želeli dvema neodvisnima spremenljivkama dodati še tretjo. Tedaj bi se vrednost ucinka, pripisana interakciji med prvima dvema, zmanjšala, medtem ko bi varianca, pripisana tej isti interakciji ostala nespremenjena. Parcialni (delni) eta kvadrat (.p2) se od eta kvadrat (.2) razlikuje v tem, da se v imenovalcu obrazca za izracun ne uporablja totalne variance (SSt), pac pa vsoto med varianco zaradi ucinka (SSeff) in varianco zaradi totalne napake (SSerr): .................... ........2 = .................... + .................... Še o interpretaciji rezultatov velikosti ucinka Field (2005) zagovarja tezo, da so mere velikosti ucinka uporabne, ker sporocajo objektivno mero pomembnosti ucinka. Ni torej pomembno, kateri ucinek išcemo, katere spremenljivke so bile vkljucene ali kako, vemo pa, da korelacijski koeficient r = 0 pomeni, da ni ucinka in da r = 1 pomeni, da gre za popoln ucinek. Za velikost ucinka je Cohen (1994) predstavil naslednje orientacijske vrednosti koeficienta: r = 0,10 (nizek ucinek) – ucinek pojasnjuje 1 % skupne variance, r = 0,30 (srednji ucinek) – ucinek nasicuje 9 % skupe variance ter r = 0,5 (velik ucinek) – ucinek nasicuje 25 % skupne variance. Te orientacijske vrednosti služijo oceni pomembnosti ucinka, in to ne glede na rezultat statisticne znacilnosti. R pa ni merjen na linearni lestvici, zato ucinek r = 0,4 ni dvakrat tolikšen kot r = 0,2. Pri interpretaciji velikosti ucinka pa je v povezavi s kategorizacijo malega, srednjega in velikega ucnika vendarle potrebna tudi previdnost, saj kot menijo Glass idr. (1981, str. 104), »[…] je možno ucinek neke intervencije interpretirati le v relaciji z drugimi intervencijami, ki so bile ali so uporabljene z namenom zagotavljanja tega istega ucinka«. Poudarjajo tudi, da je REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION prakticna pomembnost ucinka popolnoma odvisna od stroškov in ugodnosti. Ce se na podrocju izobraževanja – denimo – izkaže, da je z majhno in stroškovno ugodno spremembo možno izboljšati akademske dosežke z velikostjo tako majhnega ucinka, kot je 0,1, potem gre lahko za veliko izboljšavo, zlasti ce se to nanaša na vse ucence ali celo na kumulativo v daljšem casovnem obdobju. Coe (2002) predstavi tudi nekaj konkretnih primerov na to temo in zakljuci, da ima vecina intervencij na podrocju izobraževanja takšne velikosti ucinkov, ki bi jih lahko po Cohenovi klasifikaciji oznacili za majhne ucinke, zlasti ko gre za ucinke na dosežke ucencev, kar bi lahko sicer pripisali tudi veliki raznolikosti populacije šolajocih se. Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori (2005) sicer navajajo, da ne velja neko splošno sprejeto pravilo za interpretacijo velikosti ucinka (prim. tudi Cohen, 1994). Odvisno od raziskovalnega problema se lahko namrec zgodi, da je velik ucinek irelevanten, majhen pa pomemben (Durlak, 2009; Rosenthal, 1993, v Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori, 2005). Velikost ucinka je torej vedno treba interpretirati previdno in najprej v odnosu do rezultatov predhodnih raziskav. Ce smo tudi tukaj rigidni kot pri vrednosti p, napravimo enako napako na drugi lestvici (Thomson, 2001). Kljub temu so Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori (2005) predstavili nekaj predlaganih referencnih vrednosti. Tabela 4: Pomen velikosti ucinka pri nekaterih merah velikosti ucinka (prir. po Bachmann, Luccio in Alvadori, 2005, str. 24). Velikost ucinka Statisticni preizkus Mera velikosti ucinka Majhen Srednji Velik T-preizkus za neodvisne vzorce Cohenov d 0,20 0,50 0,80 Analiza variance (anova) parcialni eta kvadrat (.p2) 0,10 0,25 0,40 Korelacija korelacijski koeficient (r) 0,10 0,30 0,50 Ob tem Coe (2000, 2002) dodatno izpostavlja, da je tudi pri merjenju in interpretaciji mer velikosti ucinka potrebna dolocena mera previdnosti, in to ne le v kontekstu arbitrarno dolocenih mej ucinka, pac pa je potrebno tudi zavedanje, da: -merjenje velikosti ucinka sloni na predpostavki normalne porazdelitve obeh skupin. Ce ni tako, je dejansko zelo težko interpretirati rezultate. -Prav tako merjenje ucinka sloni na predpogoju, da so bili podatki zbrani z zanesljivim instrumentom. T.Štemberger: Statisticna znacilnost in/ali velikost ucinka? -Upoštevati je treba, da bo izmerjena velikost ucinka natancnejša, ko bo izracunana za zelo veliko vzorec. Postavlja se tudi vprašanje, kateri standardni odklon naj uporabimo pri izracunu velikosti ucinka. V idealnih razmerah bo kontrolna skupina tista, ki bo zagotovila najboljšo oceno standardnega odklona, saj predstavlja reprezentativno skupino populacije, ki ni bila podvržena intervenciji, kar velja v primeru, ko je kontrolna skupina velika. Da bi se izognili temu vprašanju, se uporablja t. i. »pooled« ocena standardnega odklona, ki je dejansko povprecje standardnih odklonov eksperimentalne in kontrolne skupine. Hkrati Coe (2002) meni, da se s prepoznavanjem pomembne vloge merjenja velikosti ucinka napram vlogi ugotavljanja statisticne znacilnosti zgodi premik k bolj znanstvenemu pristopu pri akumulaciji znanja. Opozarja, da se o mnogih eksperimentih še vedno poroca brez ugotavljanja ucinkov, z vkljucevanjem statisticne znacilnosti in se dejansko delajo neutemeljeni zakljucki o ucinkih, ki pravzaprav niso bili izmerjeni. Ob tem velja zapisati tudi, da med vrednostjo p in velikostjo ucinka ni neposredne povezave. Ob nizki vrednosti p se lahko pokaže majhen, srednji ali velik ucinek (Durlak, 2009). Sklep V prispevku smo želeli predstaviti pomisleke o izkljucni rabi statisticne znacilnosti kot kriterija presojanja in sklepanja o rezultatih. Prikazali smo, da je, predvsem v tujini, že dlje casa zaznati pozive k uporabi mer velikosti ucinka kot dopolnitve statisticni znacilnosti. Velikost ucinka se kaže kot pomembno orodje pri porocanju in interpretaciji o ucinku. Izracun statisticne znacilnosti je v veliki meri odvisen od vzorca in tako se pri malih vzorcih pogosto zgodi, da se evidentne razlike ne potrdijo kot statisticno znacilne. Ker imamo na podrocju raziskovanja vzgoje in izobraževanja, posebno v eksperimentalnih, pa tudi v neeksperimentalnih raziskavah, pogosto opravka z malimi vzorci (ki so, recimo, vezani na velikost oddelka), vidimo dodano vrednost uporabe mer velikosti ucinka prav v tem kontekstu, zato je naše stališce, da bi jih bilo treba dosledno uporabljati in o njih porocati. Seveda se je hkrati treba zavedati, da je pred samo uporabo teh mer treba zagotoviti zanesljive instrumente merjenja in preveriti normalnost porazdelitve spremenljivk. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Prav slednje bo morda na podrocju raziskovanja vzgoje in izobraževanja najvecja težava, saj vemo, da se vrednosti na tem podrocju zelo pogosto ne porazdeljujejo normalno. Ob vsem tem pa velja seveda posebej izpostaviti, da se mora raziskovalec na nek nacin upreti skušnjavi, da bi se tudi pri interpretaciji velikosti ucinka prevec zanašal na arbitrarno dolocene meje ucinkov in ne upošteval konteksta, saj bi tako ponovil podobno napako kot pri interpretaciji vrednosti p. Summary The paper addresses the issue of using statistical significance as the sole measure for interpreting results and drawing conclusions in the social sciences. Very distinguished experts (e.g. Cohen 1994; Sullivan & Freinn 2012; Coe 2002; Field 2005) in the field of social and educational research have pointed out the fact that the practice of reporting only the statistical significance of the results and drawing the conclusions on this basis is insufficient or that it is even illegitimate. For this reason, the paper aims to introduce the effect measures as necessary complementary measures in the interpretation of the results of statistical tests. Statistical analysis in educational research is usually based on the significance of the null hypothesis, which can lead to misunderstanding and resultant bias arising from the conflation of the 0.05 p-value approach, which was in some sense arbitrary criterion set by Fisher (Field 2005). The concept of statistical significance has been recently heavily criticised, as for example “Statistical testing almost invariably retards the search for knowledge by producing false conclusions about research literature.” (Schmidt & Hunter 2000, p. 65, in Field 2005). It has also been emphasized that statistical significance is highly dependent on the sample size. Recently, the research methodology literature has suggested the possibility (or even the obligation) to introduce the measures of size effect, that measure the sizes of associations or the sizes of the differences. Field (2005) defines effect size an objective and standardized measure of the magnitude of observed effect, which enables researchers to compare effect sizes across different studies. Many measures of effect size have been proposed. However, in this paper we focus only on the measures that we believe can be used in conjunction with the most commonly applied statistical test in educational research. T.Štemberger: Statisticna znacilnost in/ali velikost ucinka? The first measure of effect size presented is the “r”, which is primarily and most commonly known as the correlation coefficient, but it is also a measure of effect size, because the correlation indicates the difference between groups. Rules of thumb for interpreting these effect sizes suggest that an r of 0.1 represents a 'small' effect size, 0.3 represents a 'medium' effect size, and 0.5 represents a 'large' effect size. A very common measure of effect size is d, also known as Cohen’s d. It is used when comparing two means, such as in the independent samples t-test, and it represents the difference in the two groups’ means divided by the average of their standard deviations. Cohen (1994) suggested that d=0.2 should be considered a 'small' effect size, 0.5 represents a 'medium' effect size and 0.8 a 'large' effect size. Another important measures of effect size are Eta-squared (.2) and partial Eta-squared (.p2), which complement the analysis of variance test. These two measures provide information on proportion of the variance in the dependent variable is attributable to the factor in question. The suggested rules of thumb are 0.1 or the 'small' effect size, 0.25 for a 'medium' effect size and 0.4 for a 'large' effect size. In educational research (Coe 2002), the emphasis on effect size is the most important aspect of intervention (e.g. in experimental research) and it promotes a more scientific approach to the accumulation of knowledge. For these reasons, effect size is an important tool in reporting and interpreting research findings. The limitations and potential fallacies of reporting and interpreting results based solely on statistical significance imply that researchers should also consistently report measures of effect size, which add important added value to research and also to the more scientific approach in educational research. However, researchers should avoid simplistic interpretations of effect size as ‘small’, ‘medium’ and ‘large’, as this would impose limitations to rigid use of statistical significance already problematised, ad they should always consider the context of the research. References Bachmann, C., Luccio, R., in Salvadori, E. (2005). Statistical significance and its meaning. Psihološka obzorja, 14(3), 7–14. Cankar, G., in Bajec, B. (2003). Velikost ucinka kot dopolnilo testiranju statisticne pomembnosti razlik. Psihološka obzorja, 12(2), 97–112. Capraro, R. M., in Capraro, M. (2002). Treatments of effect sizes and statistical signi.cance tests in textbooks. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62(5),771–82. Coe, R. (2000). What is an effect size? Durham: CEM Centre, University of Durham. Pridobljeno s www.cemcentre.org/ebeuk/research/effectsize/ ESbrief.htm REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Coe, R. (2002). It's the Effect Size, Stupid. What the effect size is and why it is important. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Education Research Association, University of Exeter, England, 12–14 September 2002. Cohen, J. (1994). The Earth is round (p < 05). American Psychologist, 49, 997–1003. Cohen, J. (1990). Things I have learned (so far). American Psychologist, 45, 1304–1312. Cohen, L., Manion, L., in Morrison, K. (2007). Research Methods in Education. Routledge: New York. Durlak, J. A. (2009). How to select, calculate, and interpret effect sizes. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34(9), 917–928 Field, A. 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Journal of Experimental Education, 66, 75–83 Wilkinson, L., in The Task Force on Statistical Inference, APA Board of Scienti.c Affairs (1999). Statistical methods in psychology journals: guidelines and explanations. American Psychologist, 54, 594–604. Wright, D. B. (2003). Making friends with your data: improving how statistics are conducted and reported. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 123–36. Avtorica Dr. Tina Štemberger Izredna profesorica, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Cankarjeva ulica 5, 6000 Koper, e-pošta: tina.stemberger@pef.upr.si Associate Professor, University of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Cankarjeva ulica 5, 6000 Koper, e-mail: tina.stemberger@pef.upr.si REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 501–517, December 2021 Potrjeno/Accepted 29. 4. 2021 Objavljeno/Published 10. 12. 2021 Keywords: student-centred instruction; science and technology; four-factor model; professional development; stimulating environment. Kljucne besede: pouk osredotocen na ucenca; naravoslovje in tehnologija; model štirih dejavnikov; profesionalni razvoj; spodbudno okolje. UDK/UDC: 37.091.2:[5+62] STUDENT-CENTRED INSTRUCTION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A MODEL OF FACTORS AT ORGANIZATIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL LEVELS PETRA PEJIC PAPAK1, MILENA VALENCIC ZULJAN2 & DARJO ZULJAN3 1 University of Rijeka, Faculty of Teacher Education, Rijeka, Croatia 2 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana, Slovenia 3 University of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENCNI AVTOR darjo.zuljan@pef.upr.si Abstract/Izvlecek To achieve the goals of modern science and technology teaching, it is vital to organize student-centred instruction (SCI). The organization of SCI requires the teacher’s ability to organize cognitively challenging teaching in a stimulating environment. The fundamental purpose of the study was to determine whether the teacher’s organization of SCI was related to factors at the school level (organizational context) and factors at the individual level (individual context). We designed a model comprising four sets of factors. The results show a statistically significant correlation between SCI and all four sets of factors. Na ucenca osredinjen pouk naravoslovja in tehnike: model dejavnikov na organizacijski in individualni ravni Na ucenca osredinjen pouk je bistvenega pomena za doseganje ciljev sodobnega pouka naravoslovja in tehnike. Organizacija takšnega pouka zahteva uciteljevo zmožnost oblikovanja kognitivno izzivalnega pouka v spodbudnem ucnem okolju. Temeljni namen raziskave je bilo ugotoviti, ali je uciteljeva organizacija na ucenca osredinjenega pouka povezana z dejavniki na ravni šole (organizacijski kontekst) in dejavniki na individualni ravni (individualni kontekst). Oblikovali smo model, ki vsebuje štiri sklope dejavnikov. Rezultati so pokazali statisticno pomembno povezavo med poukom, naravnanim na ucenca in vsemi štirimi sklopi dejavnikov. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.14.4.501-517.2021 Besedilo / Text © 2021 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobcitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction The goal of modern teaching in a knowledge society is to provide an in-depth understanding of basic concepts, media literacy, and facility in using advanced information technology, as well as to develop teamwork skills, social and communication skills, and independent lifelong learning skills. The outcome of education is the development of students’ ability to use acquired and designed knowledge and skills in a variety of situations, as flexibly and creatively as possible (Dumont and Istance, 2013). To achieve this goal, it is important to organize student-centred instruction (SCI), based on the didactic principle of comprehensive student activity. There are several terms for describing a student-centred approach to instruction, such as learner-centred instruction (Meece, 2003), learner-centred teaching (Soysal and Radmard, 2016; Du Plessis, 2020), student-directed learning (Zimmerman, 2002), and student-centred learning (Sin, 2015); these all originate in the assumption that students become deeply engaged in learning when teachers support students in generating their own strategies to solve cognitively challenging tasks and in constructing their own understanding of concepts (Talbert et. al., 2019). In this paper we chose the term SCI, because we define such instruction as a planned process in which learning and teaching are intertwined and in which student’s and teacher’s roles change places and complement one another according to the set learning goals. Despite emphasizing the importance of SCI at the levels of education policy and practice, as noted by Talbert et. al. (2019), for the field of mathematics, very little research has been done to examine the relation between student-centred instructional practice in mathematics and adolescents’ engagement in mathematics coursework. In the effort to encourage the comprehensive development of the various individuals in a classroom, it is important to choose forms and methods of teaching and implementing didactic-methodological activities in line with clearly defined learning outcomes (Valencic Zuljan and Kalin, 2020; Plešec Gasparic and Valencic Zuljan, 2019). Good and Brophy (2003) point out that active learning occurs in situations where teaching is targeted, i.e. expressed through clear expectations to make decisions about the best methods and procedures for achieving optimal learning outcomes. Hattie (2018) states that a teacher’s passion for evaluating the impact of their own teaching is a fundamental and critical lever for teaching excellence. P. Pejic Papak, M. Valencic Zuljan & D. Zuljan: Student-Centred Instruction in Science and Technology: a Model of Factors at Organizational and Individual Levels During the SCI process, it is necessary to become acquainted with students’ prior knowledge, experiences, interests, needs, perceptions, attitudes, and motivations (Valencic Zuljan, 2016). Thus, organized student-centred Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) instruction facilitates the transfer of knowledge about science and technology, while supporting critical thinking (Tamim and Grant, 2013; Zuljan and Valencic Zuljan, 2015) and raising student motivation for, interest in, and positive attitudes about science and technology (Burris and Garton, 2007; Boddy et. al., 2003; Cotic et. al., 2018). It further enables the development of independent and creative individuals who can work together as a team and take responsibility for self-reflection as regards their own lifelong learning (El Hammoumi et. al., 2020). In order to help students in modern teaching learn independently in the process of active learning, an environment must be provided in which teaching is characterised by a stimulating classroom atmosphere, where the teacher has positive attitudes towards students’ success, shows interest in all students, uses scaffolding, and adapts learning activities to fit student abilities and interests (Good and Brophy, 2003; Wilen et. al., 2008). Valencic Zuljan (2016) emphasizes the importance of teachers having high expectations of each student and explains that a good learning environment aims to encourage the mental and emotional activity of each student, i.e., establishing an atmosphere with many activities that require perseverance and hard work but are nonetheless achievable. Various studies confirm the importance of a quality classroom environment for student learning and of education quality for student motivation, positive attitudes towards learning and teaching, and student self-esteem (Arisoy et. al., 2007; Chionh and Fraser, 2009; Fraser, 2012; Good and Brophy, 2003; Mucherah, 2008; Pecjak et al., 2009; Valencic Zuljan et al., 2012; Valencic Zuljan, 2016; Vujicic et. al., 2020). The teacher’s role in SCI approaches is much more demanding than in the traditional way of teaching. Thus, it is not surprising that doubts, challenges, and questions arise concerning the time available to achieve outcomes (cover the curriculum), prepare students for successful external exams, create a positive classroom atmosphere, and maintain discipline, successful classroom management, and collegial acceptance (Boddy et al., 2003; Kazempour, 2009; Tamim and Grant, 2013; Vujicic at. al., 2020). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Research Problem and Research Questions Teachers’ professional activity – their motivation and didactic ability to create an atmosphere in which to encourage all students towards excellence in readiness for continuous professional development – is important for achieving modern student-centred STEM instruction goals. To encourage SCI in science and technology (both in the process of initial teacher education at the university level and later in teaching practice), it is important to understand what factors are associated with the teachers’ organization of individual-centred instruction. In this study, we were interested in whether the teachers’ organization of SCI is related to factors at the school level (organizational context) and factors at the individual level (individual context). We designed a model of four sets of factors: 1) fostering an environment for student learning, 2) encouraging teachers’ professional development, 3) teachers taking on a broader professional role, and 4) teachers’ attitudes about professional development. Figure 1. Research model. P. Pejic Papak, M. Valencic Zuljan & D. Zuljan: Student-Centred Instruction in Science and Technology: a Model of Factors at Organizational and Individual Levels In line with the research problem, research questions (RQs) were set that connect SCI with factors at the organizational level (first and second RQs) and at the individual level (third and fourth RQs). Organizational context: RQ1: Is there a statistically significant correlation between the teacher’s organization of SCI and the elements of the school climate – a stimulating environment for student learning? RQ2: Is there a statistically significant correlation between the teacher’s organization of SCI and elements of the school climate – encouraging activities for teachers’ professional development at school? Individual-level context: RQ3: Is there a statistically significant correlation between the teacher’s organization of SCI and teacher characteristics in terms of broader professional engagement? RQ4: Is there a statistically significant correlation between the teacher’s organization of SCI and teachers’ characteristics, namely their attitudes towards professional development? Research methodology Method In our research, we used the quantitative pedagogical research approach and the causal, non-experimental method of educational research. Sample The study included 166 elementary school teachers from various elementary schools in the Republic of Slovenia, with 5 (3%) male and 162 (97%) female teachers. Of these, 7.1% (12) of teachers had worked up to 3 years, 5.39% (9) between 4 and 6 years, 28.74% (48) between 7 and 18 years, 35.32% (59) between 19 and 30, 22.75% (38) between 31 and 40, and 0.6% (1) provided no data. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Instrument and Procedures Data were collected with six different scales developed as part of the project “Culture of Educational Institution as a Factor in Co-Construction of Knowledge”. The Organization of SCI Scale comprised six items, which focused on student activity. Teachers assessed how often they organized classes in which the students observed independently, collected information, formulated hypotheses, carried out experiments, verified assumptions, analysed results, and drew conclusions (Table 1). A 5-point Likert scale (Never; Rarely; Sometimes; Often; Very Often) was used. The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was 0.831. Table 1: Basic descriptive statistics N Min Max ..... Skew. Kur. Teacher's organization of SCI 166 12 30 23.01 -.341 .145 The organizational context was measured with two scales: the Stimulating Environment for Student Learning Scale and the Encouraging Teachers’ Professional Development Scale. The Stimulating Environment for Student Learning Scale contained the subscale Flexibility of Teaching Time and Space with three items, the Cronbach’s alpha is 0.592, and for the subscale Commitment to the Overall Development and Learning of Each Individual with four items, the Cronbach’s alpha is 0.751. The Encouraging Teachers’ Professional Development Scale contains the subscale Climate of Cooperation among Teachers with four items, where the Cronbach’s alpha is 0.744. For the subscale Encouraging Teachers’ Professional Learning with two items, the Cronbach’s alpha is 0.608. Teachers assessed individual items on a five-point scale regarding the extent to which the item applied to their school: 1– Strongly disagree; 2 -Disagree; 3 – Not sure; 4 – Agree; 5– Strongly agree. The context of the individual level (of an individual) was measured with two scales: the Taking on a Broader Professional Role Scale with two items, and the Teachers’ Attitudes about Professional Development Scale with two items, where the Cronbach’s alpha is 0.553. Teachers assessed individual items about attitudes on a five-point scale regarding the extent to which each item applied to them: 1– Strongly disagree; 2 -Disagree; 3 – Not sure; 4 – Agree; 5 – Strongly agree. P. Pejic Papak, M. Valencic Zuljan & D. Zuljan: Student-Centred Instruction in Science and Technology: a Model of Factors at Organizational and Individual Levels Data Analysis Data were processed according to descriptive and inferential statistics. The correlation coefficient (rs) and the Mann-Whitney U test for independent samples were used. Research Results Teachers’ Organization of SCI and the Organizational Context A stimulating environment for student learning and the encouragement of activities for teachers' professional development were assessed in the organizational context. Within the framework of a stimulating environment for student learning, we were interested in the elements of evaluating Flexibility of teaching time and space, and Commitment to the overall development of individuals. SCI – Flexibility of Teaching Time and Space in School According to Vujicic et. al., (2020), the spatial environment provides opportunities for connecting students with the content to be learned. This is achieved by defining the area of activity. The flexibility of teaching time and space in organizing SCI was measured with three elements (Table 2). Table 2: Correlation coefficient (rS) between SCI and assessing the flexibility of teaching time and space in the organizational context SCI Flexibility of teaching time and space in the school ..... s rS p N 1. It is possible to organize teaching time flexibly with a lesson that is not limited by the school bell. 3.40 1.16 .160* .021 163 2. The usable space outside the classroom is also adapted for teaching. 4.03 0.82 .145* .031 165 3. In the classroom, the chairs are arranged in such a way that it is possible to organize group work, and the environment is stimulating for two-way communication between the teacher and the students and between the students themselves. 4.21 0.78 .234** .001 166 Legend: * p < .05. ** p < .01. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION An overview of the arithmetic means (Table 2) shows that the more frequently present items are associated with allowing space adaptation compared to the item associated with flexible teaching time organization. Among these three elements, the most prevalent is spatial organization in the classroom to enable the organization of various forms of work and encourage two-way communication (x.= 4.21), followed by the use of space outside the classroom (x.= 4.03). Slightly lower, but still with a high mean value (x.= 3.40), is the possibility of flexible teaching time arrangements. Our research showed a statistically significant correlation between SCI and all three elements related to the flexibility of teaching time and space in school. Those teachers who organize SCI more often provide assessments that are statistically significantly higher, affirming that teachers in their school can flexibly organize time within a lesson that is not limited by the school bell (rS = .160*, p = .021); to adapt the learning space in such a way that the layout of the desks enables the organization of various forms of work and cooperation of all teaching participants (rS = .234**, p = .001); and to adapt and use the space outside the classroom (rS = .145*, p = .031). SCI and Teachers’ Commitment to the Overall Development and Learning of Each Student Schoolteachers’ commitment to the development and learning of individuals was measured with four elements (Table 3). Table 3: Correlation coefficient (rS) between SCI and schoolteachers’ commitment to the overall development and learning of each student SCI Schoolteachers’ engagement with/commitment to the overalldevelopment and learning of each student ..... s rS p N 1. Excellence is encouraged – excellence of each individual. 4.23 0.72 .218** .003 164 2. Teachers highly value students’ learning skills. 4.14 0.68 .227** .002 164 3. Encouragement of collaboration among students is an important goal for every teacher in our school. 4.26 0.72 .261** <.001 167 4. It is important for teachers in our school to encourage students to develop science and technical literacy. 3.93 0.73 .168** .016 163 Legend: ** p < .01. P. Pejic Papak, M. Valencic Zuljan & D. Zuljan: Student-Centred Instruction in Science and Technology: a Model of Factors at Organizational and Individual Levels Teachers rate the presence of all four elements relatively high. The review of arithmetic means shows that teachers assess that their colleagues encourage cooperation between students (x. = 4.26), encourage excellence, i.e., individual excellence (x.= 4.23) but also the students’ skill in learning to learn (x.= 4.23). The arithmetic mean value is slightly lower for the item “It is important for the teachers of our school to encourage students to develop science and technical literacy” (x.= 3.93). According to Suprayoga and Valckei (2016), the stated context of the modern SCI process determines the application of strategies, diversity in learning activities, monitoring of students’ individual needs, and achieving learning outcomes. We found a statistically significant correlation between SCI and all four elements of staff commitment to the overall development and learning of each student. Teachers who more often organize SCI are statistically significantly more likely to assess that their school encourages student excellence (rS = .218**, p = .005), cooperation among students (rS = .261**, p = .001), student learning skills (rS = .227**, p = .004), and the development of science and technical literacy (rS = .168**, p = .003). SCI and the Climate of Collaboration Among Teachers The climate of cooperation in the organization was measured with four elements (Table 4). Table 4: Correlation coefficient (rS) between SCI and the climate of collaboration among teachers SCI Climate of collaboration among teachers ..... s rS p N 1. Teachers of different subjects carry out interdisciplinary teaching. 3.48 0.89 .195* .006 162 2. Teachers at our school can always count on the support and help of professional associates (school counselling services). 4.09 0.83 .189* .007 166 3. Pedagogical staff with varied profiles cooperate on an equal basis. 4.14 0.81 .171* .014 166 4. We have a clearly defined school vision, which is accepted by all school staff. 3.69 0.87 .133* .044 166 Legend: * p < .05. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The review of arithmetic means shows teachers assessing with high values that teachers at their school can always count on the support and help of professional associates (x. = 4.09), and that various pedagogical staff members cooperate on an equal basis (x. = 4.12). Somewhat lower arithmetic means were obtained for conducting interdisciplinary teaching (x.= 3.48) and having a clearly defined school vision accepted by all school staff (x. = 3.69). We found a statistically significant correlation between SCI and all four elements of collaboration among teachers. Teachers who more often organize SCI prove to be more statistically significantly appreciative of the support and help of professional associates who can always be counted on (rS = .189*, p = .007), a clear school vision accepted by all school staff (rS = .133*, p = .044), conducting interdisciplinary teaching (rS = .195*, p = .006), and cooperation of pedagogical staff of various profiles within the team (rS = .171*, p = 0.014). SCI and Encouragement of Teachers’ Professional Learning The teacher’s role in SCI approaches is much more demanding than traditional modes of teaching, so it is essential that teachers be encouraged to engage in professional development and enabled to do so in various ways. Supporting professional development, investing in learning, continuous professional development, and the research into personal practice become the main drivers of self-organizing processes comprising institutional development aimed at continuously changing student-centred educational practice. Encouraging teachers’ professional learning was measured with two elements of the educational organization that teachers assessed, specifically how often these were made available (Table 5). Table 5: Correlation coefficient (rs) between SCI and encouraging teachers’ professional learning SCI Encouraging teachers’ professional learning ..... s rS p N 1. At our school, quality internal professional development is organized for teachers. 4.33 0.74 .186** .008 166 2. Teachers at our school are encouraged to participate in various forms of professional development outside school. 4.07 0.83 .195** .006 166 Legend: ** p < .01. P. Pejic Papak, M. Valencic Zuljan & D. Zuljan: Student-Centred Instruction in Science and Technology: a Model of Factors at Organizational and Individual Levels The results indicate that both elements for encouraging professional learning are highly present (x.= 4.33 and x.= 4.07) (Table 4). We found a statistically significant correlation between SCI and both elements for encouraging professional learning. Teachers who more often organize SCI assess as statistically significantly higher the potential for organized, quality, internal professional development at school (rS = .186*, p = .008), as well as incentives for teacher participation in various forms of professional development outside the school (rS = .195**, p = .006). Teacher s’ Organization of SCI and the Individual Context In the individual context, teachers’ broader professional activities were assessed; we measured these by their having taken on the role of mentor and by teachers’ attitudes about professional development. SCI and Taking on the Broader Professional Role of Mentor Teachers’ broader professional activities were measured through their mentoring of students in pedagogical practice, internships or student performances, and mentoring interns (over a period of three years) (Table 6). We were interested in whether teachers who more often organize SCI invest more in professional mentoring activities. The variable of SCI is not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for the variable of SCI Z = 0.131, 2p = <.001). Table 6: Results of the Mann-Whitney U test that explored the differences in SCI and the teacher’s role of mentor SCI Test statistics Broader professional role 1. Mentoring students in pedagogical practice, during internships, or student performances. 2. Mentoring interns. no yes no yes N 38 123 120 35 Mean Rank 59.04 87.78 75.47 91.31 U 1502.500 1704.000 Z -3.34 -1.83 2p .001 .067 We can observe from Table 6 that teachers are more likely to mentor students than to mentor interns, which is understandable, given the extent of pedagogical practice. The Mann-Whitney U test for independent samples (Table 6) showed that teachers who organize SCI are statistically significantly more likely to take on the role of mentor to students (2p = .001). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION No statistically significant differences were found between SCI and mentoring of interns (2p = .067), showing a correlation that is not statistically significant. SCI and Teachers’ Attitudes about Professional Development Attitudes about group research on educational practice, which is the foundation for change and progress, and those about teachers’ professional development – how to respect and change teachers’ perceptions and beliefs – were measured with two items (Table 7). Table 7: Correlation coefficient (rS) between SCI and teachers’ attitudes about professional development SCI rS ..... p Teachers’ attitudes about professional development s N Teachers’ joint research of educational practice, different researchers is the foundation for changing pedagogical practice. teams, and 4.10 0.73 .265** <.001 165 Teachers’ professional development should take account of and change teachers’ perceptions and beliefs. 4.01 0.81 .103 .094 165 Legend: ** p < .01. Table 7 shows that there is a statistically significant correlation between teachers’ attitudes about joint research on teachers’ educational practice, various teams, and researchers, which is the foundation for changing pedagogical practice and teachers’ organization of SCI (rS = .265**, p <.001). However, we found no statistically significant differences between SCI and the attitudes of which teachers’ professional development should take account to change teachers’ perceptions and beliefs (rS = .103, p = .094). P. Pejic Papak, M. Valencic Zuljan & D. Zuljan: Student-Centred Instruction in Science and Technology: a Model of Factors at Organizational and Individual Levels Discussion and conclusions In order to achieve the goals of modern science and technology teaching, it is vital to organize SCI. The structure of teaching is important for the quality of the SCI process (Barron and Darling-Hammond, 2013). It is necessary for the teacher’s professional ability to harmonize the planned outcomes with the manner of teaching; to respect students’ interests and needs; to provide organizational support (e.g., setting clear expectations, managing instructional time and routines so that students have the maximum opportunity to learn) and instructional support (e.g., providing constructive feedback, using strategies to promote children’s thinking and understanding of the content at a deeper and more complex level, and modelling) (Barron and Darling-Hammond, 2013; Downer et al., 2015; Martin and Rimm-Kaufman, 2015). The purpose of the study was to evaluate the model of factors in SCI. The results of this study confirm the multi-factor model at the level of the context of the organization and at the individual level. The results indicate a statistically significant correlation between SCI and all elements of a stimulating environment for student learning, both the flexibility of teaching time and space and the engagement of schoolteachers in the student's overall development. The study has shown that teachers who organize SCI are more likely to report a statistically significant higher evaluation of the elements flexibility in teaching time and space in school. The importance of the spatial environment stems from its impact on student's academic, social, and emotional development, the learning process, and student perceptions of learning and school (Farmer et. al., 2011; Gest and Rodkin, 2011; Kutnick and Kington, 2005; Van den Berg et. al., 2012; Wannarka and Ruhl, 2008). Encouraging individual excellence, development of students’ science and technical literacy, facilitating the acquisition of learning skills in students, and the development of cooperation among students are important goals in SCI. The engagement of all teachers in the student's overall development is important for the success of such teaching. This is a demanding goal, and in order to be realized, teachers must have positive expectations of their students. They must also encourage students to achieve outcomes with the belief that even lofty goals can be achieved through diligent learning and effort (Wilen et. al., 2008). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION For students to realize their potential, the teacher must offer various forms of scaffolding (Valencic Zuljan, 2016), as well as respect for the didactic principle of differentiation and individualization (Valencic Zuljan and Kalin, 2020). Our study has shown that teachers who organize SCI are more likely to record higher evaluations—to a statistically significant level--for all four elements of commitment to the overall development and learning of individuals: encouraging excellence in each student and cooperation among students, while encouraging student learning, and the development of science and technical literacy. Several studies (Day et al., 2007) confirm the importance of collegial support and the support of principals for achieving excellence in teachers’ professional work and professional development. The research established a statistically significant correlation between SCI and elements of cooperation between teachers. Those teachers who organize SCI more often report greater appreciation--on a statistically significant basis--for the collective support and assistance of professional associates who can be counted on at any time, with the indication that there is a clear school vision that is accepted by all school staff, and interdisciplinary classes are conducted with the teamwork of colleagues from different fields. The goal of SCI should be continuous improvement of the teaching process, which includes the implementation of continuous professional learning even during the teaching and solving of collaborative problems to further improve professional development activities, providing opportunities to gain an understanding of theories aimed at improving student learning. It is precisely SCI that requires the teacher’s competency to differentiate and individualize learning. It is a complex competency that develops, according to research findings, during later stages of teachers’ professional development (Antoniou and Kyriakides, 2011, Pecar, 2018; Van den Lans et. al., 2017). Furthermore, it is important to emphasize that, in for teachers to have both a positive attitude towards SCI and the necessary didactic competencies for teaching, it is necessary to organize higher education for the teaching profession according to the model of SCI. Organized learning activities are thus needed in the later stages of teachers’ professional careers (Plešec Gasparic et. al., 2020). Acknowledgment We would like to express our gratitude to all the teachers for their significant contribution to this research P. Pejic Papak, M. Valencic Zuljan & D. Zuljan: Student-Centred Instruction in Science and Technology: a Model of Factors at Organizational and Individual Levels References Antoniou, P., and Kyriakides, L. (2011). 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Theory into Practice, 41(2), 64–72. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2 Zuljan, D., and Valencic Zuljan, M. (2015). Tehnološka pismenost študentov, bodocih uciteljev, z vidika znanja, izkušenj ter ocene pomembnosti tehnologije v življenju in v procesu šolanja. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje, 8(4), 103-120. Authors Petra Pejic Papak, PhD Associate professor, University of Rijeka, Faculty of Teacher Education, Sveucilišna avenija 6, 51 000 Rijeka, Croatia, e-mail: petra.pejic.papak@uniri.hr Izredni profesor, Univerza v Reki, Ucitelska fakulteta, Sveucilišna avenija 6, 51000 Rijeka, Hrvaška, e-pošta: petra.pejic.papak@uniri.hr Milena Valencic Zuljan, PhD Professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva plošcad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, e-mail: milena.valencic-zuljan@guest.arnes.si Profesor, Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta, Kardeljeva plošcad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija, e-pošta: milena.valencic-zuljan@guest.arnes.si Darjo Zuljan, PhD Associate professor, University of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Cankarjeva 5, 6000 Koper, Slovenia.e-mail: darjo.zuljan@pef.upr.si Izredni profesor, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Cankarjeva 5, 6000 Koper, Slovenija, e-pošta: darjo.zuljan@pef.upr.si NAVODILA AVTORJEM Osnovni namen revije je povezati širok spekter teoreticnih izhodišc in prakticnih rešitev v izobraževanju ter tako spodbujati razlicne metodološke in vsebinske razprave. Uredniški odbor združuje strokovnjake in raziskovalce iz vec evropskih držav in s tem želi ustvariti možnosti za živahen dialog med raznovrstnimi disciplinami in razlicnimi evropskimi praksami, povezanimi z izobraževanjem. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje torej objavlja prispevke, ki obravnavajo pomembna, sodobna vprašanja na podrocju vzgoje in izobraževanja, uporabljajo primerno znanstveno metodologijo ter so slogovno in jezikovno ustrezni. Odražati morajo pomemben prispevek k znanosti oziroma spodbudo za raziskovanje na podrocju vzgoje in izobraževanja z vidika drugih povezanih ved, kot so kognitivna psihologija, razvoj otroka, uporabno jezikoslovje in druge discipline. Revija sprejema še neobjavljene clanke, ki niso bili istocasno poslani v objavo drugim revijam. Prispevki so lahko v slovenskem, angleškem ali nemškem jeziku. Sprejemanje clankov v objavo Prejete prispevke najprej pregleda urednik/založniški odbor in ugotovi, ali vsebinsko ustrezajo konceptu in kriterijem revije. 1. Ce prispevek ustreza konceptu in kriterijem revije, ga uredniški odbor pošlje dvema anonimnima recenzentoma. Clanek, ki je vsebinsko skladen s konceptom revije, vendar ne ustreza drugim kriterijem, lahko uredništvo vrne avtorju, da ga popravi. 2. O sprejemu ali zavrnitvi clanka je avtor obvešcen približno tri mesece po njegovem prejemu. 3. Avtor dobi recenzirani prispevek vkljucno z morebitnimi priporocili za izboljšave/popravke, v primeru zavrnitve pa z navedenimi razlogi zanjo. 4. Koncno odlocitev o objavi clanka sprejme urednik na temelju priporocil recenzentov. Pri tem utemeljitve za svojo odlocitev ni dolžan navesti. 5. Besedilo prispevka mora biti pripravljeno v skladu z Navodili avtorjem. 6. Avtor jamci, da so v prispevku predstavljeni podatki natancni, verodostojni in izvirni. Ko je clanek sprejet v objavo, avtor podpiše Izjavo o eticnosti raziskovanja in Izjavo avtorja o izvirnosti prispevka. Vsi prispevki gredo skozi postopek za ugotavljanje plagiatorstva. Navodila za oblikovanje besedila Pri pripravi besedila prispevka upoštevajte naslednja navodila: 1. Tipkopis oddajte kot dokument v programu Microsoft Windows. Nabor pisave je Times New Roman, velikost crk 12 za osnovno besedilo in 10 za povzetka v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku, literaturo in citate, ce so daljši od treh vrstic, razmik med vrsticami pa je 1,5. Velikost pisave v tabelah in naslovih tabel ter grafov je 10; razmik med vrsticami pa enojni. Širina tabele naj ne presega 12,5 cm. Besedilo naj bo obojestransko poravnano. Vodilni naslovi naj bodo zapisani krepko, prvi podnaslovi ležece, drugi podnaslovi pa navadno. Naslovov in strani ne številcite in ne uporabljajte velikih tiskanih crk. 2. Besedilo prispevka naj ne presega 38.000 znakov s presledki, vkljucno s povzetki, literaturo in kljucnimi besedami. 3. Naslov prispevka naj ne presega 15 besed in naj bo v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku. 4. Prispevek naj ima na zacetku povzetek v slovenskem jeziku ter njegov prevod v angleškem jeziku (oziroma obratno) in naj ne presega 100 besed. Za povzetkom naj bo 5 kljucnih besed. Poleg povzetkov naj prispevek na koncu prispevka, pred literaturo, vsebuje daljši povzetek (500-700 besed) v anglešcini, ce je clanek napisan v slovenšcini. 5. V prispevku ne uporabljajte ne sprotnih ne koncnih opomb. 6. Vire navajajte v skladu s standardom APA (American Psychological Association). V seznam literature vkljucite samo v tekocem besedilu navedene vire, ki jih uredite po abecednem vrstnem redu. 7. V posebnem dokumentu pošljite naslednje podatke: ime in priimek avtorja, akademski naziv, organizacijo, kjer je avtor zaposlen, elektronski naslov, naslov bivališca in naslov prispevka. Primeri: Knjige: priimek, zacetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov, kraj, založba. Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didakticni problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta. Clanki v revijah: priimek, zacetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, ime revije, letnik, številka, strani. Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Šport, 50 (1), 11–15. Prispevki v zbornikih: priimek, zacetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, podatki o knjigi ali zborniku, strani, kraj, založba. Fošnaric, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juricic (ur.), Šolska higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27–34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD. Vkljucevanje reference v tekst: ce gre za dobesedno navedbo, napišemo v oklepaju priimek avtorja, leto izdaje in stran (Lipovec, 2005, str. 9), ce pa gre za splošno navedbo, stran izpustimo (Lipovec, 2005). Prispevke lahko avtorji pošljejo po elektronski pošti na naslov rei.pef@um.si ali jih oddajo na spletni aplikaciji: https://journals.um.si/index.php/education/about/submissions . MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION GUIDELINES The basic purpose of the journal JEE is to cover a broad spectrum of education theory and its implications for teaching practice, seeking to bridge and integrate diverse methodological and substantive research. The Editorial Board brings together academics and researchers from different European countries, who seek to promote a vigorous dialogue between scholars in various fields both central and related to scientific enquiry in education. Articles accepted for publication in JEE should address an important, up to date issue in education, apply appropriate research methodology, and be written in a clear and coherent style. Accepted articles should make significant contributions to the field. In addition, JEE accepts articles which promote advances in education from closely related fields, such as cognitive psychology, child development, applied linguistics and others. JEE does not publish articles that have appeared elsewhere or have been concurrently submitted to or are already under consideration for publication in other journals. The languages accepted for the papers eligible for publication in JEE are Slovene and English. Paper Acceptance Procedure After a paper is submitted to JEE, the editor/publishing board first establishes if it is within the journal's domain of interests and meets the journal's requirements for style and quality. 1. If the paper meets the standard and the concept of the journal, it is sent to reviewers. JEE uses a double-blind review. Papers which are within the journal's domain but do not meet its requirements for style or quality, may be returned to the author for revision. 2. Authors will be notified of acceptance or rejection of the article about three months after submission of the manuscript. 3. The reviewed papers are returned to the authors with reviewers’ feedback and suggestions for improvement or an indication of the reasons for a rejection. 4. The decision regarding publication is made by the editor after considering the reviewers’ recommendations. The editorial board is under no obligation to provide justification for its decision. 5. The text of the paper should be edited in accordance with the Submission Guidelines. 6. Authors must certify that the data cited in the article are, to the best of their knowledge, accurate, reliable and authentic. When the article is accepted for publication, the author has to sign the Publishing Ethics Statement and the Statement of Authenticity. Manuscripts will also be submitted to plagiarism detection software. Preparation of Copy Follow these instructions for the preparation of the manuscript: 1. Submit your manuscript as a Word file. Use Times New Roman: 12 pt, for main text and 10 pt, for abstract in Slovene and English, and for references and quotations of three lines or more. All text must be 1.5 spaced and justified. The fint size in table and diagram titles is 10; the line spacing is single. Maximum table width is 12,5 cm. The text should bi aligned on both sides. Use boldface type for first level headings, italics for second level headings and regular type for all other headings. Do not number headings. Do not number headings or use uppercase. 2. The length of your paper should not exceed 38,000 characters with spaces including the abstracts, bibliography, and key words. 3. The title of your article should not exceed 15 words. The title should be written in English and in Slovene. 4. At the beginning of the manuscript include an abstract (up to 100 words) in the language of the article, and its translation into the other language, followed by 5 key words. In addition to the abstracts also include a longer summary (about 500-700 words) at the end manuscript, before reference -in English if the article is in Slovene and in Slovene if the article is in English.Do not use either footnotes or endnotes. 5. Do not use either footnotes or endnotes. 6. Quote references in accordance with the American Psychological Association (APA) style. Include only the sources cited in current text, arranged in alphabetical order. 7. Send a separate document with the following information: author’s name and family name, address, full title of the article, academic title, affiliation and e-mail address. Example: Books: last name and name of the author, year of publication, title, location, press. Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didakticni problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta. Articles from Magazines: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, name of the magazine, year, issue number, page(s). Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Šport, 50 (1), 11–15. Academic Journals: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, information about the journal, page(s). Fošnaric, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juricic (ur.), Šolska higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27–34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD. Citing sources in the body of the text: If a direct quotation is cited, write the last name of the author, year it was published and page number. Put this information in parenthesis (Lipovec, 2005, pg. 9). If the information is paraphrased, leave out the page number (Lipovec, 2005). Manuscripts may be sent electronically to rei.pef@um.si or uploaded at https://journals.um.si/index.ph– p/education/about/submissions .