* HJ* -4* -«C -4* -4€ -« ?j -4*4* ^ ^ m ■ - ""CT i __ * * * • **'.*.* * 1 ■ • ' *r ' * * ' ' '.'i' i- i i ' - i« !-;—_______*___«-*---^.^^vm-.^^ „ • _____ v * .___....._________.__. --------W-.-w, • * -w--^-f»rrr:. ■ ■ *■">■'-■ ■ I .11 II Ul... ^ 4«i -^L -^r -4* ■ • • • ;„•*.. ...•.*. * * . ■.;•'.•.•.■.■••••,'•*.•.••■. . * • ♦*»"•*• • • .*.*•*» '. . •' * *. » • •*•**•.•• ar-^^i^^ -<4F ^ -4^ ^ L / . »• , . * . . . * t v . . . . t. ^ i.iL_v.;.ni.ti;'M^tiir«-i'''L«>vViii'ii'r *■ r ti-^ ....... - . . m-^*******.-*. » « III* I*"'?*1*' " ' »■ » "! r*lf"> **"*• • # 4f " . TRAVELS INTO POLAND, RUSSIA, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK. ■ INTERSPERSED WITH HISTORICAL RELATIONS AND POLITICAL INQUIRIES. ILLUSTRATED WITH CHARTS AND ENGRAVINGS. By WILLIAM COXE, A.M. F.R.S. FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; AND CHAPLAIN TO HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH. IN TWO VOLUMES. THE SECOND EDITION. VOLUME THE SECOND, LONDON: PRINTED FOR T. CADELL, IN THE STRAND. M DCC LXXXV. O N T E N T OF THE SECOND VOLUME, BOOK V. TRAVELS into RUSSIA. Ch. I. REvolution of mdcclxii. * - - p. 2 Ch. II. Hi/lory of prince Ivan.—Account of his parents and family*—Biographical anecdotes of count Munich - - p. 29 Ch. III. Rebellion of Pugatchef - . - p. 57 Ch. IV. Knoot.—Penal laws.--'Remarks upon the fuppofedfuppreffton of capital punijhments by Elizabeth.—Abolition of torture.—New code of laws p. 69 Ch. V. Inquiry into the prefent ftate of civilisation in the Ruffian empire.— Nobles.—Clergy*—Merchants and burghers.—Peafants.—State of vaffal- age - - ' - - - p. 85 Ch. VI. Academies of fciences and arts.—Society for the promotion of agricuU ture.—Corps de cadets.—Couvent des demoifelles nobles - p. 108 Ch. VII. Anecdotes ofprofeffor Pallas.—Circumjlances of Br. Samuel Gmelin'j death.—Travels of Guldenftaedt - - - p- 146 Ch. VIII. Inquiry into the rife and frogrejs.of Ruffian literature.—Hijlorians. —Poets.—On the Ruffian Jage.—Clajfical learning - p. 163 BOOK VI. Ch. I. Population and revenues - - • p. 198 Ch. II. Cronftadt.—Navy and army - . - P» 207 Ch. Ill, Rife and progrefs of the EngUfli trade to Ruffia.—-Commerce of the Britifh fatlory to Peterfburgh - - - p. 218 Vol. II. a Ch. IV. CONTENTS. Ch. IV. Commerce of the• Cafpian.—Trade with /^Buchanans and Chinefe p. 232 Ch. V. Commerce of the Black Sea - - ■ ~- p, 247 Ch. VI. Mines of ~Ru(Tm -. - - - p. 261 Ch. VII. Canals o/Vifhnei Volofhok and Ladoga - - p. 268 Ch. VIII. Divine fervice in the Sclavonian and Greek tongues.—Bleffing of the waters,—Public feafi to the populace.—Baths.—Journey through Ruffian Finland - - - - p. 273, BOOK VII. TRAVELS into SWEDEN. Ch. I. Journey to Stockholm - - - p. 28 S Ch. II. Befcription of Stockholm.—Court.—New Swedifti drefs.—Tombs and characters of JeveralSwedifh Jovereigns.—Royal academy of fciences.— — Converfation with a Laplander on the general Jtate of Lapland._Similarity between the Lapland and Hungarian languages - P* 301 Ch. III. An inquiry into the circumjlances and- occafton of the death of Charles XII. p. 323 Ch. IV. On the conflitution of Sweden as eflablifhedat the Revolution of 1772. — Ccnjlituent parts and power of the diet - - P-335 Ch. V. Population.—Revenues.—Military eflablifhment and penal laws p. 350 Ch. VI Upfala.—Palace.—Cathedral;—Tombs.—Univerfity.—Public Library. — Codex argenteus.—Royalfocietyy &V. - - p, 363 Ch. VII. Biographical memoirs of Linnaeus- - - P-394 Ch. VIII. Remarks on the Writings of WaHerius, Cronftedt, and Bergman p. 4,14 Ch, IX. Journey to Gotheborg.— Wefteros.—TVw^ imprifonment, and death of Eric XIV.—Singular adventures of his eldeft fon Guftavus.—Inland navigation.—Attempts to render the river Gotha or Trolhastta navigable P- 434 Ch, X. Gotheborg.—Eaft India Company.—Herring fifhery. — Gentral remarks on the commerce of Sweden.—Journey to Carlfcrona - p. 455 Ch. XI. Carlfcrona.—New Bocks.—i^/^.—Chriftianftadt.—Mode of travelling in Sweden.—Similarity between many expreffions in the Englifh und Swedifh languages - p.. 464 4 BOOK CONTENTS. BOOK VIII. TRAVELS into DENMARK. Ch. I. Paffage of the Sound.—Elfinoor.—Cronborg Cattle.—lliftory of Hamlet from Saxo-Grammaticus,—Copenhagen.—Court, &c.—IJle of Amak - p. 473 Ch. II. Revolution of mdclx. - - -■ p. 4S6 Ch, III. Population,—Finances.—Army.—Navy .—Church eflablifhment p. 501 Ch. IV. Univerftty.—Royal academy of fciences.—Icelandic literature.—Flora Danica, &c. - - - - - p. 510 Ch. V. Journey through Zealand.—Rofkild.—Tombs and characters of the ' Danifh fovereigns. — Genealogical tables.—Ringfted.—Ifle of Funen.—• Odenfee.—Journey through Slefwick and Holftein.— Canal 0/ Kiel.— General remarks on many circular ranges of flones —• - p. 525 APPENDIX. No. I. Articles of the Swedifh Government eftablifhcd at the Revolution of 1772 P- 553 No. II. Value of Exports and Imports from and to England, Rufiia, Sweden, and Denmark - - - - p. 562 LIST of the MAPS, PLANS, and ENGRAVINGS, with Directions for placing them. Head of Peter III. from a rouble flruck during his reign p. 2 Head of Ivan from a rouble flruck when he was emperor p. 29 Head of Pugatchef, from an original picture in the author's pofTeflion, drawn when the impoftor was in prifon, to front P- 59 Map of the Southern Provinces of Sweden to front p. 197 Chart of the Cafpian Sea - to front p. 232 Canals of Vifhnei Volofhok and Ladoga to front p. 268 Fin Peafant - - p. 287 Swedifh Gentleman - p. 302 Swedifh Lady - p. 303 Head of the King of Sweden - p. 304 Plan of the City of Stockholm - to front p. 391 Canal of Trolha?tta - to front p. 451 Map of the Danifli hies, and Slefwick and Holftein, to front P- 473 Plan of Copenhagen - to front p. 482 Canal of Kiel - p. 546 TRAVELS T R AVE L S INTO R U S S I A. BOOK V. CHAP. I. Account of Peter III.—He is appointed great-duke by the emprefs Elizabeth.—Efpoufes the princefs of Anhalt Zerbft.—Difcontented.—Refdes at Oranienbaum.—Con-fir uEls a fortrefs.—Difciplines the garrifon.—Intrigues to exclude him from the fucceffion.—Defeated.—Death o/'Elizabeth.—Acceffion of Peter.—His rage for reformation.—Irritates by his imprudent conduc~l the clergy^ the army, and the nobles.—His enthufaflic admiration of the king of Pruffia carried to a mofl ridiculous excefs. Vol. II. B —His —His inco7ifiJlent behaviour to his confort Catharine.— Her great abilities, prudent conduB, and popularity'.— Ill-treated by the emperor.—In danger of being arrefled. —Heads a party.—Meetings of the infurgents,—Peter'x blindnefs and infatuation.—Catharine efcapes from Pe-terhof.—Harangues the guards.—Afcends the throne.— Her manifeflo.—Advances againfl the emperor.—His arrival at Peterhof.—Defpondency and irrefolution.— Sails to Cronftadt.—Is refufed admittance.—Retires to Oranienbaum.—Refgns himfelf into the hands of the emprefs.—Signs his abdication, is conveyed a prifoner to Robfcha, and dies.—His body laid in Jlate and interred.—Lenity of the emprefs to his adherents* book rpHE revolution of 1741 placed Elizabeth, daughter of _i A Peter the Great and Catharine I. upon the throne of Ruifia. In the following year the emprefs nominated her nephew Charles Peter Ulrick, fon of Charles Frederick duke of Holftein Gottorp, and of Anne, daughter of Peter the Great, fucceflbr to the Crown. Accordingly that Prince, then only fourteen years of age, having publicly embraced the Greek religion, was appointed great-duke of Ruflia, with the ac-cuftomed formalities ; and afTumed the name of Peter Feodo-rovitch. In 1745 he efpoufed Sophia Augufta princcfs of An-halt Zerbft, who, upon being re-baptized according to the rites of the Greek church, was called Catharine Alexicfna. She was born in 1729, and was fixteen years of age at the time of her marriage. Their only ifTue were the prefent great-duke Paul, born 1754 ; and Anne, who was born in 1757, and died in 1761. During the firft years of their marriage the moll perfect union fubiifted between them, which however was at length fuccccded fucceedcd on both fides by mutual averfion and difguft. Peter, c whofe mind had been warped by a bad education, and who was purpofely eftranged from political affairs, was held by Elizabeth in a Hate of dependence i a prey to idlenefs, and without the power of amufing himfelf with rational occupations of literature, he gave himfelf up to the mod trifling pur-fuits, or to the lowed gratifications. Lie was perpetually befet by fpies, who occafionally made the moll unfavourable reports of his conduct to that emprefs, ever fufpicious of his intentions, and who was conflantly alarmed with the dread of a revolution fimilar to that which had placed her upon the throne. At Peterfburgh he had apartments in the imperial palace, and lived more in the flyle of a date prifoner, than of a fucceffor to the crown. When the emprefs removed to Petcrhof, he was permitted to refide at his favourite palace of Oranienbaum, where he indulged that tafte for military purfuits which became his fole amufement during the latter years of Elizabeth's reign. He began by drawing out his fervants in a body, trained them to military cxercife, and was accudomed to attend regularly at the hours appointed for that purpofe. The emprefs, confidering this employment as an innocent amufement, and likely to draw his attention from political intrigues, ordered a fmall body of foldiers to be draughted from feveral regiments, who were allowed to repair to Oranienbaum, and to be quartered in that place. Peter, eager in the purfuit of his new occupation, built in the garden a fortrefs in miniature, a few feet fquare, by which he ihidied practical fortification. Plcafed with this firfl eflay, he caufed a larger and more regular fortrefs to be condructed near the palace: within was a brick houfe for himfelf, called the governors houfe, wooden habitations for the principal officers, and barracks capable of containing 1500 foldiers. Every thing wore a martial appearance : the hours of morning and B 2 evening evening parade were marked by the firing of cannon; a regular guard was flationed; the troops were drefled in the German uniform, and taught, under his inflection, the Pruf-fian difcipline. This houfe in the fortrefs was the principal fcene of his convivial entertainments j there, when he was not employed in exercifmg his troops, or in iffuing his military orders, he amufed himfelf in drinking and fmoking with the officers; and he generally pufhed the pleafures of the table to an excefs of intoxication. Mean while, impatient of the conftraint under which he was kept by the fufpicious Elizabeth, he occafionally broke out into open and bitter invectives : he was often heard to fay, that he had been called into Ruffia in order to be confined like a flate prifoner, frequently exprefTed a defire to return into Holilein, and founded his only hopes of comfort on the death of Elizabeth. Thefe expreffions, always carried to the emprefs, and either wantonly exaggerated, or malignantly interpreted, made fuch an impreffion on that princefs, who became more and more fufpicious as fhe advanced in years, that fhe was once nearly prevailed upon, by the chancellor Befiuchef, to exclude him from the fucceflion, and to declare his fon Paul her heir, and Gatharine regent, in cafe of a minority. Befiuchef reprefented to the emprefs, that Peter had by his conduct proved himfelf unworthy of the crown; that he openly exprefTed the utmofl contempt for the Ruffian nation, and placed his whole confidence in foreigners; that he was guilty of the bafefl ingratitude to her ; and that fhe would confer a fignal fervice upon her fubjects, by excluding a perfon fo difqualified for directing the reins of empire. Elizabeth, won over by thefe arguments, and alarmed by the ap» prehenfions of a confpiracy faid to be forming againfl her perfon, almofl confented to the propofal; but, upon more ferious reflection, fhe perfevered in her former appointment of of Peter, and Beftuchef * was difgraced. Such was the fitua- chap. tion of the court, when Elizabeth died on the 25th of December, 1761. Upon this event, Peter III. afTumed the reins of government, with all the joy of a perfon enlarged from a long imprifon-ment into a (late of the mo ft perfect liberty. He immediately relcafed the principal ftate-prifoners who had been confined by Elizabeth: among thefe were Biren duke of Courland f, marfhal Munich.):, and Leftof §; and in all ftate affairs he conducted himfelf upon political principles diametrically op-pofrce to thofe of the late emprefs. Elizabeth, at the time of her deceafe, was, in conjunction with the courts of Vienna and Paris, engaged in a war with the king of Pruflia, which promifed a fpecdy and glorious termination. Frederick's refources were nearly exhaufted ; and, notwithftanding the vigorous and fuccefsful oppofition he had hitherto maintained, he feemed on the point of being overwhelmed by the number and perfeverance of his enemies. But Peter had no fooner afcended the throne, than, facrificing every other confideration to his extravagant enthufiafm for the character of the Pruflian monarch, he difpatched an envoy to Berlin, in order to propofe an immediate reconciliation. Frederick acceded to the propofal without delay: and a fufpenfion * Of all the principal nobles difgraced by was firft confined at Schluflelburgh j and af- Elizabeth, Befiuchef was the only one who terwards, at the acceffion of Elizabeth, fent was not recalled to court by Peter III. A toYaroflaf* from whence he was recalled by ftrong proof of his intrigues againfl that prince; Peter III. He was reftorcd to the duchy of who, with all his wcaknefs, was of a temper Courland by Catharine II. and died at Mittau. exceedingly humane and forgiving. He was t For an account of marfhal Munich fee recalled at the acceftion of Catharine. thc ncxt chaPter- f Biren was a native of Courland, the fa- § Leftof was a furgcon ; by birth a Ger-vourite and primc-miniftcr of the emprefs man: nc was favourite to Elizabeth, and Anne ; elected, at her recommendation, duke aflifted her in planning the revolution of 1742. of Courland. At her death, in 1740, he be- But that ungrateful princefs forgot this fa-came regent during the minority of the young vour ; and, becaufe Leftof grew haughty and emperor Ivan. The fame year he was arretted impertinent, ihc baniihed and detained him in by marfhal Munich; and Anne, mother of the Pr'f°n until flic died. emperor, proclaimed regent in his (lead. He _ of book. 0f hoflilities was foon concluded. Peter recalled his foldiers v~» from the Auftrian army: and in a fhort interval fcnt a reinforcement of 20,000 men to his favourite hero. Thus, within the fpace only of a few months, Ruffian troops joined the Pruflian army, in order to drive from Silefia thofe very Auftrians, who not long before had been brought into that province by the Ruffian arms. Having gratified his inclination in this treaty without con-fulting his allies, or the interells and honour of his empire, he aimed at recovering his paternal inheritance the duchy of Slefvick; and was determined to involve his fubjects in an expenfive war with the king of Denmark, on account of claims confidered by many as ill-founded and chimerical. Peter, as duke of Holflein, formed pretentions to that duchy, although it had been ceded by a treaty in 1732 : and he had no fooner concluded the peace with the king of Pruffia, than he ordered an army to march into Holflein, which he propofed to command in perfon. With refpect to the interior adminiflration of affairs, the emperor turned his attention to reform his kingdom; and envy mufl allow, that, notwithftanding the precipitancy and imprudence with which he acted, Ruffia dates feveral ufeful and important alterations from his fliort adminiflration. Peter annulled the fecret council or inquifition * of Rate j abolifhcd many prerogatives which were oppreffive and tyrannical: he x formed a plan for correcting the abufes in the courts of judicature, and for introducing a regular and lefs corrupt fyflem of jurifprudence. He freed the nobles from the obligation they were under of ferving in the army, and permitted them * This flate inquifition was invented by tortured in the mo ft. dreadful manner. There Alexey Michaclovitch ; it confifted of a fecret was a catchword—Slovo i delo, " Words and committee of confidential perfons, appointed *' deeds ;" which, if any one only pronounced to judge criminals fufpe&ed of high treafon. again ft another, was fuflkient caufe for the hit- Perfons of all ranks and fcxes were liable to ter's being immediately apprehended, and font be arrefted upon the flighted; fufpidons, and to the fecret committee. to to travel into foreign countries, which before depended upon chap. the arbitrary will of the fovercign. 1 The emperor, during the firfl fix weeks of his reign, pro-pofed fo many beneficial regulations, and made fo many judicious reflections upon them, that many perfons, who had formed a mean idea of his capacity, conceived thcmfclves mif-taken; and imagined, that, during the reign of Elizabeth, he had, from motives of policy, affected a deficiency of under-flanding. His fubfequent conduct, however, fully proved, that he was Hill the fame weak and imprudent prince ; that he had juft fenfe enough to adopt the fchemes fuggefled by others, but did not polTefs abilities fufficient to carry them into execution ; that he had all the rage of reformation, without the judgement neceilary to a reformer. The falutary regulations mentioned above were accompanied with others that were trifling, fome that were detrimental, and feveral, which, although in themfeives ufeful and proper, were very imprudently pro-pofed in the commencement of a reign, on account of their total repugnance to the cuftoms and genius of his people. Fie irritated the clergy by fecularizing the eflates of the mo-nafleries, and affigning, in lieu thereof, fome penfions far inferior in value to what the eccleftaflics pofTefled before this alteration ; by forbidding the admifllon of novices into convents before the age of thirty; and by ordering many painted images of faints to be removed from the churches. He bammed the archbifhop of Novogorod, for refuting to confent to thefe ordinances j but finding this act of arbitrary power attended with general difcontent, he was obliged to recall him. Being himfelf bred up in the Lutheran church, he had embraced the Greek religion, with a view of fucceeding to the throne; and he was no fooner in fecure pofTeflion of it, than he thought himfelf freed from the necellity of difTimula-tion, and imprudently difplaycd his public contempt of many rites book r|tes and ceremonies, regarded by his fubjeets with the moff. ^—*~* profound reverence. He built a Lutheran chapel in the fortrefs of Oranienbaum, was prefent at the dedication, and diflributed with his own hand books of hymns to the German foldiers, This circumftance might have palled unnoticed, if he had not been abfent at the confecration of a Ruffian church in the fame place. He offended the army by the preference which he publicly fhowed to his Holflein troops, by introducing the Pruffian dif-cipline, and appointing new uniforms to feveral regiments. He particularly gave umbrage to the guards, accuftomed to refide in the capital, by ordering two regiments to march into Pomerania, where the army againfl Denmark was affembled. He affronted the nobility by appointing his uncle prince George of Holflein generaliffimo of the forces; and by the fuperior confidence which he placed in foreigners. He inflamed the general odium by the public contempt he exprefTed for the Ruffian nation, for their religion and manners. He raifed great difcontents, as well by engaging in the war with Denmark, a war which feemcd totally unconnected with the interefts of the empire, as by his boundlefs admiration of the great Frederick, with whom Ruffia had been fo lately and fo long in a flate of moft violent hoftility. During the life of of Elizabeth, he exprefTed his concern to one of the foreign minifters, that the emprefs had invited him to Ruffia: " If," added he, " I had remained duke of Holflein, I fhould now t( have commanded a regiment in the Pruffian fervice, and ic have the honour of ferving perfonally fo great a monarch, " an honour which I efteem far fuperior to that of being great- duke." After his acceffion, he ufed publicly to call him majler. Talking with one of his favourites upon this topic, he faid, " You know I have been a faithful fervant to my mafter *' for you remember that I tranfmitted to him intelligence of " all « all the fecrets of the cabinet." And as the perfon, to whom this difcourfe was addrefTcd, feemed furprized at the after tion, and hefitated making any reply, « What are you afraid of ?" returned the emperor; « the old woman is not now alive; " and fhe cannot fend you into Siberia." He generally wore a Pruffian uniform, exprefTed the utmofl fatisfacTion at the formality of being appointed an officer in the king's fcrvice; and when he fent his minifter to Berlin to negotiate- a mutual alliance, gave him fecret inftructions to be careful that no perfon fhould be promoted above him in the Pruffian army, Upon receiving the patent which conferred upon him the rank of lieutenant-general in that fervice, he inftantly drefTed himfelf in his new uniform, ordered a general difcharge of the cannon in the fortrefs of Oranienbaum, gave a magnificent entertainment in honour of his promotion, and drank his maker's health Until he became quite intoxicated. During his fhort reign he maintained a conflant correfpond-ence with the king of Pruffia, and always received from him the mofl falutary advice which the circumftanccs would admit. That able monarch carneftly diffiiaded him from the war with Denmark; but finding him obflinately determined to engage in it, advifed him to be firft crowned at Mofcow with the ufual folemnities; and, when he marched to Holflein, to carry in his train all the foreign miniflers, and fuch of the Ruffian nobles who were fufpccted of difaftecTion. Frederick alio cautioned him againfl alienating the lands of the mona-llerics, and interfering with the drefs of the clergy; and particularly recommended to him a due attention to his confort. Indeed, the king, whofe penetration is equal to his valour, lore fa w the confequences which were likely to refult from the emperor's imprudent conduct; and ordered his embafTador at Peterfburgh to fhow every mark of refpect to the emprefs. Vol. II. C Had b o 0 k Had the advice of the king of Pruflia been adopted, Peter i--,—j might have avoided his unhappy defliny ; but it was the character of that mifguided prince to purfue with unremitted ob-Itinacy what he had once refolved, and to remain unconvinced by the mod powerful arguments. Though his plans of reformation were, in many rcfpects, highly falutary, yet the precipitancy with which he endeavoured to carry them into execution, and his impolitic defiance of popular prejudices, de-ftroyed the affection of his fubjects, fomented the intrigues of the oppofite party, and terminated in his dethronement. In no light did the inconfiftency of the emperor's character manifefl itfelf more flrongly than in his behaviour to his con-fort. During the reign of Elizabeth, Catharine had employed her hours of leifurein a courfe of afliduous fludy; and had particularly applied herfelf to thofe authors who were mofl eminent for political knowledge: born with fuperior abilities, fhe had improved them by a conflant habit of reflection, and had paid an unremitting attention to the cultivation of her mind. Her mild and infinuating manners, her engaging addrefs, the graces of her perfon, her unwearied afliduities, and a perpetual fund of interefling converfation, had conciliated the favour of the fufpicious Elizabeth, who ever treated her with complacency and affection. Even her hufband, though his general behaviour to her was contemptuous and unmannerly, occa-fionally tefUfied great refpect for her fuperior abilities, and ufually afked her advice in every emergency. Whenever any quarrel arofe between him and Elizabeth, Catharine was fure to mediate between them; and Peter owed more than once a favourable reception at court to her influence. After his acccflion, though he frequently gave public marks of deep-rooted averfion, yet he would often behave to her with that deference, which the fuperiority of her underflanding challenged. By an unaccountable act of imprudence, he would, would, in a full court, inveft her with the exterior decorations c of fovereignty ; while, in the character of a colonel, he pre-fented to her the officers of his regiment. At the Bleffing of the waters, when the Ruffian monarch appears in all the pomp of majefly, while the ceremonial part was left to the emprefs, he mounted guard as colonel, and faluted her with his pike. Under all thefe circumftances, the dignity of her deportment was fo ftriking, that it was impoffible not to contrail her behaviour with the trifling levity of her huiband's conduct; and to give the preference where it was fo evidently due. Thus this infatuated prince, at the very time he was fully determined to divorce and imprifon his wife, imprudently difplayed to his fubjects her capacity for empire; and, while he proclaimed her forfeiture of his own elleem, adopted every method to fecurc to her that of the whole nation. Meanwhile the breach between them was continually widened: he would occalionally behave to her with the moft brutal contumely ; and once, in particular, at an entertainment he gave in honour of the king of Pruflia, he publicly affronted her to fuch a degree, that fhe burfl into tears, and retired from table. Thus his infults, no lefs than his deference, equally attracted odium to himfelf, and popularity to Catharine. It is alfo a well-known fact, that he more than once avowed an intention of arrefting both her and the great-duke, whom he propofed to exclude from the' fucceffion, and of marrying Elizabeth countefs of Voronzof, his favourite miflrefs. This alarming meafure was fcarcely adopted before it was immediately conveyed to Catharine, through the imprudence of the countefs. By the fame, or other means, as well as by the in-difcretion of Peter himfelf, the emprefs obtained early intelligence of every refolution formed againfl her perfon. She was thus enabled to fcize the dccifive moment of enterprize ; and to fecure her fafety by preventing the deligns of her hufband. C 2 Indeed Indeed her danger became every day more and more imminent, and the moment of her being arretted feemed at hand. A brick houfe, confiding of eleven rooms, had been condructed by the emperor's order in the fortrefs of SchlufTelburgh *, for a perfon of very confiderable confequence; and had beenraifed with fuch expedition, as to be almofl finifhed within the fhort fpace of fix weeks. Peter had been himfelf at SchlufTelburgh to examine it; and no great depth of penetration was requi-fite to perceive that it was conflrucled for the emprefs. In this important crifis a meeting of her party was held at Petcrfburgh. This party was extremely fmall, and, excepting the princefs Dafhkof, and her particular adherents, confided only of a few among the principal nobility. The mod confpicuous of thefe were prince Volkonfki, count Panin governor of the great-duke, and count Rofomoffki Hetman of the Ukraine. In the fird confultations for dethroning Peter III. it was pro-pofed, according to the plan of chancellor Beduchcf, to declare the great-duke emperor, and Catharine regent during his minority ; and this would have been the meafure naturally followed in any country, wherein the order of fucceflion was more fixed than in Ruffia. Nor was it but a few days before the revolution, that the inconvenience attending a minority, joined to the popularity and abilities of the cmprefs, induced the infurgents to adopt the refolution of placing her upon the throne. At thefe meetings various plans of an infurrection were propofed; but it was at length unanimoufly agreed to delay their attempt until Peter's departure for Holdein, when Catharine might feize the capital during his abfence, and afcend the throne. Although only a few perfons were engaged in this momentous enterprize, yet the defigns of the party could not be concealed from the friends of the emperor, who earnedly in- * See the description of this building in Vol I. Book IV. Chap. VI* treated treated him to inveftigate the foundation of the report: but c Peter, who had committed the care of the emprefs's perfon to thofe in whom he placed the higheft confidence, could never be prevailed upon to give the flighted credit to the rumour; and indeed he was fo convinced of its falfehood, that any fug-geftions on that head always offended him. One of his confidents prefented him a memorial in writing, in which the names of feveral confpirators were mentioned. " What, always the " old flory !" faid the emperor ; «« here, take back your paper; " and do not trouble me any more with fuch idle tales." His uncle, prince George of Holflein, faid, he was tired with tendering remonflrances ; and that the emperor was infenfible to the danger of his fituation. On the very morning of the revolution, about two o'clock, an officer, who had a great (hare in Peter's confidence, arrived at Oranienbaum, and demanded to fpeak with him upon an affair of the greatefl importance. Being, after fome difficulty, admitted, he acquainted the emperor with feveral circumflances, which fecmcd to indicate a confpiracy upon the point of breaking out. But that infatuated prince was fo far from paying the leaft attention to the intelligence, that he ordered the officer under immediate ar-rcfl, for prefuming to diflurb him at fo late an hour. And yet at this very hour his dethronement was determined; which event was accelerated by a circumflance perfectly unconnected with the intentions of the oppofite party. The arrcft of one of the emprefs's adherents, a lieutenant in the guards whofe name was PafTec, greatly alarmed her friends, as they concluded that the emperor had penetrated their de-fign; and although they foon difcovered that his arrcft had been occasioned by fome irregularity of which he had been guilty as an officer, yet the conflernation it had fpread amongft them haflened the execution of their enterprize. Every moment was big with danger ; and a difcovery feemed inevitable book if the infurrcction was delayed until the empetor's departure »-—«—' for Holflein. The emprefs, however, who continued at Pcterhof, fhud-dered at the advice to precipitate the hour of action ; her re-folution at this awful crifis, when immediate decifion was nc-ccflay, fecmed for a moment to fail, and fire hefitated to afTent; but her party at Peterfburgh, convinced that the lead delay would prove fatal, difpatched, on the evening of the 27th of June, an empty carriage to Peterhof, the appointed fignal for her approach to the capital. Catharine, whofe greatnefs of mind foon recurred to fupport her in this dreadful date of agitation and fufpence, indantly cfcaped from her apartment; and, at three o'clock in the morning, having traverfed the garden alone to the place where the carriage * was waiting for her, was conveyed with all fpeed to Peterfburgh. It had been preconcerted, that count Panin mould attend to the fafety of the great-duke's perfon ; that Gregory Orlof mould remain in the capital to win over fome of the guards j and that count Rofomoffki mould prepare his regiment for the reception of the emprefs. In confequence of this determination, Catharine, vipon her entrance into Peterfburgh, immediately repaired to the quarters of the Ifmailoffki guards. The hour was fo early that Rofomoffki, the lieutenant-colonel, was not yet arrived; an alarming circumdance, fuflicient to have difconccrtcd a perfon of lefs fpirit; but the emprefs, having difpatched a mcf-fenger to him, fummoned before her the officers and foldiers. A few who had been apprized by Orlof were ready: while the greated part, being roufed unexpectedly from their dumber, made their appearance fcarcely half drefTed. * This carriage was conducted by one of the fon, I was unwilling to advance any fadl, of emprefs's mod confidential adherents, T be- which 1 was not as perfectly convinced as the lieve by count Alexjy Orlof; but as I found intricate nature oftbefe affairs would admit, it impracticable poiitively to afecrtain the per* Thc The cmprefs inftantly laid before them the bad conduct of c the emperor; his avowed contempt of the Ruffians; his aver-fion to their cufloms ; and his attachment to foreigners. She expofed the dangers which awaited her own perfon, her fon, and the principal nobility; fhe expatiated upon the probable fubverfion of their religion and government; and exhorted all thofe to follow her, who were defirous of faving their country, and of refcuing her and the great-duke from certain deftruction. Her fpeech, occafionally interrupted with fighs and tears, was fhort and pathetic; and, further enforced by the graces of her perfon, made an inflantaneous impreflion: the greater! part of the foldiers anfwered her with loud acclamations ; a few officers, indeed, at fir ft fecmed to hefitate ; but the arrival of Ro-fomofiki quieted their apprehenfions, and the whole regiment offered to facrifice their lives in her caufe. Catharine now proceeded to the church of the Virgin Mary of Cafan ; being joined in her way by various bodies of guards, and by many of the principal nobility. Service was performed by the arch-bifhop of Novogorod, and the emprefs took the accuftomed oath to prcferve inviolate the privileges and religion of the Ruffians; after which the nobles and people flocked in crowds to fwcar allegiance to the new fovcreign. At the conclufion of this ceremony fhe repaired to the fenate, the members of which body acknowledged her folc emprefs. A report, induftrioufly circulated, that Peter was killed by a fall from his horfe, proved very favourable to the fuccefs of the revolution. The fuitc of the cmprefs continually augmented. Two regiments of guards, who had fcarcely quitted Peterfburgh in order to join the army in Pomcrania, were immediately recalled ; and as they were cxafperatcd againft the emperor for having forced them to leave the capital, they repaired without delay to the ftandard of the emprefs. Even Even in thofe governments where the pretorian bands, {rationed in the capital, depofe fovereigns, or raife them to the throne, fome plaufible pretence muft be urged to render a revolution popular, and to engage the general voice to ratify the deed of the foldiery. When Elizabeth feized the reins of empire, the attachment of the nation to the memory of her father induced the public to applaud that tranfaetion: and in this inftance Peter III. had, by fome part of his conduct, rendered himfelf fo odious, and, by others, fo contemptible to his fubjects, that the firfl account of his dethronement, and of Catharine's acceffion, announced in the following mani-feflo, was received with univerfal joy. *' Catharine II. by the grace of God emprefs and autocratrix M of All the Ruffias, to all our faithful fubjects, &c. " All the true fons of RufTia have clearly feen the danger to " which the whole Ruffian empire has been expofed. Firfl, " the foundation of our orthodox Greek religion has been « fhaken, and its tradition expofed to total ruin, fo that it was " to be feared that the faith, which has been eflablifhcd in H Ruffia from the earlier! times, would be entirely changed, tc and a foreign religion introduced. In the fecond place, the 11 glory which Ruffia had acquired at the expence of fo much " blood, and which was carried to the greater! height by her <£ victorious arms, has been trampled under foot by the peace *« lately concluded with its greater! enemy. And, laflly, the " domcflic regulations, which are the bafis of the country's " welfare, have been totally overturned. " For thefe caufes, overcome by the imminent dangers with *« which our faithful fubjects were threatened, and feeing how <*< fincere and exprefs their defires were on this head ; we, put- ting our truft in the Almighty and his divine juflice, have ** afcended the imperial throne of All the Ruffias; and have 11 received u received a folemn oath of fidelity from all our faithful u fubjects. « Peterfburgh, June 28, O. S. 1762." All the adherents of the emperor were arretted; amongft the reft prince George of Holflein, who had come to Peterfburgh on the 26th, under pretence of making preparations for the emperor's departure; but, in reality, to watch the op-pofite party. It was he who had given orders to arreft PafTec; and, by thus alarming the infurgents, had been the innocent caufe of haftening the revolution, which put a period to the reign of Peter III. Not the leaft opposition was made from any quarter to the proceedings of the emprefs ; and, notwith-ftanding the ftreets of Peterfburgh were filled with foldiers, who arc generally tumultuous and ungovernable in fuch dreadful periods, yet the greatcft order and difcipline was pre-ferved, and no injury was offered to any individuals *. At fix in the evening the emprefs, habited like a man in the uniform of the guards, with a branch of oak in her hat, a drawn fword in her hand, and mounted upon a grey fteed, marched towards Peterhof, accompanied by the princefs Dafh-kof, the Hetman Rofomoffki, the Orlofs, and her principal adherents, at the head of 10,000 troops. She had fcarcely advanced three miles, when prince Galitzin, vice-chancellor, approached her with a letter from the emperor; but, being pre- * Several Englifh merchants had quitted finilhed thefe words, when about 300 horfe-their houfes before they were apprized of the men, with drawn fwords in their hands, gal-revolution ; but they found no difficulty in re- loped acrofs the bridge. A prieft traverfing turning through the foldiers polled in different the bridge at the fame time in a carriage, the parts of the town. One gentleman in parti- two Engliftimcn ftood by the lidc of it. Sonic cular informed mc, that he went about fix in of the guards, as they paflsd by the prieft, the morning to the Cuftom-houfe, and was fur- waved their fwords over their heads, crying prifed to find no one there. After ftaying fome out at the fame time, " All goes well—vivat time, he returned home ; and, in his way over " Catharine II." And this was the firft In-the bridge of the Neva, he met a friend, who telligencc thefe merchants received of the re-afked him what was the matter, for every volution, tiling appeared in confufion. He had fcarcely Vol. II. D vailed b ook vailed upon to join her party, he took the oath of alle-^—> giance. At Crafnoe Cabac, a public houfe about eight miles from the capital, the prime-minifler, count Vorontzof, made his appearance: lt I come, madam," faid he, " from the " emperor, my mailer, to know your majefty's intentions." Some of the by-flanders, informing him that the emprefs had afcended the throne, and that he was now addrefT-ing himfelf to his fovereign, concluded by proffering the oath of allegiance; but, as he nobly refufed to defert his mafler, his fword was taken from him, and he was fent a prifoner to Peterfburgh, ineffectually lamenting the fate of his unhappy fovereign. Crafnoe Cabac was only one miferable hovel, into which the emprefs entered, and employed herfclf for fome time in tearing and burning a large quantity of papers. She then flung herfelf in her clothes upon an ordinary bed, flept about an hour and a half, and was on horfeback by break of day. She proceeded about four miles further, to the convent of St. Ser-gius at Strelna, into which fhe retired while the troops encamped around. About eight o'clock general Ifmailof arrived at Strelna with a mefTage from the emperor, whofe Situation was now become truly critical. But it is ncceffary to lay before our reader the train of circumflances, which had concurred in reducing a fovereign of fuch unlimited authority to fo abject a flate. While the revolution was carrying on at Peterfburgh, Peter remained at Oranienbaum in thoughtlcfs fecurity. He had palled the evening which preceded the revolution in the fortrefs, in company with a few chofen friends, with whom he indulged, as ufual, in the pleafurcs of the table; and, having puflicd them to excefs, retired late to refl nearly intoxicated. In the morning he drefled himfelf in his Pruflian uniform, and fet out about eleven forPetcrhof, in order to celebrate thefeafl of of the apofllesSt. Peter and St. Paul, expecting to meet the em- c prefs at dinner, and intending *, as it is reported, to put her un- v. der an arreft. He was accompanied by Elizabeth Vorontzof, her uncle count Vorontzof, his favourite Godovitz, marfhal Munich, and many of the nobility of both fexes, who formed his court. Lie had not proceeded far, before he was met by a nobleman of his party, who had found means to efcape from Peterfburgh. This perfon immediately flopped the carriage, and acquainted the emperor that he wifhed to fpeak with him in private. Peter, however, ordered his attendants to proceed, adding, in a joking manner, u Why are you in fuch a hurry? Turn back to " Peterhof, and there you will have time enough to fpeak to " me." The other repeating his folicitations, the emperor at length alighted from his carriage, and was informed of the revolution at Peterfburgh. Yet even now his obflinacy and his infatuation were fo great, that he for a long time fufpected the truth of the intelligence; but, when an enumeration of particular circumflances had at length awakened him to a fenfc of his danger, he teflificd the flrongefl fymptoms of amazement and horror, and was reduced almofl to a flate of Stupefaction. Recovering at length from this paroxyfm of defpair, he difpatched an adjutant to Oranienbaum, with orders for the garrifon to follow him immediately to Peterhof. Upon his arrival at that palace he found that the emprefs was departed, and could obtain no information of her proceedings from any perfon of her court. Marfhal Munich advifed him to put himfelf at the head of his Holflein troops, and to march Without delay to the capital: " I will go before you," faid that gallant veteran. " and your majcily's perfon fhall not be * If Potcr really, as it is faid, intended to lieve, all the reports of the c.onfpiracy, think- firrell the emprefs, his former conduct is in ing to crufli it at once by fecuring her perfon. iome meafurc accounted for. He thought lie put implicit confidence in the nobles whom that her party was of no confequcnce, and ac- he placed about the cmprefs ; and thefe very cordingly diiij'Jieved, or pretended to difbe- perfons were the liiil to betray him. D 2 * touched boo k « touched but through mine." Had this advice been followed, «—v—' it would have been attended with a glorious, and perhaps a fuccefsful event. The Holflein troops, though fcarcely amounting to a thoufand, were zealoufly attached to Peter, and Munich was worth a regiment: the courage of the emperor, however, deferted him in this emergency; he continued uncertain what meafures he mould adopt, fluctuated between hope and fear, formed new refolutions one moment, and renounced them the next. His own agitation was flill further increafed by the behaviour of the principal perfons who had accompanied him from Oranienbaum, or whom he found at Peterhof. The women vented fhrieks, and hung about the emperor in agonies of the deepefl diflrefs: every one clamoroufly offered advice j but the uproar was fo great, that the advice could fcarcely be heard, and if heard was not attended to, becaufe it was repeatedly changed. Several of the emprefs's party were prefent, and artfully fomented the general confufion: under the fpecious appearance of affection and zeal, they alarmed the fears of the emperor, and objected to every vigorous meafurc as inadmif-fible and dangerous. Under thefe circumflances Peter, perplexed by fuch difcordant or treacherous advice, was foftencd into cowardice by the tears of the women, and remained the whole day in a flate nearly bordering on diffraction. Every moment brought him frefli caufe of terror and difmay. He was fucceflively informed that the emprefs had received the oath of allegiance from perfons of all ranks ; that fhe was miflrefs of the capital, and was advancing towards him at the head of io,oco troops. Difheartened by this intelligence, he difpatched repeated mefTengers to his confort, with propofals of accommodation ; and, as not one of them came back, he at length determined to take refuge in Cronfladt * ; a meafure, * A town upon a fmall ifland in the Gulf tioned. See its description in the chapter on of Finland, where the Ruffian navy is Ita- the Ruffian navy. which, which, if he had earlier embraced, might probably have given a favourable turn to his affairs. Soon after his firfl arrival at Peterhof, he had difpatched general Lievers and prince Baratinfki to Cronfladt, to reconnoitre the place: general Lievers was admitted without difficulty; and prince Baratinfki returned to Peterhof with the account that no news of the revolution had reached Cronfladt; that general Lievers was preparing for his immediate reception; that his majefly would find there an afylum, where the emprefs's troops could not penetrate; and from whence he might, in cafe of extreme neceflity, cfcape by fea to his dominions in Holflein. In confequence of this reprefentation, the emperor ordered the Holflein troops, who were upon their march to Peterhof, to return to Oranienbaum j but, by an unaccountable fatality, he protracted his departure till midnight. Upon his arrival at the harbour, to his inexpreflible furprize and aflo-nifhment, the imperial yacht at firfl was rcfufed admittance by the centincls, who objected to the latenefs of the hour; and when it was represented to them that the emperor was on board, they flill perfifled in their refufal, and threatened to fire from the batteries if the veffel did not inflantly retire. This reception, fo different from what he had expected, was occafioned by the following remarkable circumflanccs. General Lievers, upon his arrival at Cronfladt, took the command of the fortrefs; but, perceiving that the garrifon had no knowledge of the revolution, was unwilling to give any alarm, by fpreading the report; and, as he fhortly expected the emperor, thought it more advifeable to wait for his appearance before he made any attempts to fecure the fidelity of the garrifon, or ifTucd any orders hoflile to the party of the emprefs. During this interval, admiral Taliezin came to Cronfladt: he had been difpatched from Peterfburgh by the emprefs, who had forgotten, in the firfl hurry of the revolution, to fecure that important portant fortrefs; and was now fent, if it mould not prove too late*', for that purpofe. He was admitted into the place without oppofition : foon perceiving the fituation of affairs, he instantly commanded the arreft of general Lievers, which was as inftantly obeyed ; the marines and failors being more inclined to execute the orders of an admiral than thofe of a general. Having fecured the general's perfon, he announced to the garrifon the revolution at Pctcrlburgh : he acquainted them that the emperor was depofed ; that the army and fenatc had declared for Catharine; and that all oppofition rauft be fruitlefs and dangerous. Thefe arguments, joined to a large quantity of Spirituous liquors, produced the defired effect; and Catharine was proclaimed fole emprefs. Thus a place of fo much importance as to have delayed, if not prevented, the final fuccefs of the infurrection, was feized by admiral Ta-liczin, without the leaft oppofition ; and Peter was denied admittance. Upon this difappointmcnt, his only remaining refourcc was inftantly to crowd fail for the Gulf of Bothnia, and to feck an afylum in Sweden, from whence he might eafily penetrate to his army in Pomerania, or to his dominions in Holflein. But it was the fate of that monarch to act no deciftve part in this important ctifis: flattering himfelf with the hopes of ftill bringing about a reconciliation with the emprefs, and prevailed upon by the cries and entreaties of the women who were on board, he returned to Oranienbaum, where he arrived about * Considering the great importance of Cronfladt, the neglei"t of fecuring it feems hardly credible ; but I was informed from very good authority, that fo late as ten in the morning no ftep had been taken at Peterfburgh towards getting pofreihon of that fortrei's. About that time a private perfon mentioned it by chance to one of the principal infurgents, who, without delay, acquainted the emprcf*. The lat- ter, confeious of its great importance, immediately difpatched admiral Taliev.ir.. It muft have been paft eleven before he could have let off from Peterfburgh : and, as he went by water, the diftancc being twenty miles, it muft luive been paft three before he arrived at Cronfladt. The di (lance from Peterhof to the fame place being only fix miles, the emperor mi'ht have arrived there long before Talie/.in. four four in the morning. When Peter quitted that palace on the preceding morning he was drefTcd in his Pruffian regimentals. Upon his return he was in his Ruffian uniform: he now faw his error in defpifmg the prejudices of his fubjects, but it was too late. Little circumflances of this kind are not unworthy of the hiftorian's notice, as great events frequently turn upon them, and they often difcover the true character of the principal pcrfonagcs concerned in the fcene. Upon his return to Oranienbaum, he immediately retired alone, and in great agitation, to his houfe in the fortrefs, leaving marfhal Munich and the reft of the court in the palace. About ten he again made his appearance in a more calm and compofed Rate of mind. The Flolilein guards no fooner beheld their royal matter, than they all * crowded round him ; fome were flrnggling to kifs his hand, others hung about his perfon, many knelt down, fome even proflrated themfelves before him; all fhedding tears of affection, and in terms of the ftrongeft attachment conjured him to lead them againft the cmprefs, offering to fland by him to the raft extremity, and to facrifice their lives in his defence. Peter was fo much animated by thefe affecting afTurances of zeal and fidelity, that he caught their fpirit for a moment, and cried out, To tf arms!" but the tears of the women, his own irrefolution, and the reflection that refinance would be ineffectual, foon damped this momentary fit of courage, and he again reconciled himfelf to fubmiffion. Early in the morning he had difpatched major-general If-mailof, in whom he repofed implicit confidence, to the emprefs, with a letter, offering to refign his crown, upon condition that he fhould be permitted to retire into Holflein, with '* I had ihcfl- circumftaaces from a perfon the Holflein troops. He faid he never faw fo who was prefent; he had tears in his eyes affecYmg a fcene. while he defnibed the animated behaviour of Elizabeth book Elizabeth Vorontzof, and his favourite Godovitz. Ifmailof 1—«~> found the emprefs in the convent of Strelna, and was immediately admitted to her prefence. The great policy on the fide of Catharine now confifted in getting pofTefXion of the emperor's perfon without eiTufion of blood; it was her object, therefore, to amufe him, without driving him to defperate mea-furcs ; for (lie well knew it was yet in his power to head his Holflein troops, and to defend his life to the lafl extremity; or he might ftill be able to make his efcape, and involve the empire in all the horrors of a long civil war. The judicious manner in which fhe conducted this delicate affair, mews her no lefs able in the arts of negociation, than in the fpirit of cnterprize. She calmly reprefented to Ifmailof the madnefs of any attempt to oppofe her, now in full pofTeflion of fovereign authority •, flic pointed to her troops, who were pofled in large bodies upon the adjacent grounds -r adding, that Peter's refinance would only draw on himfelf and his party the vengeance of an enraged army ; fhe propofed, therefore, that the emperor fhould himfelf repair to Peterhof, where the terms of his abdication mould be adjufled. Ifmailof, now finding the tide of fuccefs turned on the fide of the emprefs, and perceiving the clergy, the army, and the principal nobles, engaged in her caufe, was convinced that nothing was left to Peter but fubmiffion. Seduced by the infinuating eloquence and engaging addrefs of the emprefs, he undertook to pcrfuade his unhappy mafler, by immediate fubmiflion, to favc an effufion of blood, which could be productive of no effectual advantage to his caufe. He came to Oranienbaum between ten and eleven, and found the emperor in the palace with Munich, Elizabeth Vorontzof, Godovitz, and others, anxioufly expecting his arrival. Having retired into another apartment, the re-fult of their conference was, that in lefs than an hour the emperor, emperor, with Elizabeth Vorontzof, Godovitz, and Ifmailof, c entered the carriage, in which the latter had returned to Ora-, v. nienbaumj and, unaccompanied by guards or attendants, drove to Peterhof, where he arrived about half paft twelve, and was immediately feparated from his companions. The emprefs declined a perfonal conference; but fent count Panin, who was admitted alone. What palfed during this awful interview between that nobleman and his depofed fovereign, is not, nor probably ever will be, difclofed to the public; but nothing can convey a ftronger picture of the emperor's weak-ncfs and puftllantmity, than the following abdication in form, which was the refult of their converfation *. " During the fhort period which I have reigned over the " Ruffian empire, I have found, from experience, that my " abilities are infufficient to fupport fo great a burden; and u that I am not capable of directing the Ruffian empire in any u way, and much lefs with a defpotic power. I alfoacknow-" ledge that I have been the caufe of all the interior troubles, " which, had they continued much longer, would have over-" turned the empire, and have covered me with eternal dif-** grace. Having ferioufly weighed thefe circumftances, I de-" clare, without conftraint, and in the mod folemn manner, *' to the Ruffian empire, and to the whole world, that I for " ever renounce the government of the faid empire, never " defiring hereafter to reign therein, either as an abfolute fo-" vereign, or under any other form of government. I declare *' alfo, that I will never endeavour to reafTume the govern-f< ment. As a pledge of this, I fwear fincerely before God, M and all the world, to this prefent renunciation, written and <{ figned with my own hand. Peter." June 29, O. S. 1762. iave fuflkient reafdn to believe that this have afTertecl, he figned It at Oranienbaum abdication was made at Peterhof: if, how- before he was in the hands of his enemies, lift ever, as fome perfons with lefs probability pufillanimity admits of no palliation. Vol, II. E Having Having figned this abdication, he was conveyed in the evening a prifoner to Ropfcha, a fmall imperial palace twenty miles from Peterhof, and the emprefs returned about the fame time to Peterfburgh, About feven fhe made her triumphant entry on horfeback, amidfl continued huzzas ; the flreets were filled with a prodigious concourfe of people, who were drawn up in lines, and killed her hands, which fhe held out to them a9 flic paffed along. A great number of priefls were affembled upon this occafion about the avenues to the palace: as fhe rode through their ranks, flic (looped down to falute the cheeks of the principal clergy, while they were killing her hand j a mode of falutation in Ruflia, expreflive of the higher! deference. The firft hurry of the revolution was no fooner pad, and the fpirit of revolt had fcarce time to fubflde, before many repented of having deferted their fovereign. The populace, always prone to change, began to pity their dethroned monarch, and lofl fight of his defects in the contemplation of his calamity; they regarded him no longer in the light of a mif-guided ruler, but only as an unfortunate prince, driven from the height of power to the mofl abject ftate, and fubject to the horrors of perpetual imprifonment. Peter, notwithflanding his violence and incapacity, pofTeffed feveral qualifications of a popular nature, and was greatly beloved by thofe who had accefs to his perfon. During the emprefs's march to Peterhof, feveral private foldiers manifefled flrong fymptoms of difTatif-faction; fome openly murmured at being led againfl their fovereign i and it has fince been known, that had Peter, upon the firfl news of the revolution, made his appearance in perfon, many of the troops would have deferted to his flandard. This fpirit of difcontcnt was obferved, and fecretly fomented by the partizans of the emperor; the tide of popularity was even turning in his favour, and a new rifing was hourly expected ; peeled: at this crifis Peter's deceafe reftored tranquillity to the chap. diffracted empire, and delivered Ruffia from the impending <— horrors of a civil war. This event happened at Ropfcha on the 6th of July, O, S. on the feventh day of his confinement, and in the 34th year of his age. His body was brought to the convent of St. Alexander Nevfki at Peterfburgh, and there laid in ftate, where perfons of all ranks were admitted, according to the cuftom of Ruffia, to kifs the hand of the deceafed. His remains were then buried in the church of the convent, and the place of the fepulchre was diflinguiflied with neither tomb nor infeription. The death of Peter was not followed by any of thofe tragical fcenes which had hitherto uniformly difgraced the revolutions in Ruffia: not one of the nobles was fent into Siberia; there were no public or private executions; even the perfonal enemies of the emprefs were forgiven. Marfhal Munich had given the emperor the beft advice, and had offered to fupport him at the hazard of his own perfon. Catharine is faid to have mildly inquired the motives which had incited in him fuch an active fpirit of oppofition to her interefts. " I " was at that period," replied Munich with a fpirit which twenty years imprifonment could not fubdue, " engaged by " the flrongefl ties of duty and gratitude to exert myfelf in ** behalf of my late mafter: your majefty is now my fove-" reign, and will experience the fame fidelity." The emprefs, flruck with the magnanimity of his anfwer, with equal great-nefs of mind repofed in him the moft unbounded confidence, which was juflificd by his fubfequent conduct:. As foon as the danger of a new infurrection was difpelled, count Vorontzof was relcafed from prifon, and afterwards employed. Elizabeth Vorontzof experienced from the cmprefs no cxpreffion of either jealoufy or refentment; her perfon was untouched, and flie even retained, undiminifhed, all the fruits of Peter's bounty. E 2 Catharine, b cmd k Catharine, with a magnanimity peculiar to her character, for-1—«—1 gave the indignities which fhe had received at her fuggcflion, and even her prefumption in afpiring to a participation of the crown: fhe was permitted to efpoufe a private perfon, and flill remains at Petcrfburgh a living monument of the emprefs's unparalleled lenity. Godovitz, the emperor's favourite, and who was particularly obnoxious to the emprefs, was allowed to retire to his native country; and the Holflein guards, who had offered, nay, even importuned the emperor to conduct them againfl his confort, were not treated with the lead degree of fevcrity; they who chofe to inlifl were incorporated in the different regiments ; and the others withdrew them-felves unmolefled from Ruffia. Prince George of Holflein, uncle to Peter, and who was not unacquainted with the defign of arrefling the emprefs, was detained a prifoner in his own palace during the progrefs of the revolution ; but that event had no fooner taken place, than he was promoted to the rank of field-marfhal, and appointed adminiflrator of Holflein during the minority of the great-duke. Catharine was in the 34th year of her age when fhe afcended the throne; and the fuccefs of this revolution was no lefs owing to her own perfonal fpirit and abilities, than to the zeal of her party and the popularity of her caufe. i CHAP. t n ] CHAP. II. Family and birth of Ivan.—Appointed great-duke of Ruffia.—Declared emperor upon the death of Anne.—— Depofed by Elizabeth.—Imprifoned at Riga, Duna-muiid, Oranienburgh, and laflly at SchlufTelburgh.— Defcription of his apartment.—Method of life.—Intellects.—Ferocity, 6cc.—Vifitcd by Peter III.—Account of that interview.—Removed to Kexholm.—Brought back to SchlufTelburgh.—Attempt of Mirovitch in his favour, —Death of Wan.—T'rial and execution o/'Mirovitch.— Punifliment of his accomplices.—Sufpicion of a collufion between the court and Mirovitch.—Proofs of thofe'fufpicious,—Refuted.—Account of IvanV parents and family.—Biographical anecdotes of count Munich. IVAN, the unfortunate fubjeer. of the prefent narrative, was c lineally defcended, on the female fide, from the tzar Ivan u Alexievitch, elder brother of Peter the Great*; and was fon * Tvan Alexievitch. Catharine. Anne, Emprefs of Ruffia. Anne, married to Anthony Ulrick, Prince of Brunfwitk. Ivan. Sec Gencal. Table of the Houfe of Romanof, in Vol. I. Book III. at the end of Chap. HI. of A nne of Mecklcnburgh, and of Anthony Ulrick prince of Brunfwick: he was born on the 4th of Augufl, 1740, created great-duke by his aunt the emprefs Anne ; and, at her demife, on the 28th of October, in the fame year, fucceeded to the throne, from which he was depofed by Elizabeth on the 6th of December, 1741. The foldiers, who were fent to arrefl the young emperor, were ordered to fleal foftly into his apartments; and, if he was afleep, not to difhirb him. Finding him numbering by the fide of his nurfe, they flood round the cradle in refpectful filence, at leafl an hour before the prince opened his eyes: then all the foldiers, at once endeavouring to feize him, and difputing who mould carry him, the child was terrified, and cried; they immediately defifled, and permitted the nurfe to approach, who covered him with a cloak, and was conveyed with him in a fledge to the palace of Elizabeth. That princefs took the child, kiffed it, and, while it was yet in her arms, a body of foldiers pafTing by the palace, fhouted, Long live " Elizabeth!" The infant, pleafed with the acclamations, flrctched out his little hand, and, fmiling, tried to imitate the ihouts of the foldiers ; upon which Elizabeth exclaimed, " In-c< nocent creature, thou perccivefl not that thou art endca-" vouring to fpeak againfl thyfelf *." It is difficult to trace Ivan diflinctly from the time of his the reft were pofled in the guard-houfe, at the gate, and in different parts of the fortrefs, under the command of the governor. At that time the regiment of Smolcniko was quartered in the village of SchlufTelburgh ; and every week an hundred men relieved the guard in the fortrefs. Vaflili Mirovitch, an under-lieutenant in this regiment, was the perfon who, by attempting to rclcafe Ivan, was the caufe of his death. This perfon was grandfon of the rebel of the fame name, who followed Mazcppa Hetman of the CofTacs, when the latter revolted from Fetcr the Great, and joined Charles XII. in his ill-concerted expedition into the Ukraine, Mirovitch had applied to the emprefs to reftore the eftates of his grandfather, which had been confifcated after the 'battle of Pultava ; but having met with a pofitivc refufal, as well in this as in other applications, he formed the defperate refolution of delivering Ivan, in order to place that prince upon the throne which he had once filled, and to raife himfelf to a rank and ftation equal to that of the firft fubjccT in the empire. But, as he was a perfon without fortune or connexions, the means he was enabled to adopt were far from being adequate to the boldnefs of theenterprize. • o. S. 16th n. s. Having Having formed this daring refolution, he, a few months before the purpofed time of execution, communicated it at Cafan to a lieutenant in the regiment of Veliki-Luki, whofe name was Apollon Ufhakof. Thefe two affociates repaired to the church of the Virgin Mary, where they took an oath of iecrecy and fidelity upon the altar, and, mixing fanaticifm with treafon, invoked the Almighty to afTift and fancTify their designs. They alfo joined in drawing up a manifeflo, which they propofed to diflribute as foon as Ivan mould be fet at liberty. The execution of this enterprize was delayed until the fum-mer, when it was expected that the emprefs would be abfent from the capital upon an expedition into Livonia. Soon afterwards Mirovitch joined his regiment, which was quartered at SchlufTelburgh ; but his confederate Ufhakof was accidentally drowned, on the 29th of March, in his way to Smolenfko. Mirovitch, deprived of his aflbciate, does not appear to have found any other perfon in whom he could rcpofe equal confidence. He founded, however, a fervant of the court, whofe name wasTikon Cafatkin, and artfully endeavoured to infufe, by degrees, into his mind rebellious principles, in order to make him, at a proper feafon, the inflrument of his purpofes. But he was fomewhat more explicit with Simeon Tchevaridfef, lieutenant in the corps of artillery; to whom he communicated, firfl, by dark and obfeure hints, and then in fomewhat plainer terms, a defign of releafing Ivan ; and of conducting him to that corps flationed at Peterfburgh: but he mentioned it merely as a project, without fixing any precife time for attempting it, or naming himfelf as the perfon who would dare to undertake ir. With fo little management, and no precaution in cafe of failure, did Mirovitch refolve to carry his defign into execution ; but he was upon duty during a whole week in the fortrefs without finding any favourable opportunity. He had obferved, obferved, however, and fet a private mark on the door of c Ivan's apartment, and had fhewn it to his friend Simeon v Tchevaridfef, who came from Peterfburgh to vifit him. At the clofe of the week his turn of courfe expired ; but he folicited and obtained, under fome fpecious pretence, the permifTion of being continued upon guard on the evening of the 4th of July *. Probably he confidered the foldiers, who were then upon duty, as more eafy to be corrupted than thofe wTho had juft been relieved. It does not, however, appear that he had previoufly gained more than one common foldier, whofe name was Jacob Pifkof: and it was not till about ten at night that he firfl hinted his intention to three corporals and two foldiers, who, though they all at firfl pofitively refufed to join him, yet, by the afliftance of Pifkof, and by his own artful perfuafions, were at length prevailed upon to favour his defigns. But although they confented to aflill him, yet they could not be induced to act with that determined refolution which the cir-cumflances required. On the contrary, they continued wavering, and were fo daggered with the danger, that they pro-pofed to defer the enterprize until a more convenient opportunity mould occur. Mirovitch at llrft artfully appeared to yield to their fears y but between one and two in the morning he fuddenly renewed his folicitations, when, incapable of refilling his plaufiblc manner, the diflribution he made among them of fome money, the promifc of more, the expectation of great promotion, and his authority, as commanding officer, they were precipitately hurried on to engage heartily in the project, and to fecond his attempt. I-Iaving thus fecured the afliilance of fix perfons, lie loft not a moment in fummoning about forty of the foldiers ftationed in that part of the fortrefs, fome of whom were afleep and others upon guard, and, under pretence of an order from the * 15th, o.s. emprefs, emprefs, he commanded them to load their pieces with ball, and to follow him : then, before they cpuld be at all aware of his intention, he led them towards the apartment of Ivan. In his way he was met by Bercdnikof the governor. This officer had already retired to reft, but being alarmed by one of the guards, had haftily dreffed himfelf; and accoiling Mirovitch, commanded him to declare the caufe of the difturbance. Mirovitch returned no anfwer ; but, finking him upon the forehead with the but-end of his mufke't, delivered him a prifoner to fome of his party; and with the remainder advanced to a wooden gate which guarded the palfage leading to the prince's apartment. He demanded admittance ; but meeting with a pofitive refufal from the ccntincls, he ordered his followers to difcharge their mufkets, and to force their wray: they obeyed, and the centinels returned the fire. The foldiers, deceived by Mirovitch, had expected no oppofition: furprized, therefore, and alarmed at the refiftance of the centinels, they retired with precipitation, notwithftanding all the efforts of their leader, and infilled upon feeing the order of the emprefs. Mirovitch immediately read to them a paper*, which he had forged; at the bottom of which he had counterfeited the imperial fignature: and as it was no difficult matter to deceive fuch ignorant men, few of whom could read, he prevailed upon them by entreaties, promifes, and threats, inftantly to make a fecond attempt. During this fhort interval, a cannon had been drawn from one of the baftions, which Mirovitch * It is difficult, at this ditlance of time, to find out the contents of this paper ; but it appeared, from the examination,of Mirovitch and his afibciatcs, to have been obfeurely drawn up. As he affcrtcd that what he read to them iffued from the emprefs, he could not lay open his defign of releafing Ivan ; and probably the paper contained only an order to take the prince from under the cuflody of Vla-fief and. Tchek'm, who might be represented as betraying their trufl : this fuppofition is confirmed by the violent abufc which the foldiers, upon their return to make the fecond attack, threw out again;! thefe two officers. Nikita Lcbed-jf, the next in command to Mirovitch, was the only perfon who perceived that the order was counterfeited ; and, though he did not aififl Mirovitch, he was afterwards punifh-cd for not having difcovercd the impofition to the mil,.; aided foldiers. himfelf himfelf pointed againft the paiTage leading to the prince's apartment, when the door was fuddenly opened, and the whole party fulfered to enter without oppofition. Upon the firfl attempt of Mirovitch, Vlafief and Tchekin had difperfed the affailants by ordering the centinels to fire; but when they returned, and Mirovitch, with his cannon pointed, feemed refolutely determined to force his way, the officers, finding no poffibility of further refiilance, attacked with their drawn fwords the unfortunate object of this con-teft, who had been awakened by the tumult, and had flarted out of bed. The prince, though without any weapon, and almofl naked, yet, animated with defpair, made a vigorous defence: he parried their repeated thrufts; and, though pierced through the hand, broke one of their fwords, until overpowered and flabbcd in feveral places, he was difpatched by a wound in the back. The officers immediately threw open the door, and, pointing to the body of Ivan, exclaimed, " Here is your emperor I" " Mirovitch, upon beholding the dead body, flarted back in an agony of furprife; foon, however, recollecting himfelf, he made no other attempt, but returned with perfect compofure to the governor Berednikof, and delivering up his fword, calmly faid, 44 I am now your w prifoner." On the following day, the body of Ivan was expofed in a ihirt and a pair of drawers before the guard-houfe in the fortrefs; whither an immenfe concourfe of people flocked from all quarters. I was informed by a gentleman, who was prefent upon the occafion, that he found it impoflible to de-fcribe the animated grief which appeared in the countenances, attitudes, and exprcflions of the people at the fight of a prince, who had once been fcatcd on the throne; whofe misfortune only, and no crime, had occafioned his imprifonment; and whofe wretched exigence had been prematurely clofed by the Vol. II. G hand vook hand of violence. The concourfe at laft was fo great as to 1—ir—1 excite apprehenfions of a tumult: the body was accordingly wrapped up in a fheep fkin, put into a coffin, and buried in an antient chapel of the fortrefs, which is now demolifhed. According to the information I received from thofe who had feen the body of Ivan, he was fix feet in height, hand-fome, and athletic; he had fmall fiery eyes, red hair and beard, and a complexion uncommonly fair, which had been rendered pallid by confinement. The account of this wild enterprize of Mirovitch, and of Ivan's death, was forwarded to count Panin, together with feveral copies of the manifeflo which had been originally concerted with Ufhakof, and which were found upon Mirovitch when he furrendered. The manifeflo contained the mofl virulent abufe and dreadful imprecations againft the emprefs, who was reprcfented as an ufurper of the throne of which Ivan . was the lawful fovereign; and the copies were to have been diftributed as foon as the prince fhould be refcued and brought to the capital. Count Panin difpatched immediate intelligence to the emprefs in Livonia, who commanded lieutenant-general Weymar to repair without delay to Schluflelburgh, in order to examine Mirovitch and his afTociates; and to collect all pofllblc information that might contribute to a full difcovery of their defigns. This information, together with the confef-fion of Mirovitch and his accomplices, was laid before a committee compofed of five principal ecclefiaftics, the fenate, and of other nobles high in rank and office. Mirovitch and his abettors, being removed to Peterfburgh, were examined at different times before this committee, both feparately and together ; and the refult of all thefe inquiries tended to fhow, that Mirovitch had not been inftigated to this attempt; but that he had originally contrived the plot, and had acted throughout the whole tranfaction folely from himfelf. During During the courfe of the feveral meetings that were held on 1 this occafion, Mirovitch aftonifhed the committee by his in-folent and undaunted behaviour: at laft, however, he was brought in fome meafurc to a fcnfe of his crime, by the rc-prefcntations of the archbifhop of Roftof, and four nobles fpecially deputed for that purport-; and being then again exhorted to confefs if he had any other aflbciates of his guilt, he firmly replied, " As a man devoted to die, I folemnly de-" clare, that my confeflion contains all I know: I call upon " the Almighty to witnefs the truth of this affertion, and to H denounce his fevered vengeance upon me in the next world, " if I have mifrcprefented any circumftance, or concealed any accomplice.'1 Being convicted of high treafon, he was condemned to lofe his head; and the body, together with the fcaffold upon which he was to Puffer, were ordered to be burnt upon the fpot. The fentence was performed on the 26th of September, in the large open fquare before the courts of juftice in Peterfburgh. Mirovitch walked to the place of execution along the ftreets, filled with an innumerable concourfe of people, with an unconcerned air, and a fteady and affured countenance; and having mounted the fcaffold, he call: his eyes around him with a look of indifference; then crofting himfelf, and without uttering a fingle word*, he laid down his head upon the block, and it was fevered from his body at one ftroke. Mirovitch alone fuffered capitally; his abettors were fub-jected to different penalties, according to the degrees of their guilt. Pifkof, who was the moll criminal, was fentenced to run the gauntlet twelve times through a line of a thoufand men, and his five more immediate aflbciates ten times; they were then condemned for life to hard labour and imprifonment; a * It may not be improper to remark, that Mirovitch was not gagged, as has been faUcIy aiTcrted. G 2 fentence fentence fcarcely lighter than death itfelf. It is needlefs to difcriminate the penalties impofed upon the others, which confifled chiefly in the gauntlet, in degradation, and in condemnation to ferve in diflant garrifons. It will be fufficient to obferve, that fifty-five delinquents were involved in the treafon of Mirovitch: to thefe muff be added Cafatkin and Tchevaridfef, who were found guilty of holding treafonable converfations with him; and Nikita Lebedef, who was pu-nifhed for not having undeceived the foldiers by expofing the falfity of the imperial order which Mirovitch had forged. Thefe are the principal facts which I was able to collect re-fpecting the life and death of Ivan ; and I have endeavoured to flate them with perfect impartiality. The fame regard to truth prevents me from concealing the reports which were in-duflrioufly circulated, that the court not only connived at, but even encouraged the attempt of Mirovitch. The accufa-tion is ftated in the following manner. Orders were previoufly given to captain Vlafief and lieutenant Tchekin to deflroy Ivan, if any attempt to releafe him fhould be likely to fucceed j and for the purpofe of furnifhing them with a pretence for. dif-patching him, Mirovitch was privately mitigated to form a confpiracy in his favour. The probability of this accufation is founded on the following proofs. I. That in the attack of Mirovitch and his party on the guards of Ivan, not one perfon on either fide was either killed or wounded. II. That the conduct of Mirovitch upon the failure of his project, his daring and infolent behaviour under his trial, and his calm compofure at the place of execution, are not upon any other fuppofition to be accounted for. III. That orders were certainly given to Vlafief and Tchekin for putting Ivan to death, and that they were as certainly promoted for executing thofe orders. I. With I. With refpect to the firfl: proof, we may readily allow the fact to have been very extraordinary; but by no means to be thought impoilible on account of its Angularity. It is a well-known circumflance, that in the out-fkirts of an army large bodies of light troops frequently approach clofe to each other, and difchargc their fire without effect And if this frequently happens in the day-time, its probability is ftill further in-creafed, when we confider that the rencounter in queftion happened at two in the morning, and in the midft of a thick fog. The truth of this circumflance has been erroncoufly called in queftion: for 1 was informed at SchlufTelburgh, that almofl every morning in fummcr a fog precedes fun-rife, which is naturally accounted for from the very fnuation of the ifland on which the fortrefs Hands, in a marfhy foil, and clofe to the large it lake in Europe. Nor is it extraordinary that the centinels of Ivan, who were but few, and fome of thefe few fhcltered in the paiTage, and others probably behind the pillars of the corridore, fhould not be wounded by the random fhots of the afTailants, wavering in their rcfolutions, and uncertain whether to comply with, or difobey, the orders of their leader. With refpect to the party of Mirovitch, the whole number did not attack in a collective body ; many of them even continued at fome diflance; and they were all fo alarmed at the unexpected return of their fire, that they inftantly difperfed, and probably before all the guards had dif-charged their mufkets. And even if they had, as they confuted only of eight or ten, as the night was dark and the area large, it cannot be deemed furprifing that they mifTed the afTailants. To a perfon who has been upon the fpot, and examined the pofition of the place, thefe circumftances and thefe fuppofitions are far from appearing improbable : whereas, on the other hand, if we conclude the whole to have been concerted, certed, we mufl allow that every individual, on both fides, was previouily informed that the attack, as well as defence, Ihould be feigned; a cafe in itfelf impoflible, that a defign of fuch importance, and the mode of accomplifhing it, ihould be entrufted to fo many, and thofe of no higher rank than common foldiers. If. The fecond proof is drawn from the conduct of Mirovitch upon the death of Ivan, during his trial, and at the place of execution. In regard to his behaviour upon the death of Ivan, it is objected, that, inflead of attempting to make any refinance, he calmly, and of his own accord, delivered himfelf a prifoner. To this it may be anfwered, that he had founded all his hopes of fuccefs upon obtaining pofTeflion of Ivan's perfon; the moment, therefore, that thofe hopes were fruflrated by the death of that prince, his fate was decided. He had great difficulty in perfuading the foldiers to make the fecond attack, when the prince was alive; what affiftance, therefore, could be expected from them when they knew that he was dead! They had no other object than to releafe Ivan, and had even been unwillingly hurried on to favour that attempt. Could Mirovitch fuppofe that they would defperately affifl him in attacking the officers, and in forcing an efcape ? And indeed whither could he efcape ? He could neither conceal himfelf in the fortrefs, nor could he eafily withdraw himfelf from the ifland. He had, therefore, no other alternative than felf-deflruction, or an immediate furrender. His preference of the latter may be attributed to the impulfe of the moment, or rather perhaps to the cool intrepidity of his character. He had ventured his life and fortunes upon one rifk of extreme hazard, and when that failed him, he knew and was prepared for the word, and fullcnly refigned himfelf to his fate : but after all, it is too much to expect that we fhould juftify the conduct of an enthufiafl, enthufiaft, in the moment of difappointmcnt and defpair, CHAP, upon the principles of found judgment and deliberate reafon*. '—»—' His daring infolence before the committee, and his calm indifference at the place of execution, arc, it is allcdgcd, not to be accounted for, but upon the fuppofition that he affected the former behaviour, in order to prevent the idea of any collufion; and the latter, becaufe he was fecure of a pardon: it is furmifed, therefore, that he was only to lay down his head upon the block, and that a reprieve was to be ready at the place of execution. To this I briefly anfwer, that it is not to be conceived by what promifes a man could pofFibly be perfuaded to hazard himfelf in fo critical a flate. What could induce him to rifk his life under a momentary flroke, to be given or fufpended by a power extremely interefled in his de-flrucTion ? for the dead betray nothing; and his death would preclude all difcovery of fo infamous a tranfaction ; and thefe flrange fuppofitions are advanced, as if no rebel was ever undaunted during trial; nor any malefactor ever met death with fnmnefs and even indifference. * I cannot in this place avoid citing a paf- " fliclion atoute fa troupe, fe rend prifonnier; fage from an anonymous author, who fuppofes " et de toute fa garde qui etoit complice du memc a collufion between Mirovitch and the court : 44 crime, lui feul qui en ejl le chef eft arrete, et 44 Apres un fi noble exploit Mrs. Wlafief & 44 hi feul en eft puni." The reader will be " Tchekin jettent le corps du prince affatTme able to judge whether the foldiers who allilted 44 devant la porte ; et par un effet miraculeux Mirovitch were equally guilty with him ; and 44 Mirovitz, qui nc conoiffoit alors le prince Ivan whether he was the only perfon arretted, and 44 que de nom, le reconnoit dans ce moment pour the only perfon punifhed. The author of the 44 Jon empereur non cbftant le brouillard epais" above malevolent paragraph did not know, A ftrange objection ! as if, becaufe Mirovitch perhaps, that, by the laws of Ruffia, capital was not acquainted with the perfon of Ivan, penalties are fcldom inflicted ; or that the ache mould not know, or at leaft believe, the complices of Mirovitch were feverely punifhed, dead body to be his, when the guards cried We may remind him, that even in the rebel, out, 44 Here is your emperor !" Could he lion of Pugatchef, that inipodor and four of conceive they had murthercd an innocent per- his principal confederates were the only perfon, merely with the view of deluding.him I fbns who fuffered death: the other rebels And were.not the doors of the apartment were knooted and condemned to bird labour thrown open, and he at full liberty'to fcarch and imprifonmcnt. The caufe muft be very and fatisfy himfelf ? Another paffage from the bad indeed, when its defenders have recourfe fame author muft be mentioned for its glaring to inch frivolous objections, and fuch glaring faliity : 44 Le coup inattendu le frappa telle- falfchoods. See Pieces coucernant la mort du *' ment, qa'il temoigne fon repentir et fon uf- Prince [van. III. With. III. With refpecT to the third proof, which rcfls upon the previous orders to the officers Vlafief and Tchekin, their execution of thofe orders, and their promotion in confequencc, I clearly and decifivcly reply, that fuch orders were not peculiar to the guards of Ivan ; they are always given to thofe who are appointed to fecure flate-prifoners of any confequencc in Ruffia; they are to be juflified generally upon reafons of flate; nor were they invented upon the prefent occafion. During the whole reign of Elizabeth, this precaution had always been taken ; and in the prefent inflance, the orders were renewed whenever the perfons entrufled with the care of Ivan were changed. But, in fupport of this third proof, it is further allcdgcd, that the officers were too precipitate in difpatching the prince ; they might have conveyed him to fome place of greater fecu-rity when the confpirators had been repulfed in their firfl on-fet. But whither could they convey him ? they could not conceal him in the fortrefs, or remove him from the ifland. There could be no apartment more fecure than that in which he was confined; and even if they had attempted to remove him, the fhortnefs of the interval between the firfl and fecond aflault would have prevented them. The afTailants inftantly returned as foon as the forged order was read to them, and they returned with a loaded cannon. It follows, therefore, that the officers and centinels found thcmfelves incapable of oppofition, and that Ivan mull have fallen into the hands of Mirovitch : they had, therefore, no other alternative than to put him to death. Dreadful alternative indeed 1 but which they were obliged to embrace, for the prefervation of the public tranquillity : if they performed their duty in this emergency, the approbation of their fovereign, and their fubfequent promotion, were the natural, and, I even add, the jufl con-fcquenccs. But But furely the whole conduct: of Mirovitch, his afTociation with Ufhakof, their oath of fidelity, the violent manifesto again ft the emprefs, together with his treafonable intercourfe with Cafatkin and Tchevaridfef, are evident proofs that his defign was not feigned; that it originated from himfelf; and had been planned fome time before an opportunity offered of attempting it. To fuppofe that the emprefs had formed the projecl of deftroying Ivan; that fhe employed Mirovitch as the inftrument of that project; that fhe fecrctly promifed him his pardon; that fhe fullered him to go to the place of execution fully fecure of a reprieve; that fire there deceived him; that fire punifhed his afTociatcs, of whofe criminality fhe was herfelf the immediate caufe, imply fuch a complication of the bafeft fraud and horrid barbarity, that we ought not to liften to the imputation, were it founded even upon fome degree of probable conjecture: whereas the proofs alleged amount to nothing more than mere furmifes and vague conjectures ; and are totally refuted by the moft valid arguments and indisputable tcftimony. I cannot clofe this hiftory without annexing the following fhort account of Ivan's family. His father Anthony Ulrick was fon of Ferdinand Albert, and of Antonietta Amelia,fifter of Charlotte Chriftina, who efpoufed the tzarovitch Alexey. He was brother of Charles late duke of Brunfwick, and of that diftin-guifhed general prince Ferdinand. Anthony Ulrick was born in 1714-; in 1733 was betrothed, upon his arrival ,at Petcrfburgh, to the princefs Anne of Mecklenburgh, the prcfump-tive heirefs of the Ruffian throne ; and on the 14th of July, 1739, the nuptials were celebrated with great magnificence. On the day of that ceremony*, " who would have imagined ** that their union would one day produce their greatcft mif- Vol. II. * Manftcin's Memoirs, p. H " fortune ?" book « fortune ?" and that the prince was called into Ruffia, not to v-*»» fliare a throne, but a prifon, with his confort ? The mother of Ivan, Elizabeth Catharine Chriflina, was daughter of Charles Leopold duke of Mecklenburgh, and of Catharine Ivanofna: fhe was born in 1718; and in 1731 invited to Peterfburgh by her aunt the emprefs Anne. Having embraced the Greek religion, flie was rebaptized by the name of Anne, and efpoufed in 1739 Anthony Ulrick. Soon after the birth of Ivan, flie was not only excluded from the throne, but even from any mare in the adminiftration of affairs during her fon's minority. This event was brought about by the intrigues of Biren, who, upon the acceflion of Ivan, was declared regent. Having, by the amftance of count Munich, arretted Biren, the princefs Anne afTumed the regency and title of great-duchefs, and was upon the point of declaring herfelf emprefs, when Elizabeth feized the reins of government. Upon that revolution this illuftrious couple were, as I have before obferved, fucceffively confined at Riga, Dunemund, and Oranienbaum: from thence they were removed to Solomon-fkoi Oftrof, an ifland in the White Sea 5 and, finally, to Kolmogori, a fmall town, fituated in an ifland of the Dvina, about 40 miles from Archangel. Anne had four children by her hufband during their joint imprifonment; and fhe died in child-bed at Kolmogori, in March, 1746. Her body was brought to Peterfburgh, and buried in the church of the convent of St. Alexander Nevfki. Manftein * has well drawn the weak, capricious, and inde-cifive character of the regent Anne; who, with a moderate degree * " She was extremely capricious, paffion- " not know how to do it properly. Her fa-" ate, and indolent; hating affairs, and irre- " vourite, Juliana de Mxngden, poffefFcd her " folute in trifles as well as in affairs of the " whole confidence, and governed her manner " greatefl importance^. Daring the year of " of life juft as fhe pleafed. Her minifters and ** her regency fhe governed with a great deal " the men of parts were hardly liilencd to. In "ofmildnefs. She loved to do good, but did " ihort, fhe had none of the qualities fit for " governing grce of firmnefs and prudence, might eafily have defeated the c defigns of Elizabeth i but the following anecdote, recorded by «~ Bufching, will perhaps difplay, in the ftrongefl light, her mild and indolent character. During her confinement in the fortrefs of Riga, the prince of Brunfwick frequently blamed her for having difregarded the information flie daily received concerning the attempts of the oppofite party: one day in particular he vehemently reproached her for rejecting his advice to arrefl Elizabeth; adding, that, had that advice been follow-ed, flie and her family would not have been involved in their prefent misfortunes. «' It may be fo," returned the princefs with great indifference ; " but I fliall never repent of my con-«( duct: and it is better as it is, than to have preferved our fo-«< vereignty by fhedding a deluge of blood*." Befide Ivan, flie left four children, two fons and as many daughters, who were confined with their father in the mona- " governing fo great an empire in a time of " et fit lit a part, et lorfqu'il vouloit entrer le «« trouble and difficulty. She had always a " matin chez elle, il trouvoit ordinairement *' melancholic, and rather a fretful air; " les portcs fcrmees.—■Dans la belle faifon elle " which might proceed habitually from the " fit mettre fon lit a. coucher au balcon du pa- " vexations lhe had fullered from the duke of " lais d'hivcr du cote de la riviere, il y avoit " Courland during the reign of the cmprefs " cependant un ecran pour cacher ce lit, mais " Anne. She was handfome, had a very " du fecond etage des maifons voifines du jpa- " pretty figure, with a good fhape ; and fpoke " lais, on pouvok tout decouvrir." Ebauche, " with fluency feveral languages." Manikin's &c. p. 139, &c. Memoirs, p. 316. " As to the prince her hufband,"-fays Man-Count Munich fays of her, " Elle etoit na- flcin, "he had the bed heart arid the beft " turollement faineante, et ne parut jamais au " temper imaginable, with all the intrepidity ** cabinet; et lorfque jc me prefentai le matin " of courage that could have been wilhed in " chez elle avec ce qui etoit expedie au cabi- u military affairs ; but too timid, too em bar-m net, ou ce qui demandoit quelque refolution, " raffed, in affairs of ftate. He had come loo " elle fentoit fon infufHf'ancc, et me difoit fou- " young into Ruffia, where he had undergone ** vent: Jc voudrois que mon fils fut deja en " a thoufnnd croffos from the dul:e of Cour-" age de regncr lui-meme.—Elle etoit naturel- " land, who did not love him, and who often " lement falope, fe co^ffoit d'un mouchoir " treated him very harfhly." Memoirs, p. 317. " blanc, alloit ainfi a la meffe et fans jupe de * Buf. Hif. Mag. vol. I. p. 32. Bufching *' baleine, et paroiffoit de mime en public et a had this anecdote from a favourite maid of *' fa tabic, et ap; es-midi pour jouer aux cartes honour who atcendjd the regent in her con-41 avec un parti choifi. finemcnt. *' EUc vivoit mal avec lc prince fon epoux, H 2 fiery K fiery of Kolmogori, a place flrong in itfelf, and, for greater —• fccurity, furrounded with palifadoes. The archbifhop and monks were removed to fome houfes in the village. The rao-naflery is near the church to which the inhabitants refort. No centinels appeared on the outfide; but within guard was mounted by foldiers, not in uniforms, but d re fled like common peafants ; fo that no perfon, who had not been previoufly informed of the fact, would have fufpectcd that ftate-prifoners of any confequence had been there confined. An Englifh gentleman, who palled a few years ago through Kolmogori, in hisx way to Archangel, went frequently to the church, in order, if it were poflible, to obtain a fight of thefe illuilrious perfons; but they were fo clofely confined, that he never fucceeded in his attempts to fee them: he one day heard the prince of Brunfwick playing upon the flute. An adequate fum was allowed by the emprefs Elizabeth for their maintenance ; but, fome time after their arrival at Kolmogori, great part of it was withheld from them by thofe who fupplied their table; and they had fcarcely common neceffaries. Some perfons, however, moved with compaflion for their unhappy defliny, found means to acquaint the prefent emprefs with this circumflance; who iffued immediate orders that they mould be provided with every poflible comfort which they could receive under their unhappy fituation: and thefe orders were punctually obeyed. Anthony Ulrick died in 1780 at Kolmogori, in the 39th year of his imprifonment, and in the 67th of his age. Catharine II. whole good fenfe raifes her above the ufual fufpicions of flate jealoufy, has, by an unparalleled act of humanity, releafed from their long confinement the remaining branches of this illuilrious family. In the fame year in which their father expired, two princes and as many princefles *, of whom the eldefl is above 40 years old, were removed from Kolmogori to Arch- • Catharine, born July t6t 1741. Elizabeth, born Nov. 16, 1743; died 1782. Peter, born March 31, 1745" Alcxc-y, born March 9, 1746. angel. angel, and conveyed in a Ruffian veiTel to Bergen in Norway. There they embarked on board of the Mars, a Danifh man of war, and were landed, in the month of October, at Flatftrand in Jutland ; from which place they were conducted to Horfens, where they now refide, under the care and protection of their aunt the queen-dowager of Denmark. The emprefs of Ruffia allots a confiderablc penfion for their fubfiftencc. Having had frequent occafion to mention count Munich, I (hall here throw together a few biographical anecdotes of that extraordinary man, who enjoyed the favour of five fovereigns of Ruffia; who attained, at one period of his life, the highefl honours; and at another was doomed to a rigorous confinement of twenty years, which he fuftained with an unbroken fpirit *. Count Burchard Chriflophcr Munich, fon of a Danifli officer, was born at New-Huntorf, in the county of Oldenburgh, on the 9th of May, 0. S. 1683. He received an excellent cduca* tion ; and, in the 17th year of his age, entered into the fer-vice of the Landgrave of HefTe-Darmlladt, who, on account of his knowledge in tactics, conferred upon him the rank of captain. He ferved his firfl campaign in 1701, when the emperor Jdfeph commanded againfl the French ; and was prefent at the fiege of Landaw. In 1705 he was employed as a major by the Landgrave of Heffe-CafTel j and learned the art of war under the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene. He dif-tinguiflied himfelf for his cool intrepidity in feveral engagements and ficges, and particularly at the battle of Malplaquer, when, in recompence for his bravery, he was made lieutenant colonel. Being, in 1712, dangeroufly wounded at the battle of Denain, he was taken prifoner by the French ; and * I have chiefly extracted this account from obtained from unqueftionable authority. Sec xhc Life of Count Munich, by Bufching, who Lebens Gefchichte Burchard Chriftophs von was intimately acquainted with him ; I have Mnenich. In Buf. Hift. Mag. Ill, p. 389 to been enabled to add a few anecdotes, which I 536. foon foon after his releafe, in the cnfuing year, raifcd to the command of a regiment. In 1716 he quitted the Heffian, and entered the Polifh fer-vice, under Auguflus II. and was foon promoted to the rank of major-general; but, in 1721, being infill ted by count Fleming, the king's favourite, he went into Ruflia, and was received in the moil honourable manner by Peter I. Being charged by that great monarch with the execution of feveral important trufts, both civil and military, he fucceffive-ly filled the higheft polls in the army and (late. He was created marfhal by the emprefs Anne, and placed at the head of the war department; he obtained the command of the army againfl the Turks, and proved his military talents by his fuccelTes in the campaigns of 1737 and 1738. Soon after the death of the emprefs, he advifed, planned, and executed the arrelt of Biren; and was rewarded by the regent Anne with the office of prime minifter. Bur as he was difcontented at not being appointed gcneraHflimo, and as his power and ambition gave umbrage to the court, he requeued permifhon to refign his employments, and was aftonifhed at the rcadinefs with which his requefl was granted. Inftead of repairing to the Pruffian court, to which he was flrongly invited, he imprudently remained in Ruffia, flattering himfelf with the hopes of being reinflated in his former dignity ; and was arretted on the 6th of December, 1741, by order of Elizabeth. The oflenfible reafon of his difgrace was, that he had perfuaded the cmprefs Anne to nominate Ivan her fucccf-for; but the real caufe, as 1 was informed by a perfon of veracity who received it from count Munich himfelf, was that, by order of that emprefs, he had taken into cuilody one of Elizabeth's favourites. Munich was brought before a committee appointed to examine the ftate-prifoners j being fatigued with repeated quef-dons, and perceiving that his judges were determined to find hirn him guilty, he faid to them, « Dictate the anfwers which you c ■« wifh mc to make, and I will fign them.'* The judges im- v mediately wrote down a confcflion of feveral charges, which being fubfcribed by Munich, his mock-trial was concluded. Being thus, without further ceremony, convicted of high trea-fon, he was condemned to be quartered ; but his fentence was changed by Elizabeth to perpetual imprifonment. During that emprefs's reign, namely, for the fpace of twenty years, he was confined at Pelim in Siberia, in an oftrog, or prifon furroundcd with palifadoes, of which, according to Manflein, he had himfelf drawn the plan, and ordered to be conflructed for the reception of Biren. The place of his imprifonment was an area cnclofed with high palifadoes, about 170 feet fquare; within which was a wooden houfe, inhabited by himfelf, his wife, and a few fervants; and a fmall garden, which he cultivated with his own hands. He received a daily allowance of 12/. for the maintenance of himfelf, his wife, and domeitics; which little pittance he incrcafed by keeping cows, and felling part of their milk, and by occafionally in-flrucYing youth in geometry and engineering. He behaved, during his long confinement, with the utmofl rcfignation, tranquillity, and even cheerfulnefs. He was accuftomed every day at dinner to drink to his wife " a happy return to Peterf-5th year of his age. CHAP. III. Impoflors who ajfumed the na??ie of Peter III. particularly Pugatchef.—His origin and hijlory.—He ferves as a common Coffac.—Deferts to Poland.—Lives by charity. —Proceeds to Yaitfk.—State of the Ruffian feEiaries in thofe parts, and the mutiny of the Coffacs of Yaitfk favour his rebellion.—Declares Jmnfelf to be Peter III.—Acknowledged by thefe Coffacs.—Joined by other troops.— ColleBs a?i irregular army.—His progrefs a?td fucceffes. •—Horrid barbarity.—Wea,knefs and Ul-conduB.—Repeated defeats, efcapes, and fubfequent appearance.— He is finally routed,—Betrayed by his adhere7its.—Executed at Mofcow. LTHOUGII the body of Peter III. was expofed to public chap. view in the convent of Alexander Nevfki, where it lay in (late, yet feveral impoflors flarted up in the diftant regions of the Ruffian empire, and paffed for that unfortunate monarch. Vol. II. I The bo^ok xhe firfl of thefe was a fhoe-maker of Voronetz, who ap-u.-,—peared in that town under the name of Peter III. a few years before the rebellion of Pugatchef; but he was foon taken and executed. The fecond was a deferter from the regiment of Orlof: his name was Tchernichef, and he rofe in the year 1770, in the fmall village of Kopenka upon the frontiers of Crim Tartary, at the time that a corps of troops was marching through that place. Some diffenting priefis,-in his interefl, having fuborned a number of followers, raifed him upon the altar of the church, and were preparing to acknowledge him; but luckily the colonel of the regiment, being informed of the tumult, repaired to the church at the head of a flrong guard, took him from the altar, and led him to immediate execution, A third was a pcafant belonging to the Vorontzof family, who had deferted from his village, and engaged as a common Coffac among thofe who are fettled upon the Volga at Dubof-ka : a body of thefe Coffacs marching in the fpring of 1772 from Tzaritzin to join the Ruffian army, he affembled them in a fmall pofl-houfe, fituated in the lonely defert between the Don and the Volga, and declared himfelf to be Peter III. Having prevailed upon them to falute him emperor, and to take the oath of allegiance, he even appointed feveral officers of flate. A few hours after this tranfaetion, the commander of the troop unexpectedly arriving, confounded the foldiers by his prefence, feized the ihipoftor by the hair, and by the affiflance of the afionifhed CofTacs thcmfelves, who had jufl declared in his favour, bound and conducted him a prifoner to Tzaritzin. During his trial the inhabitants of the fortrefs, excited by the falfe reports of his followers, actually rofe in his favour, and wTere not without great difficulty difperfed by colonel Zipletof, the commander of the place. The impodor was then carried 10 one of the iflands of the Volga, and knooted to death. About PUGATCHKF, About the fame time a malefactor, who had been tranfported to Irkutfk, formed a fimilar attempt, and had even gained over an officer who had a penfion from the crown; but his fecret being foon difcovered, he underwent the fame fate as thofe before-mentioned. Yemelka Pugatchef, the rebel whofe adventures are now under confideration, narrowly efcaped the fame ill fortune at his firfl appearance. This extraordinary man, fon of the Coffac Ivan Pugatchef, was born at Simoveifk, a fmall village upon the Don. He was a common Coffac in the war which the Ruffians, during the reign of Elizabeth, carried on againft the king of Pruflia, and ferved in the fame capacity during the campaign of 1769 againfl the Turks. He was at the fiege of Bender ; and upon the furrender of that town the following year demanded his difmiflion, which being refufed, he deferted and fled into Poland: he was there received and hid by fome hermits of the Greek religion, and afterwards fupported himfelf by begging alms in the town of Dubranka. From thence he made to the colonies in Little Pvuflia, and continued among the fectaries, who are there eftablifhed in great numbers j but being apprehenfive of a difcovery, he repaired to the principal fettlement of the Coffacs of the river Yaik*, and perfuaded feveral of them to accompany him to Kuban, but without having as yet affumed the name of Peter III. Being arretted at Ma-lekofka for his treafonable convcrfation, he was fent for trial to Cafan; where the indolence of the governor, and the delays in bringing him to juftice, gave him time and opportunity of efcaping with a prieft, who had privately furnifhed him with money for intoxicating the centinels. He then went down the Volga, and up the river Irghis into the defart, and riot long afterwards appeared under the character of Peter III. * In order to extinguish all remembrance Ural, Yaitfk, Ural ft:, and the CoiHics of the «f this rebellion, the river Yaik is now called Yaik, the Uralian CofTacs. I 2 at at the head of a large body of troops. The peculiar circum-ftances' which fervcd to favour his enterprize were derived from two principal caufes, namely, the religious prejudices of the Ruffian diffenters, and the mutiny of the CofTacs of the Yaik. The Ruffian diffenters, called by the eftablifhed church Rof-kolnikioY feparatifts, diflinguifh themfelves by the name of Sta-roverfki, or old believers % Thefe fectaries have been frequently perfecuted, and particularly under Peter I. who compelled them to pay double taxes, and to wear a particular badge of diftinction. Pcrfecution, however, has only tended to increafe their numbers; and they are flill very numerous in Siberia, and among the CofTacs in the government of Oren-burgh, where the rebellion of Pugatchef firfl broke out. They confider the fcrvicc of the cflablifhed church as profane and facrilegious ; they have their own priefts and ceremonies; and Pugatchef was artful enough to take advantage of their religious prejudices, which he openly profeffed to efpoufe and protect. The mutiny of a large body of CofTacs was the fecond caufe which operated in favour of Pugatchef. The CofTacs of the Yaik, who are defcended from thofe of the Don, are a very brave and valiant race, all enthufiafls for the antient ritual, and prizing their beards almofl equal to their lives: they are rich from their confidcrable fiflieries of flurgeons; they have alfo acquired a fpirit of revolt and independence by being fituated in a defert between the Calmucs and the Kirghefc, who are continually at variance with each other, and often with the CofTacs themfelves. During the war with the Turks, a certain number of recruits were required of thefe CofTacs for a corps of huflars ; confequently their beards were ordered to be fliaven ; and as they oppofed this infringement of their * For the origin of this fctf.fcc Vol. I. Book III. Chap. IV. liberties liberties and cuftoms, major-general Traubenberg, aLivonian c officer, who was fent at the head of a few foldiers to Yaitfk to C quell the tumult, imprudently commanded that the recruits fhould be fliaven publicly in the midfl of the town. This wanton infult irritated the inhabitants to fo great a degree, that they rofe in arms, wounded many of the officers, maf-facrcd the general and the chief of the Coffacs, and broke into open rebellion. This event happened at the latter end of 1771. In the following fpring, general Freyman forced Yaitfk, captured feveral ringleaders of the mutiny, and garrifoned part of his troops in the town. Many of the rebels made their efcape, and, retiring into the defert, chiefly reforted to the marfhy grounds which lie about the lake Kamyfh'-Samara, where they derived a fubfillence from fifhing, and fhooting wild boars, and were fupplied occafionally by their relations with bread and provifions. By thefe means this defperate troop fupported themfelves during the fpace of two years, until Pugatchef made his appearance amongft them. That impoftor, upon his efcape from prifon, went fecrctly to Yaitfk about the middle ofAuguft, 1773, where he gained over a number of followers among the people who were enraged againfl the garrifon, and who in the fpring had mown a flrong difpofition to revolt, when a report was circulated that a new emperor was'coming amongft them ; a report probably occafioned by the firfl appearance of Pugatchef in thefe parts. Having at Yaitfk obtained intelligence of the late mutiny, and of the defcrtion of the Coffacs, he went in purfuit of them ; and having, in the month of October, found a large body of them employed in fifliing, he informed them that he was the emperor Peter III.; that he had made his efcape from prifon, where perfons were fuborned to affiaffinate him ; that the rumour of his death was only a fiction invented by the court; and that he now threw himfelf under their protection. It is not' not true that he bore the fmalleft refemblance to Peter III.; but he founded his hopes of gaining belief on the diftance from the capital, on the ignorance of the people, on their actual infurrection, and, above all, on their attachment to their religious prejudices, which he efpoufed and protected. Few arguments indeed were neceffary to win over thefe Coffacs, already in a ftate of open rebellion; accordingly they all unanimoufly faluted him emperor, and offered to facriiice their lives in his defence. With thefe, and other bodies of Coffacs, whom he found equally inclined to follow his ftandard, he made his firfl expedition to the new Polifh colonies lately cfta-blifhcd upon the river Irghis, where he gave no proof of his fubfequent barbarity, defpoiling the inhabitants of nothing but arms and horfes. He then prefented himfelf before Yaitfk, and having ineffectually fumrnoncd the governor, in the name of Peter III. to furrender, he gave orders for an immediate aflault: being rcpulfed, however, by the courage and intrepidity of the garrifon, and finding little hopes of taking it by ftorm, he blockaded the place with a view of reducing it by famine ; but his attempt was fruftratcd by the incredible per-feverance of the garrifon, who refilled to capitulate, although they were fo far ftreightencd for want of provifions, as not only to eat their horfea, but even to feed upon leather. This obftinate rcfiftance protracted the fiegc until Yaitfk could be relieved by a body of Ruffian troops. Pugatchef, though baffled in this enterprize, was more fuc-ceisful in his future operations: he led his followers againfl the Coffac colonics of llcts; affaulted and carried, without oppofition, the two fonreffes of Bafyrnaya andOfernaya; attacked Tatifcheva, where he met with fomewhat greater re-fillance ; but as the fortifications were only of wood, he fet fire to them, and forced the place. A body of troops fent againit .him from Orenburg, under colonel Bulof, partly through wcaknefs, weaknefs, and partly through mifconduct, was overpowered. CI^P; Another corps, who, in order to join the former, marched ****** from Simbirlk up the Samara, under the command of general Tchernichef, (fo ill were the operations concerted) arrived too late. Deceived by parties of Pugatchef *s followers, they were drawn into the defiles near Tchernorethinfk, and fo fuddenly befet, that they were incapable of making any refinance. In all thefe actions, the officers who fell into Pugatchef's hands were indifcriminately maffacred ; and the common foldiers were either made prifoners, or joined the rebels. His army being confiderably augmented by thefe fucceffes, he ventured to bcfiege Orenburg, where the governor had fcarcc forces fufficient to defend the fortifications; and the town would have been inevitably taken, if the garrifon of Krafnogorfk had not thrown themfelves into the place by forcing their way through the beficgcrs-. As foon as the report of Pugatchef's progrefs was difTemi-nated, the Bafchkirs, a people unfcttled under the Ruffian government, declared immediately for the impoflor, and joined him in large bodies: their example was followed by many Pvuffian colonifts, and particularly by the peafants employed' in. the mines and founderics of the Uralian mountains*. Thefe forces he cither employed in the ftegc of Orenburg, before which town he fpent part of the winter in all poflible acts of wantonnefs, drunkennefs, and cruelty, or fent them to collect money from the foundei ies, and to cart copper guns, and balls, which he ufed in battering Orenburg. At this time his army was fo ftrong, that all the forces which could be drawn from Cafan could fcarcely oppofe him at the ridge of the mountains lying between that town and Orenburg. In this fame winter he received a powerful reinforcement by the junction of n,oooCalmuc horfe from the neighbourhood of * Tlic Uralian mountains abound in copper mines. ■ Stauropol, Stauropol, who revolted and killed their commander, brigadier Vegetak. Strengthened by thefe accefTions, his troops roved over the whole mountainous diflrict-of Orenburg, where only the fmall town of Upha made the lead refinance. He was even advancing to Catharinenburg, where he would have found copper coin to the value of £ 200,000; but a delay, oc-cafioned by a falfe report that a fuperior force was marching againit him, fortunately afforded time to collect the foldiers flationed on the Siberian frontiers, and to cover that place. At firfl, Pugatchef affected the appearance of uncommon fanctity: he frequently put on the epifcopal drefs j gave his benediction to the people ; renounced all ambitious views for himfelf; and ■ exprefTed a refolution that, as foon as he had raifed his fon the great-duke to the throne, he would again retire into the monaflery, which had given him an afylum upon his efcape from prifon. He was alio active and enter-prifing, eager to fignalize his arms, and ready to feize every advantage which the fituation of the enemy prefented: but incapable of fupporting with equanimity his fuccefles, which followed each other with fuch rapidity, he began to confidcr all further diflimulation as unneccfTary ; he became for fome time dilatory in his meafures, and his natural temper broke out into the moft unwarrantable cxccfTcs. He had omitted the mofl favourable opportunity of marching towards Mofcow, where the fpirit of rebellion had penetrated, and which would probably have fallen into his hands, as it was defended by only 600 regular troops, and as the Turkifh war prevented marfhal Romantzof from fending any great detachment from the troops on the Danube. Inflead of vigoroufly continuing the progrefs of his army, he pa f fed the greater! part of the winter before Yaitfk and Orenburg: at the fiege of which latter place he maflacred, with the mofl favage barbarity, all the officers and nobles who were brought before fore him; and as he openly avowed an intention of exterminating the whole Ruffian nobility, he fpared neither fex nor age ; but cut off, without compunction, women and children, as well as thofe who were capable of bearing arms againfl him. His conduct was as imprudent as it was barbarous. Though he was already married to Sophia, the daughter of a Coffac, by whom he had three children, he yet efpoufed a common woman of Yaitfk. He delayed his march againfl the enemy for the celebration of his nuptials, and exhibited continued fcenes of the mofl public intoxication and rior. He was fupported by no perfons of rank or confequence; but, in order to impofe upon his army, fome of his mofl confidential adherents had afTumed the names of the principal Ruffian nobility, and wore the feveral orders of knighthood. By a fignal to his attendants, he maffacred all German officers who were brought before him, in order to prevent his ignorance of a language, which, as Peter III. he muft have under-ftood, from being obferved by his followers. During thefe tranfactions, general Belikof, advancing into thefe parts at the head of a very confiderable army, detached his major-general, prince Peter Galitzin, againfl the rebels, who furprifed Pugatchef with his whole force near Tatif-cheva, and worried him for the firfl time. Being compelled to retire, he was clofely purfued and overtaken by prince Galitzin near Kargula, upon the river Sakmara, about the diftance of twelve miles from Orenburg; he was completely routed, his defultory troops were difperfed, and he himfelf narrowly efcaped, with a few of his mofl faithful followers, into the Uralian mountains; but, notwithftanding this discomfiture, he collected his fcattered men, and foon made his appearance with a refpectable force on the Eafl fide of thofe mountains. He carried feveral fmall fortreffes, and burnt Troitzk ; but being attacked near that place by lieutenant- Vol. II, K general general de Colm, he was obliged to retreat a fecond time into the mountains. Rendered defperate by thefe repeated defeats, and defirous of again fignalizing his arms by fome brilliant exploit, he fuddenly directed his march towards Ca-fan, committing in his progrefs the mod dreadful devaluations* Having burnt the fuburbs of that town, he laid fiege to the citadel, which is built upon an eminence, and whither major-general Paul Potemkin the governor, and all his attendants, had retired. Being compelled to raife the fiege, by the approach of colonel Michaelfon with a large detachment, and being clofely purfued by that officer, he was again routed a little beyond Cafan, after feveral obflinate engagements, which continued with little interruption during three days. This route was fo general, that Pugatchef, accompanied only by three hundred well-armed Coffacs of Yaitfk, who were the mofl defperate rebels, and in whom he chiefly confided, fled acrofs. the Volga. Afterwards he was joined by large bodies of Coffacs and Bafhkirs ; while ill-armed peafants, who looked upon him as their deliverer, flocked to his flandard from very considerable diflances. In this manner the impoflor feemed to gain flrength from his loffes; and he derived fuch delufive hopes from the number of his troops, that he had even formed the refolution of proceeding to Mofcow, where one of his emiffaries had raifed a fpirit of fedition among the common people of that city. But apprehenfive, left, as peace was concluded with the Turks, part of the army on the Danube might now be employed againfl him, he foon changed his plan of operations. He marched down the Volga, routed at Dubofka a party under the command of Baron Dies, flormed Penfa and Saratof, where the governor cfcapcd only with fifty foldiers, and got pofTefiion of Demitreffk by treachery, and executed the commander. Near that fortrefs, the aftronomer Lowitz, member of of the Academy of Sciences, who was employed in levelling c the projected canal between the Don and Volga, was murdi red in a mofl inhuman manner. In this inflance, infult was added to cruelty : being informed that he was an aflronomcr, Pugatchef wantonly ordered him to be transfixed upon pikes, and raifed in the air, in order to be nearer the flars; and in that Situation he was maffacred by the command, and in the pre-fence, of the barbarian. But the enormities of this monfler were foon clofed by a fate which he had long deferved. The court, no longer embar-rafTed with a Turkifh war, was able to turn its whole attention towards crufhing this diflant rebellion; and count Peter Panin, who had diftinguifhed himfelf by the taking of Bender, was fent againfl the impotlor. That able general, moving towards the Volga, detached feveral regiments to the affiftance of colonel Michaelfon, who, ftrengthened by this reinforcement, compelled Pugatchef to raife the fiege of Tzaritzin, drove him towards Tchernoyarfk, cut off his provifions, and finally attacked him unawares as he was marching with his half-flarvetl multitude, embarraffed with a large train of loaded carriages and women who followed his camp. The rebel army being furprized in a defile between two ridges of mountains which run towards the Volga, was entirely routed; many were cut to pieces; more, as they were endeavouring to efcape, were precipitated down the fleep precipices with their horfes and carriages ; and the greatefl part of the remainder furrendcred at difcretion. Pugatchef, after many defperate efforts of valour, efcaped, with a few of his principal followers, by fwimming acrofs the Volga, and retired through the defert towards the river Ufem, where he had begun his firfl expedition. Here he was gradually deferted by his followers, who were worn out with mifery and hunger, and was at laft betrayed by thofe in whom he placed the greatefl confidence. Tvogorof, a Coffac of K 2 Iletz, B0V0K Iletz, and Tchumakef and Fidulef, CofTacs of Yaitfk, were in-^—v—» duced by the promife of a pardon to betray him. One of thefe perfons represented to the impoilor, that, furrounded as he was by the enemy, he could entertain no hopes of fafety, and advifed him to refign himfelf into the hands of the Ruffians, upon condition of receiving a pardon. Pugatchef, however, was fo enraged at this propofal, that he drew his dagger, and attempted to flab the author of fuch daflardly advice; upon which his companions inftantly difarmed, bound, and conducted him a prifoner to a corps of troops polled upon the river Yaik under general SavoroFs orders. He was conveyed to the town of Yaitfk; and from thence delivered to count Panin at Simbirfk, who fent him, with his principal confederates, to Mofcow ; where he arrived in the month of November 1774. Being examined, he acknowledged all the circum-ftances of his impofture, and was publicly beheaded in the city of Mofcow, on the 21ft of January. His body was then quartered, and expofed in different places of the city. Nothing can place the humanity of the emprefs in a ftronger light, than that, at the conclufion of a rebellion which almoft fliook her throne, the impoftor Pugatchef was not put to the torture * s and that only he and four of his principal confederates fuffered death. * When I vifited the prifon of Mofcow, I not ufed. L'Evefquc is wrong, therefore, in faw feveral horrid inflruments which had been afferting that he was racked to death. •'«■ 11 made on purpofe to torture Pugatchef, but " peril du/upplict de la roua," Vol. V. p. 143, which, by the emprefs's pofitive orders, were C H A K I % 1 T i CHAP. IV. Defeription of the knoot.—Penal laws of Ruffia.—Aboli-tio7i of capitalpunifoments by the ediEl of Elizabeth.— Remarks upon that ediEl.—Capital punifljments not really, though apparently, fupprejfed.—Abolition of torture by the prefent emprefs.—Her majefly s anfwer to the author s queries upon prifons.—Outlines of the new code of laws,—Its excellence and beneficial tende?tcy. ONE morning as I was carnally flrolling through the C^F-ffreets of St. Peterfburgh, near the market-place, I ob- w,v-.-r ferved a vaft crowd of people flocking to one particular fpot. Upon inquiring of my Ruffian fervant the caufe of this con-courfe, he informed mc, that the multitude was afTemblcd in order to fee a felon, who had been convicted of murder, receive the knoot. Although 1 naturally fhuddered at the very idea of being a fpectator of the agonies of a fellow-creature, yet my curioftty overcame my feelings. With the afliflance of my fervant I penetrated through the crowd, and afcended the roof of a wooden houfe of one flory, from whence I had a diftinct view of the dreadful operation, which was already begun. The executioner held in his hand the knoot*: this inflrument is a thong, about the thicknefs of a crown-piece, * The following are the exact dimensions the handle i foot tk inches.—-Length of tie and weight of a knoot, which I procured in whole 5 feet 5 inches and \.—Weight 11 Ruflia, and which is now in my poflerfion. ounces. Length of the thong 2 feet; breadth of the The reader will judge of the great foree 60p I of an inch; at the bottom '.—Thick- which the Skilful executioner can give to this nefs -\.—Length of the plaited whip 2 feet.— inflrument, when informed, that if he re-Circumfercnce of ditto z| inches,—Diame- ccives a private order, he can difpatch the cater of the ring j inch and {.—Length of minal by Striking him two or three.blows upon the leather fpring 1 inch and J.—Length of the ribs. and and about three quarters of an inch broad, and rendered extremely hard by a peculiar kind of preparation: it is tied to a thick plaited whip, which is connected, by means of an iron ring, with a fmall piece of leather that acts like a fpring, and is fattened to a fhort wooden handle. The executioner, before every ftroke, receded a few paces, and at the fame time drew back the hand which held the knoot; then, bounding forwards, he applied the flat end of the thong with confiderable force to the naked back of the criminal in a perpendicular line, reaching fix or fcven inches from the collar towards the waift. He began by hitting the right moulder, and continued his ftrokes parallel to each other quite to the left fhoulder; nor ceafed till he had inflicted 333 lafhes, the number prefcribed by the fentence. At the conclufion of this terrible operation, the noftrils of the criminal were torn with pincers, his face marked with a hot iron, and he was reconducted to prifon, in order to be tranf-ported to the mines of Nerfhinfk in Siberia. As feveral authors have erroneoufly defcribed or exaggerated the punifhment of the knoot, I have been thus particular in relating what fell under my obfervation; and I (hall take this opportunity of throwing together a few remarks upon the penal laws of Ruflia. By the antient flatutes, felons, as well as traitors, were publicly executed ; but by an edict of the emprefs Elizabeth, certain corporal penalties were, in cafes of felony, fubflituted in the room of capital fentences, a circumflance peculiar to the Ruffian code. According to the prefent penal laws, offenders are punifhed in the following manner. Perfons convicted of high treafon are either beheaded or imprifoned for life. Felons, after receiving the knoot, having their noftrils torn and their faces marked, as I have juft defcribed, are condemned for life to work work in the mines of Nerfhinfk. Petty offenders are either c whipped *, tranfported into Siberia as colonifls, or fentenced to hard labour for a Hated period. Among the colonifls are in-eluded peafants, who may be arbitrarily configned by their mailers to banifhment f. All thefe perfons, felons and others, are tranfported in fpring and autumn from different parts of the Ruffian dominions. They travel part of the way by water, and part by land; are chained in pairs, and fattened to a long rope : at night they are carried to different cottages, and guarded by the foldiers who conduct them. When the whole troop arrive at Tobolfk, the governor afligns the colonifls who have been bred to handicraft trades to different matters in the town ; others he difpofes as vaffals in the neighbouring country. The remainder of the colonifls go on to Irkutfk, where they are difpofed of by the governor of that town in the fame manner. The felons then proceed alone to the diflrict of Nerfhinfk; where they are condemned to work in the filver mines, or at the different forges. Travellers, who have vifited Ruflia previous to the reign of Elizabeth, uniformly concur in relating the various modes of public executions, and in reprobating the feverity of the criminal laws. But though we may join with every friend to humanity in rejoicing that many of thefe dreadful punifhmcnts no longer exifl, yet we cannot affent to the high encomiums pailed upon the fuperior excellence of the penal code fince the edict of Elizabeth, which is fuppofed to have totally annulled capital condemnations. From this fuppreflion of capital puniihment in all inflances excepting trcafon, Elizabeth has been reprefented, not only by * There are three inftruments for whipping f Their maflers arc empowered to indict tn Ruflia: the knoot, the katze, and the this puniihment, only afiigning the caufe of the plett, both of which latter are a kind of cat- offence, o'-nine-tails.. book the lively Voltaire, but even by the fagacious Blackilone*, as a flandard of legiilative clemency. Yet, however incontrovertible * Voltaire thus exprefTes himfelf upon this •edict. " L'Imperatrice Elizabeth a acheve, par " la clemence, l'ouvrage que fon pere com-" menca par les loix. Cette indulgence a ete *' meme pouffee a un point, dont il n'y a point " d'exemple dans I'hiftoire d'aucun peuple. *' Elle a promts, que pendant foil regne perfonne ne *' ferait punt de mart, t5" atenu fa promtffe. Elle *■ efl la premiere fowveraine qui ait ainfl refpecle la »« in fome inflances, fet bounds to her abfolute prerogative, by diminifhing the power of thofe tribunals which were only dependent upon the crown, by tranf-ferring it to the nobles, and invefling them with many additional privileges with refpecT to the adminiflration of juflice. As me has introduced likewife into each government fuperior tribunals, whofe decifion is final, fhe has prevented, by thefe means, frequent appeals to the imperial colleges at Peterfburgh and Mofcow, wmich were attended with considerable expence * The fir(t provinces ereflcd into governments, according to the new inftitution, were Tver and Smolcnlko, in January 1776. Thofe which have been fince cftabliihed, cither before or during my refidence in Ruffia, were in the following order : Novogorod and Kaluga, in December 1776; Plcfcof, Yaroflaf, andTula, in December 1777; Polotfk and Mohilef, in May 1778 ; Refin, Volodimir, Koflroma, and Orel, in December 1778. By the late ft accounts from Petcrfburgh, the governments were ranged in the following manner : 1. Mofcow. 3. Peteriburgo. 3. Wiburgh. 4. Tver, 5. Novogorod. 6. Plefkof. 7. Smolenfko. 8. Mohilef. 9. Polotfk. 10. Orel. II. Kurfk. 12. Karkof. 13. Voro-netz. 14. Tambof. 15. Rcfan. 16. Tula. 17. Kaluga. 18. Yaroflaf. 19. Vologda. 20. Vladimir. 21. Koftroma. 22. Niflinei Novogorod. 23. Viatka. 24. Pcrmia. 25. Tobolfk. 26. Kolyvan. 27. Irkntfk. 28. Ufa. 29. Simbirfk. 30. Cafan. 31. Penza, 32. Saratof. 33. Aftracan, 34. Azof. 3 c. New-Rufua. 36. Little-Ruffia. 37. Kiof. 38. Tchernigof. 39. Livonia, or Riga. 40. Efthonia, or Rcval. 41, Novogorod-Sever-fkoi. 42. Orenburg?!. and NEW CODE OF LAWS. and delay. By* eftablifhing or feparating the different boards of finance, police, &c. from the courts of law, which before impeded each other by meeting in the fame place, fhe has facilitated the difpatch of bufinefs, and rendered the adminif-tration of juflice more fpecdy. She has increafed the falaries of the judges, who before, from the narrownefs of their income,-were neceffarily expofed to almoft irrefiffible temptations from bribery: or, to ufe her own exprcfiions to the judges, in her celebrated edict:, *' Formerly your necefhtics might have in-* duccd you to be too attentive to your own intercfls: your " country now pays yourlabours; and what before might admit " of fome excufe, from this moment becomes a crime." She has confiderably increafed the expences of the crown in each government * without increafing the taxes ; which fhe has been enabled to perform by introducing a more regular order into the finances. To thefe regulations muft be added the abolition of torture; the fettling of the proper boundaries between the feveral governments, which has prevented many diflentions and law-fuits; the appointment of regular phyficians and furgeons, flationed in various diftricTs, at the crown's expence ; the foundation of fchools for the education of the nobility, others for children of perfons of inferior rank; the eftablifhment or augmentation of new feminaries for thofe intended for holy orders ; the erection of new bodies corporate with additional immunities; the grant of freedom to numberlefs vaflals of the crown ; and facilitating the means of giving liberty to the peasants. Such are the outlines of thefe excellent inftitutions. How far, or in what degree, they may operate upon a people fo widely difperfed, and of fuch different manners and cuftoms, * The expences of the government of Tver amount to £ 24,000 per annum; and the revenue* to £ 175,000. M 2 can can only be proved by time and experience. But though they may fail in producing all thofe advantages which from their intrinfic excellence the fpeculative reafoner might expect, yet they muft be attended with the moft beneficial effects; as indeed fufflciently appears from the flourifhing ftate of thofe provinces in which they have been already admitted. If it be allowed that many evils are reformed, and many improvements have been introduced, it cannot at the fame time be fuppofed that the national manners fhould be fuddenly changed; or that the moft abfolute fovereign can venture to make thofe fundamental cuftoms which have been fanctioned by ages, and which oppofe any violation even of thofe rights that infringe the common principles of humanity. It is furely fufficient if the abufes are remedied, as much as can be expected in a country, where the vaft difproportion of rank and fortune, and the abfolute valTalage of the peafants render it extremely difficult, if not impoflible, to eftablifh at once an impartial and incorrupt adminiftration of juflice. Ruflia, with refpect to the vaft mafs of its people, is nearly in the fame ftate in which the greatefl part of Europe was plunged in the nth and 12th centuries; when the feudal fyftem was gradually declining; when the unbounded authority of the land-holders over their flaves was beginning to be counterbalanced by the introduction of ah intermediate order of merchants; when new towns were continually erecting, and endowed with increafing immunities; and when the crown began to give freedom to many of its vaffals. CHAP, [ s5 ] CHAP. V. hiquiry into the prefent fate of civilization in the Ruffian empire.—Divifon of the inhabitants into I. nobles, II. clergy, III. merchants and burghers, IV. peafants. —General remarks on thefe orders.—Privileges granted by the emprefs to the merchants, burghers, and pea-fants.—State of vaffalage.—Conclufon. MUCH has been written concerning the great civilization chap." which Peter I. introduced into this country; that he ♦ \'- _j obliged the people to relinquish their beards, and their national drefs; that he naturalized the arts and fciences; that he difciplined his army, and created a navy; and that he made a total change throughout each part of his extenfive empire. We may readily allow the truth of this eulogium with refpccT. to his improvements in the difciplinc of his army and the creation of a navy, for thefe were objects within the reach of the perfevering genius of a defpotic fovereign ; but the pompous accounts of the total change which he effected in the national manners, fecm to have been the mere echoes of foreigners, who have never vifited the country, and who have collected the hiflory of Peter from the mofl partial information. For though a nation, when compared with itfelf at a former period, may have made a rapid progrefs towards improvement, even when the degree of that improvement, if put in competition with the refinements of other nations, feems fcarcely to exifl; yet, as the exaggerated accounts which I had heard and read of the great civilization diffufed throughout rhe whole empire, made me expect a more polifhed flate of manners than I fount], I mufl own I was was aftoniflicd at the barbarifm in which the bulk of the people ftill continue. I am ready to allow that the principal nobles are perfectly civilized, and as refined in their entertainments, mode of living, and focial intercourfe, as thofe of other European countries. But there is a wide difference between polifhing a nation, and polifhing a few individuals. The merchants and peafants ftill univerfally retain their beards, their national drefs, their original manners ; and, what is molt remarkable, the greatefl part of the merchants and •burghers of the large towns, even the citizens of Petcrfburgh and Mofcow, referable, in their external appearance and general mode of living, the inhabitants of the fmalleft village: and, notwithstanding the rigorous edicts iffued by * Peter I. I can venture to alien, that of the 11,500,000 males, who form the population of the Ruffian empire, at leaft nine millions wear their beards ; being fcarcely lefs attached at prefent to that cuftom than their anceftors in former times, when the fine for cutting off a finger was rated at n. 3^$ that for cutting off the beard, or whifkers, at 4 s. 10 d. f The greatefl part of the peafants, who form the bulk of the nation, are ftill almoft as deficient in the arts as they were before Peter's time, although the fciences have flouriflied in the capital. But the civilization of a numerous and widely difperfed people cannot be the work of a moment, and can only be effected by a gradual and almoft infenfible progrefs. • " II ordonnaaux Ruffes de quitter 1'habit long et la barbe. Unc amende fut impofee " aux amateurs obftines de l'ancien ufage. Bien 44 des Rufi'cs, et furtout les Ro/.kolniks, rcgar-" daient le changement d'habit comme un " renonccment a la religion, et difaient qu'il *' valaient mieux perdre la tete (JUfl la barbe : •*' ils furent obliges de payer un droit pour A1 n'etre pas rales, et ils recevaient un jetton «« qui leur fervaii de quittance. Souvent a la " cour on -enivrait les vicux boiars, ct on leur " tadiait la barbe d'une maniere fi ridicule, " qu'ils ctaient obliges de garder la chambre " pendant plufieurs mois, on de fe fair* raief. " On attachait aux portes des villes un mo-** dclle du nouvel habit, ct on rognait la robe " de ceux qui ne voulaient pas payer : on *' les rafait malgre cux dans les rues." L'Evefque, IV. p. 157. f Haygold, I. p. 337. If If we defccnd from thefe vague and general reflections to a € more diflinct confideration of the different claffcs of fubjects »-in the Ruffian empire, we fliall be more eafily enabled to form fome probable judgement concerning the prefent ftate of its civilization. The inhabitants in general may be divided into four orders: I. that of the nobles and gentry; II. that of the clergy; III. that of merchants, burghers, and other freemen; IV. that of the peafants. The three firfl include almolt all the free fubjects of the empire, and the latter all the vaffals or Saves. I. The 111 It order comprehends the nobles and gentry, the fole* perfons who, in the true fpirit of feudal defpotifm, have a right to poflefs land; but inftead of appearing, themfelves, according to the tenure of that fyftem, at the head of their retainers, arc now only expected to ferve in the army, and are obliged to furnifh recruits in proportion to the extent of their pofleffions. In Ruffia, as in the Oriental governments, there is fcarcely any diftinction of ranks among the nobility, excepting what is derived from the fcrvicc of the fovereign. Even the eldeft fons of thofe perfons, who have been railed to the moft con-fiderable honours and the highefl employments, excepting the advantages which they undoubtedly retain of facilitating their promotion by a ready accefs to court,, do not derive any folid benefits from their birth, like thofe which the peers of England, the grandees of Spain, or the dukes, who are peers of France, enjoy from their hereditary defcent. The importance of a noble family of immenfe property and official honours, is almoft annihilated upon the death of the chief; becaufe his property is equally divided among his fons ; and * Catharine, in confirming the immunities for in the Ukraine, and in the provinces con-of the nobles, decreed, " Qjje le droit d'achc- qucred from Sweden, Inrria excepted, and in ** ter on de vendre des tcrres fcroit propre ou a few other places, the lower orders are pro-** particulier aux feuls nobles." Le Clerc, prietors of lands, p. 472. That is in RtuT;a, flri-ily fpealung, becaufe K becaufe titles, though allowed to be hereditary, do not, independent of the fovereign's favour *, contribute much to aggrandize the pofleffors; that of a prince, a count, or a baron, .conveying in themfelves little perfonal dillinClion, unlefs accompanied with a civil or military employment. Before the sera of Peter the Great, the only title in Ruflia, excepting that of boyar, which fignified privy-counfellor, and was not hereditary, and other fimilar appellations annexed to civil employments, was that of knaes, which was efleemed fynonymous to prince. Perfons who affumed this title were defcended, or pretended to be fo, either from the different collateral branches of the reigning family; or from fome Lithuanian princes who eftablifhed themfelves in Ruffia in the 14th and 15th centuries; or from the numerous Tartar nobles who became fubjects of the Ruffian empire under Ivan VaiH-lievitch II. and his immediate fucceflbrs ; or from feveral Poliih, and other foreign families, who fettled in this empire. In pro-cefs of time the number of thefe princes increafed to fo confi-derable a degree, that, according to Lord Whitworth, no lefs than 300 were common foldiers in prince Menzikof's regiment -of dragoons. Though Peter the Great, in imitation of the other * " A prefent en Ruflie, independemrnent " cordees a la noblclTe Ruffe, y en a ajoute " des avantages que-procurent par tout la for- " quatrc autres. 1. Elle a ordonne aux cola- M tune,ou lafacilile dc s'approcher de la cour, " nels des regimens, dans une inftruction par- " un noble n'eft dillingue d'un autre que par " ticuliere, de prcferer, dans tons les eas, les " l'emploi qu'il occupe, et qui lui marque fon " nobles a ceux qui ne lc font pas, dans la pre- 11 rang. Les titres, l'anciennete de la noblcife, " motion des grades militaircs. 2. Elle ;i " 1'illuftration de fes peres, n'empechent " flame que les enfans des nobles, ainfi que 11 pas celui a qui fon emploi ne donne que le " ecux des officiers dc l'etat major, fcroient ■* rang de lieutenant, d'etre m me hors du " reens pr&raMement a tous autrcs de fes " fervice militaire, inierieur aim capitaine tire " fujets, dans les £tabllffemens d'education na- " de la plus nouvelle nobleffe, ou meme de la u tionalc. 3. Que lc droit d'achetcr ou de f* clafle des affranchis." L'Evefque, vol. IV. " vendre des terrcs fcroient propre et parlicu- p. 479. " Her aux feuls nobles. 4. Qne les nobles de -With refpeft to the advantages poiTefled by " fon empire jouiroient du privilege e\c!u(if the children of the nobility, Monlieur Lc Clerc " d'etablir des fabriqucs pour la diltillation de informs us, " Catharine II. en confirmant les " l'eau-de-vic des grains, et de la vendre a la >** droits et privileges que Pierre HI. a ac- " Couronne." P. 472. European European courts, introduced the titles of count and baron, chap. and his example has been followed by his fucceffors ; yet nei- i*-v—< ther thefe titles, nor that of prince above-mentioned, have been efteemed a fufficient aggrandizement j becaufe the greatefl: * favourites of the fovereign have been occafionally created by the emperor of Germany princes of the German empire; as prince Mcnzikof at the requeft of Peter, and the princes Orlof and Potemkin during the prefent reign. According to the fyftcm introduced by Peter I. but which has gradually been corrupted as it has receded from its fource, every perfon takes precedence from his military ftation ; he mud rife in regular gradation, and, before he can be an officer, mull have fcrved as a corporal or fcrjeant: but this ordinance is cafily eluded ; as frequently infants are made ferjeants and corporals ; and it is not neceflary to have ferved even one campaign in order to obtain precedence, as it may be conferred by civil offices. And although the law of Peter I. which compelled each nobleman or gentleman, under pain of degradation, to fervc in the army, was abolifhed by Peter III. *, yet its effects flili fubfift. No one under the rank of a major, let his fortune be ever fo confidcrable, is permitted to drive more than two horfes; under that of brigadier, more than four: a nobleman of the higheft fortune and diftinction, who has never been in the army, is not allowed, excepting by the fpecial permiflion of the crown, to ufe in the capital a carriage drawn by more than one horfe ; while a merchant may have two. There are various methods, however, of procuring military dignity, and the privileges annexed to it. Amongll others, a chamberlain, for inflance, to the fovereign, ranks as major-general ; the office of a lecretary in the different departments of * The Abbe de Chappc, in a remark upon ** he had granted the privilege of freedom to the abolition of this law by Peter III. is guilty " the nobility." This niilLake arofe from an of a ridiculous millake, v. hen he fuppofes, that omifiion in his decree, in which the nobles before this decree the nobles were flaws, were only declaredfree, without the addition of About a week after his acceffion to the throne, to fervc, cr net to ferve, as they thought proper. Peter went to the fenate, and declared, " that See Antidote, p, 148 to 150. Vol. IL N govern- b oo k government confers the rank of an officer ; and the contributor *—r—' of a certain fum to the foundling hofpital at Mofcow obtains the rank of a lieutenant. Thefe regulations, and the eafe with which military rank is acquired, has induced a German, fettled in Ruffia, to exprefs himfelf with fome humour in the following manner: '« A nobleman is here nothings his fituation in " the army alone marks the value of his exiftence. A phyfi-lt cian has the rank of major, and dares, as a ftafF-ofBcer, put 11 four horfes to his carriage, while others can only drive two; '* an apothecary in the imperial fervice has the rank of a cap-" tain; his apprentices that of enfigns ; and the two furgeons " of the diflrict bear the rank of lieutenants But however ridiculous thefe promotions may appear, yet they are founded on principles of the foundeft policy: for, as by a decree of Peter the Great, every officer is noble during his life, and the children of a flaff-oflicer are claffed among the nobility ; any ' inflitution tending to increafe the number of this order of men, who alone are entitled to poffefs land, cannot fail of being highly beneficial to the fociety. Upon their own eftates the nobles and gentry are almoft uncontrouled, having abfolute authority over.their vaffals, as will be fhewn when I treat of the peafants. II. The next order of fubjects is the Clergy. I have already had occafion to mention the origin and fup-preffion of the office of patriarch, who was formerly the head of the Ruffian clergy. Peter I. finally abolifhed that dignity in 1719; but, inftead of formally declaring himfelf the head of the church, he prudently configncd the chief ecclefiaftical authority to a tribunal which he called the Sacred Synod \ but which was in effect rendered abfolutely fubfervient to him, by an oath taken by all its members, acknowledging him as their fu pre me judge. The fynod is compofed of the fovereign, who is prcfident, a vice-prcfident, who is generally the metropolitan archbifhop, and a number of counfellors and affeffors. * Schloctzer's Biiefwechfcl for 1781, p. 365- The The clergy are divided into, i. Regular; and 2. Secular: the fir ft are monks; and the latter, parifh pricfts. 1. The principal wealth of the church is centered in the monafteries, which formerly had eftates to the amount of £ 400,000 per annum ; and, like the other land-holders, enjoyed uncontrouled authority over their peafants, who were equally bondfmen as on the poffeiTions of the laity. The prefent emprefs has annexed thefe church-lands to the crown; and in return grants annual penfions to the hierarchy, the dignified clergy, and the monks. The archbilhops and bifhops receive about £ 1000 or £ 1200 per annum ; and the fubordinate eccle-fiaftics in proportion. Soon after this regulation took place, many of the monafteries were fupprelfed; and the members inthofc which were fpared, were considerably reduced, as well by the prohibition to admit more than a certain number, as by limiting the age of noviciates. The abolition of monafteries muft be acknowledged a very beneficial circumflance in moft countries ; yet there is one evil to be apprehended from it in Ruflia : they were the only feminaries of education for thofe perfons defigned for the facred function ; and the monks are, if I may fo exprefs myfelf, almoft the fole proprietors of the learning which fubfifts among the clergy. But, moft probably, the ill effects which may be expected from the fuppreffion of fome convents, will be compensated by the better improvement introduced into the adminiftration of thofe which are continued, and by the fchools lately eftablifhed in various parts of the empire for the education of ecclefiaftics. All the dignitaries of the church are chofen from the order of monks: thefe arc archbifhops and bifhops, archimandrites or abbots, and igoomens or priors. li The epifcopal order in 44 Ruflia is diftinguifhed by the different titles of metropolitan, " archbifhop, and bifhop. The titles of metropolitan and arch-" bifhop are not attached to the fee ; but are, at prefent, merely " perfonal diflinctions conferred by the fovereign, which give N 2 " the «' the poffeffors no additional power, and fcarcely any pre-" cedence *." The archbilhoprics or bifhoprics are thirty-three in number, i. Novogorod. 2. Mofcow. 3, Peterfburgh. /l.Cafan. 5. Aftracan. 6. Tobollk. 7- Roftof. 8. Plefkof. 9. Kratitz. 10. Refan. 11. Tver. 12. Slavenfk and Kherfon. 13. Mohilef. 14. Smolenfko. 15. Nifhnei-Novogorod. 16. Bielgorod. 17. Sufdal. 18. Vologda. 19. Columna. 20. Viatfk. qi. Archangel. 22. Uftyug. 23. Voronetz. 24. Irkutfk. 25. Percflaf. 26. Coflroma. 27. Volodimir. 28. Tambof. 29. Olonetz. 30. Sicvfk. 31. Kiof. 32. Tchernigof. 33. Pereaflavl. Ruffia contains at prefent 159 monafteries, governed by 58 archimandrites and 99 igoomens; and 6y nunneries, fuperin-tendcd by abbeffcs. There are 2677 monks, and iqc^ nuns. The other priefts and ecclefiaftics belonging to the nunneries and cathedrals are 15371* 2. The Ruffian parifh-priefts are called papas, or popes ; a ■word fignifying father, and indifcriminately applied in the early ages of Chriftianity to all ecclefiaftics without diftinction, until it was confined to the bifhop of Rome by an edict of Gregory VII. But though this order was obeyed by the members of the Latin or Roman Catholic church, yet it was not acceded to by thofe of the Greek communion ; and the priefts of that pcrfuafion are ftill diftinguifhed by the appellation of pope. The parochial clergy, who may and ought to be the moft ufeful members of fociety, are generally in Ruflia the very refufe of the people. It is literally true, that many of them cannot even read J, in their own language, the Gofpel which they are commifTioncd to preach ; thefe deliver from memory * Dr. King on the Greek Church, p. 272. Perhaps this was the ftate before the fuppref- \ According to a lift of the religious cfta- fiori of many of them. I have adopted the ac- blifhments, printed in the Journal of St. Pe- count by Le Clerc,becaufe he informsus, «« Cet terfburgh in 1776, there were 460 monafte- " ctat exafl vicnt dc l'imperatrice meme." ries, and 20,535 churches. According to Buf- See Hift. An. de la RufT. p. 261. chiug, Ruffia contained 479 convents, and 79 I This lharneful ignorance is certainly lefs nunneries, without reckoning feveral fmall common than formerly; as the bilhops are monafteries dependent upon the larger ones ; more cautious in ordaining fuch improper in ail which were 7300 monks, and 5300 nuns, perfons. the fervice, a chapter of the New Teftament, or part of a ho- chap. mily, which they repeat every Friday and Sunday. Nor is it in —* the lead furprizing that fome are fo illiterate, when we confi-•der the fcanty maintenance which they derive from their profeflion. Befide the furplice fees, which in the poorer! benefices amount to £ 4 per annum, and in the moft profitable to but £ 20, they have only a wooden houfe, fcarcely fuperior to that of the meaneft among their parifliioncrs, and a fmall portion of land, which they ufually cultivate with their own hands. While the higheft dignity to which they can ever attain, as long as they continue married, is that of protopope of a cathedral, whofe income fcarcely exceeds £ 20 a year. As the parifh-pviefts are undoubtedly the principal fources from which learning and improvement muft be generally diffufed among the lower clafs of people s if they, who ought to in-ftruct and enlighten others, are fo ignorant, how grofs muft be the ignorance of their parifliioncrs! In no inftance, perhaps, has the cmprefs contributed more towards civilizing her people, than in inftituting various feminaries for the children of pricfls ; in endeavouring to promote among the clergy a zeal for liberal fcience, and to roufe them from that profound ignorance in which they are plunged*. The monks are not permitted to marry, while the parifli-priefts are compelled to take a wife as a preliminary to ordination, as I have remarked on a former occafion i : if their wives happen to die, they may enter into a convent, and become dignitaries of the church. They cannot engage in a fecond marriage unlefs they become laymen ; neither can they continue parifh-priefts without the exprefs permiffion of a bifhop. The children of the fecular clergy are all free; their fons are * An inftance of her majefty's zeal in this French, and German authors, of thofe princi- particular fell under my obfervation. When I pally which contained a clear difcuftion of the vifitcd the prefs, of the Holy Synod at Mofcow, moral duties. Theywcretobediftributcdamong three volumes of Sermons were printing in the the parochial clergy, who had orders to read Ruffian tongue : they were translations, by the them occafionally in the time of divine fervice. emprefs's command, from the belt Englifl), t Sec Vol. T. Book III. Chap. II. ufually K ufually brought up for orders, or employed in the fervice of -j the church. All the clergy wear long beards, and are diftinguifhed from the laity by fuffering their hair to ftream for a confiderable length over their moulders, without being tied or curled. Their drcfs is a fquare bonnet, and a long robe of a black or dark colour, reaching to their ankles: the fecular and regular priefts ufe,in fome inftances, a different habit; and the dignitaries of the church are diflinguifhed by a more coflly fpecies of raiment *. I cannot omit mentioning, that, during the five months we paffed at Peterfburgh, and the almoft conftant intcrcourfe in which we were daily engaged with the nobility and gentry, I never once faw in company a finglc perfon of the facred pro-feffion. It muft be allowed, indeed, that the parifh-priefls are, for the moft part, too low and ignorant to be qualified for ad-miflion into genteel focieties; while the dignitaries, being a feparate order, and reftrained by feveral ftrict regulations, re-fide chiefly in their palaces within the monafteries ; and contract an averfion, perhaps an unfitncfs, for focial intercourfe. This general character of the Ruffian hierarchy docs by no means comprehend all the individuals; as fome of them with whom I occafionally converfed, were men of liberal manners and enlightened underftandings f. III. The third divifion of Ruffian fubjects comprehends that intermediate clafs of men between the nobles and peafants, which is thus defined by the emprefs, in the 16th chapter of her inftructions for the new code of laws. '* Cette claffe d'hommes dignes que nous en faflions men-11 tion, et dont l'etat pcut fe promcttrc de grands avantages, 11 quand elle aura recu une forme liable, ct qui ait pour but * Sec prints of the feveral ecclefiaflical tables of the nobility upon days of great ccre- drcfies in King's State of the Greek Church in mony, as on that of St. Alexander Nevfki, Ruflia. when I met the archbifhep of Roftof at prince f The dignitaries occafionally dine .at the Volkonfki'i. See vol. I. Book ill. Chap. 11. u Fencourage- u rencouragement des bonnes mceurs et l'amour de travail, c " c'eft Tetat Mitoyen. *- «« Cet etat compofcd'hommes librcs n'appartient ni a la clalTe " des nobles, ni a cells des payfans. *■ On doit ranger dans cette claiTe tous ceux qui, fans ctre ni " gentilhommes ni payfans, s'occupent des arts, des fciences, *' de la navigation, du commerce, ou exercent des metiers. " On doit y placer encore tous ceux, qui ncs de parens * roturicrs, fortiront des ecoles et maifons d'education, re'li-** gicufes ou autre*, fonde'es par nous ou par nos predeceffeurs. ** De mcme, les enfans des ofliciers et ecrivains de chancel-'< lerie. Mais comme ce tiers etat eft fufceptible de different u degres de prerogatives, dont nous ne voulons pas traiter en u detail, nous ne ferons que d'ouvrir ici le champ 1 un plus '* ample examen V Although, previous to the reign of Peter the Great, there had been certain bodies of merchants, enjoying peculiar privileges which raifed them above the condition of peafants ; yet thefe were few, and their advantages, confidering the immenfe monopolies which were in the hands of the crown, and the op-preffion which they neceffarily laboured under from the power of the great, extremely precarious. Peter, who during his travels into foreign countries had perceived the utility and necef-fity of a third eftate for the purpofes of commerce, made many * InftrucVion, &c. pour le Nouveau Code des Lcix, p. 107. " This claTs of men worthy to be mentioned " by us, and from whom the ftate may pro-44 mife itfelf great advantages, when it lhall ** have received a liable form, and which has *' for its end the encouragement of good mo-" rals and the love of induftry, is the middle " ftate. 14 This ftate, compofed of freemen, belongs *' neither to the clafs of nobles nor to that of *' peafants. 11 All thofe who, being neither gentlemen "nor peafant«, follow the arts and Sciences, " navigation, commerce, or excrcife trades, " are to be ranked in this clafs. " In this clafs ihould be placed all thofe " who, born of plebeian parents, fliall have " been brought up in fchools or places of edu-«' cation, religious or others, founded by us, ** or by our prcdeceffors. " Alfo the children of officers, and of the " fecretaries to the chancery. But as this third " eftate is fufceptible of different degrees of " privileges, which we do not mean to detail " in this place, we fhall only here open the 44 way for a more ample examination." regula- regulations with this view, which, though excellent in themfelves, yet not being adapted to the ftate of property in Ruffia, did not in general anfwer the end propofed. Among the mofl beneficial of thefe regulations mufl be mentioned, that he endowed fome free towns with certain privileges, which were afterwards augmented by Elizabeth. But thefe privileges were confined to Peterfburgh, Mofcow, Aflracan, Tver, and a few other great provincial towns; and all the inhabitants, even merchants not excepted, were, in fome cafes, upon the fame footing with the peafants, particularly in two inflances, which are confidered in this country as indelible marks of fervitude : they were fubjecT to the poll-tax, and to be draughted for the army and navy. Her prefent majefly has exempted the body of merchants from thefe two odious inllanccs of fervitude; has greatly increafed the number and immunities of the free towns; and has permitted many of the crown-pcafants, and every free man, to enrol himfelf, under ftipulated conditions, into the clafs of merchants or burghers, who form the third order of inhabitants now under confidcration, The merchants arc diflributcd into three claffes. The firfl comprehends thofe who have a capital of £ 2000 ; the fecond thole who poffefs £ 1000 ; and the third thofe who are worth £ 100. By the 47th article of the celebrated manifeflo of Graces, as it is called, which the emprefs conferred upon her fubjects at the conclufion of the Turkifh war in 1775, all perfons who chufe to enter themfelves in any of thefe claffes are exempted from the poll-tax, upon condition of paying annually one per cent, of their capital employed in trade to the crown*. The extent of their capitals, however, is not rigor- oufly * A literal tranfiation of this remark- " eluded, from the body of merchants, and able article is here fubjoined. " The in- " lhall i;e clal'cd among the burghers. On the " habitants of towns who do not poifcfs a " contrary, all burghers, who by their iu, "capital of 50x3 roubles, £ 100, and mcr- " dullry have acquired the fuin of 500 roubles, "chants declared infolvent, lhall be cx- " lhall be admitted into the body of merchants. " This oufly inquired into, for it entirely depends upon the merchants ciy to name the oftenfible fum which they are fuppofed to be <—v worth; as a perfon poffelfing above £ 2000 may enrol himfelf in any of the inferior claffes, or even in that of the burghers, if he chufes to pay the poll-tax rather than one per cent, of his capital, and be entitled to no more privileges than they enjoy. This alteration in the mode of aiTeiTing merchants is productive of great advantages both to the crown and to the fubjects ; the former receives, and the latter cheerfully pay one per cent, of their capital, as well becaufe they are by that means exempted from the poll-tax, as becaufe they are alfo entitled to additional immunities. It is alfo a jufl impofl, as each merchant pays according to his fortune ; if his profits in-creafe, his affeffment increafes 5 if they diminifh, his contribution proportionably diminifhes. With refpect to the general interefls of the nation, it muff be confidered as a mafter-piece of judgement and found policy. It excites induflry, by holding up to the people a principle of honour, as well as interefl, to be derived from the augmentation of their capital; and it affords an additional fecurity from arbitrary impofitions, by pledging the good faith of government in the protection of their property. It is likewife productive of another very effen-tial public benefit, by creating, as it were, a third eftate*, which, " This body (hall remain divided as before in- " the free towns in which they wifh to refide, " to thre« clafTes, in proportion to their capi- " and to enrol themfelves either among the " tal; they (hall pay an annual afleffment of " merchants or burghers of that town," &c. " one per cent, of their capital, which they * Montefquicu obfcrves, that there is no " declare is employed in trade, -in confidera- third ejlate in Ruffia, and that the natives are *'* tion whereof they are exempted from the either nobles or flaves ; an alfcrtion which is " poll-tax. The burghers continue upon the contradicted by Monf. Le Clerc, who ihows " fame footing as before." that there is undoubtedly, and always has Alfo, in the afith article, " We permit all been, in Ruffia, a certain defcription of perfons *' perfons, franchifed by their lords, to chufe neither nobles nor flaves. Hilt. Mod. p. 223. Vol. II. O But BCK)K which, as it increafcs in wealth, in credit, and in importance, *—mud by degrees acquire additional privileges, and gradually rife into confequcnce and independence. The burghers form the fecond divifion of this order; the term burghers is applied to all inhabitants of free towns, without any reference to their peculiar trade, who declare that they poffefs a capital lefs than £ 100 ; or who, having that fum, do not chufc to affume the more honourable name of merchants. They poffefs many privileges fuperior to the peafants but are diftinguifhed from the merchants by being ftill fubject to the poll-tax, and to enrolment in the army or navy. Under this third order muft be included all the other free fubjecTs of the empire ; namely, thofe flaves who have received their liberty from their mailers, thofe who have obtained their difmiflion from the army and navy, the members of the Academy of Arts, and of other fimilar inftitutions, orphans from the Foundling-hofpital, and, laftly, the children of all thefe freemen. All thefe perfons have permiffion to fettle and carry on trade or commerce in any part of the empire, may enrol themfelves among the burghers of any free town ; and, if they have a fufficient capital, are admitted into the order of merchants. By all thefe wife regulations, the number of perfons above flaves will gradually increafe ; and mull in time form a very considerable order of men, as foon as they fhall acquire the right of poiTciTing land. It is a circumflance not unworthy of remark, that the Ruffian merchants and tradefmen feldom keep any book of ac- But Montefquicu has certainly expreffed him- pofTefs, they could not be faid to constitute a felf correctly upon an extenfive view of the third ejlate according to the fenfe. of that term fubject, as Le Clerc is right in the detail. For in other European countries, though there were fome fubjects neither nobles The definition of this intermediate order nor flaves, yet as their number was extremely of men by the cmprefs, fo late as 1767, fuf- limited, and as, when Montefquicu wrote, they ficiently proves that it had not une forme did not enjoy thofe privileges which they now fiahle. counts, counts, as few of them can either read or write, and arc unacquainted with the knowledge of figures. Their manner of reckoning is by a kind of machine with feveral rows of wires, upon which beads arc fining. The beads upon the firfl row Hand for units, thofe upon the fecond for tens, upon the third for hundreds, on the fourth for thoufands, and in a fimi-lar progreflion. By means of this machine they fubtract, multiply, and divide with great exaetnefs. An exception, among a few others, to this general obfervation, fhould be mentioned: the mofl honefl and intelligent perfons of this order are the inhabitants of Archangel and its environs : they are moflly able to write, read, and call accounts; and many of them are much employed at Peterfburgh by the members of the Britifh factory to fuperintend their warehoufes ; and they have the general character of faithful and induflrious fcrvants. It may, perhaps, be difficult to account for the peculiar circumflances which may have concurred to render the inhabitants of the town and environs of Archangel more intelligent than the other Ruffians, unlefs the following caufe fhould be thought fufTicient. Archangel, from the time of its firfl difcovcry by the Englifh in 1554, was, during a confiderable period, the great emporium of Ruflia; many of the inhabitants, therefore, being connected with foreign merchants who required great exaetnefs in all their dealings, were gradually trained to bufinefs. By a kind of local enthufiafm and traditional inflruction, they have continued to dillinguifh themfelves among their ignorant and lefs honefl countrymen, by applying themfelves to understand the common rudiments of arithmetic, and by a diligent and regular difcharge of their trull. IV. The fourth order of fubjects comprehends the peafants. O 2 The The peafants of Ruffia, excepting thofe of Finland and Ca-relia, the Ukraine, and a few others *, are all ferfs, or flaves. They may be divided into, i. Peafants of the crown. 2. Peafants belonging to individuals. 1. The former inhabit the imperial demefnes, and probably comprehend, including thofe belonging to the church lands which are now annexed to the crown, about the fixth part of the Ruffian peafants. They are immediately under the jurif-diction of the imperial officers or bailiffs. Although liable to great exactions, by the tenure of their fubjection, from thefe petty tyrants, yet they are much more fecure of their property ; and being under the protection of the fovereign, any flagrant inftances of oppreflion are more eafily made known and redrefTed. Many of thefe vaffals, in particular diflricts, have been franchifed, and permitted to enrol themfelves among * I am not able to afcertain the number and privileges of thofe peafants who are free. Monf. Le Clerc thus enumerates them : 1. " II y a une claffe de fujets nature], qui " ne font ni nobles ni ferfs; on les appelle ** cdno'VortJt. Ce font des payfans libres, qui " pofledent des terres en propre, qui les culti-*' vent eux-memes, ou les font cultiver par les ** nutrcs." Bufching fays of thefe people : *' The odno-" profcflbr of mathematics, admitted 1727. 2. Gerhard Frederick Mullerf, hiftoriographer, and keeper of the archives at Mofcow, 1731. 3. Jacob Staehlin, 1736. 4. Francis iEpinus, 1757. S' Simeon Kotelnikof, in mathematics, 1757. 6. John Albert Euler, fon of the celebrated Euler, in natural philofophy, 1766. 7. Stephen Rumovfki, in aflronomy, 1763. 8. Gafpar Frederick Wolf, in anatomy, 1767. 9. Peter Simon Pallas, in natural hiflory, 1767. 10. Eric Laxman ||, in agriculture, 1770, 11. Alexey Protaffof, in anatomy, 1764. 12. Ivan Lcpekin, in natural hiflory, 1771. 13. WolfgangLud-wig Kraft, in experimental philofophy, 1771. 14. Andrew John Lexel, in aflronomy, 1771. 15. Anthony John Gulden- ftaedt, in natural hiflory, 1771, fince deceafed.-Adjuncts, 1. Peter Inokodtzof, in aflronomy, 17685 appointed in 1779 extraordinary profeffor. 2. John Gottlieb Georgi, in chemif-llT» '775- 3- Nicholas Fufs, in mathematics, 1775. 4. Michael Golovin, in experimental philofophy, 1775. This general account of the eflablifhment, progrefs, and prefent ftate of the academy, will be naturally fucceeded by a defcription of the library, the cabinet of natural hiflory, and the other curiofities, which I vifited feveral times during my flay at Peterfburgh. Mr. Bachmeifter, the librarian, has juftly remarked, in a recent publication §, that war, which in moft other countries is unfavourable to the fciences, has tended to promote them * The direction of the academy is now con- f This great plulofopher died of an apo- figncd to the princefs Daflifcof. That learned plexy on the 18th of September 1783. princefs has propofed the foundation of a fo- % Mailer died in the latter end of 1783. cicty fimilar to the Academic Francoi/e r it is || .Laxman, being promoted, is fucceeded to confifl of fixty members. The plan has by Fcrber, the famous Swedifh rpincralogifl. been approved by the cmprefs, who has al- § Elfai fur la Bibliothcque, &c. dc l'Acad. ready given a fund for its 'fupport and cfta- des Sciences., JblhTament, Vol. II. in in this empire. The library owed its origin to 2500 volumes which Peter the Great feized at Mittau in his Swedifh campaign : it was afterwards increafed by the bounty of that emperor, and of his fucceffors; and lately enriched by the curious collection of prince Radzivil at Newitz, taken by the Ruffians, in 1772, during the troubles of Poland. Mr. Bachmeifter informed me, that, fince this laft acquifition, the number of books amounted to about 36,000. The moft ancient MSS. arc the Lives of the Saints, written in 1298, and a Chronicle of Neftor, the earlieft hiftorian of this empire. This Chronicle, together with thofe of Novogorod, Plefcof, the Ukraine, Cafan, and Aftracan, the genealogical tables of the early great-dukes, from Vladimir the Great to the tzar Ivan Vaffilievitch, compiled in the iqth, 13th, 14th, and following centuries, convinced me, that Ruflia is extremely rich, as well in documents relating to its more remote annals, as to thofe of later times*. They are all written in the Sclavonian tongue. Among the MSS. relating to the hiftory of Ruflia, muft not be omitted 16 volumes in folio, containing an account of the negotiations of Peter's minifters, from 1711 to 1716; as alfo 30 volumes of the official correspondence of prince Menzikof,. from 1703 to 1717 : thefe collections would fcrve as good materials towards compiling an authentic hiftory of Peter the Great, a work much wanted. One MS. although of very modern date, is yet highly valued, on account of the auguft perfon by whom it was written, and is preferved in an elegant box of bronze gilt. It contains the emprefs's inftructions to the committee delegated to form a new code of laws; inftructions drawn up by herfelf, and written with her own hand. This MS. is always placed upon the table, whenever the members of the academy hold a folemn meeting, • Sqc Chap. VIII. Among Among feveral books, the librarian mowed me a volume, chap. containing the Acts of the Apoflles, and the Epiftles, which is \__ curious, as being the firfl book printed in Ruffia »; it bears the date of 1564, and iffued from the prefs eftablifhed at Mofcow. Its paper is certainly of our manufacture, as I plainly difcovered the Englifh flamp: and we find in Hack-luyt, that paper is mentioned among the firfl imports which Ruffia received from England. This library contains, perhaps, a larger quantity of Chinefe books than is to be found in any other collection of Europe. They are clafTed in port-folios, and confifl of 2800 feparate pieces. An exact catalogue of them has been lately made by Mr. Leontief, who was feveral years at Pekin, where a Ruffian, church is eflablifhed, and fludents are permitted to refide for the purpofe of learning the language f. Hitherto we have been indebted almoft to the French alone for any probable accounts of the interior ftate of the Chinefe empire. The amicable inter-courfe, however, which has for fome time fubfifted between the courts of Peterfburgh and Pekin, has facilitated the acquifition of Chinefe books ; and the eftablifhmcnt of a feminary at Pekin has naturally led the Ruffians to obtain a more general and accurate knowledge of that country. Hence many interefting publications have been lately put forth at Peterfburgh, relative to the laws, hiftory, and geography of China, extracted and translated from the originals publifhed at Pekin. The various branches of natural hiftory are diftributed in different apartments. This mufeum, which is extremely rich in native productions, has been confiderably augmented with a variety of fpecimens, collected by Pallas, Gmelin, Gulden-flaedt, and other learned profeffors, during their late expedi- * Mr. Nichols informs us, that this book Peter Timofioffsom. See M The Origin of was ten years in the prefs, and that the names " Printing, 1776," p. 2S8. ci the firfl printers were Ivan Hodcrfon and f See Ruffian Difcoveries, Sec. p. 208. Q^2 tion book tjon through the RulTIan empire. As it neither falls within «—my plan, nor is it in my power, to enter into a minute account of all the various fpecimensj I mall only curforily mention a few objects which principally engaged my atten* tion. The fluffed animals and birds occupy one apartment. Among the former I particularly obferved the Equus Hemionus, a fpecies of wild horfe, which bears the appearance of a mule: it refembles an afs in its mane, ears, feet, and tail, and principally in the black flreak down its back; in oilier parts it is like an horfe. It is the fame which was called by Ariffotle the Hemionos, found in his days in Syria, and which he celebrates for its amazing fwiftnefs and fecundity; it is denominated by the Mongols ajluggetei, which fignifies eared ; is alfo known among naturalifts by the name of mulus Dauricus, becaufe it is found in Dauria, about the rivers Amoor, Onon, and Orgoon. Thefe animals, however, are obferved there only in fmall numbers, detached from the numerous herds which inhabit the vafl deferts of Tartary, to thefouth of the Ruffian dominions-. Their fwiftnefs is proverbial, and is faid to exceed even that.of the antelope: they are defcribed by the Tartars as very fierce, and fo untraceable as not to be tamed. Mr. Pallas has favoured the world with an accurate defcription and engraving of this fingular animal, in the New Commentaries of the Academy ; to which I refer the reader, as well as to Mr. Pennant's account, in his Hiftory of Quadrupeds, The other animals peculiar to Ruffia and the adjacent countries, which attracted my notice, are the wild ram, called Argoli by the Mongols, by Linnaeus Gapra Amman, which inhabits the mountainous deferts fouth of the Lake Baikal; and the Bos Gnmniens of Linnaeus, or grunting ox of Pennant. The latter inhabits Tartary and Thibet, and is mentioned here for the uncommon beauty of its tail, which is full and flowing, of a gloffy and filky texture. Thefe tails form a confiderable. article of exportation from Thibet. Thibet. The Indians fafter* fmall bundles of the hair to a handle, which they ufe for fly-flaps; the Chinefe dye tufts of it with a beautiful fcarlet, with which they decorate their caps; and the Turks employ it as ornaments * to their fland-ards. I obferved alfo the bouquetin, the white bear, the ermine, the mufk-rat, the flying fquirrel ; among the amphibious animals, the fea-horfe, whofe tufk is ufed inftead of ivory ; and the fea-otter, greatly prized for its rich and valu* able fur. The latter is caught on the coaff of Kamtchatka, and in the Aleutian and Fox Klands ; and its fkin is difpofed of to the Chinefe at a high price -jv The collection of birds, infects, frfh, fhelis, dried plants, alt ranged in the cxacteft order, and after the fyftcm of Linnscus^ next attracts the obfervation of the naturalist. In the cabinet of natural hiftory, I could not avoid being furprized with the number and variety of foffil bones, teeth3 and horns, of the elephant, rhinoceros, and buffalo, which have been found in different parts of this empire, but more particularly in the fouthern regions of Siberia. From the inspection of their aftonifliing variety, I was led to inquire by what means they could have been found in a country where the animals of which they formerly made a part were never known to exiit. It was the opinion of Peter, who, though he deferves to be efleemed a great monarch, was certainly no great naturalift, that the teeth found near Voronetz-were the remains of elephants belonging to the army of Alexander the Great, who, according to fome hiflorians, croiTed the Don, and advanced as far as Koftinka J. The celebrated Bayer, whofe authority carries greater weight in the literary world, conjectures ||, that the bones and teeth found in Siberia belonged to elephants * The Europeans erroneously fuppofe thefe $ See Ruffian Difcoverics, p. 114., 169. 172. ornaments to be made from horfe-tails.. and other parts. fSee Ruffian Difcoverics, p. 12. || Lc Bruyn's Travels, vol. I. p. 63. coramea BOOK common in that country, during the wars which the Mongol monarchs carried on with the Perfians and Indians ; and this plauiiblc fuppofition fecms in fome meafurc to be corroborated hy the difcovery of the entire fkeleton of an elephant in one of the Siberian tombs. But this opinion, as Mr. Pallas very juftly obferves, is fufficiently refuted by the confideration, that the elephants employed in the armies of all India could never have afforded the vafl quantities of teeth which have been already difcovered, not to mention thofe which it is juflly to be prefumed may flill be buried *. The fame ingenious naturalifl has given an ample defcrip-tion of thefe foffil bones, and has endeavoured to account for their origin f. Upon examining thofe in the mufeum, he was led to conclude, that as thefe bones are equally difperfed in all the northern regions of Europe, the climate probably was in the earlier ages lefs fevere than at prefent, and then pofiibly fufficiently warm to be the native countries of the elephant, rhinoceros, and other quadrupeds, now found only in the fouthern climates. But when he vifited, during his travels, the fpots where the foffil bodies were dug up, and could form a judgement from his own obfervations, and not from the ac* counts of others; he, with a candour which reflects the highefl honour upon his good fenfc, renounced his former hypothecs; and, in conformity with the opinions of many modern philofophers, aliened, that they muft have been brought by the waters; and that nothing but a fudden and • Nov. Com. XIII. p. 440. " mcnta prodidlt, ac Sibiria aoilra, cujus fub- f Nov. Com. De Oflibus Sibirix foffilibus. " terraneum Ebur, quamquam hodiernura He fays, that in no country more fulfil bones " nonnifi cafu riparumquc ad majora flumina have been difcovered than in Siberia ; and " minis detegi foleat, ea tamen fie quoquc co- that elephants teeth have been dug up in fuch 14 pia icgitur, ut inter merces indigenas non plenty, as to make a considerable article of " ultimurn obtineat locum, illud prxfertim, trade. " Nulla tamen unquam regtO tot " quod in terris hyperborcls cetcrno gclu ri- 44 tantaque in hoc gencre graviinmarnm et an- " gentibus rcpertum, plane incorruptum et ** tiquiQimarum telluris mutationura monu- " tomatili open adhuc aptum eft." general general inundation, fuch as the deluge, could have tranfported CIV^P* them from their native countries in the fouth, to the regions <— of the north. In proof of this affertion, he adds, that the bones are generally found feparate, as if they had been fcat-tered by the waves, covered with a ftratum of mud, evidently formed by the waters, and commonly intermixed with the remains of marine plants, and fimilar fublfances*; in-flances of which he himfelf obferved during his progrefs through Siberia, and which fufficiently prove that thefe regions of Afia were once overwhelmed with the fea. Thus far Mr. Pallas, to whofe excellent difquifition on the fubject I mud refer the curious reader: for my own part, I can only add, that I examined the fpecimens in the mufeum with that attention which they deferved, and am perfectly Satisfied that they are the foffil bones of the animals in queftion. The mofl curious of thefe fpecimens is the head and foot of a rhinoceros, which were dug up entire in a bank of the Vilui, a fmall river falling into the Lena, in latitude 64, below Yakutfk: the body was found in December 1771 ; and when * De reiiquiis animalium excticorum per " culi loco apud plebem adfervari vidi, qtiav Aflam repertis. M que magis integra reliquerat getas collegi." , « In plerifque ripis,que foflili ebore oflibuf- Mr. Pallas, in a recent publication, has dc- " que incaluerunt, membra animalium pie- fcribcd feveral fofiil bones lately dug up in the " rumque disjecta reperiuntur, quafi a flueli- government of Cafan, fome whereof were fent "bus agitata, ct obruta limo vcl glarcofis to Petcrfburgh in 1779, and depolited in the u maximc ftratis evidentiffime undarum cf- mufeum of the academy. The mofl remark- " fectu et fluctuationc congefus, imo variis able of thefe bones which he enumerates, are " fsape corporum marinorum reliquiis confo- the following : An elephant's tooth, 10 fpans "data. IIujus momcnti in cxtricanda oflium. 3\ inches long, and 15' inches in circumfe- " foffdium hiftoria graviffimi pluribus in locis rencc ; ditto, 5 feet 3 inches in length, and the " luculentiflima cxcmpla propriis oculis vidi." fame in circumference ; feveral bones of elc- And again, " Ex eodem limofo folo Rhym- phants of confiderable fize ; a damaged horn " nus, ubicunque altiores ripas fubruit, ere- of a rhinoceros, 2 feet 4 inches long ; a jaw of ** bro in confpeclum producit elephantum' a rhinoceros, 3 fpans and 1 \ inches long, con- *' dentes, maxillas, magna artuum olfa, buba- taining two black teeth, &c. Gcricjit von ** iorum immania cum cornibus capita, fimi- Cebeinen grofl'er atiflaendifcher Thiere. Pal- " lefque reliquias, quarum bene magnum nu- las's Nordil'che Beytragc, vol. I. p. 173. u merum per hafce regiones profectus mira- Mr,. Mr- Pallas came into thofe parts the following year, the head and two legs were fent to him by the governor of the province, .and by him tranfmitted to the mufeum. The fkin and hair arc very apparent. The following tranflation of the account relative to the difcovery of this rhinoceros is extracted from Pallas's Travels. I have preferred this extract to the defcription given in the Commentaries of the Academy, as well becaufe the latter is too long to be inferted in this place, as becaufe the German, in which the former is written, is lefs familiar to the Englifh reader than the Latin, in which the other is ,compofed. " This winter the hunters of Yakutfk found, near the ri-M vulet Vilui, the body of an unknown animal, the head and u two hinder feet whereof were fent to Irkutfk by Ivan An-«< gunof, vayvode of Vilitfk. In the account of this difco-*' very, dated the 17th of January, it appears, that in Decem-«* her, about 26 miles above Vilitfk, the body of an animal " was obferved half buried in the fand, about a fathom " from the water, and four fathom from a fleep clifE Being cC meafured upon the fpot, it was found to be 7 feet 7 inches u in length, and in height about 7 feet 6 inches. The hide was entire, the body appeared of its natural bulk, but in ." fuch a Rate, that only the head and feet could be carried «' away ; one of the latter was fent to Yakutfk, and the remain-" der to Irkutfk. Upon infpection, they feemcd to have be-6i longed to a full-grown rhinoceros ; and as the head was " entirely covered with the fkin, there could be no doubt of « the fact. On one fide the fmall hairs were ftill perfect. 4t The exterior organization was well preferved, and the cye-14 lids were not entirely corrupted. Here and there under the «« fkin, and the bones, and alfo in the hollow part of the fkull, was found a flimy fubflance, the remains of the putrid flefh; and upon the feet, befide the flimc, parts of the " tendons tendons and finews were obferved. Both the horn and the u hoofs were wanting ; but the hollow in which the horn " had been fet, and the edge of the fkin which encircled its " bafe being apparent, and the cloven feparation of the hoofs " being vifible, afforded undoubted proof that the animal *' was a rhinoceros. Uaving given in the Commentaries of " the Academy of Sciences, a particular defcription of this *' extraordinary difcovery, I will not repeat what I have " there advanced concerning the caufes which might have brought this rhinoceros into thefe northern regions, and 11 have difperfed the other remains of exotic animals through " Siberia. I fhall here only mention a few circumflanccs, u which I obtained from Argunof, relative to the place where *' the remains of the rhinoceros were difcovered; and fhall " add a few conjectures upon the poflibility of their preferva-** tion during fo long a period. The country about the Vilui " is mountainous, and the mountains confifl of flrata, partly of *l fand and lime-flone, and partly of clay mixed with many " pebbles. The body was found in a hill, compofed of fand " and pebbles, about fifteen fathoms high; it was buried " deep in a coarfc gravelly fand, and was preferved by the " froff, as the ground in that part is never thawed at any con-" fiderable depth. The warmed and mofl expofed places arc " thawed about two ells deep by the fun; but the lower 41 parts, which are formed of clay and fand, are, even at the " end of hammer, frozen at no more than half an ell below V the furface. Without this circumflance, it would have been €< impofTiblc that the fkin and other parts of this quadruped " fhould have been preferved for fo long a time: for we can- being of maflive gold, and of very elegant workmanfhip. Thefe ornaments confift of bracelets, fome of * He affirmed, that he divided the choroides into two membranes; but it is now the received opinion, that he only fplit the fame membrane into two parts. t The quantity of gold found in thefe tombs is fcarcely credible ; one which was opened in the neighbourhood of the Irtilh, is thus defcribed in the Archa:ologia : " After removing a very deep covering of " earth and Hones, the workmen came to " three vaults, conflrufted of ftones of rude ** workmanfhip ; a view of which is exhibited 11 in the annexed plate. " That wherein the prince was depofited, " which was in the centre, and the large 11 of " the three, was eafily diftinguifhed by the *« fword, fpear, bow, quiver, and arrow, which " lay befide him. In the vault beyond him, ** towards which his feet lay, were his horfe, ** bridle, faddle, and ftirrups. The body of " the prince lay in a reclining poflure, upon a " Iheet of pure gold, extending from head to " foot: and another fheet of gold of the like " dimenfions was fpread over him. He was " wrapped in a rich mantle, bordered with " gold, and ftudded with rubies and emendde. " His head, neck, breaft, and arms naked, *" and without any ornament. " In the letter vault lay the princefs, diftin-" guifhed by her female ornaments. She was " placed reclining againfl the walls, with a " gold chain, of many links, fet with rubies, " round her neck, and gold bracelets round "her arms. The head, bieaft, and arms " were naked. The body was covered with a " rich robe, but without any border of gold " or jewels, and was laid en a ftieet of fine "gold, and covered over with another.. The " four lheets of gold weighed 40 pounds. The " robes of both looked fair and complete; but, " upon touching, crumbled into dud." Demidof's Account of certain Tartarian Antiquities, in the Archxologia, Vol. II. p. 223, 22 j. which which weigh a pound; of collars in the fhape of ferpents; c of vafes, crowns, bucklers, ring3, figures of animals richly v-carved in gold and fiiver, fabres with golden hilts, ornamented with precious Hones; Tartar idols, and other antiquities. The furprizing quantity of golden ornaments, were they not evident to fight, would exceed all belief; but having been in fact difcovered in the manner reprcfented, it is certain that the people whofe relics were interred in thefe places muft have been very rich. How then are we to account for a civilized nation, capable of thefe artificial productions, formerly cxift-ing upon the banks of the Irtifh, the Tobcl, and the Yenisei? Mr, Muller, who has made refearches upon the fubject, and who, during his travels through Siberia, examined many of the fpots where the tombs were opened, advances the following probable conjectures concerning the people to whom they belonged ; and from him all fubfequent authors, who have written upon this point, have drawn their conclufions *. After defcribing the different fpecies of tombs obferved in the fouthern parts of Siberia, he adds, " that as in feveralof " thefe burial places the bones of men, women, and horfes, " have been found with javelins, bows and arrows, and other " weapons; it feems evident, that the fame antient fuperfti-a tion, which ftill reigns in India, was formerly prevalent in " thofe parts; namely, that the departed fouls follow the fame 44 kind of life in a future ftate, which they purfued in this " world f. For this purpofe, at the demife of a perfon of " dilHnction, his favourite wife, his fervants, the horfes upon 44 which he was accuftomed to ride, were facrificed at his " tomb, and buried with him ; and for the fame reafon his * See Mr. Muller's excellent Treatifc Von ilen Altcrn Graebcrn in Siberia in Kaygolct, vol. II. p. iss,t ;iif0 in the Journal of St. Pet. for 1779. f Or, as the poet has elegantly exprefled H: ■ Qux gratia curium -Armorumque fuit vivis, quae curanitcntes Pafcerc equos ; eadem fequitur tellure rc-poftos. iliueid. lib.VI. 653. " arms, " arms, drefs, and other accoutrements, were alfo interred-; " hence the Indian wives, to this day, throw themfelves upon " the funeral pile of their hufbands." And Mr. Muller ob-ferves, that, upon infpeeting the antient archives of Yakutfk, he found the fame cuftom obtained among the inhabitants when the Ruffians firfl: made the conquefl of thofe parts; and that the only effectual method of putting a flop to fuch proceedings, was by punifhing all thofe as murderers who facri-ficed the wives and fervants of the deceafed. Having thus accounted for the quantity of gold and filver ornaments found in thefe tombs, he next endeavours to point out the particular people to whom thefe burial places belonged; and he is equally judicious in the folution of this difficult inquiry. He begins by aliening, that the richefl of thefe burial places were made in the time of Zinghis Khan and his immediate fuc-ceffors. The mofl valuable tombs being found near the banks of the Volga, the Tobol, and the Irtifh ; the next in value in the deferts of the Yenisei; and the poorefl in the countries bordering upon the Lake Baikal: he fuppofes them all to have been the work of the Mongol Hordes at different periods, who inhabited, at various times, the diflricts in which the burial places at prefent exill. He grounds his proof upon the following circumflances : Zinghis, or Tchinghis Khan, laid the foundation of his vafl power in the beginning of the 13th century. The roving hordes of Mongols, who were firfl under his dominion, inhabited the countries about the rivers Se-lenga, Tola, Orkon, and Anon, flretching from the river Amoor to the Mongol Defert, which leads to the wall of China. Thefe hordes were at that time a poor tribe, and hence the tombs which are found in thofe parts are very fcantily provided with rich accoutrements, and ornaments of any value. Zinghis Zinghis had no fooner brought the Mongols under his Tub- c jection, than he turned his arms to different quarters. With the aid of thefe warlike tribes, he and his immediate fucceflbrs conquered great part of China, independent Tartary, Perfia, and the regions as far as the Black Sea, and held for fome years almoft all Ruffia under their yoke. The plunder of fuch vaft countries centered for the moft part in the fettlement of the chief Khan, acknowledged by all the feudal princes as the head of that extenfive empire ; which, upon the death of Zinghis Khan, was divided into many independent principalities. This fettlement was, about the middle of the 13th century, not far from the banks of the Irtifh, as appears from the travels of the millionary Rubruquis, who, in his way to the court of the Khan Magnu, defcribes the laft river he crofled to be the Yaik; and as he never mentions the Irtifh, it is probable that the feat of the court was fituated between thofe two rivers •> and accordingly we find, in corroboration of this fup-pofition, that the richeft fepulchres are difcovered in the parts between the Yaik and. the Irtifh. Towards the beginning of the 15th century, the empire of the Mongols fell to pieces ; and therefore there feems no other period, but the 13th and 14th centuries, in which they could have collected fuch an immenfe booty as the ornaments found in-thefe tombs feem to indicate. It is a remarkable circumflance, that many of thefe ornaments are executed with fuch tafte and elegance, as is hardly to be accounted for from the ftate of the arts at that time in the Eaft: and indeed they were undoubtedly the work of Europeans, whom the liberality of Zinghis Khan and his fuc-ceffors drew to their courts ; for Rubruquis met at the court of Magnu William Boucher, a French goldfmith, employed by the Khan, 7 Mr,- 128 T R AVELS INTO RUSSIA, book Mr. Mullcr, with his ufual candour, allows one exception to his general affcrtion, that all the tombs of Siberia, in which arms and ornaments were interred with the deceafed, were the burial places of the Mongols; and he defcribes a few which feem of a far more antient date, and contain copper arms, utenfils, and ornaments. Thefe relics arc now preferved in the chamber of rarities, and I examined them with great attention. The knives, fpears, and fwords, being uniformly of copper, feem to prove, that the people who were buried in thefe parts were not acquainted with the ufe of iron ; and therefore mufl have been of very high antiquity, and far anterior to the Mongol hordes. Mr. Muller, who has invefligated all thefe fubjecls with a wonderful fpirit of inquiry, fuppofes thefe people to have been the Igurs, or Uigurs*, from whom Zinghis Khan, as his own fubjecls the Mongols were entirely without the ufe of letters, is faid to have adopted the alphabet and the art of writing. But he gives this merely as a conjecture, and admits the uncertainty of fettling decifively to what people thefe copper arms and ornaments belonged, or at what period they were buried. A long gallery contains the various dreffes of the inhabitants in the Ruffian empire, and of many cafiern nations: among which the Chinefe are the mofl confiderable. One apartment is filled with the dreffes, arms, and implements brought from the new difcovered iflands between Afia and America, and from the parts of the continent which have been vifited by the Ruffian veffels. Some of thefe fpecimens are the fame which are mentioned in the Journals of the Ruffian Voyages; namely, caps beautifully adorned with long flreamers of hair like the antient helmets ; clothes made with the fkins of fca-ottcrs, of * OrUgorians, the anceftors of the prefent in thefe tombs refcmblcs thofe Hill ufed in Hungarians, who, in remote times, inhabited Hungary. Eilai Bib. p. I 76. parts of Siberia. One of the necklaces found rein- rein-deer, and of birds painted red, and ornamented with fringes of leather, hair, or finews ; alfo wooden mafks, repre-fenting the heads of large fifh and fea-animals, which the inhabitants occafionally wear at feflivals *. In this gallery are various idols, which Mr. Pallas procured from the Calmuc or Mongol hordes roving in Siberia, many of whom are ilill plunged in a flate of the groffefl idolatry, and follow the religion of the Dalai Lama. Some of thefe deities are delineated upon canvas ; others are of clay, painted or gilded ; and a few are of bronze, chiefly procured from Thibet. They are moflly grotefque figures, with many hands and arms, and fitting crofs-legged ; and are fimilar to thofe wor-fhipped by many feels in the Eafl; they are hollow, and generally filled with relics and fentences of prayers. Engravings of the mofl remarkable idols are given in Pallas's Travels. I paid great attention to the collection of Ruflian coins, which throw a confidcrable light upon the early hiflory of this country. The mofl antient fubflitutes for money, which paffed among the natives, were fmall pieces of leather, or of martens' fkin ; but in their dealings with foreigners, the Ruffians, like the Chinefe at prefent, ufed to exchange their merchandize for gold and filver in bullion. The precife time in which the art of coining began to be practifed in Ruffia is unknown; but it was mofl probably derived from the Tartars. The coins -f are ranged into nine claffes. i. The firfl contains thofe that are without inscriptions; thefe, which are undoubtedly the mofl antient, exhibit in one or two inflanccs an human figure on horfeback wielding a fword ; but are for the mofl part flamped with the rude repre-fentations of certain animals, and which, according to the * See Ruflian Difcoveries, p. 114. 169.172. mifmatic Hiftory of Ruffia, which he has and other parts. rendered extremely valuable by engravings of uadrupedwn e Glirium ordine. This performance, printed at Erlang in quarto, contains 388 pages and 27 plates, and defcribes numbers of the rat genus, and their anatomy. In 1781 he brought out Enumeratto Plant arum qua In horto Procopll a Demldof Mofcud vigent; (Pet. octavo) or Catalogue of the Plants in Mr. Demidof's Gardens at Mofcow ; and in the fame year he gave to the public two volumes, in octavo, of an interefling work in the German tongue, called, Nate Nordlfche Beytrage, &c. or New Northern Collections on various fubjects of Geography, Natural Hiftory, Vol. II. X and book and Agriculture; which, amongft other difTertations, contain v-w the following by himfelf: Description of the Tangut Buffalo, together with general obfervacions on the wild fpecies of oxen j from the French, by the fame author, in the New Commentaries of the Academy, accompanied with an engraving.—Natural hiftory of the Korfak, a fpecies of little fox, found in the Southern deferts of Middle Afia.— Remarks upon tape-worms in men and animals, with engravings. In this differtation he continues his obfervations upon thefe noxious animals which he had made in his Dijfertatio Inauguralis; and even accurately defcribes 21 diftinct fpecies.—Companion of certain mortal dif-tempers obferved in Sweden, Ruflia, Siberia, and the neighbouring deferts, which may be comprehended under the general name of gangrenous boils. _Remarks upon that chain of the Swedifh mountains which ffretches between the White Sea and the Lakes Onega and Ladoga. — Defcription of the bones of large exotic animals found buried in the government of Cafan.— Accounts of Thibet, from the relations of fome Tangut Lamas [priefts] among the Mongols of Selenginfk.—Description of the mountain Altai, from a Chinefe book, tranflated in 1759 byRoffokin, &c.—Journal of an expedition* over the ice, made by Andreef, Leontief, and Lyflbff, to the Bear Iflands in the Frozen Ocean, near the mouth of the Kovyma.—Geographical de-fcription of the river Anadyr and the rivulets which it receives.—Particular accounts of the Tchutfki promontory, and the neighbouring iflands, tranflated from the Ruffian.—Account of the Journal of captain Krenitzin and Levafhef from Kamtchatka to the New Difcovered IQands, as far as Alafka, on the American Continent; from Coxe's Ruffian Difcoveries.—On the difcoveries in the Eaflern Ocean between Siberia and America, with a chart of the faid difcoveries.—Short defcription of the ceremonies obferved from the 22d June 1729, to the 12th cf July, in the village of Urga upon the river Elbina, at the new-birth of the Kutukta, one of the mofl: celebrated priefts among the Mongols.—Defcription of the art ftill pradifed at Aftracan of preparing fhagreen.—On the migration of the large water-mice (mus ampbi-bins) generally called water-rat, upon the Volga. * A chart of this expedition is given in the Ruflian Difcoveries. The The fecond volume contains the following treatifes 1 chap. Defcription of the ilfJ/jgetai, or wild-mule, found in the deferts of Middle <— Afia, from the Latin account of the fame author in the New Commentaries, with a coloured figure.—Obfervation on the onager of the antients, or the wild-afs, from the French in Act. Acad. Pet. for 1777, with an engraving of the animal.—Account of two American monkeys (Simia Jacchus), which have propagated their breed at Peterfburgh.—Defcription of the Surinam heron, or ardca belias, with a coloured engraving.—Remarks on tapeworms, in regard to the 12th and 14th article in the Naturforfcher.—Journal of the route of a caravan in 1727 and 1728, from Kiakta to Pekin, under the direction of the agent Laurence Lange.—Journal of the route of a caravan in 1736, from Zurukaitu through Mongolia to Pekin.—Geographical and hiftorical defcription of Pekin.—Remarks upon the Labrador (tone.—Topographical and phyfical defcription of Beering's Ifland, extracted from Steller's papers. —Short defcription of Copper Ifland, extracted from the papers of Peter Yakovflaf, who failed there in 1755.—Account of a four years' voyage to the iflands betwen Afia and America, made in 1772 by De-metri Bragin, and communicated to Mr. Pallas at Irkutfk.—Extract from a journal of a voyage, made by Ivan Solovief in 1770 to 1778, to the American promontory, called Alafka. The third volume, which made its appearance in 1782, contains thefe treatifes by Mr. Pallas. Defcription of two remarkable South-American birds, the Cuculus Tene-brofos, and Picas Minutijfimus,—Account of Daniel Gotlieb Mefferfchmidt's feven years journey through Siberia.—Route from Kiof to Conftantinople in the year 1714, tranflated from the Ruflian.—Journal of a voyage in 1775, to explore the coaft of America north of California, by the Second Pilot of the Spanifh fleet, Don Francilco Antonio Maurelle, in the king's fchooner Sonora, commanded by Don John Francifco de la Bodega.—Extract from SaikoPs Journal of a Voyage to the weftern coafls of America.—Conjectures on the origin of the Americans. —Short extract from the Hiflory of Georgia. —Defcription of the folemn burning of a lama, or priefl's body. In 1782 he put forth two fafciciili, or numbers, of Icones fa-feclarum, prtfertim Ruffid, Siberia que peculiarh.iu, ckc. quarto, Er-lang; or Figures of Infects, principally of thofe which are pe- X q culiar culiar to Ruflia and Siberia, accompanied with defcriptions and illuftrations. Thefe two numbers treat of the fcarabai, curcu-lionesn tenebriones, bupejlres, meloedes, cerambyces, with fix plates, containing coloured figures of 180 infects of thofe genera. By intelligence received during the courfe of lad year, we find that he is employed in the arrangement and publication of a fplendid work, which is to be executed at the emprefs's expence, and is to contain the entire botany of the Ruflian empire. It is to be embellifhed with feveral hundred plates of the more ufeful or fcarce plants. It will be of the large fized paper, and will be delivered out in numbers. Exclufive of thefe feparate publications, he has likewife read before the Imperial Academy the following diffcrtations, which have been printed in the Tranfactions of that learned body. Eefcriptio tubularia? fungofa prope Wolodimerum menfe Julio 1768 obfervat—Obfervatio de dentibus molaribus fcjfilibus ignoti animalis, &c, ad Uralenfe jugum repertis. The extraordinary facts mentioned in thefe three treatifes, on the foffil bones, fkulls, and other parts of the rhinoceros, elephant, and buffalo, found in various parts of Siberia, have been already related. Defcrip-tio Leporis Pufrili. DefcripUones £>uadrupedum et Avium anno ij6() obfervato-rum. Equus Hemiomts—Tetrao Arenarid.—Lacerta Apoda.—Additamcntum Dif. de Cranio Rhin. &c—Obfervationes circa Mynnecophagam Africanam ad DideU phidis novam fpeciem, &c.—Defcription du Buffle a queue de cheval precedee d'ob-fervations genirales fur les efpeces fauvages du gros betail.—Obfcrvations fur I'ane dans fen etat fauvage, ou fur Is veritable Onagre des anciens*. It cannot but be pleafing to the lovers of fcience to be informed, that Mr. Pallas has been lately diftinguifhed with a mark of imperial favour, being appointed member of the * Thefe feveral treatifes are in the 12th, 13th, 14th, 17th, and 19th Vols, of die Novi Comment, and in the Acla for 1777, Fart II. board board of mines, with an additional appointment of £ 200 per annum. As the care of putting into order and publifhing the papers of Gmelin and Guldenftaedt is configned to Mr. Pallas, I fhall clofe this chapter with a fhort account of thofe learned profeffors. Dr. Samuel Gmelin, profeffor at Tubingen, and afterwards member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Peterfburgh, commenced his travels in June 1768; and having traverfed the provinces of Mofcow, Voronetz, New Ruflia, Azof, Cafan, and Aftracan, he vifited, in the years 1770 and 1771, the different harbours of the Cafpian; and examined with peculiar attention thofe parts of the Perfian provinces which border upon that fca, of which he has given a circumftantial account in the three volumes of his travels already publifhed. Actuated by a zeal for extending his obfervations, he attempted to pafs through the weftern provinces of Perfia, which are in a perpetual ftate of warfare, and infefted by numerous banditti. Upon this expedition he quitted, in the month of April 1772, Einzellee, a fmall trading place in Ghilan, upon the fouthcrn fliore of the Cafpian ; and, on account of many difficulties and dangers, did not, until the fecond of December 1773, reach Sallian, a town fituated upon the mouth of the river Koor. From thence he proceeded to Baku and Kuba, in the province of Shirvan, where he met with a friendly reception from Ali F«th Khan, the fovereign of that diftrict. After he had been joined by twenty Uralian Coffacs, and when he was only four days journey from the Ruffian fortrefs Kiflar, he and his companions were, on the 5th of February 1774, arrcfted by order of Uhnci Khan, a petty Tartar prince, through whofe territories he was obliged to pafs. Ufmei urged as a pretence for this arrcft, that thirty years ago feveral families had efcaped from his dominions, and had found an afylum in the Ruffian territories; territories ; adding, that Gmelin fhould not be rclcafed until thefe families were reftored. The profeffor was removed from prifon to prifon ; and at length, wearied out with continual perfecutions, he expired on the 27th of July, at Ach-mct-Kent, a village of Mount Caucafus ; his death was occasioned partly by vexation for the lofs of feveral papers and collections, and partly by diforders contracted from the fatigues of his long journey. Some of his papers had been fent to Kiflar during his imprifonment; and the others were not without great difficulty refcucd from the hands of the barbarian who had detained him in captivity *. The arrangement of thefe papers, which will form a fourth volume of his travels, was at firfl configned to the care of Guldenftaedt, but upon his death has been transferred to Mr. Pallas. John Anthony Guldenftaedt was born at Riga on the 26th of April 1745; received the rudiments of his education in that town ; and in 1763 was admitted into the medical college of Berlin. .. He completed his ftudies at Franckfort upon the Oder, and in 1767 received the degree of doctor of phyfic in that univerfity. On account of his knowledge of foreign languages, and the confiderable progrefs he had made in natural hiflory, he was confidered as a fit perfon to engage in the expeditions which were planned by the Imperial Academy. Being invited to Peterfburgh, he arrived in that city in 1768, was created adjunct of the academy, and afterwards, in 1770, member of that fociety, and profeffor of natural hiflory. In June 1768, he fet out upon his travels, and was abfent feven years. From Mofcow, where he continued till March 1769, he pafTed to Voronetz, Tzaritzin, Aflracan, and Kiflar, a fortrefs upon the weftern fhore of the Cafpian, and clofe to the confines of Perfja. In 1770 he examined the diflricts watered by the rivers Terek, Sunfha, and Alkfai, in the eaflern * See Each. Ru(T. BibL for 1775, p. rc\ extremity PROFESSOR GULDENSTAEDT. 159 extremity of Caucafus ; and in the courfe of the enfuing year c 54 penetrated into Offetia, in the higheft part of the fame moun- i^-^--» tain, where he collected vocabularies of the languages fpoken in thofe regions, made inquiries into the hiftory of the people, and difcovered fome traces of Chriflianity among rhem. Having vifited Cabarda, and the northern chain of the Caucafus, he proceeded to Georgia, and was admitted to an audience of prince Hcraclius, who was encamped about ten miles from Tefflis. Prince Heraclius *, or, as he is called, the tzar Iracli, who made fo bold a Hand againfl the Turks in the lafl war between the Pone and Ruffia, and now poffeffes all Georgia, Kaketia, and the two fmall diftricts of Bortfhal and Kofak, which were ceded to him by Nadir Shah, is above fixty years old, of a middle fize, with a long countenance, a dark complexion, large eyes, and a fmall beard. He paffed his youth at the court and in the army of the celebrated Nadir Shah, where he contracted a fondnefs for Perfian cufloms and manners, which he has introduced into his kingdom. He has feven fons and fix daughters. Pie is much revered and dreaded by the Perfian khans his neighbours; and is ufually chofen to mediate between them in their difputes with each other. When they are at war, he fupports one of the parties with a few troops, who diflufe a fpirit and courage among the reft, becaufe the Georgian foldiers are efteemed the braveft of thofe parts j and prince Heraclius himfelf is renowned for his courage and military flail. When on horfeback he has always a pair of loaded piftols at his girdle, and, if the enemy is near, a mufket flung over his fhoulder. In all engagements he is the foremoft to give examples of perfonal bravery ; and frequently charges the enemy at the head of his troops with the fabre in his hand. He loves pomp and expence; he has adopted the drefs of * Sec Journ. St. Pet. 1779, p. 328. Perfia; gOOK pcrila ; and regulates his court after the manner of that coun-*—-v—' try. From the example of the Ruflian troops, who were quartered in Georgia during the laft Turkifh war, he has learnt the ufe of plates, knives, and forks, difhes, and houfe hold furniture, c\c. Although his revenues are very fmall, fcarcely exceeding £ 50,000 per annum, yet he contrives to maintain a Handing army of about 6000 men. The profeffor accompanied prince Heraclius in a campaign along the banks of the river Koor, 80 miles into the interior part of Georgia, and returned with him to Tefflis. All the houfes of that capital are of ftone, with flat roofs, which ferve, according to the cuftom of the Eaft, as walks for the women. The buildings are neat and clean, but the ftreets are exceedingly dirty and narrow. The town contains one Roman Catholic, thirteen Greek, and feven Armenian churches. Having paffed the winter in Tefflis, and in examining the adjacent country, he followed in fpring the prince to the province of Kaketia, and explored the fouthern diftricts inhabited by the Turcoman Tartars, and fubject to Heraclius, in the company of a Georgian magnate, whom he had cured of a dangerous diforder. In July he paffed into Imeretia, a country which lies between the Cafpian and Black Seas, and is bounded on the eaft by Georgia, on the north by Offetia, on the weft by Min-grelia, and on the fouth by the Turkifh dominions. The* fovereign of this diftrict, the prince or tzar Solomon, having upon his acceflion forbid the fcandalous traffic practifed by the noblemen of felling their peafants, greatly offended the Turks, who gained by that fpecies of commerce. Being by their intrigues driven from his throne, and compelled to find an afylum in the woods and mountains, he lived like a wild man for fixteen years in caverns and holes, and frequently by * See Jours. St. Pet. p. 33,6, his PROFESSOR GULDENSTAEDT. his perfonal courage cfcaped afTafTination, until he was rein-flated in his dominions by the Ruffians in the late war. The prince wears ufually a coarfe drefs of a brown colour, with a mufket upon his moulder ; but upon folemn occafions he puts on a robe of rich gold brocade, and hangs round his neck a filver chain. He is diftinguifhed from his fubjects by riding upon an afs, perhaps the only one in Imeretia, and by wearing boots. He has no regular troops, but can collect a deful-tory and undifciplined army of 6000 men, with no artillery. Thefe troops are drawn together by the found of the trumpet: in other refpects the prince's orders are iffued in the following manner at the markets which arc held every Friday. One of his fervants afcends a tree near the place of meeting, and proclaims the edict with a loud voice, which is communicated to the people by each perfon upon his return to the place of his abode. Flis fubjects are of the Greek religion. In the almoft unknown dominions of this prince, who, from his gratitude to Ruflia, afforded to Guldenftaedt every aflift-ance in his power, the profeffor penetrated into the middle chain of Mount Caucafus, vifited the confines of Mingrelia, Middle Georgia, and Eaflern and Lower Imeretia ; and, after cfcaping many imminent dangers from the banditti of thofe parts, fortunately returned to Kiflar on the 18th of November, where he paffed the winter, collecting various information concerning the neighbouring Tartar tribes of the Caucafus, and particularly the Lefgces. In the following fummer he journeyed to Cabarda Major, continued his ■courfc to Mount Befhtan, the highefl point of the firfl. ridge of the Caucafus; infpected the mines of Madfhar, and went to Tcherkafk upon the Don. From thence he made expeditions to Azof and Ta-ganroc, and then along the new limits to the Dnieper, he fmifhed this year's route at Krementfliuk, in the government of New Ruflia, In the enfuing fpring he was proceeding to Vol, K. Y Crim Bck)k Crim Tartary, but receiving an order of recall, he returned y—through the Ukraine to Mofcow and Peterfburgh, where he arrived in the month of March 1775 *# Upon his return he was employed in arranging his papers ; but before he could finifh them for the prefs, was feized with a violent fever, which proved mortal, and carried him to the grave, in the month of March 1781. His writings, which have been hitherto publifhed, confifl only of the following treatifes. Tbeoria virium corporis humaniprimitivarum, &c. by which he obtained his doctor's degree.—Memoire fur les produits de Ruffe propres pour foutenir la balance du commerce exterieur toujour s favorable. St. Pet. 1777.—Account of the Havens in the Seas of Azof, Euxine, and Marmora, in the Journal of St. Peterfburgh for 1776.—Of the Harbours and Trade of the Cafpian Sea3 with a Chart in the fame Journal for 1777.—Chymical Analyfis of the Warm Baths near the River Terek., in the Geographical Calendar for 1778.—Geographical, Hiftorical, and Political Account of the new Ruffian Lines between the Terek and the Sea of Azof, accompanied .with a Map in the Journal for 1779.—Thoughts on the Commerce to be opened between Ruffia and Germany, through the Danube, in the Journal for 1780.—The five laft articles are written in the German language; and the following, which arc printed in the Acts of the Academy, are in the Latin tongue. Mus Sujlica—Anas Nyroca—Spalax novum glirium genus—Peregbufna nova Mujlel in the Ruflian language, firfl publifhed at Venice ; which the prince reprinted in 1774, and, according to his ufual cuflom, enriched with many hiflorical obfervations.—His own works are, an Account of the Ruflian Impofiors: amongft thefe is the Life of Demetrius, which is chiefly drawn from the fame fources as thofe which Mr. Muller confuhed in his relation of the fame period.—But this noble author's great work now comes under confideration, his Hiflory of Ruflia, from the carliefl times. He has already publifhed three volumes in quarto, which finifh with the reign of Demetrius Donfki, who died in 1389. The fourth volume was in the prefs in the year 1778; but I am not certain whether it has yet made its appearance. I have read with great pleafure the German tranflation of this performance, which appears to me a mofl valuable addition to the hiflory of the North. The author has had accefs to the imperial archives j he draws his information from the mofl antient and unqueflionable fources; is particularly exact in quoting his authorities; and ranges the events in chronological feries with great perfpicuity. A writer, who, having confuhed many of the fame chronicles which arc cited by this hiflorian, and who having given to the public the mofl complete hiflory of Ruflia yet extant, is no incompetent judge of Sherebatof's merit, thus fpeaks of this work : " L'Autcur " cite toujours fes autorite's. J'ai verifie un grand nombre de t{ fes citations, et j'ai reconnu par tout fon exactitude. Si le " premier caractere d'un hiflorien eft Pamour dc la vcritc, ce ** prince mcrite des grands cloges*." * ** The author always cites his author!- "accuracy. If the firfl: character of an hifto-" ties. I have verified a great number of his " rian is the love of truth, the prince deferves " references, and have always difcovered his " the greatefl. praife." L'Evefque. A a 2 Although Although this difquifition is confined to the native writers, yet I cannot avoid in this place curforily mentioning Voltaire's Life of Peter the Great, as it is the work from which mofl foreign nations have formed their ideas of Ruffia; which many French and Englifh authors have fervilely copied until it is confidered as a flandard book, to which we may refer as to the mofl unqueflionablc authority; and particularly as the author informs us in the Preface: " La cour de Peterf-" bourg, &c. a fait parvenir d Vhiftonen charge de cet ouvrage 4t tous les documens autentiques, II nya icr'it que fur des prcuves « inconteflables" But the well-informed Ruffians, although this work idolizes their hero Peter I. do not fcruple to confefs, that it is a very inaccurate performance, and by no means defcrving the encomium which, according to the prevalent tafle of the age, is indifcriminately and unhappily bellowed upon all Voltaire's productions. It is a panegyric rather than a hiflory, in which many principal facts are omitted or difguifed; where every defect in the principal character is foftened, and every virtue exaggerated: and indeed, when we confider the caufe for which it was compiled, and the perfon from whom the materials were chiefly tranfmitted, we fhall the lefs wonder at any deficiency in the execution. The truth is, that the elegant author wrote this Life by defire of the emprefs Elizabeth, who conferred upon him a confiderable prefent for his trouble, and by whofe orders he received the principal materials. Hence it may eafily be conjectured, that nothing would be . communicated which could reflect the fmallefl difcredit, either upon Peter or Catharine I. He was too partial and intercflcd to confult truth, and was unwilling to infert any circumflance which might be difpleafing to Elizabeth. His genius was fettered by thefe rellraints ; the picture accordingly which he lias drawn of Peter I. is almoft as devoid of animation as of refemblance; refemblance; and this fkctch is the lead entertaining, as well Cy1^L[p* as the molt inaccurate, of all his hiflorical pieces. But frequently alfo in regard to thofe events which did not interfere with Elizabeth's prejudices, he certainly either did not examine, or did not follow, fome of the bell and mod authentic materials which had been fent from Peterfburgh *. From thefe circumflances we may fairly affent to the truth of the cenfure paffed by the lively writer upon his own performance, when he faid, " jfe fcrai graver fur ma tombey cy git qui a u voulu ecrire Vhifioire de Pierre le Grand f" II. Poetry. With refpecT to the Ruflian poetry previous to this century, the only fpecimens were a few antient fongs, fome occafional copies of verfes, and apfalter, compofed by the monk Simeon Polotfki, and printed at Mofcow in 1680. To ufe the cxpref-fions of the epic writer Kherafkof, " the Mufes waited till the " reign of Peter the Great, in order to make their appearance " in Ruflia: before his time there were indeed a few poets, " but their compofitions were more rhymes than verfes ; and • Bufching has publifhed in the third volume ofhis Hiflorical Magazine : " Memoire *' abrege fur la vie du Tfarevitch Alcxei Pc-*' trovitch." This memoir, fays the editor, was fent to Voltaire before he began to write his Hiftory of Ruffia : it will ferve as a proof, how little that writer employed the authentic papers tranfmitted to him. Vol. III. p. 194. Mr. Muller alfo charges Voltaire with not paying fufBcient.attention to the papers which he communicated from the moft undoubted authorities. " Tout le monde eft d'accord, &e. *' Buf. XVI. p. 352, que J'Hiftoire de Pierre " le Grand de Voltaire n'a point rempli l'at-" teinte qu'on en avait avant qu'ellc parut au *' jour. On s'cu appcrcut nicmc avant la publication par les echantillons, que 1'auteur *' envoyoit a St. Peterfbourg cn MOeript. Jc fus prie de fairc la deffus des remarqucs. Jc le fis: mais M. Voltaire n'eut pas la pa-' tience d'en profiter ; tant fe hata-t-il a fair* imprimer le I. Tome. Apres la publication, jc continual mes remarqucs. Tout ce la fut envoye a l'autcur. Ceft a l'aide tie ces re-marques que M. Voltaire dans la Preface du IL Tome vient de corrrger quelques legeres fautes qu'il avoit commifes dans le premier. If cn a excufe d'autres. II a payede du-rctes. ii a eu garde fur tout de ne point toucher a des faits qni le fcroient rougir. Voila ce que e'eft qu'un autcur qui ne vcut avoirtort." See B. H. M. XVI. p. 352. f Cited by L'Evefque, vol. I. p. xxx. Here lies the perfon who would have written the Hiftory of Peter the Great." 44 even bck)K tt even during his reign the art was fliil in its infancy. At ^—" length came Lomonozof &c. Theophanes had indeed read lectures upon the rules for Sclavonian or Ruflian verfes ; prince Kantemir, Ilinfki, Trcdiatoffki, and a few others, had compofed, but there were certainly no poets of eminence before Lomonozof and Sumorokof. A {ketch therefore of the lives and writings of thefe two authors, a fhort account of the Ruflian flage, and a few remarks on the compofnions of Khe-rafkof, will convey to the reader fome idea of the rife, progrefs, and prefent flate, of poetry in this empire. Lomonozof t> the great-refiner of his native tongue, was the fon of a perfon who trafficked in fifh at Kolmogori: he was born in 1711, and was fortunately taught to read ; a rare inflance for a perfon of fo low a. flation in Ruflia. His natural genius for poetry was firfl kindled by the perufal of the Song of Solomon, done into verfe by Polotfki, whofe rude compofnions, perhaps fcarcely fuperior to our verfion of the Pfalms by Sternhold and Hopkins, infpired him with fuch an irrefiflible paflion for the mufes, that he fled from his father, who would have compelled him to marry, and took refuge in a monastery at Mofcow, where he had an opportunity of indulging his tafle for letters, and of fludying the Greek and Latin languages. In this feminary he made fo confidcrablc a progrefs in polite literature, as to be noticed and employed by the Imperial Academy of Sciences. In 1736 he was fent, at the ex-pence of that fociety, to the univerfity of Marburgh % in He fie CafTel, where he became a fcholar of the celebrated Chrillian Wolf, under whom he fludied univerfal grammar, rhetoric, and philofophy. He continued at Marburgh four years, du- * Preface to Kheralkof \s Poem on the J Le Clerc fays Magdebourg, which is no Battle of Tchefme, quoted in Bach. Ruff. Bib. univcrtity : I p relume it is a faJfe print, for for 1774, P- 20t. Marburgh, where Wolf was profeffor of ma- I Le Clerc Hift. Mod. p. 70. thematics aud philofophy, from the year 1725 to 1741. ring ring which time he applied himfelf with indefatigable diligence CH to chymiflry, which he afterwards purfued with Hill greater <—< fuccefs, under the famous Hcnckel, at Freyberg in Saxony. In 1741 he returned into Ruffia; was chofcn in 1742 adjunct, to the Imperial Academy; stnd in the enfuing year member of that fociety, and profeffor of chymiflry. In 1760 he was appointed infpeclor of the feminary, then annexed to the Academy; in 1764 he was gratified by the prefent emprefs with the title of counfellor of flare ; and died on the 4th of April that year, in the 54th year of his age. Lomonozof excelled in various kinds of compofitions; but his chief merit, by which he bears the firfl rank among the Ruflian writers, is derived from his poetical compofitions, the fineft of which are his odes. The firfl was written in 1739, while he fludied in Germany, upon the taking of Kotfchin, a fortrefs of Crim Tartary, by marfhal Munich. The odes of Lomonozof are greatly admired for originality of invention, fublimity of fentiment, and energy of language ; and com-penfate for the turgid flyle which, in fome inflances, has been imputed to them, by that fpirit and fire, which are the principal characTcriflics in this fpecies of com pofition. Pindar was his great model; and if we may give credit to a perfon * well verfed in the Ruffian tongue, he has fucceeded in this daring attempt to imitate the Theban bard, without incurring the cenfure of Horace ]\ In this, as well as feveral other fpecies of compofition, he enriched his native language with various kinds of metre ; and feems to have merited the appellation bellowed upon him, of the Father of Ruflian Poetry. A brief recapitulation of the principal works of Lomonozof, which were printed in three volumes octavo, will fervc to * L'Evefque, who fays of him, 11 II eft L'Odc dc Lomonofof fit connoitre aux Ruffes c' pe.ut-etre le feul emule dc Pindare." les vcritablcs regies de la harmonic. Le t " Pindarum qutfqiiis ftudet fcuvulari," &c. Clerc. fliow K mow the verfatility of his genius, and his extenfive knowledge w in various branches of literature. The firfl volume, befide a preface on the advantages derived to the Ruflian tongue from the ecclefiaflical writings, contains ten facred and nineteen panegyric odes, and feveral occafional pieces of poetry. The fecond comprifes an Effay in Profe, on the Rules for Ruffian poetry; tranflation of a German Ode j Idylls; Tamira and Selim, a tragedy; De-mophoon, a tragedy; Poetical Epiftle on the Utility of Glafs; two cantos of an epic Poem, entitled Peter the Great; a congratulatory copy of verfes; an Ode; tranflation of Baptifl RoulTeau's ode, Sur le Bonbeur; Heads of a Courfe of Lectures on Natural Philofophy; certain paffages tranflated in verfe and profe, according to the originals, from Cicero, Erafmus, Lucian, .^Elian, Ammianus Marceliinus, Qnintus Curtius, Homer, Virgil, Martial, Ovid, Horace, and Seneca, which Ruflian tranflations were brought as examples in his Lectures upon Rhetoric ; laftly, defcription of the Comet which appeared in 1744. The third volume confifls chiefly of fpeeches and treatifes read before the academy ; panegyric on the emprefs Elizabeth ; on Peter the Great; treatife on the advantages of chymiflry ; on the phenomena of the air, occafioned by the electrical fire, with a Latin tranflation of the fame ; on the origin of light, as a new theory of colours ,■ methods to determine with precifion the courfe of a veffel; on the origin of metals, by the means of earthquakes ; Latin dif-fertation on folidity and fluidity; on the Tranfit of Venus in 1761, with a German tranflation *. Befide thefe various fubjecTs, Lomonozof made no inconfi-derable figure in hiflory, having publifhed two fmall works relative to that of his own country. The firfl, flyled Annals of the Ruflian Sovereigns, is a fhort chronology of the Ruffian monarchs j and the fecond is the Antient Hiflory of Ruffia, from the origin of that nation to the death.of the great-duke Yaroflaf I, in 1054; a performance of great merit, as it illustrates the mofl difficult and obfeure period in the annals of this country. * Mr- Damafkin, who publifhed this com- from the cmprefs a prefent t f / 100. See Ruf. plete edition, of Lomoao/.of'* works* received Bib. for 1780, p. 338, Alexander Alexander Sumorokof, who is juflly denominated the founder CyIfIp* of the Ruffian theatre, was the perfon who, after Lomonozof, <—-v— principally contributed to refine the poetry of his country. But before I enter upon a detail of his life and writings, I fhall pre-mife a fhort account of the Ruffian flage, as well becaufe a view of the flate in which Sumorokof found the national theatre * will difplay his powers in dramatic compofition, as becaufe the hiftory of the flage in any country forms no inconfi-derable part of the true hiflory of its literature. Before the sera of Peter the Great, almofl the only f dramatic reprefentations in Ruffia were exhibited in the monafteries of Kiof and Mofcow, where the fludents performed occafionally an Alius Oratorius, or a fcriptural hiflory. The learned Demetrius Tooptalo J, metropolitan archbifhop of Roflof, was highly diftinguifhed among the literati for com-pofing, in the prevailing tafle of thofe times, the following fcriptural hiflories in verfe. The Sinner, an allegory.—Efther and Ahafuerus.—The Birth of Chrift.—And the Refurrecfion of Chrifl. At the commencement of this century, thefe pieces became the fafhionable reprefentations ; and were not only performed in convents, but were aclcd at court,- even fo late as the beginning of Elizabeth's reign. The fludents of furgery in the hofpital at Mofcow feem to have given the firfl public performance exhibited by any of the laity, in the great hall, where they raifed a flage, and * It does not enter into my plan to trace the land, in Haygold, or Schloet/er's Beylage, introduction and progrefs of the German, It a- vol. I. p. 400. lian, and French players in Ruflia. I dull f We may except the reprefentations at only obferve, that, in the reign of Peter the court during the minority of Peter the Great, Great, the firft fet of German actors played at when fome of Molicrc's plays, tranflaled into Petcrfburgh ; that fome Italian performers the Ruflian tongue, were acted in the Iko- firft made their appearance in 1730; and the nofpatfkci Convent; among other perfons of French comedians in 1742. For further in- diiliniticn, the princefs Sophia performed a formation on this fubject, the reader is refer- part, red to Staehlin's Gef. des Theatres in Ruff-. % lie died in 1709. Vol. 11. B b ufed book ufed fcreens for the fcenery. Mr. Staehlin% who was prefent uJ^—t at one of thefe plays, the fubjecT of which was Tamerlane, informs us, that nothing could be more grotcfque and ridiculous ; and relates an inflance of moil profane ribaldry introduced into one of the fcriptural pieces, too grofs to be mentioned. The fame ingenious author remembers to have feen at Peterfburgh the emprefs's grooms act in a ftill more wretched manner, either in the hay-loft of the imperial flables, or in an unfurnifhed houfe. Actors of this fort ufed alfo to perform every year for the amufement of the common people: they had ho regular theatre, but were accuflomed to play in different parts of the city. At dufk, a paper lantern was hung from the window, and two huntfmen's horns were blown, in order to announce a comedy for that evening. The entrance money was from ^ to id, and the fpectators ufually remained two hours to fee and hear every fpecies of nonfenfe and ribaldry. Such was the flate of the Ruflian flage when Sumorokof brought out his firfl tragedy of Koref. About the fame time the firfl regular Ruffian theatre was opened at Yaroflaf, under the direction of the celebrated actor Feodor Volkof, the Garrick of Ruflia, whofe talents for the flage were as great as thofe of Sumorokof for dramatic compofition. This furprifing genius was fon of a tradefman at Yaroflaf, and was born in 1729; having difcovered very early proofs of great abilities, he was fent for his education to Mofcow, where he learnt the German tongue, mufic, and drawing. His father dying, and his mother marrying a fecond hufband, who had eilablifhed a manufacture of falt-petre and fulphur, he applied himfelf to that trade; and going upon the bufinefs of his father-in law to Peterfburgh about the year 1748, his natural inclination for the flage led him to frequent ■ * See Gefchichte des Theatres in Rutland, from which ingenious treatife I have principally taken this account of the Ruflian flage. the German plays, and to form an intimate acquaintance with c fome of the actors. Upon his return to Yaroflaf, he conflrudted a flage in a large apartment at his father-in-law's houfe; painted the fcenes himfelf; and, with the affiftance of his four brothers, acted feveral times before a large affembly. Their firfl performances were the fcriptural hiftories written by the archbifhop of Ro-flof; thefe were fucceeded by the tragedies of Lomonozof and Sumorokof, and fometimes fatirical farces of their own com-pofnion againfl the inhabitants of Yaroflaf. As the fpectators were admitted gratis at every rcprefentation, his father-in-law objected to the expence. Accordingly Volkof conflructed in 1750, after his own plan, a large theatre, partly by fubferip-tion, and partly at his own rifk ; having fupplied it with fcenes, which he painted himfelf, and dreffes, which he aflifled in making; and having procured an additional number of actors, whom he regularly inflructed, he and his troop performed with great applaufe before crouded audiences, who cheerfully paid for their admiffion. In 1752, the emprefs Elizabeth, informed of their fuccefs, fummoned them to Peterfburgh, where they represented, in the theatre of the court, the tragedies of Sumorokof. In order to form the new troop to a greater degree of perfection, the four principal actors were placed in the feminary of the Cadets*, where they remained four years. At the conclufion of that period, a regular Ruffian theatre was eflablilhed at the court, three actreffes were admitted, Sumorokof was appointed director, and £ 1000 were allowed for the actors. Befide this falary, they were permitted to perform once a week to the * Staehlin fays, that Volkof was amorgfl; " compagnons, s'amufa a faire des Marion- thefc ; tnit Le Clerc allcrts, " L'Imperatrice 11 nettcs ; tant le penchant nature! a de puif- ** fit placer les afteurs au corps des cadets, «' fance fur l'homme." P. 80. " Volkof excepte. Celui-ci fevoyant prive de fes B b 2 public, B °v° K Public, and the admiffion-money was diflributed among them *--v w without deduction, as the lights, mufic, and drelTes were provided at the expence of the emprefs. The chief performances were the tragedies and comedies of Sumorokof, and tranflations from Moliere and other French writers. The company continued to flourifh under the patronage of Catharine II. and the falaries of the actors were gradually increafed to £ 2200 per annum, Volkof and his brother were ennobled, and received from their imperial miftrefs eftates in land: he performed, for the laft time, at Mofcow, in the tragedy of Zemira, a fhort time before his death, which happened in 1763, in the 35th year of his age. He equally excelled in tragedy and comedy; and his principal merit confiflcd in characters of madnefs. He was tolerably verfed in mufic, and was no indifferent poet. His friend Sumorokof paid the following tribute to the memory of a perfon who had done ample juflice to his dramatic compofitions. " Melpomene, unite thy tears with mine.—. «( Lament, and tear thy locks.—My friend is dead.—Adieu, my ■J friend—forrow penetrates and diffolvcs my foul.—The fource ct of Hippocrene is frozen.—O Ruffia! you poffefled a fecond " Racine 1 but the new theatre is already tottering from its " foundations ; and all the labours of a century are deftroyed ! <« Volkof is feparated from the Mufes for ever.—Tragedy has « loft her buikin and her poignard.—Melpomene bedew his t% tomb with thy tears *." The prophecy, however, of Sumorokof, which his enthufiafm for the theatrical abilities of this great actor, or his affection for the memory of his friend, kd him to utter, is far from being fulfilled. The flage, though it has fuffered a confider-able lofs by the death of Volkof, flill fubfifts and profpers under the aufpices and protection of her prefent majefty; and * Le Clerc, p. 81. from from the fpecimens which I faw among the foundlings at c Mofcow, and in other feminarics, there feems no reafon to * apprehend the want of a future fupply. To return from this digreiTion, Alexander Sumorokof was the fon of Peter Sumorokof, a Ruffian nobleman, and was born at Mofcow, on the 14th of November 1727 *. He received the firfl rudiments of learning in his father's houfe, where, befide a grammatical knowledge of his native tongue, he was well grounded in the Latin language. Being removed to the feminary of the Cadets at St. Peterfburgh, he profecured his fludies with unwearied application, and gave very early proofs of his genius for poetry. Even on holidays he would retire from his companions, who were engaged in play, and devote his whole time to the perufal of the Lathi and French writers ; nor was it long before he himfelf attempted to compofe. The firfl efforts of his genius were love-fongs, whofe tender-nefs and beauties, till then uncxpreffed in the Ruffian tongue, were greatly admired, and confidered as certain prognoflics of his future fame. Upon quitting the feminary, he was appointed adjutant, firfl to count Golovkin, and afterwards to count Rofomoffki; and being foon noticed and patronized by-count Ivan Shuvalof, he was introduced by that Maecenas to the emprefs Elizabeth, who took him under her protection. About the 29th year of his age, an enthufiaflic fondnefs he had contracted for the works of Racine, turned his genius to the drama, and he wrote the tragedy of Koref, which laid the foundation of the Ruffian theatre. This piece was firfl acted by fome of his former fchool-mates, the cadets, who had pre-vioufly exercifed their talents in declamations, and in acting a French play. The emprefs Elizabeth, informed of this new * This account of Sumorokof is chiefly " trowitch Sumorokof," in Journ. St. Pet. for •taken from " Kurze Nachricht von den Le- 1778. ■** ben und der Schriftcn des, Alexander Pe- phanomcnon phenomenon in the theatrical world, ordered the tragedy to-be exhibited in her prefence upon a fmall theatre of the court, where German, Italian, and French plays had been performed. The applaufe and diftinction which the author received on this occafion, encouraged him to follow the bent of his genius; and he produced fucceffively Hamlet, Ariftona, Sinaf and Tru-vor, Zemira, Dimifa, Vitfhelaf, the Falfe Demetrius, and Mi-ciilaf. Nor was his mufe lefs fertile in comedies; which are, Trilfotinus ; the Judge; the Difpute between the Hulband and Wife ; the Guardian ; the Portion acquired by Fraud ; the Envious Man ; TartufTc; the Imaginary Ciiekold, the Mother who rivals her Daughter; the Goffip ; and the Three Rival Brothers. He wrote alfo the operas of Alcefles, and Cephalus and Procris. With refpecT to his tragedies, Racine * was his model; and the Ruffian biographer of Sumorokof, who feems a competent judge of his merit, allows, that " though in fome inflances " he has attained all the excellence of the French poet, yet he " has failed in many others; but it would be uncandid to in-" fill upon fuch defects in a writer who firfl introduced the a drama among his countrymen. The French overlook in H their Corneille Hill greater faults." " His comedies," continues the fame author, " contain much humour; but I do " not imagine that our dramatic writers will adopt him for u their model: for he frequently excites the laughter of the * " Elegant comme Racine il tacha d'imi- * fcenes ou Racine clctfrife les cccurs et les *' ter la conduitc de fes plans ; mais il ne " amcs. Les vers tragiques de Sumqrokof ** put penetrer le fecret de notre inimitable 41 approchcnt de la douceur, dc ['elegance, et " poete. II voulut etre fage comme lui, il hit u de 1'harmonic dc ccux de Racine, mais il *' froid, ct fa fcene manqua du rnouvement." " s'en faut bien qu'ils en aient l\une." Lc L'Evefque, V. p. 342. Cltrc, p. 76. u En voulant raprochcr de Racine dans la His tragedies are written in rhyme, in the *' conduite de fes plans, Sumorokof s'eloigna Alexandrine vcrfe, the fame a£ the French *' dans l'aftion j fouvent il eft froid dane les Heroic. His comedies are in profe. 41 fpectator POETS, 19s u fpccTator at the expence of his cooler judgement*. Neverthc- Cy)!v!l>" u lefs, they prefent fufHcient paflages to prove, that he would ** have attained a greater degree of perfection in this line, if ** he had paid more attention to paint our manners, and to fol-" low the tafte of the bed foreign writers." Befide dramatic writings, Sumorokof attempted every fpecies of poetry, excepting the epic. Pie wrote love-fongs, idyls, fables, fatires, anacreontics, elegies, verfions of the Pfalms, and Pindaric odes. Superior to Lomonozof f in the compofi-tions of the drama, he was yet inferior to him in Pindaric writings. " Though his odes," adds his biographer, u are " didinguimed by their eafy flow of verfification, by their har-" mony, foftnefs, and grace, yet they are far from reaching *' that elevation and lire which characterize thofe of Lomono-*c zof. Thefe two great poets had each their peculiar talents : *« the one difplayed in his flyle all the majefly, flrcngth, and * fublimity of the Ruffian tongue j and the other all its har-4* mony, foftnefs, and elegance. The elegies of Sdmorokof " arc full of tendernefs : his idyls give a true picture of the " palloral life, in all the pleafing fimplicity of unimproved u nature, without defcending to vulgarity j and may ferve as Lc Clerc, fer la premiere place apres celles de la Fon- p. 77. *4 taine." L'Fvefque, v. V. p. 342. " thofe Ct tliofe who treated him with refpett, but haughty to thofe C**A " who behaved to him with pride. He knew no deceit; he «—v " was a true friend, and an open enemy; and could neither •« forget an obligation nor an injury. Paflionate, and frequently " inconfidcrate in his purfuits, he could not bear the leaft op-" pofition ; and oftentimes looked upon the moft trifling cir-" cumftance as the greatefl evil. His extraordinary fame, the " many favours which the emprefs conferred upon him, the " indulgence and veneration of his friends, might have made " him extremely fortunate, if he had underftood the art of *c being fo. He had conceived a great, perhaps too great, an " idea of the character and merits of a true poet; and could " not endure to fee with patience this noble and much-cfteemed *' art, which had been confecrated by Homer, Virgil, and other " great men, profaned by perfons without judgement or abili-" ties. Thefe pretenders, he would fay, fliock the public with 11 their nonfenfe in rhyme; and clothe their monflrous con-" ccptions in the drefs of the Mufes. The public recoil from " them with difgufl and averfion; and, deceived by their ap-" pearance, treat with irreverence thofe children of heaven, the «* true Mufes." The examples of Lomonozof and Sumorokof have tended to diffufe a fpirit of poetry, and a taffe for polite learning, among the Ruffians, and they are fucceeded by a numerous band of poets *. Of thefe I fhall only mention one writer, who has diflinguiflied himfelf by compofing the firfl epic poem in the Ruflian tongue. Michael Kherafkof, a perfon of a noble family, has excelled in feveral fpecies of compofition. His works are, a Poem upon the Utility of Science; feveral tragedies and comedies; Pindaric odes, Anacreontics, fables, idyls, and fatires; a romance, called Ariadne in Thebes; Numa Pompilius; a poem in four * Many of thefe are enumerated by Mr. Le Clerc. I lift. Mod. p. 78 to 98. Vol. II. C c cantos, cantos, in honour of the naval victory over the Turks at the battle of Tchefme; but the piece by which he has acquired the greatefl fame, is an epic poem in twelve cantos, called the Roifiada, written in Iambic mcafure of fix feet in rhyme. Its fubject is the conquefl of Cafan by Ivan Vaflilievitch II. or, as the author has expreffed himfelf, " I fing Ruffia delivered 4f from the yoke of barbarians ; the might of the Tartars laid " low, and their pride humbled : I fing the flrifes and bloody *f conflicts of antient armies; Ruflia's triumph ; and Cafan's " fubjection." This work is greatly admired by the natives; and may juftly be confidered as forming an epoch in the hiftory of their poetry. The general plan feems well difpofed*; the events follow each other in a rapid but orderly fucceflionj and the imagination of the reader is kept alive by frequent fcenes of terror, in which the author feems particularly to excel. The fubject is extremely intercfling to the Ruffians ; and the poet has artfully availed himfelf of the popular belief by the introduction of faints and martyrs for the machinery of his poem. Mr. Le Clerc informs us, that this poem, while it contains feveral linking pafTagcs of great beauty, is in many parts deficient in harmony; a defect, he adds, which the author, by retouching and correcting, is capable of removing. Mr. Kherafkof has not in the prefent reign failed of acquiring the rewards due to his extraordinary talents; having been fuccefTively appointed vice-prefident of the college of mines, counfellor of flate, and curator of the univerfity of Mofcow. Lomonozof is a rare, and perhaps a fingle inflance of any Ruflian of low degree, who was not an ecclefiaflic, that has attained, from fo mean a condition, to great eminence in Ike- * An account of this poem in the German Review, and of the contents of each canto, tongue is given in the Journal of St. Pcterf- with a defign of prefenting it to the reader; burgh for 1779, vol. I. p. 3s8, in which the but defifted,. as the materials for this work contents of each canto are minutely dclinca- were much more extenfive than I had at lirit ted. I had 0ilce begun a translation, of this reafon to apprehend. rature. RUSSIAN TRANSLATIONS. rature. But it is probable, that fuch examples will foon ceafe ^Sirrf' to be uncommon ; fince the fchools, inftituted by Catharine *—-v—' in every province of her wide-extended empire, will facilitate the acquifition of learning among the lower clafs of people; fince the zeal for inquiry is fpread among the natives ; and honour and promotion are known by experience to be the certain attendants on literary acquifitions. Indeed, fuch is the fpirit with which the emprefs protects and encourages learning, that fcarcely any work of merit makes its appearance, for which the author does not inftantly receive fome mark of diftinction or liberality. In order to fpread a tafte of literature among her fubjects, Catharine appointed, in 1768, a committee to order and fuper-intend tranflations of the claflics, and the beft modern authors, into the Ruflian tongue; and allowed £1000 Ver annum towards defraying the expence of fuch undertakings. The following is a lift of the tranflations which had made their appearance before the 8th of July 1774*. Homer's Batrachomyomachia; Characters of Theophraftus; JElian ; He-rodian j Diodorus Siculus j Terence ; Cicero De Finibus ; Crcfar's Commentaries; Three Epiftles of Ovid; his Metamorphofes in profe; Tacitus de Moribus Germanorurn j Paterculus; Valerius Maximus; Striker's Memoria popularum olim ad Danubium incolentium e Script. Byzan. Hift. eruta j Midler's Account of the Antient Inhabitants of Ruffia; Gmelin's Travels through Ruffia; Pallas's Travels through Ruffia; His Prufilan Majefly's Treatife on the Reafon for making and repealing Laws; Montefquieu's Confiderations fur la grandeur et la decadence des Romains; His Lyfimaque, Dialogue de Sylla et d'Eucrate, Effai fur le Gout, and Temple de Gnide\ Dimfdale's Treatife on Inoculation; Chalotais fur V'Education; Pliftory and Treatifes of the Am-fterdam Society for Recovery of Drowned Perfons; The Ottoman Empire; Republic of Ragufa, Great-Britain, Portugal, Kingdom of Pruffia, from Bufching's Geography ; Voltaire's Candide j a Dialogue of St. Evremond between three perfons of different fentiments; various articles from the En- * See Ruff. Bib. for 1775, P- 74* C c 2 cyclopedic; K cyclopedie; Jufti's Foundation of the Power and Happinefs of States j j Calliere De la maniere de negocier avec les fouverains; Rouffeau's Abridgement of 67. Pierre's Projet d'une pais perpetuelle; St. Real's Confpiration des Efpagnols contre la Republique de Venife ; Vertot's Revolutions Romaines Mably's Hiftoire Grecque Chinefe Reflections from the Manfhur tongue; The Vifible World ; Lambert's Traite de VAmities Taffo's Jerufalemme Li-leratay Gulliver's Travels j Jofeph Andrews; Jonathan Wild the Great; Amelia; of the Ventriloquifts ; Gellert's Betfchwefter ; the Art of being polite ; Letters upon feveral Phyfical and Philofophical Subjects ; Macquer's Chymiflry ; the Duty of an Officer; Dictionary of the French Academy; on the advantage of instructing Youth in Claffical Literature; Rollin'3 Belles Lettres ; Bell's Journey through Ruffia. This lift mentions 83 books, the tranflations whereof were in the prefs j 78, of which tranflations were making; and 63, which the committee propofed to be tranflated. I have received an account of the following tranflations, which have been fince made. Henriade; Diable Boiteux; Gellert's Works; Anderfon's Hiftory of Commerce; Robertfon's Hiflory of Charles V. from the French tranflation; Pallas Samlungen Mcngolifchen Volkerfchaften; Englifh Grammar; Flomer's Iliad; Virgil's ^Eneid; Lucian's Dialogues; Milton's Paradife Loft; Coyer's Hiftoire dej, Sobiejki; Montefquieu's Efprit des Loix; Mallet's Hift. de Danne-marc; Hift. Generale de Voyages; Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics; Cicero de Natura Deorum; Plato's Works; Hefiod ; Coxe's Ruffian Difcoveries; Les Incas de Marmontel; Bielfield's Political Institutions ; Hift* de la Maifon de Brandenburgh Memoires de Sully, Blackftone's Commentaries; Hift. Aug. Script. Sex; Pope's Effay on Man; Locke on Education; Livy; feveral Epiftles and Odes of Horace; Young's Six Weeks Tour, tranflated by particular order of the cmprefs, for the purpofe of diffufing the knowledge of practical agriculture, &c. &c. With refpcct to claflical literature; the Greek language is yet taught in very few of the fchools, is fcarcely known to the laity, and is a rare qualification even among the regular clergy. Latin is more common, being underflood by many of the regular clergy, and not unfrequcntly cultivated by perfons of improved CLASSICAL LEARNING. improved education. Many of the claffics have been tranflated by natives into the Ruffian tongue; feveral editions of the mofl approved Greek and Roman authors have been publifhed at Mofcow and Peterfburgh, but the editors have been chiefly foreigners, encouraged to this attempt by the patronage of thofe among the Ruffian nobility who are not deficient in antient literature, and excited by the opening genius of the nation. Among the natives, however, who have rendered themfelves illuilrious in this branch of knowledge, I mufl not omit the name of Plato archbifhop of Mofcow, who is highly eminent for claffical learning; and, among the naturalized foreigners, that of Eugenius archbifhop of Siavenfk and Kher-fon, who, in the true fpirit of the original, has tranflated into Greek hexameters the Eclogues and Georgics of Virgil, a work printed in folio, at the expence of prince Potemkin, and exhibiting a magnificent fpecimen of typography. This fame ingenious author is employed in tranflating into the fame language the ^Eneid, in which he has made confiderable progrefs* TRAVELS T RAVE L S INTO RUSSIA. BOOK VL CHAP. I. ConjeBures on the population and revenues of the Ruffian empire.—Bank of ajfignation.—Paper currency. BOOK TF we recollect the various publications lately put forth in t-XL-» JL England relating to the population of Great Britain, and the furprizing difference between the calculations of Dr. Price on one hand, and Mcffrs. Wales and Howlett on the other, in a country where the regiilers of births and deaths are fup-pofed to be regularly kept, and where there are no impediments to our refearches, we fhall not be furprized at meeting with a ftill greater uncertainty in refpect to the population of Ruflia, confidering the immenfe extent of its empire, the various nations which compofe it, the difficulty of procuring exact intelligence, and the obdructions which prevent a free* dom of inquiry ; nor can we think it extraordinary, that fome authors have eflimated it at 28,000,000 inhabitants, and others at only 14,000,000. Under this reflection, it might appear prefumptuous in a foreigner, who was only refident in the metropolis during a few months, months, to attempt to lay down any pofitive information upon CHAP, fo intricate a fubjecT. Trufting, however, to the candor of the reader, I fubmit the following fkctch, from which fome general inferences may be drawn with refpecf, to the number of inhabitants contained in this vaft empire. According to the laft numeration made in 1764, the males who paid the poll-tax amounted to 7,363,348. By doubling*, therefore, this number fof the females, we have for the inhabitants in thofe provinces which are affeffed with the Souls, poll-tax, — — 14,726,636 In the new governments of Mohilef and Polotfk, lately drf-membered from Poland, and which contain 730,000 males paying the poll-tax, by the fame mode of eftima- tion, are — — 1,460,000 In the Ukraine f, which, according to the revifion of 1764, contained 955,22s males, are — — 1,910.456 Government of Revel in 1773 — — 176,000 Riga or Livonia — 447,360 Wiburg —• — -— 117,998 18,838,510 As in this calculation are not included the nobles and gentry, the clergy, the army, the navy, the Siberian coffacs, the tribes of wandering Calmucs, the Laplanders, the Samoyedes, the inhabitants of the provinces ceded to Ruflia by the Turks, and others, who are exempted from the poll-tax, we may fairly add for all thefe 4,000,000 j and the average population of the whole empire will amount to 22,838,510. * Voltaire,, in his cflimate of the popula- tions of this fort, will''compute the population of Ruflia, initead of only doubling, triples tion: the number of males paying the poll-tax ; Births. Deaths, and while he computes the incrcafe by births, Males 38,630 26,746 makes no allowance for the diminution by Females 35*561 24,238 deaths.' —-• » f In the Ukraine, in 1772, were "the fol- 74>I9I 50,984 lowing numbers of births and deaths, from v • which the. reader, who is vcrfed in calcula- Buf Hif. Mag. IX. p. 459,. &c, I can- I cannot avoid, in this place, taking notice of an objection which has been made to this mode of calculation. It is urged, that although at the laft numeration in 1764, the perfons paying the poll-tax amounted to 7,363,348, yet, that fince that period, their number has been confiderably diminifhed by the Turkifli war, the campaigns in Poland, the rebellion of Pugatchef, and by the plague which raged with great violence at Mofcow, and in the fouthern parts of the empire: from thefe circumilanccs, the author of the Effai fur le Commerce de Ruffie has reduced the population to 14 millions ** It is very difficult to anfwer an objection which does not arife from particular, but from general facts; and which, while it Hates the diminution, does not at the lame time pay any attention to the acquifition of new fubjects. The arguments drawn from conjecture may feem to make it probable, that the ravages of war and of the peflilence have occafioned the lofs of about 600,coo fubjects; while thofe deduced from matters of fact pofitivcly prove, that the incrcafe lince the laft numeration has greatly exceeded this diminution. By the acquifition of the provinces difmembcrcd from Poland, at leafl 1,500,000 fouls have been added to the inhabitants of the empire. Befide the new fubjects of the diftricts bordering upon the Black Sea, which were ceded by the Porte, many thoufand Greek and Armenian families have migrated from Crim Tartary, and help to colonize feveral new towns and villages which line the banks of the Dnieper below the cataracts ; and it mufl be remarked, that fince the folid efta- * " Lc dernier denombrement de 1764, a " de la Turquie, depuis la derniere revoke, Sc " pu .lonner un total de 17318 millions d'ha- " fur-tout depuis la pefle. Nous croyons done " bitantB des deux fexes, tout compris ; mais " pouvoir avancer qu'il n'y a plus que 6 mil-" ce calcul, fans doute cxaeT: a cettc epoque, ne " lions d'hommes en Ruffie," &c. Effai fur f* pcut l'etre depuis Ja guerre dc la Pologne & le commerce de Ruflie, p. 31. blifhmenc blifhment of peace throughout the empire, the fccurity and chap. order derived from a more liable legiflature, the eflablifh-ment of phyficians and furgeons in the new governments, the additional privileges which the emprefs has conferred upon the merchants, burghers, and peafants of the crown, the population has confiderably augmented * in many parts of her extenfive dominions. All thefe confiderations mufl furely overthrow any objections to the general calculation of between 22 or 23 millions f for the average population of the Ruffian empire. I am well aware, that the important queflion concerning the Ruffian finances is no lefs difficult than that which relates to * I can lay before the reader the following undoubted inllances of this augmentation. Table of the births and deaths for 1776 and 1777 in the government of Tver. Births. Deaths. Births. Deaths. Males Females 8707 6137 37^5 3066 9509 6726 37-p 3192 14844 6781 16235 6932 The reader will probably obferve, with as much aftonilhment as I did, the furprizing •xcefs of the births above the deaths. If we compare the two tables, we lhall find, that in j777 there were 1291 births more than in 1776. According to a lift in the Journal of St. Peterfburgh for 1781, publifhed by authority, we find the births in the government of Tver amounted in 1780 to males 11,948, females .9013 SS 20961 ; the marriages to 6074; the deaths, males 4315, females 3613 = 7928. The increafe, therefore, of the births fince 1776 amounts to 6117.; and the excefs of the births in the fingle year 1780 over the deaths, *3>°33- In the government of Novogorod for 1777, **erc, Births. Males 8536 Females 6625 Vol. II. 15161 Deaths. 4216 7857 In 1779 the lift was, Births. Death*. Males 9337 3965 Females 7129 3289 16466 7254 By comparing thefe two lifts, the excefs of births tu 1779 over thofe of 1777* was 1305, and the decreafe of deaths 603 ; which gives an increafe of population for that year only, 1908 fouls. t Bufching, in his Erdbefchreibung, efti-mates the population of Ruffia at 20 millions; Suefslich, Vol. II. p. 213, at 24; Monf. Le Clerc, Hift. Mod. p. 177, &c. upon the fame grounds as thofe allcdged by the author of the EfTai fur le Commerce de Ruffic, at 19 ; but he falls into the fame error, by enumerating1 the caufes which tend to diminifh the popula-tion, without taking into confideration thofe which help to increafe it. L'Evefque, in vol. IV. p. 480, ftates the number at 19,050,000; but then he is evidently deficient in putting the inhabitants of the Ukraine, Siberia, and the Coffacs, only at 300,000. He adds, however, ** Mais la plupart des feigneurs affurent " que la population eft confidcrablemcnt aug-" mentee dans leurs villages depuis la dcruierc '* revifion.'* D d the f B o o K the population ; and all the intelligence which I can pretend to give amounts to the following particulars. The revenues of Ruffia, befide the imports paid by the Ukraine, and the provinces conquered from Sweden, chiefly arife from the poll-tax, the duties of import and export, the excife upon fair, the crown and church lands, the mint, and the fale of fpirituous liquors, &c. The poll-tax was introduced in 1721 by Peter I.; and, at the acceffion of the prefent emprefs, it was exacted from all perfons, excepting the nobles and gentry, the clergy, the navy, the army, the Coffacs, the inhabitants of the Ukraine and conquered provinces. All who were liable to this tax were rated in different proportions, as they were merchants, burghers, or peafants. By the manifeilo of 1775, promulgated after the conclufion of the Turkifh war, the merchants were exempted from this tax j and it now includes only the burghers and peafants. Every fifteen or twenty years, the number of inhabitants throughout the empire is ufually taken ; and, in each diftri<5t fubjeft to the poll-tax, all males, infants as well as adults, under the defcription of a burgher or peafant, are affeffed *; from that period the fame afTeffment is regularly paid till the next revifion, whether the population of that diftricf increafes or diminishes; in the latter cafe, the inhabitants or the landholders are bound to make up the deficiency ; in the former, the tax is not augmented, and of courfe falls much eafier upon a larger number of perfons. The land* * It is no eafy matter to convey a clear no- $d, to the crown for his pafsport. Thefe, and tion of this tax, as well from the complicated many other fimilar taxes, are all ranged under method of impofmg it, as from the different the poll-tax. The diffenters, or old believers changes which are occafionally made in the in the Ruffian church, pay double poll-tax, mode of afTeffment.—A burgher pays ufually Some burghers and peafants, fuch as the 4-r. 9v. per annum ; a peafant of the crown, in yamfliics who find poll-lu a fes, and others, are fome inflances, 8j. ; in others, 4/; ; a pea- exempted from-the.poll-tax ; others pay it in fant of an individual, zs. o/.—Every perfon labour ; fome in furs, &c. I found it irapoP exercifing the trade of a taylor, fmith, fhoe- fibta to give equal attention to every object; maker, mafon, or any fimilar handicraft trado, and I frankly own, that amidll the variety and who enrols himfelf in the company of any intelligence which I procured in Ruflia, I do town, pays annually, befide the poll-tax, 2/. not perfectly comprehend each mode of aflcff- Evcry peafant who quits his village, to trade ment in the poll-tax., at Peterfburgh, Mofcow, or elfewhere, pays holders- "holders are anfwerable for the payment of the money at which their peafants C are rated. According to the laft revifion in 1764, this import produced a clear fum of £ ii^3>93Sm At the beginning of the Turkifh war it was augmented to near £ 2,000,000; but, as it was again reduced at the conclufion of the fame war, we will Hate its net produce at the original fum, £ 1*363,935 ; though this eftimate is rather below than above its value, fince the merchants, inftead of the poll-tax, now pay one per cent, of their capital employed in trade. The governments of Mohilef and Polotfk, difmembered from Poland, are nffeffed at £ 74,460, in the following manner. Each male in thofe provinces is rated at is. $d. \ and the landholder, for the liberty of diddling and felling fpirituous liquors, pays alfo to the crown lod. for each peafant. As thefe provinces contain 730,000 males liable to the poll-tax, its revenue in this article amounts to the above-mentioned fum of £74,460. The average duties upon imports and exports amount to £ 760,000. The excife upon fait, which is appropriated to the emprefs's privy purfe, produces, upon an average, £ 400,000. Her majefty has twice diminifhed the price of fait nearly 30 per cent. The mines * and coinage, and duties upon iron at the forge^ yield £679,182, exclufive of the profits from the coinage of gold and filver imported into Ruffia. The church-lands, which are now annexed to the crown, produce about £400,000: part of this money is allotted to pay the falaries of the arch-bifhops, bifhops, and regular clergy, for the maintenance of the feveral monafteries, and for the penfions of officers and foldiers difmiffed from the fervice. The remainder, which belongs to the privy purfe, amounts to about 300,000 roubles = £ 30,000. The fale of fpirituous liquors forms at prefent nearly one-third of the Ruffian revenue. In every part of the empire, excepting the Ukraine and the conquered provinces, the crown alone has the privilege of felling fpirituous liquors. The vaft increafe of this branch of finance will beft appear from the following table. * See Chap. VI. of this Book. D d 2 Until BOOK Until 1752 it was farmed for £ 540,000 'r till 1770 for £620,000; till VI L .* . 1774 for £ 900,000 i and till 1778 for £ 1,500,000. By the new leafe which took place in 1779, it was let for the four next years at the fum of £ 1,800,000; and will probably be raifed at the conclufion of the prefent leafe ; of this fum Peterfburgh and Mofcow pay £ 464,000. Stamp duties, monopoly of rhubarb *, pot-afh, and rich furs, tributes of furs and fkins, and other taxes which have been omitted f, we may fairly ftate at £ 500,000. Recapitulation of the feveral articles. Poll-tax — — — £M&Wd Revenues of the Ukraine — — 49*381 Conquered provinces — —- 119,010 Provinces difmembered from Poland — 74,460 Cuftoms — —■ — 760,000 Salt —- — — 400,000 Gold and filver from the mines, copper, profits? r ■ 1 ■ 1! r f 679,182 of coinage, duty upon iron at the forge J Farm of fpirituous liquors — 1,800,000 Church lands — — 400,000 Stamp duties, and other taxes omitted — 500,000 6,144,968 It is curious to obferve how the gradual increafe of civilization in the Ruflian empire has been followed by a gradual increafe in its revenues. At the acceilion of Peter the Great, they amounted to £ 1,000,000 ; and at his death to 1,600,000. Elizabeth raifed them to 3,600,000 ; when the prefent emprefs afcended me [throne, they produced 4,400,000 ; now yield above £ 6,000,000; and are ftill in an increasing ftate. This fum is fufficient for the peace-eflablifhment. Of this revenue, the expences of the army and navy amount to about £3,072,485; thofe of the civil eflablifhment to £ 2,272,483 > * This monopoly has been abolifhed fince I left Ruflia. •jr Particularly the profits from the coinage of the gold and filver which are imported. and and the remainder, or £ 8oo,ooo, is appropriated to the privy c purfe of the emprefs. But it is difficult to conceive how fire is able to maintain the magnificence of her court, the number of public inflitutions, the numerous buildings * which are constructed at her expence, the liberality with which fhe encourages the arts and fciences, the purchafes which fhe is continually making in every country in Europe, and the immenfe donations which fire confers upon the mofl favoured of her fubjecls. The revenues of Ruffia may be confiderably augmented in cafe of emergency, as was evident during the late war, by the increafe of the poll tax, and the addition of many new imports. It fhould alfo be obferved, that in 1775 the emprefs remitted fifty-feven taxes, and ten in the following year. The great fupport of the lad war was a new bank, called the Bank of AfUgnation, which was eflabliflied during the ho-flilities againfl the Turks, when copper money could not be coined with fufheient expedition to anfwer the neccflities of the flate. Bank notes, to the value of £ 10, £ 15 f, and £20, in copper, were iffued. Thefe notes are changed at the bank in Peterfburgh and Mofcow. The former, which I vifued, is a brick building, containing feveral vaulted rooms, each capable of holding £ 400,000 of copper coin in bags, piled one above another j in fome the money was already placed, and the others were preparing for the reception of the remainder. It is difficult to afcertain the precife quantity of this paper currency. The officers of the bank informed me, that each note which was iffued had its equivalent in copper money: that the Bank of Affignation had, befide the building at Pe- •* In time of peace her rnnjclty ufually allots fome notes of 75 roubles, or /ij, being £200,000 per ann. for the purpofe of building, forged, thofe bearing that value were called in f Soon after the inftitution of this bank, and deftroyed. terfburgh, Bvi°K terft>ur£^ another at Mofcow: that the former contained ^—v~i £ 2,800,000 in copper coin; and £ ioo,coo in gold and filver fpecie ; that in the latter £1,200,000 in copper was already dcpofited, and that £ 200,000 were then coining for that pur-pofe. According to this account, in 1779, bank-notes had been circulated to the value of £ 4,200,000. It is fuppofed, however, that this ftatemcnt of the paper currency is underrated ; and many perfons pretend to affert, that the notes iffued by government amount to at leaft £ 10,000,000. Upon the firfl appearance of this paper, it was received, particularly in the remote parts of the empire, not without difficulty, and the difcount againfl it was commonly about 34^ and in fome places even 6 per cent. But its obvious advantages over copper money foon recommended it to general ufe; and it has been found fo beneficial to commerce, that the difcount in favour of filver fpecie is only one per cent, and it bears a premium of one and an half per cent, over copper money. The debts of Ruffia in foreign countries amounted, at the conclufion of the lad war, to only £ 2,000,000, which was almofl difcharged •> but the fame fum has been lately borrowed in Holland; and probably the prefent armaments againfl the Turks will have much increafed the public expenditure. CHAP. CHAP. IT. Admiralty:—Expedition to Cronfladt. — Defcription of Cronflot and the citadel \ of the if and Retufari; and the town of Cronftadt.—Its harbours and dock.—Navy* —Remarks upon Ruflia confidered as a maritime power* —General obfervations on /iu? Ruffian army. THE Admiralty*, which flands on the fouth bank of the Neva, oppofite to the fortrefs of Peterfburgh, was built by Peter the Great; and is a large building of brick, fur* rounded with a rampart and ditch : it is the great receptacle for fhips' flores; and contains large magazines of cordage, fails, mafls, anchors, which are fent to Cronfladt for the equipment of the fleet. A large area, which lies between the front of the building and the Neva, is ufed for the conflruc-tion of velTels : when I was at Peterfburgh, five men of war and two frigates were upon the flocksf. I have already obferved, that in our expedition to Peterhof and Oranienbaum, we vifited Cronfladt, a defcription of which; I referved for the prefent occafion. * I am informed, that the Admiralty is Iar, and whofe in fides are concave, fhaped f« intended to be removed to Cronftadt ; and as to embrace the hull of a (hip on both fides, that a building for that purpofc is abfolutely Each part has a fmall cabin with fixtecn begun. punrps and ten plugs, and contains twenty f The men of war which are framed in men. They are braced to a fliip underneath this dock are, in their palfage to Cronfladt, by means of cables, and entirely enclofc irt lifted over the bar by means of camels: thefe fides and bottom; being then towed to the machines Were originally invented by the ce- bar, the'plugs arc opened, and the water ad- JTcbrated Dc Witt, for the purpofe of convey- mitted until, the camel finks with the (hip and ing large velWs from Amfterdam over the runs a-ground. Than, the water being Pampus ; and were introduced into Ruflia by pumped out, the camel riles, lilts up the Peter the Great, who obtained the model of veffcl, and the whole is towed over the bar. them when he forked in Holland as a corn- This machine can raife the fliip eleven feet, aion ffitpwright. A camel is compofed of two or, in other words, make it draw eleven feet ftparate part?, whofe outfidei arc perpendieu- lefs water. Cronftadt,, Cronfladt, at which port the greatefl part of the Ruflian navy is fituated, flands upon the ifland of Retufari in the Gulf of Finland; and was founded by Peter I. as being provided with the fafeft harbour in thefe parts, and as forming a flrong bulwark by fea for the defence of the new metropolis. The only paffage by which mips of burden can approach Peterfburgh, lies on the fouth fide of Retufari, through a narrow channel; one fide whereof is commanded by Cronfladt, and the oppofite by Cronflot and the citadel. Cronflot, which flands upon a fmall ifland of fand, is a circular wooden building, and furrounded with fortifications of wood that jut into the water: it contains a garrifon of an hundred men. The citadel is another fmall wooden fortrefs, conflructed alfo upon an adjacent fand bank, and capable of holding about thirty foldiers : all large veflels mufl fail between Cronfladt and thefe two fortreffes, expofed to the fire of the oppofite batteries ; for the other parts of the gulf are only from one to eleven feet in depth. All thefe fortifications were, at the time of their conflruction, efleemed places of confider-able flrength; but now they derive their confequcnce more from their paft importance, than from any refiflance they could make againfl the attack of a powerful fleet. The ifland Retufari is a long flip of land, or rather fand; through the middle of which runs a ridge of granite. It is 20 miles from Peterfburgh by water, four from the more of Ingria, and nine from the coaff of Carelia. It is about ten miles in circumference, and was overfpread with firs and pines when Peter firfl conquered it from the Swedes. It contains at prefent about 30,000 inhabitants, including the failors and garrifon, the former of whom amount to about 12,000, the latter to 1,500 men. The ifland affords a fmall quantity of jpaflure, produces vegetables, and a few fruits, fuch as apples, currants, currants, goofeberries, and flrawberries, which thrive in this CI northern climate. v- Cronfladt is built upon the fouth caflern extremity of the ifland, and is defended towards the fea by wooden piers projecting into the water, and towards the land by ramparts and baflions. It is a very flraggling place, and occupies, like all the Ruflian towns, a larger fpace of ground than the number of habitations feem to require; the houfes are moftly of wood, excepting a few fronting the harbour, which are of brick fluccoed white. Among the latter are the imperial hofpital for failors, the barracks, and the academy for marines and officers of the navy. That feminary contained, in 1778, three hundred and feventy cadets, who arc clothed, maintained, and taught at the expence of the crown : they are admitted at the age of five, and are fuffered to remain until they reach their feven-teenth year. They learn accounts, mathematics, drawing, fortification, and navigation ; and have maflcrs in the French, German, Englifh, and Swedifh languages. They are trained to naval affairs, and make an annual cruize in the Baltic as far as Revel. Cronfladt has a feparate haven appropriated to the men of war, and another to merchant-mips. The men of wars' haven contained twenty fhips of the line and nine frigates, which were difmafled, with their guns and tackle on fhore. We went on board of the Ezekicl of 80 guns, eftecmed the fincfl fliip in the navy: fhe was built under the inspection of admiral Knowles, and carries 800 men. Clofe to the haven, for merchant-fhips is a canal and feveral dry docks, begun in 1719, by Peter I. for the purpofe of refuting the men of war; this ufeful work was neglected under his fucceffors, and was not completed until the reign of his daughter Elizabeth : it has been ilill further beautified and improved by the prefent emprefs; and is now applied for Vol. II. E c building book building as well as careening mips of the line. At the extre-*—v—j mity of thefe docks is a great refervoir, 568 feet in length, which contains water fufficient, and half the quantity over, to fupply all the docks ; which is pumped into it by means of a fire engine, the diameter of whofe cylinder is fix feet. The length of this work, from the beginning of the canal to the end of the lafl; dock, is 4221 feet. The fides of the docks are faced with ftone, and the bottom is paved with granite : they are 40 feet deep, and 105 broad; and are capable of containing nine men of war upon the flocks. % Nothing can convey a higher idea of the vaft abilities and perfevering genius of Peter the Great, than the fituation in which he found the Ruflian navy, and the ftate in which he left it. Though in the beginning of his reign he did not pof-fefs a fingle fhip in the Baltic, yet in the courfe of a few years he equipped a fleet of fifty fail of the line, which rode miftrefs of that fca. Under his fucceffors the Ruffian navy was greatly neglected ; and it was in fo bad a condition at the acceffion of the prefent emprefs, that flie may be faid to have almoft equalled her great predeceffor in the creation of a new fleet; fhe invited feveral En glifli captains and fhip-buildcrs into Ruffia, and particularly admiral Knowlcs, who was remarkable for his fkill in naval architecture. Under her aufpices Europe lately beheld with aftonifliment the Ruffian flag dif-played in the Archipelago, and the Turkifh fleet annihilated at Tchefme by a fquadron from the North. Ruffia produces every article neceffary for the conftruction and equipment of fhips, which are built chiefly at Cronfladt, Peterfburgh, and Archangel: thofe conftructed at Cronfladt and at Peterfburgh are framed with oak; while thofe from Archangel are made with larch-wood; the latter are much lefs adapted than the former for an engagement. For the fupply of the dock-yards at Peterfburgh and Cronfladt, the oak is N A V Y. 211 is fent from the province of Cafan; the Ukraine and the go- GHAp-vernment of Mofcow fupply the hemp; the malls are procured w—v^-* from the vaft tracts of foreft which lie between Novogorod and the Gulf of Finland ; or are furnifhcd by the provinces lately difmembered from Poland. Pitch and tar are obtained from Wiburgh. Manufactures of cordage and fail-cloths are eftablifhed in different parts of the empire; and the magazines of Peterfburgh and Archangel are always plentifully flored with large quantities of both thofe articles. Lift of the Russian Navy in October 1778. Ships of the Line. Names. Guns. Station. When built. 1 E/ekicl 80 — CronftaJt: 1773 2 Ifidor 74 — Ditto 1772 3 St. Andrew 74 — Ditto 1770 4 Clement » 74 — Ditto 1770 5 Tchefme 74 — Ditto 177a 6 Vladimir 66 — Ditto 1771 7 Vekeflaf 66 Ditto 1771 8 De Neifs 66 — Ditto 1772 9 America 66 — Ditto 1773 10 Periflaf " - 66 — Ditto 1772 11 Vfevolod 66 — Ditto 1769 12 Demitri Donfki 66 — Ditto 1771 13 Pam and Eultatia 66 — Ditto 1770 14 Victor 66 — .Ditto 1771 15 Europa 66 — Ditto 1768' 16 Saratof 66 — Ditto 1765 17 Pobcda . 66 Ditto 1770 18 Ratiflof 66 — Ditto 1769 19 Miranofitz' 66 — Ditto 1771 20 Pobidnafovitz, rebuilding 66 — At Cronfladt 21 Count Orlof 66 — Revel 1770- 22 Alexander 66 — Ditto 1772 23 Boris and Glcbb . ' 66 — Ditto 1773 24 Ingermanland 66 —* Ditto x773 25 Alia 66 — Ditto - ■ '773 26 Unknown 66 — Cronfladt 1777 27 Ditto 66 — Ditto 1777 28 Ditto 66 — Ditto 1777 29 Ditto 66 — Ditto 1777 30 Ditto 66 — Ditto 1777 E e 2 Shi BOOK VI. Ships of the Line ready to launch and building. 31 Ready to launch - - 74 — Petcrfburgh 32 Ditto - - 74 — Ditto 33 Building - - , 74 — Ditto 34 Ready to launch - - 66 — Ditto 35 Building - - 66 — Ditto 36 Ditto - - - 66 — Ditto 37 Ditto - - - 66 — Ditto 38 Ditto - 66 — Ditto FRIGATES. Names. Guns. Station. When built. 1 St. Michael 32 — Cronfladt 1774 2 Kaflevoi - 32 — Ditto * 1774 3 Lccfkoi 32 _ Ditto 1773 4 Pofpefkoi 32 — Ditto - • 1774 5 Bohemia 32 — Ditto 1774 6 Hungaria 32 — Ditto *774 7 Nordeflioi — 32 — Ditto 1769 8 Euftaiia 32 — Ditto 1768 0. Pomofknoi 32 — Ditto 1768 Frigates ready to launch and building. 10 Ready to launch 28 — Petcrfburgh 1 ] St. Mark 20 1— Ditto 12 Ready to launch 20 — Ditto 13 Building 20 — Archangel 14 Building 20 — Ditto 15 Building 20 — Ditto Prames: I. Elephant, 36 guns ; 2. unknown, 36; 3. Leopold, 18; 4. Barfa, 18. Gallics : 101 at Petcrfburgh ; 3 at Cronfladt; and 5 at RcveL Thus the navy of Ruflia, in the ports * of the Baltic and Archangel, confided, in the latter end of 1778, of 38 fhips of the line, 15 frigates, 4 prames, and 109 gallies. Of this number about 28 mips of the line and ten frigates, including thofe built with larch-wood, were fit for immediate fervice. In cafe, however, of neceflity or danger, Ruflia producing all the materials for the contraction and equipment of fhips, her navy might foon be considerably increafed, of which I have given a remarkable inftance on a former occa- * As I could not obtain an exaft account obfcrve, that feveral men of war and frigates of the Ruffian fhips in the Black Sea, I have were building at St. Demetri, Taurof, and chofe to be filent on that head j I lhall only Kherfon. fion. fion*. But though Ruffia, fince the beginning of this century, has made furprizing exertions in the marine, and rapidly become more powerful at fca than her neighbouring kingdoms in the North ; yet, in naval affairs, fhe mufl be confidered as full in her infancy, being in a great degree indebted to the Englifh, as well for the conflruclion of her fhips, as for manoeuvring and difciplining her fleet. Many circumflanccs indeed concur in retarding the progrefs of her maritime flrength : i. The want of ports in the Ocean; 2. The fmall extent of her fea coafl, and that obHructed by ice; 3. A deficiency of experienced feamen. 1. With refpect to the firfl caufe, it is obvious that fhe pof-feffes not a fingle port upon the Ocean, excepting that of Archangel, which is of no ufe but in a commercial light, as well on account of its great diflancc from the other European feas, as becaufe the navigation round the North Cape of Lapland, fituated in the 72d degree of latitude, is only open in the midfl of fummer. 2. In regard to the fecond caufe, it has been juftly remarked, that there arc very few inflances of any nation's having arrived at a great height of naval power, which did not poffefs a confiderable tract of fca-coafl; and Ruflia, excepting the late acquifitions upon the Black Sea, the de folate fhores round Archangel and in the Frozen Ocean, and the inhofpitable regions of Kamtchatka, can boafl no greater portion of maritime country than what lies between Wiburgh and Riga; a mere point for fo large an empire, and rendered lefs valuable for bordering upon the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic, inland fcas without tides, when compared with the Ocean fcarcely fuperior to lakes, and inacccffible f for at leafl five months in the year. 3. The third caufe is a deficiency of « See Vol. I. Book IV. Chap. V. pan lire before the month, of April, and muft t The ports In the Baltic being fro/en du- return in October, ring that period, no veheb cm take their de- experienced book experienced * feamen. Government, indeed, retains in its pay ^—v—^ about 18,000 faiiors ; but mod of thefe have never ferved: a few in time of peace make annual cruifes into the Baltic, or perhaps as far as the Englifh Channel; and others are employed in the fummer fcafon in navigating the veJTcls laden with merchandize from Cronfladt to Peterfburgh. But fuch nurferies as thefe are by no means fufficicnt to rear a large number of feamen ; nor can the deficiency be fupplied, in cafe of an immediate war, by the faiiors from private veffels, for Ruffia has fcarcely any merchant fhips; which is chiefly owing to the flate of vaffalage, and the flrict laws that prevent the natives from quitting their country without formal licence. A merchant who fits out a trading vcffel, mufl firfl apply to the admiralty for pcrmiflion to take on board a certain number of natives: leave being obtained, the pafles for each failor are brought and lodged in the admiralty, and a fufficient fecu-rity, at the rate of £ 30 per man, is given for their return. Thus, without altering the fundamental laws of the kingdom, and totally innovating on the long effablifhed rights of vaffalage, there cannot be an adequate number of faiiors to man a large fleet upon hidden emergencies. In a word, no kingdom, without diflant colonics, without confiderable fifheries, and without an extenfive fea coafl to familiarize its inhabitants to the dangers of the Ocean, is likely to acquire fuch a marine as to become formidable to the great naval powers of Europe. The navy of Ruffia, however, with all thefe deficiencies, is fufficient to protect her coafls, to convoy her merchantmen, to make her rcfpectable in the Baltic, or, in cafe of a Turkifh war, to fend a fleet into the Archipelago. It is her advantage * In die naval expedition againfl: the Turks, to the Archipelago was a very fortunate aril was a remark made by feveral of our olfi- cumftancc, as the Ruflians acquired experience ccn>, that the dillance from St. Peterfburgh during the length of the voyage. JO to maintain a good correfpondence with the great maritime powers, whom flie fupplies with naval (lores, and who are, on that account, equally intcrefled to refpect and cultivate her friendfhip. The frontiers of her immenfe dominions border upon Sweden, Poland, Turkey, Perfia, and China; and the fecurity of her empire depends as much upon her army as her navy. As I could not obtain an accurate lift of the Ruflian army, and as it does not enter into the plan of this work to extrac5t from other publications vague accounts, the veracity of which I cannot, in fome meafure, confirm from my own obfervations, I fhall only lay before the reader the following general information, which I procured from perfons highly qualified to give the moft authentic intelligence. The Ruflian army is divided into regular and irregular troops. The regulars, confiding chiefly of infantry, include all thofe who wear uniforms, and are trained to European difcipline. According to the peace eflablifliment in 1778, they amounted to about 130,000 effective men. The Ruffians, when properly difciplined, are very excellent foldiers; being brave, flcady, obedient, patient of fatigue and hardfhip, and fcarcely ever guilty of defertion. Since my departure from Peterfburgh, thefe regulars arc faid to have been confidcrably increafed; but to what amount I cannot pretend to determine. With refpect to the irregular troops, fome of whom are flill armed with bows and arrows, their number is very confider-able, and can fcarcely be ascertained: they confifl entirely of horfe, who are of ufe indeed in a war againfl the Turks, Per-fians, and Chinefe; but would add very little to the Ruffian firength in an European campaign. Of this defultory body, the corps of Coffacs, who are efleemcd the mofl excellent, and who book w]10 bear the greater!: refemblance to regular troops, are thus defcribed in the journal of Colonel Floyd. " The Coffacs are in general perfons of low flaturc ; they « wear fmall whifkers, and fhave their heads, excepting the " crown, upon which they leave a fmall circle of hair. " Their drefs is a fur-cap, a loofe long Afiatic robe, and " large pantaloons, boots or half-boots, without fpurs, and a " whip hanging from the right wrift. Their arms are a lance " about twelve feet in length, a brace of piftols flung on the " left fide, a cartridge-box on the right, and a fmall fcymitar « without any guard, or even crofs-har. Their horfes are t{ ponies, which are itrong and active, but not fleet. The ac-" coutremcnts are a kind of huflar-faddle, a fmall fnaflle with u large eyes and no horns, to the near eye of which is fafl-" cned a thong, that is alfo tied to the faddle, and which oc-" cafionally ferves for a halter. They ride fliort and full-" footed, raife themfelves on their flirrups, bend their bodies " with great activity, and throw themfelves into different at-u titudes. They never pufli their horfes on full fpeed in a " ftraight line; but in galloping turn them in various dircc-" tions, defcribing in their progrefs a ferpentinc line, and " wheeling continually to the right and left. When not in " action, they carry their lance flung on the foot; when en-" gaged, they prefent it againfl the enemy by holding it al-« mofl in the middle, and counterpoizing it under the arm; ,£ and, from conflant practice, direct it againfl an object with " great dexterity. In retreating, they reft the lance upon their " fhoulder as a defence againfl blows, and occafionally oppofe " the point to a purfuing enemy. " Thefe CofTacs, on account of their avcrfion to regular «c difciplinc, are not trained to attack in fquadron j but act «< only as fkirmifliers, and are faid to be extremely adroit in " their " their dcfuhory evolutions; they are ufually let loofe upon " a flying enemy, when they do great execution. They excel " as patrols, and are remarkable for their vigilance on out-V polls, and their knowledge of the country. The fagacity, u which they derive from habit and practice, is in fome par-" ticulars aflonifhing; by examining a tract which has been " lately traverfed by the enemy in the mod tumultuary man-" ner, they can difcover, with tolerable exaetnefs, the num-" ber of horfes that have paffed over it, and how many of " them were led. Some of them can defcry, if any movement " is taking place among a corps of troops, far beyond the " reach of ufual obfervation; others, by applying their ears " to the ground, can diflinguifh the buz of men, or the clat-" tering of horfes' feet, at a very confiderable diflance. They 1C can take the field every day without intermiflion -, and are tc indefatigable in haraffing the enemy : they are contented " with a very fcanty fubfiftcncc, and do not require any forage " to be carried for their horfes. " There are eight regiments of thefe CofTacs: each regi-*• ment confifts of five fquadrons, and each fquadron of an 44 hundred men, befide officers. There are alfo fix other regi-41 ments of horfe, called regular pikemen, fimilar in their 4C arms and accoutrements to the CofTacs, and diflinguiflied " from them only by a trifling difference of drefs." Vol. IL CHAP, C H A P. III. Rife and progrefs of the Englifh trade into Ruffia.—Commerce of the Britifh FaSlory of St. Peterfburgh.—Exports and imports. book '"I ^HE commercial intercourfe between Ruflia and the , A northern parts of Europe was begun and carried on by the Hanfeatic towns, which, in 1276, eftablifhed factories at Novogorod and Plefcof *, and for a confiderable period entirely engroffed the trade of this empire. The accidental difcovery of Archangel, in 1553, deprived the Hanfeatic towns of a great part of this lucrative commerce, and transferred it to the Englifh. On the nth of May, in the above-mentioned year, three fhips failed from Deptford, in order to explore the Northern Seas, under the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby. Two of thefe veffels penetrated as high as the 72d degree of latitude, to the coafl of Spitzbergen; and being afterwards forced by flrefs of weather into the bay of the river Arzina in Ruffian Lapland, both their crews were frozen to death. Richard Chanceller, who commanded the other fhip, called the Bona-venture, difcovering the country bordering upon the White Sea, landed near the mouth of the Dvina, in a bay, which he denominated the Bay of St. Nicholas, from a convent of that name, near the prefent port of Archangel. Information of his arrival being inftantly difpatched to Ivan Vaflilievitch II. the tzar fent for him to Mofcow, diftinguifhed him with many marks of kindnefs and attention, received in the moft • The merchants of Hamburgh and Lu- Narva, and from thence paffed through Dorpt bee, and of the other Hanfeatic towns, in car- to Plefcof and Novogorod. S. R. G. V. p. 418 ; Tying on this traffic, ufually failed to Revel or and Buf. Hill. Mag. X. 291. favourable favourable manner a letter from Edward VI. *, and permitted CI^P* the Englifh to open a commerce with Ruffia. Upon Chancel- *—v—' lcr's return to England, a Ruflian company was eftablifhed by queen Mary ; and in the year 1555 he again repaired to Mofcow, accompanied by feveral merchants of the incorporated fociety. To thefe perfons the tzar, among other confiderable privileges, granted " a free liberty f of trading to any part of 44 his dominions, without paying any duties either of export or 4' import, that they might exercife all kind of merchandizes in 44 his empires and dominions, and every part thereof, freely " and quietly, without any reflraint, impeachment, price, ex-*' action, cuflome, toll, impofition, or fubfidie." The correfpondence between Elizabeth and Ivan, and the confidence which the latter repofed in the queen, has been already mentioned X > and it is no wonder that the monarch who claimed and obtained the promife of an afylum in England, in cafe he was driven from the throne by a rebellion of his fubjects, fhould confer additional immunities on the new company. Thefe privileges, which were renewed upon different occafions, amounted to an abfolute monopoly, " Ivan « forbidding all other perfons but the members of the faid fent to Kolmogori, and from thence into the interior parts of Ruflia. Some time in the reign of Feodor Ivanovitch, the firfl foundations of the caflle of Archangel were laid : it took ics name from a monaflery built in honour of the Archangel Michael. This fpot foon increafed to a town, and became the groat ftaple of the Englifh trade. Sec S. R. G. VII. P-47°- % In the midfl of the Khitaigorod at Mofcow, there is an antient gateway, which tonus the entrance into the printing-office of the Holy Synod : it is of curious workmanfhip, ornamented with figures of the lion and unicorn grotefquely carved in wood. Thefe being the fupportcrs of the Royal arms of England, authors have conjectured that this gateway was the entrance to the hotel, constructed by order of Ivan Valulicvitch II. for the rcfi- dence of the Englifh embaflador, and that the tzar Alexey was fo offended at the execution of Charles I. that he converted the hotel into a printing-office. It is probable, indeed, from the figures of the lion and unicorn, that this gateway had fome reference to the Er.gliih, although it was not the cmbaffador's hotel, becaufe tha'; was fituated near the church of St. Maximus, in another part of the Khitaigorod; but it evidently appears, from an infeription over the gateway, that this building was not converted inco a printing-office on account of the execution of Charles I. This infeription denotes, that Michael Feodovovitcb, and his fon Alexey, caufed thefe apartments and this gate to be contracted in the printing-houfe, June 3C/th, 7152, or, according to our xra, 1645 : a plain proof that the eflablifliment of the printing-houfe was prior, by at lead three years, to the execution of Charles. I. and could have no reference to th.it event. cent. cent, if they were indulged with the liberty of carrying on as free a trade as the Englifh throughout his dominions. For not long afterwards, the tzar fullered William Prideaux, Cromwell's agent, to rcfide at Archangel; and permitted the Englifh to renew their commerce in that port upon the fame footing with other foreigners *. It appears alfo, from Milton's and Thurloe's State Papers, that the tzar not only received feveral letters from Cromwell, and returned anfwers to them, but that, at the protector's requell, he even agreed to admit his embaflador at Mofcow. In confequcnce of this permiflion, Richard Bradfhaw, Cromwell's refident at Hamburgh, proceeded in his way to Mofcow as far as Mittau, where he was honourably entertained by the duke of Courland; from that town feveral difpatches paffed between Bradfhaw and the Pvuflian chancellor, with refpect to the fuperfcription of the letter which the protector addreffed to the tzar, and which did not confer upon that monarch all the titles which he required: this feems to have been merely a pretext, as Bradfhaw affcrts, to prolong the time ; and in effect he foon afterwards returned to Hamburgh without having accomplifhed his intended em-baffy to Mofcow f. Cromwell, however, feems to have gained a great point in opening the commerce of Archangel to the Englifh, although he could not obtain fuch honourable terms as they had formerly enjoyed ; and although Alexey could not be induced to grant unto the Englifh a free trade into the interior parts of his dominions; yet this exclufion was not peculiar to them, for he equally prohibited all foreigners from carrying on any traffic, excepting at Archangel J. Soon after the Refloration, Charles II. defirous of obtain in «■ a renewal of the company's privileges, as they exifled before the abolition in 1648, difpatched the carl of Carlifle to Mof- * Thurloe, vol. IT. p. 558-562. f See Milton's Works, p. 1657. Tliurloe, vol. III. p> 258, and VI. 408. 432. 439. t Thurloe, vol. II. p. 598. COW, cow, who was ordered to re prefent, that *' thefe very privi-" leges were the bads and foundation upon which the amity ** of the two crowns of England and Mufcovy were fuper-" flruCted." The embaffy failed of fuccefs: the failure was imputed to the haughty deportment of the embaffador, who exprefTed difguft at the bad accommodations in Ruflia ; did not pay fufficient court to the minifters and favourites of the tzar; tendered repeated remonflrances in a manner totally repugnant to the Ruflian cuflom j and, under a falfe notion of maintaining the dignity of his fovereign, objected to the Ruffian ceremonial *. It is much to be queftioned, however, if, the carl of Carlifle had acted a lefs impolitic part, whether the Ruffian court would have renewed the charter of the company in its full extent, and particularly the exemption from duties of export and import; fince the Dutch, who at that time carried on a very confiderable traffic to Archangel, readily paid the cufloms. The only point which the earl of Carlifle could accomplifh, was a permiffion that the 'Englifh mould trade freely into the Ruflian dominions, but remain fubject to the * The following quotation will difplay the frivolous nature of the difputes about precedency ; and will fhew, at the fame time, the ill policy of the Engliih embalfador, who, as he wilhed to gain a point of fome confequcnce, ought to .have paid every poflible deference to the prejudices and pride of the Ruflians. " Awhile after came Pronchilfof, one of the *' tzar's council, deputed as mafter of the ce-4* remony to his excellence. And, on this oc-" cafion, we had another ridiculous example ** of the pride and rufticity of the Mufcovites, " who were fo quick and precife in antici-" pating the prerogative of cmbafiadors. " Pronchillbf being arrived within fome fmall " diftance of the cmbaflador's fledge, gave * him to underftand, that he was font to re-" ccivc him from the grand-duke his lord, 4* and that he expected the embaflador fhould 4* firfl come out of his fledge. But his excel- " lence figniftcd to him, that he represented " the perfon of the king his mafter, and that, " in that cafe, all fuch kind of refpect was due " to himfelf. Pronchilfof, however, continued " immoveable in his fledge as the mafter of " the ceremonies, and fent back to the embaf-" fador, that he alfo was fent from the tzar " his mafter to reprefent his perfon. This an-" fwer, how abfurd foever it was, caufed fe-" vcral fmart replies, both on one fide and the " other : till at laft, the embaffador, to pre-" vent any further delay in his entrance, con-" dcfccndcd to this, that both of them fhould " come out of their fledges together. But in " this Pronchilfof took occafion to deceive his " excellence, and falfify his word, hanging in " the air betwixt the arms of his fervants, and " but touching the earth with his tiptoes, " while the embaffador came out freely." Car-lifle's Embaflie^, p. 131. duties duties of export and import. From that period the Britifli com- chap. merce has fuffered no interruption. Archangel continued the fole port for the exports and imports of Ruffia, until, upon the building of Peteriburgh, Peter the Great abolifhed its immunities ; and removed the commerce of the White Sea to the havens of the Baltic *. The Britifh merchants, who were highly favoured by that monarch, fettled in the new metropolis, which fuddenly became the principal mart for the Ruflian trade. The privileges of the Britifli factory eflablifhed in Ruffia are confirmed by a folemn treaty of commerce and navigation, concluded in 1734 between George II. and the emprefs Anne; and renewed, in 1766, between his prefent Majefty and Catharine II. f Goods exported in 382 Britifh fhips in 1777. Value. Quantity. £. 1,283,279 Poods J of Iron 365>324 12 1,104,299 Clean hemp 353*375 12 92,950 Outfliot ditto 27,885 O 32>735 Half clean ditto 9,165 l£ 84,008 Codilla ditto 13,44! 1 209,902 12 head flax - . 100,753 O 9 head flax 10,697 8 6 head flax - 1,582 8 36,627 Codilla ditto 4,395 4 *>373 Ifmglafs - - 8,238 0 13,514 JBriflles - . 24,325 4 8,774 Hides • ■ 10,528 16 • In 1752 Elizabeth again reflored the an- munication with the northern and weflern tient immunities of Archangel ; and its pre- parts of Siberia, from whence the merchants fent trade is not inconfiderable. procure furs, fkins, and iron. The port of Archangel fupplies the govern- f The reader will find the firfl treaty of ment of Archangel, part of thofe of Nifhnei- 1734 in Roufiet's Supplement to Dumcnt's Novogorod and Cafan, with European commo- Corps Diplomatique, vol. III. p. 495 ; and dities; and draws in exchange from thofe the laft, of 1766, in a Collcttiou of Treaties parts corn, flax, hemp, coarfe linen, cordage, between Great Britain and other Powers, .fails, malts, tallow, which are moflly conveyed vol. II. p. 309—327. by the Dvina : it forms alfo a principal com- % A pood = 36 Er.glifli pounds. Vol. II. G g Quantity. BOOK VI. Quantity. 2,546 Poods of Wax 27M73 Tallow 21,525 Old iron 1,157 Feathers 70,838 Tar * 2,683 Pitch 1*473 Rofin 2,987 Cordage 359 Horfehair 42 32 lb Rhubarb 3 3 lb- Leaver cod 152,834 Arfhines f Broad diaper 337>683 Narrow ditto 82,155 Broad linen l,602,716 Narrow ditto 1,168,440 Crafh 847,290 Drillings 23,429 Pieces of Fleems 56,644 Ravcnducks 1,505 Sail-cloth 3,500 White fox-nuns 5,000 Harc-fkins 18,454 Tchetwcrt t Linfeed 17,986 Wheat 157,083 Deals are about 80,000 dozen 155 Pood of Potafli Carraway feeds 499 226 37>8i7 2 52 10,424 78 205 Annifeed Old rags, old ropes, goat-fkins, and oxen bones 22 lb. Raw filk jLinfced oil Horfe-tails, about 200 pood Mafts and bowfprits, and Wax-candlcs Fox-fkin bags and weafel-fkin bags • Hare-lkin bags and fkins of ftvuirrels Value. c 6,1 ro 119,360 1,722 925 7*083 402 441 I, 194 H3 846 590 3,3r>2 5,402 1,838 22,438 5,842 23,724 37,598 67,972 16 2,107 0 1,400 200 II, 072 14,388 24,000 77 149 90 312 57 J5 200 1,044 832 •5 8 o o 12 16 8 16 16 12 8 8 5 16 4 o 4 o 8 o o 8 16 o 8 12 8 o 12 12 o o o 12 * Before our unhappy difputes 'with our in 1777, tar fold for is. and pitch at 3/. the Colonies, we ufed to procure our pitch and pood. tar from America. In 1776 we firfl im- f An arfhine = 28 inches, ported thefe commodities from Ruflia. They % A tchetwert contains 5] bufhels Win-were fold at firft for only it. the pood; but chefter mcafure. Quantity. Value. CHAP. Quantity. £. f, \"* 20 Poods of Ermine fkins -- - » 60 o ~"~ 14,370 Ermine tails, and fable tails, and mats - 214 o 57 Poods of Caviar 1,413 Arfliines Checked linen - 25 34 4 4 Cufloms on exportation £107,176 o7 Shipping charges 5 per cent. 64,650 13 3 Commifflon 3 per cent. 1,293,010 14 171,826 12 1,464,837 6 43,945 0 Total fum of exports by Britifh fhips - £ 1,508,782 6 Goods imported by Britifli fhips at Peterfburgh in 1777. Value. Quantity. £. /. ■2,154 Poods of Allum - - m ■s 775 8 214 Benzoin - - 2,565 0 8,080 Brimftone - Ml 985 12 11,482 Campeachy wood - • ■ 4>592 itS 579 Cheefe - m 706 4 126 Cochineal - - 5,040 ( 0 1,288 Coffee - 2,060 16 15 Confectionary - 61 16 41 Copper wrought and unwrought • • 120 8 978 Cork - - 660 0 6 Coral - - 500 0 108 Cum arabic - - 129 16 1,560 Indigo - ■ 24,961 4 58,804 Lead - - - m 21,169 8 568 Muftard - - 1,362 12 524 Oil - ft 623 16 46 Olibanum . 92 0 3,420 Pepper .. - - 3,4i8 16 37 Pewter . - 96 12 22§ Plates of gold and filver • 7>5°7 0 608 Rice - ■ 243 12 54 683 Sugar refined - - ) Ditto raw - - } 896 8 409 Sal ammoniac - - «- 1,636 4 *5>874 Tin - -Cg 2 m 25,398 8 Quantity. Value. Quantity. /. 60 Poods of Tobacco and fnuff 182 8 98 Verdigreafe - 393 12 206,816 Arfhines Bays - 20,956 12 100,494 Calimancoes and camblets 7,034 12 Camblets - 6,880 8 164,205 Cottons for printing 7,225 0 7>x32 Cloth fine - - 1 - 55.642 162,007 ordinary - j 12 144,125 Cotton, velvets, velverets, &c. i7>3°4 0 45>995 Druggets - 3*219 12 9,828 Flannels - 589 12 16,225 Phlug and fliag •» 1,986 0 365,896 Shalloons - 24,881 12 Tabouretts - 9,652 14 Clothes ready made * 344 4 Hats » 215 8 Linen and printed harxdkerchiefs. 342 16 Muflin and cambric • 1,108 0 Quilting - 2,853 0 Ribbands - - • ■ «3J 0 Stockings - 1,787 0 Sundry filk (luffs 1»333 0 Sundry woollen ditto 2,131 0 Toys and millenery - 9,490 8 Butter 16 12 Capers - - - 1 8 Coals - 2,033 12 Chcfnuts - 68 0 Chryftal - 190 4 Currants, raifins, and figs 384 8 Cutlery and hardware- 19,181 16 Diamonds and precious Hones 5,596 0 Earthen ware 5,890 12 Fans ... 20 16 Frames for pictures 82 16 Furniture 312 4 Furs ... 40 0 Hops 24 0 Lace and ruffles 452 12 Leather drefled and undrefled 519 4 Mathematical inftruments i,458 O Mufical Value. Quantity, £ s. Mufical inftruraents - . 451 16 Mohair - 45 16 Nuts ... 45 8 Olives - 1 0 Paper hangings 258 8 Pearls ■» 1,000 0 Pencils and black lead - 674 0 Pictures and copper-plates- 3>°°5 8 Pickles 37 12 Pork and hams 57 8 Printed books 607 0 Prunes - - - 94 0 Stoughton's drops "3 4 Stone and marble - - 822 0 Snuff boxes - 241 12 Tea - 35 0 Tutinage - 141 0 Whips and walking flicks 108 16 Wine and mineral water 434 0 Wood for coaches, furniture, &c. - 2,070 0 131 Horfes - - - 2,920 0 38 Dogs - 132 12 27,316 Pieces of Beaver fkins 27,316 O 239,967 Bottles - . - 2-,38o 8 3,282 Hogfheads Burton ale - • 26,255 O 61 Coaches and harnefs 2084 4 Clocks and watches 11,142 16 193 Dozen Cyder - —■ 154 16 19J Anchors of French brandy 781 16 3,556 Chefts of Oranges and lemons 5,817 12 jo,703 Otter fkins 14,844 4 n6 Reams of Paper . . _ 45 4 13 Anchors of Shrub and rum 98 8 61 Hogfheads of Vinegar 147 16 Sundry drags and colours 865 0 Sundry fmall articles - 590 16 £ 423*942 12 CHAP. III. '-<—> The K ^'1C w^°^e trat^e °^ St. Peterfburgh in exports and imports for the fame year, i;77* with the Englilh and other nations, was, In exports Imports £ 2,400,000 > £4tC09>000 Q 1,600,000 ) Balance in favour of Ruflia — 800,000 The Britifli fhare in this trade is In the exports about Imports - — 423,942 12) Gain - 1,084,839 14 Confequently, the trade with all other nations (the Ruffian fubjects included) is, In the exports Imports . J of 1*>°&7>*U 19 1,176,057 8J Lofs - - 284,829 17 From hence it is evident Ruffia gains annually by her trade with the Britifli fubjects about - ;£ 1*084,829 17 And that fhe lofes by her trade with all other nations „ 284,829 17 Remains annually a clear gain of about 800,000 o But fhould the contraband traffic (in which the value of the imports far exceeds that of the exports, and in which the Britifh have little or no concern) be included, it will confiderably diminifh the balance of thefe commercial profits as jufl dated. According to this flatement, half the trade of St. Peterfburgh is in the hands of the Englifh; but as their exports and imports in 1777 exceeded thofe of the preceding or fubfequent years, this eftimate may be confidered as too highly rated : we may fairly however allow, upon the moll moderate computation, that a third of this commerce is carried on by our factory. The average number of merchant fhips, which annually arrive from England at the port of Cronfladt, with goods laden for Peterfburgh, may be collected from the following table : Tears, Years. Ships. Years. »753 " H9 J758 1754 - 236 1759. 1755 - i^o I760 1756 - lB8 17«1 1757 - 129 r762 The general flate of the trade of St. Peterfburgh in 1778 was, In exports - - £2,042,097 8 Imports - - 1,318,428 15 3,360,526 4 In the fame year the following number of veffcls arrived at Cronfladt: Englifh - 252 Portuguefe 2 Pruffian 26 Hamburgh V French * 1 Swed ifh 47 Lubcck 38 Stralfund - 1 Spanifh 6 Dutch 147 Roftock • 29 Bremen 3 Ruffian 12. Danifli 39 Dantzack z Total - 607 Befide the metropolis, the Ruffian trade in the Baltic is carried on at Riga, Revel, Narva and Wihurgh. From Riga a confidcrablc quantity of corn is exported by the Englifh, Swedes, and Dutch, which is fent down the Duna from the provinces of Plefcof, Smolenfko, and Novogorod : a few mads are alfo fhipped from the fame port. The other exports from this, and the above-mentioned maritime towns, are fimilar to thofe of Peterfburgh. * The French exports and imports are, in ed to £30,283; the imports to £94,648. time of war, moflly conveyed in Dutch bot- Jour. Pet. for 1781. toms, which is the reafon why, in 1778, but In the fame year 71 fhips arrived at Narva, one French veffel arrived at Cronfladt, al- of which 33 were Dutch, 9 Englllh, 11 Da- though their exports and imports for that year niih, 8 Swedifh, and 2 from Lubeck. Ibid, amounted to £^148,753. At Riga 758 fhips arrived in 1782. See f The exports from Revel in 1780 amount- Hamb. Pol. Journ. for 1782. P. II. p. 480. Ships. Years. Ships. Years. Ships. 161 1763 149 1773 319 206 1767 2oo :774 318 J37 1768 -■ 237 1776 320 130 1769 322 1777 - 366 '53 1770 306 1778 252 CHAP. III. € H A P. G II A P. IV. .Rife, progrefs j and termination of the Englifh trade on the Cafpian Sea.—Commerce of the Ruffians in the fame quarter.—Defcription jf the principal ports of the Cafpian, divided into Ruffian, Per Han, and Tartar.—Gene-ral exports and imports.—Average value of the trade. —Commerce with the Bucharians and Chinefe. book no early as the 14th century the Venetians and Genocfe hm&L* ^ drew, by means of the Cafpian, through Aftracan to their fettlcments at Azof* and Caffa, the Indian, Pcrflan, and Arabian merchandize, with which they thus furnifhed the fouth of Europe j the northern part of this continent was fupplied likewife through Aftracan with the fame Afiatic goods by the Ruffian merchants of Ladoga upon the Volkof, who fent them to their principal ftorehoufe at Wifby, an Hanfeatic town in the Hie of Gothland. The devaluation occafioned by the wars of Tamerlane, about the end of the 14th century, turned this trade from Aftracan to Smyrna and Aleppo. The commerce of Arabia, more commodious for thofe ports, was never brought back to Aftracan ; but part of the Perfian traffic was afterwards reftored to its old channel. Before the conqueft of Cafan and Aftracan, and while thefe provinces were under the government of the Tartars; the camp, or head quarters of the khan, was a mart for the Ruf- * See Guldcnftacdt's Treatife Von den Ha- moft part, through Perfia, acrofs the Cafpian fen am Cafpifchcn Meerc, in Journ. St. Pet. to Aftracan, from thence up the Volga, then .for 1777. by land to the Don, and down that river to .The Indian goods were brought, for the Azof. , fian chart of the Caspian Sea. Han and Pcrfian merchants. But as this camp, according to char the cuftom of the roving Tartars, was frequently changed, <— Aftracan and Terki * became at length the two principal places of refort. The commerce however, impeded and frequently interrupted by the numerous banditti, was precarious, until by the conqueft of Cafan and Aftracan Ivan Vaflilievitch II. opened a ready communication between Mofcow and the Cafpian Sea; and having garrifoned Aftracan with troops, rendered it a rendezvous for the merchants trading to thefe parts, and the chief depofitory of their feveral commodities. This conqueft being completed in the year 1554, foon after the discovery of Archangel, the Englifh, who had fettled a regular factory at Mofcow, obtained the tzar's permiilion to pafs through his dominions into Perfia, and to carry on an exclufive trade over the Cafpian. Jenkinfon was the firfl Englifliman who navigated that fea. In 1558 he landed at Mangufhlak upon the Eaftern fhore, palled by land through the country of the Turkoman Tartars to Boghara, capital of Great Bucharia, and returned to Mofcow the following year. In 1561 he again failed over the Cafpian ; and, proceeding to the coaft of Shirvan, went by land to Gafbin, the refidence of the fophy; from whom he obtained for the Engliih a permiilion of trading into Perfia. Several merchants followed his example. The laft expedition was made, in 1597, by Chriftopher Burroughs, whofe fliip being, in its return, hemmed in by the ice in the mouth of the Volga and {nattered to pieces, he and his crew efcaped with difficulty, and arrived at Aftracan after many dangers |. During thefe expeditions the traffic was chiefly carried on to the ports of Tumen, Derbenr, Baku; and the coafts of Ghilan, * Tcrki was fituated near the river Terek, upon which it flood is covered with the fea. upon the weftern ihore of the Cafpian : there f See Hackluyt, p. 324—430. S. R. G. arc no traces of it now remaining, as the fpot VIII. 426—473. Vol. II. II h 1 The The difalters which attended the laft voyage of Burroughs,, the number of banditti who frequented the fhores of the Cafpian, and the wars between the Turks and Perfians, obftructed the infant commerce; and noEnglifh vcflel appeared upon this fea for above a century and an half* At length, in 1741, the Britifh merchants of St. Peterfburgh, at the pcrfuafion of captain Elton, an Englishman in the Ruflian fervice, renewed their commerce upon the Cafpian ; and cftablifhed a factory at Rcfhd in the province of Ghilan. Some difputes unfortunately arifing, as well between the Englifh themfelves, as between ihc Ruffians and captain Elton ; the latter entered into the fervice of Kouli Khan, and affifted the fophy in conftrucling fome veffels upon the Cafpian fea. This circumflance gave umbrage to the court of Peterfburgh ; and Elizabeth, in 1746, withdrew the permiilion which flie had granted to the Englifh merchants, of palling through her dominions for the Cafpian commerce. Upon the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, who, in confequcnce of captain Elton's influence, had permitted the Englifh to trade to Perfia, their factory was pillaged by one of the pretenders to the throne of that kingdom, and their commerce in thofe parts was totally annihilated *. Having thus fketched the origin and progrefs of the Englifh commerce upon the Cafpian, I fhall now confider that of the Ruflians, who purfued with perfevcrance the track which our merchants had opened for them : their trade over the Cafpian fea was not inconsiderable, and would have been puttied ftill further, if the caravans, in their journey to and from Aftracan, had not been frequently pillaged by the roving CofTacs f. The commercial intercourfe between Perfia and * See Hanway's Britifh trade over the Caf- traditfory to each other, furKciently prove pian Sea, in his Travels, Vols. 1. and II. ; and the unfortunate mifundcrflandings which had Chap. XXXIII. in the fecond volume of arifen between the Engliih who engaged in Cooke's Travels through the Ruffian Empire this trade, to Perfia. Uoth thefe accounts, however con- f S. R. G. VII. 489. Ruffia Ruflia was flili further enlarged and extended under Boris Go- cr,TNAP-dunof*, who formed an alliance with the fophy Shah-Abbas i— the Great, which would have been extremely advantageous if the civil wars had not taken place: and though, under Michael Fcodorovitch, thefe commotions fubfidcd, and the commerce was renewed ; yet it was fo frequently interrupted by the Tartar banditti and pirates, as to become exceedingly precarious. Alexey Michaelovitch having curbed the CofTacs, and rendered the roads more fecure, Aftracan became again the center of the Perfian trade ; to which place merchants from Bucha-ria, Crim Tartary, Armenia, Perfia, and even India, reforted. That fovereign turned his attention to the commerce of the Cafpian ; and as thcveflels of the Ruflians were rudely framed, without decks, and of courfe expofed to conftant fhipwrecks f, he drew from Amfterdam feveral fhip-builders, for the pur-pofe of conftrucling veiTels more calculated to weather the ilorms of this fea : but thefe defigns were fruftrated by the re- 1669. bellion of the CofTacs of the Don, under the command of Stenko llafin 4. The trade of Ruflia in thofe parts was fo en- 1671. tirely annihilated by the devaftations of thefe CofTacs, that, upon the quelling of the revolt, and the punifhment of their leader, the greatefl part of it fell almoft entirely into the hands of the Armenian merchants eftablifhed in Aftracan, who fettled factories both in the Ruflian and Perfian territories §. During this whole period the Ruflian and Armenian traders feem to have penetrated no further than Niezabad, a port between Derbcnt and Baku; and their chief fettlement was at * S. R. G. VII. 490. p. 32. Motley's Hiftory of Catharine, vol. t, f ]l)id. p. 499. p. 227. I Bufching, IX. Ro-RS. For an account § S. R. G. VII. p. 505, of Stenko Rafin,fee Schmidt, Ruf.Gef. vol. II. H h « Shamakee, Shamakee, capital of Shirvan, until, in 1711, that town was taken by the Lefgecs, and their factory pillaged and deftroycd. Towards the latter end of Peter's reign, this commerce was again renewed on the following occafion : that monarch having marched a confiderable army into Perfia, took poiTcffion of the provinces of Dageftan, Shirvan, Ghilan, and Mafanderan, a tract of country which comprifes all theEaflern and Southern coafts of the Cafpian; and thefe provinces were formally-ceded to Ruffia in 1723. Soon after this ceffion, the emperor having obtained all the neceffary information relating to the ports of that fea, and the productions of the neighbouring countries* eftablifhed a Ruffian company trading to the Cafpian : the low (late of which will fufficiently appear from this circumflance, that its whole capital confided only of 400 fhares, of the value of £30 each. The chief fettlemcnts were formed at Aftracan and Kiflar, from which places the whole traffic was carried on by fea. The pofteffion of thefe diftanr provinces proved fo expenfive, and of fuch little advantage to the Ruflians, that the emprefs Anne was induced, in 1732 and 1735, to reftore them to the fophy* upon the following conditions: that the Ruffian merchants fhould have the liberty of trading to all the havens of the Cafpian without paying any duty ; that they mould-be allowed to build houfes and magazines wherever it was moft: convenient; that they fhould be in no wife fubject to the laws of the country ; and that all goods faved from the wrecks of their veffels fhould be delivered to the Ruffians f. The privileges of this company were confirmed by Anne and Elizabeth; but the commerce languifhed and was inconfidcrablc until the reign of the prefent emprefs, who, in 1762, abolifhed this exclufive right, and permitted all her fubjects to trade to Perfia j prohibiting, on account of the numerous banditti who • S. R. G. I. p. 154, kc. + Guldenftaedt, infefl in fell: the roads, the inland traffic from Kiflar, and the Other c Cafpian ports to Shamakee, where the factory was formerly efta- * bliihed. Two Ruflian confuls refide at Baku and Einzellee *. Thefe regulations, however productive of general advantage to the commerce, cannot prevent the contraband trade which is carried on at Shamakee, and the other inland towns of Perfia, by the Armenian merchants, who, from the knowledge of the country and the language, gain ready admiflion, and tmderfell the Ruflians. Aftracan, fituated upon an ifland in one of the branches of the Volga, may be confidered as the great ftaple of the Cafpian commerce; and, by means of that river, is readily fupplicd with European merchandize from the ports of the Baltic-f. Although Aftracan is only in the 47th degree of latitude, yet the cold is extremely intenfe in winter; and for two months the Volga is generally frozen fo hard as to be paffed over by heavy-laden fledges J, Large tracks of foreft grow upon the banks of that river in the province of Cafan, and furnifh fufficient oak and timber for the construction of vcffels for the Cafpian fea. The Cafpian is about 68o miles in length, reckoning from Gurief to Medfhetifar; and in no part more than 260 miles in breadth. It has no tide; and, on account of its frequent fboals, is navigable only by veflcls drawing from 9 to 10 feet water: it has ftrong currents ; and, like all inland feas, is fubject to violent ftorms §, which the Ruflian vefTcls, wretchedly conftructed, weather with difficulty. Its waters are brackifh. The fifhery of the Cafpian deferves to be mentioned, becaufe it is a nurfery for faiiors. The Uralian CofTacs enjoy the right of fifhing upon the coaft 47 miles on each fide of the river Ural; and the inhabitants of Aftracan pollefs the * Guldenftaedt, p. 248. \ llanway, p. 141. X 'Gmelin, vol. II. p. R4. * § Hauway, vol. I. p. 393. cxclufive excluftvc privilege upon the remaining ihorcs belonging to Ruilla. The roe of (lurgeons and beluga fupply large quantities of caviare ; and the fifh, which are chiefly faked and dried, form a considerable article of confumption in the Ruffian empire. The Cafpian abounds with fea-dogs, which arc hunted and caught in great numbers % We fhall be able to afcertain with tolerable exaetnefs the prefent ftate of the commerce in the Cafpian fea, by considering the principal havens, and the imports and exports. The coafts of the Cafpian being in the poiTciTion of the Ruffians, Pcrfians, and Tartars, the ports may be divided into, I. Ruflian. II. Perfian. III. Tartar. I. The Ruflian ports and trading places upon the Cafpian are, I. Guricf; 2. Kiflar. 1. Gurief is fituated upon the mouth of the Yaik or Ural, at a little diftance from a bay of the Cafpian. It is a fmall, but ftrong fortrefs, which guards the frontiers of the Ruflian empire towards the territory of the Kirghees Tartars. The place contains fcarcely an hundred houfes j and, except the garrifon, has no inhabitants but a few merchants from Aftracan, who drive an inconfidcrable trade with the neighbouring Tartars t- 2. The fortrefs of Kiflar flands near the Eaftern coaft, and covers the frontiers towards the limits of Perfia. Veflels bound for this place formerly entered the Southern branch of :the Terek; but as the mouths of that river are now choaked up, the merchandize is landed in a fmall bay about the diftance of 34 miles from the fortrefs. Kiflar draws from Aftracan the European commodities neceflary for the Perfian traffic, and alfo a large quantity of corn and provifion for the Ruflian colonies upon the Terek, and for the inhabitants of the neighbouring chain of Mount Caucafus. Befide the goods * Journ. St. Pet. p. 253 ; S. R. G, VII. p. 525. Fnr a lift of the fiih in the Cafpian, fee Gmelin, vol. II. p. 246. f Pallas Reife I. 424, &c. which which are difpofed of at Kiflar, and fent from thence to the c Perfian ports, the inhabitants carry on a contraband trade to Shamakee, Derbent, and even Tiflis in Georgia, which is exceedingly precarious from the numerous banditti who pillage the caravans. II. Before I enumerate the principal Perfian havens, it would be ncceflary to acquaint the reader to whom belong the provinces of Shirvan, Ghilan, Mafanderan, and Aflrabad, in which countries the ports refoned to by the Ruffians arc fituated; if, in the prefent unfettled flate of Perfia, and the civil wars which continue to harafs that divided empire, it were poffiblc to afecrtain that point. In general, the above-mentioned provinces are governed by their own khans, who, though tributary to the fophy, render themfelves occafionally independent whenever a favourable opportunity offers: continually at variance, and frequently at war with each other, their governments are the feat of almoft perpetual hoftility, rapine, and dcvaflation. Meanwhile, the trade flourifhes or diminifhes in proportion as the exactions of the fovereigns are more or lefs frequent and exorbitant. The Perfian havens are as follow: i. Derbent is the worft port in the Cafpian, if it may be called a port, where veileds can fcldom approach the fhore, on account of fands and fhoals, but are generally obliged to lie at anchor at the diflance of at leafl three quarters of a mile : from this circumflance, joined to the inconsiderable degree of commerce carried on with the inhabitants, it is at prefent but little frequented. Derbent *, which Hands in the province of Shirvan, * «* This city of Derbent is an antient " creeled by king Alexander the Great, when " townc, having an olde caftle therein, fituated *' he warred againfl: the Peifians and Medians, M upon an hill called Callow, builded all of " and then hce made a wall of a woonderfull " frce-ftone, much after our building, the " height and thkknc'le, extending from the " walles very high and thickc, and was firfl 11 fame city to the Georgians, yea, unto the principal 33 v? K Shirvan, is a Perfian fortrefs, furrounded by high brick walls: w—v—j the inhabitants are chiefly Perflans, Tartars, .and a few Armenians. Two or three Ruilian fhips are annually bound for Derbent; they are ufually laden with oats and rye ; and they carry iron, Heel, and lead for the Lefgees and other Tartar nations, who inhabit the Eailern chain of the Caucafus. The .neighbourhood of Derbent produces fome corn \ but not fufli-cient for the confumption of the place. 2. Niefovaia Priflan, or Niezabad, mufl be mentioned, becaufe it was formerly the port mofl frequented by the Ruflians ; this place was chiefly vifited by the merchants of Shamakee, who then fupplied the province of Shirvan with European commodities: near the harbour are feveral wretched villages. 3. Baku is efleemed the mod commodious haven in this fea, as veflels may there ride fecurcly at anchor in feven fathom water; but the number of fhoals, iflands, and fand-banks, render the entrance in fome places extremely difficult and dangerous, particularly to the Ruflians, who are not very expert faiiors. Baku is a fortrefs furrounded with high brick walls; its inhabitants, like thofe of Derbent, are Periians, Tartars, and a few Armenian merchants. The principal articles of exportation which fupport the trade of this place are naphta, and the finefl rock fait, of both which there are mines on the cafl fide of the bay. The inhabitants cultivate faffron and the cotton tree, but not to any conflderable advantage. The trade of Baku, though •more valuable than that of Derbent, is fliil inconfiderable, and chiefly carried on with Shamakee, from whence it draws raw filk and filken fluffs. A Ruflian conful is refident at this place. In 1777, Baku* belonged to Melik-Mehmcd, who was f principal city thereof, 'namcdTewflifh; which " qucrcd by the faid Alexander, fhould aot «* wall, though, it be now rafed, or othcrwife '* lightly flee, nor his enemies ealily invade" t* decayed, yet the foundation remaineth, and Hackluyt, vol. I. p. 345. ** the wall was made to the intent that the in- * Gmelin, vol. III. p. 52, &c. Gulden-*' habitants of that country, then newly con- ftaedt. tributary tributary to Feth Ali, khan of Kuba: the latter poffeffed the whole province of Shirvan, and was the moft powerful prince, next to the khan of Ghilan, upon the coaft of the Cafpian. Before we quit the province of Shirvan, it may be not improper to mention its capital, the inland town of Shamakee, which is only 66 miles from Baku, and fupplies that port with raw filk and filken fluffs. It owed its former commercial importance to the filk which is cultivated in the neighbouring diftrict; this rich production ftill preferves the town from ruin; though its traffic is greatly reduced by the exorbitant exactions of the khan of Kuba. Formerly the Ruffians had a factory at this place; and it was alfo crowded with Turkifh and Greek merchants; but at prefent there are only a few Armenian and Indian traders. The inhabitants manufacture filk and cotton ftuffs, but far inferior to thofe made at this place in the beginning of the prefent century. The filk of this province is exported into the interior part of Perfia, Turkey, Georgia, and Ruffia. Shamakee ftill fupplies part of Georgia, and the inhabitants of the Eaftern chain of Mount Caucafus, with European commodities, principally by means of the traffic with Baku, and the contraband trade with the Armenians and Ruffians *. As Sallian is now no longer reforted to on account of the flioals and rocks, I haften to, 4. Ein-zcllee, which, though a wretched village, is the moft frequented for the Perfian commerce: formerly the veffels entered through the channel into a bay; but, as this bay is choaked up, they are obliged to lie at anchor in the road. Einzellee is fituated on the fouth-weftern coaft, a few miles north of Rcflid, capital of the province of Ghilan: it confifts of two parts, Old and New Einzellee ; the former is inhabited by the Perfians and Armenians, under the jurifdiction of the fophy; the latter, by the Ruffian merchants, and thofe Arme- * Gmelin, vol. iii. p. Co, &c, -Vol. II. I i nians K nians who are fubject to the emprefs: a garrifon of thirty Rullian foldiers is there Rationed under the command of the conful. It contains a Ruflian and Armenian church, and about 300 houfes, which are nioftly built with reed. The refufe only of the Perfian and European commodities is expofed to fale at Einzellee; the great mart being at Reflid, where the Ruflians have erected booths, and to which place a conflux of merchants from Tauris, the principal cities of Perfia, Armenia, and even Turkey, refort, in order to piirchafe the raw filk and manufactures of Ghilan. Hence the Ruflians difpofe of their European commodities to considerable advantage ; and obtain in return the productions of this rich province. The manufactures * and filk of Ghilan, which is efteemed the beft in Perfia, have been in fuch repute for thefe laft fifty years, that Refhd is become one of the firfl. commercial towns in this part of Afia. The fineft fort is ufually white, and is chiefly fent into the interior cities of Perfia, or fold to the Turks. The inferior kind is yellow, and is chiefly difpofed of to the Ruflians. There is fuch a constant demand for the filk of Ghilan that the price rifes every year. Refhd fupplies the bordering provinces of Perfia, and the independent neighbouring states as far as Georgia, with European merchandize, excepting the goods which are tranfported immediately from Aftracan, through Kiflar and Moftok, to the nearest parts of Georgia, and of the neighbouring mountains ; and thofe which are fent from Shamakee, to the Lefgees Tartars, and other independent tribes $. 5. Farabat, and, 6. Medfhetifar, are fituated upon the fouthern coaft, in the province of Mafanderan ; they are both fmall villages, of which the latter is the moft commercial, from its vicinity to Balfrufch, capital of the province, where the Ruflians and Armenians carry their merchandize ; the traffic, however* * See, in Gmelin, vol. III. p. 415, a lift of Gmelin, vol.. III. p. 412. Hanway, vol, IL the manufactures of Ghilan. p. 16. S. R. G. VII. p. 515. % For an account of the filk of Ghilan^ fee t Gmelin, vol. III. p. 414. is is much lefs confiderable than it was formerly, which circumflance is owing to the impofuions of the khan of Mafanderan. The chief productions of this country are filk, far inferior to that of Ghilan, and rice and cotton, of both which articles there is a large exportation. Merchants from Kafkan, Ifpahan, Schirafs, Khorafan, &c. refort to Balfrufch, and bring for falc the Perfian and Indian commodities *. 7. The bay of Aftra-bad, where the Ruffians land and proceed to the capital of that name: the productions of this province, and its exports and imports, are nearly fimilar to thofe of Mafanderan. The commerce of Aftrabad is chiefly with Candahar. III. The Tartar havens are, 1. The Bay of Balkan; and, 2.Man-gufhlak, both of which, but particularly the latter, afford a fecure harbour. 1. The Ruflians frequent the iflands in the bay of Balkan ; inhabited chiefly by pirates of the race of Turkoman Tartars: thefe iflands produce rice and cotton, and one of them, called Napthonia, abounds in naphta. This traffic might be increafed to the advantage of Ruflia, as it would be far more commodious to trade with the Tartars of Khiva and Bu-charia from thefe parts, than from Orenburgh, through the country of the warlike and independent Kirghees. 2. The commerce of Mangufhlak is by far the mofl confiderable: the neighbouring Tartars bring to this place the productions of their own country, and even of Bucharia, fuch as cotton, yarn, and fluffs, furs and fkins, and rhubarb f. The principal commodities exported from Aftracan to the ports of the Cafpian fea, are cloths, chiefly Englifh, Dutch, French, and Silefian ; vitriol, foap, allum, fugar, Ruffia leather, needles, coarfe linen manufactured in Ruffia, velvets, glafs ware, and looking-glalTes, writing paper, a few furs and fkins, a fmall quantity of tea, provisions, chiefly corn and butter, wine, brandy, wooden furniture, fea-horfe teeth, alfo iron, brafs, tin, lead, hardware, watches, &c. &c. In 1775, the value of the cloths exported amounted to £ 52,600 j the cochineal to £ 45,600 j and the indigo to £ 7,000. * Gmelin, vol. III. p. 459. f Guldenftaedt, p. 26^—2^7. I i 2 . Imports. book Imports. Raw and manufactured filks, but chiefly the former, from trie-provinces of Shirvan and Ghilan j which article, in 1775, amounted to £43,800. Bucharian lamb-fkins, rice, dried fruit, fpices and drugs, faffron, fait, fulphur, and naphta. The Indians and merchants of Khiva bring occafionally to Aftracan gold and filver in bars,. gold-duft, precious ftones and pearls *. The trade of the Cafpian fea had confiderably declined before the accelhon of the prefent emprefs ; but by the abolition of monopolies, and by various other ufeful regulations, it has lately increafed to fuch a degree, that within the fpace of fifteen years the average fum of the exports and imports has been nearly tripled, as will appear from comparing the following tables. Total exports and Imports.. . , (Exports £ 36,1007 - n 1760, -j T 1 * 0 } £ 78,200 ' 4Imports 42,100* *» ' 3 Balance againfl Ruflia 6,000. ***8 J Exports £87,7007 '*68* {imports 63,700! £151*400 Balance in favour of Ruflia 24,000 CExports / 125,4007 - 1775> Yt e f £189,520 ^Imports 64,120$ y>J Balance in favour of Ruffia 61,280 Traffic with Georgia and the natives of Caucafus £ 10,000 Total in 1775 — — £199,520 The contraband trade is not included in this calculation j\ Commerce * Such was the general (late of the Caf- has fent an cmbafTador to Peterfburgh, to plan trade when I was in Ruflia ; but it will ratify the treaty of commerce ; has cucreafed be rendered ftill more fecure and profitable the privileges of the Ruliian merchants, who to the Ruflians, if. it be true, as reported, have already begun to open a more extenln* that the cmprefs has concluded a treaty of commerce with the interior parts of Perfia, amity and commerce with the prefent fophy Armenia, and the adjacent di Uriels of Alia, of Perfia, Aly Murad khan, whom Ihc afliltcd See Ham. Pol. Journ. for 1782, P. I.; for againfl his competitors for the throne. Ac- 1783, p. 195. cording to this account, the troubles of Perfia f The reader who wiflies to trace the rife, have, in a great nieafure, fubfided; the fophy progrefs, and prefent Hate of the commerce upon COMMERCE WITH THE BUCHARIANS. Commerce with the Buchanans and Chinefe. Under the commerce with the Bucharians * I comprize that which the Ruffians carry on with the Calmucs, and other Tartar nations beyond the frontiers of Siberia, becaufe the latter is of fuch little importance as fcarcely to dc ferve a feparate article. The Bucharians, who inhabit the fouth-weftcrn part of Independent Tartary, are a very commercial people: their caravans travel through the whole continent of Afia j-, and traffic with Thibet and China, India, Perfia, and Ruflia. This empire contains feveral colonies of the Bucharians, who arc fettled in many large towns of the fouthern provinces; and who maintain a conftant communication with the merchants of their own country. Their principal marts are Tomfk, Kiacta, and Orenburg!) ; the latter of which is the moil confiderable, and chiefly trades with Kafkar, Tafhkent, and Khiva J. Their caravans, in their way to thefe towns, are expofed to pillage from the Kirgees Tartars, through whofe country they are obliged to pafs. Their imports are gold and* filver, chiefly in Perfian coins and Indian rupees, gold duff precious flones, particularly rubies, lapis-lazuli, fpun and raw cotton, cotton fluffs in great abundance, both Indian and Buchanan, half-filks, unprepared nitre, native fal-ammoniac, lamb-fkins, raw filk in fmall quantities, and rhubarb, large upon the Cafpian fea, mufl confult and compare Hackluyt's Collection of Voyages, vol. I. p. 324 to 431 ; Han way's Britifh Trade of the Cafpian Sea ; Cooke's Travels ; S. R. G. VII. 103—546; Gmelin's Reife, voLIIl. ; and Guldenflaedt's Treatife mentioned above. * Having before mentioned the commerce with the Bucharians upon the Eaftern coafls of the Cafpian, it is needlefs to enter upon any •further detail of it in this place, t S. R. G. VII. p. 7. X Rytfkof Orenb. Top. vol. I. p. 263. § This gold-dud is found in the fund of the rivers of Bucharia. The procuring of this commodity was the principal inducement to the firfl: expeditions of the Englifh merchants over the Cafpian into Bucharia, which are related in Hackluyt's Collection. Peter the Great fent feveral Ruflian merchants into the country for the fame purpofe. See S. R. G. IV. p. 183, Sec. Rytfkof, vol. I. p. 263. Ruflia Illuflrata, vol. II. p. 141. herds* 30 ok herds of fheep and horfes *. Exports: Cloth, Ruffian leather, heads and trinkets, hard-ware, indigo, cochineal, &c. The Chinefe trade is-by far the moll important part of its Afiatic commerce, and is now carried on at Kiacta, fituated upon the frontiers of the Chinefe and Ruflian empires. But having in a former publication f given a circumflantial account of this commerce, it will be fufficient to obferve in this place, that in 1777, the total fum of importation and exportation, as entered at the cuflom-houfe, amounted to £ 573,666, 15 j.; but if we include the contraband trade, which is very confiderable, and make an allowance for the deficiencies of the above-mentioned year, which was not fo favourable as the preceding ones, we may fairly eflimate the grofs amount of the average trade to China, in exports and imports, at near £ 800,000 fterling. * Pallas Reife, vol. I. p. 232, Sec. The f See an account of the tranfaftions and fheep and horfes arc brought for fale by the commerce between Ruffia and China, iu Ruf-Kirgees Tartars. Mr. Pallas fays, that above fian Difcoveries, from p. 197 to 248. 60,000 fheep, and 10,000 horfes, are yearly .fold at Orenburgh, p. 234. C II A P. CHAP. V. On the commerce of the Black Sea.—Havens.—Exports and imports.—Ports a?id territory ceded by the Turks to Ruffia.—Zaporoglan Coffacs.—Abolition of their government.—Productions of the Southern provinces, of RufTia.—Navigation of the Don and Dnieper.—Attempts of the Ruffians to profecute the commerce through the Dardanelles to the Mediterranean.—Frequent inter-ruptions and precarious fate of that trade, PETER the Great was the firfl fovereign of this empire chai* who attempted to open a commerce through the Sea of ^J^^ Azof and the Euxine, and to export, by that channel, the productions of Southern Ruffia. By his victories over the Turks, the pofTeffion of Azof, and the conftruction of Taganroc, he feemed on the eve of realizing this favourite project; but all his vafl fchemes were baffled by the unfuccefsful campaign of 1711, which terminated in the peace of Pruth, a peace pur-chafed by the ceffion of Azof and Taganroc, and by relin-quiihing the commerce of the Euxine. Since that period the Turks have jealouily excluded the Ruflians from all fhare ia the navigation of their feas, until the prefent emprefs finifhed a fuccefsful war againfl the Porte by the glorious peace of 1774.. By this peace Ruffia obtained a free navigation in all the Turkifh feas, a right of pairing through the Dardanelles, all the commercial immunities granted to the moll favoured nations in amity with the Porte, the pofleffion of Azof and Taganroc, the three fortrefles of Kinburn, Kertfh, and Yenikale, and a large diftrict between the Bog and the Dnieper. Many Many fpeculations have been entertained concerning the extent and value of the traffic which Ruflia is likely to eftablifli in the Black Sea, and the revolution which it may effect in the commerce of Europe, by transferring part of the Baltic trade to the ports of the Mediterranean. In confequencc of this change, it is aliened, the fouthern provinces of this empire will find a vent to export their fuperfluous productions; the Ruffian vcffels will open a profitable trade with Crim Tartary, with the Auflrian provinces at Kilia-Nova, with the Turks at Conflantinople, with the Greeks in the Levant; the iron of Siberia, the corn, hemp, and flax of the Ukraine, and the contiguous provinces, will be fent from the havens of the Black Sea, through the Dardanelles, to fupply the ports of the Mediterranean ; and thus France and Spain will be furnifhed with naval flores by a cheaper and more expeditious navigation than through the Baltic and the Northern Ocean. As the completion of this great and extenfive project can only be the work of time, and depends on a variety of contingencies, we cannot pretend to form any abfolute decifion upon the probability of its failure or fuccefs ; but a confiderable light may be thrown on this intricate fubject by an attention to the following objects of inquiry *• I. The traffic upon the Turkifh Seas before the peace, with an account of their havens and exports. II. The ports and territory ceded to Ruflia, and the new towns fince conflructed by the emprefs. III. The productions of the Southern Ruffian provinces, and the navigation of the rivers Don and Dnieper. IV. The progrefs hitherto made by the Ruflians to eftablifh an intercourfe between the Black Sea, through the Dardanelles, with the ports of the Mediterranean. * In this inquiry I have principally fol- Azowfchen Schwartzen and WeuTcn Mcere, lowed Guldenftaedt's E/Tay Von der Hafen am in Journ. St. Pet. for 1776. I. The I. The traffic upon the Turkifh Seas previous to the peace of C*?IAP* 17^4, and their havens and exports. This traffic was chiefly *—*—» carried on by the Greeks, Armenians, and Turks; and as the Ruffians pofTcffed no port, either upon the Sea of Azof or the Euxine, Tcherkafk, capital of the CofTacs of the Don, was the place where the productions of this empire and Turkey were reciprocally exchanged. The Greek and Armenian merchants failed to Taganroc, where they performed quarantine ; and then proceeded with their merchandize to Tcherkafk, having iiift paid the duty at Temernik, a fmall village upon the Don, now the fortrefs of St. Demitri. Tcherkafk was alfo the emporium of an inland commerce between the merchants of Kuban and Crim Tartary and the Ruffians. The imports were chiefly Greek wines, raifins, dried figs, almonds, oil, rice, faffron, painted linens and cottons. The exports, hides and leather, coarfe linen, hard ware, caviare, &c. * The Greek and Armenian merchants, in returning to Conflantinople, fup-plied the ports of the Sea of Azof and the Euxine with Ruffian and European commodities. In order to have a general idea of the traffic in the Turkifli Seas, we mufl take a curfory view of their havens, imports and exports. Among the harbours of the Black Sea reforted to by the Greek and Armenian merchants, the mofl frequented were thofe of Crim Tartary, namely, Yenikale, one of the fortrefFes lately ceded to Ruflia, Balaklava, Koflof, and Caffa, which merits a particular defcription. Caffa and the whole peninfula, which were before under the dominion of the Turks, were, by an article in the late peace, deciared independent; and fubject to a khan, elected by the natives, but confirmed both by the emprefs and grand-fignor: it is the capital of the Crimea; and the Tartars, who confider it as a place of great celebrity * Sec Tarif of the Imported and Exported Wares. Euf. Hift. Mag. XI. p. 373. Vol. II. K k and and importance, diflinguifh it by the name of Half Constantinople *. The harbour, which is very large, is capable of containing feveral hundred merchant fhips; and its inhabitants are the richeft, and drive the mofl extenfive trade in the Black Sea. The productions of Crim Tartary, exported from Caffa and the other havens of that pcninfula, confifl chiefly in corn, wine, wool, fine black and grey lamb-fkins, and fait. The imports are fine and coarfe linens, printed cottons, nankeen, Ruffian leather, fine cloths, velvets, taffeties, furs, ropes, paper, falted fifh, and caviare, tobacco leaves, copper and tin, hardware, gold and filver threads, beads and corals, earthen wares, and a coarfe fort of porcelain, glafs ware f$ &c. Sec. The port of Taman lies oppofite to Yenikale, at the extremity of the flraits of Caffa, upon a fmall ifland in the mouth of the river Kuban: it is fubject to the khan of Crim Tartary, and traffics with the Circaflians from Mount Caucafus, the CofTacs dwelling near the rivers which fall into the Kuban, and the Tartars inhabiting the defert between the Kuban and the Don: the exports are honey, wax, fait, wool, fkins of foxes, martens, fheep, &c.: the imports nearly fimilar to thofe at Caffa. The ports of the Eaflern and Southern coafls of the Black Sea are fituated in the Turkifh provinces of Mingrelia, Georgia, and Anatolia: the principal are Poti, where the merchants of Georgia refort; Trebizond; Cherfon, which is diflant only 60 miles from Tokat, at which town the caravans from Perfia af-femble and feparate, in order to proceed by different routes to Smyrna and Conflantinople; Sinope, the nearefl port upon * Nenncn folchc di Tartary nwrjarim Stam- particularly the remains of the antient citadel, bul. Klccman's Reife vonWien nach Conftan- of churches, of angels and faints grofsly carved tinopel. See a curious account of Caffa, in in flone, and feveral Latin inferiptions, p. 168, that work. The author obferved there feveral Sec. He defcribes Crim Tartary as a very ruins of the buildings which the Genoefe con- fruitful country, ftruclcd when Caffa was in their pccfTeffion, t Guldenftaedt', p. 12 — 14. the Black Sea to Angora, the only place hitherto known that fupplies the fine goats-hair, generally called camels-hair, from which the beff. camlets are manufactured, and which equal, if not furpafs, thofe of BrulTels: this hair, fpun into yarn, is chiefly purchafcd at Tocat by the merchants of the caravans in their way to Smyrna, from which port Europe is moflly fup-plicd with this commodity. The Greek and Armenian merchants draw from thefe parts honey, wax, fkins of foxes, of martens, and of fheep, raw and manufactured filk, both Perfian and Turkifh, cotton, callicocs, rice, faffron, dried fruit, &c. They fupply them in return with Ruflian and other European productions. Tios or Tilios, where the Turks have a dock for repairing fhips, and at which place fails, cordage, anchors, and other naval ftorcs, are advantageoufly difpofed of. The ports on the Weflern fhore of the Black Sea, befide Kin-burn, are Varna in Bulgaria, which is diftant about 100 miles from Adrianople j Kilia-Nova, at the mouth of the Danube in Wallachia; and Akkermen, upon the mouth of the Dniefler, in BefTarabia, and about 60 miles from Bender. Thefe ports furnifh wool, dried fruits, Hungarian and Moldavian wines, buffalo fkins, Sec. The traffic to Varna and Akkermen might be confidcrably increafed by forming a more regular communication with Adrianople and Bender j and that of Kilia-Nova might be rendered highly important, by vending the productions of Auflria and Hungary, if the navigation of the Danube was not obftructed by the jealoufy of the Turks. The imports of thofe havens confifl in European and Ruffian productions, for the moft part fimilar to thofe of Caffa. Conflantinoplc and Gallipoli are the principal havens in the fea of Marmora: the Ruffian imports are furs and fkins, leather, fail cloth, cordage, anchors, tar and pitch, fleel and iron, fait fifh, caviare, butter, fea-horfe teeth, wax, tea, mufk, caftor oil, colours, paper, coarfe cloth, linen, and corn: the K k z exports exports to Ruffia are raw and manufactured filk and cotton, muffins, rich Turkifh fluffs and carpets, wool and Angora-goats-hair, Grecian wines, oil, all kinds of European and Afiatic fruit, lemons and oranges, tohacco and muffs, fpices, faffron, opium, and other fpecies of drugs, pearls and precious flones, gold and filver *, &c. II. The ports and territory ceded to Ruffia, and the new towns fince conflrueted by the emprefs. The ceded places are, i. The diflrict upon the Sea of Azof; 2. Kertfch and Yenikale, in Crim Tartary; 3. The fortrefs of Kinburn ; 4. The territory between the Dnieper and the Bog. 1. The diflricl: bordering upon the Sea of Azof comprifes, befide a large tract of territory to the eafl and wTefl of Azof, the fortreffes Azof, Taganroc, and Petroffk. Azof is no longer of the fame importance as it was in the reign of Peter the Great; the branch of the Don, upon the mouth of which it flands, being now fo choaked with fand as fcarcely to admit the fmalleft veffels. The merchandize therefore is ufually depo-fited at Taganroc or Petroffk; and the frigates and merchant-fhips, which were formerly conflrueted at Azof, are now built either at St. Demitri or Roflof, and pafs down the Don into the Sea of Azof,1 through another branch of that river. As the harbour of Taganroc contains, upon an average, only feven feet of water, the veffels which land there mufl be conflrueted in fuch a manner as to draw no more than five or fix feet: the town has been rendered commodious by the con-flruction of feveral warehoufes and other buildings during the late war, and is efleemed for the falubrity of the air. The fortrefs of Petroffk, which flands at the mouth of the river Broda, and commands the Turkifh frontiers, was alfo built during the late war. It is extremely advantageouily fituated, as forming a direct communication with the havens of Crim * Guldcnftiicdt, p. 21—25. Tartary j Tartary; and might eafily be rendered more fecure than that C of Taganroc, from the fuperior depth of water. By the pof- 1—«—J feflkxn of thefe fortrelTcs, the navigation of the Sea of Azof is perfectly fecured. The frontiers of this ceded territory, to the weft of that Sea, are guarded by a chain of fmall forts, extending from Petroffk to the Dnieper. i. The fortreffes of Kertfch and Ycnikale, fituated upon the eaflern coafls of Crim Tartary, and near the northern entrance of the ftraits of Caffa, are of the greatefl importance, by commanding the paffage which forms the communication between the Sea of Azof and the Euxine, 3. Kinburn is the only port pofleffed by the Ruflians on the coafls of the Black Sea: ic flands clofe to the prefent frontiers, at the mouth of the Dnieper, oppofite to the Turkifh fortrefs Otchakof; the latter being a place of fuperior ftrength, mufl, while it continues in the hands of the Turks, obflruel:, in cafe of a rupture, the navigation of the Dnieper. Kinburn was intended for the principal depofitory of the merchandize fent from the provinces bordering upon the Dnieper; but as the harbour, on account of its quickfand, affords no fecurity for anchorage, the new town of Kherfon is at prefent rendered the great emporium of this trade. 4. The pofTeffion of the territory between the Bog and the Dnieper opens a fecure communication between the Black Sea and thofe rich and extenfive provinces through which the Dnieper takes its courfe. This important territory, fo efTential to the exiflence of the new commerce, was chiefly inhabited by hordes of roving Tartars, and by the Zaporogian Coffacs, who dwelled near the Dnieper, and by their piracies rendered its navigation extremely hazardous. The origin of thefe Coffacs is thus traced by the Ruffian hiflorians. In the beginning of the 15th century, a tribe of the CofTacs of the Ukraine, who inhabited the territory between the Bog and the Dnieper, were known book known under the denomination of Zaporogian *, from their fituation near the cataracts of the lad mentioned river, where flood their Setcha f, or principal fettlement. This fetcha was a kind of fortrefs furrounded with a wooden wall, and was at firft merely intended as a place of afTembly, where thefe Coffacs were convened, in order to deliberate upon the method of carrying on their cuflomary depredations, or for the purpofe of electing a chief. By degrees it was filled with habitations; and afterwards was appropriated to a feparate community of perfons, who devoted themfelves folcly to arms, and totally excluded all women from the precinct of their military refi-dence. The inhabitants were divided into a certain number of claffes, each of which elected its refpective leader, who were all under the jurifdiction of a fupreme chief chofen by the whole fociety. Thefe Zaporogian Coffacs became fo diftinguifhed for their bravery and knowledge of defultory war, that perfons, not only from the circumjacent parts, but alfo from more diflant regions, flocked to this fociety of warriors: the inhabitants of the fetcha were not obliged to continue in it for any fettled term, being only bound, while they remained, to conform themfelves to the regulations and difcipline of their affociates. Whenever any of them were difpofed to marry, they were under the neceflity of quitting the fetcha, but were permitted to fettle in the neighbouring diftridt, with the privilege of re-admiffion, provided they were not attended with their wives and families, whom they were neverthelefs allowed occafionally to vifit. The Zaporogians increafed their numbers by offering an afylum to deferters % and by forcing and enticing youths and children from the Ukraine and from Poland, whom they trained to a military life, and admitted into * Porogi fignifics cataracts. the neighbouring diflricl. S. R. G. IV. f Setcha means any place furrounded p. 414. with it wall, or fortification, feparated from % S. R. G. IV. p. 441, their community upon fimilar conditions, and with the fame privileges, which they themfelves pofTefTed. The place of their refidence was occafionally varied: when their number increafed, or when the hordes wandered at a confiderable tance from each other, different parties erected and occupied feveral diftinct fetchas. The firfl fetcha of this extraordinary fociety feems to have been fituated upon an ifland of the Dnieper below the cataracts t the laft which they inhabited, ai final abolition of their government, and which at that period was the only one they poiTcffed, was conflrueted upon the rivulet Bufulak, at the point where it falls into the Dnieper, in the government of Kiof * As the members of this community were collected from various nations, and from the nature of their conftitution perpetually changing, their number could never be exactly afcer-tained: Manflein relates, that in the war in which he fervcci againfl the Turks, they brought 8000 horfe into the field j and that, on an emergency, they could at that period have raifed 12,000 or 15,000. They frequently performed incredible feats of valour in the campaigns of the Ruffians againfl the Turks and Tartars ; nor were their fervices confined folcly to land: by their fkill in navigating the Dnieper, they occafionally defended the mouth of that river, and attacked with fuccefs the armed veffels which appeared upon the contiguous coafls of the Black Sea. But while they were thus formidable to their enemies, they were fcarcely lefs to be dreaded by their allies. Nominally dependent upon the hetman of the Ukraine, they were claffed among the fubjects of the Ruflian empire but the peculiarity of their manners, their feparation from all other fociety, their popular form of government, together * Mr. Muller has fo accurately and cir- nous reader to his account, from which I cumflantially defcribed the fetcha of the Za- have felecled rhis (hort extract. S. JR.. G. IV. porogian Colfacs, that I would refer the cu- p. 411—471. with book witn their warlike difpofition, rendered them a barbarous and *—v—» unruly banditti *: accuftomed to live by rapine and devaluation, they pillaged the Ruflian merchants who palTed through their country ; and interrupted the navigation of the Dnieper by continual piracies f. At the conclufion of the late Turkifh war, the emprefs abolifhed their form of government, de-flroyed their fetcha, and finally diffolvcd their formidable confederacy. By this falutary act of power, flie has fecured the merchants trading in thofe parts from the dread of perpetual depredations, and put an end to that fyflem of piracy which fo greatly obftrutted the commerce carried on upon the Dnieper. III. The Ruffian countries which are moft interefled in this commerce, are thofe that are contiguous to the Dnieper and the Don. This general defcription comprizes the provinces of Smolenfko, Mohilef, Ukraine, New Ruffia, Bielgorod, Voronetz, Ukraina-Slobodfkaia, and Azof: a large tract of territory which furnifhes in great abundance every fpecies of grain, hemp, flax, hides, mails, planks, honey, wax, tobacco, &c. In thefe ceded diftricts the emprefs has already raifed feveral new towns, the principal whereof are Kherfon, Catharinenflaf, and Marianopoli. Kherfon is fituated on the Dnieper, about ten miles below the mouth of the Ingulec, and is chiefly built with hewn flone. It is intended to be the principal mart for all the commodities of export and import; but if an extenfive trade fhould take place in this quarter, the great depofitory for the merchandize will be more conveniently fixed on fome fpot below the bar of the * *' Manflcin calls them a republic of " their changing fides." Manikin's Memoirs, "thieves and vagabonds, who fubfiil on p. 19. tc nothing but rapine both in peace and war. f The boats of thefe Zaporogian Coffics f < The court of Ruffia cannot hinder their were rowed by 50 or 60 men, had no fail, and f* continual excurfions ; nay, is even obliged generally carried two fundi cannon. S. R. G. u to keep meafures with them, for fear of IX. p. 5. Dnieper, Dnieper, and about twelve miles fcuth of Kherfon. It contains a dock for the conflru&ion of large veffels from which feveral men of war and frigates, as well as merchant mips, have been already launched. Catharinenflaf, or the Glory of Catharine, is built near the fpot where the fmall river Kiltzin falls into the Samara, and is appointed to be the capital of the government of Azof s it is colonized by many Greeks and Armenians from Crim Tartary, and by others of thofe nations who ferved in the late war againfl the Turks. Another town, called Marianopoli, has been alfo raifed upon the borders of the Sea of Azof, between the rivers Myus and Calmius. Thefe three towns, as well as the numerous villages which have fuddenly reared their heads in a country formerly inhabited only by lawlefs banditti, or travcrfed by roving hordes, are filled with Ruflians, with Tartars reclaimed from their wandering life, and with numerous colonifls, particularly Greeks and Armenians, who migrated from Crim Tartary, and the adjacent provinces of the Turkifh empire. The navigation of the Don and the Dnieper, which rivers form the communication between thofe provinces and the Turkifh Seas, remains to be confidered. The Don * takes its rife from the fmall lake of St. John, near Tula, in the government of Mofcow, and palling through pare of the province of Voronctz, a fmall portion of the Ukraina-Slobodfkaia, and the whole province of Azof, divides itfelf near Tcherkafk into three flreams, and falls in thefe feparate branches into the Sea of Azof. The river has fo many windings, is in many parts fo fliallow, and abounds with fuch numerous fhoals, as to be fcarcely navigable, excepting in the fpring. upon the melting of the mows ; and its mouth is alfo fo choaked up with fand, that only flat-bottomed vcfrels, excepting in the fame feafon, can pafs into the Sea of Azof. The Vol. II. * S. R. G. IX. p. ii, 12. L 1 banks B^I0K banks of the Don, and the rivulets which fall into it, are « g '■ ■ > clothed with large tracts of foreif, whofe timber is floated down the ftream to St. Demetri and Roflof, where the frigates for the Sea of Azof are chiefly conflrueted. The navigation of the Don may pofTibly hereafter be rendered highly valuable, by conveying to the Black Sea the iron of Siberia, the Chinefe goods, and the Perfian merchandize; which latter commodities, as well as the products of India, formerly found their way into Europe through this fame channel *. Since the acquifition of Ruffian Lithuania, the cefTion of the diflrict between the Don and the Dnieper, and the total dif-perfion of the Zaporogian CofTacs, the Dnieper, from its fource to its mouth, now flows through the Ruffian dominions j and through this whole courfe, of above 800 miles, its navigation is only once interrupted by a feries of cataracts f, which begin below the mouth of the Samara, and continue for a fpace of above 40 miles: they are not, however, fo dangerous as they have been reprefented; for they may be paffed in fpring, without much hazard, even by loaded barks. In other parts of the year the goods are landed at Kemenfk, oppofite the mouth of the Samara, and tranfported about 40 miles by land to Kitchkafe, about fix miles from the fortrefs of Alexandrovfk, where they are again embarked, and defcend the ftream without interruption to Kherfon If the trade fhould increafe to a great degree, the cataracts might, at a confiderable expence, be rendered navigable at all feafons of the year. IV. The progrefs hitherto made by the Ruffians to eftablifh an intercourfe between the ports of the Black Sea and thofe of the Mediterranean. * The iron of Siberia, and the merchandize "by a land-carriage of only 40 miles to the Don. of China, are fometimes fent by an inland navi- f Muller has defcribed thefe cataracts, jgation to the Volga: the Perfian commodities S. R. G- IV. p. 411, &c. are conveyed acrofs the Cafpian to the fame X See Muller. S. R. G. IX, p. 16; and -river; from thence they might be tranfported Guldenftaedt. The The cmprefs, in order to encourage her fubjects to engage in this branch of traffic, has leffened the duties of import and export *, and has contributed towards forming a Ruffian houfe, or company, trading to the Black Sea. Soon after the peace of 1774, four merchant-fhips, fitted out for this purpofe, failed from Peterfburgh, and not, as might have been expected, from the ports of the Black Sea: they were laden with iron, flax, hemp, hides, fail-cloth, and coarfe linen, at the fole expence of the cmprefs, who granted all the profits arifmg from the fale of their cargoes to the faid houfe. This plan, however, was not attended with the fuccefs it feemed to promife ; and its failure arofe from the jealoufy of the Turks. The fhips were, under fpecious pretences, prevented from pafling the Dardanelles ; the cargoes were fold in the Levant and the Mediterranean j and they returned to the Baltic without having effected the main object of the voyage. Before the Ruffians could make any further attempts to open this channel of commerce, diffenfions took place between the emprefs and the grand fignior, concerning the independency of the Crimea, and the free election of a khan, which threatened an immediate war, and fufpended all commercial exertions in regard to the Black Sea, until a new pacification was concluded between the two rival powers, on the 21ft of March 1779. Since that period, befide feveral Greek veffels, which failed from the Sea of Azof and the Euxine under Ruflian colours, and were allowed to pafs the Dardanelles, a Ruflian fhip, manned with feamen in the fervice of government, and laden with falted beef, taking its departure, in 1780, from Kherfon, for the port of Toulon, was allowed to pafs the Dardanelles. Soon afterwards five others, freighted with iron, made fuc-cefsful voyages to the Archipelago: alfo four fmall veffels, and a fifth of 400 tons jufl launched, laden with hemp and to- * See a lift of the. duties of export and import, in Buf. Hill. Mag, XI. p. 373. Liz bacco, E°°K bacco, were expected to fail from Kherfon for France, in the month of November 1781. Such, in 1781, was the infant flate of that commerce, which fome authors have defcribed as capable of producing an immediate revolution in the trade of Europe * : and in this, or in a ftill more fluctuating ftate, it will probably continue, as long as the Turks retain the dominion of their own feas. For that jealous people will either openly oppofe, or at leaft will clan-deftinely obrtruct, the progrefs of the Ruffians in thofe parts ; and will never readily give a free paffage through the Dardanelles to a powerful rival, though they confented to it in the * " Catharine II. va done ouvrir une an-" cienne route du commerce le plus wajie & le plus riche, qui fe fcit fait fur la terre. Scs *' ports, dans la mer d'Azow & fur la mcr " Noire, pcuvent devenir lc centre de tous les ** echanges du nord & du midi; & les pro-** vinces meridionales dc fon empire jouiront *' d'un debouche avantageux & facile, dont *' elles Ont manque jufqu'ici pour l'ecoulement " de leurs productions." Effai fur le Com. de Ruff. p. 109. " Concluons que, de quclque maniere que la " ilufhe exploite fon commerce de la mer u Noire, foit par elle-meme, foit par le fecours *' des etrangcrs, fon avantagc le plus folide & *' le plus reel doit confifler dans un ecoulemcnt " facile & rapide de fes productions meridio-** nales. Ces productions font les fuifs, les 44 cires, les chanvres, le lin, les cordages, les f* tabacs, le fer & le cuivrc. La plus grande «« partie ne fera plus le tour de TEurope, pour " parvenir en Efpagne, en Italic, & dans les ** ports de la Mcditerranee ; et le petit nombre ** des autres formera de nouveaux objets de de-" bit pour ces pays, qui n'ont pas eu jufqu'ici 44 l'ufage de s'en fournir, comme le fer Si lc " cuivre," p. 1 27. All thefe vafl projects are in a manner annihilated by the following reflection : " Au *' refle, les befoins & les facultes d'unc nation ** etant naturellement bornes, le gouverne-44 ment Ruffe devra metti-e des limites a fes " communications par la mer Noire, afui '* qu'elles ne prejudicient point a celles dc " la Baltique. Ces deux commerces doivent " fe balancer, fe combiner fans fe nuire, & ils ** doivent etre diriges de forte que la preemi-u nence refle toujours attachee au plus an-" cicn," p. 1 27, 128. Many perfons are of opinion, that the oI> ftacles to the rifmg commerce of the Black Sea are by no means injurious to the interefls of Ruflia. For her commodities and productions being articles of neceflity, not of luxury, no facility given to their exportation could add to their general confumption ; and the increafe of exportation from the Black Sea would have diminifhed that from St. Petcrfhui-gh, and the other ports of the Baltic, and nearly in the fame proportion. By the facility and cheap-nefs of land-carriage, and the improvements of the inland navigation, the productions of the remoteft provinces are readily fent to the ports of the Baltic, without railing their price too high. And as the goods which Ruflia produces are either peculiar to this empire, or fuch as other nations mull purchafc, they cannot pafs through too many hands before they arc exported : to diminifh, therefore, by facilitating their exportation, the price of fuch goods which fhe already fells cheaper than other nations, would be to incur a manifefl lofs, and to gratify the foreign trader at her own expence. humiliating humiliating peace of 1774. Perhaps thefe claims, urged on one fide, and evaded on the other, will engender perpetual dif-fcnfions, and will not be finally terminated but by a feriesof ob-ftinate and bloody wars. Mean while the trade cannot for a confiderable period be extenfive, which depends upon fuch cafual circumftances as the coalition and rupture of rival and neighbouring powers. The courfe of fubfequent events can alone difcover, whether the pacification, figned on the 9th of January 1784, will be more permanent than the former treaties; or whether the fame caufes will not continue to produce the fame effects. In a word, the Ruflian commerce in thofe parts can fcarcely be eflablifhed upon a firm bafis, until the emprefs acquires a fleet in the Black Sea fuperior to that of her rival. And perhaps the completion of this great national object may be effected by the late acquifition of Crim Tartary and the Kuban, rendered highly valuable by an additional extent of fea-coaft, and the important harbour of Caffa. CHAP. VI. Mines i94 8 Government iron works — — 32,529 16 Duty on 4,558,718 poods of call iron — 36,469 5 ! £679,182 13 The iron and copper are tranfported by means of the Kofva, Tchuflbvaja, Bielaya, and Kama, into the Volga: fome of the veffels defcend that river, in order to fupply with iron the provinces fituated along its banks *, but far the greatefl num* bers arc towed up the ftream to Nifhnei-Novogorod, and Tver, and through the canal of Viflinei-Volofhok to Peterfburgh. The veffels, which fet out immediately upon the breaking of the froft in fpring, commonly perform this navigation before the end of autumn; but they fometimes are obliged to winter by the way. * By an cdicT: of the emprefs, dated July i, half at that price : this new regulation muft 1780, the proprietors, inftead of felling three have fomewhat reduced the profits of the quarters of the copper to the crown at £i is. copper coinage. Sec Journ. St. Pet. for 1780, per pood, arc now only obliged to difpofe of p. 53. M m z CHAP. C H A P. VII. Defcription of the canal of Vi&nei-Volofnok, which Unites the Cafpian and the Baltic.—Canal of Ladoga.—Projecl, of uniting the Don and the Volga. rpHERE is no kingdom, perhaps, on the globe wherein the * inland navigation is carried through fuch an extent of country as in Ruffia; for it is poflible to convey goods by water 4472 miles from the frontiers of China to Peterfburgh, with an interruption only of about 60 miles "*; and from Aftracan to the fame capital through a tract of 1434 miles, without' once landing them. The water communication between Aftracan and Peterfburgh, or between the Cafpian and the Baltic, is formed by means of the celebrated canal of Vilnnei-Volofhok, which I examined upon the fpot, and a defcription of which I referved . for the prefent occafion. This great work, begun and completed under the reign of Peter the Great, has been fo considerably improved by order of the prefent emprefs, that veffels now reach Peterfburgh in-lefs than half the time which they formerly employed. By examining a map of Ruffia, we find that the Tvertza/ joins the Volga at Tver; that the Shlina forms the lake Maf-tino, which gives rife to the Malta: that the latter falls, after * Having in a former publication (Ruffian which rifes in the mountains feparating Sibc-.Difcoveries, p. 245.) given a fliort (ketch of ria from Europe : from the Tigil the mer-the inland navigation from Tobolfk to the chandize is tranfported acrofs a neck of land frontiers of China, I fhall not repeat it here ; of about 52 miles to the Tchuflbvuia : there -but lhall ftate, in a few words, that from To- the merchants rc-embark the goods, defcend bolfk to the Volga. At Tobolfk the barks the Tchulfovaia into the Kama, to its junction • aieend the Tobol, the Tura, and the Tigil, with the Volga a little above Cafan. a courfe CANAL OF VISHNEI-VOLOSHOK. 26*9 a: courfe of about 234 miles, into the lake Ilmen, from which CI^P* iifiies the river Volkof, and runs 130 miles to the lake Ladoga, »— which fupplies the Neva: fo that, in effect, the Shlina, the Mafia, the Volkof, and the Neva, may be confidercd as the fame river, flowing into and through different lakes, and only changing its name at various intervals. By uniting, therefore, the Shlina which communicates with the Baltic, with the Tvertza which flows by the Volga into the Cafpian, is formed the junction of thole two feas. This junction is made by the canal of Viflinci-Volofliok, where the Shlina is united to the Tvertza by the following canals and rivulets, for the relative fituation of which I .fhall refer to the figures in the annexed plan. Clofe to Vifhnei-Volofhok, the Shlina is formed by the con* fluence of the two rivulets Shlina and Zna; near the latter are the fources of the Tvertza. In order to join the Tvertza and the Zna, the following works were made under Peter the Great. 1. Near the village of Klutfhina a cut was dug to the fmall lake of the fame name j a fecond to the lake of Gorodolub; and a third from thence to the Zna. 2. At the fame village, jufl below the firfl cut, a lock of four gates was conflrueted acrofs the Shlina, in order to flop the courfe of that rivulet; and, by means of the faid cuts and lakes, to convey water to the Zna above Vimnei-Volofhok. 3. But to keep this fupply of water in referve, and to let as much in to the town as is judged neceffary, a great lock of feven gates was built acrofs the Zna below the third cut. 4. The Zna and the Tvertza were united by a canal, beginning from the fources of the latter;, and at the end of the canal a lock was made. 5. The natural courfe of the.Zna was fhut up by two locks in the town (at a and b)y one of which may alfo ferve for a paffage. 6. A canal was dug from the Zna to the Shlina, at the end of which is the lock of the Zna. . u\ The The feveral canals are fupplied with water, and the veffels are navigated from the Tvertza into the canal of the Zna, by the following operation of the locks. The locks of Klutfhina, thofe of a and b in the town, and that of the Zna being fhut, the lock of the Tvertza is opened, and the waters of the Zna and Shlina are conveyed through the canal of the Tvertza into that river, and the barks pafs into the Zna at Viflmei-'Volofhok. When a fufftcient number have been admitted, the lock of the Tvertza is fhut; and the waters being railed to a certain level (which feldom takes more than two or three days), by means of the lock of feven gates, that of the Zna is opened ; and the barks are gradually let down a fmall fall, to the number of about twenty in an hour. At night the lock is fhut. If on the following day there is fufficient depth, the barks continue defcending through the lock of the Zna; or, if not, they mufl remain for a day or two, until there is a fufficient body of water collected. Having by thefe means all paffed into the Shlina, they proceed, without interruption, through the lake Maflino to the beginning of the Mafia, where a lock has been lately conflrucfed, which holds the waters of this lake in referve. By this refervoir the navigation is fo greatly facilitated, that the lock of the Zna being fhut, and that of the Tvertza open, the latter river, which was formerly almoft dry during feveral weeks, is now generally navigable, even in the midfl of fummer, within two days after the pafTage of the barks: in fpring, the fupply of water, from the melting of the fnows, is fo confiderable, that the locks both of the Tvertza and of the Zna are open at the fame time. With refpccT to the navigation of the Mafia, feveral rivulets falling into it are confined by locks, which being opened fuc-ceflively as the barks are palling, fill the river, and render the Ihallows navigable; and, being again clofed, hold perpetual refervoirs rcfervoirs of water for the fame purpofe: this operation is per- chap. formed five or fix times in the fummer. By fome other works u~v—-» lately conflrueted, a confiderable addition of water has been obtained ; and it is expected, that the Tvertza will become always navigable, and that the lock of the Mafia will only be Unit for a fhort time. The boats employed on this occafion are towed by ten horfeSr up the Tvertza to Vifhnei-Volofhok, between ten and twelve miles a day ; from which place they are rowed as far as Novogorod. Each bark is provided with at leafl ten men j thofe which are laden with hemp require twenty-two. At Nofhino and BafTatino they change pilots, and take in ten additional men to pafs the upper and fmall cataracts. At Apezenfkoi Ra-dok, which flands at the head of the great cataracts, they procure another pilot and two affiflants; and, on account of the rapidity of the current, increafe their complement generally to fixty men. The fall of the river is 122' yards perpendicular in twenty miles; and the flream is fo violent, that the boats not unfrcquently fhoot along this fpace within the hour: but they are fometimes dafhed againfl the rocks, or overfet by accident : in the year 1778 above thirty were lofl. From the foot of the great cataracts, the pilot of Vifhnei-Voloihok fleers the bark 120miles further down feveral fhoals, which however have lately been considerably reduced, and almofl levelled. In fpring the veffels can be allowed to draw 24.'feet water ; in fummer only 26 inches. In autumn the navigation from Vifhnei-Volofhok to Petcrfburgh is performed in little more than a month; in fummer in three weeks j and in fpriog only a fortnight is required. In the year 1777, 3485 barks paffed through the canal. The veffels being fleered down the Mafia, acrofs the lake llmcn to Novogorod, defcend the Volkof, and enter the Ladoga canal, a plan of which is annexed to that of Vifhnci-Volofhok. This canal was begun in 1718, by order of Peter I. j and was finiflied K finifhcd during the reign of the emprefs Anne: it was carried -j at firfl only as far as the fmall village of Kabona, to a rivulet of the fame name, which falls into the lake to the eaft of Schluf-felburgh; but now reaches, without interruption, from the Volkof to the Neva. Its length is 67 miles and an half; and its breadth 70 feet. Its mean depth of water in fummer is feven, and in fpring ten feet. It is fupplied by the Volkof and eight rivulets; the latter, being received into refervoirs, are admit-ied into the canal by means of flood-gates; and the fupcr-iluous water is discharged through an equal number of openings on the oppofite fide. The barks enter through the fluices of the Volkof, and go out through thofe of SchlufTelburgh. In 1778, 4927 veffels paffed through the canal of Ladoga. A fcheme has been lately projected, to form a water commu-■nication between the Ladoga and Bielo Ozero to the Duna, in order to unite the White Sea and the Baltic, and to improve the inland commerce between Archangel and Peterfburgh. The only part of this plan yet finiflied is a fhort cut of about feven miles from the Volkof to the Sjas. The grand project of uniting the Cafpian and the Baltic with the Black Sea, by the junction of the Don and the Volga, was planned by Peter the Great. Thefe two rivers approach each other within the diftance of 40 miles in the province of Aftracan ; and the two rivulets, Ilofla and Camafhinfka, the former whereof falls into the Don, and the latter into the Volga, are only feparated by an interval of about five miles. Could thefe two rivulets be made navigable, and united by a canal, the Black Sea would be joined with the Cafpian and the Baltic. With this view Peter I. fent Perry *, an Englifh engineer, to the fpot: the canal was begun under his infpection, and a cut was actually made the length of a mile and an half; but ihe fcheme was dropped, from an idea that it was not practi- * See Perry's State of Ruffia. cable. cable. Being revived, however, by the prefent emprefs, pro- c^rAP* felfor Lovitz was entrufted with the execution of it. Having <—*~> taken a level of the ground between the Ilofla and the Ca-mafhinfka, he traced out the canal, and was preparing to begin the work, when, in 1774, he was wantonly murdered by the impoftor Pugatchef. According to the plan of Lovitz, the direct diflance between the two rivulets is only five miles; but the great difficulty would confifl in deepening their beds, and procuring a fupply of water fufficient to render them navigable. The Don, however, being only 40 miles from the Volga, and land-carriage in this country being extremely cheap and eafy, it is imagined that the advantages refulting from the projected canal would be fcarcely equivalent to the expence of forming it. CHAP. VIII. Divine fervice in the Sclavonian and Greek tongue performed by the archbifhop of Mofcow.—Blejfmg of the waters*—Public feafl given to the populace.—Its melancholy conclufion.—Defcription of the vapour-baths.—* Departure from Peterfburgh.—Journey through Ruflian Finkind.-r-Sledges.—Mode of travelling.—Wiburgh.—. Frederickfnam. THE reader, in the firfl part of the prefent chapter, will meet with accounts of various ceremonies and national cufloms, which will follow each other in an unconnected detail, but which were too curious to be omitted, Vol. II. N n During book During our flay at Peterfburgh, one Sunday morning, about nine o'clock, we, in company with Sir James Harris, had the honour of attending prince Potemkin to the archbifhop of Mofcow, in order to be prefent at a Sclavonian and Greek fervice. This learned prelate, whofe name is Plato, received us with great politenefs; and, at the clofe of a fhort converfa-tion, conducted us into the church. Upon his entrance the choiriflers began a fhort hymn*, which they finifhed as he approached the fhrine: having then faid a fhort prayer, he placed himfelf upon a raifed feat in the middle of the church f; and taking off his mandyas, or common garment, the attendant priefts kiffed his hand, while they delivered to him the different parts of the coftly pontifical veftments, which, in receiving, he raifed to his lips before he inverted himfelf with them: he alfo placed on his head a crown richly ornamented with pearls and precious floncs. We were informed, that this drefs is fimilar to the imperial robe that was formerly worn by the Greek emperors of Constantinople, and which they permitted the fupreme dignitaries of the church to put on at the time of divine fervice ; and the fame attire ftill continues to diflinguifli the hierarchy of the Greek church eftablifhed in Ruflia from the lower orders. The archbifhop being robed, repaired to the fhrine within the great folding-doors, and foon afterwards began the celebration of divine worfhip. Part of the fervice was performed in the Sclavonian tongue by the different priefts, and part by the archbifhop in the Greek language, which he pronounced according to the accent of the modern Greeks. In con- * " The Lord's name is praifed from the the common priefts put on their ecclefiaflical ** rifing up of the fun, to the going down of veftnients in the fhrine. 41 the fame." Pfalm cxiii. 3. % In order to kifs the crofs, which is cm- -j- The bifhops alone have the privilege of broidered upon each part of the drefs. zohing themfelves in the middle of the church; formity formity to the rules of the church, no organ, or any other Cyrffl>* mufical inftrument, was introduced; but the vocal har- i mony, which confided in hymns, was exceedingly pleafing. Lighted tapers and incenu* feemed no lefs effential parts of their vvorfhip than among the Roman Catholics. Towards the conclufion of the prayers, the archbifhop and clergy retired into the fhrine, to receive the communion. The folding-doors were immediately fhut, and none of the laity * at that time partook of this rite; but we, as flrangers, were allowed to view what paffed through a fide-door that had been left open for that purpofe. The communicants flood during the ceremony ; and the wine was, according to ufual cuflom, mixed with warm water ; the bread, which was cut into fmall pieces, was put into the wine, and the elements of both kinds were given at the fame time in a fpoon. The whole fervice lafled about an hour: the archbifhop, having pronounced the final benediction, again feated himfelf in the middle of the church, diverted himfelf of his pontifical garments, and clothed himfelf in his common robe. We then followed him to his houfe, where we found a breakfaif, confiding of an cel-pye, a flerlet, red and pickled herrings, and various forts of liqueurs and wines. After enjoying for fome time the intelligent and entertaining conversation of the archbifhop, who fpoke fluently the French tongue, we made our acknowledgments, and retired. Before our departure from the metropolis, we had an opportunity of being prefent at another religious rite of a more public nature, the BlefTing of the Waters; which was performed on the 6th of January, O. S. though not with its an- Jan. 17, tient pomp and magnificence. This ceremony ufed to be held N' upon the Neva, upon which occafion the fovereign attended in perfon upon the ice, and all the regiments of guards were * The laity generally receive the facrament once or twice in the year. N n 2 drawn book drawn out in great folemnity. Its pomp, though (till fplendid, y»J is now much diminifhed. I fliall here defcribe the principal circumftances which fell under my obfervation. Upon the frozen furface of a fmall canal, between the admiralty and the palace, was erected an octagon pavilion of wood, painted green, and ornamented with boughs of fir: it was open at the fides, and crowned by a dome, fupported by eight pillars. On the top was the figure of St. John with the crofs, and four paintings, reprefenting fome of the miracles of our Saviour: in the infide a carved image of the Holy Spirit, under the emblem of a dove, was fufpended, as is ufual in the fanctuaries of the Greek churches. The floor of this edifice was carpeted, excepting a fquare vacancy in the middle, in which an opening was cut in the ice, and a ladder let down into the water. The pavilion was inclofed by palifadoes, adorned with boughs of fir, and the intermediate fpace alfo covered with carpets. From one of the windows of the palace a fcaffolding was erected, ornamented with red cloth, which reached to the extremity of the canal. At the time appointed, the emprefs appeared at the window of the palace; and the archbifhop, who was to perform the' benediction, paffed at the head of a numerous proceflion along the fcaffolding into the octagon, round which were drawn up a few foldiers of each regiment quartered at Peterfburgh: after having pronounced a few prayers *, he defcended the ladder, plunged a crofs into the water, and then fprinkled the colours of each regiment. At the conclufion of this ceremony, the archbifhop retired, and the people rufhed in crowds into the octagon f> drank with eagernefs the water, fprinkled it upon * The reader will find the ceremonies and plunged into the water ; and that others dip-prayers ufed on this occafion in Dr. King's ped their children into it ; but as 1 was not Rites of the Greek Church, p. 386. myfelf witnefs to thefe circumilances, I can- f I was informed, that fome of the populace not vouch for their truth. their clothes, and carried fome of it away for the purpofe of purifying their houfes. On the 6th of December we were witnefs to a very fingular entertainment given to the public by a Ruffian, who had acquired a large fortune by fanning, during four years only, the right of vending fpirituous liquors. Upon furrendering his contract, he gave, as a proof of his gratitude to the lower clafs of people, by whom he had enriched himfelf, a feafl: in the garden of the fummer-palace, which was announced by handbills distributed throughout the city. As ftrangers, defirous of obferving the national manners, we did not fail to be prefent at this caroufal, which commenced at two o'clock in the afternoon. Upon our firfl arrival, we walked round the gardens, and examined the preparations. A large femicircular table was covered with all kinds of provifion, piled in different fhapes, and in the greatefl profufion: Large flices of bread and caviare, dried flurgeon, carp, and other fifh, were ranged to a great height, in the form of pent-houfes and pyramids, and garnifhed with craw-fifh, onions, and pickles. In different parts of the garden were rows of cafks full of fpirituous liquors, and flill larger veffels- of wine, beer, and quafs. Among the decorations I obferved the representation of an im-menfe whale in pafleboard, covered with cloth and gold and filver brocade, and filled in the infide with bread, dried fifh, and other provifions. All forts of games and diverfions were exhibited for the amufemept of the populace. At the extremity of the grounds was a large fquare of ice well fwept for the fcaters; near which were two machines like the fwinging vehicles at Bartholomew Fair. One of thefe machines confided of two crofs-beams fixed horizontally to a pole in the center by means of a pivot: from die ends of the beams hung four fledges, in which the people feated themfelves, and were turned round with B°°K with great velocity; the other had four wooden horfes fuf-'—pcnded from the beams, and the riders were whirled round in the like manner as their rivals in the fledges. Beyond thefe were twTo ice-hills, fimilar to thofe which I have defcribed on a former occafion *, and for the fame diveriion. Two poles, above twenty feet in height, were alfo erected, with colours flying; and at the top of each was placed a piece of money, as a prize for thofe who could fwarm up and fcize it. The poles, being rubbed with oil, foon froze in this fevere climate: many and tedious were the attempts of the various competitors in this flippery afcent to fame. The fcene was lively and gay ; for above 40,000 perfons of both fexes were aflembled on the occafion. Having thus far fatisfied our curiofity, we found our way, not without great difficulty, through the crowd to a pavilion in the garden, where the mafter of the feaft and feveral of the nobility were aflembled, and were regaled with a cold collation, and various forts of wine. It had been preconcerted, that, upon the firing of a rocket, the people were to drink a glafs of fpirituous liquor; and, upon the difcharge of a fecond, to begin the repaft. But the impatience of the populace anticipated the neceflity of the fecond fignal, and the whole multitude was foon and at once in motion. The whale was the chief object of contention< within the fpace of a few minutes he was entirely diverted of his gaudy trappings, which became the fpoils of his fuccefsful invaders. They had no fooner flead off his drapery, and fe-cured the fragments of rich brocade, than they rent him into a thoufand pieces, in order to feize the provifions with which his infide was ftored. The remaining people, who were too numerous to be all engaged in contending about the whale, were employed in uncovering the pent-houfes, and pulling down the pyramids; in conveying with one hand provender * See Vol. I. Book IV. Cliap. Ill, to to their mouths, and with the other to their pockets. Others CyTxfTp' crowded round the cafks and hogfheads, and with great wooden '—w—' ladles lapped inceffantly wine, beer, and fpirits. The confu-fion and riot, which foon fucceeded, is better conceived than defcribed ; and we thought it expedient to retire. The evening was clofed with a fuperb illumination of the gardens, and magnificent fire-works. But the confequences of this feafl were indeed dreadful. The cold had fuddenly increafed with fuch violence, that Fahrenheit's thermometer, which at mid-day flood only at 4, funk towards the clofe of the evening to 15 below freezing point; confequently many intoxicated perfons were frozen to death; not a few fell a facrifice to drunken quarrels; and others were robbed and murdered in the more retired parts of the city, as they were returning late to their homes. From a comparifon of the various reports, we had reafon to conclude, that at leafl 400 perfons loft their lives upon this melancholy occafion. The Ruffian baths have been defcribed by every traveller who has given to the public any relation of this country. In-ftead of tranferibing from the accounts of others, I mall relate what fell under my own immediate notice. In one of the Uullian villages we entered a bathing-houfe, and examined it with as much attention as the extreme heat would permit. It was a wooden building of one room, with fmall windows like thofe of the common cottages. Within an old woman was employed in preparing the bath ; and as the violent fmoke and heat rendered it fcarcely poflible for us to flay in the room for the fpace of a minute, we took our (lation at the door, and obferved the procefs. She firft made a fire under an arch of large granite flones about four feet in height, and when they were fufficiently heated, fhe fprinkled them at different intervals with water, which immediately flew off book 0ff m vapour. She then took from the fire, by means of two u-v—> flicks, feveral fmall red-hot pebbles, and put them into pails and troughs of water, which acquired thereby different degrees of warmth. In about half an hour three men entered the bath, and, taking off their clothes, remained within, while the old woman continued to throw water upon the arch of flones, which heated the room to a prodigious degree. They then lay down upon a fort of table, and, having lathered their bodies with foap, Ihe rubbed them lightly with a bundle of twigs in full foliage. On account of the exceflive heat, we were driven from the door; ard foon afterwards the men, having their bodies quite fuffufed with a deep crimfon from the effects of the vapour, rufhed out, and inftantly plunged themfelves into the river. Another bath which we entered near the convent of Yurief at Novogorod, being larger and more commodious, we were able to remain for fome time fpectators of the whole procefs. It was a large wooden building, containing, like that juft defcribed, only one room, and was provided with ranges of broad benches, placed like fteps one above the other, almofT: to the height of the cieling. Within were about twenty perfons undreffed; fome were lying upon the benches; fome were fitting, others Handing ; fome were walhing. their bodies with foap; others rubbing themfelves with fmall branches of oak-leaves tied together like a rod; fome were pouring hot water upon their heads, others cold water; a few, almoft exhausted by the heat, were Standing in the open air, or repeatedly plunging into the Volkof*. I Shall * Travellers are too apt not to diffinguifh ney through Siberia, has in many inftances between the cufloms of the common people been guilty of this abfurdity; and the reader and thofe of the nobles ; often imputing to the is led to conclude from his narrative, that the bitter what is true only of the former. The nobles bathe promifcuoufl)' in public like the Abbe de Chappe, in his account of his Jour- common people ; that they are equally addicted I (hall add on this fubject the following account communi- CVII£LIP' cated to me by an Englifh gentleman at Peterfburgh, who was *—1 ordered to bathe for his health. " The bathing-room was *' fmall and low, and contained a heap of large Hones piled " over a fire, and two broad benches, one near the ground, " and the other near the cicling. Small buckets of water be-" ing occafionally thrown upon the heated ftoncs, filled the " room with a hot and fuffocating vapour j which, from its 41 tendency to afcend, rendered the upper part much hotter " than the lower. Having taken off my clothes, I laid myfelf " down upon the higheft bench, while the bathing woman " was preparing tubs of hot and cold water, and continued to increafe the vapour in the manner above mentioned. Having " dipped a branch of twigs into the hot water, fhe repeatedly " fprinkled, and then rubbed with it my whole body. In about tc half an hour I removed to the lower bench, which I found tc much cooler ; when the bathing-woman lathered me from " head to foot with foap, fcrubbed me with flannel for the c< fpace of ten minutes, and throwing feveral buckets of warm u water over me, till the foap was entirely wafhed off, fhe " finally dried me with napkins. As I put on my clothes in a (t room without a fire, I had an opportunity of remarking, *' that the cold air had little effect on my body, though in fo 11 heated a flate ; for while I was drefling, I felt a glow of M warmth which continued during the whole night. This cir- difled to fpirituous liquors ; and that they are " from the fovereign to the meancft fubject, as rude and inelegant in their entertainments " bathes twice a week, and in the fame man- and behaviour ; the very reverfe of which is " ncr. Every individual, even of the fmallcll the fact. The author of the Antidote to his " fortune, has a private bath in his own houfe, Travels has not failed, with a glow of national " in which the father, mother, and children patriotifm, to cenfure fuch indifcriminate ac- " fometimes bathe all together." And again, counts. In no one instance has the Abbe been 11 The baths of the rich differ only from thofe more erroneous than in his defcription of the N of the poor people in being more clean." baths. After a ludicrous relation of them, he But fuch lhameful mifrcprefentations fcarcely adds, " Thefe baths arc in ufe all over Ruffia ; deferve to be mentioned, were it not to expofe *' every inhabitant of this valt tract of land, their falfity. Vol. II. O o ({ cumflance book « cumftance convinced me, that, when the natives rufh from Wv^-» " the vapour-baths into the river, or even roll in the mow, " their fenfations are in no refpecl: difagreeable, nor the effects " in any degree unwholefome." Though the hardinefs of the Ruffians has, with reafon, been generally attributed to the hidden extremes of heat and cold, which they experience on thefe occafions, yet other caufes are not wanting that may concur to this effecT. The peafants change their drefs without the leaft attention to the variation of the feafons; on the fame day they wear only their coarfe fhirts and drawers, or are clad in the warmeft clothing. They are totally unacquainted with the luxury of beds; flecping either upon the tops of their ftoves, or on the bare floor, fometimes in their clothes, and at other times almoft naked. Their cottages alfo are rendered exceedingly hot, from the number of perfons crowded into a fmall fpace, and from the itoves, which are almoft always heated, even in the midft of fummer; fo that when they go out, it is like iffuing from a warm bath into the open air. The children are not tenderly nurtured, but are equally inured from their earlieft infancy to the moft oppofite extremes. We feldom, indeed, paffed through a village, in which we did not obferve feveral running about the ftreets, and others, who were fcarcely able to crawl, Handing or lying near the doors of the cottages, with no other covering than their fhirts, even in rainy or frofty weather. Thus the natives are ufed to fudden changes of heat and cold, and accuftomed from their infancy to the hardicft kind of life. On the evening of the 3d of February 1779, we t0°k our departure from Peteriburgh, and, travelling all night, arrived on the following day at Wiburgh. I took the following precautions to guard againfl the cold. I had on a fuit of Bath-drugget lined with flannel; two pair of worfled flockings; flippers, over which I drew boots well fecured with flannel and fur: JOURNEY THROUGH FINLAND. 28$ fur: thefe boots I generally wore in the carriage, but pivlled off ctia r. v iii. when I entered a houfe. If the weather had proved uncom- <—v—* nionly fevere, I was provided with a kind of fheep-fkin cafe, with the wool on the infide, for each of my legs, which reached to my waift, and was large enough to inclofe my boots. I wrapped round my body a great coat of blue nankeen, lined with lamb-fkin, and occafionally added a large pelifle, or fur robe. I had a bcar's-fkin muff; and my head was enveloped in a black velvet cap, quilted with filk and cotton, which covered my cheeks, was tied under my chin, and might, if neceflary, be drawn over the face. Thus accoutred, I could venture to defy even the cold of Lapland, whither our courfe was directed. Our train confifted of eight fledges, including thofe appropriated to the baggage, as, on account of the narrownefs of the roads, each perfon had a feparate carriage. There are various kinds of fledges ufed for travelling in this country; fome are entirely clofe; others quite open j thofe which we employed were partly open, and partly covered. A fledge of this fort is fhaped like a cradle; its tilt, which rifes from the hinder extremity, and projects to about two feet, was open in front, but provided with curtains, which might be drawn and tied together whenever the weather was fevere *. The outfide was fe-cured with matting and oil-fkin ; and the infide with coarfe cloth. Within was a mattrafs, feather-bed, and coverlid, or quilt of coarfe cloth. In this travelling couch I fometimes lay extended at full length ; fometimes fat crofs legged like a Turk; and at other times raifed myfelf on a feat formed by tv/o cufhions. Each fledge was drawn by two horfes, which, on account of the narrownefs of the roads, were harnefled one before the other. The ufual rate of travelling is from fix to eight miles in the hour. The motion of the carriage over the * The reader will fee tl;c form of a fledge in the back-ground of the engraving of the Ruffian peafant, in vol. I. O 0 a beaten . B vi° K beaten mow was f° eafy, as to be almoft imperceptible; and I v^v—> never performed any journey in a more commodious manner. Though we continued our route during the night, and there was no moon, yet an Aurora Borealis, and the whitenefs of the fnow, fupplied an agreeable fpecies of twilight. The road, or rather path, through which our route lay, was fcarcely more than a yard in breadth, funk two or three feet beneath the level of the fnow, and hardened by the repeated preffure of the horfes and fledges. When two carriages met in this narrow track, the horfes, which turned out of the way, funk into the foft'untrodden fnow as high as their girths. Feb. 4. Upon our arrival at Wiburgh about noon, we were conducted, by the governor's recommendation, to the houfe of a merchant, who entertained us in the moft hofpitable manner. Ruflian Finland, which formerly belonged to the Swedes, was partly ceded to the Ruflians by the peace of Nyftadt in 1721, and partly at the treaty of Abo in 1743. This province retains moft of its antient privileges, with fome occafional modifications, which have been neceflarily introduced under the new government. The country produces, befide pafture, rye, oats, and barley, but not fufTicient for the inhabitants. Wiburgh retains its own civil and criminal courts of juftice: in penal cafes, not capital, the punilhments prefcribed by the provincial judicature are inflicted ; but whenever a criminal is condemned to death, the Ruflian laws interpofe, and, reprieving him from the fentence of beheading or hanging, as enjoined by the Swedifh code, confign him to the knoot and tranfportation to Siberia. In the governor's court, bufincfs is tranfacted in the Swedifh, German, and Ruflian tongues: the peafants talk only the Finnifh dialect; but the inhabitants of the towns understand alfo Swedifh, and many of them German. The Lutheran is the eftablifhed religion of the provinces but the Greek worship has been lately introduced by the Ruflians, The Lutheran clergy, JOURNEY THROUGH FINLAND. clergy, confidering the cheapnefs of provifions, and the fmall progrefs which luxury has made in this country, enjoy falaries not inadequate to their Stations, fome of their benefices amounting to £200 per annum, and the loweft to £120. Wiburgh, the capital of Ruffian Finland, is a fortified town, and contains about 9000 inhabitants; a few houfes are constructed with brick, but the greatefl part are of wood. The principal commerce of the province is carried on at this place. The merchant, in whofe houfe we were lodged, informed me, that the exports, the greatefl part of which are purchafcd by the Englifh, are planks, tallow, pitch, and tar; and the imports, which are moflly Supplied from France and Holland, wine, fpices, and fait; that in 1778, 99 fhips arrived there, of which 65 were Englifh. Feb. 5. Having received an invitation to dinner from the governor, we repaired to his houfe at one o'clock, and partook of an elegant repaft, at the conclufion of which we returned to our lodgings; and having paid our warmed thanks (for he would accept no other acknowledgements) to our hofpitable landlord, we quitted Wiburgh, and purfued our journey through the night. In our route we did not once experience the leaft delay for want of horfes, the governor having, with that polite attention which marked his character, fent previous orders, that relays mould be ready for us at every pofl. The country through which we palled was a fucccflion of hill and dale, abounding with forefls of fir and beech, interfperfed with numerous lakes, and thickly overfpread with mattered fragments of granite, which looked like the wrecks of mountains. There was no moon, nor even the fmalleft gleam of an Aurora Borcalis, yet the fnow call a Strong light; and our train of Hedges made a very picturefque appearance as they winded round the whitened hills, pierced into the thick forefls, or extended in a Straight line along the frozen fur face of the lakes. During our courfe, the boo k c]ie flin filence of the night was frequently relieved by the ca-*-~v~ rols of our drivers, who fang the moft Simple and pleafing airs. In this progrefs I beguiled the length of the journey, either by liSlening to their fongs echoed by the furrounding forefls, by admiring the unufual call of the nocturnal fcenery, or by numbering in my travelling couch as comfortably as in a bed. The weather was uncommonly warm for the feafon of the year, the mercury in the thermometer fcarcely defcending at midnight more than three degrees below freezing point. Feb. 6. We arrived about nine in the morning at Frederick-fham, and took up our lodging at an inn, where we met with very comfortable accommodations* Frederickfliam, when in the poiTelTion of the Swedes, was only a fmall village, but has been fortified by the Ruffians, for the purpofe of fecuring the diflrict in Finland, which was ceded to them at the peace of Abo. The town is fmall and regular: in the centre is a fquare, from which the Streets extend at right angles. The houfes, excepting one of brick, are all conflrueted with wood, but in the neatefl manner. The fortifications are very Strong: the garrifon and feveral companies of foldiers, quartered in the neighbouring villages, amount to about 6000 troops. The inhabitants carry on a fmall commerce with England and Holland; export planks and tallow ; and import fait and tobacco. The governor of Wiburgh having previoufly difpatched a letter of recommendation in our favour to the commander of the garrifon of Fredcrickfham, the latter, accompanied with the officers of his corps, honoured us with a vifit immediately upon our arrival, and invited us to dinner. Thefe marks of attention and hofpitality are always pleafing to travellers in a foreign country, but were greatly enhanced in fuch a feafon of drearinefs. Our hoSt, an old German officer, who had feen much Service, and poffeffed all that liberal franknefs generally rierally confpicuous in veterans, enlivened an excellent enter- C^ATP* tainment with the vivacity of his qonverfation. The floors of <— the apartments, inftead of being covered with carpets, were, according to a cuflom not unufual in thefe parts, flrewed with leaves and fmall twigs of pines and firs, which afford, when bruifed, a pleafant fmell, and give a cleanly appearance to the rooms. Feb. 7. From Frederickfham we continued our journey through a hilly country abounding with forefls and lakes, and in about 34. miles arrived at the frontiers of this empire. The peafants of Finland differ widely from the Ruflians in their look and drefs : they had for the mofl part fair complexions, and many of them red hair: they fhave their beards, wear their hair parted at the top, and hanging to a confiderable length over their moulders *. We could not avoid remarking, that they were in general more civilized than the Ruffians ; and that even in the fmalleft villages we were able to procure much better accommodations than we ufually met with in the largeft towns which we had hitherto vifited in this empire. The inhabitants of this province enjoy confiderable privileges, and profefs a different religion: how far thefe cir-cumftances may render them more enlightened than the Ruffians is a curious queftion, which cannot be anfwered by us who continued in the country during fo fhort a time. * The Ruffians have generally dark complexions and hair ; they alfo wear their beards, and 1 ut their hair ihort.. TRAVELS TRAVELS INTO S W E DEN. BOOK VII. C H a r. I. Entrance into Swedifh Finland.—Louifa.—Hclfingfors. —Abo.—Journey in Jledges over part of the frozen furface of the Gulf of Bothnia.—IJIe of Aland.—Paf-fage by fea to the coaft of Sweden.—Journey to Stockholm. book r-|-^HE limits of Ruflia and Sweden, as fettled by the peace uv*. ,j A of Abo, are formed by the river Kymcn, on the fouth fide whereof was a wooden houfe, a rampart of earth, and a fmall battery. Being admitted through a wooden barrier, guarded by a Ruflian foldier, we crofted a bridge to a fmall ifland, paffed another bridge over a ftream which was a branch of the Kymcn; and went through a fecond barrier, at which flood a Swedifh centincl. In quitting the Ruflian dominions, our baggage was flightly fe arched ; and in entering Swedifh • Finland, the fame ceremony was performed by the cuflom-houfe officers, of that diflricl:. Clofe to the frontiers we changed horfes at Lilla-Abbors, and in lefs than an hour arrived at Louifa. Soon Soon after our departure from Wiburgh, the weather changed from very near a thaw to a fevere froft, the mercury in the thermometer finking to 22 below freezing point. This hidden alteration in the flate of the atmofphcre was in no wife disagreeable: the warmth of our clothing enabled us to defy the moft intenfe froft; nor had I once occafion to ufe all the coverings with which I had the precaution to provide myfelf. The face was the only part which I found difficult to Secure againfl the attacks of the cold, and more particularly at night, when I was inclined to fleep. In that flate I generally covered my checks and forehead with the flaps of my velvet cap, leaving only my nofe and mouth free for refpiration; and over them I fometimes held my muff, or placed my handkerchief, which was attended with this inconvenience: as the breath inftantly congealed, the parts of the muff or handkerchief, in contact with my mouth, became in a Short time fo clotted with icicles, that I was obliged repeatedly to change their pofition, in order to prevent an accumulation of the frozen particles. Louifa is an open town upon a bay of the Gulf of Bothnia: and is guarded towards the fea by a fmall fortrefs. The houfes are all of wood, and of two flories; they are painted with a red colour, and look much neater than thofe of the common towns and villages in Ruflia. Soon after our arrival we waited upon the governor, to obtain an order for poll horfes, and to procure information with refpect to our intended route to Stockholm. In fummer, travellers, in pafling from Peterfburgh to the capital of Sweden, commonly go by land to Abo: there they take fliip, and, fleering through the numerous iflands which rife in that part of the Gulf of Bothnia to the eaflern fhore of Aland, they crofs that ifland to its weflern coaft, where they again embark, and proceed directly through a more open fea to Sweden. In winter, the paffage acrofs the Vol. IL P p Gulf B vn K *s not a^wa7s practicable ; for tlic channels between the ^—v—• numberlefs iflands are moftly frozen, fo as not to admit veffeb, yet fcldom fufficiently ftrong to fupport carriages; and, when that happens, the remaining part of the open gulf, from Aland to the coaft of Sweden, which is not fprinkled with iflands, is generally fo embarraffed with floating maffes of ice, as to render the navigation extremely dangerous. The ufual way-, therefore, in winter, and which we intended to have purfued, lies round the Gulf of Bothnia, through Tornco in Swedifh Lapland. We had anticipated the fatisfaetion we fhould receive from pafling a few days at Torneo, a place rendered remarkable for the measurement of a degree by the celebrated Maupcrtuis.; from making an excurfion into Lapland beyond the Acetic Circle; from obferving the manners and cufloms of the natives; and from riding in fledges drawn by rein-deer. But, alas! our curiofity was deflined not to be gratified. Upon consulting the governor of Louifa, he informed us, that the fea-fon was too far advanced to proceed into Lapland; for if a general thaw fhould take place, which feemed very likely to happen, we fhould not be able to continue our route in fledges ; and as we could not procure any carriages with wheels to convey us to Stockholm, we mould be obliged to proceed by fea, which in the fpring of the year is a very dangerous and uncertain navigation. He added alfo, that the paffage acrofs the Gulf of Bothnia was at this time fortunately practicable, as the channels between the fmall iflands were fufficiently frozen to bear fledges, and the other part of the Gulf was not obltructed with floating maffes of ice. And when the governor perceived that, notwithstanding the favourable opportunity of crofling the Gulf of Bothnia, and the dangers which would neceffarily attend our journey by land, we feemed eager to purfue our expedition to Lapland, he preffed his advice with the mofl forcible reafons; and would not defifl until he had even £ven extorted a promife that we would proceed directly to Abo. The gentleman to whom we were indebted for this friendly remonflrance, was a fenfible well-informed old man, of Scotch extraction, and had ferved during feveral years in France in the Royal Swedifh regiment. During a long convcrfation which we held with him, " You have probably," he faid, " conceived " a bad opinion of Finland, from the regions which you have H already traverfed, which are the mofl defolate parts of the Acti'/ /'trfi,////,•///■ J difcrediting her great endowments by a vain parade and affectation of Angularity; apoftatizing to a religion which flie affected to ridicule and defpife ; while upon the throne dcftrous of a private ftation, and after flie had attained it by a voluntary facriftce of her authority, inccffantly repining, and anxious to recover, upon the moft humiliating conditions, that crown which fhe had fo capricioufly reflgned. Charles Guftavus, in whofe favour flie abdicated, and who is buried in a fmall chapel of the church, was fon of Cafimir, prince palatine of the Rhine, and of Catharine, After of Guftavus Adolphus. His conduct towards Chriftina was a mafter-piece of policy: he propofed to efpoufe her, yet hoped that flie would not accept his propofals ; openly remonftrated againfl: her abdication, yet fecretly contrived to fortify her refolutions y and appeared leaft eager for the crown in the moment when he was moft ambitious to wear it. Bred in the military fchool of Germany, he inherited the warlike, rather than the civil virtues of his uncle Guftavus Adolphus; and was one of thofe great, but reftlefs fpirits, who efteem war as the fole occupation worthy of a monarch ; and who, while they are adding to their own laurels, difregard the miferies and diftreffes of their fubjects. Under his adminiftration, Sweden acquired an high degree of renown; and nothing lefs than the appearance of the Englifh and Dutch fleets in the Baltic could have flopped the progrefs of his arms; have interpofed to fave Denmark ; or again reduced the balance of the Northern powers to its proper equilibrium. Arrcfted in the midft of his career by a premature death, he expired at Gotheborg, on the 23d of February 1660, after a fhort reign of only Ax years. " 11 n'avoit," writes the hiflorian of Denmark, " que trente-u Ax ans, et fes dernieres anne'es avoient etc aufli occupces, ou u plutot aufli agitces, que les prccedentes avoient ete tran-" quilies et oiftves. Quand on conftdcre tout ce que ce prince " avoit * avoit fait pendant ce court periode de fa vie; fa pafTion, ch *' fes talents pour la guerre, fon activite, fon ambition fans »*—< ** bornes, le refpect et la terreur qu'il avoit infpires au de-<{ dans et au dehors de fes ctats, on ne peut s'empecher de " regarder fa mort prematuree, comme un de ces evencmens 4t auxquels etoit attache le fort d'une grande partie de l'Eu-" rope: Et pour ne parler que de la Sue'de, aquel degre de " gloire et de mifere ne l'eut-il pas fans doute portee, s'il eut M fourni la carriere que la nature accorde a la plupart des " hommes, mais que le ciel dans fa pitie refufe d'ordinaire " aux conquerans. Quelques revers, et la vue d'une fin pro-" chaine, avoient done eclaire Charles Guff ave fur la vanite' de •* tous fes ambitieux deffeins: en recommandant a fes fuccef-*'feurs de faire promptement la paix, il donnoit une grande " lecon a fes pareils ; et e'eft la fans doure le trait de fon « hiftoire le plus precieux aux yeux de la raifon et de l'huma-" nite Vs His fon and fucceflbr Charles XL whofe fepulchre is contiguous to that of his father, has been reprobated by many foreign hillorians as an odious tyrant; but his character, if in-fpected without prejudice, fo far from deferving that imputation, will in many infiances merit our refpect and efteem. An unfavourable idea of his defpotic principles has been formed * Mullet Hiftoire de Danncmarc, vol. III. p. 432. " At his death he was only fix and *« thirty years of age, and the lalt years ofhis " life were as agitated as the preceding part " had been tranquil. When we contemplate all u the anions which this prince performed *' during the fhort period ofhis exillence ; his *' talents for war, his activity, his boundlefs u ;iTrrbition, the refpect and terror which he «' impreffed equally upon- his fubjects and his *' enemies, we mufl; confider his death as an " event that could not but affect the interefl of " the greatefl part of Europe : and with re-** fpeel to Sweden, to what a degree of glory and " wretchednefs' would he not have carried her, " if he had attained that period of life which.. " nature generally grants to the greateft pari ** of mankind, but which heaven, in its-compaf-" fion, mofl: commonly refufes to conquerors-. " A reverie of fortune, and the approach of " death, had fully expofed to him the vanity " ofhis ambitious deligns. In recommending. " an immediate peace to his fucedfor, he af-" forded a moil linking leflbn to other fove-" reigns ; and this perhaps is the moft exem-" plary particular of his hiftory in the confi-" deration of reafon and humanity." from from hisrefumption of many crown lands, which reduced feveral families to poverty ; and from his mode of liquidating the public debts, by railing the nominal worth of the coin without increafing its real value. Although it cannot be denied that fome of thefe meafures were oppreOIve and violent; yet when we confider the exhaufled flate of the finances derived from the boundlefs profulion of Chriftina'-"; the ruinous wars of Charles Guftavus, and the diforders of a long minority; we cannot but aflent to the opinion of the mofl unprejudiced Swedes, that, though the reform introduced by Charles was in fome inflances prejudicial to individuals, yet upon the whole it was falutary to the country; and that nothing lefs than the moll violent meafures could have extricated his fubjects from the deplorable andcxhaufted flate to which they were reduced. In one point of view Charles merited and gained the love and efleem of his people : notwithftanding his natural ardour for military glory, he invariably perfifled in pacific meafures f ; and while he preferved his own country from the horrors of war, mediated the peace of Europe. To Charles XL may be afcribed, what Boileau falfely attributed to Louis XIV. that he was his own minifler X ; and what could not have been faid of the French monarch without flattery, would not have been adu- * The principal nobles, during the minority of Charles XL took advantage of a weak government to appropriate the few crown lands which Chriftina had not alienated. f " His peaceable conduct may perhaps " more juftly be afcribed to the ftate of his af-** fairs, than his own nature, which more " powerfully inclines him to the fatigue of a ** camp, than the eafe of a court; and fuits " better with a martial familiarity, than the *' fhews of grandeur, and the folemnities of " ftate." E'dhop Robinfon's Account of Sweden. "His majefty's," fays Robinfcn, "moft diligent infpe&ion into all the affairs of his *' kingdom, befidcs that it makes all his mini-" ftcrs more circumfpect, hath gained him a " great ftcck of experience. The fmalleft mat-" tcrs are not below his notice ; and nothing << of any moment is concluded before he hath *' been confulted : this is the employment of " all his time, fcarce any hour of the day paif-" ing from five in the morning, when he con-" ftantly rifes, in which bufinefs of one nature *' or other is not before him." % Et qui feul, fans miniflrc, a l'example des dicux, Soutiens tout par Toi-meme, & vois tout par tes yeux. Boileau, Difcours au Roi. lation, Iation, if the poet had applied it to the Swedifh king. Charles was chafle, temperate, ceconomical, vigilant, and active ; a pa:ron of letters ; fevere, yet not implacable ; prone to anger, but eafdy foftcned. If we confider the interior adminiflration of affairs, Charles XI. was one of the wifefl monarchs who ever fat upon the throne of this kingdom. To him Sweden flands indebted for many excellent regulations which £1311 fubfift. In a word, he was what Philip of Macedon was to Alexander, the precurfor of his fon's greatnefs, and the founder of his victories: for without the army which he had difciplined and improved, and the treafure which he had collected, Charles XII. could never have withflocd the combined forces of all the Northern powers; nor could he have pufhed his conqncfls with that celerity which aftonifhcd and confounded all Europe. Charles XI. was born on the 25th of November 1655, and died on the 24th of April 1697, aged 42 ; lamenting, it is faid, upon his death-bed, as the only reproach to his memory, the natural violence of his temper*, which he had not fufficiently corrected. The tomb of Charles XII. is a raifed fepulchre of dark marble; it has no other infeription than his name: over it are laid in cafl bronze a club and lion's fkin, which mark more forcibly than any words --" his unconquerable will * Johannis Sainovits, &c Pemonftratio f DifTcrtatio Acadcmica dc ronvenicntia idioma Ungarorura ct Lapponum idem efle. Lingua Uungaricac cum Lapponicii. ately STOCK II O L M. atcly underflood by the natives: for though the inhabitants c of thefe two countries fhould be unqueflionably allowed to be v branches from the fame * flock; yet, as the reparation from that original took place at a time when they had no alphabet, it mufl follow, from the gradual change which all languages neceffarily undergo in the lapfe of time, and by the adoption of words from the neighbouring nations, that each people could never have retained feparately all the primitive characterises of their original tongue j it is fufficient, if, in the general mode of pronunciation, in the fimilarity of many words, and in the grammatical ftruclure of the phrafes, both nations retain a flrong degree of refemblance; and thus much appears to be the cafe in the Hungarian and Lapland idioms. In the firfl place, the pronunciation of the Lapland tongue is fo extremely peculiar and difficult, that a Swede or Dane, un-lefs educated from their infancy in the country, can never attain it; whereas Sainovits was able to catch the genuine accent without the leafl difficulty, although, before his arrival in the country, he had not the leafl acquaintance with their language ; the articulation in many refpects being fo perfectly familiar to him, that, to ufe his own expreflion, 11 while " he heard them converting, he thought he was in his own ** country |." The next proof of their affinity refls upon the fimilarity of particular words plainly proceeding from the fame flock. Of thefe Sainovits has given a vocabulary, comprizing 150 common to both, and whofe refemblance cannot be doubted. As thefe expreffions fell under his obfervation during a fhort refidence in the country, it is probable that, if * No perfon in the leaft converfant in the f 14 Interea, cpiamvis Lapponibus voces fludy of languages prefumes to doubt that the " enunciandi modus fingularis prorfus fit, mihi Englifh, German, Dutch, Swedifh, and E>a- " tamen ita familiaris accidit, ut, dum ipfos Biih itre all derived from the antient Gothic " fermocinantes audirem, in Patria, inter Un- or Teutonic, and yet thefe different nations do " garos me vcrfari crederem," p. 14. not underftand each other. Vol. II. T t he B2i juft killed. Siquier himfelf flew without delay to the prince of HelTe, €t who was quartered at Torpum, about the diftance » of three quarters * of a mile. The prince was at fupper," writes a page who was prefent -|-, " with fome generals and ft officers. Siquier, without being announced, approached and " whifpered the prince; the latter did the fame to the perfon ci who fat next to him ; and the whifper being circulated 44 round the company in the fame manner, the prince retired 41 from table, and gave immediate orders for pofl-horfes." "1 followed," adds the fame perfon, *' the officers to the place 14 where the king was killed. The prince ordered the gene-** rals and officers who were prefent to place the body in a 44 litter prepared to convey it to the head quarters. One and " twenty foldiers flanding around with wax tapers in their 44 hands, wc obferved that the king, in the agonies of death, c( had drawn his fword half out of the fcabbard, and that the 44 hilt was fo tightly grafped by the right-hand, as not to be *' difengaged without difficulty. The body was no fooner *' removed than the prince held a council with the officers, 14 when it was determined to raife the fiege, and to difpatch cc ficld-marfhal Ducker to Sandfborg, in order to prevent any *c one from palling to the enemy, and fpreading the report «' of the king's death: but this precaution was too late, as 41 that very night a Swedifh lieutenant, accompanied by a u drummer, went over the Glomma to the enemy, and ac-41 quainted them with the king's death." From thefe circumflances we have no reafon to fuppofe that the king was affailinated, but rather that he received his wound * Probably of a Swedifh mile, which is equal who was that day in waiting. See Von to about G{Englifh miks. Karls XII. Tode & in Schloetzer's Brief- f This account is taken from the narrative weehfel, vol. I. p. 230. of Philgren, a page to the prince of Hcil'e, from from one of the Danifli batteries. Let us then examine the c reafons which have induced many perfons to affcrt that he was killed by treachery ; and that Frederic prince of Heffe, who had cfpoufed his youngeft filler Ulrica Eleonora and was foon afterwards raifed to the throne, was not wholly unfuf-pected of being concerned in his death. The duke of Holflein, fon of Hedwige eldefl filler of Charles XII. was the undoubted heir to the crown, and would, according to the opinion of his minifler Baffevitz, have fucceeded, if he had immediately fhown himfelf to the troops. Cl The duke was in the camp. Charles had brought him " to the army in that fevere campaign in order to form him " to war. Upon the firfl news of the king's death, the young " prince retired to his tent overwhelmed with affliction. The " generals who were attached to him, in vain demanded ad-" mittance. Duker conjured his favourite Rocpflorf, that he * would perfuade him to appear before the troops, and offered " to proclaim him upon the fpot. Rocpflorf gained admit-c* tance to his mafter, but foon returned with an anfwer, that 44 he was too much affected to hold convcrfation with any 14 one. 4 If he will not act,' fays Duker, 1 affairs muft go as 4 they can.' 4C This delay was the fafety of the Swedifh liberty. (t For how would the nation have dared to propofe the fup-<{ prelTion of abfolute authority, in oppofition to a king who 4t had been proclaimed by the army, and was already in pof-" fefhon of all the prerogatives enjoyed by his prcdccelTor *?" Another f account informs us, M that feveral of the Swedifh 4t generals tendered tlie crown to the duke, upon the condition * of renouncing abfolute power; but that he -refufed to be " bound by any i^ftriclsiona.'' * Menioires de BafTevitz in Bufching,, H. M. IX. p. 321. f Schloctzcr's Bricfewcchfcl, vol. I. p. 151.. The \ B 0 O K VII. The conduct of the prince of IIciTc was far more politic. Having difpofed of the king's body, he iffued immediate orders to arrcll baron Gortz *, as if already in poffeflion of fovereign authority j and difpatched Siquier to his confort Ulrica Eleonora at Stockholm. That princefs was no fooncr informed of her brother's death, than flie fummoned the fenate, with whom flic had for fome time entertained a fecret correfpond-ence; and agreeing to renounce all right to the crown by hereditary fuccefhon, and to fubferibe to the limitation of regal power, fhe was foon afterwards elected queen; but resigned, in 1721, the crown to her hufband. The account of the king's death, publifhed by order of the court foon after the event, enters into no details, but attributes it to a ball fhot from a falconet f. Motraye affirms J, * The arrefl of Baron Gortz was attended with many curious circumftances, which are related by Philgrcn, who accompanied the officers that arretted him ; but the account is too long to be inferted in this work. See Gortzen's Gcfangencmmung in Schloetzer, vol. I. p. 23 r to 243. The real caufe of the Baron's 'imprifonroent and execution was his attachment to the duke of Holflein, which neither Frederic nor Ul-jrica Eleonora could forgive; to their revenge, and to the cabals of a party, he fell a facrifice. Pofterity, however, has done juftice to the integrity of this great, but turbulent ftatefman ; and particularly the prefent king of Sweden lias paid a tribute of praife to his memory, in the following letter to his daughter Madame D'Eyben. See Schloetzer Theil. XL p. 109. M Madame la Baronne D'Eyben. La me-" moire de l'illuftre et malhcureux Baron dc *\ Gortz eft trop refpectee de moi, pour que " je n'ayc etc tres fenfiblement touche d'ap-" prendre, qu'il exiftoit encore un de ces en-fans, que la tirannie et 1'injuftice atrocc dc la princefs Ulrique Eleonore, et de ccux qui prefidercnt a la diete de 1710, rendircut or-■»'« pheliiis. -Son fang innocent a trop long- " temps crie vengeance. La Suede a pendant " 50 ans de malheurs, de devaftatiens ct de " troubles paie chcrement lc tribut, que la co-'* lere divine a exige pour le crime, cominis " contre un grand hommc innocent, pour que "je fouhaite ardemment, en qualite de pre-" tnier citoyen de ma patrie, reparcr au nom " dc cette mcme patrie, Pinjuftice que nos " aucetrcs ont commis. A ce titre, que jc " regarde comme le plus beau dc tous ccux, "■ que la .Providence a bicn voulu alfembler fur " ma tete, s'ajoute encore eclui de mamaifon, ™ pour laquclle il a ete un facrifice. Vous de-" ves done bien juger, Madame, combien jc " fills pone de VOUS faire rendrc la juftice, " que vous reclames en qualite d'heritiere ct ** de fille dc feu Baron dc Gortz, &c. &c. ce " 28 d. Ottobre, 1773-" i A ball of a falconet ufually weighs one pound and J at leaft. % Large de quatrc doigts. Motraye.—Vn trou dans lcqucl ou pouvoit enfoncer trois doigts. Voltaire.—Une balle 1'avoit attcint a la temple droite avec tant de violence, qu'elle etoit rcflbrtic au deffus dc la temple gauche. Nordbcrg. that that this relation was probably true, becaufe the wound was c"fp-large enough to admit four fingers; and Voltaire, who re- 1—^> ceived his information from Siquier, aliens, that it was made by a ball of half a pound weight, and large enough to contain three fingers; and they both agree, that from the violence of the fhot the left eye was forced in, and the right dif-lodgcd from its focket. In contradiction, however, to thefe authorities, two perfons who had feen the body, pofitively affirm, that the wound was too fmall to have been occafioned by a fhot from a falconet or half falconet. Count Liewen, in a convcrfation with Mr. Wraxall, thus exprefTed himfelf upon the fubject: (C There are now very few men alive who can fpeak with fo much cer-«« tainty as myfelf. I was in the camp before Frederickfhall, and had the (C honour to ferve the king in quality of page on that night when he was " killed. I have no doubt that he was affaftinated. The night was ex-M tremely dark, and it was almoft an impofilbility that a ball from the fort " could enter his head at the diftance, and on the fpot where he flood. I ** faw the king's body, and am certain the wound in his temple was made by " a pifhol bullet. Who gave it, is unknown : Siker was fufpecfed, becaufe ^ K we imagine the evidence of Liewen and Carlfbcrg are to be ab-*—v—' folutcly relied upon, and particularly the afTertion of the former, that the report of the piece which deftroyed the king was that of a pillol; if wc can fuppofc the confeffion of Cronftcdc and Shernrofe to be genuine; the rcmorfe of Frederic to be finccre and well attcfted ; if wc think the opinion of the queen-dowager fufficient to convince our judgment; wc muft ncceflarily conclude that Charles XII. was affaflinated. On the contrary, if we believe that the wound was fo large, that it muft have been occafioncd by a hall from a falconet, or half falconet j or if not, that the king was liable to be reached by a niufket-ball; if we fee no glaring contradictions between the account publifhed by the court, and the relations made by thofe who were in the trenches at the time when he fell; or if we think that the latter perfons may have been miftaken in fome material circumftances ; if we can reconcile the conduct: of Frederic as being merely dictated by policy, and fuch as would have been adopted by any perfon in the fame fttuation, though he were not acccfTory to the murder: if to thefe con-fiderations we add the natural propensity of mankind to attribute the death of extraordinary perfonages to extraordinary caufes ; that thofe who have once framed an hypothefis will imperceptibly warp all events in its fupport; and that until pofitive proofs, not merely drawn from flying reports and uncertain anecdotes, are eftablifhed, we ought undoubtedly to lean to the fide of candour and humanity, wc ought not to credit furmifes fo injurious to characters otherwife without reproach j and we are bound to conclude that Charles XII. fell by the hand of the enemy, and not by treachery. And this opinion was Iikewife fupported by the high authority of count J?oniatowfki *, the confidential friend of Charles XII. * As I had the honour of being informed by the prefent king of Poland. CHAP. E 335 3 CHAP. IV. Changes in the form of the Swedifh government.—Inquiry into the nature of the conftitution efablifhed at the Revolution of 1772.—The king a limited, and not an abfolute monarch.—Diet compofed of the king and fates.— i", Houfe of nobles.—//. Of the clergy.—Of citizens.—IV. Of peafants.—Mode of enaEling laws,. * HE form of the Swedifh government has frequently va- chap: JL ried. Before the acceilion of the houfe of Vafa in the . IV' . perfon of Guflavus I. it was a monarchy wholly elective, and laboured under all the evils which are infcparable from that mod defective fpecies of fovereignty. By the Union of Calmar, which took place in 1397, it was flipulatcd, that the fame monarch was to rule over Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and to be chofen by the deputies from the ftates of thofe three kingdoms aflembled at Calmar. Throughout the whole period in which thefe regulations fubfifled, Sweden was a mere tributary kingdom to rhe fovcreigns of Denmark; or, in its temporary exertions to fhakc off that yoke, drew on itfclf all the horrors of foreign invallon and inteiline difcord. From this flate of alternate opprcflion and anarchy it was refcued by Guftavus Vafa, on whom the gratitude of the Swedes conferred the dominion of that country which he had delivered: they even renounced in his favour the right of electing their kings, and declared the crown hereditary in his male ilfue. The form of government eilablifhed at his ac-. ceflion, though in appearance of a mixed nature, and though it lodged the fupremacy in the affembly of the flates, yet en-truflcd very extenfive prerogatives to the king, Thefe powers, tranfmitted 336 TRAVELS "INTO SWEDEN. b?m°tk tranfmitted to his immediate poRerity with little diminution, **-v-w were augmented under Guftavus Adolphus ; and at the fame time the right of fueceffion was extended to the female line. But, during the minority of his daughter Chriftina, the government underwent an alteration unfavourable to regal authority : the privileges of the fenate, or council of ftate, being enlarged, gave the afcendancy to the ariftocratical party, or order of nobles ; and this power was, by continual encroachments, carried to fuch an exorbitant height, as juftly to excite the fears and indignation of the three other orders of the clergy, citizens, and peafants. At length, Charles Xi. artfully availing himfelf of this dilfat is faction, obtained from the flates a formal ceffion of abfolute fovercignty, which he quietly devolved upon his fon Charles XII. Upon the deceafe of the latter, his nephew, Charles Frederic duke of Holflein, fon of his eldeft ftfter Hedwige, ought, by the law of fucceflion eftablifhed by Charles XI. to have afcended the throne. But the Swedes, in breach of that regulation, excluded the duke of Holflein, and conferred the crown upon Ulrica Eleonora, the youngeft Mer of Charles XII. ; who, poffefTing no title but what was derived from the appointment of the nation, pur-chafed her election by a furrender of abfolute authority, and by ratifying all the limitations of prerogative which the flates impofed ; and her huiband Frederic I. in whofe favour flie resigned the crown, fecured their concurrence by fimilar flipula-tions. The new form of government eftablifhed at this juncture, confifted of fifty-one articles, all tending to abridge the powers of the crown, and rendered the Swedifh fovereign the moft limited monarch in Europe. It was fettled, that the fupreme legiflative authority fhould refide abfolutely and folely in the (lates of the realm affembled in diet, which, whether convened by the king or not, muft regularly affemble every three years, and and could only be diffolved by their own confent. During the rcccfs of the diet, the executive power refided in the king and fenate ; but as the king was bound in all affairs to abide by the opinion of the majority; and as he poffeffcd only two votes, and the calling voice in cafe of equal fuffrages, he was almoft, entirely fubordinatc to that body, and could be confi-dered in no other light than its prefident *. At the fame time the fenate itfelf ultimately depended upon the flates, as its members, though nominally appointed for life, yet were in a great meafurc chofen by the flates f, were amenable before that affembly, and liable to be removed from their office in cafe of real or pretended malverfation. Thus the fupremc authority refided in a tumultuous affembly, compofed of the four orders, into which many nobles without property, the meaneft tradefmcn, and the lowefl peafants, were admitted ; mofl of whom were of courfe fubject to all the corruption and influence to which needy and ignorant reprefentatives are chap. iv. * Mr. Sheridan, in his Hiftory of the late Revolution, &c. has thus delineated the exorbitant authority veiled in the dates, p. 145. " While the flates were affembled, they were, " in fact, pofleired of the whole fupreme power. '* The authority of the king and fenate was " then fufpended, &c —In fhort, the dates " were veiled with the fame powers, indc-" pendent of the king and fenate, that in Eng-", land the two houfes of parliament pofTefs in " conjunction with the king. The Iegiflativc power they referved wholly " to themfelves. The king and fenate, having " no fhare whatever in it, did not even poffefs " a negative on thofe refohuions of the diet, «« which directly attacked the regal and fena-" torial rights.— The following powers were Iikewife veiled in the flates alone. Thofe of " declaring war, or making peace. That of al-" tering the llandard of the coin, &c. *' The executive power, during the fitting of " the diet, may be faid to have been, in a great " meafure, lodged in a certain number of per- Vol. II. X " fons felccted from the three orders of the '* nobles, clergy, and burghers, who confli-*' tuted what was denominated the fecret com-" mittee, 6cc. With regard to the judicial " power, the Rates affumed to themfelves " a right of exercifing that, alfo, whenever " they thought proper, by taking at pleafure " caufes out of the ordinary courts of juflice, " to try them before a temporary tribunal « erected by themfelves, and compofed of their " own members. Nothing could be more for-" midable than the power of this court, or " more fubverfive of liberty ; as, in reality, " it united within itfelf at once the Iegiflativc, «• judicial, and executive powers ; and it was *' to decide principally in cafes of treafon. *.' What rendered this extraordinary jurifdic-*' tion moft prepollerons was, its being gene-" rally at the fame time both judge and -party." t All vacancies in the ftate were filled by the king from three candidates nominated, lw the flates. x neceflarily ByT°K neceflarily expofed. Although all flatutes were figned by the «-—*—i king, and the ordinances of the fenate iffued in his name, yet in neither cafe did he poffefs a negative : and in order to obviate the poflibility of his attempting to exercife that power, it was enacted, in the diet of 1756, that " in all affairs, with-" out exception, which had hitherto required the fign manual, " his majefty's name might be affixed by a ftamp, whenever " he fhould. have declined his fignature at the firft or fecond " requeft of the fenate." In confequence of this refolution, the royal fignature was actually engraved, and applied to the ordinary difpatches of government under the direction of the fenate *. In a word, the king enjoyed little more than the mere name of royalty. He was only the oftenfible inftrumcnt in the hands of one of the two great parties who at that time divided and governed the kingdom, as either obtained the fuperior influence in the diet. We cannot but remark upon this fubject, that the Swedes, who, during the reigns of Charles XI. and XII. had fo reluctantly fubmitted to the defpotifm of their fovereigns, knew not how to ufe their liberty: they intempcrately ran into the contrary extreme ; and, in order to difable the king from recovering arbitrary power, they even defpoiled him of thofe juft and neceffary prerogatives, which in a monarchical conftitution can alone form a barrier againfl ariftocratical ufurpation and popular factions; as if they were ignorant of any medium between abfolute dominion and anarchy, or between licen-tioufnefs and fervitude. The grofs defects in this new form of government occa-fioned conftant ftruggles between the kings of Sweden and their fubjects, on one fide to increafe, on the other to deprefs the royal prerogative, until his prefent majefty effected the revolution of 1772. It is neediefs to enter into any detail of this * Shevidan, p. i88. Canuler, p. 71. extraordinary extraordinary event, as Mr. Sheridan, who, at the period in queftion, was fecretary to the Britifli envoy at Stockholm, has given to the world a moft ample and accurate detail of the whole tranfacTion *. Perfons of the moft oppofite parties in Sweden all unanimously concur in commending the fidelity of Mr. Sheridan's hiftory, and in preferring it to the numerous narratives of that important event; and the king has frequently acknowledged its general authenticity. The ingenious author has developed with the utmoft precifion and truth the dreadful abufes occafioned by the fyftem of government eftablifhed in 1720 ; and has traced, with a mafterly hand, the judicious and fpirited conduct of his prefent majefty. But in this account of the new government, admirable as it is, he has unfortunately advanced a capital miftake, which, as it has fallen from a perfon of fuch refpectable authority, and feems generally prevalent in all foreign countries, deferves a particular difcuflion. I allude to his alfertion, that the king of Sweden is " no lefs " abfolute at Stockholm, than the French monarch at Ver-" failles, and the Grand Signor at Conftantinoplc f whereas his Swedifh majefty, though now pofTefTed of very great prerogatives, is yet in many important inflances a limited monarch, as will be afcertained by a review of the prefent conftitution. The whole executive power is virtually veiled in the king: for though it is faid to be entruftcd to him conjointly with the fenate, yet as his majefty appoints and removes all the members of that council, and in the adminiftration of affairs, afks only their advice, without being bound to follow it, he is abfolute mafter of the fenate %> The king has the command of the • A Hiflory of the late Revolution in Swe- ever, namely, in the negotiations of peace, den, &c. by Charles Francis Sheridan, Efq." truces, and alliances, the king is bound to fol-t P. 301. low the opinion of the fenators, in cafe they t Article 4th. In fome few inftances, how- are unanimous; but as it is fcarcely poflible X x 2 ti** book the army and navy, and fills up all commiflions; he Iikewife v..-yl ^ nominates to all civil offices *• He has the fole power of convening and diffolving the flates, and is not obliged to affemble them at any flated period f ; he has rendered the taxes perpetual, enjoys a fixed revenue, and has the entire difpofal of the public money. Such are the prerogatives which his Swedifh majefty has annexed to his crown; but however enormous they may appear, efpecially when compared with the flender degree of authority pofleffed by the throne before that period, yet they by no means, I apprehend, amount to defpotifm. The two great features, which effentially diftinguifh an arbitrary from a limited monarch, are the uncontrouled right of enacting and repealing laws, and the impofition of taxes without confent of the fubject; neither of which are exercifed by the king of Sweden. With refpect to the former, the Iegiflativc authority refidcs jointly in him and in the flates and it is exprefsly decreed, in the 40th article, " that the king fhall have no power '* to make new laws, without the knowledge and aflent of the " flates; nor abrogate an old one received formerly ||," Concerning the impofition of taxes, it is exprefsly ftipulated, that the king fhall not levy any money without the confent of the ftates, excepting in the cafe of actual invafion§ ; and at the conclufion that feventeen fenators, appointed, and removable, by his majefty, mould be unanimous in their oppofition to him, we may fairly allow the king to have the command of the fenate. Art. 6th. In the high courts of juflice, indeed, con-'fifi'mg of feven fenators, to which a final appeal lies from all the inferior courts, the king ■has only two voices, and a carting vote, if the opinions are equal. But yet, in this inftance, as he nominates and removes at his pleafure their judges, he muft have the entire difpofal of their fufirages. Art. 8th. See the articles of the new form of government in the Appendix to this volume. * Art. 6 ; alfo 22, 25, and 3 1. t Art. 38. % Mr. Sheridan is wrong, in faying that the ftates Avere to deliberate upon nothing but what the king thought proper to lay before them, they having a right, as well to propofe laws, as to negative thofe propofed by the king. See Art. 42. II Art. 48. § Mr. Sheridan, upon this article, fays, *f I3y a third, though his majefty did not openly clufion of the war he fhall be obliged to fummon them, and the CI* ^p. new taxes fhall be abolifhed. In addition alfo to thefe two im- <—y—» portant reftrictions, he cannot declare war, nor alter the coin, ■without their concurrence; and, if called upon by them when convened, is obliged to account for the expenditure of the public money*. Though the king is fubjecT to thefe material limitations, yet as his ordinary revenue is perpetual, and the meeting of the flates depends folely upon his pleafure, it may be urged, that he may govern without controul fo long as he requires no additional fubfidies. But furely this mode of ruling does not amount to abfolute authority. For, as he cannot enact, laws, declare war, or levy taxes, without the confent of the diet, emergencies mufl occur which may render it neceflary to convene that affembly, when the latter may redrefs grievances, or repair any breaches in the conftitution. In fad, his prefent majefty, though neither preffed by foreign war, nor by any material exigency, did, within fix years from the time of his obtaining an exemption from the necef-iity of convening the ftates, conceive it expedient to fummon them; and experienced that oppofition which characterizes the reprefentatives of a free people. In the houfe of nobles, for inftance, a memorial was laid upon the table, wherein it was faid, that there were no fixed laws; that the form of government eftablifhed in 1772 had been for fome time obferved ; but that lately many of the king's friends had appealed to that of «< openly claim a power of impofing taxes on Now there are no fuch words as prejfing ne- " nil otcaiions, yet fuch as already fubiirted cejjltj in the new articles of government, but »' were to be perpetual, and in cafe of invafion the cxerctfe of this power is ftriclly confined to " or prefjing ncccjfity, the king might impofe the cafe of actual invafion : the words are, *'fome taxes////the ftates could be aflembled. "Yet that unhappy cafe excepted, when «« But his majefty was to be the judge of this "the kingdom fhould be attacked by an " neceftity ; and we have feen that the meet- " army." *: ing of the ftates depended wholly on his. will * Articles 44. 48. 50. * and pleafure." P. 307. *m l6l6. 342 'TRAVELS INTO SWEDEN. boo k !6i6, as the proper model by which the adminiflration was to ^—v—-» regulate its proceedings: which conftitution was to be confi-dered as at prefent fubfifting ? Other propofitions very offen-five to the royal ear were difcuffed in this memorial; and it was intended to have been formally recited at the next meeting; but, to prevent this meafure, the king fummoned the ftates to the palace, and diffolved them. Llis majefty, in his fpeech delivered on that occafion, declared himfelf chagrined at the complaints unjuftly levelled againfl his conduct; and added, that the form of government eftablifhed in 1772 fhould always be regarded by him as the true conftitution; that he never wifhed to deviate from it in the flighted degree ; and that, as many perfons had endeavoured to create a mifunderflanding between him and the ftates, he had on that account adopted the refolution of diflblving them: a ftyle of harangue that would not have been adopted by an abfolute king. In a word, whether the prefent form of government be likely to laft, or whether it may not be as fuddenly overturned as it was introduced by a new revolution; whether it may not, in procefs of time, degenerate into an arbitrary monarchy, or re-lapfe into its priftinc anarchy ; are not here the objects of inquiry : the queftion relates folely to the nature of the conftitution as it fubfifts at prefent; which the more accurately we examine, the lefs fcrupuloufly fhall we decide, that the king of Sweden is a limited, and not adefpotic fovereign. The diet, 'in which refides the fupreme Iegiflativc authority, is compofed of the king, whofe prerogatives have been already related, and the ftates, which are convened at the fole will of the crown, and confift of the four houfes, I. Of Nobles; II. Of the Clergy; III. Of Citizens; and, IV. Of Peafants, I. The firft Houfe is that of the Nobles. They arc divided into counts, barons, and untitled nobility. A family once ennobled continues fo from generation to generation, ration, as well in the direct line as in its various collateral branches * ; and all pofTefs the fame general privileges, which confift principally in the capacity of being fenators, chamberlains, or of holding other civil employments about the king's perfon and court, and in an exemption from the poll-tax. The power of creating new nobility is veiled in the king ; but the number is limited. In a diet held under Adolphus Frederic, it was enacted, that no additional ones fhould be appointed until the families of this order were reduced to 1200; and at the revolution of 1772 his prefent majefty obtained the right of adding 150. The head of each noble family in the direct line is by birth a member of this houfe, and reprcfents, in his perfon, all the younger part of that line, as well as the collateral branches. If he happens to be a fenator, he is incapacitated by his ofnce from a place in the diet, but enjoys the power of transferring his feat to another noble. Any reprefentative, * The reader will excufe the length of the following quotation, as well in confideration of the juftnefs of the remarks, and its application to the fubjecT in the text, as becaufe it is almoft the only place where the difference between the Englifh and foreign nobility is precifely and clearly afcertained. ** England is the only country in Europe " where the diftinction, for inftance of noble " and not noble, is carried no farther than the *' nature of the government requires it fhould ; *' becaufe there the nobility do not, as fuch, form a diftinct clafs from the reft of the na-** tion. As it is only the head of each noble V family, who is there entitled to the honours ** and privileges of the peerage, it is not the ** man who can count a long train of titled ** anceftors, but the hereditary legiflator who ** is himfelf noble. The younger branches of ** thefe families, as they have no fhare in the " legiilature, arc but little, if, by courlefy, at " all diftinguifhed from their fellow-fubjects ; " with whom they and their defendants affi-*' railatc, and are foon, if I may fo expreu my- felf, melted down into the general mafs of the people. Hence thefe become a fort of link between the nobility and the commoners ; a link that, connecting their intcrefts, prevents all divifion between thefe two orders in their capacity of members of the fame fociety, and which forms of that fociety a continued chain, no part of which can be touched without affecting, by an almoft electrical communication, all the reft. In other countries, where thofe who have been once ennobled tranfmit the honours and privileges of nobility to ajl their poftc-rity alike, there is no link to connect the nobles to the reft of the nation ; on the contrary, a line is drawn between them to perpetuity ; a line which cuts, as it were, the chain of fociety in two, the fevered ends of which appear rather to repel than attract each other. There, confequently, that conjunction of views and interells cannot take place in the nation at large, to which I have faid a free conftitution muft, in a great degree, owe its fafcty." Sheridan, p. 143- who D vir K felines attending, may appoint a fubftitute, provided he nominates a perfon of his own family*. As there are about izoo noble families, if each head attended, the members prefent in the houfe would amount to that number; but there being no neecllity for aflifting at the diet, the reprefentatives vary. In the late reign, when their votes were of greater confequcnce than they are under the prefent form of government, they ufually amounted to 500 or 600; and on a remarkable occafion, when Adolphus Frederic intimated a dcCign of abdicating the throne, above 1000 took their feats. In the late diet of j 778 only 300 made their appearance -j\ II. The fecond Houfe is that of the Clergy J, The reprefentatives of this order confift of the fourteen bifhops, and a certain number of ecclefiaftics chofen in the following manner: The king's writ being iffued to the confiftory, or ecclefiaflical court of each diocefe, the latter difpatch a cir- * Formerly each head bad the power of transferring his feat to any one noble ; but as this privilege gave rife to a fcandalous traffic < f felling feats (fee Sheridan, pi 159), the houfe palled a decree, prohibiting any reprefentative from appointing a noble of another family to be his fubftitute, to the prejudice ofhis own family in all its collateral branches, any of whom might, in preference to an alien, claim a right of affifting at a diet, if the chief declined attending. f The governors of the provinces and the colonels of each regiment attend the fittings of the diet, in order to deliver in their reports; but they have no vote, excepting when they take their feats, as is ufually the cafe, as representatives in their own right, or by the transfer of the heads of noble families. Thefe circumftances have induced fome authors crroneoufly to affcrt that the governors and colonels are, from their offices, entitled to feats and votes in the houfe of nobles. tors, and comminijlers or perpetual curates. There arc fourteen diocefes ; the archbiftiop-ric of Upfala, and the bilhoprics of Eindkiop-ing, Skara, S:rangnccs, Wecftcros,Wcx;o, Abo, Lund, Eorgn, Gotheborg, Calmar, Carlftadt, Hermofand, and Withy or Gothland. The revenues of Upfala and W alfo one representative from the comminiflers pods, enjoy an additional number of voices proof each diocefe. portionate to the multiples which they pay: f The right of voting depends, in different fuppofmg, for inftance, an annual rate of 2s. 6d, places, on different qualifications. In fome qualifies for a vote, any perfon paying 5/. has places it is derived from a certain alfeffment two; ics. four votes ; and fo on. In Gothe- upen capitals employed in trade ; in others borg there arc about 1000 electors, and fome from a tax upon land without the boundaries of rich merchants poflefi feveral hundred votes, the town, &c. In all cafes, perfons who in this Vol. II. Y y members. BOOK members. The mayor aiTembles the electors in the town-hall, \—' and their choice is determined by the majority : none but freemen are permitted to be prefent. Each reprefentative receives from their condiments a fmall contribution; which, in the larger towns, amounts to about 15^; and in the fmaller to 5s. 4s. or is. 6d. per day, during their attendance at the diet. The number of members who represented this order was never pre-cifely the fame. Each ftaple town has indeed the right of fending two ; fome of the largeft, fuch as Gotheborg, Nordkioping, Gcfflc, and a few others, three; and Stockholm always deputed ten*: but fometimes one or two fmall towns joined to elect only one deputy ; and at other times each appointed its own members. The ufual number feldom fell fhort of 100, and never exceeded 200. IV. The fourth Houfe is that of the Peafants, whofe reprefentatives are chofen by, and from, the following order of fubjects. The definition of a peafant is a farmer employed in agriculture, poffeffing land of a certain tenure, who has never followed any trade, or enjoyed any civil office. This defcription includes only thofe whofe ancellors were alfo farmers, and does not entitle either nobles, citizens, or even country gentlemen, though they may purchafe the peafant's eftate, either to vote, or to be returned a member. The land qualifying the farmer, who is a peafant, to be an elector, muft be either crown land, or his own property. The moft valuable of thefe eftates may be worth £1300, and the pooreft about £30. If the land is pof-feffed by two or more peafants, the vote is fplit among the feveral proprietors, each enjoying that fhare of the vote which is * Of this number four are elected from the merchants, two from retail traders, and two mayor and aldermen, two from the wholefale from perfons engaged in handicraft trades. 6 * propor- proportionate to his mare of the farm* ; but each of them is qualified to be a reprefentative. The peafants who thus enjoy the privilege of nominating deputies, or of being elected themfelves, maybe divided into three claffes: i. Peafants whofe farms confift of crown lands, which they enjoy for life upon payment of an annual quit-rent, and from which they cannot be removed but for being formally proved guilty of having neglected their culture. Upon the death of the proprietor, the leafe is almoft always granted to the eldeft fon. 2. and 3. Peafants who have bought, at fix years' purchafe, either from the crown, or the nobility, the perpetuity of their farms on the payment of a quit-rent. The mode of election is as follows : The writ being iffued to the governor of the province, he fends it to the county judges, each of whom fummons the peafants within his jurisdiction to meet in the court of juftice, and in his pre-fence, on the day appointed for the election. The members are chofen by the majority of voices. The conftituents join in contributing the fum of three, four, or five fhillings per day towards defraying the expences of their deputy at the diet. The electors who ufually affemble in each diflrict are feldoni lefs than 30, or more than 100. The number of reprefentatives in the houfe of peafants is extremely uncertain, as two diftricts occafionally unite in fending only one deputy, and at other times elect two; but, upon an average, they ufually amount to about 100. It is a very remarkable circumflance, that, in a conftitution fo free as that of Sweden, in which even the peafants, as landholders, are returned members to the diet, the country gentlemen, be their landed property ever fo large, are not reprefented * Thus a peafant having T\d of an eftate frequently makes an election for a member of qualifying- for a vote, has 7'Td of a vote : and the diet a very complicated bufiuefs. ttaefc fractions are all added together, which Y y 2 in BvnK *n ^atcs °^ tne kingdom*, have neither any vote in the v-w choice of reprefentatives, nor can be reprefentatives themfelves: a (trangc inconfiftency, that thofe perfons, who are juflly cdeemed the mod refpcdtable and incorrupt part of the body politic, fhould not enjoy the lead fhare in the legidature, while many mechanics and farmers, who are both as unqualified to canvafs intricate political quedions, as they are incapable of redding the influence of bribery, poffefs that important privilege. Soon after the edablifliment of the limited monarchy in 1720 by the aridocratical party which raifed Ulrica Eleonora to the throne, many country gentlemen figncd an addrefs to the diet, representing the impropriety of excluding fo important an order of men from the dates of the realm. But as the articles of government were finally fettled, their application was not complied with: fo well founded and jud, however, were the principles of their remondrance, that the king, at the recommendation of the diet, advanced feveral of the petitioners into the order of nobles. The ftates of the kingdom, thus compofed of the reprefentatives chofen in the manner juft defcribed, afTemble at Stockholm in Several places. The nobles in the houfe of nobles; the clergy in the church adjoining to the palace ; the citizens in the town-hall; and the peafants in another apartment of the fame building. Having taken their feats, and chofen their refpective Speakers, the four houfes repair in due form to a hall of the palace, where the king, clad in his royal robes and feated upon the throne, informs them, in a fhort fpeech, of the reafons for which they are convened; defiring them to aflid him with their advice in * The reafon of the country gentlemen be- tion of Sweden; by which the inhabitants were, ing excluded from all (hare in the legislation, as in moll other countries of Europe, divided was, that the form of government eftahltfhed into nobles, clergy, citizens, and peafants. in 1720, was founded on the antient conftitu- the prefent juncture of affairs, and deliberate for the good of [he ci*ap. kingdom. In anfwer to this harangue, the four fpcakers com- *—w—» pliment his majefty in the name of their refpective houfes; after which ceremony the reprefentatives immediately retire. Laws are enacted in the following manner: During the fittings of the diet, every member of the four houfes has the privilege of propofing a queftion to the confidcration of the affembly to which he belongs. A debate takes place upon the motion, which is carried or rejected by a majority. If it paffes in one houfe, it is fent by a deputation to each of the others; and, if aflcntcd to by three, is prefented by the four fpcakers to the king: his majefty afterwards fummons the ftates to the palace, and communicates to them his aflcnt or diffent in form. The latter negatives the bill, and the former gives to it the fanction of a law. If the bill originates from the king, it is thus brought in: his majefty lays it before the fenators, and having obtained their opinions in writing, refers it to the dif-cuflion of the ftates ; if they approve it, the four houfes repair to the palace, and communicate their alTent to his majefty; if it is rejected, they tranfmit their determination in writing by their fpcakers, and accompany it with the reafons which had induced them to diffent. When the king chufes to put an end to the diet, he fummons the ftates to the palace, and diffolves them by a fpecch. CHAP. CHAP. V. General remarks on the L Population ;—77. Revenues;— 777. Military efablipment j—And, IV. Penal Laws, of Sweden. book fT^HE population is perhaps more accurately afcertained in * Sweden than in any other part of Europe; which is owing to the peculiar care and attention paid by government to obtain a correct register of the marriages, births, and deaths. For this purpofe zTabellCommijion, or a board for infpeeting and registering the bills of mortality, refident at Stockholm, was in-flituted in 1749; which maintains a correspondence with all the parishes and towns in the kingdom. Tables are distributed to the clergymen and magistrates for the purpofe of enrolling the marriages, births, and deaths in their refpective districts, and fpecifying the number of inhabitants at that time fubfift-ing; and extraordinary care is taken to prevent mistakes. The firft table is for a general lift of the births, deaths, and marriages ; the fecond for the bills of mortality ; the third for the number of inhabitants. The two former are kept by the parish-priefts, and annually delivered; the latter by the parifh-prieft in the country, and by the magistrates in the towns, and are fent to the board at the end of every third year*. A copy of the two former tables is here fubjoined, as their ufeful tendency is evident, and as an institution of a fimilar nature could not fail of being highly advantageous to every country. • The ascertaining of the number of inha- male and female, mould learn to read. This hit ants is greatly, facilitated by the poll-tax, and regulation is confidcred as part of the cccleli-by the care taken by the clergy to keep exact aftical difcipline, and is particularly attended regifterS, About thirty years ago the diet to by the clergy, who examine the children in nalfed a law, that every perfon in Sweden, both their refpective parifhes. TABLE TABLE fent by the Government of Sweden into the feveral Provinces for the Purpofe of after* CHAT. taining the Population, V. ----- 1* For the Year 17 . . . Lilt of Births, Deaths, anil Marriage*. Total of all the births in 17 Births. Deaths. Marriages. Legitimate. Illegitimate. bum Total. Till the age of 10 incluf. Above 10 years old. Married Perfons. Sum Total. Divorces, Contracted Months M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. Sum M. F. Sum M. F. Sum M. F. Coupl. CullpicS. January, February, March, &c. Sums Total or* deaths REMARKS. Tlie twins are included in the preceding numbers among the births; here thole women are only enumerated who have been brought-to-bed of two or three children at a birth. Twins I Of three children Here are place! the children born dead j who were not 'included in the birth*. Males Females Here is marked the age of all women who have been brought-to-bed, — between 15 — 10 years - - JO — 15 — — 25 — 30 — — 30 — 35 — — 35 — 40 — — 40 — 45 — — 45 — 50 Total Number, Perfons who died at pad ninety are comprized among the deaths ; buj here their feveral ages arc respectively mentioned. Between 00 and 95 95 and 100 Above 100 Sums Total of the whole year Males. Females. What fpecies of disorders were moft prevalent, and at what feafon of the year. Senfons. | Diforders moft prevalent at ■ Spring I Summer | Autumn Winter [ C A Males, a. Overlaid by mothers or mufes. b. Parricides c. Affaflinated d. Starved to death t. Drowned in the fea f. Drowned in wells £. Perifhcd under the ice SUA Females. L T I E k. Frozen to death 1. Suffocated by fmoke k. Suicides /. Killed by lightning m. Cruflied in felling tiecs,&c. n. Found dead 0. Loft in mines p. tec. gc. gfe._ Mal< Females. Sum Total Here arc noted any extraordinary circumftances which happened in the three kingdoms of nature —the harveft-price of grain, &c. Lift of malefactors, with their executions and puniftimcnts. Bills book VII. Bills of Mortality for the Year ly—. Age of the deceafed. Sexes. Fever Empyema Quinzy Stone Cjrfoceie, &c, Eryfypelas, Gangrene^ &c. Suffocation, Apoplexy Intermitting Fevers Spotted Fever Putrid Fever Hemorrhage Confumption Cholic, &cc. Jaundice, &c. Gout Convulfions Epilepfy Scurvy Fiftulas, Ulcers Dropfy Cancer Leprofy, Itch Venereal Complaints Madnefs Old Age Child-bed Flux, or Lofs of Blood Ram Hooping-cough,aftbma Small Pox Meafles Scarlet Fever Indigeftion Worms Rickets Unknown or concealed Diforders CafuaUies, &c. Sum « deaths, Specifying age and fex. Above a ^ lr year old. Fromi-jjFromj-j F. [vi F. M. F. From 5 'and fo on — io jfor every s years to too tiers ivi.i F. ilVl. F. Total of Deaths and their Difor- 1 L i l Total deaths ot both Sexes The The celebrated aftronomer, Mr. Wargentin, a member of chap. this ufcful fociety, has publifhed, in the Tranfaclions of the \—v~> Royal Swedifh Academy of Sciences, a very clear and accurate account of the manner in which the board carries on its corre-fpondence, and collects the neceflary information; and has drawn from the feveral regiflers an average computation of the annual deaths. From feveral judicious calculations, formed from the regifters of nine fuc-ceffive years, he computes, that, in the country, the annual proportion of deaths to births is as i to 35, or, if the year is remarkably healthy, to 36 or even 37 ; and at Stockholm as 1 to 20. He adds, that, during the fame period, there were 2036 men and 3540 women above the age of 90 ; of whom 212 men and 328 women were between 100 and 105 ; 31 men and 76 women between 106 and no j 22 men and 19 women between in and 120; one man was 1 22 i and one Woman 127. At the end is a table of the marriages, deaths, and births, from 1755 t0 I7^3* We ^nc*> *n Cantzler's * State of Sweden, that, in 1760, the population amounted to 2,383,113 fouls; that of thefe were 162,888 inhabitants of towns, exclufive of the nobility and clergy; and 2,220,225 perfons living in the country, including the nobility and clergy; and that, according to a fair calculation, the whole number might be clafTed in the following proportion; 10,645 nobles, comprizing 2>$97 under i£ years; 18,197 ecclefiaftics and their families, and fludents, including 7073 under 15; 162,888 inhabitants of towns and their families engaged in arts, manufactures, and trades; 2,191,383 inhabitants of the country employed in agriculture, the mines, &c. I fhall clofe this account with a lift of the births and deaths in Sweden, and the number of inhabitants. The reader will not doubt its accuracy, when he 13 informed that I received it from Mr. Wargentin. The lift is clafTed according to the three great divifions of the kingdom. * P. 186. Mcmoircs pour fervir a la con- lent work, which, for accuracy and informa-noiflance du Royaumc dc Swede ; an excel- tion, cannot be too highly recommended. Vol. II. In. BOOK In the firfl: divifion, called Sweden Proper, comprehending the metro-iLr-. j polis, Upland, Sodermanland, Nerike, Weftmanland, Dalecarlia, and all the provinces to the North. Births. Deaths. Years. Mules. Femaler.. Total. Males. Females. Total. J749 I2774 12605 25379 IO857 11622 22479 1750 I3708 26c,6i IOO35 10110 20145 1751 15247 14518 29765 9916 IO236 20152 1752 14347 13703 28050 H875 I 1948 23823 »774 i5.64 14971 30335 IOO29 10617 2064.6 1775 16180 '5697 3**77 I0882 IO920 21802 1776 15220 *4537 29757 10622 I062[ 21243 1777 15047 H54I 295H8 121 20 12 118 24238 Mules. Females. Total. In 175^ 363S4 t 419^26 782867 1776 433494 420154 913648 In the kingdom of Gothland, comprehending Warmeland, Wceftergoth-land, Oftergothland, and all the provinces fouth of them, with the iflands of Oeland and Gothland. Births. Deaths. Years. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. *749 17327 16777 34104 J3l85 13852 27037 1750 19111 i8439 3755° 13406 14071 2 7477 175* 200l6 19510 39526 13 166 13-^4 2675O 1752 1883I j 8092 36923 12698 12946 25644 1774 19507 18678 38185 11506 I23 11 23817 '775 203OI 19465 39760 1 4691 14A56 28147 1776' 19016 18166 37182 II999 I2454 24453 1777 19466 18570 38036 13227 13797 27024 Number of Inhabitants. Males. Females. Total. Jn 1752 477079 525781 1,002860 *776 553l7l 594985 i,!4fli#S In In Finland. . CHAP. Births. Deaths. Years. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females, Total. 1749 8546 825; 16803 5827 5828 11655 175° 8879 855° 1742Q 5446 5777 11223 175" 9508 9342 18850 5*49 52*6 10475 1/52 9737 9658 19395 569S 5702 11400 ^774 1221 I "73* 23942 6431 • 6321 12752 1775 I2296 12167 24463 7681 7782 15463 1776 I2044 11880 23924 9361 9362 18723 1777 I2609 12223 24832 9880 99'5 *979S 1778 I3614 13202 26816 8010 7688 6872 15698 1779 I4180 13579 V759 7223 14095 Number of Souls in Finland. In 1752 Males. Females. Total. 205002 2249IO 429912 1776 298322 311823 6lOI45 Lift of Births and Deaths in the whole Kingdom. Births. Deaths. Years. Mules. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. 1749 38647 37639 76286 29869 31302 61171 I750 41698 40242 81940 28887 29958 ■ 58845 1751 4477' 43370 88141 - 28231 29146 57377 1752 42915 4M53 84368 3°592 30275 60867 1774 47082 4538o 92462 27966 29249 57215 1775 47492 46030 93522 32254 33I58 65412 1776 46280 44583 90863 31982 32437 64419 *777 47122 45334 92456 35227 35«3° 71957 Number of Souls in Sweden, Males. Females. Total. In 1752 1,045622 1,170017 2,215639 1776 1,284987 1,386962 2,671949 1781 About — — — 2,767000 p>y comparing the population of thefe three different epochs, the reader will perceive that the country has been gradually recovering from that exhaufted ilate to which it had been reduced by the wars of Charles XII.; and that, within the fpace of thirty years, the number of inhabitants have increafed 551,361, or a fifth part of its prefent population. Z z 2 II. The B vn ^ ^e revenucs °f Sweden are chiefly drawn from the rents i-ptj of the crown demefnes ; part of the great tythes ; a poll-tax*; duties upon exports and imports upon mines and forges; upon diftillcd fpirits; deductions from falaries, penfions, and places; tax upon chimnics; and the monopoly of falt-petre. The net revenues in 1772, before the revolution, amounted to £ 908,434; and by a few fubfequent regulations f agreed to by the diet, convened upon the change of government, have been raifed to about £ 1,000,000. This receipt, however, muft not be confidcred as equivalent to the annual expenditure ; for the greatefl part of the military forces, and a frnall portion of the naval eftablifhment, which in other governments cxhaufl fo large a fliare of the public fupplies, are maintained with no charge to the crown. At the diet of 1778, the flates voted the king a free gift of £ 175,000, upon the birth of the hereditary prince. No country perhaps has ever, in a greater degree than Sweden, experienced fuch fevere diflrefTes from a want of gold and filver fpecie, from a fcarcity even of copper money $; and its enormous bulk, and from the fluctuating value of the bank notes, which at one period formed almoft the only currency. Thefe evils, noticed by many travellers || who have written upon * About 1 s. 3 d. each perfon. The poll-tax the exportation of the copper money, the in-is paid by every perfon, male and female, be- trinfic value of which was fuperior to its no-tween.the ages of 15 and 63 ; excepting the minal, and the immenfe number of bank-notes, nobles and their domeltics ; foldiers and go- there was fcarcely any thing but paper cur-vernment faiiors ; and every married couple rency. At one period even private fhop-among the lower clafs of farmers of a certain keepers iffued fmall printed notes, fome fo low defcription, having four children, of which the as 1 d. 2d. or 3^. value, which they gave in youngcft is under eight years of age. exchange for the bank-notes. + Such as afligning to the crown the mono- || The reader will ealily conceive the prefent poly for the diftillation of fpirituous liquors ; improvements of the coin by the following and caufing certain taxes to be paid in fxlver paifage in Mr. WraxalPs Tour, which he fpecie, which were before difcharged in copper made in 1774, only five years before I vmted money, and which, In effect, doubles the re- Sweden. M Whatever quantity of previous ceipt of thofe particular impofts. " metals they have in the metropolis of this J On account of the advantages attending '* kingdom, I have not yet feen one bit, how- M cyer MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT. 357 Upon Sweden, and which threatened a total bankruptcy, are chap. now entirely removed by the king, to whom the flates of \— 1772 configned the difficult province of reforming the currency. His majefty having obtained in Holland a loan of £750,000, called in a confiderable part of the bank-notes, and introduced fuch a plentiful fupply of filver coin, remarkable for its purity and convenience, that in the courfe of my progrefs through Sweden, I found not the leafl difficulty of procuring, even in the diftant provinces and fmalleft towns, filver money in exchange for gold or bank notes. The king has alfo, in a great meafurc, abolifhed the numerous and complicated modes of pecuniary computation, which varied in different places, and under different circumftances; and has enjoined one fimple fpecies of reckoning to be general throughout the kingdom, and to be indifcriminately ufed on all oc~ cafions *. III. The military Eflablifliment. The Swedifli army is divided into national militia and garrifon regiments. The latter, or troops upon the German footing, are compofed of natives and foreigners duly inlifted, and *' ever fmall, either of gold or fdver, in my. lars, plotes, (livers, runflics, or cchres, fome *' long journcyfrom Helfimborg to this place; whereof were imaginary, while the intrin^c " nor have they, I am well allured, any fuch worth of others was different from their real. #c commodities in the provinces. In lieu of A ton of gold it 100,000 fdver dollars, or '* thefe two articles, generally ufed amongft 300,000 copper dollars, filver money being of " us, they have two other articles which fup- triple value to coppcrmoney; a rixdollar — jj. ; *« ply their place, namely, copper and paper, a plote rz 1 j. 8 — 10 Jlivcrs and 2 run- *« and fixpencc ; and they have them of all va- flics ; a flivcr = 1 farthing and ~. ~ 3 run- " lues, rifing gradually from that fum. It is flics or copper cchres. The new mode of com- ««- often not a little diverting, when I tendered putation introduced by his majefty, is by rbt- « them one of fifty copper dollars, which is dollars, fkelins, and runflics. A rixdollar ~ pt *' adequate to 12 s, 6d. to fee them bring both contains 48 fkelins, and a fkelin 12-runftics.- " their hands full of copper coins ; nor can This mode has been adopted by government^ * they convert it into current money by any and will, in procefs of time, become general • 11 other means." Wraxall's Tour, p. 96. though the people are, from long habit, fo at- * They computed, on different occafions, tached to their antient complicated manner of anJfcin different parts of the kingdom, by tons reckoning, that they will not readily renounce of gold, fdver dollars, copper dollars, rixdol- k. arc B vnK are ^at^one^ *n tne Several garrifons, and receive their pay in i—r-~> money. Although the national militia firft took a regular form under John III. yet its fixed eflablifliment, as it fubfifts at prefent, was fettled by Charles XL That prince refumed the grants of the crown-demefnes which had been lavished by his prcdeceffoi s: fome he reflored, on condition that the proprietors of a certain portion fhould furnifh a foldier j others he allotted for the maintenance of the officers. It was alfo enacted during his reign, that the lands thus afligned for the fuppoit of the national militia, mould for ever remain appropriated to that purpofe ; and thefe regulations were further confirmed and augmented in 1723, with the additional claufe, that they fhould be confidered as a fundamental part of the conftitution, and ill011 Id never be abolifhed. In order to comprehend the nature of the Swedifh militia, it is neceflary to obferve, that the kingdom is divided into diftricls, which are refpeclrivcly bound to furnifh and maintain a flipulated number of troops. With this view, each holder of a certain quantity of crown-land, called a Hemman, provides a foldier, afligns for his maintenance a fmall portion of ground, a cottage, and a barn ; and allows him joo copper dollars, or £1. ys. 8.JJ1 per annum, a fuit of coarfe clothes, and two pair of fhoes. When the foldier is abfent, either with the army in time of war, during the annual reviews, or is employed in the fervice of government, the landholder cultivates his ground* for the fubfiflence of his wife and family; and, when he is prefent, may call upon him to work at the rate of the common wages beflowed upon a labourer f, Upon * In my route through Sweden, I (topped cultivated, fo that it was by no means fum- to examine a portion of ground appropriated cient for the fubliilence of the corporal and to the maintenance of a corporal of infantry : his family. it meafured 147 yards in length, and 117 in f Which in fome parts that I vifited was breadth ; but as it was in general a deep fand, about 3*/. per day. only part was capable of being advantageoufiy MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT. $ft the death of the foldier, his widow and children are obliged char to cede the ground and houfe to his fuceefTor, whom the —r*—* landholder is bound to provide within the fpace of three months upon pain of being fined. With re ('peel: to the cavalry, a certain number of hemmans are joined to furnifh, a man and horfe fully equipped, and to maintain them both. Befide 4s. id. annually paid by the proprietors of each hem-man, towards defraying the expence of the foldiers uniforms, fome crown-demefnes are fet apart for the fame purpofe, but in fo fmall a quantity, as to be fcarcely adequate to the charge of clothing two regiments. On this account, as the national troops are not, in time of peace, under arms for a longer fpace than three weeks, they are feldom provided with new uni- v forms oftener than once in eight or nine years. Upon a fimilar principal, the officers of thefe national troops receive, in-flead of their pay in money, certain eflates in land, called bof-telle, which are fituated in the fame province to which the regiment belongs. They are allowed an additional appointment in corn from the king's tythes. Each province being divided into a number of hemmans fufficient to fupport a regiment, the fmaller provinces furnifh the regiments of infantry, and the larger thofe of cavalry. The ellate appropriated to the colonel is fituated towards the center of the province, and of the grounds afligned to his regiment; that of the captain in the middle of thofe belonging to his company; and in a fimilar gradation to the corporal. In every year, either before or after the harvefl, when the peafants are leafl employed, the companies of each regiment are feparately afTembled for a fortnight or three weeks. The landholder is obliged to tranfport the man and his baggage to the place of rendezvous, and fupport him during his flay at the review. Befide thefe annual encampments, once in three book three years a general review of each regiment takes place. v—v—» The men are alfo constantly exercifed on Sundays after divine fervice in fmall parties, and in larger corps for fome time before the encampment, but more particularly in Spring. If, in time of war, thefe troops are marched out of the country, the crown receives the ufual contributions from the landholder, and provides the foldiers with clothes, provifions, &c. In the Spring of 1779 the following was nearly the flate of the Swedifh army: Regular Troops. Nine * regiments of infantry - 9,000 Two of cavalry - 800 Artillery ------- 2,900 Total of regular troops - 12,700 National Militia. Twenty-one regiments of infantry, about 24,000 Seven of cavalry - 7,400 Light dragoons - Total of national militia 34,800 Total of the garrifon and national troops 47*5oo XV. I fhall clofe this chapter with a few remarks on the Penal Laws. There are four fuperior courts of juflice, called Hof-Rxtt I at Stockholm for Sweden Proper j at Lindkioping for the kingdom of Gothland j at Abo for South Finland ; and at Vafa for North Finland. No fentence of death paffed by the inferior * The large ft regiments contain 1670, the Each company of 150 men has a captain, fmalleft. iooo, and are divided into compa- lieutenant, enfign, five non-commifiioned of-nics. The ftaff-ofticers are, a colonel, lieute- ficers, and fix corporals, the latter of whom nant-colonel, two majors, a quarter-mafter, are included in the ijo. who ranks as captain, and two adjutants.— courts courts can be carried into execution, unlefs ratified by thefe tribunals. The inferior tribunals are Kiamars Ratter, which alTemblc, as occafion requires, in the principal towns ; and the Harads Ratter, or a kind of affizes, generally held three times in the year under the county judges. It may not be unintcrefling to mention in this place, that, in the latter, there is ya kind of jury, confuting of twelve peafants, chofen by the diflricl:, and confirmed by the governor of the province : they continue in office for life, and feven of them form a court. In all criminal cafes the judge demands their opinion, which prevails againfl his decifion if they fhould be unanimous. But this inftitution, according to practice, is a mere formality: for the jurymen are fo ignorant and poor, that mofl of them pay an implicit deference to the dictates of the judge; bcfides, their fentiments have only force when they all agree ; and they are not, as with us, obliged to be unanimous. The fu-pinenefs indeed, and pafTivenefs, of thefe infignificant retainers of juflice is fo notorious, that a man, remarkable for his indolence and inattention, is commonly faid to be as Jleepy as a juryman. The ufual modes of execution in Sweden are beheading and hanging. Every criminal capitally convicted is indulged with the privilege of petitioning the king: they either complain of unjufl condemnation, and in that cafe demand a revifal of their fentence; or, if they allow themfelves to be guilty, may implore pardon or a mitigation of punifhment. So mild are the penal laws, that feveral offences, which in other countries are confidered as capital, are chaflifcd by whipping, condemnation to bread and water, imprifonment and hard labour ; more than 120 flrokes of the rod are never inflicted; nor is a criminal fentenced to bread and water for more than 28 days. Vol. II. A a a Many Many flagrant abufes in the courts of juflice have been reformed and corrected by the prefent king. In all cafes of high treafon, it is enjoined that previous notice muft be fent to the crown before any court can commence an inquiry: an ordinance which has put a flop to many frivolous and vexatious accufations, which ufed to be brought againfl the fubject:. Before the accefllon of his prefent majefty, it was very common for perfons indicted, but not convicted, of crimes, to fuffcr an imprifonment of feveral years without being tried; by the abolition of many tedious forms in the prefent reign, every criminal is arraigned within a fhort period after commitment, the good effects of which alteration require no comment. His majefty has increafed the falaries of the judges, and configned their fhare of the fines inflicted by their deci-lion to other ufes : by this judicious regulation he has greatly leifened the corruption and injuftice which neceffarily prevailed in thofe tribunals ; for the fcanty incomes of the judges expofed them to bribery; while a fhare in the fines rendered them interefted in convicting the criminal. The king has alfo promoted the rights of humanity, by fuppreffing, in 1773, the cruel and abfurd practice of torture, which was employed for the purpofe of obtaining a confeflion of guilt from fuf-pected perfons. One excellent regulation in the courts of Sweden deferves to be mentioned, and adopted in all countries; it is, that a criminal is tried without the leafl expence to the plaintiff or defendant. The profecutor denounces a perfon fufpected of guilt to the king's officer of juflice, who carries on the pro-cefs at the public charge. CHAP. VI. Departure from Stockholm.—Defcription of Upfala.— Antient palace.—Catafrophe of the Sture family.— Madnefs of Eric XIV.—Cathedral.—To7nb aitd character of Guftavus Vafa.—Genealogical table of the kings of Sweden his defce?idants.—Tomb of John III.— Catharine Jaghellon.—Benedict Oxenfliern.—Lauren-tius Petri.--—Account of the univerfty.—Public Library. ■—Codex Argenteus.—Vift to profeffor Bergman.— Royal Society.—Morafteen, antient place of enthrone??ieiit for the kings of Sweden;* A LTHOUGH my flay in Sweden was limited, I was un-i 1 willing to quit the country without vifiting Gotheborg, the mofl commercial town next to Stockholm, and viewing the canal of Trolhastta, which had been reprefented to mc as a mofl flupendous work. My companions preferring to fee the mines of Fahlun and Danamora, I quitted them at Stockholm, and rejoined them at Carlfcrona. Having purchafed an open cart, the common travelling vehicle in this country, which was rendered more commodious by two arm-chairs hung upon fprings, I fet out early on the 4th of March, accompanied by a Swedifh fervant, who fpoke French, as my interpreter; and arrived the fame day at Upfala, which is distant about 45 miles from the capital. Upfala, which flands in the beginning of an open plain fertile in grain and paflure, is a fmall, but very neat town, containing, exclusive of the fludents, about 3000 inhabitants. The ground plot is extremely regular: it is divided into two almoft equal parts by a fmall rivulet; and the ftreets are A a a 2 drawn drawn at right angles from a central kind of fquare ; a few of the houfes are built with brick and duccoed, but the generality arc condructed with trunks, fmoothed into the fhape of planks, and painted red, and the roofs are covered in with turf. Each houfe has its fmall court-yard, or garden. Old Upfala, which is a place of high antiquity, and occurs in the earlielt accounts of thefe Northern countries, is fuppofed to have flood at a fmall diftance from that which now bears the fame name ; and was much celebrated as the principal place of facrifice in times of Pagan fuperflition, and the rcfi-dence of the high-pried of Oden*. The prefent town, or New Upfala, is far anterior to the foundation of Stockholm : no authentic records, indeed, afcertain the exact: time of its origin ; but feveral Swedifh. antiquaries have with much probability conjectured, that it was at fir da fuburb of Old Upfala, and rofe upon its ruins when that town became deferted, and fell into decay f; Upfala was formerly the metropolis of Sweden, and the royal refidence. The antient palace was begun in 1549 J by Guflavus Vafa, and completed by Eric XIV. It was a fpacious and magnificent building, until great part of it was confumcd by fire in 1702. The remains, which dand upon an elevated fcitc, and command a fine profpect of the adjacent country, confift of a wing, a fmall part of another, and the principal front, which has been repaired, and is covered with a red ftucco. An old entrance, vad mafles of ruins, arches, vaults, and large piles of brick and mortar, are evident traces of its antient fplendour. The room in which the diet of Sweden ufed to affemble is now converted into a granary, and affords no other proofs of its former importance than its dimenfions, * Snorro Sturlenfis Hift. Reg.l Norweg. f Perinlkioldi Upfala Neva. Vol.1, c. 76. Dahlia's Gci'chichte von Swe- % Ibid. p. 317. dea, Vol. I. paflim. being being 140 feet in length, and 90 in breadth. The few remain- chai\ ing apartments in the wing which is not entire, are ufed as \— the common jail for criminals. Underneath are three dungeons, which were formerly appropriated to the confinement of flate prifoncrs, the mofl remarkable of whom was count SvantcSture, defcended from an antient family, which had given feveral adminiflrators to Sweden, and which, before the election of Guflavus Val'a, had the fa ire ft pretentions to the throne. Upon a door of one of thefe dungeons my conductor pointed out feveral characters coarfely notched, which, according to tradition, were made by count Svantc in the agony of his diftrefs, and as a memorial of his grief for the death of his fon. The fight of thefe characters, and the name of Sturc, brought to my recollection the fudden extinction of that much injured family, to which thefe walls were a wit-nefs; and the gloomy madnefs of Eric XIV. which occa-fioned that dreadful cataftrophe. the millruft and fufpicion which that unfortunate monarch had conceived againfl the nobility of Sweden, increafing with the diftrefles of his reign, hurried him at length into a ftate of infanity: he faw a plot in the moft common occurrences; and gave implicit credit to all the idle rumours of intended revolts, artfully fpread by his favourites to intimidate or cxafperatc him. The Stures, as the principal family in the kingdom, had long been the chief object of his jealoufy, and had already-felt fome unwarrantable acts of authority, Nicholas, the fon of count Svantc, had lately experienced the following in-flanccs of his tyranny and caprice. Being, in 1566, cited by Eric before the diet, on a charge of mifconduct at the fiege of Bohus, he was-found guilty, and condemned to death. The king, however, inftcad of fullering the fentence to be inflicted, or of remitting it entirely, acted with his ufual incon-Hftency. He ordered him to be carried in mock procefllo:* through through the ilreets of Stockholm with a crown of flraw upon his head ; and yet, foon after this public affront, he again received him into favour, and appointed him an embaflador to the court of Loraine. But I haflen to the event which gave rife to this detail, the imprifonment and extinction of the Sturc family. Upon the /lighten: fufpicions merely derived from rumour, and fome fuborned witneffes, count Svante and his fons Eric and Nicholas, and feveral other perfons of the firfl difiinction, were in 1567 accufed of confpiring againfh the life of the king, arretted, and confined in the palace of Upfala. While their trial was yet pending, a report being fpread that his brother John, whom he had imprifoned at Gripfholm, had efcaped from confinement, he fuddenly repaired to the apartment in which Nicholas Sture was confined, and faluted him with the appellation of traitor : the young count endeavouring to appeafe his fury by throwing himfelf at his feet, the king flabbed him in the arm ; the other, drawing the dagger from the wound, kiffed it and prefented it toEricwho, unmoved with fuch an affecting inflance of loyalty, repeated the blow, and ordered his fervant to finifli the murder. Seized with an inflantaneous fit of remorfc, he flew to the dungeon of count Svantc, and falling at his feet, called him his friend, exclaiming in an agony of defpair, " In God's name, I entreat « you to forgive what I have committed againfl you."—" Wil-" lingly," replied the old count, melting into tears of com-paffion, " but if my fon's life is in danger, you mufl anfwer " for it before God."—" Yes, yes," replied the king in a tranf-port of rage, <( I was fure that I fhould never obtain your par-" don;" then giving orders to the jailer to fecure the count, he hallily quitted the palace in a pcafant's drefs, and, accompanied by a few guards,* roved about the country in a frantic manner. Dennis Bury, his preceptor, overtaking him at a fmall diftancc from the town, fell prollrate at his feet, and 5 conjured conjured him to fpare the lives of the noble prifoncrs ; a pcti- CI*£P' tion which proved as fatal to himfelf as to the perfons for '—,r— whom he interceded : for Eric gave figns to one of his guards, who killed Bury upon the fpot, and difpatched immediate orders to the jailer at Upfala for the execution of the prifoncrs; orders of a madman, which were but too readily obeyed, and which extirpated at once the antient family of the Stures. Mean while, Eric wandered about the woods in a flate of re-morfe and dillraclion ; and was difcovered on the fourth day after his departure from Upfala by his wife Catharine: flic found him in the parfonage of Odenfala, wild with grief and defpair *, and fcattering money among the people who were alTcmblcd upon this melancholy occafion. The prefence of his beloved Catharine operated like a charm j fhe calmed his agonies, prevailed upon him to take nourifhment and rcpof'e, and accompanied him to Stockholm, where he gradually recovered his fenfes f. Soon, however, rclapfing into his former Hate of miflrufl and fufpicions, his adminiflration became fo weak and odious, that, in the following year, he was depofed by his two brothers, who united their forces againfl him. John afcended the throne which Eric had fo unworthily filled. In another place I fhall have occafion to mention the circumftances of his imprifonment and death J. Upfala is an archiepifcopal fee, and one of the mofl antient Chriflian cflablifhments in Sweden. Evcrinus was the firft bifhop ; by birth an Englishman, he came, in 1026, into this country at the rcqucft of king Olaus Scotkonung, in order to affifl in converting the natives of Old Upfala to Chriflianity §. The fimilarity of the Englifh and Swedifh languages is nien- * Emcm wildem Thicr achnlicher als einem Menfchcn. Dahlin. f Sec Dahl'm's Gcf. Vol. 111. p. 511, &c. Celfius Hift. d'Erlc XIV. Liv. 9. % Sec Chap. IX. of this book. § See Dahlin, Vol. II. 468, &c. tioncd K tioned as tlie motive which firfl brought Everinus, and afterwards feveral of his countrymen, into thefe parts as preachers of the Gofpel. He was no lefs qualified for this tafk from the mecknefs of his difpoiition, than from his knowledge of the Swedifh idiom j not forcing, as was but too ufual, the natives to embrace the Chriftian doctrines by violence and perfecution ; but introducing the Gofpel by pcrfuafion and example. His fucceffors in the fee refided for the moll part at Sigtuna, until 1120, when Nicholas Ulphfon fixed the residence at Old Upfala. Stephen, a native of Eafl-Gothland, the feventh bifhop, was the firfl archbifhop: he was raifed to that dignity in 1164, and died in 1185. Falko, who was con-fecrated in 1267, and expired in 1276, firfl transferred the refidence to New Upfala. The immediate occafion of this change in the archiepifcopal feat was the deftruction of the cathedral at Old Upfala by a violent fire in 1246, which was foon afterwards begun to be rebuilt on the fpot where it now flands *. In the center of the town flands the cathedral, a large building of brick: the architecture is in the Gothic flyle, excepting two towers oflater date, which arc ornamented with fmall marble pillars of the Doric order, and which disfigure the general fymmetry of the other parts. This cathedral was begun in the middle of the 13th century, under the direction of Stephen Bonneville, a French architect ft who followed in its construction the model of the church of Notre Dame at Paris. It has feveral times been greatly damaged by fire, but has been as frequently repaired. Upon entering the cathedral I beheld with the greatefl reverence, and even a degree of enthufiaflic admiration, the fepulchre which covers the venerable afhes of Guflavus Vafa ; * Perinjk. Chap. 1L and IX. t Perinfk. Mon. Ullarakenfia, p. iB- y P S A L A. it flands in a private chapel, and is an oblong monument of marble, with wooden pyramids at each angle * i his figure is reprefcnted in marble between thofe of his two firfl wives Catharine and Margaret, whofe remains are interred in the fame tomb. .Born in a private flation, and bred in the fehool of adverfity, Guftavus obtained and deferved a crown by the firfl of all titles, the gratitude of his countrymen, for a feries of long and faithful fervices. Sweden was indebted to him for her deliverance from a foreign yoke, and from the oppreflions of a tyrant, for the abolition of an elective, and the eflablifliment of an hereditary monarchy, and for the introduction of the proteflant religion. An infeription upon the tomb informs us, that Guftavus was born in 1490, chofen adminiflrator of Sweden 1520, elected king 1523, crowned 1528, and that he died 1560, in the 70th year of his age, and in the 40th of a glorious reign. Equally great in the public characters of a le-giflator, warrior, and politician, he diftinguifhed himfelf in every flation of life ; whether we confider his cool intrepidity and enterprifing fpirit, his honefl integrity and political fore-fight, his talents for legiflation, his propenfity to letters, and encouragement of learning, his affability to the loweft ranks, and his folid and enlightened piety. All his great qualities, fet off by a majeftic and graceful perfon, and ftill further heightened by the mofl commanding eloquence, drew the etteem and admiration of all; fo that it may be juftly faid of him, that the moft arbitrary monarch never exercifed a more unbounded fway over his vaffals, than Guflavus pofTefled from the voluntary affection of his free-born fubjects. In a word, he was a fovereign who was efteemed by foreigners no lefs than by his own people, by contemporaries as well as by • There were four pyramids; but one having fallen down, there are only three remaining. Vol, II. B b b pofterity, pofterity, one of the wifeft and bed that ever adorned a throne. Befide feveral infcriptions, and a Latin epitaph in Hexameter verfe, two genealogical tables are engraved upon the tomb, ■which trace his lineage from the antient princes of the North: as if his great virtues did not reflect, rather than borrow, luftre upon the moll confpicuous anceftry. Guftavus is the father of a line of kings, called from him the Houfe of Vafa, whofe pofterity, as enumerated in the following table* ftill fways the Swediih fceptre. Genealogical Genealogical Table of the Kings of Sweden of the Houfe of VasA. I. Guflavus Ericfon Vafa, b. 1490; king 1623 ; d. 1560 : married 1, II. Eric XIV. b. 1533, depofed 1568 ; d. 1 577 ; mar, Catharine Mans. i Guftavus, b. 1568 ; d. in Rufia 1607. Ladifiaus IV. king of Poland. Sigrida, m. Count Tott IV. Sigifmond. b.1566; k. of Poland 1587 i of Sweden 159* ; dethroned 1604. j d. 163a; m. s. Anne daughter of the archduke Charlei ; a. her filler Conftance. '-^-1-- John Cafimir k. of Poland. --1--- I III. John III. b. 1537 ; king 1568, upon the depofition of Eric } d. 1591 : m. 1. Catharine Jaghellon princefs of Poland j z. Sum-mila Bielka. __/-_ ._. Catharine of Saxe Lauenburgh ; ^ _ 2. Margaret Leyonhufwud j 3. Catharine Steinbock. V. Charles IX. b. 1550 j king upon the dethronement of Sigifmond ; d. 1611 ; m. 1. Maria princefs Palatine j 1. Chriftina princefs of Holflein. A____ XIV. Guftavus III. b. 174.6 ; m. 1766 Magdelen Sophia princefs of Denmark. V_ John duke of Eaft Gothland, b. 1589. Catharine, b. 1584 ; d.1638 ; m. Cafimir prince Palatine of the Rhine. r VI. Guftavus Adolphus, b. 1594; d. 163*; m. Maria Eleonora princefs of Brandenburgh. V__ Chriftina Magdalen, m. Frederic VI. margrave of Baden Durlac. V__ -1 John Albert. XIII. Adolphus Frederic, b. 171a; bifhop of Lubec 1717; king «75i ; d. 1771 j m. Louifa Ulrica daughter of Frederic William king of Pruflia. Albertina Frederica, m. Chriftian Atigufhu of the Houfe of Holftein-Eutin. r- 1--- Hedwige Sophia, b. 1681; m. Frederic dute of Holflein Gottorp. V__ VIII. Charles X. Guflavus duke VII. Chriftina, ofDeuxponts; king 1654, b. 1626; upon the abdication of abdicated Chriftina; d. 1660; m. 2654.; d. at Hedwige Eleonora princefs Rome 1689. of Holflein Gottorp. —1 IX. Charl«s XI. b. 1655 ; d. 1697 ; m- Ulrica Eleonora daughter of Frederic III. king of Denmark. ___y\_,____ Charles XII. b. 1682 i d.1718. -As. Charles duke of Suder-manland, b. 1748 ; m. Hedwige princefs of Lubec. Frederic duke of Eaft Gothland, b.1759. Sophia Albertina, b. 1753- Charles Frederic, b. 1700; d. 1739 ; m. Anne daughter of Peter the Great. V__ Charles Peter' Ulrich, emperor of Ruflia, under the name of P#terIII. XL Ulrica Eleonora, b. 1688 ; queen upon the death of Charles XII. abdicated in 1721 in favour of her huiband, XII. Frederic prince of Hefle Caffel. Ulrica d. 174.1 j Frederic 17 51. > > Guftavus Adolphus, b.Nov. j, 1778. O In an adjoining chapel repofe the allies of his fecond font John III. who afcended the throne of Sweden in 1568. He did not owe his elevation to his own great or eminent qualities, but folely to the infanity of his brother Eric XIV. whom he contrived to depofe. This uxorious fovereign, the degenerate fon of Guftavus Vafa, foon loft the affection of his fubjects by his weak and imprudent conduct, and by his attempts to recover Sweden to the Roman Catholic religion. His tender confcience, though it did not prevent him from poi-foning his brother Eric, yet induced him to pay a mod: fcrupulous obedience to the ridiculous penance * ordered by the pope for the commiflion of that murder. Though a bigot in all fects, he feems to have formed no fettled principles of religion, but became by turns a Proteftant and a Catholic, as he was governed by perfons of different perfuafions. During his father's reign he was a zealous Lutheran; while his firfl wife Catharine lived, a fmcere Catholic ; upon his-fecond marriage with a Swedifh lady, who was a Lutheran, his zeal for the eflablifliment of the Roman doctrines fubfided; and at his death he exprefTed an almoft total indifference for the introduction of that new liturgy which he had before been fo active in enforcing, to the hazard of a civil war. A fhort epitaph, after an exaggerated defcription of his military reputation, afcribes to John an accomplifhment which he pofTeiled in an eminent degree, the knowledge of languages. It might have added, an extenfive erudition in all branches of literature (more indeed f, according to the expreflion of a Swedifh hiflorian, than became a fovereign), a graceful perfon, and the moft winning affability of manners. He died in 1592, neither regretted nor efteemed ; configning to his fon Sigifmond king of Poland, together with his unpopularity and fuperflition, the * Namely, to fad one day in the week ; a penance, which, it is faid, he never omrttcd... Dahlin, Vol IV. p. 80. f Dahlin. 5 fceptre fceptre of Sweden without authority; a precarious poiTeflioii, foon to be feized by the father * of Guftavus Adolphus. Under a fuperb monument, creeled to her memory by her doating hufband,. is depofued the body of Catharine Jaghellon, princefs of Poland, and confort of John III. a woman of great beauty and elegant manners. By her unfortunate afcendancy over her uxorious lord, flie occafioned all the religious feuds which difgraced his adminiflration ; and, by inftilling the mofl intolerant principles into her fon Sigifmond, entailed upon this kingdom all the civil troubles which diftracted his reign; and which ended in the lofs of his Swedifh crown. Her attachment to the Roman Catholic religion, in which flie had been educated, was as fincere as it was firm; and would not have been mentioned to her difcredit, if flie had not been inflamed with a blind rage for making profelytes by compulfion, which characterizes the bigotted profeflbrs of that perfuaflon. Her death, which happened in 1583, was friendly to the peace of Sweden, as her compliant hufband, when no longer inflamed by her pre fence, cooled in his attempt to force Popery upon his fubjects j and the heats of religious difpute, which fhe had kindled into a flame, fublided for a time. In a fmall chapel is the fepulchre of the Stures, that illuftrious family whofe extinction has been already related. The aflies of the three Stures, who fell a facrifice to the tyranny of Eric, are diftinguifhed by a monument, which was erected by the widow of count Svante j it contains, befide feveral epitaphs in hexameter verfe, a pathetic infeription in Latin profe. The fubftance whereof is as follows : " This is the burial-place of the laft remaining branch of *' the Stures, whofe antient and royal lineage was illuftrated * Charles IX. third fon of Guflavus Vafa,. ing the father of an hero who gave law tc* who is lefs known for Ins own merits, which Europe., were highly ckferving of a crown", than for be ■ " by Steno, Svante, and Steno, three fucceflive adminiflrators 11 of Sweden; defervedly, for their merits and virtues, flyled '* Fathers of their country. But Svante, fon of the latter Steno, " raifed to the dignity of count at the coronation of Eric XIV. " and his fons Nicholas and Eric, both eminent in war and " peace, fell victims to a violent death on the 4th of May *c 1566. All that was great and noble could not foothe the iron " heart of their fovereign. Reader, if thou art not equally " unfeeling, deplore the unmerited cataftrophe of fuch exalted €t virtue." A tomb, erected in honour of count Oxenftiern, has been miftaken by fome travellers for that which covers the afhes of Axel, the celebrated chancellor of Sweden, who directed the adminiflration of affairs under Guflavus Adolphus, Chriftina, and Charles VIII. one of the greatefl men that Sweden, fertile in great men, ever produced. But his remains were de-pofited in another place*. The perfon who lies interred in this cathedral is his nephew Benedict Oxenftiern, who feems to have inherited the political abilities and great integrity of his uncle. Benedict was born in 1623, and enjoyed the favour of four fucceflive fovereigns j all of whom had the higheft confideration for his talents and abilities. After filling feveral great offices, he was raifed, in 1688, to the higheft civil employment, the chancellorfhip, and died in 1702, in full pofTef-fion of his mafler's confidence and the people's efteem. Falko, the firft archbifhop who was interred in this church, was a great benefactor to the fee ; and is the fame perfon mentioned in the former part of this chapter, who, in 1273, transferred the epifcopal feat from Old to New Upfala. He alfo caufed the bones of his predeceffors to be tranfported from * Axel Oxenftiern died at Stockholm in Tyholm, nnd there interred in the family Auguflt 1654 ; and his remaius were carried to vault. Mem. de Chriiiine, vol. I. p. 483. 3 their their burial-place in Old Upfala, to the cathedral, where chap. they were depofited with great folemnity, and many cere-monies *. The firft Proteftant archbifhop was Laurentius Petri, of the province of Nerike, who, in conjunction with his brother Olaus Petri, firft preached the reformed doctrines to the Swedes, and tranflated the Bible into his native tongue. Soon after the eftablifhment of the Reformation, the introduction of which was greatly owing to his labours, he was, in 15*31, confecrated archbifhop -y and continued to fill the fee with credit until his death, which happened in 1570, in the 73d year of his age. In the facriftary of the cathedral are contained feveral relics, both facred and historical. The latter confift of a few curiofi-ties, which I mall particularize, from their allufion to the hiftory of Sweden. The firft I fhall mention is an old log of wood, rudely carved into the refemblance of a head fcarcely human, and called the image of the god Thor, formerly worshipped in thefe parts, and to whom human facrifices ufed to be offered at Old Upfala. That this image is of very high antiquity fhould feem evident from its rude workmanfhip; and it may probably have been one of the deities to whom the fuperftitious inhabitants paid their public homage ; as, in early ages, and amid a barbarous people, the idols are in general of the coarfeft form. With refpect to the figure, I fhall obferve, that Dahlberg, in his Suecia Antiqua et Hodicrna, has given an engraving of it by far too elegant to bear much refemblance to the original \ but the reader will find a more accurate delineation in Perjnlkiold's Monumenta Vllarekarenfia, in which no foreign embellifhraents are added. A whetftone, feveral feet in length, next attracted my attention j which, as tradition relates, Albert, who in 1434 afcended the throne of Sweden, fent in mockery to Margaret of Walde . * Ferittfkiokl, p. 135, mar, E0^K mar, recommending her to fharpen upon it her own fword, fc—•v—* and the weapons of all her army: a taunt which he would willingly have retracted, when routed and taken prifoner by the very woman whom he affected to defpife. The third curiofity was a ragged ftripe of linen, fattened to a ftaff like a pair of colours, called the fhift of Margaret; which was carried in battle as the main ftandard, in order to animate the troops by the recollection of her martial fpirit. Thefe remains were preferved at Nuremburg, brought from thence when that town was taken by the Swedes, and depofited in the cathedral of Upfala, in honour of the Semiramis of the North. How this fhift was firfl procured by the inhabitants of Nuremberg, why it was there confidered as a relic, and the exact period when it was imported into Sweden, I mufl leave to be afcertained by thofe who are difpofed to trace its hiflory and adventures. I did not learn, however, that it has ever had the honour of giving a name to any particular colour, like the fhift of Ifabella queen of Caflile. The kings of Sweden were formerly crowned in this cathedral ; but that ceremony is now performed at Stockholm, Charles XII. being the laft monarch who was inaugurated at Upfala. This town is particularly celebrated for its univerfity, the mofl antient in Sweden. In 1246 Birgerjarl eflablifhed a fchool at Upfala ; and in 1478 Steen Sture, adminiftrator of Sweden, laid the firfl foundation of the univerfity ; the plan whereof had been formed, but not carried into execution, by Eric of Pomerania 5 the regulations were modelled after thofe of Paris. The inflitution was confirmed in a diet which met at Strain-gnaes on the 2d of July; and the univerfity was opened with due ceremony on the 7th of October in the fame year *. Guflavus Vafa warmly patronized it, as being the place in which * Dahlia, Vol. IL p. 610. he he had completed his education ; and as it was greatly fallen into decay, he conferred upon it fo many additional privileges, and endowed it in fo ample a manner, that he is juftly called its fecond founder. Under John III. it was transferred to Stockholm ; but again reflored to Upfala by Charles IX. * During the conftant wars in which that prince was engaged with his rival Sigifmond king of Poland, it confiderably declined ; but was again revived by Guftavus Adolphus, whofe extenfive knowledge and protection of letters are loft in the fplendour of his military atchievements. That great monarch, befide conftrueting a large building at his own ex-pence, endowed the univerfity with his patrimonial eftate of Vafa; by which donation the falaries of the profeffors were augmented, and 150 fludents maintained. His example was followed by his fucceflbrs, as well as by feveral individuals; and as the funds have increafed, the number of fcholars fup-portcd by them have been confiderably enlarged. At the head of the univerfity is a chancellor (who is always a perfon of high rank and confequence), chofen by the profeffors, and confirmed by his Majefty: he regulates and explains the flatutes ; compofes all material differences; and delivers all petitions and meflages from the body to the king. When he is abfent, his office is fupplied by the archbifhop of Upfala. The prefidency devolves by rotation upon one of the profeflbrs, who is flyled Reclor Magnificus : he is a kind of juftice of peace; can puniili the fludents for fmall delinquencies, by fending them to prifon ; and fettles fuch differences as are too trifling to be laid before the confiftory. The univerfity has its own court of juftice, called Confijlorium Minus, for the trial of the fludents and dependents: it is com-pofedofa certain number of profeflbrs, and judges mifdemeanors according to common law. An appeal lies from its dccifion to * MefT. Scon. Illuf. Tom. IV. p. 37. Dahlin. Vol. II. Ccc a Con* a Conjtjlorium Majus, which is formed by all the-profeflbrs; and from that in the laft refort to the chancellor. The profeflbrs are about twenty in number, of whom the principal are thofe of divinity, eloquence, botany, anatomy, chymiflry, natural philofophy, aflronomy, and agriculture. Their falaries are from £ 70 to £ ioa per annum. Upon a vacancy in any of the chairs, one of three candidates, chofen by their body, is nominated by the king. During each term the profeffors give four public lectures in the week gratis; and the fame number of private lectures, for which they receive from each of thofe who attend the flipulated fum of five fhillings. A profeffor, who has continued in office for the fpace of thirty years, is allowed to retire with the title of Emeritus, and enjoys his falary during life. Youth are admitted into the univerfity of Upfala at about the age of fixteen, for the completion of their academical flu-dies. They do not inhabit, as in our univerfities, any diflinct college or colleges, there being no buildings for their accommodation, but lodge in the town j and repair to the general or private lectures, given by the feveral profeflbrs, either at their own houfes, or at the public halls appropriated to fuch pur-pofes. The poorer fludents are aflifted in their expences by being appointed to fcholarfhips, called Jlipe?2dia j fome inftitutcd by the crown, others by private perfons, but generally allotted for the natives of particular provinces. The higheft in value of thefe fcholarfhips amount to about £13 per annum. The common degrees, granted by this univerfity, are Philofophie Candidates, which anfwers to a Batchelor of Arts ; and Philojbphiz Magijler, to a Mafter of Arts. A fludent ought to be 24 years of age, in order to be admitted to his firft degree; but this rule is not flrictly obferved. Before he receives it, he muft undergo feveral examinations from various profeflbrs, and compofe a Latin thefis, which he is bound to defend in the fchools. Having ing taken his firfl degree, he may immediately enter upon his exercifes for the fecond, which confift in another Latin thefts, in holding a public difputation, and reading a lecture in the fame language. The graduates in divinity, law, and phyfic, are ftyled Tbeoiogm, &c. Candidates, Licentiates, and Doclor. The doctors of law and phyfic, in order to obtain their degrees, pafs certain examinations, and hold public acts in their refpective profcflions, fomewhat fimilar to thofe paffed by the maftersof arts; and the fame forms are required from the doctors of divinity, unlefs, as is the ufual practice, they are created by the univerfity upon the king's mandate. There is no academical difcipline, the fludents being only liable to be punifhed by the prefident and confillory, according to the common law, for mifdemeanors and delinquencies. One inflitution, however, preferves fome degree of order and fubor-dination, the divifion of the fludents into provincial claffes according to their refpective counties. Each clafs has a profeffor at its head, called Injpeclor, and two fubdirectors, ftyled Cura-tons: the other members are divided into Seniores and Juniores; the former of whom attend to, and, in fome meafure, regulate the conduct of the latter. Each clafs aflembles feparately, in the houfe of its particular profeffor, at leafl fix times in the year, and oftener if occafion requires. On thefe meetings the fludents pafs certain exercifes, which they who do not perform cannot be raifed to the rank of feniors. Though the fludents* have ordinarily no regular drefs, yet, on certain occafions, and particularly when they take their mailer's degree, they appear in a black filk cloak ; they ought alfo, according to the flatutes of the univerfity, to put on the fame drefs when they keep their acts; but for this omiffion they ufually pay a fmall fine. The profeffors are, in days of ceremony, clad in black cloaks; the doctors of divinity are diftinguifhed by a hat of black filk; the doctors of law by one of C c c 2 white book white filk; and thofe of phyfic by one of green or fky-blue v-^j filk. The number of fludents vary every year, as in all fluctuating bodies ; but upon an average may be flated at about five hundred*, as may be collected from the following table: Spring Term. Augufl: Term. Admiffions. N° of StudentJ Admiffions N° of Students. Aas. In 1768 79 557 — 99 493 1769 94 552 — 116 568 54 1770 127 649 — 87 461 68 1771 106 492 —- 88 488 45 1772 99 538 — 97 470 44 1773 130 569 — 83 563 62 ■ >7?4 137 604 — 102 594 36 1775 *33 628 — 6 57 64 1776 103 575 — 110 5'4 9* 1777 1*5 53i —- 113 54i Sl During this period of ten years were created 40 doctors in divinity, 23 in phyfic, and 151 in arts; and 47 thefes were printed, which had been read before the univerfity. This univerfity, juflly called by Stillingfleet, " that great, and hitherto unrivaled, fchool of natural hiflory,1' is certainly the firfl feminary of the North for academical education 5 and has produced, from the time of its inftitution, perfons eminent in every branch of fcience. The learned publications, which have lately been given to the world by its members, fufficiently prove the flourifliing flate of literature in thefe parts; and the thefes, compofed by the fludents upon their admiflion to their degrees, would form a very intcrcfling collection. Many of thefe tracts, upon various fubjects of polite literature, antiquities, languages, 8cc. which have fallen under my obfervation, evidence the erudition and tafle of the refpective authors: among the works of this fort, which have widely diffufed the fame of this learned fociety throughout Europe, are the Amanitates Acade- * Chronick der Univerfitat Upfala in Sehloctzer's Briefwcchfel, III. p. 166. micxy. mica, or a Collection of chefes upon Natural HHlory, held under C**AP. the celebrated Linnajus, and chiefly felected by that able maf- <—> ter. Dr. Pultcney, in the View of his Writings, gives the following account of this work : <( In the year 1749 was publifhed " the firft volume of a collection of Thefes in octavo, under the *' title of Amwnitates Academics, feu Differtationes varia, Phyfics, ,{ Me die a, et Botarnca. This publication has been continued, from " time to time, to the completion of the feventh volume in " the year 1769. Thefe volumes, as foon as publifhed, were regularly reprinted in Germany and Holland. It is fuppofed u the firfl volume was not originally collected by Linnaeus him-" fclf; but he at leafl reprinted it very early, and, that he u might not be defrauded of the advantage of thefe publica-'* tions, he became the editor of all the fuccceding volumes. As thefe academical difTertations had been recited before Lin-u naeus in his profefforial character, and were felected by him-,{ felf, they have been regarded as of equal authority nearly *' with his own writings; and many of them do in a particular '* manner illuflrate and exemplify divers parts of his works, " the fubjects having been pointed out by himfelf in many in* " fiances for that purpofe. For thefe reafons we fhall, in the * courfe of this volume,, give a very brief account of the pur-'* port of each diflertation, fince they contain a great variety of 11 curious intelligence on the fubjects of phyfic and natural hif-11 tory, every where digefted in the mofl fcicntific tafle *J9 The library contains many valuable books and manufcripts. Glaus Celfius, in a publication upon this fubject f, informs us-, that it owes its origin to Guflavus Adolphus, who prefented the univerfity as well with his own private collection, which was very confiderable, as with feveral libraries obtained in the different countries which he had over-run with his arms -y it being, his cuftom to referve for himfelf, in all towns taken by florm, * General View of the writings of Linnani?, p. 45. p. 221 to 373, ■\ Bib.. UpfaJ. Hiftoria. the books efpecially, as his fhare of the plunder*. Thus the Jciuits' library at Riga, that at Wurflenburgh, and thofe of many other conquered towns in Poland, Germany, and Pruflia, were tranfmitted to Upfala. His example was followed by his fucceffors; and thus the victorious arms of Sweden enriched the kingdom with thefe literary acquifitions. Olaus mentions Chriftina as a confiderable benefactrefs to this library, and enumerates many private donors; among whom the moft confpi-cuous are count Magnus de la Gardie, and Sparwenfieldt, the learned traveller f, whofe curious collection, confifting, among others, of many rare Arabian, Syriac, and Coptic manufcripts, has been thought worthy of a feparate publication. Among the moft valuable pieces of literary curiofity is a manufcript of the Four Gofpels, called, from its filver letters, Codex Argenteus\ and fuppofed to be a copy of the Gothic tranflation made by Ulphilas, the apoftle of the Goths, in the fourth century. I examined this curious volume with great attention. It is of a quarto fize ; the leaves, which I fcarcely know whether to call vellum, parchment, or papyrus J, are ftained with a violet colour; and upon this ground the letters, which are all capitals, were afterwards painted in filver, excepting the initial characters and a few paffages in gold. I was convinced, from a clofe infpection, that each letter was painted, and not formed ||, as fome authors have aliened, by a hot iron upon leaves of gold and filver. Moft of the golden characters were become green by time; but the filver letters are ftill in good preservation. The Codex is mutilated in feveral places; but what remains is, for the moft part, perfectly legible. * Ingentem curl argentiquc prcedam militi- By Michaclis, a manufcript on vellum, p. 160. bus rcliquilfet rex, fibi folos refervavit libros, || They appeared to mc to be drawn, or quos fine mora in patriam mifit, Upfalicnfi Bib. painted, in the fame manner as the initial let- liothccfc inferendos. Bib. Upfd. Hiftoria, p. z 1. ters in feveral of the fineft Milfals, and not f Catalogus Centuria; Lib. rarilf. &c. ftamped, as the learned Mr. Ihre conjectures, X Le Long Bib. S;ic. where it is called by or imprinted on the vellum with hot mctnl different perfons, Codex Membranaccus, Codi - types, in the like manner :is the bookbinders at rem in pergameno, Codex in papyro cxaratas. prefent letter the backs of books. See North. In the Bib;. Up. Codex mcmbrana rubra, p, 116. Ant. Vol. I. p. 367. This This manufcript was, in 1597, firft difcovered in the library c of the Benedictine Abbey of Werdcn in Weft phalia, by Anthony 1 Marillon, who extracted from it a few paflages which were inferted in a Commentary on the Gothic alphabet publifhed by Bonaventura Vulcanius. Soon afterwards Arnold Mercator obferved it in the fame library, and transcribed alio a few verfes, which Gruter* gave to the world in his Tnfcripttmes An-tlqu£. From the Abbey of Werden it was transferred to Prague during the fhort period in which that town was occupied by Frederic Elector Palatine. In 1640, Prague being flormed by the Swedes, it was found among the literary fpoils by count Konigfmark, and fent as a moft valuable prefent to Chriftina. The queen is faid to have given it to Ifaac Voflius ; but it is moft probable that the crafty Dutchman took it without per-miflion, among many other rare books and manufcripts, when he pillagedf her majefty's library during the confufion which preceded her abdication. Upon the death of VofTius it was purchafed from his executor by count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie for about £250, and prefented by him to the univerfity of Upfala, where it now remains. Three editions of the Codex Argcnteus have been given to the public, the firft printed at Dort, the fecond at Stockholm, and the third at Oxford. The firft was iffued at Dort in 1665, by Francis Junius, who borrowed the manufcript from Voflius, and was accompanied with Obfcrvations and a Gloflary, by Thomas Marfhall. In this edition the text was a fac fimile of the original %. The fecond edition, publifhed at Stockholm, • Gruter Inf. Ant. p. 146. He calls it is fuppofed to have pilhiged from Chriftina's Gothica vel-Germanica. The curious reader, library. who compares the text in Gruter with that of % Another impreflion of this work is fuppofed - the fimilar paflages in Lye, will obfcrve con- to have been printed at Amftcrdam in 1672 ; but fiderable inaccuracies in the former. this is in reality the fame as the former, with t Memoires de Chiiftine, vol. I. p. 308. In nothing more than another title-page, affixing the library at Leytlen is ftill preferved a cu- a new date and place of impreflion, according rious collection, called Furta Vojftana, which he to a fraud not unfrcquent among bookfcllers. 5 , 10J2,, 3S4 TRAVELS INTO S W £ D E N. look 1672, by the learned Stiernhiclm, differs from that of Junius, *—it—' in giving the text in Latin, and not in Gothic characters. Notwithstanding the reputation of thofe two learned editors for their critical fkill and exaetnefs, yet Benzelius, firft librarian of the univerfity, and afterwards archbifhop of Upfala, upon comparing their texts with that of the original, difcovered fo many falfe readings and omiflions, that he again collated the manufcript, rectified the miftakes, and made a literal tranflation in the Latin tongue. And as the Gothic types of the firft edition publifhed by Junius were preferved at Oxford, he tranfmitted thefe collations and tranflation, together with various obfervations, to Mr. Edward Lye of Oxford, who had already diftinguifhed himfelf by his knowledge of the antient Northern languages *. The work was cheerfully undertaken, and faithfully executed, by that judicious fcholar; and the third edition made its appearance in the year 1750, printed at the Clarendon prefs. To the obfervations of Benzelius, Mr. Lye added many learned remarks upon the text and verfion, and a Gothic Grammar. This impreflion is eftecmed, by thofe who have had it in their power to compare it with the original Codex, a moft complete work, and redounding greatly to the honour of the editor's accuracy. The Codex Argenteus has given rife to a curious controverfy among the learned. In the examination of this manufcript, different perfons have thought that they difcovered afimilitude in the characters to thofe of the Greek, Latin, Finniih, Runic, Danifli, German, or Gothic; each adopting an opinion according to his favourite hypothecs, and referring its original to the anccftors of his own country. Nor is this a matter of any furprife; for as the barbarous nations, who were converted to Chriflianity by the Greeks and Romans, received from ihem either a new alphabet, or, at leafl, feveral new charac- * Hift. Bib. Up. ters; rers; it ncceiTarily follows, that mofl; of the antient letters C ufed by the Goths, Franks, Huns, Sclavonians, and other bor- v dcring nations, mufl: bear in many points a great affinity to each other, fo that a framer of a fanciful fyftem may readily conceive a refemblance in the whole, which exifls only in a few parts. But without entering into an inquiry which may lead us too far, the queflion concerning the original tongue of the Codex Argenteus is reduced to two opinions; the firft, that it is written in the fame language and character as were ufed in the fourth century by the Goths of rVFefia, the ancedors of the prefent Swedes, and is a true copy of the verfion made by Ulphi-las; the fecond, that it is a tranflation in the Frankifh idiom. The firfl opinion is flrongly fupported by Junius, Stiernhelm, David Wilkins, Benzelius, and Lye; the fecond, as warmly defended by liickes, La Croze, Wetftein, and Michaelis. To enter into a difcuflion of all the arguments advanced on both fides with equal erudition, would require a larger compafs than the nature of this work will admit; and to give a partial ab (tract of them would only invalidate their refpective flrength. Thus much is certain, that as the reafonings admit not of any pofitive evidence on either fide, but are chiefly drawn from vague conjectures, an unprejudiced inquirer will find it no eafy matter to form a decifivc and fatisfactory judgment. I fhall refer, therefore, the inquifitive reader, for further information, to the feveral writers upon this fubject; and fhall add only, that with refpect to my own opinion, after having minutely weighed the arguments on each fide, I am inclined to affent to the notion that the Codex Argenteus* is a copy of the very original verfion made by Ulphilas in the Gothic idiom. I was once indeed leaning to the opinion of its * See the feveral editions of the Codex Ar- end of Chambcrlayne's Orat. Dom. p. 136. genteus by Junius, Stiernhelm, and Lye, Wetftein's Proleg. in Nov. Teft. feet. 68 to Hickes Gramm. Mxfo Gothica in his Thefau- 71. Bib. Up. Hift. p. 116 to 123. Le Long, ms Ling. Sept. La Croze Dilf. Phiiol. at the Bib. Sac. Vol. II. p. 140 and 538. Vol. II. D d d being book being a Frankifli verf;on, but was induced to alter myjudg-v—1 meat from the arguments of Benzelius and Lye, in the Pic-face to the Oxford edition*, and efpecially from a very ingenious treatife, publifhed by Ihref, by which it appears, that feveral fpecimens of the Oftrogothic tongue have been lately difcovered in Italy, which perfectly refemble both the characters and language of the verfion in the Codex Argenteus. But to whichsoever fide we may incline, as both the Gothic and Frankifh idioms were dialects of the Teutonic or German, this manufcript mult be considered as the mod antient fpecimen extant of that language. Its antiquity has been unquef-tionably proved without a diflenting voice. They who conclude it to be the verfion of Ulphilas, mult of courfe hold it to have been made in the middle of the fourth century; and even thofe authors $ who contend for its being a Frankiflx tranflation, allow it to have been copied in the reign of Chil-peric between 564 and 5S7. Its high antiquity is proved, as well from its containing the doxology at the end of the Lord's Prayer, in the thirteenth verfe of the fixth chapter of St.. Matthew, which is not to be found in any of the mofl antient verfions, as from its interpreting many paflages in a fimilar manner with feveral of the Latin tranflations which are known to have been antecedent to the vulgate of St. Jerome |], Another circumflance worthy of notice, and which enhances its value, is, that it was undoubtedly tranflated from the original Greek, and not from any of the Latin verfions §> We will not detain the reader with idle conjectures from Watchtcrus % that this fplendid Codex belonged to Alaric the Gothic king of Touloufe v or of Papebroch **, that it was the identical cxem- * Preface to Lye's Sac. Evan. Vers. Goth. || Le Long, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol'. IL. f Monumentum veteria linguae Oftrogothiccc p. 142. Nc^.poli baud pridem repeituiiii, &c. In Act. § Prcfatio in Lye, cap. 3.; and Michaclis* Nov. Reg. Soc. Scicn. Upfal, Vol. III. Sec Lectures^, p. 165. 0o Dahlia; Vol. I. P. 204. ^ Bib.*Up. Hift. p. 118. £ La Croze and Michaclis. *-* Le Long, Vol.. II. p. 531. 5 plar, TJ P S A L A. S^7 plar, which the emperor Valens prefented to Fritigcrn, gene- chap. ral of the Vifigoths eftablifhed in Mifta ; but fhall conclude by obferving, that to whomfoevcr it belonged, or by whomfoever tranflated, it muft be confidcrcd as-a work of great authority, and a literary trcafure of high antiquity *. In this library two original manufcripts of the unfortunate Eric XIV. caught my attention. They arc in Latin, and were compofed in 1566 and 1567, the two years which immediately preceded his depofition. They contain his aftronomical, or rather aflrological, obfervations and predictions, written with I113 own hand, after his daily examination of the ftate of the heavenly bodies. The names of his brothers occur frequently, accompanied with great marks of fufpicion and diftruft, and the deaths of feveral perfons are predicted. Some hiftorical facts are blended occafionally with the obfervations ; and thefe notes afford a moft convincing proof of the diffracted ftate of Eric's mind, at the fame time that they difcover evident traces of his great learning and extenfive erudition. Upon examining a few of his notes, I was flruck with the refemblance between him and the emperor Rhodolph IL Both thefe fovereigns began their reigns with the faireft hopes j both were not only the zealous protectors of learning, but even men of letters themfelves, as well verfed in polite literature, as fkilled in the ab-flrufer fcienccs [ ; both were ftrongly addicted to judicial aftrology, and drawing from the various combinations of the * Another fragment of this curious manu- *' rimis fcientiis ita inftrucTus, ut majorem Script, containing a few chapters of JJt. Paul's " ccrte a Uteris quam a fceptro gloriam re- Kpillle to the Romans, was found at Wolfen- " portaverit." Bib. Upf. Hill. p. 4. And buttle, and is now preferved in the library of Voltaire fays as juftly of Rhodolph II. « Jja that town, where I faw it in 1777. The ori- " philofophic qu'il cultivait, lui avait appris ginal letters were partly crafed and written " tout ce qu'on pouvait favoir alors, excepte i upon. See Nonnulla cap. Epif. Pauli ad Rom. * remplir fes devoirs de Souverain. U aimait published at Brunfwick by Fran. Anton. Kni- " beaucoup mieux s'inftruire avec lc fameux tell. * Ticho Brahc, que tcnir les etats de Hon- t Celfius fays of Eric XIV. " Erat ille pin- " grie ct de Bolierae." Hift, Univ. c. 147. D d d 2 heavenly heavenly bodies a prcfage of their own good or ill fortune, in the moft common as well as the moft important occurrences of life. Both were jealous, even to mifery, of their relations and fubjects ; and both were at length depofed by their brothers, whom they had driven by their fufpicious to confpire againft them; with this difference only, that Rhodolph, though compelled to renounce the imperial throne in favour of Matthias, yet remained king of Bohemia until his death, and was not, like Eric, imprifoned and murdered. Rhodolph, in^ deed, though equally jealous and fufpicious, was not guilty of fuch excefles and cruelties as difgrace the reign of Eric ; but both were equally incapable of governing, though endowed with excellent underftandings, and acquainted with every branch of fcience. There are in this library of Upfala few manufcripts of the claflics of much importance ; but the printed editions are numerous and good. Having defired the librarian to fhew mc the firft book printed in Sweden, he pointed out to me Dialogus Creaturarum mo-ralizatus, put forth at Stockholm in 14S3, by John Sncll, a German printer, invited into Sweden by the adminiftrator Stecn Sture, Before I clofe my account of the univerfity library, I muft take notice of a beautiful cabinet of ebony and cyprefs, ornamented with precious ftones, which was prefented, in 1632, by the city of Augfburgh to Guftavus Adolphus. It contains, among other pieces of curiofity, a large agate, two fpans long, and one and an half broad. On one part of the ftone is painted the Day of Judgment; and on another the Tallage of the Ifraelites through the Red Sea. The figures are done in a very good ftyle of colouring, fimilar to that ufed by the German painters immediate fucceflbrs of Albert Durer. The artift has very ingeniously exprefTed the clouds and the water by the natural; natural tints and fhades of the Hone ; and indeed they re-prefent, with as much boldnefs and nature as the finefl: painting could effect:, the wall of water fufpended for a paffage to the Ifraelitcs, and the waves rolling back with fury upon Pharaoh and his holt. The artifl, whofe name was John King, has drawn his own portrait lying at the feet of the pope among the bled in heaven. I hold myfelf greatly indebted to the polite attention of Mr. Eric Michael Jant, fub-librarian, who kindly accompanied me to the library, and favoured me in the readied manner with every poffible information. He was fo obliging as to prefent me with feveral tracts upon the Icelandic, Lapland, and other Northern languages, Cclfius's account of the library of Upfala^ and other rare difTertations ; from which I have drawn confU derable intelligence. I waited, with a letter of recommendation, upon Mr. Bergman, profeffor of chemiftry in the univerfity, whofe fame flands high among the learned of all nations, and whofe re? putation is defervcdly eftablifhed for his ufeful and accurate refearchcs, as well in his own laboratory, as in every branch of natural hiflory. The learned profeffor received me with great politenefs and cordiality, and fhewed me his cabinet,, which is particularly rich in Swedifh minerals. He obligingly communicated to me much intelligence, in a very long and interefling converfation which I had the pleafure of holding with him, and which made me regret that my flay in Up* fala was fo fhort, that I could not derive any further information from a perfon of fuch general and accurate knowledge-. Upon my return to the inn, I immediately noted down the principal heads of the difcourfe ; the fubflance whereof I fhall here literally transcribe from my journal. In anfwer to my inquiries concerning the flate of the Swedifh mines, he. informed me, that there were as well gold and filver. book vcr? as copper and iron mines: the produce of the firft, though »—-v-^ very inconfidcrable, is remarkable for yielding the native gold in a calcareous matrix. Thofe of the filver are fomewhat more profitable; but the quantity of ore is greatly diminifhcd within thefe late years. The copper mines of Eahlun are extremely rich; but I could not remember the general ftate of their produce, and the average proportion of metal drawn from an hundred weight of ore. With refpecT to the iron mines, the moft important of all the native productions of Sweden, thofe of Danamora are the fineft for the quality of the metal, although they are not fo rich as feveral in Lapland ; the latter fometimes producing even 90 pounds of pure iron in an hundred weight of ore. The poorcft of Danamora yield 30 pounds, and the richer! from 60 to 70, in an hundred. The iron of this celebrated mine is in the higheft eftimation, and is chiefly exported to England for the fteel manufactures. The matrix of this ore is a calcareous earth, a very remarkable circumflance ; and which, in conjunction with other caufes not yet difcovered, is perhaps one occafion of the fuperior quality of its metal. He added, that in general the iron mines of Sweden are found to run in veins, a few in Lapland excepted, which do not branch out in longitudinal directions, but confift of immenfe maffes of ore *. I next inquired concerning the quantity of granite rock, which I had obferved in different pans of Sweden, as well lying in detached maffes, as forming ridges of mountains : to which the profeffor made anfwer, that granite is the bafis of the country, particularly of the Northern parts ; that hills of gravel and fand, and calcareous ftone, containing * To theft may be added the noted moun- Tranfaclions, Vol. XLIX. There is alfo an lain Taberg in Smaland, which is one mafs of account of this infulated mafs of ore in the rich iron ore. It is above 400 feet high, and Afts of the Royal Academy of Stockholm* three Englifh miles in circumference. A de- Vol. XXI. for the year 1760, communicated fcription of this mountain, and a view of it, by M. Tillas. This mine has been worked fent by Dr. Afcanius to the late Mr. Peter for 200 years paft. Collinfon, was publifhed in the Philofophical petre- pet refactions of fhclls, are indeed not unfrequent, but gene- c rally repofe upon granite ; that the granite is both red and grey; that the former more readily- crumbles and decom-pofes by the lapfc of time \ and that almoft all the old Runic monuments exifting in the country are of the grey fpecies, which is by far the moft durable *. The Royal Society at Upfala is the oldeft literary academy of that kind in the North. It took its rife in the year 1720, upon the following occafion. Benzelius % librarian to the univerfity, and afterwards archbifhop of Upfala, undertook, in conjunction with fome other learned men, a review, as well of all books publifhed in Sweden, or by Swedes abroad, as of thofe works printed in foreign countries, which had any relation to this kingdom. As this publication contained affo, befide the mere reviews, a few original acts, it was called Acla Litcraria Suec'w\ and was carried on upon this plan for ten years. At the end of that period, namely, in 1730, the tranfactions were no longer confined to a review of books, but confifted entirely of original acts and difTertations; and the fociety, now patronized by the king, ftyled itfelf, in the dedication to his Majefty, Societas Regia; and its tranfactions, which came out annually, Acla Litcraria et. Scientiarum Succix. In 1740 it afTumed the title of Societas Rrgia Litcraria et Scientiarum Upfalienfts, adopting the laft cxprellion inftead of Suecia, in order to diftinguilh it from the Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, inftitutcd in 1739, which was denominated Societas Regia Suec'w. The fociety continued its publications upon the fame plan until 1750, when it ceafed; but was again revived in 1773, at which period its * For fome account of profefior Bergman's unlvci fity, an office which he held for 22 years, works, fee Chapter VIH. of this book. In 1724 he was nominated -profjflbr of divi- -!• Eric Ben/elius was born at Upfala in nity; afterwards fucceffively created biihop of 167 where he began and completed his Gotheborg, Lindkioping, and archbilhop of tidies. Having travelled into Germany, Upfala. He died in 1743, aged 70. Celfii- England, and France, he returned to Upfala Bib. Up. Hid. p. 149. in 1 '02, and wai appointed librarian to the tranf* E o o K tranfactions were ifTued under the title of Nova Jcla Regie S octetath VII. . . 'Scientiarum Upfalienjis. Thefe acts make their appearance in fe- parate parts, which are not put forth regularly every year, but only occafionally, as there are a fufficient number of difTertations, and as the fociety, which has no fund, can afford the expence of printing. They are all written in the Latin tongue, and printed in quarto. The original numbers, namely, thofe iffued from 1720 to 1750, arc comprifed in fix volumes. The new acts already publifhed are in four parts: the firft appeared in 1773 ; and the laft in 1783. Many of thefe difTertations have confiderable merit ; they treat of a great variety of fubjects, as well relative to the hiftory, antiquities, and languages of the North, as to natural hiftory. They contain feveral papers written by Linnaeus and Bergman. Eefore I quitted Upfala, I made an exeurfion to the place where the kings of Sweden were anticntly elected j it lies about feven miles from the town, in the middle of a plain called Mora, and is ftill marked by the remains of feveral mutilated ftones, one whereof is known in Swedifh hiftory by the appellation of Morafteen, or the Stone of Mora; upon which the fovcreigns were enthroned with all due folemnity, and received the homage of their fubjects. Their name and the date of the year when this ceremony was performed was at the fame time inferibed upon another ftone, as a public memorial of their election. This appears from a very curious certificate * made by * " In nomine Domini, Amen. Anno, a Na- " gati me notarium fubferiptum requifivit, lit " tivitate ejufdem MCDXXX, III Die Mentis " affumtis iifdem teftibus accctftrem ad lapi-*' Maii, bona vefperarum vcl quail. Pontifica- " dem vulgaritcr dictum Morefteen, in quo & " tus Sancliflimi in Chrifto Patris ac Domini " fuper quern Reges Succiae de novo eJecti fta-" D. Eugcnii Papse IV. anno IV. in nova " tim poft eorum elcctionem confueverunt ab *' domo Capitulari ante Valvas Ecclefife Upfa- " antiquiflimis lemporibus fublimari & in-" lenfis fita, in mei notarii public! teftiumque " thrcnifari.invcftigaturus ibidem annum elec-" fubferiptorum prccfentia pcrfonaliter confli- " tionis in Regem Succioe illuftriffimi principts ** tutus venerabilis D. Petrus, archiepifcopus " domini Erici Regis modcr-ni, fgCFDOemOra-** ecclefiae Upfalenfis, nomine-& ex parte capi- " tus notarius infra fcriptus una cum teftibus '* tali di$£ ecclefia: Upfal ibidem tunc congre- *' fubferiptis ftatim ad dictum lapidem Mora- " fteen by a public notary, who, in 1630, at the requeft of the arch- chap. bifhop of Upfala, examined the Morafteen, to afcertain the year u~y~j in which Eric of Pomerania was raifed to the throne. When I vifited the fpot, I obferved ten flones, the largefl whereof was only fix fpans long, two broad, and two thick, and which tradition reports to be the Morafteen. The others are exceedingly fmall. I could trace upon feveral the figures of a crofs and globe coarfely carved; and upon one, in particular, which was very antient, the three crowns, the arms of Sweden. I difcovered a few traces of inferiptions, feemingly in Gothic characters, but fo imperfect, that I did not attempt to * decypher them. A few years ago thefe remains of Swedifh antiquity were covered only with a wooden fhed; but they are now preferved in a brick building, conflrueted at his prefent majefly's expence in honour of his royal anceflors. An infeription in Swedifh upon the infide walls enumerates the names of the feveral kings who were enthroned upon this fpot. They are king Euge, 1060, with whom this cuflom is laid to have taken its rife ; king Magnus Ladilas, D. 1.1276 ; Magnus Smek, D. 11, 1319? Eric XIII. 1396; Chrillopher, 1441; Charles VIII. 1448; Cbriftian I. 1457 ; Steno Sture, adminiflrator of Sweden, 1512. Olaus Magnus relates, that the Morafteen was placed in the midfl of twelve other flones in a circle. Camden thus defcribes a fimilar monument near the village of Saint Buriens, in Corn- " fteen extra civitatem Upfalcnfem ad unum " erat) fuper quihus omnibus ct fingulis pra*- " milliare in piano campo fitum acceft*i et ho- " fatus Petrus archiepifcopus nomine, quo fu- *< norabilem virum D. Johannem Matthias, " pra, me notarium publicum requifivit nt «« curatum ecclcfiae Danmark, quae dicto lapidi " unum vel plura, publicum vel publica fuper «< vicina eft ecclefra in teftem aflumfi, etfculp- " prsemiflis conikcrem inlhumcntum vel in- «• turam cujufdam lapidi s dicTto antiquo laoidi V ftrumenta." Hulberg, Vol. I. p. 500. ** Morafteen fupcrimpofiti diligenter infpexiet *' Some perfons have given an explanation per teftes infra fcriptos infpici feci ^flft>rce- of thefe inferiptions, fuch as the before-men- tf cifc, ut loquitur, in eodem lapide inlfeulptum tioned one of Eric; alfo A. D. 1448^. 28 " inveni. Anno Domini MCCCXCVI. elec- Junii electus eft nobilis Vir D: us Carolus Ca- ** tus eft in Regem SueCME in hoc loco illultris nuti, Miles, natione Suecus in Regem Sueciae. " Rex Dominus Ericus calendarum Augufti Dahlin, Vol. L 167. " (locus autempro numero calendarum /acuus Vol. II. Eee wall. book wall. " Not far from hence, in a place called Bifcaw-woune, LJ-Vn^_f " are nineteen flones fet in a circle, about twelve foot diflant ** one from another ; and in the center there Hands one much '* larger than any of the reft. One may probably conjecture " this to have been fome trophy of the Romans under the later '« emperors ; or of Athelftan, the Saxon, after he had fubdued ** Cornwall Olaus Wormius, however, more ingenioufly conjectures, from the fimilarity of this monument to the Mora-Jhen> and others in Sweden and Denmark, that it was the place where the antient Anglo-Saxon kings were elected and en^ throned j\ CHAP. VII. Botanical garden of Upfala.—Biographical memoirs of Linnaeus. TH E botanical garden of Upfala, to which place I had the pleafure of being accompanied by the fon of Linnaeus, is fmall, but laid out with judgment; and the collection of plants, particularly exotics, is numerous. I could not avoid regarding with enthufiafm this fpot of ground, rendered celebrated by the refidence of Linnams; of whom it may be faid, without exaggeration, that, in the natural hiftory of the globe, he left nothing unexplored. I flatter myfelf, that many of the following authentic anecdotes of this great naturalift are entirely new to the Englifh reader%. Carl * Britannia, edit. 1695,^.6. trafted from a German tranflation of his f Monumcnta Danica, p. 90. Commemoration-Speech, delivered on the 5th I This account of .Linnaeus is chiefly ex^ of December, 1778, by Dr. Back, in the king's prefence, Carl Von Linne, or, as he is more known to foreigner's, Linnaeus, the deleft fon of Nils Linnaeus, a Swedifh divine, was born on the 24th of May 1707, at Raefliult, in the province of Smo-land. His inclination for the ftudies in which he afterwards made fo wonderful a progrefs, commenced at a very early period of his life, and took its rife from the following circumflance : His father ufed to amufe himfelf in the garden of his parfonage with the cultivation of plants and flowers. Linnaeus, while an infant, was foon led to take a fhare in this entertainment ; and, before he was fcarcely able to walk, expreffed extreme fatisfaetion when he was permitted to accompany him into the garden. As his flrength increafed, he delighted in digging and planting: and afterwards obtained for his own ufe a fmall portion of ground, which was called Charles's garden. He foon learnt to diftinguifh the different flowers; and, before he had attained the tenth year of his age, made fmall ex-curfions in the neighbourhood of Rxfhult, and brought many indigenous plants into his little garden. Being fent, in 1717, to fchool at Wexio, under the tuition of Lanarius, by whom he was indulged with the permiilion of continuing his excurfions, he paffed his whole time in collecting plants, talking of them, and making himfelf acquainted with their names and qualities. He was fo abforbed in this favourite purfuit as totally to difregard his other ftudies ; and made fuch an inconfiderable progrefs, that, upon his removal, in 1724, to xhzgymnqfium in the fame town, his new mafter re- prefencc, before the Royal Academy of Sci- ccconomy and natund hiftory in the univerfity ences ; and from anecdotes of his life by Fa- of Kiel ; and may be juftly called the firft ento-bricius. See Gedxchnit/rede Auf den Carl mologiit in Europe. He has diftinguifhed von Linne, &c. von A. Bxck ; and Etnige himfelf, among other publications, by the fol-naehcre Umftande aus dem Leben des Rittcrs lowing works; Reife nach Nonvcgcn.—Syf-von Linne ; Von JohanChriftian Fabricius, in tema Entomologix.— Genera Infedorum.— the Deutches Mufeum, for May and July 1780. Pbilofophiae Entomologica. — Species Infec-Fabricius, the author of this account, was the torum. difciple of Linnxus: he is now profeftbr of Ecc2 peatedly Bvn K Peate^y complained of his idlenefs. Urged by thefe remon-i-y flrances, his father conceived his fon to have no tafte- for literature, and propofed to bind him apprentice to a fhoemaker*; and this deftination would have taken place, if a neighbouring phyfician, whofe name was llothmanf, flruck with the boy's great genius, had not predicted, that he would, in time, become deeply Ikilled in a fcience, to which he feemed naturally inclined, This fagacious obferver, having prevailed upon the father of Linnseus to continue his fon's education, took the boy into his houfe, fupplied him with botanical books, and in-flructed him in the firfl rudiments of phyfic, in which he foon made a confiderable progrefs. When his father had affented to this advice, he had defigned him for the church J; and was not, without great difficulty, induced to agree that he fhould apply himfelf to the fludy of botany and phyfic. In 1727 he was fcnt to the univerfity of Lund, where he acquired, under the celebrated Stob&us, the firfl fyflematic principles of natural hiflory. Being lodged in that profeflbr's houfe, he enjoyed many opportunities of improvement; and particularly from a curious collection of foffils, (hells, birds, and plants. At this place he began to form an herbarium, collecting plants from all quarters, making repeated obfervations upon them, and comparing them with the defcriptions of Tournefort |[, whofe works he had received as a prefent from Dr. Rothman §. During his refidence at Lund, he profecuted his fludies with fuch unremitted attention, that he frequently continued them during great part of the night, in order to enjoy the ufe of fe- * Fabriclus. clergyman In the province of Smoland, and, \ Boxk. on account: of bis fk.ill in the management of X His mother was at firfl fo chagrined that bees, is known by the name of Bi-Kung, or the her eldeft fon declined entering into orders, Bee-King. that fhe would not even permit her fecond fon || Inflitution.es rei herbaria:, to fet his foot in the garden. This brother, § Bceck. whofe name is Samuel, is ftill living : he is a c vera! L I N N & U S. 397 veral books which he fecretly obtained from the profeffor's li- chap. * brary. Once in particular, Stobaeus fufpecting that he had <—^ company at a very late hour, dole unobferved into his apartment, and was aftonifhed at finding him employed in confuting the works of thofe great botanifts, Cazfalpinus, Bauhin, and Tournefort. Pleafed with this inftance of his indefatigable zeal for fcience, the profeffor allowed him unreftrained accefs to his library and collections, and readily affifted him with advice and information. Linnaeus did not confine himfelf to botany, but turned alfo his attention to the inferior orders of the animal kingdom; a branch of knowledge in which he eminently excelled, and which he was led to profecute from a circumftance that would have damped the ardour of a lefs zealous inquirer. In endeavouring to form a collection of infects, he was flung by the Furia Infemalis * in fo terrible a manner, that his life was endangered f. This event incited his refearches to difcover the nature and qualities of that venomous worm ; which led him to develope and explain thofe numerous tribes of infects | and worms, " moft effectual in caftng the pain ; and the " event confirmed, that the infect was allured " by this application to leave the flcfh ; as on " its removal, this worm, no longer than the " dtth of an inch, was found in it, and thus the *' caufe of this painful difeafe explained. Lin-" noius himfelf once fuffered from this animal " the effect here fpoken of: but we owe the " complete hiftory of it and its place in the " Syftem, to Dr. Solander, who gave it in to " the Royal Academy of Sciences at Upfal. " (Nov. Ac. VI.) This worm Hands in the' * Syftem under the name of Furia h/e/aa/is, " p- 1325 » but what means this creature M is raifed into the air, is as yet unknown." General View of the Writings of Linnaeus, p. 259. t Back. J " No part of the fyftem of nature," writes Dr. Pultcney, "hasundergone agreatcrchange " than * The efTctfs of the Furia Infemalis are thus defcribed by Dr. Pulteney, from a Differtation De Miraculis Injeilorum, in the third volume of the A ma nit at es Academics. " In Finland, " Bothnia, and the northern provinces of Swe-w den, it was not unfrequently that people «' were feized with a pungent pain, confined to «' a point, in the hand, or other expofed part «« of the body, which prefently cncreafed to a H moft excruciating degree, and hath fome-*' times been fuddenly fatal. This diforder m was more particularly obferved in Fiidand, tt efpecially about boggy and marlhy places, " and always in autumn. , At length it was n difcovered, that this pain inftantly fucceeded " fomewhat that dropped out of the air, and in *• a moment penetrated and buried itfelf in *' the flefh. The Finlanders had tried variety of applications to no purpofe, until at length ** a poultice of curds, or checfe, was found the worms, that bad been but imperfectly defcribed by preceding naturalifts; and afterwards to throw new light upon the whole animal kingdom. In 1728 he was removed to the univerfity of Upfala ; where his narrow circumftances involved him at firft in diftrefTes unfriendly to the purfuits of fcience, but which did not, however, obftruct his ufual exertions. His poverty is faid to have been fo great, that he frequently wanted the common neceffaries of life ; and was even accuftomed to wear the caft-otT fhoes of his fellow-ftudents, which he mended with pafteboard for his own ufe*. From this ftate of penury, when he had no profpecf. of the fmalleft affiftance either from his family or friends, he was fuddenly relieved by the learned Olaus Celfius, profeffor of divinity, and reftorer of natural hiftory in Sweden, whofe patronage he carnally acquired in the following manner : Celfius, having frequently noticed him making obfervations in the botanical garden, was aftonifhed at his proficiency in botany, the fmalleft knowledge of which was at that time eftecmed a rare qualification in Sweden; and being informed ofhis diftreiTed fituation, immediately received him into his houfe, admitted him to his table, gave him accefs to his library, and engaged his affiftance in completing his Hierobotanicon, a work ascertaining the plants mentioned in the Holy Scriptures. The favours of this refpectable patron, conferred in fuch extreme necefTity, he always remembered and acknowledged with the ftrongeft cxpreflions of reverence and gratitude. Soon afterwards he attracted the notice, and obtained the patronage, of Olaus Rudbeck, profeffor of phyfic and botany, on *' than this clafs ; neithcrdoes our author ftand " which, it has of Jate attained a high degree " more unrivalled, than in the excellent ar- " of perfection : nor can it be too much to at- " rangemcnt he has given to this branch of " tribute this to the excellent arrangement of «* natural hiftory; which, before his time, was " LinnxuS, under whofe aufpices it has ex- '« nearly without method." p. 101. " tended itfelf beyond all other parts of zoo- And again, '* The knowledge of infccls may " logy." p. 351. " be faid to be the laft branch of natural hif- * Fabricius. *' tory that raifed its head j notwithftanding the following occafion: An academical diflertation, De Nuptiis Arborum*, being read in the public fchools, Linnaeus wrote upon it fome obfervations, wherein he introduced feveral remarks upon the generation of plants, to which he had particularly-turned his attention. Thefe obfervations fell into the hands of Olaus Rudbeck, who was fo flruck with their fagacity and juflnefs, as immediately to commence an acquaintance with the author: his abilities and knowledge being developed upon a nearer intimacy, the profeffor appointed him tutor to his fons, in fome meafure directed his ftudies; and thought him fufficiently qualified, though only in the 23d year of his age, to read occafional lectures in the botanical garden, by which means he obtained a fmall income. At this period Linnaeus paffed his days in herborifing and giving lectures; and cm-ployed great part of the night in laying the foundation of the new fyflem, which he had already planned. About this period he began to arrange his Bibliothcca Botanica, his claffes, and genera plantarum; from whence wc may collect; how early he had fixed the principles of that method, which he afterwards carried to fuch perfection. His knowledge was confiderably improved by a journey into Lapland in 1732, to which, at the recommendation of Rudbeck and Celfius, he was deputed by the Royal Society of Sciences at Upfala, in order to invefligate the natural hiftory of that unknown region: but as he received only a gratuity of about£8 towards defraying his expences, he was obliged to travel almoft the whole way on foot, which he performed with great alacrity and fpirit. He commenced this expedition on the nth of May 1732; flayed fome time at the mines of Fahlun; vifited various parts of Lapland ; underwent many hardfhips; efcaped imminent perils; and returned to Upfala in the month of Oc- * The thefis is ftyled Tauo; pfflWv, five dc Philologico-criticam publico bonorum cxamint Nuptiis Arborura de quibus Diifertationem fubinitlit Petrus Ulga, 23 Dec. 1729. tober book tober of the following year, after having traverfed near 4000 s—y-lj miles*. During his tour he tranfmitted to the Royal Society of Sciences a Florida Lapponic% which was printed in their acts, and was his firft publication: in this catalogue of Lapland plants, he difpofed them according to the fyftem afterwards called the Sexual. Soon after his return he continued his lectures upon botany ; and delivered others alfo upon mineralogy and the art of affaying metals, which were the firft on that fubject ever given at Upfala, and from which he acquired great applaufe. But being not entitled from his Handing in the univerfity to read lectures, a formal complaint was lodged againfl: him by profeffor Rofen, phyfician to the king; and he had the mortification to receive an exprefs prohibition from the academical confiftory. Linnams, who began to receive a comfortable fubfiftence from thefe lectures, and faw no immediate means of maintaining himfelf, was fo exafperated at this proceeding, that he drew his fword upon the profeffor, and might have proceeded to violence if he had not been prevented. In confequencc of this outrage, he would undoubtedly have been expelled from the univerfity, if his patron, Olaus Celfius, had not compromifed the affair f. In this juncture he was appointed to accompany the fons of Baron Ileuterholm into Dalecarlia and Norway. During this tour he improved his knowledge of mineralogy, by vifiung various mines and forges ; and particularly at Fahlun, where he read lectures upon foflils and the art of allaying, which were much frequented: at the fame time he obtained thefriendfhip of Dr. More, the phyfician of the place, to whofe daughter he betrothed himfelf. It being the cuftom at that time to take a degree in fome foreign univerfity, and the fituation of Linnseus not being adequate to fuch an expence, the young lady pre- * Back. + F.uVidu*. fented fen ted him with an hundred ducats == about £50, to take his doctor's degree at Harderwick in Gueldcrland * With this view he commenced his journey in 1735, and proceeded to Copenhagen and Hamburgh, where he continued much longer than he had at firft intended. At Hamburgh he gave a proof ofhis accurate knowledge in natural hiftory, by discovering, that a celebrated make with feven heads, belonging to the burgomafter Spreckclfen, and which had been long efteemcd a great wonder, was a mere impofition. Upon the firft inflection, our naturahft perceived that the fix heads, notwithftanding the art with which they were joined together, were jaws of weafels covered with the fkin of makes Linnaeus, to whom 100 ducats appeared an immenfe fum, thought his riches inexhauftible; and, remaining for a confiderable time at Hamburgh, where he was pleafed with his fituation, he found himfelf, upon his arrival in Holland, reduced to extreme neceflity, and unable to difburfe the expence of a doctor's degree; he therefore applied by letter to Boer-haave, acquainting him that he was a perfon who had devoted himfelf to the ftudy of botany, but who laboured under the moft fevere diftrefTes. Boerhaave, the friend and protector of fcience, received Linnaeus in his garden: among other topics of converfation, he pointed out the Crataegus Aria, and demanded, whether he had ever obferved that plant ? adding, that it had not yet been defcribed by any writer. Linnaeus anfwered, that it was a native of Sweden, and defcribed by Vaillant. Boerhaave fupported the contrary; and, convinced of the juftnefs of his affertion, becaufe he had himfelf fuperintended the publication of Vaillant's work, immediately brought the book to Linnaeus; who, without hefitation, referred to the defcription, * Fabricius. titious monftcr in Scba's Mufeum, Vol. I~ ■\ The reader will find a plate of this fac- Table 102. Vol. II. F f f which which accurately correfponded with the plant in queftion*. From this fpecimen of his accurate knowledge in botany, Bocr-haave became his patron, and recommended him to the protection of Mr. Clifford, by whom he was appointed fuperin-tendent of a botanical garden f, lately formed at a very extraordinary expence. In this new fituation, highly adapted to his circumftances and genius, he received a falary of a J ducat per day, and what was no lefs agreeable, he had the inflection of a garden rich in the choiceft plants ; and was not confined to any expence for obtaining every fpecies of exotics, and procuring the works of the moft eminent botanical authors. In addition alfo to thefe favourable opportunities of increafing his knowledge, he travelled, at the charge of Mr. Clifford, into England and France. During only two years refidence with Mr. Clifford, he gave to the public many works § in various branches of natural hiftory, which raifed his reputation very high in Europe, and in which he difcovered an amazing faga-city in methodizing and clafling, with the niceft difcrimina-tion, the various productions in the three kingdoms of nature. In thefe publications he ventured, young and unknown as he was, to commit his new fyftem to the world, which, undefended by its author, and fupported only by its intrinfic merit, * Fabricius. + Ac Hartcamp, about three miles from Harlem. | About 8/. 6d. § Sytiema Nnturx, comprized, as Dr. Pul-teney fays, in twelve pages, and is the outlines of the fucceeding editions — Fundamenta Botanica— Bibliothcca Botanica—MufaClifforti-ana—Genera Plantarum—Viridarium Ciilfor-tianam—Methodtu Sexualis—Flora Lapponica — Critica Botanica—Hortus ClifFortianus — Artedi Ichtyologia—Cla/fes Plantarum. " We •* cannot fufficiently," fays Dr. Bxck, with juftnefs, " wonder how, within fo fhort a fpace " as two years, during which period he w.is fo w conJlantjy occupied in arranging the plants " of Cliffort's garden according to his fyflem, • " and was fo continually interrupted by fo-" reign vifitors, Linnaeus could alfo find time " to put forth fo many writings, each of which " would have been fufficient to have eflablilhed "the reputation of a man of learning; and " thefe writings, founded upon his own dif-'* coveries, and tending to give a new form to " a whole fcience. The materials of fome, in* " deed, had been collected and digeflcd in Swe-" den ; but it is a fact fcarcely credible, that the " Hortus CliJ'ortianus, a work which contains " fo much knowledge, fhould have been writ-" ten and printed in lefs than nine months." For an account of thefe various publications fee Pultcney, p. 16 to 30. conquered conquered all oppofition from men of the firft abilities and decided character *. His refidence in Holland, which had hitherto contributed in fo effential a manner to his rife and improvement, was at length embittered by a very dangerous diforder that terminated in an ague. He became fuddenly penfive, difcontented, exprefTed an infurmountable defire to fulfil his matrimonial engagements; and was impatient to fhow himfelf in Sweden, where he flattered himfelf with the profpectof a mofl honourable reception. Having declined many offers of promotion in Holland, he quitted that country in the fpring of 1738; and, after paflinga fhort time at Paris, arrived at Stockholm in the month of September ; where he fettled as a phyfician, and married in the following year the lady to whom he had betrothed himfelf at Fahlun. Linnaeus had returned to his native country full of the mofl fanguine expectations that his merit would be immediately recognized ; but, to ufe his biographer's t expreflions, u he was " aflonifhed to find that he was confidered more as a flranger ** among his countrymen than among foreigners." He was fo mortified at this difappointment, and the fmall degree of practice which he at firfl obtained, that he had once refolved to accept the offers of his patrons in Holland; or to fettle at Gottin-gen, at the earnefl folicitation of the celebrated Haller. But although his acknowledged merit, and uncommon reputation, foon fecured to him the patronage of feveral illuftrious perfon-ages, yet he paid the ufual tax of genius, by experiencing a confiderable degree of envy and oppofition; and though by * Among others the celebrated Dellenius, nag letter of recommendation written by Boer- though he candidly acknowledged the merits haavc : M Linna-us, qui has tibi dabit literas} eji of the Linncean fyftcm, confefled that he was " unice dignus te videre, unice dignus a te ixdabitorbis." Sec Pulteney, p. iz.. for the coolnefs of reception he met with from f B.rck. Sir Hans Sloane,, notwithftanding the follow- F f f z thefe- book thefe means he was at firft involved in fome difficulties, only a vii. i_,-r __j fhort period elapfed before he acquired an extenfive practice. His moft confiderable and zealous patron was count Teflin, the firft minifter, whofe collection he afterwards defcribed in his Mufeum Tejfmianum. By the interefi of that nobleman he obtained, in the beginning of 1739, the office of phyfician to the fleet; and a ftipend from the ftates for reading lectures in mineralogy upon the collection of foflils belonging to the board of mines*. Count Teffin alfo recommended him in fuch ftrong terms to their Swedifh majefties, that they honoured him with their patronage. Under his direction the king formed a collection of quadrupeds, birds, fifties, and ferpents, at Ulricfdal; and the queen of infects and fhells at Drottningfholm; both of which have been accurately defcribed by Linnaeus himfelf. During his rcfidence at Stockholm, he aflifted, as I have before obferved, in founding a literary fociety, which was afterwards called the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of which he was appointed the firft prefident. In 1741 he at length obtained the object of his warmed ambition, the profeflbrfhip of botany in the univerfity of Upfala. Upon the death of Roberg, profeffor of practical medicine and anatomy, Linnaeus was appointed to fill his chair ; which he changed, in 1742, with profefTor Rofen, for that of botany: he was at the fame time appointed to fuperintend the phyfic-garden; and undertook to read lectures in botany, natural hiftory, dietetics, on the knowledge of diforders, and the materia medica. From this period he paffed the remaining part of his life almoft uniformly at Upfala. He turned the firft objects of his attention and care to the regulation and improvement of the botanical garden ; which, at the time of his appointment to the profeiforfliip, fcarcely * B*cki contained contained 40 exotics; but produced, in 1748, notwithftand- c ing the obftructions arifing from the feverity of the climate, Si 1100 fpecies, exclufive of indigenous plants and varieties. His own collection of natural hiftory was rich only in plants ; a circumftance chiefly owing to the number of quadrupeds, fhells, and infects, which he prefented to their majeftics for their cabinets at Ulricfdal and Drottningfhohn. His herbarium was highly valuable, from the number and arrangement of the fpecimens. By his incomparable lectures he raifed the univerfity to the higheft repute, and induced many foreigners to refort to Upfala. He was always attended by a numerous audience ; and his great art was not only in fatisfying the curiofity, but in gaining the affection and efteem of the fludents. His lectures were diftinguiilied by the concifenefs and precifion fo confpi-cuous in his works; and yet were delivered with a fpirit and animation which irrefiftibly caught the attention of his hearers; for he fpokc with a perfuafion which was infpired by his deep infight, his juft conceptions, and his zealous ardour for the knowledge of nature*. He diffufed a hidden fpirit of inquiry ; * Bxck and Fabriclus. Nothing- can mark the philofopher's paffion for natural hiftory more than thefe cxpreffions in a letter to Mr. Pennant on the following occafion. Having received the firft notice of the Anomia retufa (Syft. Nat. ii5i.N°225.) being found in a recent ftate, from Mr. Pennant, who obferved one adhering to a fea-plant drawn out of the Norwegian feas, he wrote to him, " Pro gau-** dio exultans quod detcxeras concham ano-«' mi am a nullo mortalium antea vifam, qua-" que facem acccnderas fcientia naturali lucu-" lentiflhnam in deperditis hue ufque concha-*' rum generibus. De hac concha die noc-" tuque cogito; de eo loquor hodii; noctu de "eofomnio." Dec. 3, 1756. In another letter to our Englifh zoologfift he thus acknowledges a prefent of his Synopfis of Quadrupeds, and candidly allows the merit of the work, although it differed in fome refpect from his own method of clalling animals. " Diu audivi D. Troill fecum adduxiffe dona " tua, qux avidiftimc exfpettavi. Redux tan-" dem pridie ad nos acceftit, ct mihi obtulit '** Synopfin tuam of Quadrupeds et Zoologiam '« Indicarn. Pro fmgulis grates reddo quas " unquam poffim calidiffimas. Synopfin tuam " Icgam «t relegam millies. Multa in eo oc-" currunt leftu mihi jucundifllma, et maximc K utilia dttae in fuccum et fanguinem.-■ " Perlecto hoc opere multa a te quceram nec " unquam me ingratum fentias.—Non de me- *thodo \ book quiry; and kindled among his fludents a new zeal for the 1—Rudy of natural hiftory. During the firft years of his refidence at Upfala, he gave public herborifing lectures in fpring and fummer, in the neighbourhood of that town. In thefe botanical excurfions he was attended with a band of trumpets and French-horns, and fallied out at the head of 200 or 300 fludents, divided into detached companies. When Linnams was inclined to explain any curious plant, bird, or infect, which had either fallen under his own notice, or was brought to him by any of the fludents, the ftragglers were called together by the found of mufic, and crouding round their mafter liftened in refpectful fdence while he offered his obfervations *. His reputation was now fo widely fpread in foreign countries, that he received the moft flattering invitations to Peterfburgh, to Gottingen, and particularly to Madrid, where he was offered by the king of Spain a very confiderable flipend f, the rank of nobility, and the toleration of his religion. But the profpect even of the moft fplendid advantages could not feduce him from his native country, where he had acquired the efteem of his fovereign, and the general refpect: of his countrymen, which he maintained until the day of his death. His fervices in promoting every branch of natural hiftory were acknowledged in the fulleft manner, and every affiftance afforded to his endeavours to improve and diffufe his favourite 14 thodo difputabo; mihi perinde erit utrum The public are now under frefh obligations " naturae cultor fit Lutheranus, Calvinianus, to Mr. Pennant, for his long expected work, *' Judaictts, aut Mahometanus, unice notitiam The Arctic Zoology. M fpecierum quaeram.—o utinam videvcm re- * I am indebted to Sir John Cullura for this 44 liqua tua opera imprimis de avibus, quam anecdote, who received it from Dr. Solander; " multa inde addifcerem quas etiamnum mc and it has been fince confirmed to me by Mr. *' fugiunt.—Tua Indian Zoology perpulchra Dryander, a Swedifh gentleman, who fre- ** erat; pulcherrimae figurae rariffimarum certe quently attended thefe botanical excurfions. «' avium; defcriptiones ctiam exactiflhnae.— f A penfion of 2000 piftolcs. Pulteney, "Vale plura proxime. Upfaliae, 1773, d. 2. p. 35. " Main" fcience. L I N N ie U S. 4o; fcience. A new houfe was raifed for him, at the public ex- chap. pence, clofe to the phyfic-garden: he was occafionally de- '—^ puted by the flates to make excurfions into various parts of Sweden, with a view to the advancement of natural hiflory. For this purpofe, he, at different times, vifited the Iflands of Gothland and Oeland, the provinces of Skone and Weft Gothland ; and communicated to the public, in his native language, the Itineraries of his Travels, which are faid to be replete with curious and philofophical obfervations, the general purport of which was principally directed in adapting natural hiftory to ceconomical ufes. Many of his fcholars * were alfo, under his aufpices, difpatched to various parts of the world, at the ex-pence of the public, or of particular focieties ; and they all feem to have caught from their beloved mafter a fpirit of emulation and zeal for fcience: the communications which he received from their unremitted labours furnifhed him with fuch information as enabled his comprehenfive mind to appropriate, as it were, their difcoveries, and to " exemplify in ** a more perfect and detailed manner his fyftem of nature f." Thus his genius may be faid to have diffufed itfelf through the moft diftant regions of the globe; and his fpirit ftill continues to animate the zealous difciples of the Linncean fchool. The following circumftances, relative to his deceafe, are related by his Swedifh biographer J. In May 1774, while he was reading lectures in the botanical garden, he was feized with an apoplectic ftroke, that was followed by a debility which he himfelf pronounced the forerunner of death. His limbs were affected to fuch a degree, that he could not be * Kalm journeyed to North America ; Haf- berg to the Cape of Good Hope, Batavia, and felquilt to Smyrna, Egypt, and Paleftinc ; Japan; Sparman to the Cape and South Seas ; Tcrnltrrem, Tona ius, and Ofbeck, to China ; and above all the much to be regretted Dr. Rolandcr to Surinam ; Lsefling to Spain and Solander round the world. North America; Forfksel to Arabia ; Thun- f Pultcncy, p. 34. j Bxck. moved kook moved without extreme pain and difficulty. In autumn, how-1—v-^—' ever, he was fomewhat recovered, which he, in the enthu-fiafm of fcience, imputed to a prefent of feveral hundred rare plants, fent to him by the king. Thefe plants, brought from Surinam by Dahlberg, a Swedifh officer, were fo well preferved in fpirits, that their flowers, fruit, and leaves, were diftinetly vifible. He found great amufement and confolation in arranging and publifhing a fhort defcription of them, under the title of Planttt Surina?nenfisy which was his lad performance. In June 1776, he was afflicted with a fecond flrokc of apoplexy, which reduced him to fo weak a (late, that, to ufe his own ex-preflions in his Journal, " Linnaeus limps, can hardly move, " fpeaks unintelligibly, and can fcarcely write." In the fame year a paralytic flroke deprived him of the ufe of his right fide, and confined him wholly to his bed. His flrength gradually forfook him ; his mental faculties were impaired ; and an ague, attended by a dropfy, brought on a tranquil diffolu-tion on the 10th of January 1778, in the 71ft year of his age. His remains were interred in the cathedral of Upfala, with all the funeral honours which gratitude and refpect could in-fpire. The king of Sweden ordered a medal to be flruck ex-preffive of the dejection of fcience upon the deceafe of Lin-nseus, and a monument to be erected over his afhes : his majefty alfo attended the meeting of the Academy of Sciences, in which his commemoration fpeech was delivered; and, as a ftill higher tribute to his memory, lamented, in a fpeech from the throne to the diet of 1778, the irretrievable lofs which Sweden had fuffered from his death *. The moft trifling anecdotes relative to the perfon and character of fuch eminent men as Linnams cannot fail of being particularly interefting; and our curioftty in thefe refpects will be highly gratified by the following detail of a fnaturalift * Pulteney, p. 212. \ Fabricius. 2 perfonally personally acquainted with him ; who reprcfents him chiefly Cy^p* in private and domeftic fcenes, which, though they place <—' every character in the trued light, yet too often efcape the notice of biographers. « I had the good fortune of enjoying the inftructions, pro-" tcction, and familiar acquaintance of Linnreus, from 1762 to " 1764. No day paffed in which I did not fee him j none in «' which I did not attend his lectures, or converfe with him in " the moft friendly manner. In fummer I followed him into " the country, accompanied by two friends, Kuhn and Zoega, " who were foreigners as well as myfelf: in winter we took " up our abode oppofite to his houfe at Upfala; where he " vifitcd us -almoft every day without form, in his red night-" gown and green cap lined with fur, and with his pipe in his *« hand. His conversation was lively and agreeable ; he would " amufe us with many anecdotes relative to the naturalifts " both native and foreign, whom he had formerly known ; he J' would frequently refolve difficulties which occurred to us in " the progrefs of our ftudies, and often favoured us with oc- pearance ; to which is fubjoincd a critical account of their general contents. He has alfo traced the progrefs, and laid open the leading principles of the Linnaean fyflem, with a mafterly prccifion and accuracy, which could only be derived from the mofl perfect: knowledge of the fubject:. C HA P. VIII. Remarks on the writings of Wallerius, Cronftedt, and Bergman.—Analyfs of the Sciagraphia Mineralis. THE contents of tins chapter being at my requefl communicated to me by Dr. Pulteney, I claim no other merit than that of giving it to the public. 11 The public revenue and wealth of Sweden being intimately «' connected with the mines, particularly thofe of iron, minera-11 logy has been eminently encouraged and cultivated in that •j kingdom. To this caufe we may, in a great meafure, attri-butc the acknowledged fkill of the Swedifh chymifts, as fu-il perior to thofe of many other nations: for how much foever " we owe to the labours of Pott and Mirgraaf, and feveral " other Germans, it is to the Swedes that we are indebted for *■ the firft rational fyftem of mineralogy. Among thofe who " principally taught the method of arranging thefe unorganized m bodies, wTe muft not omit the great Linnaeus : he laid the bafts " of what may be called the clailical foundation of his fyftem, " in the chymical analyfis; having early distributed the earths " into Calcareous, Vitrefcent, and Apyrous, and eftablifhed his <( orders and genera, on figure, colour, hardnefs, and other fen- " fible *' fible qualities. This fyftem was, in a great meafure, adopted " by Wallerius. But it is to Cronftedt that we owe the full and " more precife difpofition of thefe fubjects, according to their " conftituent parts and principles: and it muft be allowed, that 14 the difcoveries of the Swedifh mineralogifts and chymifts 41 have, whhin a few years, greatly advanced this branch of 44 knowledge. 44 Wallerius publifhed at Stockholm, in 1747, the firft fketch *' ofhis fyftem in the Swedifh tongue; and he has preferved 44 nearly the fame arrangement in the fubfequent editions of 11 1754 and 1778. In the following year he gave to the world 41 a diflertation 4 On the Nature and Origin of Nitre;' and in " 1751, after he had been nominated profeffor of chymiflry, 45 metallurgy, and pharmacy, an academical diflertation * On " the principles of Vegetation.' Soon after his appointment to 44 the profeffor fliip, he printed in his native language, 4 An 44 Epiftle on the true Nature, Utility, and Excellence of Chy-" miftry.' In the next year, additional to his tract: on Vegeta-4C tion, he publifhed another, relative to * The Methods and Ufe ** of rendering Seeds fertile, by wafhingor infufing them for a 44 certain Time in various Kinds of Liquors:' and in the refuit 44 he gives it as his opinion, that fuch methods are generally *c hazardous. 44 In the fame year Wallerius put forth, in the 7th volume of 44 the Ail a Academic Naturae Curiojhrum, a paper * On the be ft 44 Method of making Tar from the Pine and Fir Trees;' in 41 which he takes occafion to treat of the principles of tar-water, 44 the medicinal fame whereof had, by means of the Bifhop of 4t Cloyne's Siris, fpread over all Europe. In the fame acts he 44 has written * On the ftellated or arborefcent appearance on 44 the Regulus Antimonii'y and gives directions to prepare the re-44 gulus fo as tofucceed in rendering the ftar vifible; obferving, 41 that it depends on the antimony being more or lefs deprived 44 of B oo k « 0f its fulphur. This year produced from the profeflbr a i—r~-> « thefis, containing « Some Strictures on the erroneous Method 41 of preparing certain Chymical Remedies ? a fignal proof of ** his application of true chymical knowledge to the real ad-44 vantage of practical medicine. In the acts of the Royal So-" ciety of Stockholm for 1754., the profeffor has defcribed the 64 method of making, from mercury alone, the arbor dian£, or " what has been called the philofophical tree. In Vol. XXI. 4< for 1760, with equal ability, he inquires into 4 the nature of 41 that earth which exilts in all vegetables and animals as a " principle of their compofnion;' and he here takes occafion " to fpeak of the method of obtaining pure earth of this kind, 44 from water by trituration, as mentioned by Eller: a fact which 44 has been much doubted, and difputed, by many fubfequent 44 philofophers and chymifts. In thefe acts alfo, for the year 14 1765, we find the refuit of his examination of platina, by " which it appears that he thought it a real metal, and not, as 44 fome have judged, cither a recrement, or a mixed metal. 44 In 1761 he publifhed an academical differtation, under the «' title of 1 Chymical Principles of Agriculture,' in quarto, nearly 44 of 300 pages; in which the various methods of fertilizing *4 different foils, by manures, and other proceffes, are difcuffed. 44 About the fame time he wrote, in the Swedifh tongue, a 11 thefis, on occafion of fome mifchief done at Upfala by " lightning, intended to prove the perfect fimilarity be-44 tween tire matter of lightning and the electrical fire. In 44 1768 Wallerius gave to the world a large volume in oc-44 tavo, in Latin, * On the Elements of Metallurgy,' in which 44 he has copiouOy delivered the principles of the docimaftic 44 art. The fame year he alfo put forth what he calls 4 Lucti-t( brations on all the Syftcins of Mineralogical Writers,' and on 44 the 4 method of conttructing a rational claflification of the " foflil kingdom.' This is a work of much labour and erudi- 4( tion; " tion ; and is highly gratifying to a curious fcarcher into na- chap. « ture. He begins with the earliefl writers on the fubject, and «— " follows them through each century to the prefent time. He m has exemplified the latter part of his lucubrations in his own ,c fyftem, of which he publifhed the firfl volume in a Latin edi-«< tion in 1772, and the fecond in 1778. This work mufl be " confidered as his capital performance. The French edition of " 1754 had been in great cflimation and conflant ufe : this is " much enlarged ; and, by being rendered into Latin, is become " more fcientific, and better adapted to general ufe. The great " treafure of erudition and experimental knowledge which it " contains, makes it unqucflionably one of the mofl valuable " books on the fcience; and, in defiance of all changes of fyf-« terns or circumftances in mineralogy and chymiflry, it mufl " long remain a finking inftance of the labour, learning, and " fcience of its author. Befide the excellent arrangement given u to the whole fubject, and the well-defined characters of each " clafs, order, and genus, it is enriched at the end of each " genus with copious fcholia, containing the opinions of pre-" ceding authors on the feveral fubflances ; and, after all thefe, *■ his own idea of the true nature or compofition of each. One ff of the lateft of his works is his Meditationes de Origine Mundi, «c printed at Stockholm, in octavo, 1779, PP- 242- It: " t0 be " expected, that many of the principles contained in this work " relating to fire, light, fixed air, &c. and much of his reafon-" ing, particularly on the inflammable, falinc, and aqueous " principles in bodies, will not be received by all the philofo-" phers of this country; nor his theory of the formation of this (« globe, be thought fatisfactory. Yet, the learning he has dif-i£ played, and his well-intended folicitude to reconcile his fyf-«' tern, and the changes of the elements, to the Mofaic account " of the creation, will enfure his work a candid reception Vol. II. H h h « among book n among all who are inclined to fpeculate on thefe intricate v—> " fubjects, and are friendly to religion. 44 This learned man, after having filled the chair for thirty 44 years with high reputation, refigned in 1767 the profefforfhip, 4* and was honoured by his fovereign with the order of Vafa. 44 Wallerius is now above eighty, and ftill continues to enjoy, 11 at his houfe near Upfala, a literary retirement. 44 Axel Frederic Cronfledt, the excellent Cronltedr, as he is " juflly called, defcended from a noble German family natural-« ized in Sweden, was a native of Sudermanland, and was born 44 in 1722. He fludied mineralogy under Wallerius, Swab, and " Tilas. He commenced his walk in this field of fcience by a 44 difcovery which foon rendered him confpicuous, that of a " new femimetal, called Nickel. He gave the firfl intimation " of it in a paper publifhed in the Stockholm Acts, for the " year 1751; and he detailed fome experiments made upon ir, 41 in the fame work, for the year 1754. In 1753 he publifhed 41 Obfervations 4 on Gypfum;' and in the fixteenth volume of 44 the Acts for 1755, gave a curious account of filver precipitated 41 from water in the Kongfberg mines. In 1756 Cronfledt dif-44 tinguifhed himfelf by the difcovery of the zeolite, which he «( firfl named, and feparated as a diftincT flone, confifling of a 44 peculiar earth, as its bafis: his obfervations on it were 4' printed in the Stockholm Acts for that year. Profeffor Berg-44 man has fince found, by analizing zeolite, that it confifls of 44 a mixture of filiceous, argillaceous, and calcareous earth. 4' In the fame Acts, Vol. XVIII. for 1757, he publifhed an in-44 genious paper, with a view to detect the colouring principle 44 in the cow-wheat (Mefampyrum arvcnfe), the flalks of which, " when faded, accvuire a fine blue colour. They yield this co-44 lour to water, and it is not deftroyed either by vinegar, or " fpirit of vitriol, or by alkalis, unlefs boiled together with c " thefe CRONSTEDT. 4*9 44 thefe latter; which led him to fufpect that a vegetable dye, ^JMjj^ 44 or pigment, might be extracted from this plant. In 1758, at <—1—-* 44 which time he was director of the mines of Dalecarlia and « Weftmanland, Cronfledt publifhed his * Effay towards a fyflem « of Mineralogy.' It was printed in the Swedifh language, «f and without the name of the author. In 1760, it was tranf- 44 lated into German ; and in 1770, into Englifh; and is now in 4C the hands of all diligent inquirers into the knowledge of fbf- 44 fils. Wallerius himfelf has called it Opus finepari* The au- 4< thor, not being led away with what he calls Figuromania, but f* neglecting the external appearances of mineral bodies, has 4< fucceeded beyond all others, in claffing them according to 44 their conflituent principles. This method obliges him to " make no diilinction between earths and flones ; and to throw 11 into an appendix all that are called figured extraneous foflils, «' which had held fo diftinguifhed a rank in former fyftems. " In the Stockholm Acts for 1761, he has given fome inftruc-'< tions relating to the choice of flone for building; and hints 44 at the practicability of ufingthe flag of iron fmelting houfes, 44 by running it into * moulds for bricks; which hint is profe-44 cuted in a fubfequent paper of the year 1763, advifing, that 44 the lime which is ufed fhould be reduced into fine powder. 44 In the fame volume he communicates fome obfervations 4 on 44 the Phyfical Geography of the Province of Jemtland in Swe-44 den.' In the 25th volume for 1764, Cronfledt delivered in a 44 procefs on platina, when melted with nickel and fulphur; 44 which he found recoverable in the form of a black powder, « by diffolving the mixed fubftance in aqua-fortis. 44 It is to be lamented that this able man did not live longer, 44 to improve ftill further that fcience he fo much enlightened. 44 He died in 1765, in the 43d year ofhis age." * This is now pradlifed at the forges at Briftol; and there are long ranges of wall near Bath covered with this material. : H h h 2 A poft- Apofthumous work of this accurate mineralogift has lately made its appearance. For fome time before his death he was employed in arranging and preparing for the prefs an account of the mines of Weftmanland and Dalecarlia, of which he was fuperintendent. A copy of this performance, originally written by the author in the Swedifh tongue, which he completed but did not live to publifh, was fortunately procured by Mr. Georgi, adjunct to the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Peterfburgh ; who has given to the world a German tranflation of it under the following title *, " Cronftedt's Mineralogical M Account of the Mines of Weftmanland and Dalecarlia, from " his own obfervations and refearches 5" a work replete with much curious information, and remarkable for that accuracy and precifion, which fo highly diftinguifli all his other writings. 11 I regret that it is not in my power to furnifh the reader " with more particular anecdotes of profeffor Bergman. He « very early diftinguifhed himfelf by a flrong attachment to " fcience; and was, at a young period of his life, made pro-" feffor of mathematics and natural philofophy in the univer-*f fity of Upfala. Wc find him, fo early as the year 1756, in the 44 17th volume of the Stockholm Acts, correcting a miftake of ** the celebratedLinnseus ; who, for want of more perfect inform-" ation, had defcribed, under the name of coccus aquaticus, the 44 egg of a fpecies of the leech genus; and, in the fubfequent " year, he gave an accurate defcription of that genus, which 44 was afterwards generally adopted by Linnaeus himfelf. 4t In 1759 ne publifhed a paper containing 4 A Review of the 41 feveral Explanations which Natural Philofophers have given 44 of the Rainbowand, in 1760, fome thoughts 4 on the Origin ** of thofe kinds of Meteors which are not accompanied by any * " Mineral Gefthichte ueber Weftman- 44 Bcobachtungen, und Unterfuechungen ge-*' landii'chc und Dalccurlifcne Erdgcburge auf " gruendet," &c. 44 fenfible «« fenfible found or explofion ; and a paper on the opinions held chap. " by philofophers, relating to the twilight; to which he has 1—r—■ 44 prefixed the account of Mairan's anticrepufculum, or that of the horizon oppofite to the fun. In 1761 and 1762 profeilbr Berg-«' man wrote, in the Swedifh Acts, on the fubject of electricity, 44 inconfequence of a correfpondence with Mr. Wilfon j and par-44 ticularly on the electrical quality of Iceland chryftal, and 44 double refracting fpar. In the year 1763 he again diflin- mediately reprinted in England and Italy. I fhall here fubjoin the following analyfis of it by the fame ingenious author to whom I am indebted for the former part of this chapter. II The Sciagraphla Mineralis*, although but the outlines of a " fyftem, will be thankfully received by all mineralogifts. 41 Cronfledt laid the bafis of the method purfued in this tract, 41 and made an extenfive progrefs in the profecution of it. " Bergman profeffes to have adopted his ideas ; and, after his 44 example, begins by eftablifhing the following firft prin-44 ciples. 44 Firft, That of whatfoever value external appearance may 44 be in the arrangement of organized bodies, as in animals 44 and plants, yet it is not to be trufted in the clafling of 41 unorganized fubftances; colour, confidence, and texture, 44 being too variable to be depended on as certain character-" iftics. He by no means, however, difallows the ufe of thefe 44 external qualities, fince, to an experienced eye, they will 4f greatly aflift us in afcertaining the nature of foflils, and 44 frequently direct to the fhorteft method of analizing them. 44 Secondly, It is only from a knowledge of the internal com-44 pofition, that the claffes, genera, and fpecies of foflils are " to be determined, and the external appearance muft be re-44 ferred to the diftinction of varieties only. Thirdly, In ge-44 ncral, the principle or matter which abounds moft in any 44 fubftance, is to determine its place in the fyftem. But this 44 law muft be fubject to exceptions, where one of the com-44 pounds is, as a bafe, the moft important part of the mixed 4< body. This holds in the earths, and particularly in the * This trail lias been lately tranflated by from th« original of Sir Torbcrn Bergman, Dr. Withering. See outlines of Mineralogy &c. Vol. II. I i i " ores K 44 ores of metals. Fourthly, The folic! principles mud ufually " be admitted to form the generical character, although it *' fhould exiftin a lefs proportion than the fluid part. To in-44 fiance in magnefia, gypfum, and alum, in all which the «' genus is determined from the folid ingredient, or the earth, 44 and not by the fluid part or vitriolic acid, although the 11 quantity of the latter greatly exceeds that of the former. " The fpecific characters are to be deduced from the different 44 combinations and proportions of the feveral principles in " each. " All mineral bodies fall into four great clafTes: I. Salts; "II. Earths; III. Bitumens; and, IV. Metals. fC Class I. Salts. " Salts are acid, alkaline, neutral, earthy, and metallic. In " this clafs, to the three well-known acids of vitriol, nitre, 11 and fea-fait, the author, befide introducing the phofphoric 44 acid as a principle, has joined alfo the fluor acid ; the acid " of arfenic; one newly difcovered in black-lead, called the 41jjcid 11 to this genus, he is yet not able to determine. " Class III. Bitumens ; tc Or inflammable bodies; which the author divides only into " two genera, under the names of fulphur and petroleum. " Among the firft rank common brimftone; plumbago; black-c< lead or Molybdena, a fulphur united to a peculiar acid. Un-" der the genera of petroleum he claffes the naphtha and rock " oils, coal, and amber. Profeffor Bergman adopts the opinion « of M. Aubler, concerning the vegetable origin of amber-" greafe*. But it is very lately rendered more probable, that " it is an animal production, being the fcybala of the whale. *{ This opinion is ingenioufly fupportedby reafon and analogy, t£ as well as by fome fads, in a paper written by Dr. Schwedi-" awer, in the laft volume of the Philofophical Tranfactions *f*. *' Many mineralogifls will be furprifed to fee the diamond in " the bituminous clafs ; yet profeffor Bergman confeffes that " he could not find a more proper flation for it ; and he jufli-<[ fies himfelf on the following confiderations: it remains un-" touched by all the acids; it is evaporable in the open fire, *■ appearing to diffipate in a cloud, or lambent flame; and in the u focus of the fpeculum it leaves flight traces of footy remains. " This deflagration, howfoevcr flow and gentle, he apprehends, 41 reduces it to a place among inflammable bodies. " Class IV. Metals. ct In the introductory feet ion to this clafs, the profeffor afferts u the great affinity that fubfiils between bituminous bodies and €l metals, by obferving, that both zinc and arfenic flame when tl properly heated in the fire. "He divides metals into noble and ignoble; and treats of " them in the order of their fpecific gravities. * See Hiftoire des PLiutcs de la Guiane Francoij"c, Vol. IL Sup. p. 39. Couma Tab. 392. f Vol. IL p. 226—241. * Of SCI AGRAPHIA MINERALI S, 4yt 44 Of gold he enumerates four fpecies, found in a native chap. viii 44 flate ; and, though he mentions a pyrites aureus (Cronf <—' «< § 166. a), has neverthelefs fome doubts, as to the reality of 44 the mineralization of gold. Platina * he fays, is always de- 44 bafed with a martial admixture. Of filvcr he gives feven fpe- 44 cies as native, and eleven mineralized. He attributes to Mr. 44 Woulfe the merit of obferving the vitriolic principle in horn 44 fdver; and gives him equal praife for his difcovery, that mer- u cury is mineralized by the muriatic and vitriolic acids. Un- M der lead, the profeffor mentions a fpecies found by M. Mou- 4C net, which is mineralized by means of the vitriolic acid ; and 44 another, detected by Dr. Gahn, which is reduced to ore by M the phofphoric acid. •« He has exhibited, under the article of copper, a fpecies 44 fent to him by Mr. Werner, which he found to be mineralized 4t with argillaceous earth and muriatic acid. Only nine fpecies 44 of iron f are enumerated in this work; one of which, he fays, 41 contains a new metal. This has fince been further invefti-** gated, exalted in fact to the rank of a metal, and moll aptly *' named fiderum. The mifpickel of authors is removed from 44 the arfenic ores to the iron, and defcribed under the name of 44 ferrumnhtivum arfenico adunatum. He tells us, that he never faw 4t native tin; and doubts its exigence. Two new fpecies from 4t Siberia are mentioned in the preface, under the name of fan-41 num fulphuratum. " BifmUth and nickel fland nearly as they do in Cronftedf,, 44 except that Bergman does not notice the nickel of Cronfledt, '4 which is faid to be mineralized by the vitriolic acid. The * Count Sickergen has lately difeovcred a man, dire&or of die iron manufactories, a means of purifying platina, by which that moll able treatife, "Foerfoek till Jarnets hif-ttietal, before fuppofed to be to water as iB '* toria,nOr Eflay on the Hiftory of Iron, thereto Uis now proved to be as 21 to 1. Gold is fult of forty years obfervations. A tranflation only as 19. 64 to 1. Sec Vcrfuchc ueber die of this work could not fail of being highly ufe-Platina. Manheim. , ful to the Englifh. naturalift and manufaC*- fin 1782, was publifhed by Swcno Rin- turer. 41 fpccicfv book « fnccics of arfenic and cobalt remain nearly the fame in pro- V 1 ! t_ w-y-w 44 feffor Bergman's arrangement, as in that of Cronfledt. The «c profeffor feems to think that the analyfis of arfenic leads fur* «« thcr into the true nature of metallic fubilanccs than that of 44 any other metal; fince, from arfenic, not only the redundant 4< quantity of phlogiflon is capable of being extricated, fo as to 41 leave it in a calciform (late, as in other metals; but, by further *' management, it can alfo be deprived of the remaining por-44 tion, and its peculiar acid thus developed. If art fhould ever " quamvis ob nimiam pufillanimttatem, nec " roniae Vilnscque divcrforiis, fuam hofpitibus " fceptro, nec pedo eflet ille idoneus tamen " operam in mundandis ocreis, phaleris, ct ** mediocres in litteris fecit progreflus, libris " curandis cquis, locando tenuem viclum " annis aliquot indefeffus intanta rerum om- '* amictumque fibi compararet." 4 of of the Swedifli prince to embrace the Greek religion; by his chap. unwillingnefs to enter into hoflilities againfl Sweden, and to '— difmember Efthonia and Finland in favour of Ruflia ; whether becaufe he appeared a prince of no fpirit, and too pufillani-mous * to profecute any cntcrprizc with vigour j or becaufe the contract: of marriage between John prince of Denmark and the princefs Irene, made his removal from Mofcow necef-fary. He refided at Uglitz f until the accefflon of Demetrius, who imprifoned him at Yaroflaf for favouring Charles XI. king of Sweden. He was -gain releafed by Vaflili Shuifki, upon the aflaflination of Demetrius, in May 1606, and permitted to refide at Kafkin, where he expired in the following year; but whether by poifon, or by a natural death, is not afcertained. March 7. Between Wefleros and Arboga I changed horfes at the fmall village of Kungfoer, where, being tempted by the beauty of the fituation, I roved about the environs, and upon the banks of the Mceler. This lake is extremely beautiful; it contains feveral iflands rich in wood and paflurc ; its fhores are hilly, feathered with trees, and diverfified with gentlemen's * Meffenius, when praifing his piety and Uglitz, The Ruffian and Swedifli hiftorians charitable difpofition, adds, " Tantaque fucrit differ alfo about his fituation. The former " plenus commiferatione, ut ne paueris qui- fay, that Uglit/, was granted to him as a fief, " dem, multo minus hominis, intueri potucrit and that he reiided there in great ftate : the " internecionem. Hincque pias scquo fuerit latter, that he was treated as a prifoner. Per- *' pufillanimis, quae fubmiffio mentis, non raro haps both are in the right. He might refide " illius pofuit fortunae obftaculum." bcond. in ftate, and yet be watched as a kind of ftate Illuft. Tom. VIII. p. 100. prifoner. Asa confirmation of this account f The Swedilh hiftorians affert, that Gufta- of the cafe, Margaret, who was at Mofcow at vus was fo attached to his native country, that the time, fays, " that he was fent in difgrace no motives could induce him to enter into hof- '* to Uglitz ; but ha\l a revenue afligned to tilitics againft it, and that this was the fole " him of £800 per annum." Etat de la Ruff, caufe of his removal. The Ruffians, on the p. 96. For the hiftory of this Guftavus, fee contrary, affirm, that Boris, finding him a Dahlin, Vol. IV. paffim. Meff. Scond. III. prince without fpirit and vigour, readily ac- paffim. Celfius Hift. d' Eric XIV. p. 245 and cepted the offer of the prince of Denmark to 274. Muller S. R.G.V. p. 95 to 101, and marry Irene ; and therefore fent Cuilavus to 295. L 1 1 2 feats book feats and farm houfes. The lake, at lead that part which I faw, was dill covered with ice, but no longer capable of bearing carriages. It is ufually frozen over during a few weeks in winter; and opens an eafy communication, by means of fledges, between thefe parts and Stockholm. Kungfaer flands upon the mouth of the fmall river Ulvifon, which flows into the weftern extremity of the IVlsder: this ftream, which comes from Arboga, helps to form the communication between the lakes rVLelar and Hielmar, by its junction with the canal of Arboga. Near Kungfaar there is an old wooden building, or kind of palace, formerly inhabited by the kings of Sweden, with a manage and ftables for the royal flud. From Kungfkr ftretches, about nine miles, almofl as far as Arboga, a long narrow plain of rich pafture, which belongs to the king: it is watered by the Ulvifon, and fkirted with gently rifing hills tufted with wood ; produces great quantities of fine hay; and feeds a large number of cattle. I paffed, in fight of this fmall plain, which is fcarcely more than half a mile in breadth, through an undulating country, and arrived at the canal of Arboga, which I eroded over a draw-bridge. The following infeription informed me that the fluice was begun by Charles XI. and finiflied under the reign of his fon Charles XII. (i Hoc aquarum repagulum juffu Auguflifflmi quondam Sue-« corum Regis Caroli XL nunc in ccelis bcati anno MDCXCI, " inchoatum, ultimam ma num. fceptra gerente Suevica Auguf- tiflimo Carolo XII. feliciter recepit MDCIC." This canal will be more properly defcribed in this chapter on the inland navigation of Sweden. Finding little worthy of notice in Arboga, I haflened to Ore-bro, the capital of Nerike, where I paffed the night: it Rand's near the weftern extremity of the lake Hielmar; and is the largeft town which I vifited fince I quitted Stockholm. The houfes houfes are chiefly conftrucTed with wood; and, though only CI^R of one flory, are for the moft part large and commodious. <—r—* Upon a fmall ifland in the middle of the town, formed by two branches of the Swart, flands the caflle, formerly a royal re-fidence: it is an old fquare building of brick and flonc white wafhed, and is appropriated to the governor of the province. The inhabitants of Orebro fend iron, vitriol, and red paint to Stockholm ; and the trade which they carry on with that capital acrofs the Hielmar and Mailer, by means of the canal of Arboga, is very confiderable. The town pofleffes manufactures of fire-arms, cloth, and tapeflry. Upon quitting Orebro> I traverfed that part of the province of Ncrikc, which lies between the lakes Hielmar and Wenner ; a fertile diflricl, abounding in corn, paflure, and fore ft. Towards the clofe of the day, I entered the province of Weft Gothland, and paffed the night in a peafant's cottage at Hofva, a fmall place, not far diftant from the lake Skager. March 9. About noon I arrived at Marieftadt, a town built by Charles IX. fituated upon the Tidla, a fmall rivulet, and the lake Wenner. A new prifon of brick, fluccoed white, makes a finer appearance than any of the other houfes, which are moflly built with wood, and painted of a red colour. From Marieftadt I continued my route, for fome time, at a fmall diftance from the Wenner, the largcft lake in Sweden, being nearly ninety miles in length, and forty in breadth. Its fhores in this part are low and level, fo that the view over the fur-face of the water, appears boundlcfs like a fea. I patted through Lindkioping, the inhabitants whereof carry on a confiderable inland trade acrofs the Wenner, and down the river Gotha to Gotheborg. I flopped the night at the fmall village of Malby, and arrived the next morning at Trolhanta, through an exceedingly dreary country, confiding chiefly of barren heaths, with ridges of rock almofl naked, which exhibited few book few marks of vegetation. This village, containing fcarcely a -v-^ dozen houfes, is fituated clofe to the cataracts of the river Gotha; and is well known, on account of its flupendous works, with a view to open a paffage for veffels, by means of a navigable cut, called, from this place, the Canal of Trolhsetta. This canal forms part of a plan, long projected by the Swedes, to unite the Baltic and the German Ocean by an inland navigation, as well for the purpofe of improving the interior trade of the provinces, as of preventing the interruption of their foreign commerce, which is always the confequcnce of a war with Denmark. For as all veffels failing out of the Baltic mufl ncceffarily pafs through the Sound, they are expofed to the Danifli privateers, who flielter themfelves under the batteries of Elfmoor, which command the paffage of that flrait, unlefs a Swedifli fleet fhould ride miflrefs of the Gulf. Guflavus Vafa was the firfl fovereign who faw the utility of fuch an inland navigation, when he made Lodefe (now Gotheborg) a flaple town of trade, that the merchant fhips coming to Sweden might not be obliged to fail through the Sound; and he conceived hopes, that, in fome future period, the merchandize might be tranfported from thence to Stockholm, by means of the Wenner, Hielmar, and Master, when the rivers and lakes uniting with them fhould be rendered navigable*. Eric XIV. defirous to carry his father's defigns into execution, gave orders for furveying the waters communicating with thefe lakes, and directed plans to be formed for joining them by artificial canals f. But the execution of his great fchemes was fruflrated by the turbulence and misfortunes of his reign. Several fuccceding fovereigns had this great object in view. CharlesIX. promoted it by the Carlfgraf canal; and Charles XI. * Dahlin, Vol. III. p. 115. t Hift. d' Eric XIV. by by that of Arboga. The undertaking, however, of forming a water communication acrofs the whole country, was always confidered as a work of extreme difficulty. Motraye fays, that Guflavus Adolphus was inclined to encourage the defign, but that no perfon could be found in Sweden bold enough to engage in the enterprize: he adds, that Charles XT. fent for fome Dutch engineers, who, after they had meafured the fall of the waters between the Wenner and the Hielmar, declared it to be impracticable. Difficulties, however infurmountablc as they might appear to perfons of more fober underllanding, were no barrier to the genius of Charles XII. The fame author informs us, that the celebrated engineer, Polheim, laid before that king a propofal for rendering the cataracts of Trolhaetta navigable ; and for opening a communication, not only between Gotheborg and Stockholm, but alfo with the Wenner, the Vetter, and Nordkioping, fufficient for the paffage of very large veflcls *. Polheim's plan was immediately approved, and begun by Charles, fond of extraordinary projects ; and, though interrupted for fome time by the king's death, was again revived with frefh vigour under the late fovereign Adolphus Frederic. This plan may be divided into three principal parts, i. The junction of the Maelcr and the Hielmar. 2. Of the Hielmar with the Wenner. 3. Of the Wenner with the German Ocean. 1. Of the junction of the Maelcr with the Hielmar. Thefe two lakes are united by the fmall river Ulvifon, and the canal of Arboga. The former rifes to the wefl of Arboga, flows through the town, and falls into the Ma?ler at Kungf^r. The canal of Arboga is cut from the Hielmar, and continued to the Ulvifon about half a mile to the eafl of the town. It was begun in the reign of Chriftina; but being only calculated for * Voyages de Motraye, vol. II. p. 282. 306, fmall book fmall veffels, was widened and deepened by order of Charles XT. VII. *-—„—i and completed under his fuccefTor Charles XII. It belonged to the crown until 1769 \ at which period it had been fo much ■neglected as to be fcarcely of any ufe : but a company of feven merchants of Orebro undertook to cleanfe and repair it at their own expence, upon condition of receiving the toll of all veffels which fhould pafs through it. The canal is, excepting in a few parts, fufficiently broad to receive two barks a-breafl: its lowefl depth is 8 feet*. It is chiefly fupplied with water from the lake Hielmar, the furface of which is 80 feet perpendicular higher than its level. It confifls of eight fluices. The veffels it admits are the fame which navigate the lakes; they are decked and fingle mailed; 76 feet long; about 43 tons burden ; and draw between fix and feven feet of water. 2. In order to join the Hielmar and Wenner, it was propofed to open the navigation of the Swart-an, which falls into the weflern extremity of the Hielmar at Orebro; to make a cut from that river to the lake Morken ; from thence by the Let-an to the Skager; and from the Skager by the Gullfpang to the Wrenner. Not having myfelf been in thofe parts, I could only obtain the mofl authentic intelligence from perfons who have infpectcd them : from their accounts I have reafon to conclude, that the above-mentioned rivers are for the mofl part fo fhallow and flony, that it would be extremely difficult and expenfive to render them navigable; and as the faint attempts hitherto made upon the Gullfpang have all failed of fuccefs, it has been propofed to cut a canal directly from the lake Morken to Chriflianham, which is fituated upon the eafl-ern fhore of the Wenner. But as no part of this project had been as yet taken in hand, and the whole would be attended * The foot ufed in this chapter is the Swc-^ifh, which differs but Uttlc from the Englilh. The proportion of the Englifh being to that of the Swedifh as ioco to 1027. with with great difficulties ; there is little profpect that this branch C3?^"p* of the great undertaking, the junction of the Hielmar and i Wenner, will ever be completed *. 3. The junction of the Wenner with the German Ocean comes next into confideration : and this might be accompli fhe d by the river Gotha, which iffues from the fouthern extremity of the lake near Wennerfborg, and, after a courfe of feventy miles, falls into the fea near Gotheborg ; provided that river could be made navigable throughout its whole courfe. But as, on account of fhoals and cataracts, its ftream is greatly impeded, the communication has been attempted by the Carlfgraf canal, the canal of Trolhsetta, and the fluices of Akerflram and Edit, which, therefore, I fhall feparately defcribc. The channel of the river Gotha not being open and free upon its firft iffuing from the Wenner, a cut, from a bay of that lake to the river, was begun under Charles IX. but was not entirely completed before the reign of Charles XII. Pol-heim, whom I have already mentioned, erected, by order of that monarch, a fluice 5 which, not being conflrueted upon a firm foundation, was fcarcely finifhed before it was undermined, and carried away by the water. From that time the Carlfgraf canal remained without a fluice, and confequently without a veflel palling it, until the reign of Adolphus Frederic. In 1754 a new fluice was finiflied, which received the appellation of Teflin, in honour of the prime minifler of that name. It was formed by a fubterraneous paffage, 40 feet long, 18 broad, and 12 high. But thefe dimenfions were too fmall for the admiflion of veffels of more than 40 tons burden ; and * From the almoft infuperablc difficulties Sweden fouth of the Mrcler, by means of the attending the junction of the Hielmar and Wetter to the Wenner; and in 1774 a map Wenner, a plan was proje&ed of forming an was publifhed for the purpofe of proving the inland navigation from the eaftcrn coaft of fcheme to be practicable. Vol. II. M m m it it frequently happened that even thefe could not pafs whenever there was either too much or too little water. In relief of thefe difficulties another fluice, called, in honour of the prefent king, the fluice of Guftavus, was completed in 1768. This fupcrb work is a cut of 400 feet (half of which was perforated through the folid rock), and confifts of two locks, each 200 feet in length, and 36 in breadth: the fides are ftrongly faced with brick and ftone. The greatefl depth of water is 13, the lowefl 6 feet. The ufual veffels which navigate this canal are of 80 tons burden ; but when the water is high, larger may pafs: in 1777 one of 133 tons worked its way through. From the end of this canal to the village of Trolh// in the Strand. VJufr/ihiStn':Sc not roll through the whole of this fpace in one uniform meet of water, or with equal rage and violence. It is divided into four principal cataracts, each whereof is feparated by whirlpools and eddies, forming, during the whole way, the moft awful fcenes, ever varying, and too fublime to be accurately defcribed. The perpendicular height of all the falls, confi-dcrcd as one, is about ico feet. From this defcription the reader will readily conceive the extreme difficulty of rendering thefe cataracts navigable; and yet it was even through the midft of them that the daring projector attempted to form a canal, by the following works, which are marked in the annexed plan. Juft above the firft cataract, called Praftenkefdct Fall, feveral dams were conflrueted, which turned the ftream, and left the main bed of the river quite dry. In this part fome rocky iflands were cut through, or blown up; the bed was rendered level, and the cataract nearly turned into ftill water. To continue the navigation, an ifland of red granite, called Malg, which rifes in the midft of the great cataract, was divided, and a canal formed through it of 340 feet in length, including a iluice of 30: the depth of the fall, and, of courfe, the depth of the perforated rock, is 237 feet j the breadth 18. This is called Ekerbrad fluice, and was defigned to confift of two locks. At a fmall diftancc another canal was formed on the fide of the fecond great cataract, through a kind of promontory which projects into the ftream ; the folid granite was hollowed $60 feet in length, 567 in depth, and 18 in breadth. This fluice, called Polhcim's fluice, was to confift of three locks, by which veffels were to be let down a fall of 56' feet. At the diftance of 2920 feet, a third cut was made clofe to Flateberg's fall, terminating in the fluice of Elvius, the laft of this projected plan. The length of the cut is 28 feet; the breadth 18; and the depth or height of the fall 34*". M m m 2 In In order to form fome idea in what manner the navigation was-to be continued from the fluice of Polheim to that of Elvius, it will be neceffary to give a fhort delineation of the intervening fpace. A little below the fluice of Polheim the river dafhes through a narrow pafs, called Stampftrami; from thence it gradually widens into a kind of bay, named Hoyon's Warp; h is again cramped into a narrow channel by the nearer approach of the rocks on each fide, and forms a cataract, called Helvert's Fall; at the extremity of which it expands itfelf into a fmall bafon, called Oli-Halla; and then again precipitates itfelf at Flate-berg's Fall; from whence it becomes navigable, Inflcad of continuing any works through the cataracts, or by the fide of the river, the communication between the fluices of Polheim and Elvius was attempted, in the following manner. A dyke of Rone was conftructed acrofs the river juft below Flatcberg's Fall and the fluice of Elvius, with a view of railing the water 34 feet and 4, turning its courfe through the fluice of Elvius, and forming a level with the bottom of that of Polheim. This chimerical project, which feems rather too ridiculous to have been ferioufly entertained, was however attempted. The king himfelf vifited the work, and all Sweden was in eager expectation, that their favourite national hopes would at length be realized, The dyke was built; the river had rifen 12 feet of the 34; when, in an inflant, the weight of waters burfl the barrier, too feeble to reflrain them, and fwept away, in one moment, the labours and expence of feveral years *. Large fubfidies had been annually raifed for the profecution of the work; and the national bank had readily advanced frill greater loans; the fum total whereof has never been divulged. The failure of the project, after fuch immenfe labour and enor- * The immenfity of the expence will be be ft made through the folid granite, the hardefl. of conceived by confidering that all the cuts were all flones. mous mous expence,occafioned great difcontents among the people ; many of whom to this day believe, though there feems no foundation for the fuppofition, that the projectors, bribed by the Danes, purpofely proceeded upon a plan which they knew could not fucceed. But thus much is evident, that, throughout the whole undertaking, the works, flupendous in themfelves, were conducted without reafonable care and attention; for after all, the cuts, which had been excavated with fuch difficulty, being only 18 feet in breadth, wTould have been too narrow to have admitted veffels of fuch fize and burthen as ufually navigate the Wenner. In a word, feveral ill-judged meafures feem to have been taken; otherwifc, although there were many natural obflructions to the fuccefs of the enter-prize, yet greater obflacles have been furmounted. But Polheim was not a Brindley. In confequencc of this failure, all the works and fluices hitherto raifed were neglected, as totally ufelefs, and a new plan for the canal of Trolhastta has been projected ; according to which, inflead of being carried, as before, along the channel of the river, it is to be cut through the folid rock that forms its banks. The plan of this lafl project is laid down in the annexed engraving. The length is to be 4700 feet, the breadth 36, and the depth in fome parts above 50. It is to confift of nine fluices ; and when we reflect that the whole of this cut mufl be hollowed through the red granite, it is evident that it will be attended with as many, if not more difficulties, than were experienced in the former attempt. It mufl by no means, however, be condemned as impracticable. The canal of the duke of Bridgewater, that of Languedoc, and the road through the mountain Gemmi in Switzerland, prove that fcarcely any thing is impoffible to human induflry. The chief queflion, in this refpect, feems to be, whether the enormous expence attending the execution of the work would B °TJ(JK and many of them fcarcely exhibit the fmalleft appearance of «—,r—-» vegetation. In this part of Sweden I obferved none of thofe detached fragments of granite, which fo abundantly over-fpread as well many of its inland provinces, as the coaft bordering on the Gulf of Bothnia. In moft places the river flows with a gentle current, and in a narrow channel, and is in fome parts navigable only for fmall craft of about 20 tons burden. About ten miles from Gotheborg it divides itfelf into three branches; two of which unite again after having encircled a fmall rocky ifland, upon the top of which Rands the fort of Bohus, a picturefque object, much celebrated in the early hiftory of Sweden, and at that time efteemed impregnable. The ftream formed by the union of thefe two branches is called the Northern River, and falls into the fea after a courfe of about ten miles. The third branch; wdiich I followed to Gotheborg, retains its original name of Gotha: the fpace included between the Northern River and the Gotha is named the ifland of Hifingen. Gotheborg, which is diftinguifhed by a commodious port, occupies the fcite of an ancient town, named Lodefe, that was built by Guftavus Vafa; and being endowed with confiderable privileges, foon became the great emporium for the trade of the weftern provinces. Charles IX. when duke of Gothland, having, in 1604, laid the foundations of a new town in the ifland of Hifingen at no great diftance from Lodefe, called it Gotheborg, in honour of his duchy. Upon his accemon to the throne, he erected in his new town a trading company ; drew thither many foreigners, particularly the Dutch, to whom he allowed an exemption from all duties of export and import during twenty years ; a corps of Englifh and Scotch troops, under the command of William Stewart; and granted to the Calvinills eftablifhed therein the free cxercife of r.heir religion, the firft place in Sweden where this toleration was GOTHEBORG. 45j was permitted. By thefe means Gotheborg foon became a flou- char rifhing port*; and, next to Stockholm, the mofl commercial v— town in Sweden. The town, being in 1611 reduced to aflies by the Danes, was rebuilt in the reign of Guflavus Adolphus in its prefent fituation, and obtained a confirmation of its antient rights, with the grant of feveral additional privileges. Gotheborg is built in a very fingular fituation. At a fmall diflance from the fea is a marfhy plain, fcarcely more than half a mile in breadth, watered by the rivers Gotha and Mol-dal, and almoft entirely inclofed with high ridges of rocks, fo bare and rugged, that they fcarcely produce a fingle blade of grafs, and exhibit as barren an appearance as the fummits of the loftiefl Alps. Gotheborg Rands partly upon the ridges, and partly in the plain ; and is divided, from thefe different fttuations, into the Upper and Lower Town. The latter is entirely level, intcrfected by feveral canals in the manner of the Dutch towns; and its houfes are all conflrueted upon piles: the upper part hangs on the declivities; and rows of buildings rife one above the other like the feats of an amphitheatre. The whole is regularly fortified; and its circumference is near three miles, exclufive of the fuburbs, called Haga, which lie towards the harbour. The ftreets are all uniformly Araight: a few of the houfes are of brick ; but the generality are conflrueted with wood painted red. The harbour is formed by two chains of rocks, and is about a quarter of a mile in breadth. Its entrance is defended by the fort of New Elffborg, which flands upon a fmall rocky ifland, and contains a garrifon of 250 men. * a medal was flruck in 1610, comparing arms of Cothcborg: beneath are the river thisfudden increafe of Gotheborg to the growth Gotha, and the fortrefs Elffborg, with the fol of a tree from a flip : on one fide the king's lowing motto: name and title, with an infeription, *' Gotheb. Qucc pra;bet latas arbor fpatiantibus umbras, ** Prin. Fund. & Condit." On the reverfe a Guio pofita eft primum tempore virga large tree, from which hang fufpended the fuit. Dahlin, Vol. IV. p. 422. Vol. II. N n n There There has been lately eftablifhed at Gotheborg, a Royal Society of Sciences and Literature, upon the plan of that of Upfala. Its Acts, which are written in the Swedifh tongue, and printed in the octavo form, contain various fubjects in the feveral branches of fcience, natural hiftory, antiquities, hiftory, and polite letters \ I was informed by a merchant who had refided two and twenty years at Gotheborg, that, during that period, its population has increafed confiderably, and that it now contains about 30,000 inhabitants. This flourifhing ftate is undoubtedly owing to the extenfion of its commerce, particularly its Eaft India Company, and the fuccefs of the herring fifhery. In 1731 a company of merchants was eftablifhed, with the exclufive privilege of trading to the Eaft Indies for 15 years j and after various alterations of their charter, the monopoly was, at the laft renewal, confirmed for qo years, on condition that the company fhould advance to government a loan of £ i24,9?o, one third whereof without intereft ; and fhould pay £ Si125 f°r eveiT veffel proceeding on a trading voyage to the Eaft Indies. This company is merely a fociety of merchants, who fend annually two or three veffels to China. As the port of Stockholm, in the Gulf of Bothnia, is clofed with ice until the feafon is too far advanced for fhips to take their departure from thence to the Eaft Indies, the company carries on its commerce from Gotheborg, whofe harbour, being fituated in the German ocean, is always open. The following is the nature of this traffic: Sweden containing little fpecie, and few manufactures for exportation, the captain of each veffel firft proceeds to Cadiz, where he borrows, in the company's name, 100,000 piaftres, at the intereft of 30 per cent; he then fails to * At Lund was alfo inftituted, In 1776, a jects treated of in its Acts relate only to na-Royal Phyfiographical Society, which was tural hiftory, chymiflry, and agriculture, incorporated by the king in 1778. The fub- Canton, GOTHEBORG, 459 Canton, and purchafes tea, porcelain, and other Chinefe com- chap. modities, which, upon his return to Sweden, are difpofed of to great advantage. The ufual net profit upon the whole cargo being 70 per cent.; the gain, when the intereft is deducted, amounts to about 40 per cent. In J740, the herrings, which had hitherto never approached the weftern fhore of Sweden, flocking in fhoals to that coaft, the inhabitants of Gotheborg eftablifhed a fifhery, which has been attended with confiderable advantage. Its increafing produce will appear from the following table: In 1752 it yielded only 1000 barrels * of herrings. In *753 - - 20,766 In 1762 - - 142,091 1754 " - 52,828 1763 - - 186,614/- 1755* - - 74»79i' *7°4 - - 99»6i6; 1761 - - 117,212-:- 1768 - - 151,483 An Englifh conful and feveral merchants of our nation refide at Gotheborg: and a chapel, with a regular chaplain, is appropriated to their ufe. As I did not remain a fufficient time in Sweden to gain accurate and circumftantial information concerning the commerce, I can only add the following particulars in addition to what has been already laid down upon the trade of Gotheborg. By the navigation act palled in the diet of 1722, foreign veffels are not allowed to bring into Sweden any productions but thofe of their own countries, or to tranfport them from one port to another. The principal exports of Sweden are copper, iron, ordnance ftores, mails, planks, pitch and tar, train-oil, alum, pot-afh,^ falt-petre, gunpowder, fait, faked fifh, foap, vitriol. Its imports, tin, lead, grain, tobacco, fnuff, wines, hardware, filk and filken fluffs, paper, tea and coffee, fugar, fpices, drugs, thread, hemp, wool, Cantzler f, whofe accurate ac- * A barrel contains iooo herrings. f Mcmoircsfur les Affaires Polit. et Econom.de Suede, p. 374. N n n 2 count count of Sweden cannot be too much recommended to the carious reader, informs us, that of the export trade Stockholm carries on ^ Gotheborg JV> ana< tne other flaple towns X4T; and of the import commerce, Stockholm 4, Gotheborg and the other towns ~. As the diflricts which I paffed from Upfala to Trolhsetta are efteemed the fineft and moft populous parts of Sweden, thofe which I traverfed from Gotheborg to Carlfcrona, through the province of Smoland, are faid to be the wildeft, leaf! inhabited, and the moft uncultivated regions of this kingdom. The dif-tance between Gotheborg and Carlfcrona is 38 Swedifli, or 247 Englifh miles; and in this extent of ground only one place dignified with the name of a town prefented itfelf. The villages, for the moft part, confided of fix or feven houfes ; and fometimes, where I flopped to change horfes, I found nothing but a fingle folitary cottage: yet, along this feemingly inhofpitable track, I met with good roads, tolerable accommodations, and a cheerful and contented peafantry. March 15. I quitted Gotheborg, and paffed over a fucceffion of barren rocks with few trees, fimilar to thofe which flretch along the coafls of the German Ocean near Gotheborg. As I advanced, the country became fomewhat more fertile. Hills of granite appeared lefs frequent, but large maffes were fcat-tered over the face of the country. The region which I tra» verfed in this and the following day, though wild, and not capable of much cultivation, was yet infinitely diverfified. It was an hilly diflricl, in many parts overfpread with forefls of pines, beech, and oak, interfperfed with pafture and fmall plains of arable land, fprinkled with feveral picturefque lakes, and watered by numberlefs rivulets, clear as chryftal, and gurgling over their ftony channels. During one poft of this day's route I was driven by a pea-fant's daughter j and as the roads were in many parts exceedingly fngly deep, it required fome ftrength, and much dexterity, to direct the horfes, and to prevent the carriage from being overturned ; I propofed that my fervant, who was an expert driver, fhould take the reins: the girl, however, offended at my questioning her fkill, peremptorily rejected my propofal; and, placing herfelf in the poftillion's feat, drove off at full fpeed, governing the horfes in fuch a fkilful manner, that flic foon quieted my apprehenfions, and we arrived at the end of the poft without the flighted alarm; nor was I for the future in the lead: apprehcnfive of trufling myfelf to the guidance of a Swedifh country girl. I paffed the night at Hunnaryd in a peafant's cottage, and fet off early in the morning; but had not proceeded far before I was obliged to flop at Giflavy, to repair a wheel of my carriage: the place contained but one fmith, and he had lately become blind; and as none of the wheels in the village would fit the axle-tree, I purchafed a new axle-tree and four wheels, for the fum of £ i. i6j. upon which the body of my cart being placed, I proceeded on my journey. A little beyond Giflavy, I eroded a rivulet near an iron foundcry. The native ore is procured in fmall round pieces, about the fize of pea-fhot, from the bottom of a neighbouring lake, and forged into excellent iron. Soon afterwards, I quitted the mountainous diflrict, and dc-feended gradually into a fandy plain, diverfified with woods, lakes, and corn-fields. About feven miles from Vernamo, where I took my flation for the night, I again came into a hilly country, and advanced to Wexio, a town feated upon the banks of a pleafant lake, which contained a group of woody iflands. The town, though a bifhop's fee, is exceedingly fmall: the houfes are moflly conflrueted with wood; the inhabitants chiefly fubfift by the traffic in cattle, that graze in the luxuriant paftures, with which the intervals of the moft barren mountains and extenfive forefts are occafionally enriched. As B vn K ^S *n l*ie courl^e °^ m^s routc I conflantly took my repafl t—,—t during the day, and palled every night in the cottages, I had frequent opportunities of obferving the cufloms, manners, and food of the peafants. Upon entering a cottage, I ufually found all the family employed in carding flax, fpinning thread, and in weaving coarfe linen, and fometimes cloth. The peafants are excellent contrivers, and apply the coarfeft materials to fome ufeful purpofe. They twift ropes from fwines' bridles, horfes* manes, and bark of trees, and ufe ecl-fkins for bridles. Their food principally confifts of falted flefli and fifh, eggs, milk, and hard bread. At Michaelmas they ufually kill their cattle, and fait them for the enfuing Winter and Spring. Twice in the year they bake their bread in large round cakes, which are ftrung upon files of flicks, and fufpended clofe to the cielings of the cottages. They are fo hard as to be occafionally broken with a hatchet, but are not unpleafant. The peafants ufe beer for their common drink, and are much addicted to malt fpirits. In the diftriets towards the weflern coads, and at no great didancc inland, tea and coffee are not unufually found in the Swedifli cottages, which are procured in great plenty, and at a cheap rate, from Gotheborg. The peafants are well clad in drong cloth of their own weaving. Their cottages, though built with wood, and only of one dory, are comfortable and commodious. The room in which the family fleep is provided with ranges of beds in tiers (if I may fo exprefs myfelf), one above the other: upon the wooden tellers of the beds in which the women lie, are placed others for the reception of the men, to which they afcend by means of ladders. To a perfon who has juft quitted Germany, and been accuftomed to tolerable inns, the Swedifli cottages may perhaps appear miferable hovels; to me, who had been long ufed to places of far inferior accommodation, they feemed almofl palaces. The traveller is able to procure many conveniences, ences, and particularly a feparate room from that inhabited by the family, which could feldom be obtained in the Polifh and Ruffian villages. During my courfe through thofe two countries, a bed was a phenomenon which feldom occurred, excepting in the large towns, and even then not always completely equipped; but the pooreft huts of Sweden were never deficient in this article of comfort: an evident proof that the Swedifh peafants are more civilized than thofe of Poland and Ruffia. After having witneffed the flavery of the peafants in thofe two countries, it was a pleafing fatisfaetion to find my-felf again among freemen, in a kingdom where there is a more equal divifion of property; where there is no vaffalage, where the loweft order enjoy a fecurity of their perfons and property; and where the advantages refulting from this right are vifible to the commoneft obferver. On the 18th at noon I quitted the province of Smoland, and entered that of Blekinge. As I approached the fhores of the Baltic towards Carlfcrona, ridges of granite again made their appearance, fometimes bare, fometimes covered with heath, or clothed with foreft. About half a mile from Carlfcrona we came upon a fine view of that town, flanding in an ifland. During a fortnight's progrefs from Stockholm to Carlfcrona, through a tract of about 500 Englifh miles, the weather was fo clear, dry, and delightful, that I felt no inconvenience from performing the journey in an open cart. There was a gentle froft at night and morning ; but the remaining part of the day was cheered with a genial fun. The Spring, indeed, of that year was remarkably forward and exceedingly mild. The port of Carlfcrona, which is frequently clofed with ice until the month of April, was open early in March. The peafants of Upland and Weftmanland feldom till their lands before April*? but I obferved, during my paffage through thofe provinces in * Am. Acad. p. 372 ; alfo Stillingflect's Tracts, p. 153. 7 the book the beginning of March, that the hufbandmen had already be-gun to plough the fields, and to fow their bai ley and oats. The rapid progrefs of vegetation in thefe northern regions was extremely vifible from the quick fhooting of the pafture 'and young corn, which, though the fnow had only been melted three weeks, were in a flourifhing Rate. I was greatly furprized to find that Sweden would produce fufficient grain for the interior confumption of the inhabitants, if fuch large quantities were not employed in the diftillation of malt fpirits. The northern parts of Sweden and Finland produce excellent rye j and the fouthern provinces yield wheat, oats, and barley. The wheat and rye are fown in the middle of Auguft, and are reaped in the fame month of the following year. Barley and oats are configned to the ground in Spring immediately upon the melting of the fnow: the former is cut down towards the end of Auguft; and the oats about the middle of September. CHAP. XI. Carlfcrona.--New docks.--Swedifh fleet.--Sailors.__ Chriftianftadt.—Helfingborg.—General remarks on the ?node of travelling in Sweden.—Pof-horfes.—Roads._ Similarity between many general expreffons in the Englifh and Swedifli tongues. CARLSCRONA derives its origin and name from Charles XT. who firft laid the foundations of anew town in 1680, and removed the fleet from Stockholm to this place, on account of its advantageous fituation in the center of the Swedifli feas, and the CARLSCRONA. 4b5 the fuperior fecurity of its harbour. The greatefl part of Carl- chap. fcrona flands upon a ftnall rocky ifland, which rifes gently in <— a bay of the Baltic; the fuburbs extend over another fmall rock, and along the mole clofe to the bafon where the fleet is moored. The way into the town from the main land is carried over a dyke to an ifland, and from thence along two long wooden bridges joined by a barren rock. The town is fpa-cious, and contains about 18,000 inhabitants. It is adorned with one or two handfome churches, and a few tolerable houfes of brick; but the generality of buildings are of wood. The fuburbs arc fortified towards the land by a flone wall. The entrance into the harbour, which by nature is extremely difficult from a number of fhoals and rocky iflands, is ftill further fecured from the attack of an enemy's fleet by two flrong forts built on two illands, under the batteries of which all veflels muft pafs. During our ftay at Carlfcrona, we received great civilities, and were entertained in the moft hofpitable manner by many perfons of the firft diflinction ; and had no difficulty in obtaining permiflion to infpect the dock-yard, and the whole fleet. Formerly veffels in this port, when careened and repaired, were laid upon their fides in the open harbour, until a dock, according to a plan given by Polheim, was hollowed in the folid rock: it was begun in 1714, and finiflied in 1724; but, as it was too fmall for the admiillon of men of war, it has lately been enlarged, and is now capable of receiving a fhip of the firil rate. Its dimenlions are in length 190 Swedifli feet; in depth 33 ; and in breadth 46. It contains 300,000 cubic feet of water, and is ufually emptied in ten hours. Ninety men are employed in pumping at the fame time, and are relieved every half hour by the fame number. This being at prefent the only receptacle for the repairing of fhips, new docks have been begun upon a ftupendous plan worthy of the antient Romans. Vol.11. Ooo According book According to the original fcheme, it was intended to conflruct «—-v—1 thirty docks, for building and laying up the larger! fhips, at the extremity of the harbour. A large bafon, capable of admitting two men of war, is de-figned to communicate, by fluices, with two fmallcr bafons, from each of which are to extend, like the radii of a circle, five rows of covered docks : each row is to be feparated by walls of ftone ; and each dock to be provided with fluice-gates, fo as to be filled or emptied by means of pumps. Clofe to the docks, magazines for naval ftores are to be conflrueted, and the whole to be enclofed with a ftone wall. The project was begun in 1757, but was much neglected until the acceffion of his prefent majefty, who warmly patronized the arduous undertaking. At the commencement of the works, £25,000 were annually expended upon them; which fum has been leffened to about £ 6,000 per annum; and the number of docks reduced to twenty. The following was the flate of thefe works in March 1779. The firfl large bafon was finiflied. Its dimenfions are 250 feet in length, no in breadth, and 32 in depth. The greatefl part has been hollowed out of the rock, which was perforated under water, and the excavations filled with gun-powder introduced and exploded through hollow tubes. The rock being thus blown up and removed, the bottom and fides were afterwards fmoothed, cemented with puzzulana brought from Naples, and nicely finiflied to an even furface. Three of the fides are faced with hewn granite ; and the fourth is defended from the violence of the waves by a pier of the fame material. The two entrances into the fmaller bafons were nearly completed, and the fluice-gates, of a lingular conftruction, were building : they are hollow machines, and are fo contrived, that, when filled with water, they afford a paffage to the fhip by finking, and rife again when emptied. The principle of mechanics by which CARLSCRONA. 467 they act is fomewhat fimilar to that of the kameels employed chap. in conveying large veffels over the bars at Amfterdam and Pe-terfburgh *. The two fmaller bafons, formed by excavations of the rock, and of a femi-circular fhape, were partly finifhed. With refpect to the docks, the materials were prepared for their conftruction ; and the rock in fome places had been blown away, and in others the earth had been removed. The bottom of one was already completed; its fhape was elliptical; the platform and lower part of the walls were compofed of hewn granite, and cemented with puzzulana; and the Rones, upon which the keel of a new fliip was to be laid down, were adjufted. It was expected that this dock would be entirely covered in before the end of 1779. It was computed, that one new dock would be annually finifhed; and that in twenty years this grand undertaking would be carried into execution. The water will be introduced, and pumped out, by windmills, or by hands, as occafion requires. The primary view and intention of this grand plan was to obtain dry docks, for the purpofe of keeping the whole fleet entirely covered from wind and weather. It has, however, been a queftion much agitated in Sweden, whether large veffels are not more effectually preferved in water, than when fecured in dry docks; a folution of which can only be given by perfons well experienced in naval affairs. But fhould this be allowed, yet thefe docks will ftill be greatly ferviceable for the conftruc-tion and repairing, if not for the prefervation of fhips. The fhips are built at Carlfcrona, chiefly by Englifh artizans. Though the provinces of Blekinge and Skone abound with oaks, yet, as there is riot a fufliciency for a continued fupply, the Swedes procure their fhip-timber from Germany. They made their two laft contracts with the king of Pruflia; the firft * See p. 207 of this volume. O 0 O 2 for book for 400,000 Swedifh cubic feet *; the laft for 200,000. The latter were delivered in 1778, at the rate of $s. tod. per cubic foot. They are fupplied from their own territories with mafts and deals, pitch and tar, and the greatefl part of the Rax ufed in the navy; and manufacture their own ropes and fails from hemp chiefly imported from Riga. They call their own cannon, and make their own gunpowder with Swedifh faltpetre. The harbour of Carlfcrona, in which the Swedifli fleet lies at anchor, is large and commodious, with depth of water fufficient for fliips .of the firfl rate to carry their lower tier of guns. Upon paper, the Swedifh navy, in 1779, amounted to 30 fhips of the line, including thofe of 40 guns, and 15 frigates, befide gallies, prames, and xebecs. But as feveral of thefe veflels were very old and exceedingly out of repair, we could not eftimate thofe fit for fervice at that period to have been more than 20 ihips of the line, and 10 frigates. Though I was not able to obtain a complete catalogue of the whole navy ; yet the following lift of all the fliips then in commiflion, and fitting out for a cruife in the Baltic in 1779, the era of the armed neutrality, will help to fupply the deficiency. Veflels fitting out in March 1779. Names. Guns. Vafa, new 60 Upland, ftationed at Gotheborg 43 Names. Guns. Sophia Magdalena, new 74 Guflavus 111. new 74 Prince Guflavus 74 Gotha Lyop 74 King Adolphus Frederic 70 J-:ederic Adolphus, new 64 SopJiia Albertina. 64 Lnigheten 64 Finlai.d 60 Jaramas 4q Swart Orn ^ Illerin, bound to Morocco 36 Prince Guftavus, new 32 Trolle, in Finland 31 Erenfvard, in Finland 32 The feamen belonging to government are regiflered, and arnounr to 18,000 ; of thefe fome receive their pay in money ; and others are diflributed in the fame manner as the national militia, iiaall portions of land in the iflands an.; upon the fea- * 1027 Swedifh feet mS 1000 Englifli feet. coafl: V coaft being afligned to them for their fubfiftcnce. Of thefe c^p* 18,000 faiiors, according to the moft favourable accounts, only WyUrf about 6000 are reputed to be experienced feamen: the reft are mere peafants. Upon an emergency, the king enjoys the power of prefling faiiors from the merchantmen, but only in exchange for the regiftered feamen. At Carlfcrona, I rejoined my companions, whom I had quitted at Stockholm, exchanged my open cart for a more commodious vehicle, and continued my journey from thence to Helfing-borg, which clofes my travels in Sweden. Our route lay through the provinces of Blekinge and Skone. For the firft two or three polls the country was hilly and rocky, and covered with foreft ; afterwards it changed to a level and fertile plain. Our road lay near the fhore, and we had many fine fea views, with numerous rocks and fmall iflands fcattered in all directions. About twelve miles from the village of Felkinge, where we took our flation for the night, we entered Skone, called by foreigners Scania, the moft level, the mofl fandy, and yet the moft fertile of all the Swedifli provinces. We paffed through Chriflianfladt, a flrong fortified town, built in 1614 byChriftian IV. king of Denmark, when this province belonged to the Danes; and finally ceded to the Swedes by the peace of Rofkild in 1658. 'i ne town is fmall, but neatly built, and is efteemed the ftrongeft fortrefs in Sweden. The houfes are all of brick, and moftly fluccoed white. It flands in a marfhy plain clofe to the river Helge-a, which flows into the Baltic at Alius, about the diftance of 20 miles, and is navigable only for imall craft of 7 tons burden. Englifh veffels annually refort to this port for alum, pitch, and tar. The inhabitants have manufactures of cloth and filken fluffs; and carry on a fmall degree of commerce. A little beyond Chriftianfladt, as we approached the coafls of the found, the country rofe into fmall inequalities, covered at o intervals book intervals with trees: the foil was chiefly fand mixed with vegetable mould. We arrived, late in the evening of March the 21 ft, at Helflngborg, the place of embarkation upon the found for Denmark. Before I conclude my travels into Sweden, I fhall throw together a few remarks upon the mode of travelling, and other general heads, which I had no occafion to touch upon in a particular manner. Travelling in Sweden is perfectly commodious to a perfon acquainted with the ufual method of procuring horfes. At the different towns and villages upon the high roads, poft-horfes are not always regularly ftationed; but if the traveller fends forward a peafant to appoint relays, at a certain ftipulated place and time, his orders are punctually executed. The neglect of this precaution has caufed frequent delays to inexperienced foreigners, as it did to us upon our firft arrival in the country; for we were obliged to wait at each poft-houfe until horfes could be obtained from the adjacent villages. The ufual practice of fupplying poft-horfes is regulated in a manner very convenient and cheap to travellers, yet extremely burdenfome to the natives *. All perfons poffefling land of a certain tenure are bound to fend one or more horfes two or three times in the month to the neighbouring poft-houfe : if they are not wanted, they return, after waiting 24 hours, without any compenfation * Cantzler makes the following judicious re- " tion, a moins qu'il ne furvienne de voyagcur. marks upon this fubject. In enumerating the " Cette corvee s'appelle Holls/kjuts et il s'y obstacles to the improvement of agriculture in " perd chaque fois un jour et demi. Mr. Mo-Sweden, he mentions, among others, " Les " deer, fecretaire de la fociete patriotiquc, fup-" voiturages publics et le tranfport des voya- ** pofe 700 endroits de relais dans tout ce roy-" gcurs, a faire tour-a-tour paries payfans af- *' aume, et fept chevaux journellement aflignes "fignes aux relais de policies plus voilins. " a chaque endroit de relais. Ennccomptant u Ceux-ci font extremement onereux aux cul- " meme que 300 endroits de relais, et 4 che-" tivateurs, obliges, chacun au moins trois fois " vaux pourchacun, ce qui fait 1200 chevaux-" par mois, d'envoyer un valet ou garcon avec " par jour, ou 432,000 chevaux par an, a 360 " un ou deux chevaux a I'endroit de relais, qui " jours, cette forte de corvees caufe pour I'agn-44 leur eft afligne, pour s'y tenir une journee " culture une perte annuelle de 216,000 journees H entiere prct au tranfport des poilcs, fans que " d'ouvrage a faire par un valet et deux che-■*' les payfans en re5oivent aucune compenfa- "vaux." See Cautzlcr'sMcmoires, &c. p. 202. 2 for TRAVELS INTO SWEDEN. 4>i for their labour and lofs of time; and, if employed, receive a chap. very inadequate recompence*. I found, indeed, travelling fo - jjy, * exceedingly cheap in Sweden, that, during a cenrfe of 500 miles, from my departure from Stockholm to my arrival at Carlfcrona, my whole expences, including the prime coft of my cart, the hire of pofl-horfes, the gratuities to the drivers, and the accommodations on the road, did not amount to £20, although my Swedifli fervant occafionally taxed me with want of ceconomy. The drivers being the peafants themfelves, who ufually attend with their own horfes, are contented with a fmall acknowledgement of about 2d. or yl. for each poll:. The horfes are fmall, but lively and active; two were ufually the complement for my cart; and they went generally at the rate of fix or feven miles in an hour: the poftilion never rode, but fat upon a fmall bench at the extremity of the cart. The high roads of Sweden wind agreeably through the country, are made with ftone or gravel, and are as good as our turnpikes in England ; and yet not a Angle toll is exacted from the traveller. Each landholder is obliged to keep in repair a certain part of the road in proportion to his property ; and, for the purpofe of afcertaining their refpective portions, fmall pieces of wood, or flone, marked with numbers and capital letters, are placed at different diflances on each fide of the way. In no kingdom, fince I quitted England, have I obferved fo many feats feattered over the face of the country as I perceived in Sweden, where the gentlemen of moderate fortunes, as with us, are accuflomed to refide upon their eftates in rural plenty. Thefe feats, being compofed of an affemblage of wooden buildings and painted red, make a neat appearance: occupying a * When we firft entered Sweden, we only (livers = tcgo"—" Let o/s fe"— man alfo informed me, that there are feveral «< Stand JUII"—" Hold din tunga"—" Go art." obfolete Swedifh words which are very com- f A Swedifh gentleman of my acquaintance mon in Scotland, made the fame remark during a tour in Scot- % That the affinity between the Swedifh and land; that there was a much nearer refem- Englifh languages was more obvious in former blance between the Scotch and Swedifh, than times appears from an anecdote mentioned in bet*«en the Swedifh and Englifh, bothin words p. 367 of this volume. ( f'(//W A'.(^r,At'AA in /AcS frond. T R A V E INTO D E N M A l s R K BOOK VIII. CHAP. I. Paffage of the Sound*-—Entrance into Denmark.—-Elfinoor. —Toll of the Sound.—Cronborg cafle and palaces-Anecdote of queen Matilda.—Hamlet's garden.—Hiflory of Hamlet from Saxo-Grammaticus.—Copenhagen.— Prefentation at court.—Ife —' courtiers, and requefts the king, by a letter, to put him to death. Hamlet difcovers and alters the letter; fo that, upon their arrival in England, the king orders the two courtiers to immediate execution, and betroths his daughter to Hamlet, who gives many aftonifhing proofs of a moR tranfcendent un-derftanding. At the end of the year he returns to Denmark, and alarms the court by his unexpected appearance, as a report of his death had been fpread, and preparations were making for his funeral. Having re-affumed his affected in-fanity, he purpofely wounds his fingers in drawing his fword, which the by-ftanders immediately fallen to the fcabbard. He afterwards invites the principal nobles to an entertainment, makes them intoxicated, and in that Rate covers them with a large curtain, which he faftens to the ground with wooden pegs; he then fets fire to the palace, and the nobles, being enveloped in the curtain, perifh in the flames. During this tranfaction he repairs to Fengo's apartment, and, taking the fword which lay by the fide of his bed, puts his own in its place ; he inftantly awakens, and informs him, that Hamlet is come to revenge the murder of his father, Fengo ftarts from his bed, feizes the fword, but, being unable to draw it, falls by the hand of Hamlet. The next morning, when the populace were aflembled to view the ruins of the palace, Hamlet fummons the remaining nobles, and in a mafterly fpeech, which is too long to infert in this place, lays open the motives " ab re ftolidi fpccien gcro, cum haud dubi- " immitcmque animum altioribus ingenii mo- *' tern quin is qui fratrem oppreflerit, in affines " dis uti convenit. Tibi vero fapervacuum fit ** quoque pari crudelitate debacchaturus fit : " meam lamentari defipicntiam, qux tuam 41 unde ftoliditatis qua? induftriae habitum am- 11 juftius ignominiam deplorarc dcbueras. Ita- '* plccti prrcftat, et incolumitatis pra-fidium ab " que non alicme fed propria? mentis vitium '* cxtrcma deliramentorum fpecie mutuari. In iC dcfleas neccfie eft. Casterafilere memineris." " animo tamen paternx ultionis fludium per- " Tali convitlo laceratam matrem ad excolen- «' feverat; fed rerum-occafioues aucupor, tern- *' dum virtutis habitum revocavit, praetcritof- u portim oppnrtunitates oppcrior. Non idem '* que ignes prscfentibus illecebris pra*ferrc do- it omnibus locus competit. Contra obfcurum " cuit." of his own conduct, proves his uncle to have been the aiTaflin chap. of his father, and concludes in the following words : 11 Tread 1—v~—» " upon the allies of the monfler, who, polluting the wife of " his murdered brother, joined incefl to parricide; and ruled /(f//i<.'ctuf/y/,'//___ h Jforj'ti/Jif/ttrt*. -------n j\-i/y(vior/'/■,,/,■//(/■,/rri,'C//1 V/urc/l......... d.Surfers r/itt/vh. ...--^ jj , (Vuif/oZ/oii/'tir^/i Vajacc, e .'J'/n- ( '/itrer.'tA'---------q_.J&ie/t'u1 '''■•'• '<'f'& AJ'JiAiY■■/■■/■■' CITY of Copenhagen. i COPENHAGEN. 483 The annual lift of births in Copenhagen being, upon an chap. average of feveral years, eftimated at 2830, and of deaths at »—y-j 295$> we may compute that it contains near 80,000 inhabitants. Copenhagen is the beft-built city of the north; for although Peterfburgh excels it in fuperb edifices, yet, as it contains no wooden houfes, it does not difplay that ftriking contraft of meannefs and magnificence, but in general exhibits a more equable and uniform appearance. The town is furrounded towards the land with regular ramparts and baftions, a broad ditch full of water, and a few outworks: its circumference meafures between four or five miles. The ftreets are well paved, with a foot-way on each fide, but too narrow and inconvenient for general ufe. The greatefl part of the buildings are of brick 5 and a few are of free-ftone brought from Germany. The houfes of the nobility are in general fplendid, and conflrueted in the Italian flyle of architecture j the palace, which was erected by Chriftian VI. is a large pile of building; the front is of ftone, and the wings of brick ftuccoed: the fuite of apartments is princely; but the external appearance is more grand than elegant. The bufy fpirit of commerce is vifible in Copenhagen. The haven is always crowded with merchant fhips; and the ftreets are interfered by broad canals, which bring the merchandize clofe to the warehoufes that line the quays. This city owes its principal beauty to a dreadful fire in 1728, that deftroyed five churches and fixty-feven ftreets, which have been fince rebuilt in the modern flyle. The new part of the town, raifed by the late king Frederic V. is extremely beautiful, fcarcely inferior to Bath. It confifts of an octagon, containing four uniform and elegant buildings of hewn ftone, and of four broad ftreets leading to it in oppofite directions. In the middle of the area flands an equeftrian flatue of Frederic V, in bronze, CLq q 2 as book as big as life, which is juftly admired. It was eaft at the ex-t—v—j pence of the Eaft India Company by Saly, and coft £ 80,000 fterling. On the 25th of March we acompanied Mr. Delaval, our minifter, to court, and were honoured with private audiences by his majefty Chriftian VII. the queen dowager Juliana-Maria, her fon prince Frederic, and his confort the princefs Sophia-Frederica. We were deprived of the honour of paying our refpecTs to the prince royal, as he was at that time indifpofed. During our flay at Copenhagen there were only two public meetings at court: the company aflembled about fix o'clock in the evening. At one of thefe meetings was a concert, in which a Danifh tranflation of Pergolefi's Stabat Mater, with the original mufic, was performed. His majefty afterwards fat down to Loo with the queen dowager, prince Frederic, princefs Sophia, count Bernfdorff the prime minifter, and the Pruffian embaffador. As our flay at Copenhagen was very fhort, and principally during paflion-week, which the natives obfcrve with great ftrictnefs, we had not many opportunities of experiencing the hofpitality of the Danifh nobility, though they were much inclined to honour us with all thofe marks of attention and civility which are ufually paid to ftrangers. Amongft other inftances of politcncfs, we received an invitation to an affembly and fupper from count Molck, who was favourite and prime minifter to the late king Frederic V. The count's houfe, which flands in the octagon, is a magnificent building fuperbly furnifhed. He poffeffes feveral fine pictures ; amongft which I chiefly admired a painting by Nicholas Pouflin, two excel-cellent Vanderwerfs, and a Teniers. His collection of foflils, fhells, minerals, and petrefactions, deferves the notice of the naturalift: it is particularly rich in native productions of Denmark ; and exhibits many fine fpecimens of the gold, filver. ver and copper mines, from Norway j and of lava from Mount Hecla in Iceland. Among the mofl curious collections in Copenhagen, the Royal Mufeum, or Cabinet of Rarities, merits the firft place. This collection, which was begun by Frederic III. is depofited in eight apartments, and ranged in the following order : animals; fhells; minerals; paintings; antiquities; medals; dreffes; arms and implements of the Laplanders. The fhort time which I employed in examining thefe apartments did not permit me to take a minute and accurate account of the principal curi-ofities, which the reader will find defcribed in Mufeum Regium Jacobcei. Part of Copenhagen, which is called Chriftianfhafen, is built upon the ifle of Amak, which generally attracts the curiofity of foreigners. Amak is about four miles long, and two broad ; and is chiefly peopled by the defcendants of a colony from Eaft Friefland, to whom the ifland was configned by Chriftian II. at the requeft of his wife Elizabeth, filler of Charles V. for the purpofe of fupplying her with vegetables, cheefe, and butter. From the intermarriages of thefe colonies with the Banes, the prefent inhabitants are chiefly defcended but as they wear their own drefs, and enjoy peculiar privileges, they appear a diftinct race from the natives. The ifland contains about fix villages, and between 3 and 4000 fouls. It has two churches, in which the minifters preach occafionally in Dutch and Danifli. The inhabitants have their own inferior tribunals; but in capital offences are amenable to the king's court of juflice at Copenhagen. The old national habit, brought by the original colony when they firft migrated to the ifland, is ftill in ufe amongft them. It refembles the habit of the antient quakers, as repre-fented in the pictures of the Dutch and Flemifh painters. The men wear broad-brimmed hats, black jackets, full glazed breeches of the fame colour, loofe at the knee, and tied round the book thewaift. The women were dreffed chiefly in black jackets viii. . i^v^ and petticoats, with a piece of blue glazed cloth bound on their heads. The ifland is laid out in gardens and paflures; and ftill, according to the original defign, fupplies Copenhagen with milk, butter, and vegetables. CHAP. II. Form of government antiently eftablifhed in Denmark.— Caufes and events which preceded and effeBed the revolution of 1660.—Change of the conftitution from an eleBive and limited^ to an hereditary and abfolute^ monarchy* UNTIL the middle of the laft century the crown of Denmark was elective ; the fupreme legiflative authority refided in the three eftates of the realm, the nobles, clergy, and commons, aflembled in a diet by means of their reprefentatives; and the executive power was vefted in the king, and fenate, compofed of the principal nobles. The king was little more than prefident of the fenate, and commander of the army; the regal prerogative being circumfcribed by a capitulation or charter of privileges, which the fovereign figned at his ac-ceflion. Although the crown was always continued in the fame family, and uniformly conferred upon the eldeft fon, yet the new prince was conflrained to purchafe his fucceflion to the throne by the grant of farther immunities. Such was the ftate of affairs until the fingular revolution of 1660 eftablifhed, almoft without the concurrence of the fovereign, reign, an hereditary and abfolute monarchy; exhibiting an chap. inftance, which ftands unparalleled in the annals of hiftory, of ijLj a people, who fpontaneoufty renounced their freedom, and invefted their limited governor with the moft unbounded authority. The incidents and circumftances which occafioncd fo furprizing a revolution are too important to be paffed over in filence. Frederic III. who, upon the death of his father Chriftian IV. afcended the throne by the free election of the ftates, figned a charter of rights, confiding of 54 articles; among which feveral new privileges were confirmed to the fenate, whereby they were enabled to engrofs nearly to themfelves the whole adminiflration of affairs. Frederic poffeffetl in the ordinary occurrences of life a mild and equable temper of mind, acquiefcing in every event with perfect compofure, and apparently indifferent to ambition or glory. If his dominions had not been invaded by a powerful rival, he would have fcarcely been noticed by his contemporaries. But as, during his reign the very being of Denmark, as a kingdom, was at flake, and he was called to action by the moft imminent danger which a fovereign could experience, he fuddenly furmounted his natural cold-nefs; his mind acquired unufual vigour; and he exhibited proofs of courage, prudence, and perfeverance, not inferior to the moft confummate heroes of his time. Thefe circumftances ferved to place his character in an exalted point of view; while, at the fame time, his gentlenefs and moderation prevented the umbrage which is apt to be conceived by a free people againfl their fovereign. Thus, from being thought incapable of any interefted defigns, and yet equal to the tafk of carrying the moft adventurous into execution, he became, from the accidental fituation of his affairs, the innocent inftrument of accomplifhing an important revolution, which totally changed the form of the Danifli government. When BvinK When Charles Guftavus of Sweden broke the treaty of Rof-v—i kiid, which he had juft figned, and in 1658 appeared fuddenly before Copenhagen at the head of a powerful army, he efteemed himfelf fo fecure of fuccefs, that he made a prefent of Zealand to admiral Wrangel; nay, he even publicly boafted, that he would unite the three crowns of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, in his own perfon; and would then march, like another Alaric, into Italy, at the head of the Gothic nations. The internal weaknefs and civil commotions of Denmark feemed almoft to juftify thefe proud vaunts : the fate of the whole kingdom depended on the fafety of Copenhagen; and yet, fuch was the deplorable condition of that capital, that Frederic was advifed to retire from a place which feemed abfolutely untenable, and to make his efcape either to Holland or Norway. For, the fortifications had been long neglected; it contained a garrifon of only a thoufand regular troops; had not fufficient provifions to ftand a fiege; was almoft deftitute of every means of refiftance; and crowded with inhabitants and fugitives of all ranks. But that monarch, of whofe military capacity no expectation could be formed, roufed by this dangerous crifis of affairs, difcovered at once the moft undaunted courage: he declared his refolution of defending his capital to the laft extremity; and, rather than be a witnefs to its furrender, of burying himfelf under its ruins. His conduct during the fiege anfwered thefe profeflions; he gave his orders with calmnefs and intrepidity; he was among the firft in all places of danger; and among the laft whore-treated. , His zeal was feconded by the undaunted fpirit of his queen, Sophia Amelia, princefs of Brunfwic Lunenburgh*, who, during the whole conteft, was indefatigable in animating the bcfieged ; fhe partook of their fatigues; rode night and day round the ramparts, and obferved every occurrence with the vigilance of a centinel, and the coolcefs of a veteran. The pre- Mcmoiies dc Terlon, p. 333. fence fence and activity of both their fovereigns gave frefh vigour to the garrifon and citizens of Copenhagen; they braved every danger, and even bound themfelves, by an oath, to perifh, rather than furrcnder the capital. Their zeal was Rill further raifed by the policy of Frederic, who extorted from the nobles an increafe of the citizens immunities; and paffed an edict, figned by himfelf and the principal fenators, permitting them to poffcfs lands, and to enjoy all the rights of nobility. Thus animated and encouraged, the burghers formed themfelves into companies, and vied with the regular foldiers in fubmit-ting to the rigour of military difcipline. In a word, by their invincible fpirit, Copenhagen held out from the 8th of Auguft 1658, to the conclufion of the peace, on the 27th of May 1660, when the Swedifli army evacuated Zealand. Upon the fignature of this treaty a diet was fummoned at Copenhagen, to take into confideration the ftate of the kingdom, exhaufted with debts, and defolated by the miferies of war. The imminent danger which had threatened the ruin of Denmark had no fooner fubfided, than Frederic relapfed into his conftitutlonal indolence ; and feems, if we may judge from the moft authentic accounts, to have had but a fmall fhare in the fubfequent revolution: it appears, indeed, to have been as cafual as it was fudden, the effect only of the imperious conduct of the nobles, of the jealoufies and refentments of the other orders, and of the high opinion which the people had conceived of their king,"^c» whom they juftly imputed the pre-fervation of Copenhagen, and the fafety of the kingdom; while they attributed to the violence and factions of the nobles all the evils which they hadlately experienced. The diet, which was the laft ever convened in Denmark, af-fcmblcd at Copenhagen on the 8th of September 1660. The nobles, inftcad of endeavouring to conciliate the other orders by a moderate conduct, increafed the public difcontents by the Vol. II. Rrr moft moft arrogant behaviour. The deputies of the clergy and commons united againft them; and the citizens of Copenhagen, who, having acquired great credit by the glorious defence of the capital, formed a very confiderable party, were highly dif-gufted with them for remonftrating againft the immunities granted by the king during the fiege. In this ftate and temper of the parties, when the neceffary fupplies were brought forward, the nobles propofed an excife upon all articles of con-fumption*, and exprefTed themfelves willing to fubmit to it, although their order was by law exempted from all taxes: they accompanied this offer with a remonftrance to the king, in which they endeavoured, not only to reclaim many obfolete privileges, but to add frefh immunities, and to introduce many other regulations which tended to diminifh the royal prerogative, and to check the rifing influence of the two eftates of the commons and clergy. The propofal of fuch a tax, and this imprudent remonftrance, excited great heats in the diet; the clergy and commons contended that the offer was infidious, as the nobles would only pay the excife during their refidence in the towns, and refufed fubmitting to it while they refided upon their eftates. Upon this ground they objected to the> tax itfelf in its prefent form ; nor would admit it on any other condition than that it fhould be levied equally upon all ranks without any referve or reftriction. The nobles not only perfiflcd ia the plea of exemption, but even refufed to be fubject to it for more than three years, under the pretence that every impoft was an infringement of their privileges. Being however intimidated by the decifivc rcfufal of the other deputies, they * AH the Danifh hiftorians agree in this cin- 4t and conveniency, be levied upon the com* cumftance, that the nobles oifered to ta:; them- " mons, without the leaft intention of bearing felves ; therefore Lord Moiefworth is wrong, " any proportionable fhaie themselves." Ac- when he fciys, " the nobility, according to count of Denmark, p. 32. See Malkt, Hift* ** their ufual practice, debated tow the fu-ms of de Daanemarc, III. p. 446. ** money requifite might, with greatcft eafc i fhifted fhifted their ground, propofed new duties upon (lamped paper c and leather; and offered, inflead of the excife upon confump-tion, to pay a poll-tax for their peafants. The clergy and commons at firR approved thefe additional imports, but afterwards retracted, under pretence that they would not produce a fum adequate to the wants of the nation. It is not certain from what caufe this alteration of their fentiments was derived*; whether the taxes would really have been inadequate, cr were to be granted for too fhort a time; or whether, urged by other motives, they were fecretly defirous of obtaining more effential and durable advantages againft the nobles. Probably all thefe motives operated upon different perfons; but the latter efpe-cially feems to have had great influence, becaufe, in lieu of the above-mentioned duties, the deputies propofed that the royal fiefs and domains, which the nobles had exclufively poffeffedat a very moderate rent, fhould be farmed to the higheft bidders. This propofal irritated the nobles, who juftly deemed it an infraction of their deareft privileges ; as, by the 46th article of the coronation oath taken by Frederic, the poffeflion of the royal fiefs was guarantied to their order. In the heat of the conteft upon this article, one of the chief fenators imprudently threw out reproachful expreflions againft the commons, which raifed fuch a general ferment in the affembly, that the deputies of the clergy and commons broke up the meeting. In this ftruggle the friends of the court began to interpofe. It was eafily feen that the deputies were fo difgufted with the nobles, that they would cheerfully embrace that occafion of humbling the whole order; and no way feemed more likely to enfure fuccefs than rendering the crown hereditary, and exalting the regal prerogative upon the ruin of the nobility. They never could expect that fo favourable an opportunity fhould again occur; the diet was aflembled in a fortified town j the * Mullet, p. 447, R r r 2 citizens t citizens were Rill in arms, and all of them, as well as the gar* -» rifon, were devoted to the king. It is fcarcely poflible to trace, at this diflance of time, all ths fecret fprings which actuated the deputies upon this extraordi* nary occafion. It only appears, from good authority, that the two perfons who had the principal fhare in the revolution were the creatures of the court; and had, previoufly to the meeting of the diet, preconcerted fomerhing of a general plan of lowering the nobility, with a confidential * fervant of the crown. Thefe perfons were Svane, bifhop of Zealand and prefident of the order of the clergy, and Nanfen, burgomafler of Copenhagen and fpeaker of the commons: we have no reafon however to conclude that they intended to proceed further than to humble the ariftocraticai party, and to make fome neceflary changes in the conftitution; but the obftinacy of the nobles enlarged their views, and induced the deputies, not only to think of rendering the crown hereditary, but of vetting the whole power in the hands of the king, While the defign was in agitation, Frederic felt, or affected to feel, an almoft total in* difference to the event; and though he expreffed himfelf inclined to accept the offer of an hereditary fucceflion, if it could be obtained by the unanimous confent of all the eftates, yet he refufed to take any active part in the whole proceeding. The queen endeavoured to roufe him from this fupinenefs; but her influence, which had never before been exerted in vain, proved now ineffectual: being not inclined, however, to follow his example, flie caballed with the leaders of the clergy and commons ; and difplayed that fpirit of intrigue and daring enter-prize, which had fo long marked her character in contrail with, the mild and paflive. acquiefcence of the king,. * Molefworth faySj with Hannibal Sehefted, eafy to fuppofe that both were confultcd on the and Holberg with Gabi] the king's favourite, occafion. Probably they were both in the right, as it is Upon Upon the feceiTion of the deputies, which the obftinacy of the nobles had provoked, the hint of rendering the crown hereditary was firft fuggefted by the bifhop of Zealand; and when feveral partizans were gained, a numerous meeting was held at his palace, on the 6th of October, in which the fcheme was laid open and approved. The act for declaring the crown hereditary was drawn up, and the beft method of publicly producing it was taken into confideration. The mode of proceeding was now concerted between the chiefs of the party and Gabel the favourite of the king, who held a feparate conference with the bifhop and Nanfen that very afternoon. The whole night and the following day repeated me flage s paffed between fome of the deputies and the emiffaries of the queen, as the king Rill continued neutral, and could not be prevailed upon to take any active fhare in an event which fo nearly concerned him. On the morning of the 8th of October *, the bifhop of Zealand, having obtained the confent and fignature of the ecclefiaflical deputies to the declaration of hereditary fueceflion, delivered it to Nanfen. The latter, in a moft perfuafive fpeechj expatiated upon the wretched ftate of the kingdom, the oppref-fivc power of the nobles, and the virtues of the king ; and corn-eluded with exhorting the commons to fubferibe the act as the only means of faving their country. Having firft figned it him* felf, his example was followed by each deputy, without one diffenting voice. During thefe intrigues the nobles remained in full fecurity, and without the leafl fufpicion ; as the commons had, the fame day in which they figned the declaration, debated upon ths taxes, and drawn up a remonftrance againft the nobles, without any allufion to the more iecret tranfaction. On the 9th this remonftrance was prefented in form to Frederic by the bifhop and Nanfen; and as they were returning from the palace, they * Holberg, III. p. 479, BviuK: *iac* a v*°*ent aAtercation with the fame chief fenator who had y~> before offended the commons, and who then threatened them _ with imprifonment for prefuming to approach the king without acquainting the order of nobles. This threat ferved only to fix them the more firmly in their refolution; and the fmgle circumflance which now remained was, to confult upon the fureft means of extorting thcaffent of the nobles. Rumours of this project had by this time reached them j but they had fcarcely aflembled to confider the moil efficacious methods of rendering it ineffectual *, before the deputies of the clergy and burghers entered the hall, and, having taken their feats, Nanfen, after a fhort fpeech, delivered to them die declaration for rendering the crown hereditary in his majefty's family. The nobles, although they were in fome degree apprized that fuch a meafure was intended, were neverthelefs thrown into a general conflernation by its being communicated to them in fo fudden and decifive a manner. Conceiving it, however, imprudent in their prefent fituation to negative the propofal, they endeavoured to gain time, and replied accordingly, that though they willingly gave their affent to the declaration, yet that, as it was a matter of great confequence, it deferved the moft mature difcuflion. Nanfen, perceiving the drift of this delay, anfwered, that they came not to deliberate, but to act: they had already taken their refolution; they would lofe no time in debate j if the nobles refufed to concur with them, they would themfelves repair immediately to the palace, not doubting but the king would gracioufly accept their proffered declaration. While this was palling in public, the nobles had fecrctly difpatched a meffage to the king, that they were willing to render the crown hereditary in the male line of his iffue, provided it was done with all accutloincd formalities \ a propofal his majefty rejected as a circumtlance not dcfirabie, unlefs the * Probably on the loth of Oftcbcr, as Mailct conjcdhixcs. right REVOLUTION OF MDCLX. 495 right of fuccefllon was extended to the females alfo; adding, chap. it with great appearance of moderation, that he by no means _^—* wifhed to prefcribe rules for their conduct; they were to follow the dictates of their own judgement; as for his part, he would owe every thing to their free confent, but that he could not accept the offer with the limitation propofed. The nobles, who were waiting with anxiety for the return of their meffenger, kept the bufinefs in fufpence by declining their direct affent to the declaration, and propofing a further confideration of the fubject; upon this, the other deputies, ap-prehenfive of their fecret cabals, and ftill further cxaiperated againfl; them for their obftinate refufal of concurrence, quitted the affembly, and repaired in folemn proceflion to the court, leaving the nobles in a ftate of irrefolution and diffraction, more eafily conceived than related. The deputies being admitted to the king, the bifhop of Zealand addreffed his majefty on the refolution taken by the clergy and commons, offering, in their name, to render the crown hereditary, and to inveft him with abfolute authority-, adding, that they were ready to facrifice their lives in defence of an eflablifliment fo falutary to their country. The king, in his anfwer3 thanked them for their favourable intentions ; but mentioned the approbation of the nobles as a neceffary condition, though he had no doubt of their concurrence when they fhould have had time to accompany the declaration with all the neceffary formalities; he affured them of his protection, promifed a redrefs of all grievances, and difmifTed them with an exhortation to continue their fittings, until they fhould have brought their defign to perfection, and he could receive their voluntary fubmifhon with all due folemnity. The reader will obferve, with much furprife, that in all the public occurrences previous to this audience, the only affair ap* parently in agitation, was to change the form of government from : from an elective to an hereditary monarchy; no mention had 1 been made of enlarging the powers of the crown, or of the flill more extraordinary fcheme of making the king abfolute. Is it probable, if the nobles had immediately confcnted to the declaration, that this celTion might not have taken place I Was there-not a medium between hereditary right and arbitrary power? or can we fuppofe, that, according to the fyftem of the Danifli law, the latter was neceffarily implied in the former? Something like this, probably, mufl have been the cafe, as it is hardly poflible to conceive, that when the deputies of the commons and clergy had voted only for the declaration, the bifhop, of his own accord, fhould have added the gift of unlimited authority. It often happens that people are more affected by appearances than realities. The bare mention of arbitrary power would have revolted the deputies, while the fubftance, being included in the popular exprefhon of hereditary right, was adopted and paffed without referve. But to return to the nobles ; when the deputies had abruptly quitted the affembly, they could not agree amongft themfelves what plan was to be purfued in this alarming crifis. They were not, indeed, unanimous in their motives of oppofition, being divided into three principal parties* : the firft confided of thofe who were devoted to the court, and favoured the declaration of the commons; the fecond, of thofe who were eonfeious that fome change in the conftitution was requifitc, but uncertain how far they mould proceed; the third, by far the moft confiderable in number, was compofed of thofe who feemed determined to affert their own privileges to the laft extremity, and who ftrenuoufly oppofed the leafl alteration. It was no wonder, therefore, that they broke up without coming to any refolution, but put off their final determination to their next meeting in the afternoon. While they were thus waver- * llolberg. ing and irrefolute, the court and popular party took the ne- chap. celTary precautions in order to force them to a concurrence. «_„-_» It was feared that the enterprize might fail of fuccefs, if the nobles fhould refolve to quit Copenhagen, and to break up the diet, from the juR pretence that it was held in a fortified town, under awe of a garrifon devoted to the court. Indeed feveral had already made their efcape, and others feemed inclined to follow them. In confequencc of thefe ap-prehenfions, the king iffued orders to fhut the gates of the town • and this fpirited meafure had fuch an inflant effect upon the nobles, that they abandoned all thoughts of further refiftance, and difpatched deputies to the court, that they were ready to concur with the commons, and fubferibe to all the conditions of the royal pleafure *♦ Accordingly, on the 16th of October, the eflates annulled, in the mofl folemn manner, the capitulation, or charter, figned by the king at his acceffion, abfolved him from all his engagements, and cancelled all the limitations impofed upon his fovereignty. The whole was finally clofed by the public ceremony of doing homage, and of taking the new oath, which was performed on the 18th. On that day feveral fcaffolds were erected before the palace, adorned with fcarlet cloth and tape-Rry, and furnifhed with rows of benches : on a platform, more elevated than the reft, were placed two chairs of ftate, under a canopy of velvet, for the king and queen, and thefe fcaffolds communicated with the palace by an open gallery. At the appointed time, the citizens of Copenhagen, forming twelve companies, were drawn up on each fide of the gallery ; the garrifon furrounded the platform, and the avenues leading to it; while the regiment of guards fecured the rear. At midday the king and queen, attended by the royal family, preceded by the nobles, and accompanied by the officers of ftate, Vol. II. repaired repaired in folemn proceffion, amid drums and trumpets, to the platform ; and when the nobles, the deputies of the clergy, and commons, had taken their places, &c. the chancellor proclaimed * : *c Since it has pleafed the Almighty, by the unanimous and voluntary re-c* folution of the Hates, that this kingdom mould be rendered hereditary in tc the perfon ofhis Majefty our Lord the King, and of his pofterity male and " female j his Majefty, after thanking the ftates for this proof of their af- 785,540 Iceland. 59>399J — 4,754 215,0437 113,024/ 130,352 f 723,141 164,7223 34,2167 ii,985i 46,201. 243,605 134,665 10,072 75,000 - 2j02J,02S II. Finances ByTSK H« Finances.—The revenues of Denmark are principally dc-s—^—i rived from the cufloms, duties upon exports and imports, excife on provifions and liquors, poll-tax *, tax on ranks, on places, pcnfions, and perquifites, on marriages f, land-tax, quit-rents from the royal demefnes, licences on public houfes, privilege of diftilling fpirits, for leave to hunt and moot in the royal manors, leafes on farms and faw-mills, profits of the mines, Ramped paper, duty on fnuff, on cards, &c. &x. Bufching, who, as I am informed from perfons well verfed in this fubject, has given a very accurate account of the Danifli finances for the year 1769, informs us, that the grofs receipt amounted to £ 1,252,454. The expences, of which he has alfo laid down an exact detail, are rated at £936,130; of which fum the army efUmates came to £ 350,000 ; and thofe of the navy to £ 180,000. The debts, in 1771, were only £3,418,009 ; the intereft of which was difcharged by an annual payment of £ I3I»392 '> whicri muft be added to the yearly expenditure J. III. The army of Denmark is compofed, 1. of the troops of Denmark and Flolftein; and, 2. of Norway. 1. The forces of Denmark and Holftein are divided into, j. Regulars; 2. National or militia. Thefe forces (the foot and • The poll-tax takes place only in Den- an impoft was capable of being diftributed, the mark : it was at firft laid upon the inhabitants peafants and lower clafs of people being cx- of Norway, but has been fince abolilhed, and emptcd from the payment of it.—La por- anothcr impoft fubftituted in its room j the " tion la plus nombreufc," fays the author of peafants, who arc all free in that kingdom, Les Lettres fur le Dannemarc, «! et la plus having confidered it as a badge of ilavery. " pauvrc de la fociete, les payfans, les mate- Thc towns of Altona and Bornholm arc alfo 11 lots, ct les foldats, n'y font pas afTujettis: exempted from it, upon the payment of an " mais fi lc marriage doit etre encourage par annual compenfation. " toutes les voies pofiiblcs, a plus forte raifon f The tax upon marriages, as I am inform- " merite-t-il d'etre litn-c de toute charge. Celle ed, has been abolilhed fince my departure from "qui fe paye ici eft fi modique, qu'ellc ne Denmark ; a tax which no wife legiflature will " forme pas un grand obftacle a la popula- ever think of impofing ; and if impofed by in- " tion." p. 165. advertence, would take the firft opportunity of t For further particulars fee Buf. Hift. repealing, as highly detrimental to the real in- Mag. XIV. p. 1 to 92 ; and Erd-bei". Vol. I. terefts of the community. This tax was as p. 143. equitably laid on in Denmark as fo injudicious horfe horfe guards excepted, who are all regulars) are not feparated, as in our army, into diitinct regiments, but arc formed in the following manner: To begin with the infantry. Before the late augmentation, every regiment, when complete, confifted of 26 officers, and 1632 privates, divided into ten companies of fufilccrs, and two of grenadiers. Of thefe 1632 privates, 480, who are chiefly foreigners enliftcd in Germany, are regulars. The remaining 1152 are the national militia, or peafants, who refide upon the eftates of their landholders, each eftate furnifhing a certain number in proportion to its value. Thefe national troops are occafionally exercifed in fmall corps upon Sundays and holidays ; and arc embodied once every year, for about 17 days, in their refpective diftricts. By a late addition of jo men to each company, a regiment of infantry is increafed to 1778, including officers. The expence of each regiment, which before amounted to £ 6000, has been raifed, by the late augmentation, to £8000. The cavalry is upon the fame footing ; each regiment confiding of 17 officers, including ferjeants and corporals, and 565 privates, divided into five fquadrons. Of thefe about 260 arc regular, and the remainder national troops. rIhe regiments of foot and horfe guards arc regulars; the former is compofed of 21 officers, and 465 men, in five companies; and the latter of 7 officers, and 154 men, in two fquadrons. 2. The forces of Norway are all national troops or militia^ excepting the two regiments of Sundenfield and Nordenficld. And as the peafants of that kingdom arc free, the forces are levied in a different manner from thofe of Denmark. Norway is divided into a certain number of diftricts, each whereof fur-nifhes a foldier. All the peafants are, upon their birth, regf. flcrcd for the militia ; and the firft on the lift fupplies rhe 4 vacancy book vacancy for the diflricl: to which he belongs. After having ferved from ten to fourteen years, they are admitted among the invalids ; and, when they have attained the feniority of that corps, receive their difmiffion. Thefe troops are not continually under arms, but are only occafionally cxercifed, like the national forces of Denmark. A fixed Ripend is afligned to the officers, nearly equal to that of the officers in the regulars : but the common foldiers do not receive any pay, except when they are in actual fervice, or performing their annual manoeuvres. The Academy of Land Cadets, inflituted by Frederic IV. fupplies the army with officers. According to this foundation, 74 cadets are inRructed in the military fciences at the expence of the king. Lift of the Danifli Army. Infantry. —Danifh and Holfte Regulars and militia. Regiment of Sunderfield, reg. 1376 Ditto of Nordenfield, reg. 1376 Firft reg. of Agerhutis, national 1956 Second ditto, nat. 1956 Firft ditto Smaalchen, nat. 1800 Second ditto, nat. 2082 Firft ditto Drontheim, nat. 2082 Second ditto, nat. 1916" Third ditto, nat. 2089 Firfl: ditto Oplande, nat. 2075 Second ditto, nat. 1916 Firft ditto of Bergenhuus, nat. 1916 Second ditto, nat. 1916 Firfl; ditto Verterbeck, nat. 1916 Second ditto, nat. 1916 Corps of light troops, nat. 960 Regiment of artillery, mixt 2771 Corps of engineers, reg. 34 Infantry of Norway. Foot guards, reg. Danifli royal regiment, mixt Norway ditto, mixt King's ditto, mixt Queen's ditto, mixt Prince Royal's ditto, mixt Prince Frederic's ditto, mixt Jutland ditto, mixt Oldenburg ditto, mixt Bornholm ditto, mixt Slcfwic ditto, mixt Holflein ditto, mixt Falfter ditto, mixt. Moen ditto, mixt DelmenhoriVs ditto, mixt 486 1778 1778 1778 1778 1778 1778 1778 1778 1778 1778 »77* 1778 1778 1778 Total of Infantry of Norway 31,053 Cavalry 1 R Cavalry Danifh and Holflein. Horfe guards, regulars 161 Royal Danifh regiment, mixt 582 Norway ditto, mixt 582 Firft regiment of Zealand, mixt 582 Second ditto, mixt 582 Of Jutland, mixt 582 Funen, mixt 582 Slefwick, mixt 582 Holflein, mixt 582 M Y. Cavalry of Norway. Firfl regiment of dragoons, nat. Firfl ditto of Sundenfield, nat. Second ditto, national Third ditto, nat. Regiment of Nordenfield, nat. 1168 1168 1167 1079 1079 Total of Cavalry Total of Infantry 10,478 56>43i IV. Navy. From always excelled as Total of the Danifh troops 66,909 their infular fituation the Danes have a maritime people. In the earlier ages, when piracy was an honourable profeiTion, they were a race of pirates, and ifTued from the Baltic to the conquefls of England and Normandy. And though, fince the improvement of navigation by the invention of the compafs, other nations have rifen to a greater degree of naval eminence, ftill, however, the Danes, as they inhabit a clufter of iflands, and poflefs a large tract of fea-coaft, are well verfed in maritime affairs, and are certainly the moft numerous, as well as the moft experienced, faiiors of the North. During my flay at Copenhagen I vifited the dock, and infpected, with great attention, the fleet at anchor in the harbour. The following refuit of my enquiries upon the ftate of the Danifli navy, is here laid before the reader. The expence of building the hulk amounts to £200 per gun, and to £ 1000 when the veffel is completely rigged, and ready to fail, with four months provifions. The greatefl part of the oak is procured from Germany by contract with the king of Pruflia *. All the cannon, fhot, anchors, and ironwork, are eaft in Norway. The Danes procure flax, hemp, and, mafts from Ruffia, and pitch and tar from Sweden; they * Holflein produces oaks, but not a fufficient quantity ; and they are preferved In cafe of extreme neceflitj. Vol. II. T c 1 have 505 C H A P. III. book have manufactures of cordage and fails, but not fufficient for viii. c-v—-» the ufe of the fleet: the overplus is obtained from Ruffia and Holland. The greatefl part of the Danifli navy is Rationed in the harbour of Copenhagen, which lies within the fortifications: the depth of water being only 20 feet, the fliips have not their lower tier of guns on board, but take them in when they get out of port. Befide large magazines, each veffel has a feparate ftorehoufe, on the water's edge, oppofite to which flie is moored when in harbour, and may by this means be inftantly equipped. The number of regiftered feamen are near 40,000, and are divided into two claffes; the firft comprizes thofe inhabiting the coafts, who are allowed to engage in the fervice of mei-chant-fhips trading to any part of the world. Each receives lh. annually from the crown as long as he fends a certificate of his being alive ; but is fubjecT to a recal in cafe of war. The fecond comprehends the fixed faiiors, who are conftantly in the employ of the crown, and amount to about 4000, ranged under four divifions, or 40 companies: they are Rationed at Copenhagen for the ordinary fervice of the navy, and work in the dock-yard. Each of them, when not at fea, receives 8j-. per month, befide a fufiicient quantity of flour and other provifions; every two years a complete fuit of clothes; and every year breeches, ftockings, fhoes, and a cap. Some of them are lodged in barracks. When they fail, their pay is augmented to 20s. per month. The marine artillery confifts of Soo men, in four divifions. Lift NAVY. CHAP. Lift of the Danifli Navy in 1779. 1 SHIPS OF THE LINE. Names. Guns. Station. When built. 1 Clmftian VII. 90 — Copenhagen 1767. 2 Superb 80 — Ditto t768. 3 Soplua Frederica 74 — Ditto l775- 4 Juflitia 74 — Ditto 1777. 5 Vandal 70 — Ditto 1742. For Parade 6 Queen Louifa 70 — Di:to 1744. 7 Copenhagen 70 — Ditto 1744. Condemned 8 Queen Juliana 70 — Ditto 1752. Ditto 9 Prince Royal 70 — Ditto 1756. 10 Denmark 70 — Ditto ,757- 11 Jutland 70 — North Sea 1760. 12 Prince Frederic 70 — Copenhagen 1761. 13 Ocre-Sund 70 — Ditto 1766. 14 Northern Lyon 70 — Ditto 1765. 15 Elephant 70 — Ditto - 1769. t6 Oldenburg 60 — Ditto , - 1740. Condemned 17 North Star 60 — Ditto 1746. For Parade 18 Zealand 60 — Ditto 1750. Ditto 19 Neptune 60 — Ditto 1750. Ditto 20 Storman 60 — Ditto 1751. Ditto 21 Iceland 60 — Ditto 1751. Ditto 22 Victory 60 — Ditto 1754- 23 Princefs Sophia Magdalena 60 — Ditto 1763. 24 Princefs Wilhelmina 60 — Ditto 1764. 25 Danebrog 60 — Ditto 1772. 26 Holflein 60 — Ditto 1772. 37 Wagria 60 — Ditto >773- 28 Infoeds Retten 60 — Ditto 1776. 29 DitmarfTcn 50 — Ditto 1742. Condemned 30 Delmcnhurft 5° — Ditto 1743. Ditto 31 Ebcnezer - - 5° — North Sea 1758. 32 Nettleblad 5° — Copenhagen 1746. Condemned1 33 Funen 5° — Ditto 1746. Parade 34 Greenland 5° — North Sea 1756. 35 Sainte Croix 5° — Ditto - 1758. 36 Mars 5° — Copenhagen 1760. 37 Slefwick 50 — Ditto 1766. 38 Difco - 44 — Ditto » 1778. T 11 2 FRIGATES BOOK FRIGATES. Names. Guns. Station. When built. i Pearl 34 — Copenhagen 1772. 2 Kiel 36 — Ditto 1775. 3 Bornholm 36 — Ditto 1774. 4 Moen 36 — Ditto - . 1777- 5 Croneborg 34 — Ditto 1776. 6 Chriftiana 34 Ditto - 7 Dockin — Ditto 1750. Parade 8 Moen 28 —. 1752. 9 Blue Eagle 30 — - 1753. Parade jo Savage 18 — - 1754. Parade ii Chriftianborg 34 — North Sea 1758. 12 Sea Horfe 18 — Copenhagen - 1758. 13 Langeland 18 — Ditto 1758. 14 Falfter 30 -— Ditto 1760. 15 Syren — Ditto j6 Tranquebar ; -. 34 — Ditto 1761. 17 Alfen - Ditto 18 Chriftiana 30 — Ditto - ' if66. 19 Feroe 34 — Ditto - [ 1766. 20 Sanroe 22 — Ditto 1770. Eagle Royal Yacht 26 — Ditto 1756. Bomb Ketches.—Bravery ; Serious; Comet; Courage ; Dragon. Recapitulation: 38 fliips of the line, including 9 of fifty guns and one of 44, and 20 frigates; but if we except thofe which are condemned, and thofe which are allotted only for parade, we cannot eftimate that, in 1779, the fleet confided of more than 25 fhips of the line, and 15 frigates fit for fervice ; a number, however, fully adequate to the fituation of Denmark ; and, if we include the excellence of the faiiors, it mud be efteemed as complete a navy as any in the North. A fliip of 90 guns, with its full complement, carries 850 men ; of 70 guns 700; of 64 guns 600; of 50 guns 450 ; and a frigate of 36 guns 250. Moft part of this fleet is generally moored at Copenhagen, except four or five fhips of the line in the ports of Norway; a frigate ftationed off Elfinoor; another lying off the ifle of Funen; and a fmaller veffel upon the Elbe; befide a frigate or two which annually make a cruize. The CHURCH ESTABLISHMENT. 509 The year 1779 being celebrated for the rife of the armed neu- chap, trality, the northern powers fent out naval armaments ; that of ■ —„j Denmark, which was fitting out in the fpring of that year, confiRcd of ten mips of the line, four frigates, and two floops of 20 guns; and the expence of the equipment was chiefly fupplied by an additional duty of one per cent, laid upon all imports, and half per cent, upon exports. For the manning of this fleet 1000 fixed faiiors were felected, 3500 regiftered from the country, and 1000 marines. The chief nurfery * for the officers of the navy is the Academy of Marine Cadets, inflituted by Frederic IV. in 1701. The foundation is for 60 cadets, who are maintained and inif rucTed in the theory of navigation at the expence of the crown. Every year they make a cruize on board of a frigate. Befide the original number, other youths are admitted into this academy, under the name of volunteers, at their own expence. V. The eftablifhed religion of Denmark is the Lutheran. The hierarchy confifls of 12 bifhops, or fuperintendants; fix in Denmark, four in Norway, and two in Iceland. There is no archbifhop; but the bifhop of Zealand, who is firfl in rank, and the bifhop of Aggerhuus, are metropolitans. The annual revenues of the fees are as follow. In Denmark: Zealand £ icco; Funen^yGo; Aarhuus £6oo\ Aalborg £400 ; and Ripan /J400. In Norway : Chriftiana, or Aggerhuus £400; Chriilianfand £600 ; Berghen £ 400; and Drontheim £400. In Iceland: Skalholt /JJ50; and Hohm £15°- Thefe two lad bifhoprics, although far inferior in nominal value to the former, are, if wc take into consideration the cheap manner of living in Iceland, perhaps equal in real profits to the largefl of the others. The other clergy are provolls or archdeacons, parifh-priefls, and chaplains. Each diocefe is divided into a certain number ' J .v. ttr« fur le Dannemarc, p. icu of book of diftricls, over which the provofts have the infpcclion, and VIII. *^v—i each diftricT into parifhes. A large parifh., befide the principal church, has one or more additional chapels of eafe. The parifh-priefts receive their falaries principally in glebe, tithes, and furplice fees; and in fome places from the voluntary contributions of their parifhioners. The profits vary in the different parts according to the cheapnefs of provifions and other incidental circumftances. In Denmark the livings feldom exceed £ 400, or fall fhort of £ 60 per annum, Jutland excepted, in which pcninfula there are a few fcarcely worth £20. In Norway the higheft may be rated at £ 200, and the loweft at £ 60. In Iceland fome parifhes fcarcely bring in £2 or £ 4 a year. A clergyman's widow ufually receives the whole profit of her hufband's cure for the year immediately following his deceafe and a penfion from his fucceflbr, amounting to the eighth of the annual income. C EI A P. IV. Univerfity of Copenhagen.—Royal Academy of Sciences. —Royal Society for the improvement of Northern hifory and languages.—-Latin fchools in the Danifh. dominions. «—Refearches into the origin and progrefs of Icelandic literature.—Flora Danica.—Ocder and Muller.—Re-genfufs on Jhells, Sec. £cc. COPENHAGEN contains, among other literary inftitutions, an Univerfity, and an Academy of Sciences. The former was founded in 1479, by Chriftian I. and has fince been augmented merited and amply endowed by his fucceflbrs; amongft whom Chriftian VI. was its greater! benefactor. Under that monarch the univerfity was newly modelled, and feveral regulations eftablifhed, which were calculated for the encouragement and diffufionof general learning. It has a very confiderable fund ; the profeffors have liberal falaries; and many fludents are in-Rructed gratis. The Royal Academy of Sciences * owes its inflitution to the zeal of fix literati, whom Chriftian VI. in 1742, ordered to arrange his cabinet of medals. Thefe perfons occafionally meeting for that purpofe, extended their dcfigns; affociated with them others who were eminent in feveral branches of fcience; and forming a kind of literary fociety, employed themfelves in fearching into, and explaining the hiftory and antiquities of their country. The count of Holftein warmly patronized this fociety, and recommended it fo ftrongly to Chriftian VI. that, in 17431 his Danifh majefty took it under his protection, called it the Royal Academy of Sciences, endowed it with a fund, and ordered the members to join to their former pur-fuits, natural hiftory, phyfics, and mathematics. In confe-quence of the royal favour, the members engaged with frefli zeal in their purfuits; and the academy has publifhed 15 volumes of tranfactions in the Danifli language, fome whereof have been tranflated into Latin. About the fame period a iociety for the improvement of northern hiftory and languages was inftituted by a few perfons, at the head of whom was Langebek, who has fince greatly diftinguifhed himfelf for his hiftorical publications. Thefe perfons contributed to a collection of manufcripts, books, coins, and other literary curiofitiesj and even advanced a fum of * Lcttrcs fur le Danrfcmarc, Vol. II. p. 53. ChrifUan Louis Schcid, Marc Woldikcy. Eric. The,count of Holflein was the firft prefident; Pontopidan, and Bcrnhard Moclnian. See. and the fix perfons who firft formed the defign, Scripta a Soc Haf. Edita. V. I. were John Gram, Joachim Frederic Ramus, 6 money bviiiK money to Support the expence of their eftablifliment. Many >r—* new members being admitted, Chriftian VI. with his ufual zeal for letters, conftituted it, in 1746, a Royal Society, and affigned an apartment in the palace of Charlottenburgh for the place of meeting. This fociety has proved itfelf not unworthy of the royal protection, having put forth feveral publications, containing hiftorical details, titles, documents, diplomas, rare ma-nufcripts and charts, which tend to throw light upon the annals of Denmark. Befide the univerfities of Copenhagen and Kiel, there is an academy at Soroe, and two gymnalia at Odenfee and Altona, and a feminary for Laplanders at Berghen in Norway. There are various Latin fchools maintained at the expence of the crown : 19 in Denmark Proper, 4 in Norway, 1.1 in Schlefwick, 16 in Holftein, and 2 in Iceland. The largeft fchools have a rcclor, or upper-mafter; a corrector, or lower-mafter; and two or three college fchofo, or aftiftants: the fmalleft have only a rector. The falaries of the mafters vary from £60 to£200 a year. Each parifh alfo is provided with two or three fchools for the Danifli tongue; where children are inftructed in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Thefe country fchoolraafters have in general a falary of about JT 12 per annum, a houfe, and a few other advantages. I muft alfo mention two fchools at Copenhagen for the children of the nobility and gentry, who are unable to bear the ex-pence of a proper education. One is for boys, and the other for females. That for boys is under the direction of profeilbr Trefchow, chaplain of the garrifon-church at Copenhagen, a gentleman of confiderable erudition, who, confidering it as an act of charity, receives no recompence for his trouble. An in-fpector has £60 per annum. The day-fcholars pay only £6 a year, and the boarders £ 20: they learn hiftory, geography, and arithmetic ; metic; are inftructcd in the articles of their religion ; and have mailers for the German, French, and Englifh languages. In general the Danifli literati have particularly turned their refearches upon the hiflory and antiquities of the North j on which fubjects many curious works have been already printed, and more are Rill preparing for public infpection. Among thofe who have greatly diftinguifhed themfelves in this branch of learning, muft be mentioned the names of Meurfius, Holberg, Olaus Wormius, Pontopidan; and lately thofe of Langebek, Schoening*, and Suhm. Among the performances lately put forth on thefe topics, thofe in the Icelandic tongue deferve particular notice ; as they tend to throw confiderable light upon the antiquities, hiftory, and mythology of the northern nations ; Iceland being in the remote ages, while Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, were in a flate of perpetual warfare, the fole refuge and repofitory of Northern literature. Upon obferving fuch a number of Icelandic manufcripts as are contained in the Danifli libraries, I was greatly aftonifhed to find that Iceland, which was confi-clercd by the antients as the Ultima Thule, or the extremity of the world, and by us as fcarcely habitable, abounded in learning and fcience, at a time when Europe was involved in darknefs. I was anxious to make fome enquiries upon this fubject, and the refuit of them is here communicated to the reader. It docs not appear from hiftory at what time Iceland was firft peopled ; when it was occupied by a colony of Norwegians in the ♦Langebek, who, among other learned 1722, and died in 1778. The curious reader, publications, has put forth, " Scriptores Re- who is defirous of further information on this «* rum Danicannn Medii JEv\," printed at fubjecl, will find an ample detail of the lives the king's expence, was a native of Jutland, and writings of thefe two indefatigable ami-, and born in 1 710; and, after a life devoted to quaries in the Prefaces to the 4th and 5th vo- the purfuits of learning, died about 1776. lumes of the Scriptores Rerum Danicarum, Schocniuiff, the learned editor of Snorro which publication is continued by Mr. Suhm, Stiirlenfis Hiftoria, and many other interelting with the fame diligence and accuracy that dif- works, wa9 born at Schatnas in Norway, in tinguilhed the judicious Langebek. Vol. II. U u u latter latter end of the 9th century, it contained but few inhabitants, who were fuppofed to have originally arrived there from England or Ireland, but whofe number was inadequate to refill the invaders. Afterwards occafional emigrants landed at different; parts from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark; and the original inhabitants were foon loR amid the fvvarm of the new fcttlers, who introduced the worlliip of Thor and Odin, and all the rites and cufloms which at that time prevailed among the nations of the neighbouring continent. Their language was the old Gothic or Teutonic, the vernacular tongue of the Swedes, Danes, and Norwegians, before it branched into the feveral dialects fince fpoken by the natives of thofe three kingdoms ; and on account of their infular fituation, it was preferved pure for a very confiderable time. Their alphabet was compofed of the Runic characters, only fixteen in number; yet, it is to thefe Icelanders that we are indebted for almoft all the hiftorical monuments of the northern nations now remaining *. From them fprung the Scalds, thofe antient bards who have tranfmitted, in their hiftorical poems, the principal events which happened in thefe remote quarters of the world, from the arrival of Odin to the introduction of ChriftianUy; a period of barbarifm and ignorance, which, without their labours, had been totally unknown to pofterity. Although thefe Scaldic odes blend occafionally hiftorical events with improbable narratives, yet, as intelligent critics may feparate facts from fable, and truth from fiction, and as they are the only fources of information relative to the early affairs of the North, they muft be confidered as very valuable monuments of antiquity. Add to this, that the recital of thefe compofitions, at public entertainments, before the princes whofe deeds they celebrated, and who, as well as many * Speaking of the Icelandic writings, the " nat, decantatiffimas nempe Eddas, &c. Ha- editor of Kriftni Saga fays, " Habemus enim " benuis integros ctplcnos codices hiftoriarum, '*"trriguos illos fontes,undc religionis, poefeos, *' qua: circa heroica verfantur tempor.u" ** imo incunabulorum gentis noftra: notitia ma- 6 other other perfons prefent, were well acquainted with the fubject c of the poem, affords a collateral proof of their authenticity*. « A few of thefe odes were written in Runic characters f, the far greater part, however, were configned only to memory; but nofoonerwas the chriftian religion introduced into Iceland, about the latter end of the 9th century than the Runic letters were exchanged for the Roman alphabet; fchools were founded ; the love of fcience, which had in fome degree maintained itfelf, even when the inhabitants were in a ftate of pa-ganifm, revived with frefh vigour ; many antient poems were collected; many chronicles digefted into a regular form; and the very traditions of pagan theology refcued from oblivion. The Icelanders are known to have poffeiTed feveral hiftorians, long before a fingle annalift appeared among any of the nations from whom they were defcended. Their authors Iflief, Are, and Sacmund, who flourifhed in the 11 th century, preceded Saxo- * Snorro Sturlefon, who drew from thefe Scaldic Odes many materials for his Chronicle of the Kings of Norway, thus fpeaks of them : '*■ Prxcipuc carmina fumus fecuti, qurc co-" ram ipfis principibus aut eorum fdiis funt r< decantata, vera rcputantcs omnia, qux iltis " in carminibus de eorum geftis aut bellis me-*' morias funt prodita. More quidem Skaldis •* eft receptum, prarcipuc laudare, cui mini-'* ftrant. Aft nemo facile auderct, coram ipfo «' principe, laudes et facia cantarc, quae tarn u ipfe quam alii prafentcs fcircnt meracfle fig-** menta. Hoc dedecori non laudi eifet." See Preface to Schoenlng's Edition of Snorro Stur-Jenfis, p. 12. note. -j- «' Though wc have no reafon to believe '* they were cut upon ftones, as was pra P- 3> &c. 2 Grammaticus Grammaticus and Sueno, the earlieft of the Danifli, Swedifli, or Norwegian writers. It would be an interefting fpeculation in the theory of mankind, if it could be accounted for, " how it came to pafs, that a people, disjoined from the red of the world, few in number, «' depreffed by poverty, and fituated in fo unfavourable a cli-" mate, fhould be capable, in thofe dark ages, of manifefting " fuch a tafle for literature. Were we better informed of ccr-" tain particulars relating to the Rate of the North during thofe « remote ages, we might poflibly find the caufe of this pha*no-" menon, either in the poverty of the inhabitants of Iceland, «* which drove them to feek their fortunes in the neighbouring cc countries; or in the fuccefs of their firft bards at foreign " courts, which excited their emulation, and at the fame time " prepoffeffed Rrangers in their favour ; or, laflly, in the nature " of their republican government, in which the talent of ora-«' tory, and the reputation of fuperior fenfc and capacity, are the '« direct roads to dignity, refpect, and preferment V To thefe caufes may perhaps be joined the political tranquillity of Iceland, which remaining unfhaken amid the civil commotions that convulfcd the neighbouring nations, its inhabitants had fufficient leifure for literary occupations; and fome may alfo be induced to add, the nature of their climate, which obliged them to feek for fome relief againft the tedioufnefs of the long nights and continued darknefs f. But to return to the Icelandic authors. The moft antient hif-torian was Iflief, bifhop of Skalholt. This writer was fon of Giffur Albus, a perfon of great diftinction in Iceland, and de-fcended from the antient kings of Denmark, who confiderably promoted the reception and eflablifliment of Chriflianity. Iilief * Nor. Ant. Vol. I. p. 392. ■j- Ipfi in defoflis fpecubus fecura fub aha Otia agunt terra-- Hie noclem Iudo ducunt. Virgil, Georg. III. 376. was LITERATURE. Si7 was born in 1006; and,.having received the htR rudiments of chap. IV learning from his father, was fent, about the 16th year of his wy—j age, for the purpofe of completing his education, into Saxony, and made rapid advances in feveral branches of knowledge *. Being ordained prieft, he returned to Iceland, and fixed his re-fidence at Skalholt, where his father had erected a church, and preached the Gofpel with a moft fervent and perfuafive eloquence. Iflief was the firft native bifhop of Iceland: he was raifed to that dignity in the 50th year of his age, at the requeft of the inhabitants, by particular defire of the emperor Henry III. and during the pontificate of Leo IX. He was confecrated by the archbifhop of Bremen, on the 6th of January 1056, and returning the fame year to Iceland, fixed the fee at Skalholt, where he continued until his death, which happened in 1080, in the 75th year of his age, Iflief is defcribed as a perfon of a dignified afpect, affable, juft and upright in all his actions, liberal and beneficent, though, from the narrownefs of his income, he was frequently expofed to extreme penury. The fame of his learning and piety was fo widely diffufed, that many foreign bifhops vifitcd Iceland, for the purpofe of receiving his inftructions: and his memory was fo highly revered among his countrymen, that his name was efteemed fynonymous to fanc-tity and erudition. He was married to Dalla, daughter of Thorwaldus, by whom he had three fons, all of whom were celebrated for their talents and knowledge ; but particularly Giffur, who fucceeded his father in the bifhopric, and in his zeal for the propagation of the Gofpel, and the promotion of learning. Iflief guarded againft the decline of literature in Iceland, by affiduoufly inftructing many pupils, fome of whom became eminently diftinguifhed ; and two were advanced to the epifcopal dignity. He was well verfed in the hiftory of the * This account of Iflief I have extracted from Kriftni Saga, p. io6 to 109, 130 to i4r. Hun-gurvaka Saga, p. 13 to 25,- North 5 book North; and compiled feveral annals, which, though now loft, viit. . . u-^—j furnilhcd materials for the chronicles of the earlieft Icelandic authors, whofe works are at prefent extant. I allude to Are, fur-named the .Sage, who was educated by Teitus, fon of Iflief; Sjcmund Sigfurfon, for his great erudition denominated Poly-hiftor; and Snorro Sturlefon, ftyled by his learned editor the Herodotus of the North ; all of whom immediately fucceeded Iflief, and wrote on the hiftory of Norway. Many fubfequent annalifls made their appearance, of whom it would be fuperfluous to give an account. Several of thefe writings, compofed in the Icelandic tongue, have been given to the public, fome printed in Iceland*, others in Sweden; but the greatefl part in Denmark, accompanied with Swedifh, Danifli, or Latin tranflations The moft important of thefe publications is a folio edition of the above-mentioned chronicle of Snorro, printed at Copenhagen in 1778. It is accompanied with a life of the author, from which it appears, that he was born in 1178; that he received his education, and completed his ftudies in Iceland ; that he was chief magiftrate of the country; and that he was killed in an infurrecTion in 1241, in the 63d year of his age. His biographer fays, that he was an excellent poet, an accurate hiflorian, and a fkilful lawyer, that he was a proficient in the Greek and Latin tongues, and not ignorant of mathematics and mechanics %. From his chronicle, Torfams, the late annalift of the North, has chiefly drawn the materials for his Hiftory of Norway; and he acknowledges himfelf indebted to Snorro more than to any other writer. I * Von Troil informs us, that printing was f For a lift of the Icelandic authors, fee introduced into Iceland by John (or Jonas) Preface to Annales Biornornis de Skardfa, p. 5. Arefon, bifhop of Holun ; that John Mathief- North. Ant. I. p. 52, & paflim. Letters on Icc-fon, a Swede, was the lirft printer j and that land, Letter XIV. The library of the Britiih the firft book was the Breviarium Nidarofieufe, Mufeum contains about 180 Icelandic maniu printed in 1531 at Holun. He adds, that new fcripts. See Ayfcough's Catalogue of the ma-types were brought thither in 1574; and that nufcripts of the Britiih Mufeum, p. 890. the Icelandic Bible was printed in 1584. See I Preface, p. ix. Letters on Iceland, p. 182. From From the 14th century, hiftory and letters gradually declined chap, in Iceland, and than ifland was involved in the fame darknefs Hrvr*j which had for fome time overfpread Europe. The reformation, which was introduced in the middle of the 16th century, oc-cafioned the revival of fcience. Although there never have been wanting among the inhabitants men of confiderable learning, yet, as knowledge has widely diffufed itfelf in Sweden and Denmark under the protection of their fovereigns, thefe kingdoms have become greatly enlightened ; and Iceland is no longer, what it was formerly, the fole repofitory of northern genius *. Although the Danifli literati have directed their chief attention to hiftory and antiquities, yet they have by no means been deficient in the ftudy of nature. Frederic V. the late king of Denmark, a munificent patron of the fciences, founded, about the year 1751, a botanical garden at Charlottenburgh, intended principally to facilitate a royal and liberal defign of giving a complete hiftory, and engravings, of all the native plants in the Danifli dominions f. The fuperintendance of this garden, with a flipend annexed? and afterwards the profefforfhip of botany in the Royal Academy of Copenhagen, were conferred on Mr. Oedcr, who was chofen to conduct the work. In profecution of this defign, having, at the king's expence, vifited various parts of Denmark and Norway, he began the publication in L762. The Flora Danica was intended to contain, in the folio form, figures of all the indigenous plants of Denmark, Norway, thofe of the duchies of Slefwick and Holflein, and of many from Iceland i a tract of country extending more than 16 degrees, be- •* J am chit.fly indebted for information upon publications of the Icelandic writers printed at the literary hiftory of Iceland to Mallet's North. Copenhagen. Antiq. tranflated by Dr. Percy, bifhop of Dro- t Tll's account of the Flora Danica, and of more ; Von TroiPs Letters on Iceland, tranf- Mcffrs. Oedcr and Muller, was chiefly conimu- lated by Forfter ; Torfasi Hift. Norw. Snorro nicated to me by Dr. Pulteney, to whom I. Sturlenfis Hift. Regura Norw. and the feveral have been fo repeatedly obliged. tween twcen the 54th degree of latitude and the North Cape. A hiftory of all thefe plants, to be published in octavo, was alfo pro-mifed, but this part of the plan has not yet been completed. Of this Flora Danica, a number, or fafmuhs, containing 60 plates, was intended to be annually published, and the firfl came forth in 1762: but, according to the ufual fate of periodical undertakings of fuch confiderable extent, a variety of caufes has, at different times, retarded its regular progrefs ; in-fomuch, that the 15th fafciculm Only, completing the number of goo plates, or 5 volumes, made its appearance in 1782. This work may be purchafcd either coloured or plain. The names of the plants are not engraved on the plates; neither from the nature of the fubject could any regular method, or fyftem, be obferved in the publication. The plants are feparatcly figured ; each engraving contains one plant only, except in thofe of the clafs Cryptogamia, where, in fome inftances, feveral are given in the fame plate. Prefixed to emchfafcicirfus is a nomenclature, with the Linnacan names, and a few felect fynonyms, and an account of the places of growth. As often as the fize will admit, the plant is exhibited in its natural magnitude ; in others, a branch only, and, in moft inftances, the parts of fructification are feparately delineated: an article indifpenfable to botanical accuracy. In fome of the larger plants, befide the branch of the natural fize, the whole is given on a reduced fcale; but it muft be confelled, that this part of the defign is the leaft meritorious : happily it does not often occur. The 12th fafciculus, in 1777, was accompanied with an index of all the plants already engraved, or intended to be contained in this work ; by which it appears, that the whole number will nearly amount to 1800 fpecies ; of which more than 570 are of the clafs Cryptogamia ; or that which contains the ferns, moffes, algcc, and fungi. And, that any curious .perfons, yet unacquainted with this work, may judge how far far it might be fubfervient to their knowledge of Englifh botany, it may be added, that, out of 980 fpecies already figured in the 15 Mk*fafcki$liy more than 700 arc alfo fponta-neouRy produced in Britain. Magnificent and accurate as this work is, and though carried on at the kingfs expence, truth will not be offended by afferting, that the execution of it is Rill inferior to a performance of the fame kind, now publifhing in England, at the rifk of an individual. I allude to Mr. Curtis's Flora Londinenfts ; which, for the magnitude of the plates, the nice difcrimination and figures of the fructification, has not been paralleled by any other publication of fuch fcope and defign ; nor is the merit of the Flora Londinenfs confined to the accurate elegance of the plates: it contains a minute defcription of each plant, and is enriched by fcientific, ufeful, and ceconomical obfervations, either extracted from the beft writers, or derived from the extenfive knowledge of its author. It is but juRice to add, that the minute plants of the clafs Cryptogamia, iin the delineation of which the Flora Danica is extremely deficient, are figured with the utmoft exaetnefs by Mr. Curtis, who has introduced to the Englifh botanift five new fpecies of agarici *. Every lover of fcience mufl join in wifhing, that the Flora Londinenfis may meet with all that encouragement which is due to a work that will honour the age and the nation in which it appears. , Chriftian Oeder, to whom, through the liberality of his monarch, we are indebted for the Flora Danica, was the pupil and friend of the celebrated Haller, under whom he was educated at Gottingen. It appears, by Dr. Nugent's account of Oeder t» that he vifited England in his younger days, and had acquired a great knowledge of the language. Whilft he * A. Oftreatus; Plycatilis; Glutinofus; Fioccofusj Velutipes. f See Nugcnt's Travels through Germany, Vol. I. Vol. II. Xxx was book Was a Rudent at Gottingen, he tranflated all the Englifh trea- viii. i^.,_i tifes for a Latin edition of Dr. Mead's works, which Haller publiflied in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1748. The fuccecding year he took his doctor's degree in phyfic, and wrote, on that occafion, a thefis, which Haller calls " Docl a Differtatio contra revulfionem " 6J derivationem" In 1752, at which period he was fettled at Copenhagen, the Royal Academy of Sciences at Gottingen named him a correfpondent member, and foon after he was madefuperintendantof the botanical garden atCopenhagen,and profeffor of botany. In 1752 Oeder prefided at the public difputa-tion of Dr. Peter Afcanius, and took that occafion to write on irritability j a fubject on which the experiments and obfervations of his great mafter had drawn the attention of anatomifts and phyficians; Having performed many journies, accompanied by a draughtfman, into the different provinces of Denmark, and collected great materials for the intended Flora, he publifhed, in 1762, the fn{\fafciculus; and in 1764, as a part of his plan, his Elements of Botany, in 8vo. This work exhibits a profound knowledge of his fubject; and the author has given the outlines of a new method of arrangement, adapted only to the plants of Europe. The fecond volume of the Elements was printed in 1766, and is embellifhed with fourteen excellent plates, explanatory of the technical part of his fubject. His fyftem was intended to comprize eight claffes, under the following titles : 1. Cryptanthere\ 2. Monocotyledones ; 3. Anient'act'a?; 4. Incomplete ; 5. Calycarpte ; 6. Calycarithem<£ j 7. Monopetalce ; 8. Po-lypetaU. Of this fyftem the author has only exemplified the firft clafs, which he publifhed in a feparate volume in 177c, in 8vo, and in which are methodically arranged 1239 fpecies, with the fpecific names, from Dillenius, Haller, and Linnaeus. It is greatly to be regretted, that this ingenious naturalift has been called from the paths of fcience by an appointment to to an office in the treafury, where he has fhowed himfelf no lefs qualified to excel in the civil line. Upon the publication of the nth Jafciculus of the Flora Danica, in 1775, the further profecution of the work was committed to the care of Dr. Otto Frederic Muller, a gentleman who has fince given to the public feveral valuable fpecimens of his knowledge in natural hiftory ; particularly a curious work under the title of Hi/torla Vermium; another under that of Zoo/ogia? Danica? Prodromus ; and is now engaged, under the higheft patronage, in publifhing the figures of all the rarer animals of the kingdom of Denmark, under the title of Zoologize Danicz hones, of which two fafciculi have made their appearance. In fpeaking of the publications on natural hiftory, it would be unpardonable to omit mentioning the moft fplendid work of the kind ever produced in any nation. It is a collection of rare fhells, in two volumes, folio, engraved and coloured by Francis Michael Regenfufs, at the royal expence. The firft volume, which is the only one I have feen, contains a fhort account of the collections of natural hiftory, and particularly of fhells, in Denmark ; a preliminary difcourfe on conchology, with a detail of the feveral authors who have written on the fubject, and their different fyftems, and 78 complete and delicately coloured figures, in 12 plates, accompanied with fcientific defcriptions in the Latin, French, and German languages *. The kings of Denmark have occafionally deputed, and ftill continue to fend, at their expence, men of learning through their own territories, and into various parts of the world, for the purpofe of extending the bounds of knowledge. Langebek travelled through the Danifh dominions, and into Sweden, with a view to collect documents, charters, and other * Choix de Coquillages Gravees. X x x 2 Rate K Rate papers, relative to the antient hiflory of the North ; and —' Schoening for the fame purpofe, at the expence of prince Frederic. Among others now employed in the execution of the fame royal plan, Dr. Moldenhauer, a gentleman of various and profound erudition, has lately vilitcd England and France, and is now in Spain, in order to examine the libraries for ma-nufcripts in Oriental and claffical learning. But the literary expedition which reflects the higher! honour upon the crown of Denmark, and holds up an example to be imitated by the other fovereigns, was begun in 1761, under the aufpices of Frederic V. who, at the fuggeftion of the late count Bernf-dorf, difpatched four perfons * eminently verfed in different branches of fcience, to Arabia ; of which curious and intereft-ing journey Niebuhr, the only furvivor, has publifhed a much efteemed account f. * Frederic Chriftian Haven for Oriental lan- chreibung nach Arablen, See. in 3 vols. This guages ; Forfkall and Dr. Cramer for natural work has been tranflated into the French lan- hiftory ; Niebuhr for hiftory and geography; guagc. Defcription de l'Arabic. They de- thcy were accompanied by a draughtsman. parted from Copenhagen in 1761. f Befchreibung von Arabien; Reife Bef- CHAP. I CHAP. V. Departure from Copenhagen.—Journey through the Hie of Zealand.—Rofkild.—The cathedral.—Sepulchres of feveral fovereigns of Denmark.—Tombs and characlers of Harald Blaatand.—Sweyn II.—Margaret of Valde-mar.—Chriftian I.—Genealogical tables of the kings of Denmark.—Saxo-Grammaticus.—Royal fepulchres at Ringfted.—Paffage acrofs the Great Belt.—Ifle of Funen.—Odenfee.—Tombs and charaElers of John and Chriftian II.—Paffage acrofs the Little Belt.—Journey through Slefwic and Holflein;—Canal of Kiel.—General remarks on the circular ranges of fones frequent in Sweden and Denmark. APRIL 5. Upon quitting Copenhagen, we pafTed along an ci*ap. excellent road, through a well-cultivated open country, <—v—•> to Rofkild, formerly the royal refidence and the metropolis of Denmark. It Rands at a fmall diffance from the bay of lfe-fiord ; and, in its flourifhing Rate, was of great extent, comprizing within its walls 27 churches, and as many convents *. Its prefent circumference is fcarcely half an Englifh mile, and it contains only about 1620 fouls: the houfes are of brick, and of a neat appearance. The only remains of its original magnificence are the ruins of a palace, and the cathedral, a brick building with two fpires, in which the kings of Denmark are interred. According to an infeription in the choir, it was founded f by Harald VI. who is Ryled king of Den- * Holberg, Vol. I. p. 618. ftnietcd of wood, and afterwards built with f Little of the original building now re- ftone in the reign of Canute, mains. According to Holberg, it was con- 3 mark, mark, England, and Norway. Some verfes, in barbarous Latin, ob feu rely allude to die principal incidents of his life; adding, that he built this church, and died in 980 *. This Harald, furnamed Blaatand, was fon of Gormo III. called the Old ; and was the firfl king of Denmark who embraced the Chriftian religion. His name occurs in the old Saxon Chronicles as one of the invaders of England in the 10th century, where he eftablifhed his authority over the kingdom of the Eaft Angles, and of Northumberland. But his hiftory is fo mixed with fable, that glaring contradictions appear in almoft: every incident. He loft his life in confequence of an infur-rection headed by his fon Sweyn ; but whether he was flain in battle, or by order of the rebel party, is not known. Harald was father of a line of kings, who raifed the power of Denmark to the higheft greatnefs. His fon, Sweyn I. is well known in our annals for his depredations upon the coaft of England, and his tributary exactions ; and his grandfon Canute the Great, who united, in his perfon, the crowns of England and Denmark, was the moft powerful prince of his time. The immediate defcendants of Harald Blaatand died and were buried in England; and his male line was extinct in the perfon of Hardicanute, the laft fovereign who wore the two crowns. In the fame cathedral reft the remains of Sweyn II. the firft of a line of fovereigns, called the Middle Race. He was fon of Ulf, governor of Denmark, who had greatly fignalized himfelf in war, and of Eftrida, filler of Canute the Great. Ulf being put to death at Rofkild, by order of Canute, Sweyn fled into Sweden; and, upon the death of Hardicanute in 1042, claimed the crown of Denmark in right of his mother; for which reafon he is generally known by the appellation of Sweyn the fon of Eftrida. The ftates, however, gave the prc- * Funditus hafce Jovi fummo tunc condidit aedes, Pott luitale Dei, dum fcripfimni ocluaginta Nongentos, meruit fcandere celfa poli. ference ference to Magnus the Good, king of Norway ; but he dying in 1047, the7 unanimously elected Sweyn, who feems, by his abilities, to have deferved his elevation. In a Latin infeription, he is called king of England, as well as of Denmark and Norway; although the former crown had been reflored to the Saxon line in the perfon of Edward the Confelfor, and was afterwards feized by William the Conqueror. Sweyn fent a fleet againft England, in order to affert his right to the throne, as a lineal defcendant from Canute the Great; but his troops were either defeated by William, or obliged to evacuate the ifland through the treachery of his brother. Sweyn is defcribed by a contemporary hiflorian *, who perfonally knew him, as a prince polite to foreigners, of elegant manners, and great literary accomplifhments. He died in 1074, leaving thirteen fons and two daughters: five of the fons fuccefEvely filled the throne of Denmark; and his pofterity, in the male line, held it in poffeflion until 1387, when Valdemar III. dying without male iffue, the female branch fucceeded; firft in the perfon of OlofFII. fon of the celebrated Margaret; and upon his deceafe, in that of Margaret herfelf, whofe alhes are alfo interred in this cathedral. The fepulchre of this remarkable woman, who is generally ftyled the Semiramis of the North, flands confpicuous in the middle of the church: it is enclofed within a baluftrade; the monument is of ftone painted black, and upon it Jies the figure of the queen in alabafter, a whole length, and, as we were informed, her exact fize when alive. If this tradition be true, it was obvious to remark, that Ihe muft have been very fhort in her perfon. An infeription upon the tomb, in-ftead of enlarging in long fulfome flatteries, fuch as are ufually paid to fovereigus, after recording the time of her death, only adds, that " it was raifed at the expence of Eric * See the quotation from Adams Bremen in Pon topi dan's Mar. Dan. p. 2. " Of book 1—1 age, in preference to the fon of her cldeft filler Ingeburga; and upon the death of her hufband Haquin, fhe fecured his fucceilion to the crown of Norway, Being regent during Oloff's minority, her adminiflration was fo vigorous, prudent, and popular, that, upon his premature death in 1385, fhe was chofen queen by the flates of Denmark ; the firft inftance, perhaps, in a government wholly elective, and in which cuftom had not authorized the election of a female, of a woman being exalted to the throne by the free and unanimous fuf-frages of a warlike people. With the fame addrefs flie procured the crown of Norway; and was equally fuccefsful in gaining that of Sweden. Albert had been chofen king, and might have preferved his power, if it had not been his fate to contend with fuch a rival as Margaret. When, in allufion to her fcx, he ftyled her, in derifion, the king in petticoats, fhe anfwered his reproach by actions, not by words; and made him forcly repent of his vaunts, wdien he found himfelf worfled in every engagement; when depofed and captive, he owed his life to the clemency of the very woman whom he had fo wantonly infulted. By the famous union of Calmar in 1397, fhe united the three Northern kingdoms, and held them undivided during her reign, notwithflanding the averfion of the Swedes to the Danifh government. But from nothing is the vigour and policy of her conduct more confpicuous than from this confideration, that the perpetual revolts and interline convulfions, which continually difturbed the reigns of the fo-vereigns who immediately preceded and followed her, were fubdued throughout her whole adminiflration. This internal tranquillity, more glorious, though lefs fplendid, than her warlike atchievements, and which was very unufual in thofe turbulent times, could only be derived from the over-ruling afcendancy of her fuperior genius. Vol, II. Y y y This This great princefs died fuddenly on the 27th of October 1412, in the 60th year of her age, and, if we include the period of her regency, in the 30th of her reign, leaving the three kingdoms to the quiet poffeffion of her fucceflbr, Eric of Pomerania; and to her fubjects the regret of her lofs, by the experience of thofe calamities which broke in upon the Rate when the fceptre was wielded by a lefs able hand. Her remains were firft depofited at Soroe, but were removed to this cathedral by order of the bifhop of Rofkild *. All the fovereigns of the houfe of Oldenburgh, which ftill poffeffes the throne of Denmark, are interred in the cathedral of Rofkild, excepting John, Chriftian II. and Frederic I. Chriftian I. the father of this line, lies in a fmall chapel, without any monument or infeription. He was count of Ok denburgh, and owed his elevation, as well to his lineal defcent from Eric VJI. as to the moderation of his uncle Adolphus duke of Slefwick. Upon the death of Chriftopher of Bavaria without iffue, the ftates of Denmark offered the throne to Adolphus, as the neareft in blood to the deceafed monarch; but he declining it on account of his advanced age, they, at his recommendation, elected his nephew Chriftian, then in the 22d year of his age: this event happened in 1448; and in the fame year he was permitted alfo to afcend the throne of Norway, in right of his defcent from one of their antient kings. He obtained the crown of Sweden in 1558, upon the dcpofition of Charles Canutfon; but wore it only a fhort time, as well through his own activity, as through the averfton of the Swedes to a foreign ruler. Chriftian 1. reigned three-and-twenty years ; a fovereign of great moderation and humanity 5 whofe qualities, being lefs fhining than folid, were more adapted to the interior adminiflration of affairs, than to the exploits of war. He is juftly characteriied by an hiflorian, as one of * Hie primum fepulta, fed poftca per Do- lenter tranflaia, & Rofkildis fepulta. Langc-jninum Petrum Epifcopum Roikildenfem vio- bek, Tom. IV. p. 542. thofe thofe princes who do not attract the admiration of mankind, yet whom Providence never bcflows upon a nation but as a fignal mark of his favour*. The fucccflbrs of Chriftian I. who are buried in the fame church, feem in general to have inherited his pacific qualities; as all, except Frederic U. and Chriftian IV. were princes of .mild and temperate difpofitions; patrons of the arts and fciences, rather than enterprifing in arms; who yielded to others the palm of military glory; and for the moft part fhrunk before the daring fpirit which animated the rival houfe of Vafa. In the fame chapel are the tombs of Chriftian III. and Frederic II. Their fupcrb monuments, executed in Italy, at the expence of Chriftian IV. are elegantly carved, and are efteemed xnafter-pieces of fculpture. The ftatues of the two fovereigns are reprefented as large as life, under a canopy of ftone, fup-ported by Corinthian pillars. Several figures of angels, and the baffo relievos round the maufoleum of Frederic II. representing that prince's battles, are juftly admired. No tomb is erected to the memory of Chriftian IV. juftly called, by Mr. Wraxall, the Idol of Danifli Hiftory : his body is depofited in a cofRn covered with velvet, ornamented with filver trophies, efcutcheons, and angels holding crowns of laurel. It would be tedious to enumerate the other fepulchres of the royal family, moft of which are loaded with inferiptions of great length ; the reader, who is defirous of further in-'* formation, will find them accurately tranferibed in Pontoppi-dan's Marmora Danica, and in Travels through Denmark, publifhed in 1702. The following genealogical tables trace in regular defcent the Kings of Denmark, from Harald Blaatand to the prefent fovereign. * " Plus grand aux yenx da la faine raifon " blement, mais que le Ciel ne leur accorde " qu'a ceux du vulgaire, il tut pcut-etre un dc " que quand il veut leur prouver fon amour." u ces princes que les peuples ne louent que foi- Mallet, Hift. de Dan. Torn. II. p. 95. Y y y 2 Genealogical Genealogical Table of the Kings of Denmark, from Harald Blaatand to Christian 1. I. Harald VI. Blaatand, king of Denmark, 939; died 989, s, Sweyn I. king 989 ; died 1014^ __A 3. Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark and England, di«d 1036 ; married limma Is'ormandy, and widow of Ethtlred,'king of England. —1 4. Harald Harefoot, king of England, 1036 j died 1039. Eftrida, married Ulf Jarl, 6. Sweyn II. king of Denmark, 1060; died 1074, _.___,__-A,_ 5. Hardicanute k. of Denmark, $036 j d. 1042. 7. Harold, died 8. Canute IV. 9. Olof, or Olauj, icSo. died 1086. died 1092. 10. Eric III. Siegod, fometimes called Eric IV.d. 1103. __yv_,_ 1 Ha;a.ld. Canute St. duke of Slefwick, king of the Obotrites, aflaffinated by Magnus fon of Nicholas, 1131. ,5. Valdemar I. the Great, king 1157 } died nii . ' 12. Eric IV. Emun, k.u3s; d.1137, r' 13, EncV. Lam, 14. Sweyn III. died 1147. died 1157. a daughter, 16. CanuteVI. died 1202. 11, NichoJaa, died 1135* Magnus, died 1135. r 14. Canute, joint fovereign with Sweyn III. d. 1j57- 17. Waldemarll. died 1241. ___y\___ YVa'ckmar, joint foverei-n with his father, and fometimes called Waldemar III. d. 1231. j8. Eric VI. k, 1241 j d. 1250. ao. Chriftopher I. king 1250; ^ . died 1259. ( ,-------A---1 19. Abel, king 1250 ; died 1251. Valdemar, duke of Slefwick. I--"--- 22. EricVIII. Menvedi k. 1186} d.1319. Eric, duke of Slefwick. si. Eric VII. dipping, k.1259 j d.1286. 23. ChriftopherII. k. 1319; d. 1334. 1 ^4. Valdemar III. called fometimes Valdemar IV. k. 1340. after an interregnum of fix years ; died 1375. Margaret, mar. Nicholaaa de Verde; Sophia, mar. Gerard count of Holflein. Ingeburga, m. Henry duke of Mecklenb.urgh. Maria, married Wratifias duke of Pomerama. .____X V 1 r~~-— Henry, died 1427. Adolphus, d. 1459. Gerard, d. 1433. Hedwige, mar. 26. Margaret, m. Haquin k. of Theodo-ir count Norway, who died 1380 j queen of of Oldenburgh j Denmark, Sweden, and Norway j died 1440. died 1420, aged 60. _ J ^.27. Eric IX. of Pomerania; k. ,420 ; Sophia, m. John, f depofed 14.39 i m. 1406, Philip- Robert, emperor of 25. Olaus, or Olof, k. 137 5 5 d.1387. fon of ^ ucj»oict.i 1439; "1- 1490, rump- iv. ag. ChviiUanl. k. of Deamaxk, 142*. > < r CO I—I H O g > Genealogical Table of the Kings of Denmark of the Houfe of Oldenburgh, I. Chriftian I. count of Oldenburgh and Delmcnhorft, king of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, 1448 } died 1481. II. John, died 1513 Margaret, mar. James III. k. of Scotland. III. Chriftian II. depofed 1513 ; m. Elizabeth filler of the emperor Charles V. died 1559. 1 IV. Frederic I. k. upon the depofition of Chriftian IT. in 1573 ; d. 1533 ; mnr. 1. Anne of Brandenburgh§ 2. Sophia, princefs of Pomerania Stettin. _y\_.___.__ Dorothy, m. in 1 ^2, Frederic II. elector palatine ; and died 1580 without lfTue. John, died 1532, at Ra'Jbon, aged 14. VI. Frederic II. b. 1534.; d. 15S8 ; m. So;>hia princefs of Mecklenburgh. ___» v._ Chriftina, m. 1. Francis Sforza duke of Milan j 2. Francis duke of Loraine, from whom descended, in a regular line, Francis late emperor of Germany. V. Chriftian I IT. died 1558 ; m. Dorothy of Saxe Lawenburgh. Adolphus, author of the line of the dukes of Holftein-Gottorp, from whom defcended Peter III. of Ruflia. Elizabeth, m. Ulric duke of Mecklenburg. Sophia, in. Frederic II. Magnus, b. 1540; bifhop of Sii'.tl and Pilten, and titular k. of Livonia; d. 1583. John, duke of Slefwick, b. T545 ; died 1612 j author of the branches of Sonderborg, Nor-borg, Glucktborg, and Plxn. Dorothy, b. 1546 ; m. Maximilian duke ot Luneburgh j from whom the electors of Hanover. Elizabeth, b. 1573; m. Henry duke of Brunf-yvkk Lunenburgh. Anne, h. 1574; m. James king of England. VII. Chiiftian IV. b. iS77 ; d. 164S : in. Anne Catharine princefs of Brandenbu,rgh. John, b. 1 583 j died at Mofcow 1602. Chriftian, b. 1603 j died 1647. r VIII. Frederic III. b. 1609; d. 1670} m. Sophia Amelia princefs of Brunfwick Luneburgh. " S Ulric, d. 1603. Chriftian V. b. 164.6; d.1699; m'. Charlotte Amelia of Hdle-Cafiel. George, b. 1653; m. Anne queen of England. Several daughters, amongft whom Ulrica Eleonora, m. to Charles XI. king of Sweden. X. Frederic IV. b. 1671 ; d. 1730 ; XI. Chriftian VI. b. 1699 ; d. I746 ; mar. Chriftina Sophia prjr.cefs of Branber.burgh Bareith. 1 -» XII. F.ederic V. born 17*3 5 died l7$&i i- Louifa, daughter of George II. king of England; 2. Juliana Maria, daughter of Ferdinand Albert of Brunfwick-WoUenbotte'l. _,___/v______________ XIII. Chriftian VII. b. 1749; mar. Matilda, iifter of ^ George III. king of *5 England. SopW Magdalena, b. 174.6; m. Guflavus III. the prefent k:ng of cweden. Wilhelmina Carolina, b. 1750 ; m. William hereditary prince of Heffe-Caffel. Louifa, b. 1750; m. Charles fecond fon of Frederic, Landgrave of Heire-Caifel. Frederic, b. i753 ; m. Sophia Frederioa princefs of Mecklenburgh Schwerin. o w w > r o o o > > r BvinK ^anc* *s exceedingly fertile; it produces grain of all forts, **—v-j and in great plenty, abounds with excellent pafture, and is particularly famous for its breed of horfes. The fields, which feemed well cultivated, were in many parts formed into in-clofures, feparated by mud walls: a few cottages were of brick ; but the generality were of mud white-wafhed, April8. The wind blowing high and directly contrary, we were detained two days atCorfoer; and, upon its (hifting, we embarked for the Iile of Funen: the diftance between the neareft points on each coaft is about 18 miles. About midday we paffed the fmall ifland of Sproe, near which lay a guard-fhip, for the purpofe of exacting the toll from all veffels which pafs between that ifland and Zealand; other fhips pay their duty at Nyborg. Sproe contains only two buildings ; a fmall inn for the occafional refrefhment of the guard-fhip's crew ; and a neat farm-houfe. It produces grain and paflure. Upon the top of an height overlooking the fea, we obferved the ruins of an antient fortrefs; which, as the faiiors informed us, formerly belonged to pirates, who ufed to re fort in great numbers to this ifland, which feemed well adapted for that purpofe. After a favourable paffage of four hours, we landed at Nyborg, a fmall well built town, in the Ifle of Funen, (landing upon a commodious bay. The town is furrounded with a rampart and ditch, and garrifoned by a company of invalids. An infeription over an old fqUare building informed me, that Chriftian III. fon of Frederic I. raifed the fortifications. Towards the fkirts of the town, and clofe to the ramparts, are the remains of an old palace, in which Chriftian II. was born; and to the roof of which, as his biographer* relates, he was conveyed, while an infant, by a tame monkey, and brought down without receiving the lead harm. • Svirnug Vit. Chrifc. llf Jn In the afternoon we reached Odenfee, the capital of the Ifle of Funen, a place of fuch high antiquity, that fome Danifh writers derive its foundation and name from Oden, the god and hero of the Gothic nations. But leaving fuch difquifitions to the antiquaries of the country, I fhall only obfcrve, that its name occurs in the earliefl ages of the Danifli hiflory; and that it was a town of great note long before Copenhagen ex-iflcd. Odenfee flands upon a fmall river, which is not navigable, and about two miles from the Bay of Stegeflrand. Many of the houfes are antient, bearing dates about the middle of the 16th century; butfpart is newly built: it contains about 5200 inhabitants, who carry on fome commerce, exporting chiefly grain and leather; the latter is much efteemed, and its goodnefs is fuppofed to arife from a certain property in the river water, in which it is foaked for tanning. The Danifh cavalry are fupplied from thence with the greateft part of their leathern accoutrements. Odenfee is the feat of a bifhop, which was founded by Harald Blaatand in 980, and is the richeft in Denmark next to Copenhagen. It has a fchool, endowed by the celebrated Margaret of Valdemar, in which a certain number of fcholars, from fix to fixteen years of age, are inftructed gratis : they are inftrucTcd gratis: they live and board in the town, and each receives a yearly penfion; other fcholarfhips have been alfo founded by private perfons. The whole number amounted to feventy. There is alfo a gymnaftum, inftituted by Chriftian IV. for the admiffion of fludents at the age of fixteen. This feminary was ftill further improved by the liberality of Holberg the Danifh hiflorian, who protected letters with the fame zeal with which he cultivated them. It is now greatly fallen from its former flourishing ftate, containing, when I paffed through the town, only eight fludents. The cathedral is a large old brick building, which has nothing remarkable, except fome Vol. II. Zzz coftly BvinK coftly monuments of a private Danifh family. The church, t*vw which formerly belonged to the convent of Recolets, contains the fepulchre of John king of Denmark, and of his fon . Chriftian II. John afcended the throne in 1481, upon the death of his father Chriftian I. and in 1497, renewing the union of Cal-mar, he obtained the crown of Sweden ; which the Swedes, however, did not long permit him to enjoy. He died on the 12th of February 1513, having on his death-bed forcibly ad-monifhed his fon Chriftian II.; admonitions which could have but little effect upon a breaft already corrupted by power, and impatient for dominion. John would have acted more wifely, if he had endeavoured to render his fon's infant mind capable of receiving the impreffions of virtue, and had not fhame-fully neglected his education; a crime highly reprehensible in a father, becaufe it can never be remedied; but unpardonable in a fovereign, who is perhaps rearing a tyrant for his fubjects, and entailing upon his country a feries of evils, for which he is himfelf chiefly accountable. Hiftorians agree in reprefenting John as a wife and prudent prince, inclined to peace, but enterprizing in war and as generally moderate and humane: admitting, however, that he perpetrated occafion al acts of violence and cruelty, derived from a fpecies of melancholy madnefs, that preyed upon his mind, and at times deprived him of his fenfes. His fon, the cruel and unfortunate Chriftian II. is entombed near his father, under a plain grave-ftone, fomewhat raifed, but without any infeription. He was born at Nyborg, on the 2d of July 1481; and difcovered in his youth many fymptoms of a lively genius and a good underftanding, which, if properly cultivated, might have rendered him the ornament, in^ Head of becoming, as he proved, the dHhonour of his country. The young prince was entrufted to a common burgher 4 of C H R I S T I A N II. 539 of Copenhagen; and was afterwards removed to the houfe of chap. a fchool-maller, who was alfo a canon of the cathedral. In j this latter fituation his chief employment confifted in regularly accompanying his mailer to church, where he diftinguifhed himfelf beyond the other fcholars and chorifters in chanting and finging pfalms. From thence he was placed under the tuition of a German preceptor, a man of learning, but a pedant; under whom, however, he made a confiderable proficiency in the Latin tongue. From this humble education Chriftian imbibed a taftc for bad company; was accuflomed to haunt the common taverns, to mix with the loweft of the populace, to fcour the ftreets, and to be guilty of every excefs. The king at length, informed of thefe irregularities, reproved him fe-verely ; but as the prince had already contracted thofe bad habits, which were grown too flrong to yield to any effort, thefe admonitions were too late. Fie feigned, however, contrition for his paft behaviour; and again won the affections of his father by his military fucceffes in Norway, and by an unwearied application to the affairs of government. During the firft years of his reign, which commenced in 1513, his adminiflration was in many refpects worthy of praife; and the excellence of many of his laws, which it would be unjuft to deny, has induced Flolberg * to affirm, that if the character of Chriftian II. was to be determined by his laws, and not by his a&ions, he would merit the appellation of Good, rather than of Tyrant. Happy would it have been for himfelf, and his people, if he had continued his reign upon the fame principles. At firft all his enterprizes were crowned with fuccefs; he abridged the power of the Danifh nobility, and exalted the regal prerogatives; he obtained the crown of Sweden by conqueft, and was even proclaimed hereditary fovereign of that * Dan. Gef. Vol. II. p. 94.. Zzz 2 kingdom, BvmK kingdom. ^ prudent and temperate ufe of thefe advantage; w-y-w might have enfured to him. a long and undiilurbed poflellion of the throne ; if his natural difpofition, now freed from all reftraint by profperity, had not hurried him to the perpetration of the moft flagrant acts of tyranny. The dreadful maf-facre of Stockholm, in which fix hundred of the principal nobility were put to the fword, under the femblance of law, and amid the rejoicings of his coronation, exhibited fuch a linking inftance of his malignant and implacable character, that, upon the revolt of Guftavus Vafa, the fpirit of refiftance dilfufed itfelf rapidly from Sweden to Denmark, where he had exafperated his fubjects by repeated cruelties and oppreffions, and the fole confidence which he placed in theloweft and moft unworthy favourites*. In 1523 he was publicly depofed by the flates of Denmark ; and the crown transferred to his uncle Frederic duke of Holflein. This depofition was neither the confequcnce of Frederic's intrigues, nor of the fpirit of party; but was occafioned by the juft and univerfai dcteftation which pervaded all ranks of people; and as it was the gene- * The firft of thefe favourites was the in- tcrcft, he could not fail of being chofen burgo-famous Sigrebit, mother of the king's miftrefs mafter of Amftcrdam. The further partial -Diveke. This artful woman, who was a na- lars of this woman's life fubfequent to her tivc of Holland, and had kept an inn at Berg- efcape from Denmark are not. known, hen in Norway, even after her daughter's The other favourite of Chriftian II. no lefs death retained fuch power, that (he might be infamous than the former, was Nicholas Sla-ftyled prime minifter : fhe was the only chan- gelbec, originally a barber of Weftphalia, and nel ofhis favours; tranfa&ed all affairs of im- recommended to the king by his relation Sigre-portance ; had the care of the finances ; fuper- bit. He rendered himfelf fo ufeful to Chrif-intended the cuftoms of the Sound; and had, tian by his fanguinary advice at the maffacre in a word, acquired fuch a wonderful afcend- of Stockholm, and by being the inftrument of ency over the infatuated monarch, that her his cruelty, that he was rewarded with the influence was attributed to fafcination. Upon archbifhopric of Lundcn. Not long after-the king's depofition, Sigrebit was fo much wards, however, the king threw upon this fa-dctefted, that, from apprehenfions of the po- vourite all the odium of the malfacrc, and Capillar fury, flie was conveyed in a cheft on crificed him to the public vengeance: the un-board of the velfel which carried Chriftian fortunate victim was firft racked, and then from Denmark. Holberg adds, that flie con- burnt alive, exhibiting a melancholy example, folcd the king for the lofs of his crown, by what little confidence is to be repofed in the alluring him, that, through the emperor's in- favour of a tyrant. ral ral fenfe of the nation, it had more the appearance of a new election upon the demife of the crown, than of a revolution which deprived a defpot of his throne. Chriftian himfelf was indeed fo fenfible of the general odium, that, though by no means deficient in perfonal courage, he yet made not the leaft effort to retain poffeflion of that throne which he had fo often difhonoured. Upon quitting Copenhagen he repaired to Antwerp, under the protection of Charles V. whofe filler Ifabella he had married. After many delays and folicitattons at the different courts of Europe, he at length collected, by the emperor's aftlftance, a fleet and army, with which he invaded the Danifh dominions: his attempts, however, proving unfuccefs-ful, he fell, in 1532, into the hands of Frederic I. and was configned a prifoner to the caftle of Sunderborg, a flrong fortrefs in the Iile of Alfen. The place of his confinement was a dungeon, with a fmall window, admitting only a few rays of light, and through which his provifions were conveyed. Having entered this gloomy cell, with a favourite dwarf, the fole companion of his mifcry, the door was inftantly walled up. Even the horrors of this fituation were aggravated by the death of his only fon John, who expired at Ratifbon in the 15th year of his age, and on the fame day in which his father was taken prifoner. The premature deceafe of this accomplifhed prince, whom he tenderly loved, and on whom he rcftcd his fole hopes of enlargement, reduced him to a ftate of defpondency. After much anxious folicitude by what means he could convey intelligence of his dreadful fituation to his daughter the electrefs Palatine, and to the emperor Charles V. the king prevailed upon the dwarf to counterfeit ficknefs, and to requeft that he might be removed from the prifon for the recovery of his health. If he mould fuccced, he was to feizc the firft opportunity Bvi°iK tunity of efcaping from the Danifli dominions to the court of w-v—i the clectrcfs, in order that fhe might engage the emperor to intercede with the king of Denmark for fome alleviation of her father's fuffcrings. The dwarf accordingly feigned fick-nefs, was transferred to the neighbouring town, eluded the vigilance of his guards, and made his efcape; but was overtaken at Rendfburgh, fcarcely a day's journey from the Danifh confines. Chriftian, fruftrated in this attempt, and deprived of his faithful aflbciate, lingered for fome time without any companion ; until an old foldier, worn out with the fatigues of war, voluntarily offered to fhare the king's imprifonment. This veteran being immured in the dungeon, afforded conftant amufement to the royal prifoner, by various anecdotes on the different princes and generals under whom he had enlifted, and by defcribing thofe expeditions and battles in which he had been prefent. And, as he had ferved from his earlieft youth, was a perfon of much obfervation, and by nature extremely loquacious, he aflifted in relieving the tedmm of Chrif-tian's captivity. Nor did any event, fcarcely the lofs of his fon, ever more fenfibly affect the royal prifoner, than the death of this foot her of his mifery, who expired in the dungeon. After continuing eleven years in his original cell, without being once permitted to quit it, he was at length, through the interceiuon of Charles V. removed to a commodious apartment in the fame caftle; was provided with fuitable attendants; fometimes indulged with the liberty of vifiting in the town, attending divine fervice in the public church, and of hunting in the neighbouring diflrict. Yet even this change of fituation, which had been fo long the fole object of his willies, could not make him forget that he was ftill a prifoner: the recollection of which affected him occafionally to fuch a degree, that he would, would, even in his moft cheerful moments, fuddenly burft into tears, throw himfelf upon the ground, utter the moft bitter lamentations, and continue for fome time in a ftate approaching to infanity. However defervedly odious Chriftian II. may have appeared in the former parts of his life, yet his fubfequent fufferings may be confidered as a fufficient atonement; and it is a pleafing fatisfaetion to every humane mind, that he at length feems to have recovered from his defpondency, and to have acquiefced in his fate with the moft perfect refignation. At length, in 1546, after a confinement of fixteen years and feven months in the caftle of Sonderborg, he was conveyed to the palace of Callenborg, in the Ifle of Zealand ; a place to which he had been particularly attached. Chriftian III. repaired in • perfon to Affens, where he received his fallen rival with every mark of attention, and affured him that he fhould enjoy every comfort which could tend to alleviate his fituation. Thefe unufual honours, joined to his removal from a place where he had experienced fo much mifery, and the profpect of again inhabiting his favourite palace, excited fuch tranfports of joy, that he compared himfelf to a perfon recalled. from death *. Being conducted to Callenborg, he had the fatisfaetion of finding thefe promifes religioufly fulfilled. He furvived this happy change ten years j and his mind had been fo foftened by adverfity, that, old as he was, his death was faid to be haftened by his affliction for the lofs of his benefactor Chriftian III. He died on the 24th of January 1559, in the 78th * " Trajicientem autem in Fioniam Chrif- " pietatis & tolerantiam intendebat. JuffuA «* tianus cum fratre, qui turn Aifaniae eratad M que fperarc omnia, qux ad vkam lectins & *« colloquendum invitant. Ibi habita oratio a ** lioneftius tolerandam cflent, fi modo in fide t* Chriftiano, nonnullis fenatorum pnefenti- " maneret. Quibus ille non fecus animo exhi- *t ]3US? ipfius moderatione digna, qua? non " laratur, ac ft morte extraflus, novam htcetn " erat fortunam cxprobantis, aut memoriam " intuentur." Cragii AnnaJ. Chrifl. Ill, «♦ fcelerum rcpetentis; fed maximc ftudium p. 324. year by°iii K year of his age, and in the 36th from the period of his depofi-b—>—» tion*. April 9th, we arrived at Aliens, juft mentioned as the place of meeting between Chriftian II. and Chriftian III.; it Hands upon the Little Belt, a ftrait of the Baltic, which feparates the Ifle of Funen from the continent. This ifland is about 340 miles in circumference; is remarkably fertile in pafture and grain j and exports annually to Norway, barley, oats, rye, and peafe. The country is open, with a gently undulating furface; and its coafts are generally flat and fandy. The paffage acrofs the Little Belt is only nine miles ; but as the wind was contrary, we were engaged five hours in performing it. We landed upon the duchy of Slefwick, at Arroe-Sund, fo called from the little ifland Arroe, contiguous to the continent. On the nth we paffed through feveral fmall, but neat towns, beautifully fituated upon inlets of the Baltic, and particularly Flendfburgh, a place of confiderable commerce. The inhabitants poffefs at leafl 200 veffels; and carry on no incon-fiderable trade to the Weft Indies. They traffic alfo to Norway, where they procure falted fifh, which they carry to the Mediterranean ; and bring back wines and dried fruits to Holland, Peterfburgh, and the ports of the Baltic. The duchy of Slefwick, fometimes called South Jutland, is feparated from Holftein, or the king of Denmark's German dominions, by the Eyder. The capital is an irregularly built town of great length, and contains about 5630 inhabitants. The houfes are of brick j and, like thofe of all the other towns in the country, refemble in neatnefs and manner of building thofe of Holland: the inhabitants drefs alfo like the Dutch j and * Thefe particulars of Chriftian the Second's life are chiefly taken from Holberg and Sva-fiingii Vita Chriftj(wii Secundi. many many of them fpeak their tongue, though the ufual languages arc the German and Danifli. Clofe to Slefwick is the old palace of Gottorp, formerly the ducal rcfidcncc, at prefent inhabited by the ftadtholdcr, or governor, prince Charles of HeiTe-Calfel, who married Louifa princefs of Denmark. It is a large brick building, furrounded by a rampart and moat: from this* caftle the ducal line, formed by Adolphus fon of Frederic I. king of Denmark, was denominated Holflcin-Gottorp, which ftill fubfifts in the perfon of the prefent great-duke of Ruflia. That part of the duchy which we traverfed feemed well cultivated: it was in general flat and open, but occafionally exhibited variegated landfcapes of heath, arable land, and paflure, cnclofed with quickfet hedges, and fludded at intervals with woods of beech and oak. The farm-houfes had the appearance of great neatnefs. We paffed alfo ranges of new cottages, lately creeled for colonifls at the expence of the crown. They arc fpacious, and refemble thofe of Weftphalia, containing, under the fame roof, a large barn, with divifions for the cattle on each fide, and two rooms at the further end for the family. Each family is fupplied with ploughs, carts, and other necef-fary implements of agriculture, two horfes, and a penfion during three years. About twenty miles from Slefwick we quitted that duchy, and at Rendfburgh croffed the Eyder into Holflein; which river is confidered as forming on this fide the limits of Germany ; and is fuppofed to have been the boundary of the Roman empire : a tradition recorded in the following verfe, hewn over the gate of the old town, Eydora Rojnani terminus imperii* Rendfburgh is efteemed the ftrongeft fortrefs in the Danifli territories. The town, which contains about 3600 inhabitants, carries on but little trade, fcarcely poffefling three veffels. It Vol.11. 4 A muft ^viiiK mu^ ^con» however, become a place of importance, as the ca-*—i—1 nal of Kiel will neceffarily introduce a confiderable degree of commerce. The lad fluice is to be conflrueted at Rendfburgh. The river Eyder is navigable for large veffels to within a fhort diflance of the town, while thofe of inferior burden land their goods on the quays. The tide, which rifes near four feet, brings fand into its channel; and floating machines are continually employed to deepen its bed. The environs are chiefly a ftat barren heath; but as we ap. proached Kiel, the coafls gradually became hilly and more fertile. We paffed between the Wetter and Flemhuder Lakes; and again croffed the Eyder, there only a fmall rivulet, which flows from the former into the latter, and arrived in the evening at Kiel. The diflricl: of Kiel is that portion of the duchy of Holflein, which defcended to the line of Holflein-Gottorp, and belonged to Peter III. as part of his hereditary dominions. In 1773 the prefent emprefs of Ruflia ceded it to the king of Denmark, in exchange for the counties of Oldcnburgh and Delmenhorfl, which fhe gave to the prince bifhop of Lubec. This exchange was very favourable to Denmark, as the king now poffeffes the whole duchy of Holftein; and the intended junction of the Baltic and the North Sea will be formed entirely through the Danifh territories. Kiel poffeffes an univerfity for the German fubjects of Denmark, which was founded in 1660 by Chriftian Albert, duke of Holftein-Gottorp, and has lately been confiderably enlarged by his prefent majefty. It contains 24 profeffors, and about 300 fludents. The town flands upon a fmall ifland in a bay of the Baltic, and has a very commodious harbour for fhips of the largeft fize. It is already one of the moft commercial places of Holftein ; and its trade will be ftill further augmented when the inland navigation acrofs the peninfula is finifhed ; of which I am enabled, partly from my own in- 5 fpection^ Plan of7/V C A n a l ///,> //„> No n vnun at Sua //„. /} a l rri a IT ______j_ hi ,—-———— —-^e——.—^— ■ il|lliB !ililulilllllil llllllllllllliililLlllllHlli'llil; MM.l IhKl lEMlil Lfi'till! LLLiiilijlii:: I': ^— 'd.--Jill ill! illl!—;, y>« XXXIII. The regency of the provinces is eftablifhed in certain governments juft as they now are conftituted ; fo that there never, for the future, fhall be any general-governor in this realm, if not on a very peculiar emergency, and then for a fhort time ; alio fliall there no 3 * appanage, appanage, province, or government be bellowed ; but the province; fhall he divided in the fame governments they now, according to the Form of Regency de Anno ij2o, actually arc. XXXIV. The prince heir apparent to the crown of Sweden, and alfo the princes of the royal Swediih blood, cannot have any appanage, or general-government, but mull depend upon fuch annual allowance that can be allotted them from the Exchequer, which money, for the hereditary princes, muft not be lefs than one hundred thoufand dollars S. rat. * from the day they fhall be declared of age, which is at twenty-one years. The princes of the Swediih blood, who are more diftant from the crown, lhall have fuch an annual penlion for their maintenance, as can be convenient and fuitable to their birth. Yet they can be diflinguillied with the titles of duchies, as in old times has been in fafhion ; but without any right to thofe provinces whofe name they bear, which always lhall be incorporated under one head and ruler, without diminution or fcparation. XXXV. Concerning the fultenance of the prince royal, who always is the reigning king his eldeft fon, or grand-fon, in a direct defcending line, it muft be bellowed in the fame manner as eftablilhed for the late king Adolphus Friedrichus his fon's, our now reigning moft gracious king's Guftavus's the III. annual maintenance. And when he is come to the age of eighteen years, he lhall be admitted into the council of the king. XXXVI. No prince of the Swediih blood, although.he maybe prince royal, or hereditary prince, or of a more diftant line, may marry without the king's knowledge and confent. In the cafe any one lhould contravene, he lhall be judgeV.1 after the Swediih law, and the children be difinherited. XXXVII. The king being fick, or abfent upon a long journey, then the regency is to he adminiftred by thofe of the fenate, whom the king has denominated for that purpofe : but if the king lhould fall lick fo fuddenly that he cannot give any orders how the affairs of the realm fhould be managed, then all the warrants and decrees are to be figned by the four eldeft fenators and the prefident of the chancery : thefe five together are to exercife the royal power in all affairs that require a quick difpatch ; but they are not intitlcd to denomination of employments, nor to conclude alliances, before the king being fo reflored to health, that he himfelf can take in hands the affairs of government; and then thefe fhall be accountable to the king how bufinefs has been difpatched. But if the king dies, and the prince royal is under age, then the government of the realm is to be adminiftred in the manner above-mentioned, unlefs that the fate king had made any teftamcntary difpofition; in which cafe it fliall be according to the king's faid teftament. XXXVIII. The ftates of the realm muft not fail to convene, when called by the king, on time and place indicated, there to confult with his majefty on fuch affairs, whereabout his majefty defires their meeting. Nobody elfe but the king alone fhall have the power to call the flates to a public diet, except in the minority of the king ; then the tutors f exercife this power. But if the crown fhould happen to be vacant by the extinction of the whole royal family on the male fide (for which fad event the gracious God beware 1), then the ftates of the kingdom are bound, without any convocation, on the 30th day after the death of the king, of themfelves to meet at Stockholm, according to our act of convention, de dato Junii 23d, 1743 5 which act. alfo exprefles the penalty on whofoever in that cafe lhould endeavour, with practices and con-fpiracies, to incroach upon the free election of the dates. In that unhappy event, it is incumbent on the wardens of the houfe of nobles, the chapter of I rjufaJft, and the court: of magiftratcs at Stockholm, inftantly to publifh it in all the provinces, for the knowledge of all who arc concerned ; and whereas the provincial governors then arc obliged, each in his territory, to make known the demife of the king to all the inhabitants, it is expected, that fo many will be prefent before the appointed time, that they may be able to fave and defend the liberty of the country, and a new fucceftor to the crown be chofen. XXXIX. The ftates of the kingdom are bound, with faithful concern, to leave intemcrate all the royal prerogatives, after the dictates of the Swediih law, fo that they fliall be kept in their full vigour and ftrcngth, in order that all what in fuch manner appertains to the royal authority fliall be zcaloufly and carefully maintained, defended, and ftrengthened •, wherefore, nothing of thefe fundamental laws is to be reformed, augmented, or diminilhed, without the concert and agreement of the king, on purpofe that no unlawfulnefs might render invalid the enacted law, or the liberty of the fubjects, together with the king's rights, be invaded and fubdued ; but each be in polfeflion of his due rights and privileges : to that end all the ftatute;, from the year 16S0 till this prefent time, which have been conlidered as fundamental laws, iu virtue of this fliall be abrogated and rejected. ^ * About£4166, f Cuardian». XL. Ihe- XL. The king lhall have no power to make new laws without the knowledge and afTent of the ftates, nor abrogate an old one received formerly. XL I. The ftates lhall have no power to abrogate old laws, nor to make new ones, without the king's confent and approbation. XLII. When a new law is to be fettled, the following method fliall be obferved : if the ftates of the realm wifh for a new ftatute, then they are to confult among themfelves, and, after they are come to agreement, the project is to be prefented to his majefty by their four fpcakers, for to perceive the king's fentiment. His majefty thereupon afks the advice of the fenate ; and when he himfelf has pondered it, and fixed his refolution, he calls the ftates to public meeting in the Great-Hall (Riks-Salen), and gives them, in a fhort fpeech, his confent and agreement, or elfe the reafons for his refufal. But if the king ihould propofe a new law, he is at firft to communicate it to the fenate ; and when the fenators have given their advice to the protocol, the whole matter is to be delivered to the ftates, who, after having confuhed, and come to an agreement amongft themfelves, afk for a day to prefent their confent to his' majefty in the Great-Hall : but if it happens to be a refufal, then they deliver their reafons for it in writing by their four fpcakers. XLIII. If there lhould be raifed fome new queftiou about the true meaning of the law, as in former times frequently has happened, then it {hall be decided in the fame manner as in the 42d article here above is enacted. XLIV. Although it always is an appurtenance to the Crown to coin money, yet the ftates have referved themfelves, when any raifing or debafing of the ftandard, or intrinfic value, Ihould be defigned or undertaken, that fuch a reformation fhall not come to pafs without their knowledge and agreement. XLV. The king is to defend and fave the country, particularly from foreign and hoftile invafion ; but he cannot againft the tenor of the law, his royal oath and afTurancc, levy any aids for war, new taxes, enrolling of men, or other duties, without the knowledge of the ftates and their free will and confent: yet, that unhappy cafe excepted, when the kingdom fhould be attacked by an army, then his majefly has power to take fuch meafures, for the fe-curity of the realm, as he (hail judge convenient for the good of his fubjects ; but as foon as the war is finifhed, the ftates muft be called, and the new taxes in behalf of the war quite abolilhed. XLVI. The aflemblies of the ftates are not to fubfift longer than at moft three months : and in order to avoid that the country being aggrieved by the expences of long diets, as has happened heretofore, the king is impowered, after that time, to diflblve the affembly, and fend away the deputies each to his own home ; and if, in the like occafion, no new fubfidies were granted, the old ones then arc to fubfift. XLVII. The ftates are intitlcd to denominate and chufe the perfons who are to be feated in thofe committees, with which the king will plcafe to confult about fuch bufinefs as he dciigns fhall be kept fecret. Thefe members are invefted with all that right and authority which appertains to the ftates themfelves : but all matters that can be publifhed fliall be communicated to the dates, and imparted to their deliberation. XLVIII. The king has no power to wage war without the a/lcnt and agreement of the ftates. XLIX. No other minutes, but of fuch affairs that have been under the deliberation of the Iciiie with the ftates, can be required or delivered to them. L. The ftate and condition of the Exchequer fhall be laid open before the ftates of the realm, in order to take cognizance that the public money has been fpent to the good and welfare of the country. LI. If a member of the ftates, during the diet, or on his journey to or from the diets, fhould be injured and wronged with words and deeds, when he has made known that he is in that quality and bufinefs, it fhall be puniihed as a breach of the king's peace. LII. His majefty allures to maintain all the ftates of the kingdom in their duly acquired old privileges, immunities, rights, and liberties : and alfo, no new privileges for any one of the ftates, without the knowledge, advice, and confent of all the four ftates, fliall be given or imparted. LIIl. To his majefty's gracious care alone the German provinces are left, that they may be governed according to the Laws of the empire, and the tenor of the treaty of Weflphaly. LIV. The cities and towns of the kingdom are to remain in their duly acquired privileges and rights, which were granted and given them by former kings j yet fo, that they are to be fitted and adapted to the circumftances of the times, for the good and advantage of the commonwealth. LV. The LV. The bank of the ftates is to remain hereafter as before, under their guarantee, and at their own difpofition, fo that it is to be adminiftered according to the rules and flatutes already enacted, or fuch as the ftates will eftablifh for the future. LVI. The cafh of penfions belonging to the army fhall remain, according to the ordinances already confirmed, or fuch as his majefty, with the faithful military commanders and deputies from the regiments, will agree to. LVI I. If this Law in any point fhould be found obfcure, the literal contents muft be obferved, till the king and the ftates, in the manner exprefTed hereabove, articles XXXIX. and XLII. fhall agree upon the true fcnfe. All this, We, now here aflembled States, have judged necefTary for the regular government of the realm, our liberty and fecurity, to ratify and enact for us, our abfent fellow-fubjects, our pofterity born and unborn. We declare and proteft hereby anew, that we bear the greatefl abhorrence to a king's defpotic power, or the fo-called fovereignty ; deeming that our higheft: felicity, honour, and advantage, to be and dwell free and felf-independent, law-giving, but law-obferving ftates, under the fway of a king in power, but bound to the law; both of us tied together and protected by the law, who preferves us and our dear country from the dangers which are the fad effects of diforder, licentioufnefs, defpotifm, and an Ariftocratic government of many, to the detriment of the whole fociety, and to the grievance and diflrefs of every fubject. We are fo much the more allured to have an orderly, lawful, and happy government, as his majefty has declared, that he will regard it as his greatefl honour to be the firft citizen amongft a free people ; and we are hopeful that the like fentiments will be propagated in the Royal Family, from father to fon, till the lateft times of the world. Therefore we declare enemy to us and the country whoever fhall be fo imprudent and malignant a fellow-fubject, as to endeavour to draw us off from this fanction by cheat and craft, fecret plots or open violence, in order to intrude upon us royal defpotifm or fovereignty; or, under the pretence and fhow of liberty, overthrow thefe laws, which, when they corroborate a true and ufeful liberty, fhut the doors to licentioufnefs and confufion. Whoever it may be, fhall be punifhed without mercy, according to the plain law of Sweden. We afTure alfo, in virtue of our fworn fealty and this form of govesnment, that we fhall keep loyal obedience to his majefty, fulfil his orders in all that is due and warrantable before God and men, for him to command, and for us to do, all rights being fafe, that belong to him and ourfelvcs, as it becomes faithful men and fubjects. Signed and fealed in Stockholm the 21ft day of Auguft, in the year after the birth of Our Saviour 1772. For the Nobility. For the Clergy. A. G. LEIONHUFWUD. AND. H. FORSSENIUS, h. t. Landtmarfhal. Speaker. (L. S.) (L. S.) For the Burghers. JOH. H. HOCHSCHILD, In the place of the Speaker. (L. S.) For the Peafantry, JOSEPH HANS SON, (L. s.) All this here above written, We ourfelves not only receive as a firm fundamental law, but We ordain Iikewife, and enjoin all who are bound to Us and our Succeflors to the reign, with fidelity, allegiance, and loyalty, to acknowledge, keep, and obey this form of government. For the more certainty, We have figned this with our own hand, and cauiedOur Royal Seal to be put hereunder, at Stockholm, the 2ift day of Auguft, in the year after the birth of Our Saviour one thoufand feven hundred and the feveuty fecond. GUSTAVUS. Vol. II. 4 C No. II. Value of the EXPORTS and IMPORTS from and to ENGLAND and RUSSIA, SWEDEN, and DENMARK, from Christmas 1778 to Christmas 1782. > RUSSIA. SWEDEN. DENMARK. 13 Value of Exports. Value of Imports. Value of Exports. Value of Imports. Value of Exports. Value of Imports. END 1, J. c /. d. 1, d. j. £- j. £- s. *779 306.072 J5 11 1.201,377 >4 4 108,403 4 7 252I431 4 2 150,615, 2 4 73»«7I 13 5 1—1 1780 161,031 10 5 1,150,42c 12 11 49>678 10 5 144,18c 17 1 156,085 19 5 36,731 4 4 • 1781 6 7 1,206,806 18 7 62,510 8 10 212,414 *9 11 172,012 19 9 94,639 1 10 1782 196,577 9 10 1,185,844 H 4 56,083 2 7 163,219 7 11 164,732 2 4 73>°38 9 2 N D E The numerals I. and II. denote the firfl and fecond volumes. /jBO, the capita] of Swedifh Finland, II. 292 ; .1 univerfity there, founded by queen Chriftina, II. ib. Academy of Sciences at St. Peterfburgh, account of, 11. 108—13$; origin and eitablifhmcnt of, 108, 109 ; patronized by the prefent emprefs, 110 ; inftru&ions to the travelling members, ib.; its rapid improvements, 1 u j Tranfactions publifhed under different titles, 112; members, 113; origin of the library, 114; account of valuable books there, ib.; great number of Chinefe books, 115; mufeum with the fluffed beafts, 116, 117; cabinet of natural hiflory, 117; various ores, 122; anatomical cabinet, 123; chamber of rarities, 124; Calmuc or Mongol idols, 129; collection of Ruffian and Eaflem coins, ib.—132; waxen figure of Peter the Great, and feveral other memorials of that monarch, 132 ; globe of Gottorp, 134, 135 ; their hiftorical journal, 178. Academy of Arts at ditto, account of, 136—138 ; its inflitution and regulations, 136, 137 ; caufe of the flow progrefs made by the fociety, 138. Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, its inflitution, Admiralty, Ruffian, defcription of, II. 207. Adrian, the laft Ruffian patriarch, I. 281. Agriculture, or Free Oeconomical Society at Peterfburgh, account of, II. 138—141 ; inflitution, with the emprefs's letter of approbation, 138; meetings, tranfaclions, and annual prizes, 139, 14b. See Catharine II. Aland, Ifles of, 11. Z96. Alexander Nevjki, St. his anmverfary, account of, I. 241;. Alexander, luccceds his brother John Albert in Pohnd, I. 6; limitations of the fovereign authority agreed to by him, ib. Alexander, ftcond fon of John Sobiefki, his generous rcfiifal of the crown of Poland when offered him by Chatles XII. I. 173. AUxy Orlof, count, his houfe at Mofcow, and nianner of living, I. 249; his Armenian attendant, 2^0 ; his country houfe, and fine flud ofhorfts, 252, -53 i letter from him to lord 11-rbert, with a prefent of an Arabian horfe, AUx.y Michaelovitch, father of Peter the Great, defeffjptipQ of h vereignty of Poland, I. 2. Leftof, fome account of, II. 5. Liberum Veto, introduced in the reign of John Cafimir, I.9; explained, 87; firft introduced by Sjch iki, nuntioof Upita in Lithuania, 88 ; probable caufes of its cflablifhment, ib.; its fatal effects, 90; none but nuntios enjoy thin privilege, 91; manner of preventing its bad confequences, ib. Linneeus, Charles, Dr. Pulteney's account of the Amcenitates Academical, publifhed by him, If. 381; biographical memoirs of, 395; his early propenfity to botany, ib. 396; occafion ofhis turning his thoughts to the ftudy of infeds, 397 ; is patronized by Olaus Celfius and Olaus Rudbeck, 398; lent to Lapland to inveftigate its natural hillory, 399; takes his doctor's degree at Harderwic in Guelderland, and discovers an impofition in natural hiftory at Hamburgh, 401 ; made fuperintendant of the botanical garden at Hartcamp, 402 ; his marriage, 403 ; founds the Royal Academy of Sciences, and is made profeffor of botany, 404 ; refufes invitations of feveral foreign courts, 406; travels of his fcholars, 407; his death, ib,; Fabricius's account of his private life, 409 —412 ; his perfon and character, 412, 413. Linnaus, Samuel, called Bi-Kung, or King of the Bees, 396. Linnarus, Charles, jun. h's death, II. 413. Literature) the flow progrefs of the Ruffians in, not owing to want of genius or the coldnefs of the climate, II. 167, 168; rife and progrefs of, 169, 170. See Vladimir, ^ Lithuania, when and by whom united to Poland, 1,190—192 : wild bealls in the forefls of, 193 ; 4 D natural natural productions found there, 195; manufactures there, 196; which are greatly ob-ftrufled by the fervitude of the peafantry, 197 ; S: e Jews. Extreme badnefs of the roads, zo1 ; See Turpentine. Manner of harncffing horfes to the carriages, 206. Great difficulty in travelling, ib.; miferable condition of the peafants, their drefs, and hats, 208 ; comparifon between them and the Swifs peafants, ib. Little Grandfire, a four-oared boat preferved with great care in the fortrefs of Ruflia, hiftory of, L 471—476; another four-oared boat of Peter the Firfl's own making, crroneoufly called fo, 476. Lomonozof See Poets, Long. Dr. his account of his large fphere erected at Pembroke Ci.ltege, Cambridge, II. 135. Louis, king of Hungary, fucceeds his uncle Cafi- mir the Great in Poland, but is obliged to fign fome conce fiions, I. 4. Louifa Ulrica, queen-dowager of Sweden, her death, II. 30;. Louifa, a town on the Gulph of Bothnia, II, 289. Lowilz. See Pugatchef. Lukawjki. See Pulajki. His manly behaviour at his execution, I. 33. Luke, St. conjecture concerning the tradition of his being a painter, I. 278. Lund, Royal Philosophical Society at, II. 458. M<*ler lake, defcription of, II. 443, Magnus, titular king of Livonia, fome account of, I. 320, 321, Mangujhiak, a Tartar port in the Cafpian Sea, II. 243. Margaret of Valdemar, queen of Denmark, fome account of, II. 572 ; fingular circumftances to which fhe owed her birth, 573; unites the three Northern kingdoms, 574; her death, , S7S- Maria, fifler of Peter the Great, imprifoned at Schu-fll!burgh, I. 491. ■ 1 titular queen of Livonia, fome account of, with her pedigree from Ivan Vaflilievitch the Firfl, I. 319, 320; herdcath, 322. Marianopoli, a new-raifed town on the fea of Azof, H. 257. Marie de la Grange, queen of John Sobiefki, her character, I. 165; her family, 168; oppofes the election of her eldeft fon James Louis, 169 ; her fpeech to a meeting of fenators and nun-tios in her own apartment, 170; her death, iff* Marriages, remarks on the tax on in Denmark, II, t;cz. See Peafants. Matilda, queen of Denmark, her affecting behaviour on parting from her daughter, II. 475 ; her death, 476. Matthai, Chriftian Frederic, fome account of, J. 30; his catalogue of the Greek manti-fcripts in the library of the Holy Synod, 306 ; Hymn to Ceres difcovered by him, 307—309. Mattocks, Mr. proprietor of the Vauxhall at Mofcow, I. 256, 6 Maximilian I. gives the title of emperor to Vsf- fili Ivanovitch, I. 298. Medjhetifar, a Perfian port on the Cafpian Sea, II. 242. Melon, delicious fpecies of, brought from Aftracan to Mofcow, I. 255. MenKikof, prince, his ingratitude to Anne of Holftein, I.464; lownefs of his origin, 479; firft called Alexafca, or Little Alexander, ib.; his fervile obedience to Peter the Firft, ib. ; was greatly in favour with him and Catharine the Firft, 480 ; his fall and death, 481 ; fum-mary account of his family, 4K3. See Catharine I. Merchants, Burghers, &c origin of that body in Ruffia, II. 96 ; divided into three cl iffes, ib, ; their conditional exemption from the poll-tax, 97 j good effefls of that regulation, ib.; their manner of reckoning, 99. Michael Feodorcvitch, firft fovereign of the houfe of Romanof, fome account of, L 271 ; affifted with troops by Charles I. againfl Ladiflaus king of Poland, 296. Micijlaus 11. fourth fovereign of Poland of the line of Piall, I. 3. Mikaulka, a villa of count Peter Panin, I. 2^4, Military dignity in Ruffia, privileges annextd io, with various methods of attaining it, II, 90. Militia. See Sweden. Mines, Ruffian, account of, II. 261 — 267. See Kolyvan, Herjh'mjk, Olomtx, Uralian Mountains. Thofe belonging to individuals, 206.; annual produce to government, 267. Miff', a town in Lithuania, I. 203, Mir, a miferable village in Lithuania, I, 202. Mirowitz. See VaJJili Mirovitch. Mold, count, his collection of pictures, flie I Is, &c. II. 484. Monafteries, many in Ruflia fuppreffed, II, 91-remark thereon, ib. Monaftery of the Holy Trinity at Mofcow, I. 315. 31S; an imperial palace and nine large churches enclofed in the walls, 318; tombs of illuftrious perfons in the principal one, 319, Money, Ruflian, ftate of, I. 470; the practice of hiding it common in Ruflia, and why, II. 105. Monplaifir, a favourite retreat of Peter the Firft, defcribed, I. 486. Mans, See Catharine I. Montefquicu and Le Clerc, their obfervations o* the third eftate of inhabitants in Ruflia, II. 97. Morafteen, place of enthronement of the antient Swedifh kings, IT. 392—394. Mofcow (called by the natives Mofkva), origin and hiftory of, I. 231 ; taken by Tamerlane, 232; firft defcription and engraving of, 23c; is flill the mofl populous city in the empire, ib.; its latitude and longitude, ib.; nu.nber of houfes and inhabitants, 234; irregularity of the buildings, 235 ; is divided into five parts,, jb. See Kremlin, Khitaigorod, Bielgorod, Semlaiuogorod, Slohoda, Coachmen and pof-tilions, their manner of feeding their horfes, 338 ; and of driving in the ftreets, ib.; the emprcfe'a rtmprelVs pa'ace there defcribed, 239, 240; Vauxhall there, 256; number of churches, 258; defcription of the molf antient, ib.—260; weight and dimenfions of the great bell [in the cathedral, 26] ; broke by a fall, ib.; account of the Foundting-hofpica', 312—315; road from that city to Petefburgh defcribed, 390; manner of forming it, ib ; remaikable gateway there, II. 222. Mnfkva, river, I. 2 to. Motraye. See Charles XII. Mountain for Sledges, or Flying Mountain, at Peterhof. defcribed, I. 387. Muller, Gerard Frederic, lome account of, I. 243 — 245 ; his account of the election of Peter the Greac, 357—359; his conjectures concerning the tombs found in Siberia, II. 125-—128. »——— Dr. Otto Frederic, his writings on natural hiftory, II. 523. Munich, count, biographical anecdotes of, II. 53—57 ; learnt the art of war under Marlborough and Eugene, 53; enters into the fervice of Peter the Grear, £4; is made prime minifter by the emprefs Anne, ib; imprifoned at Pelim in Siberia by the emprefs Elizabeth, 55 ; re leafed by Peter the Third, 56 ; his death, 57. Mujhrooms, exceedingly common in Ruffia, I. 393- MujicalInjlruments, not ufed in the Greek church, il. 275. Nan/en. See Svane. Navlnick, a curious fpecies of apple in the neighbourhood of Mofcow, I. 255. Navy, Ruffian, lilt of in 1778, fi. 211; circumftances which letard the progrefs of, 211. 21 3. Nerpinjk, account of the fdver mines there, II. Z64, 265. Neftor. See Hifterians, Neva, river, defcription of, I. 418; model and dimenfions of a wooden bridge over, made by a Ruffian peafant, 422, 423. See Kuliban, Table of its freezing and thawing for five years, 429; winter amufements on, 433— 43 475 5 'he houfe he lived in whillt the fortrefs of Peteriburgh was building, defcribed, 476 ; fometimes performed himfelf the cffice cf executioner on traitors, 480; his reafons for excluding his fon from the throne, 513; his note to counts Romar.zof and Tohtoi, who brought that prince from Naples, 524. See Falconet. His civilization of his fuV.-cts very incomplete, II. 8:, 8 . See Sacred Synod, Aeadtmy of Science). Ills gieat attention 10 X the navy, 226; boat made by him preferved in the arfenal at Stockholm, 323, Peter II. his grandfon, fome account of, I. 273. See p. 52c. Peter III. fome account of, II. i-—27 ; is appointed grand-duke, 2 ; marries Sophia Au-gufla of Anhalt-Zerbft, ib.; fixes his refidence at Oranienbaum, with his manner of amufing himfelf there, 3, 4; intrigues of count Befiuchef to exclude him from the fucceflion, 4 ; Peter's acceflion, 5 ; makes peace with the king of Pruflia, 6 ; difobliges the clergy, army, and nobles, 7, 8 ; his ridiculous admiration of the king of Pruflia, 8 ; who gives him the moft falutary advice, 9 ; his inconliffent behaviour to his confort, 10; his blindnefs and infatuation, 13; his irrefolute behaviour on heing informed of the revolution in favour of the emprefs, 19; fails to Cronfladt, zo ; where he is refufed admittance, 21 ; retires to Oranienbaum, 22 ; and fubmits to the emprefs, 2c ; form of his abdication, ib. ; his death, 27. See Catharine II. Holflein Guards. Ivan. 1m-poftors who affumed his name, 97, 58. Peterhof palace and gardens of, defcribed, I. 485—488. Pettrjburgh, St. pleafantnefs of the road near that city, I. 411 ; its latitude and longitude, and divifions, ib. 412; hiftory of, 415; imperial feat transferred to, in lefs than nine years, 416; buildings there, why miftaken for ftone, 417 ; houfes of the nobility, 418 ; average population, 419; fubject to inundations, 420; dreadful one in 1777 defcribed, ib. ; moveable bridge over the Neva, 421. See Peter the Great, Statue of Peter the Great, 424; infeription placed on it by the emprefs's direction, 426. See Falconet. Manner of removing the pedeflal, ib.; and its dimenfions, 427; the emprefs's court defcribed, 427—443 ; the Hermitage, 3 palace fo called, 448 ; including a winter and fummer garden, 449 ; theatrical diverfions in that city, 4150 ; comfortable manner in which the Englifh merchants live there, with the defcription of a club, 456; fortrefs, 457; cathedral of Sr. Peter and Paul, ib. ; illuilrious perfons buried there, ib. ; mint, 470; ftate of trade there in 1778, II. 231. See Little Grandjiri. Philaretes, patriarch of the Ruffian church, and father of the houfe of Romanof, fome account of, I. 279—282 ; his Ipirited anfwer to Sigifmond III. of Poland, 280; his death, 281. Piaji, fictions concerning him, I, 3. Piper, count, his death, I, 492. Plica Polonica, account of that difcafe, I. 209; i:s terrible fymptoms, ib, ; caufes of, 210. Ploen, capital of Holllein, its romantic fituation, II. 548. Poets, Ruffian, Lomonozof, fome account of, TT. 182. 194; called Father of Ruffian Poetry,1 83 ; his woiks, 184; Demenius Tooptolo, his Scripture hiilories in vcrfe, 18c. See Stage. Sumorokof, founder of the Ruflian flage, his education education and writings, 189. See p. 18;. His character, 192. Sue Feodor Volkof. Khe-rafkof, his Rofliada, the fint Ruflian epic poem, &c. 193. Foil-tax, perfons exempted from it in Ruflia, II. 96. 100. 202, 203 ; produce of, 203, Pood, a Ruflian weight, what, II. 262. Poland, Angular advantage in writing the hiftory of, I. 2 ; its fovcreigns ufually ranged in four c!afles,thc firft of which, under the houfe of Lef-ko, is entirely fabulous, ib.; the fecond, under that of Pialt, has an air of romance, though the native kings are ftill called by that name, 3 ; date of the authenticity of the Polifh annals, ib. ; different opinions concerning the fecond epoch reconciled, ib. ; beginning of the third period, 4; the fourth period begins, when hereditary right was formally abrogated, 7 ; proofs of that country being more free when the fovereign had more authority, 11 ; hardly poflible it Ihould ever emerge from its prefent fituation, 13; account of the partitioning of Poland, 39—52 ; which was firft projected by the king of Pruflia, 41 ; and acceded to by the emperor, 42 ; and the emprefs of Ruflia, 43 ; the partition treaty figned at Peterfburgh, ib. myflerious conduct of the three courts, 44; the king fummons a diet to ratify the partition, 45 ; which, after great oppofition, is finally agreed to, ib; fpirited oppofition to the innovations propofed by the ambafladors of the three courts, 45 ; which are at laft agreed to, coj changes in the conftitution peremptorily propofed by thofe minifters, ib. See King of Poland. Annual receipts and difburfements before the difmemberment, 96; by which near half the income of Poland was loft, ib.; principal taxes, 97, 98; prefent flate of the public revenue, 99 ; commerce of Poland, with the caufes which prevent its being carried to any confiderable extent, ib. 100. See Not ex. Military eftablilhment, 102. See Ulans, Their fine breed of horfes almoft ruined, 103. See Great Generals. State of the army, 1778, ib.; wretched ftate of that country, 106, 107; divifion of the inhabitants, 107. See Bufching, Feudal Syftem, Au-ftrian Poland, Printing, State of literature, 178 1 caufes of the defeats in the police, 180; laws relating to debtors, i 83. roles, their mode* of falutation and drefs, I. 143, 144 ; are unqueftionably defcended from Tartar anceftors, 144; prevalency of the Latin tongue amongft them, 156. Pobjh Monarchy, the caufes from which it funk fom being nearly abfolute, to an almoft total ariftocracy, I. 2—10. Fanintoivjkii prince, his garden, T. 154; rotunda, with the elegant entertaiument there, r56. population, fketch of, in Ruffia, II. 199—200 ; increafe of, proved, 200 ; moft accurately afcertained in Sweden, 35O; tables for that purpofe, 351, 352. Poft-horfes, difficulty of procuring in Ruffia, and and how to be remedied, I. 316. 395; their prices, 212. Poft-mofters, ludicrous miftake of Chanceler concerning them, I. 39c. Po'-uonfki. See Zartorifka. Printing, when introduced into Poland, T. 126; and by whom, 269. See Khitaigorod, Iceland, Prifoncrs, cafe of two confined for murdering a Jew, J. 182. Prifons, queries upon, delivered to the cmprefs, with her anfwers, II. 76—78 ; new plan for the regulation of, to be introduced into each government, 79, Pronchiffof See Carlijle. Prujfa, formerly belonged to the Teutonic knights, with the manner of its coming to Frederic III. whofe title was not acknowledged by the Poles till J764, I. 4% Pruth, peace of, I. 498. Pugatchef, See Yemelka, Pulafki, a general of the confederates, plans the defign of affaffinating the king, I. 27 ; efcapes from Poland, and is killed in the American fervice, 36 ; the weapons of the confpirators bleffed by the Pope's nuntio, ib, Quafs, a fermented liquor drunk in Ruffia, how made, I. 393. Quitkfilver, froze naturally at Krafnoyarfk upon the Yenisei, II. 149. Radxivill, prince, appointed marfhal of the Catholic confederacies in Poland, I. 21. Rain, average quantities at St. Peterfburgh and London, I. 428. Rank, fcarcely any diftinftion of, in Poland, but what is derived from the fervice of the fovereign, I. 84, Referendaries, who, I. 57. Regenfus, his curious conchology, II. 523. Reindeer, account of, II, 319. Religious eftablijhments, flate of, in Ruffia,.II. 92. Remix, or little titmoufe, and its nell, account of, J. 194. Retufari, ifland of, defcribed, II, 208. Revenue, ftate of, in Ruflia, II, 202; total amount of, 204. Rhinoceros, defciption of a dead one found in Siberia, II. 120—122. Ring/led* the church there the oldefl Chriftian temple in Denmark, 11. 538. Ritterholm, royal fepulchres of, II. 305, Roads, dillances mmked on pnfh from one town to another throughout Ruffia, I. 411. Rodolf II, comparison between him and Eric XIV. II. 387. Romanof fovcreigns of Ruffia of that family, I, 276. Rofkild, formerly the metropolis of Denmark, defcription of, II. czc. Rcjkolniki, er Separatifts, who, II. fo. Ruric, fovereigns of Mofcow of the houfe of, I. 27S» Rufia, Tver, capital of the duchy of that name, hiflory and do/'ripticn of, I. 377, 378; the new town burnt, ahd beautifully rebuilt by the prefent emprefs, 378; imperial endowments there, 379; its commerce, ib. ; increafing ftate of population, 380 ; productions of the neighbouring country, 382. See Sterlet. Turkifh Stas, account of the trade of, before the peace of 1774, II. 249—253. Turpentine, method of procuring it in the .forefls of Lithuania, I. 202. Tzar, meaning of that word, I. 298. Tzaricine, a villa erecting for the emprefs of Ruffia, I. 252. Valdai, lake and village, defcribed, I. 386. VaJJili Mirovitch, by attempting the lehef of prince Ivan, accelerates his death, II. 42—46 ; beheaded, 48. Villanoiv, the favourite refrdence of John Sobi- efki, defcription of, I. 163. Vijhnei Volcjhok, an imperial enfranchifed village, I. 385 ; advantages accruing to it from its en-franchfement, ib.; defcription of the canal, II. 268—272.. Ukraine, oxen drove from thence, 8co miles distance, to St. Peterfburgh, I. 389. Vladimir the Great introduced literature into Ruffia, II. 169. Vladimir Monomaka, founds the city of Mofcow, I. 231. Vladimir, once the metropolis of theempire, I. 232. Ulans, or light horfe, their drefs and weapons defcribed, I. 102. Ulrica Eleonora, declared queen of Sweden, and refigns in favour of her hufband the prince of Heife, fi. 228. Univerfity, imperial, at Mofcow. See Khitaigorod. Account of thole in Sweden, II. 316. Vola, or Wela, the practice of llationing a body of foreign troops near the plain of, has been adopted near a century, I. 15; feitled by the conftitution for the place of eleaion of the Polifh kings, 92 ; defcription of, ib. Volga, the largeft river in Europe, its rife, i. 379; its courfe, 381. See Don. Volkof, a mer in Ruffia, I. 404. Volkonjki foreft of, deicribed, I. 228 ; prince ot, hi« hofpitality, 243. Voltaire, his acccint of sophia A'exiefna, liable to the ftrnngeft objections. I. 354 ; his character cf [van Alievitch, ib. ; remarks on his life of Peter the Grea1, II. 1F0 181 ; h'-* own cenfure of that work, 181. See Charles Xll. Upfala, the antient metropolis of Sweden, defcription of, II. 363—394; palace of, 364; Eveiinus, an Englilhman, the firft bifhop of, 367 ; definption of the cathedral, 368 ; cu-riofities there, 375, 376 ; univerfity, 376; government and officers thereof, 377-*- 379 ; regulations and number o'f the fludents, 379, f8o f library, 481; account of the Codex Argenteus, a M:?. 01 the UofpeU in liKer letters, 382—387 ; two MSS. of Eric XIV. 387 j a curious cabinet of ebony and cyprefs, 388 ; of the Royal Society there, and its publications, 291, 392 ; botanical garden, 394* Uralian Mountains, account of the copper founderies, II. 260. Wallerius, profeffor, account of his writings, II, 415—418. Warfavs, defcription of that city, I. rco; palace, 152 ; la Maifon de Bain, defcription of, 153 ; c ins, 177 ; public library, 178 ; gene-ral adminiflration of juftice, 180. Weather at Peterfburgh, account of, 428—432, Wenner, lake, the largeft in Sweden, IE. Wefleros, defcription of, II. 435. Wexio, a bifhopric in Sweden, 461. Wiburgh, the capital of Ruffian Finland, account of, If. 285. Wielitfka, defcription' of the falt-mines there, I. 144—148; manner of defcending into them, 144; dimenfions of, 146; curiolities there, 146, 147. M iemefk, fumptuous entertainment given by him on the marriage of the emperor Charles the Sixth, I. 112. Wild Ox of Lithuania, account of, I. 193. Wooden ftreets and roads, I. 223. 231. 390. Yaik river, its name changed, and why, II. 59. Yamjhics. See Pofi-mafiers. Exempt from ihe poll-tax and military fervice, If. ico. Yemelka Pugatchef, his hiflory, II. 59—68 ; hii origin, to; affumes the character of Peter the Third, ib 61 ; to whom he had not the left refemblance, 62 ; makes an ineffectual afiault upon Yaitfk', ib.; befieges Orenburgh, which is faved by the garrifon of Krafnogoifk, 63 ; his hypocrify, 64 ; his barbarities at the fiege of Orenburgh, and other excefles, ib. ; is completely routed by prince Galitzin, 65 ; is compelled to raife the fiege of Cafan, and again routed by colonel M chaelfon, 66 ; his wanton cruelty to the aftronomer Lowitz, 67 ; is deferted by his followers, and given up to general Savorrf's army, 68; executed, ib.; the emprefs's lenity to his followers, ib. Young, Arthur, Efq; elected member of the agriculture fociety at Peterfburgh, 11. 140. Zamoijki, enfranchifes fix villages in Mafovia, I. 116; increafe of population thereon, 117; and of the value of the eftate, ib. ; the anfwer of the flaves to him on his figning the deed of enfranchifment, ib. ; he enfranchifes all his flaves, his example followed by others, ib. Zaporogian Coffacs, their origin, II. 254; their government abolifhed, 256. Zartorifka, princefs, defcription of her villa at fovinllti, I. 157; of the bathroom, 158; account of an enchanting fete champctre there, l TC), 160. Zealand, ifland of, defcribed, II. 536. FINIS. r^^:^4|-f# 4+ 4* -4* *.. \ *. :'.".*................ ..*'••••••• • • • • •......• • • • •...........• .'•«•.%.••• -** -t* -i» -<« -<* ♦ • ■ ■ . f :!.•;..;; :\:' • 11 ' M '.....................' 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