90 Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, ISSN 1318-2269 
Joca Zurc
1*
Rado Pišot
1, 2
Vojko Strojnik
3
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MOTOR 
PERFORMANCE IN 6.5-YEAR-OLD 
CHILDREN 
RAZLIKE MED SPOLOMA 
V MOTORIČNI UČINKOVITOSTI 
PRI ŠEST IN POL LETNIH OTROCIH
Abstract
The aim of the research was to study gender differences 
in the results of motor tests performed by 6.5-year-old 
boys and girls. The sample of 138 healthy children 
was measured by selected motor tests that cover the 
following hypothetical dimensions of motor abilities: 
movement coordination, speed, strength, and balance. 
Gender differences in individual motor tests were 
tested using the Student's t-test for independent sam-
ples. Statistically significant gender differences were 
observed in backward walking through hoops, polygon 
backwards, standing broad jump, triple jump, and the 
flamingo balance test on a block lying longitudinally. 
The established gender differences in performance of 
the selected motor tests may be due to different reasons. 
As this research did not deal with these reasons in 
greater detail, the explanation of the obtained results 
has to take into consideration the previous findings 
relating to innate, biological explanations as well as ex-
planations of various stimuli from the environment for 
motor and sporting activities, which are reflected in the 
social impact and/or different upbringing of girls and 
boys. It can be concluded that main gender differences 
in motor performance in 6.5 years old children existed 
in coordination and strength tests, while in balance and 
speed the differences were not significant.
Key words: motor abilities, motor tests, gender 
differences, children
1  
Institute of Kinesiology Research, 
University of Primorska, Slovenia
2  
Faculty of Education, Koper, University 
of Primorska, Slovenia
3 
Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Izvleček
Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti razlike med spoloma v 
izbranih motoričnih testih med 6.5-letnimi deklicami 
in dečki. Z motoričnimi testi, ki so pokrivali hipote-
tične dimenzije motoričnih sposobnosti koordinacijo 
gibanja, hitrost, moč in ravnotežje smo izmerili 138 
zdravih otrok. Razlike med deklicami in dečki v po-
sameznih motoričnih testih smo ugotavljali s t-testom 
za neodvisne vzorce. Značilne razlike med spoloma 
so bile ugotovljene pri testih hoja skozi obroče nazaj, 
poligon nazaj, skok v daljino z mesta, troskok in stoja 
na ležečem kvadru vzdolžno. Dobljene razlike med 
spoloma v izvedbi izbranih motoričnih testov je možno 
pripisati različnim vzrokom. Ker v raziskavi nismo 
natančneje preučevali tovrstnih vzrokov na preučevani 
skupini merjencev, je potrebno pri razlaganju dobljenih 
rezultatov imeti v mislih tako dosedanja spoznanja na 
področju prirojenih, bioloških razlag, kot na drugi stra-
ni tudi na področju razlag različnih vzpodbud iz okolja 
za gibalno in športno udejstvovanje, ki se odražajo 
preko socialnega vpliva oziroma različne vzgoje deklic 
in dečkov. Lahko zaključimo, da obstajajo poglavitne 
razlike med spoloma v motoričnih sposobnostih pri 6.5 
letnih otrocih v testih koordinacije in moči, medtem ko 
razlike v testih ravnotežja in hitrosti niso značilne.
Ključne besede: motorične sposobnosti, motorični 
testi, razlike med spoloma, otroci
* Corresponding author: 
Institute of Kinesiology Research, Science 
and Research Centre of Koper
University of Primorska
Garibaldijeva 18, SI-6000 Koper, Slovenia
Tel.: +386 5 6637729
Fax: + 386 5 6637710
E-mail: joca.zurc@zrs-kp.si
 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–104 (2005)

Gender differences in motor performance of children 91 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–105 (2005)
INTRODUCTION
The child's development in individual areas of her/his psychosomatic status can be divided into 
several development phases. The motor development of a 6.5-year-old child is at the level of a 
mature stage of the fundamental movement phase (Gallahue, 1982; Gallahue & Ozmun, 2002). 
At that level, basic locomotor, stability and manipulative movements are becoming more and 
more complex and differentiated, and begin to combine into more complex forms of movement 
activities. Movement is based on the use and combination of basic moves performed when 
carrying out skills required for various sports activities (Tancig, 1987).
Several researchers pointed out two major groups of factors that influence the child's development 
and account for gender differences in results of motor tasks: biological or hereditary factors 
(body dimensions, anatomical structure, physiological functions) and social factors (Haywood & 
Getchell, 2001; Hottinger, 1983; Malina, 1983a, 1983b; Zaichkowsky, Zaichkowsky, & Martinek, 
1980). Social factors influence the ty pe and intensity of physical activity of children (Darlison, 
2000; Eaton & Enns, 1986; Gavarry, Giacomoni, Bernard, Seymat, & Falgairette, 2003; Levy & 
Hobbes, 1979; Pomerleau, Bolduc, Malcuit, & Cossette, 1990) and may therefore contribute to 
d i fferences i n t hei r motor per for ma nce. The i mpac t of hered it y does not cea se at bi r t h, but la st s 
the entire life, while the impact of the milieu does not occur at birth, but affects already the 
embryo. When interpreting the development of motor abilities of girls and boys, one has to take 
into account both groups of factors, their intertwinement and co-influence.
Numerous studies revealed that during early childhood the child's motor abilities improve with 
age (Arceneaux, Hill, Chamberlin, & Dean, 1997; Benefice, Fouere, & Malina, 1999; Butterfeld, 
Lehnhard, & Coladarci, 2002; Davies & Rose, 2000; T oriola & Igbokwe, 1986). Only a few studies, 
however, attempted to establish differences in motor abilities between boys and girls during 
this development phase. According to them, early childhood is a period when the first gender 
differences can be observed between girls and boys performing the same motor tasks. During 
early childhood, boys achieve better scores in the majority of motor tests. Considerable differences 
were observed in particular in the tests of strength (Backman, 1988; Benefice et al., 1999), speed 
(Benefice et al., 1999; T oriola & Igbokwe, 1986) and coordination (Levy & Hobbes, 1979). Davies 
and Rose (2000) established that gender differences between girls and boys obtained through 
the application of motor tests of strength existed mainly in the performance of jumps in which 
the greatest difference between the two sexes was established in favour of boys. Similar results 
were also obtained by Toriola and Igbokwe (1986) in a sample consisting of 341 3-to-5-year-old 
Nigerian children. Research on preschool children (Pišot, 2000) also showed that boys scored 
higher than girls in jumping tests (e.g. high jump, broad jump). They are characterized by the 
fastest kinetic chain performance, which is mostly depended on the muscle volume, the structure 
of muscle fibres and appropriate inter- and intra-muscle activation characterized by high firing 
frequency (Desmedt & Godaux, 1977) and proximal-distal sequence (Bobbert & van Ingen 
Schenau, 1988). All these factors exert influence upon the rapid development of the muscle 
force, which is one of the most important factors of the jump length from the bio-mechanical 
point of view. A number of studies dealing with the latent structure of the child’s motor space 
classified jumping tests under the explosive strength factor, with some of them (Rajtmajer, 
1993; Strel & Šturm, 1981; Zimmer & Volkamer, 1984) mentioning also the take-off strength. In 
preschool children, the factor can be observed in both sexes (Kurelić, Momirović, Stojanović, 
Šturm, Radojević & Viskić-Štalec, 1975; Rajtmajer, 1993; Strel & Šturm, 1981). The researchers 

92 Gender differences in motor performance of children Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–104 (2005) 
also pointed out gender differences related to its structure. In girls, the jumps appeared at the 
latent dimension in relation to the motor tasks whose realization depended on different forms 
of movement coordination, whereas in boys, they appeared in relation to the motor tasks whose 
vital element was the performance speed or, in other words, the development of large quantity 
of force per time unit. In girls, the performance of jumping tests was most strongly depended on 
the cognitive component, whereas in boys the most influential factor was the energy component 
(Conzelmann, 1994; Gaschler, 1994; Pišot, 1999, 2000; Rajtmajer, 1993; Roth & Winter, 1994; 
Scheid, 1994; Schmidtblecher, 1994).
From the youngster's age of seven to that of twelve, gender differences diminish, whereas later 
on boys' abilities increase rapidly up to the age of seventeen, while those of girls remain at the 
level reached around the age of twelve (DeOreo & Keogh, 1983). In balance tests, only minor 
differences were established between the two sexes in the preschool period. Balance ability 
showed constant development and, in contrast to other abilities, there occurred no significant 
gender differences between girls and boys (DeOreo & Keogh, 1983; Toriola & Igbokwe, 1986).
In the Maribor region, significant differences in attending sport activities were observed 
between girls and boys whose average age was 6.4 years (Planinšec, 2003). Sports were chosen 
in accordance with the expected gender specificity. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to 
establish whether these gender differences are reflected in motor abilities in 6.5-year-old children 
from the selected region as well.
METHOD
Participants
The sample consisted of 70 girls and 68 boys who were 6.5 (SD = 3 days) years of age on the day 
testing was performed. The subjects were randomly chosen, based on a selection of health records 
of 6.5-year-old children liv ing in t he Cit y Municipa lit y of Maribor. The sample of subjects was 
representative of the population of 6.5-year-old children from the Maribor region, one of the 
largest in the Republic of Slovenia.
The t e s t s we re p e r for me d on l y by c h i ld re n w ho we re c omple t e l y he a lt hy. The c h i ld re n t h at f a i le d 
to finish all the tests were excluded. Testing took place in the paediatric dispensary of the Health 
Centre of Maribor in 1994. Before being tested, children had performed warm-up exercises under 
the control of test supervisors. Measurement was done by students of the Faculty of Education 
of the University of Maribor, who had undergone special training and were supervised by the 
faculty staff. Each test was performed three times, and only the best score was included in data 
analysis.
Instruments 
Analyzed motor tests covered the following hypothetical motor abilities: movement coordina-
tion, speed, strength and balance (Pišot, 1999; Rajtmajer, 1991; Rajtmajer & Proje, 1989). The 
tests’ reliability and the validity of the tests were verified elsewhere (Rajtmajer & Proje, 1990; 

Gender differences in motor performance of children 93 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–105 (2005)
Strel, 1982; Videmšek & Cemič, 1991; Zimmer & Volkamer, 1984) and established as adequate 
for the study of motor abilities in children.
Three different motor tests were employed for each of the included motor abilities in order 
to achieve higher reliability of generalizations from the obtained results related to individual 
dimensions of motor abilities. Movement coordination was tested by the application of polygon 
backwards (PB), backward walking through hoops (BWH) and crawling with a ball (CB); speed 
by the application of hand plate tapping (HPT2), 4-disc hand plate tapping (HPT4) and foot 
plate tapping (FPT); explosive strength by the application of standing broad jump (SBJ), triple 
jump (TJ) and high jump (HJ); and balance by the application of the flamingo balance tests on 
a block lying longitudinally (FBLL), on a block lying transversally (FBLT) and on a standing 
block (FBS).
Procedure
When performing polygon backwards, the subject got down on all fours, with her/his hands 
just behind the starting line and her/his back turned towards the finish line. After the starting 
signal, the subject began moving backwards on all fours as quickly as possible. First, s/he had 
to go through the first hoop, and then s/he had to crawl across the mat. When her/his head had 
been through the second hoop, the task was completed. The distance between the starting line 
and the first hoop, as well as between the mat and the preceding and following hoops, was 1 
metre. The score was the time passed from the starting signal to the moment the subject's head 
had passed through the last hoop.
Backward walking through hoops required from the subject to move on all fours – with her/his 
back towards the finish line – through three hoops set between the starting and finishing lines. 
The distance between the starting line and the first hoop, as well as between the individual hoops, 
was 1 metre. The score was the time passed from the starting signal to the moment the subject's 
head had passed through the last hoop. 
When tested in crawling with a ball, the subject began by lying behind the starting line with a 
ball 16 cm in diameter in one of her/his hands and pressed to her/his body. After the starting 
signal, s/he started to crawl and had to hold the ball tightly in her/his hand, as the ball could 
not be rolled along the floor. The task was completed when the subject had crawled a 4-metre 
distance. The score was the time passed from the starting signal to the moment the subject had 
crawled over the finishing line with her/his whole body. 
When performing hand plate tapping, the subject was sitting at a table on which there was a 
plate with two discs, each 20 cm in diameter. The centre points of the discs were 40 cm apart. 
After the administrator's signal, the subject started to move her/his dominant hand back and 
forth between the two discs, as quickly as possible, over the hand in the middle, which had to 
remain stationary during the whole test. Each touch of both discs scored 1 point. If the subject 
failed to touch a disc, the repetition did not count. The score was the number of points achieved 
in 20 seconds.
Four-disc plate tapping was carried out in a similar way. The subject had to move her/his dominant 
hand clockwise for 20 seconds and touch the four discs as many times as possible. The discs were 

94 Gender differences in motor performance of children Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–104 (2005) 
20 cm in diameter, with their centre points 40 cm apart. Again, the score was the total number 
of taps on all four discs. 
When performing foot plate tapping, the subject had to be in a sitting position, moving her/his 
preferred foot back and forth between the two discs lying on the floor as quickly as possible. 
The discs were 20 cm in diameter, with their centre points 35 cm apart. The non-preferred foot 
was left aside. The result was the number of points achieved in 20 seconds, with the tap of both 
discs scoring 1 point.
When performing the standing broad jump, the subject was standing on the mat behind the 
take-off line. Swinging both her/his arms, s/he took off with both her/his feet and tried to jump 
as far as possible. The score was the jump length measured from the take-off line to the nearest 
point of contact on the landing mat.
The triple jump consisted of three successive jumps with both feet. Before taking off, the subject 
had to stand behind the take-off line. All three take-offs and landings had to be performed with 
both feet, with no intermediate stops or steps. The jump length was the distance between the 
take-off line and the nearest point of contact on the landing area. 
When being tested in the high jump, the subject was standing sideways by the wall. S/he stretched 
her/his arm to touch the gauge. The distance from the floor to the subject's point of contact was 
the height reached. Swinging her/his arms, the subject jumped with both feet upwards and 
touched the gauge once again. The distance from the floor to the point of contact with the gauge 
was the jumping height. The score was the difference between the jumping height and the height 
reached.
When performing the flamingo balance tests on a block lying longitudinally or transversally or 
on a standing block, the subject had to stand on one leg and remain balanced as long as possible 
on the wooden block of set dimensions (10 x 6 x 6cm) placed in a certain position (standing, 
lying, transversal, longitudinal). The other leg was bent backwards. The score was the time passed 
from the moment the subject had released her/his hold on the administrator, who helped her/him 
obtain her/his balance, to the moment her/his leg had touched the floor.
Basic statistical parameters were calculated for all variables. The normality of the distribution of 
results was tested with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (two-way testing of statistical significance 
was employed). All variables that were not normally distributed were normalized before further 
analysis. The reliability of measurement of individual motor tests was verified separately for 
girls and boys by using Cronbach's α coefficient. Statistical significance of gender differences in 
individual motor tests was tested using the Student's t-test for independent samples (5% two-sided 
alpha error). 

Gender differences in motor performance of children 95 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–105 (2005)
RESULTS
The obtained values of the α coefficient for individual tests classified according to sex are shown 
in Table 1. 
Table 1: Reliability of applied motor tests in boys and in girls
Variables Sex Cronbach α coefficient
PB(s)
Boys 0.908
Girls 0.846
BWH (s)
Boys 0.866
Girls 0.851
CB (s)
Boys 0.873
Girls 0.903
HPT2 (No. of repetitions)
Boys 0.847
Girls 0.842
HPT4 (No. of repetitions) 
Boys 0.763
Girls 0.780
FPT (No. of repetitions) 
Boys 0.809
Girls 0.843
SBJ (cm)
Boys 0.817
Girls 0.791
TJ (cm)
Boys 0.825
Girls 0.717
HJ (cm)
Boys 0.809
Girls 0.783
FBLL (s)
Boys 0.752
Girls 0.679
FBLT (s)
Boys 0.864
Girls 0.700
FBS (s)
Boys 0.818
Girls 0.788
Legend: 
PB polygon backwards
BWH backward walking through hoops
CB crawling with a ball
HPT2 hand plate tapping
HPT4 four-disc hand plate tapping
FPT foot plate tapping
SBJ standing broad jump
TJ triple jump
HJ high jump
FBLL flamingo balance tests on a block lying longitudinally 
FBLT flamingo balance tests on a block lying transversally
FBS flamingo balance tests on a standing block
Table 1 shows that the reliability of measurement of all motor tests applied was sufficient enough 
for both girls and boys, since Cornbach's α coefficient ranged between 0.75 and 0.91 for boys, 
and between 0.68 and 0.90 for girls. The applied motor tests proved more reliable for boys, as 
in ten tests out of twelve the achieved Cronbach's α coefficient exceeded 0.80. For girls, there 
were five such tests. The lowest reliability of measurement was perceived in girls in the flamingo 

96 Gender differences in motor performance of children Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–104 (2005) 
balance test on a block lying longitudinally (0.68) and the flamingo balance test on a block lying 
transversally (0.70). In these cases the reliability of the measurement of motor skills of balance 
of the tested group of girls is moderate and therefore still acceptable. The indicated data show 
that the applied tests were adequately consistent for the implementation of measurement in the 
selected age group of subjects and concur with the findings of previous research, attesting to a 
high reliability of measurement of motor tests applied in preschool children (Planinšec, 1995; 
R ajt m aje r & P roje , 19 9 0 ; Vid e m š e k & C e m ič , 19 91) . The obt a i ne d s t a nd a rd d e v i at ion s (s e e Ta ble 
2) testify to an adequate measurement sensitivity of selected motor tests in both boys and girls.
Table 2: Basic statistics and gender difference testing using motor tests
Variables Sex M SD Skewness P (K-S) t p (t)
PB(s)
Boys 9.434 1.808 -0.092 0.725
-2.535 0.012
Girls 10.203 1.755 -0.047 0.726
BWH (s)
Boys 9.412 2.307 0.478 0.748
-2.865 0.005
Girls 10.554 2.376 0.528 0.607
CB (s)
Boys 11.603 3.279 0.336 0.309
-1.428 0.156
Girls 12.419 3.427 0.108 0.341
HPT2 
(No. of repetitions)
Boys 26.588 4.869 -0.296 0.951
-0.947 0.345
Girls 27.344 4.485 -0.390 0.673
HPT4 
(No. of repetitions) 
Boys 13.456 2.554 -0.102 0.167
-0.331 0.741
Girls 13.614 3.037 1.498 0.009
FPT 
(No. of repetitions) 
Boys 22.044 3.739 0.391 0.261
-0.464 0.644
Girls 22.357 4.174 -0.732 0.560
SBJ (cm)
Boys 106.765 17.785 -0.281 0.871
2.529 0.013
Girls 99.700 14.947 0.006 0.879
TJ (cm)
Boys 319.897 35.043 0.387 0.361
2.172 0.032
Girls 305.729 41.254 -0.115 0.660
HJ (cm)
Boys 18.368 4.629 -0.560 0.254
1.131 0.260
Girls 17.543 3.915 -0.074 0.631
FBLL (s)
Boys 12.378 8.800 1.050 0.211
1.956 0.053
Girls 9.653 7.536 1.704 0.031
FBLT (s)
Boys 7.012 5.300 1.276 0.012
-0.048 0.962
Girls 7.053 4.827 1.399 0.017
FBS (s)
Boys 3.493 2.674 1.006 0.201
0.267 0.790
Girls 3.370 2.732 1.170 0.004
Legend (see also legend of Table 1): 
P (K-S) Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (two-way testing of statistical significance)
t – coefficient t-test for independent samples
p (t) statistical characteristic of the t-test for independent samples
Table 2 shows the average results of motor tests performed by girls and boys, standard deviations, 
and results of the Student's t-test. With the exception of the flamingo balance test on a block lying 

Gender differences in motor performance of children 97 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–105 (2005)
t ra nsversa l ly, t he resu lts of g irls a nd boys were norma l ly d ist ributed. The on ly dev iat ions f rom 
n o r m a l d i s t r i bu t i o n we r e r e c o r d e d b y g i r l s i n 4 - d i s c p l a t e t a p p i n g , t h e fl a m i n g o b a l a n c e t e s t o n a 
block lying longitudinally, and the flamingo balance test on a standing block. The asymmetry test 
revealed that all variables deviating from normal distribution were asymmetric to the right. 
A statistically significant difference between girls and boys appeared in backward walking through 
hoops, polygon backwards, standing broad jump, triple jump, and flamingo balance on a block 
lying longitudinally. Differences obtained in all other tests were statistically insignificant. 
The motor tests of polygon backwards and backward walking through hoops were performed 
better by boys, who needed 9.4 s (SD = 1.8 s) and 9.4 s (SD = 2.3 s), respectively, to crawl the 
required distance, whereas girls needed one second more in each test. Low values of standard 
deviation obtained in both tests indicate that the majority of subjects performed the tests in time 
periods shown in the column Arithmetic Mean. Gender differences in the results of the tests of 
backward walking through hoops and polygon backwards are statistically significant with an 
alpha error lower than 1% and 5%, respectively.
Statistically significant gender differences with 1% alpha error appeared in the standing broad 
jump test. The test was performed better by boys, who outdid the girls by as many as 7.1 cm.
Statistically significant gender differences with 3% alpha error also occurred in the triple jump. 
The average result by boys was 3.19 m (SD = 35.0 cm), whereas that of girls was 3.05 m (SD = 
41. 3 c m) . I nt e re s t i n g l y, b ot h s e x e s re c ord e d a h i g h s t a nd a rd d e v i at ion , w h ic h w a s s l i g ht l y h i g he r 
with girls, which points to a larger dispersion of the scores and a lesser representative value of 
the arithmetic means.
The flamingo balance test on a block lying longitudinally was carried out better by boys (P = 
0.030), who managed to keep the balance for 12.4 seconds on average, which was by 2.7 seconds 
longer than girls, whose average result was 9.7 seconds. Again, both sexes exhibited a very high 
standard deviation (8.8 s for girls and 7.5 s for boys), which indicates a large dispersion of the 
scores and, consequently, a lesser representative value of the arithmetic means.
There were no statistically significant gender differences in all other tests: crawling with a ball, 
high jump, hand plate tapping, 4-disc plate tapping, foot plate tapping, flamingo balance test on 
a standing block, and flamingo balance test on a block lying transversally. 
DISCUSSION
Statistically significant gender differences occurred in the tests of backward walking through 
hoops and polygon backwards, which cover the hypothetical dimension of movement coordina-
tion ability; in the tests of standing broad jump and triple jump, which cover the hypothetical 
dimension of strength ability; as well as in the results of the flamingo balance test on a block 
lying longitudinally, which covers the hypothetical dimension of balance ability. Boys surpassed 
girls in all these tests. There were no statistically significant gender differences in the follow-
ing tests: crawling with a ball, high jump, hand plate tapping, 4-disc plate tapping, foot plate 
tapping, flamingo balance test on a standing block, and flamingo balance test on a block lying 
transversally.

98 Gender differences in motor performance of children Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–104 (2005) 
Several authors (Benefice et al., 1999; Clapp, 1996; Eckert, 1973; Liebhardt, Sontheimer, & 
Linderkamp, 2000) support the idea that gender differences in growth and development are the 
main reason for the occurrence of gender differences in motor test performance. Gender differ-
ences occur predominantly as a result of biological factors, such as genetic base, body dimensions 
(growth, height, and constitution), body dimensions at birth (low birth weight and premature 
birth), growth and the quickness of maturation (Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or, 2004), In early 
childhood, there are minimum gender differences in motor development and, consequently, in 
motor tests (Malina et al., 2004). These differences become significant later, from the age of 10 
years on (Davies & Rose, 2000; Haywood & Getchell, 2001), when sexual maturation starts. 
In infants it is already possible to distinguish girls from boys according to their body movements, 
with explosive movements being more frequent among boys (Benenson, Liroff, Pascal, & Cioppa, 
1 9 9 7 ; K u j a w s k i & B o w e r , 1 9 9 3 ) . B o y s e n g a g e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y i n » m a s c u l i n e « m o v e m e n t a c t i v i t i e s 
(for instance, chasing, climbing, and wrestling) than girls from 3 to 18 months (Shirley, 2000).
Our research results lead to similar conclusions. The greatest gender differences were observed 
in the results of the motor tests of the standing broad jump, triple jump and high jump, which 
cover the hypothetical dimension of explosive strength ability. Boys scored higher in all these 
tests, with gender differences in the test results of the standing broad jump and triple jump 
being statistically significant. The results correspond to those obtained by Rajtmajer (1993), 
Schmidtblecher (1994) and Kurelić et al. (1975), who pointed out that the explosive strength tests 
revealed significant quantitative and qualitative gender differences. Similar conclusions were 
also reached by Pišot (1999, 2000), who, proceeding from research results and partialization 
of anthropometric measures, suggested that the obtained results of the motor tests of explosive 
strength should be attributed to the anthropometric characteristics of girls, which hinder the 
manifestation of corresponding motor abilities. As for boys, he established that their anthropo-
met r ic cha r ac ter i st ic s help t hem obt a i n bet ter resu lt s . Si m i la rly, resea rch i n adu lt s (e.g. Ku rel ić , 
Momirović, Mraković, & Šturm, 1979) revealed that in men the dimensions of the body volume 
and weight bear a strong influence not only on manifest, but also on latent motor abilities of the 
energy type, while in women the influence is considerably smaller or even negative. On the basis 
of all these arguments, it could be suggested that the obtained results also derive from different 
anthropometric characteristics of boys and girls. Consequently, further studies of gender differ-
ences in results of motor tests of explosive strength should also pay attention to this aspect.
Although the connection between early differences between girls and boys in movement activity, 
subsequent differences regarding the engagement in sporting activities and the development of 
motor abilities is not fully established, researchers trying to interpret the established differences 
formulated the theory that the early development differences between the two sexes result from 
the biological development of two different sexes, since they occur prior to the period of the 
child's assuming of a gender identity and prior to assuming any gender form (Leinbach & Fagot, 
1986; Shirley & Campbell, 2000).
Nevertheless, one should not by all means ignore the differences in movement/sporting activities 
existing between the two sexes that are predominantly interpreted as a result of social factors 
in the child's milieu. Different authors (e.g., Archer & Lloyd, 2002; Cashmore, 1999; Haywood 
& Getchell, 2001; Levy & Hobbes, 1979; Malina, 1983a, 1983b; Pomerleau et al., 1990; Stern & 
Karraker, 1989; Zaichkowsky et al., 1980) have highlighted the fact that the wide category of 
social factors provide an important explanation for the existing gender differences in results of 

Gender differences in motor performance of children 99 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–105 (2005)
various motor tests since the development of motor abilities forms part of the child's socialization 
process. The development of the gender role in children, which forms an integral part of the 
child's social role, also includes the gender stereotypes of individual societies in which children 
grow up. Gender stereotypes determine different behaviours, characters and thought for females 
and males. The gender role, character and identity of a child develop through the process of 
soc ia l i z at ion. The lat ter i s la rgely i n fluenced by fou r fac tors : i .e. routes of c u lt u r a l t r a nsm is sion, 
parents' responses to infants, parents' treatment of boys and girls, and the social environment 
outside the family (for instance, gender-stereotyped messages in television programmes) (Archer 
& Lloyd, 2002).
Cultural studies (Bee, 1994; Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2003) have shown that the differences in 
a child's movement development are also caused by the characteristics and distinctive cultural 
features of the society in which the child lives. For instance, the movement development of 
infants from African cultures is more rapid and the development of infants from Asian cultures 
slower i n compa r i son to t hat of t hei r peers f rom Wester n c u lt u res . The obser ved d i fferences a re 
the result of not only congenital intercultural differences in personal characteristics, but also the 
parents’ encouragement (for instance, encouraging children to begin to walk, performance of 
group strength exercises) or obstruction (for instance, swaddling) of children in their movement 
activities (Marjanovič Umek et al., 2004; Papalia et al., 2003).
The above seems to be reflected by the results obtained in the present study. Boys especially 
performed better the motor tasks involving whole body movements, such as jumping or moving 
backward using the legs and hands simultaneously, requiring a reorganization of stereotypes 
(Strel, Šturm, & Pistotnik, 1981). On the other hand, gender differences in tests involving single 
limb movements and balance were statistically insignificant. The obtained differences seem to 
be supported by the parents’ attitude toward infants, depending to a large extent on the infant's 
sex. For instance, parents consider boys to be louder and noisier than girls (Stern & Karakker, 
1989). Further, in children at the age of 5, 13 and 25 months, boys possessed more sporting 
toys and equipment than girls, who possessed more dolls, picture books, toy furniture and toys 
intended for drawing, cutting and modelling (Pomerleau et al., 1990). Thus, even before the age 
o f t w o , b o y s s p e n d m o r e t i m e e n g a g e d i n s p o r t i n g a c t i v i t i e s t h a t r e q u i r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f g r o s s 
movements, while girls of the same age are predominantly trained in fine motor activities. Gender 
differences in movement/sporting activities continue to occur throughout the entire preschool 
period, with boys being statistically shown to be more active than girls (Eaton, & Enns, 1986; 
Gavarry et al., 2003; Goggin, 1975). Consequently, the parents’ expectations and involvement 
regarding the gender role of the child will influence gender differences in child motor activity 
and behaviour.
The sex differences observed in motor tests corresponded well to the sex differences observed in 
the physical activity of children of a similar age (6.4 years) and of the same region. Teachers and 
parents estimated that boys were more physically active than girls. The study also revealed statis-
tically significant gender differences with a 5% alpha error related to the place of the performance 
of movement activities (indoors, outdoors). Regardless of the day of the week on which a certain 
activity was conducted, more girls proved to be moderately or highly physically active indoors, 
where they were engaged in dancing, sports gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, etc. Boys, on the 
other hand, were more active outdoors. Activities in nature – i.e. in an open space – demand 
greater dynamics of movement and greater ability to adapt oneself to the environment. This can 
be observed in greater adaptability of boys in the solving of new and complex movements and 

100 Gender differences in motor performance of children Kinesiologia Slovenica, 11, 1, 90–104 (2005) 
in the ability to reorganize stereotyped movements, the two abilities being related to movement 
coordination. Thus, it could be concluded that mothers of the Maribor region are more protective 
towards their daughters, whom they allow less freedom, and, consequently, fewer possibilities 
to be physically active, which can then be reflected by specific motor abilities, as observed in 
the present study.
In addition to parental influence, one can also suppose that an important role in the child's 
physical activities in the preschool period is also played by the realization of curriculum in 
kindergartens, with the curriculum representing the sole systematic educational process in the 
given age period. Previous studies confirmed the existence of connections between the pres-
ence of lea r n i ng d i fferent iat ion accord i ng to gender i n physic a l educ at ion les sons a nd contest s , 
frequency and form of out-of-school motor/sports activity (Zurc, 2004).
According to Malina (1983b), the exclusion of young girls from activities that demand physical 
strength and proficiency could be the most important reason for the occurrence of gender differ-
ences in results of various motor tests. If the rule were turned upside down, boys and girls would 
develop different motor skills from those they do now. However, indications are by all means not 
as simple as suggested by the proposition that boys and men are traditionally more frequently 
encouraged to participate in physical activities, while girls and women are advised to engage in 
les s dema nd i ng movement ac t iv it ies . A s late a s i n t he fi rst ha l f of t he 20 t h cent u r y, women were 
still excluded from many sporting activities such as the marathon, fighting sports and football 
(Cashmore, 1999). For decades, the exclusion of women from sport was the result of the medical 
opinion that participation in certain sporting categories is too exhausting and dangerous and 
therefore unsuitable for the female body (Archer & Lloyd, 2002; Cashmore, 1999).
When interpreting the results obtained and attributing the share of biological and sociological 
factors to gender differences in the development of motor abilities, one has to bear in mind at all 
instances that both factors exert influence on the development of an individual. Their influence is 
reciprocal, interactive. None of the factors bears individual influence on development. Therefore, 
it is generally not possible to verify the share of influence contributed by individual factors 
(Malina et al., 2004; Papalia et al., 2003).
Results of the present study demonstrated gender differences in the performance of motor tests 
in 6.5-year-old children from the Slovenian region studied. Differences occur in motor tests 
that cover two hypothetical motor abilities: coordination and strength. It is suspected that 
the observed differences between boys and girls mainly originate from the social milieu that 
favours specific gender roles in children. However, the role of other factors (e.g. genetic) cannot 
be ruled out.
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