ISSN 0024-3922 LINGUISTICA XL/2 Revijo sta ustanovila tStanko Škerlj in tMilan Grošelj Revue fondee par tStanko Škerlj et tMilan Grošelj Uredniški odbor -Comite de redaction Janez Orešnik -Mitja Skubic -Pavao Tekavčic Martina Ožbot -Stojan Bračič Natis letnika je omogočilo MINISTRSTVO ZA ZNANOST IN TEHNOLOGIJO REPUBLIKE SLOVENIJE Sous les auspices du MINISTERE DES SCIENCES ET TECHNOLOGIES DE LA REPUBLIQUE DE SLOVENJE Hans Goebl CDU 804.87 (084.4) Universitat Salzburg LA DIALECTOMETRISATION DE L'ALF: PRESENTATION DES PREMIERS RESULTATS Cher Mitja, Ebloui par la splendeur d 'une carte postale que tu m 'avais envoyee du tac de Bohinj, joyau uni­versellement connu de la Carniole, et seduit aussi parforce allusions faites r;a et la sur la pretendue beaute de la science en general et de certains de ses resultats en particulier, j 'ai decide det 'offrir, a toi ainsi qu 'a la prestigieuse revue que tu diriges depuis quatre decennies, un don jubilaire a deux faces dont l'avers devait evidemment se rapporter a la linguistique romane, et le revers a l'attrait et la fascination des formes et des couleurs de quelques-unes de ses realisations. Comme les collaborateurs de natre atelier dialectometrique a Salzbourg ont reussi a mettre au point un systeme informatique universel permettant d'ejfectuer la saisie, le stockage, l'elaboration statistique et la visualisation consecutive de donnees atlantographiques dument preparees, j 'etais a meme de choisir, parmi d'innombrables cartes choroplethes disponibles sur simple pression du bou­ton de la souris, quelques-unes dont la valeur linguistique et la beaute iconique allaient de pair. Je te les offre, cher ami, en guise d'etrennes d'un labeur de longue haleine, et aussi pour m 'acquitter d 'une dette de reconnaissance envers "Linguistica" pour avoir accueilli, en 1986a, 1988 et 1991, trois de mes elucubrations dialectometriques anterieures. l. La dialectometrie (DM): buts, methodes, perspectives En 1981 (349), nous avons defini la DM par la formule suivante: "geographie lin­guistique + taxonomie numerique = DM". 11 en appert qu'il s'agit d'une methode quantitative qui vise, avec des methodes empruntees aux mathematiques et a la statis­tique (plus precisement: a la classification ou taxonomie numerique ), a decouvrir, dans la totalite (ou presque) SEM (+/-A, -A) AND >SEM (+/-A, +A) In the framework.of (the linguistic) Naturalness Theory two new formats ofnaturalness scales are suggested, namely >sem (+l-A, -A) and >sem (+l-A, +A), and 27 English (morpho)syntactic examples are adduced in which a naturalness scale ofthe new format helps to ensure a felicitous deduction ofcorresponding consequences. The subject-matter of my paper is a (language-universal) theory developed in Slovenia by a small group of linguists (under my guidance), who mainly use English, German, and Slovenian language material as the base of verification. Our work owes much to, and exploits, the (linguistic) Naturalness Theory as elaborated especially at some Austrian and German universities; cf. Mayerthaler 1981, Wurzel 1984, Dressler et al. 1987, Stolz 1992. Naturalness Theory has also been applied to syntax, notably at the University of Klagenfurt; the basic references are Dotter 1990, Mayerthaler & Fliedl 1993, Mayerthaler et al. 1993, 1995, 1998. Within the natural syntax ofthe Kla­genfurt brand, the Slovenian work group has built an extension, which will henceforth be referred to as "the Slovenian Theory." The Slovenian Theory studies the behaviour of (near-)synonymous syntactic ex­pressions, here called syntactic variants. Whenever two syntactic variants are included in the same naturalness scale, and consequently one variant can be asserted to be more natural than the other, the Slovenian Theory has something to say about some gram­matical properties of the two variants. Naturalness Theory operates with two basic predicates, "marked" and "natural." 1 cannot see any reason to distinguish the two predicates within the Slovenian Theory, therefore 1 use throughout one predicate only, namely "natural." (This standpoint was implied as early as Mayerthaler 1987, 50.) Beside the technical terms "natural(ness)" and "naturalness scale," which have already been alluded to, the terms "sym-value" and "sem-value" (adopted from Mayer­thaler 1981, 1 Oet passim) must be mentioned. The sym-value refers to the naturalness of an expression in terms of its encoding properties. The sem-value refers to the natu­ralness of an expression in terms of its semantic complexity. The following auxiliary symbols will be employed: ">sym" (= more natural with respect to encoding), "sem"(= more natura} with respect to semantic complexity), and "sym-v~lue tends to associate with at least one additional >sym-value and/or with at least one sem-value; (3) at least one >sem-value tends to associate with at least one additional >sem-value and/or with at least one sym-value. In the above items (1-4) the object ofthe meta-verb "associate" refers to the interi­or ofthe unit under observation, OR to a part ofthe immediate environment ofthe unit under observation. The Slovenian Theory covers both cases. Forschungsgeschichtlich, the predecessor of the above assumptions (1-4) is the familiar principle of constructional iconicity as formulated in Natural Morphology. The principle runs as follows. Iff a semantically more marked category Cj is encoded as 'more' featured than a less marked category Ci, the encoding ofCj is said to be icon­ic (Mayerthaler 1987, 48-9). Using the predicate "natural,'' the principle can be briefly stated as follows: sym is iconic. In the Slovenian Theory, the principle has been extended to syntax and expanded. Two published papers utiliz­ing this framework: Orešnik 1999 and 2000. Each case considered is presented in the format of a deduction. A straightforward example: l. English. The referent of the subject ofthe clause is usually given, the referent ofthe direct object ofthe clause is usually new. (Biber et al. 1999, 123, 127.) The two syntactic variants: the subject of the clause and the object of the clause. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sem (subject, object) / clause element in nom.-acc. languages Le. with respect to semantic complexity, the subject is more natural than the object, in nominative-accusative languages. (Mayerthaler 1981, 14.) 1.2. >sem (given, new) /referent Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a given referent is more natural than a new referent. (Mayerthaler 1981, 14 on the property presupposed.) 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem (+/-A, -A) and >sem (+/-A, +A). In each format, the relative naturalness of two classes is compared. One class contains units which have property A and units which Jack that property (thus +/-A). The other class contains units which either all have property A or all lack that property (thus +A or -A). The two formats assert that +/-A is more sem-natura! than either +A or -A. Consider the following example: in a language, most transitive verbs take the active and the passive forms (thus +/-A); a few transitive verbs take only the active forms (thus +A) or only the passive forms (thus -A). Scales conforming to these two formats have so far not been exploited in the Naturalness Theory. They are illustrated below in deductions 2-28: (I) Illustrations ofthe scale format >sem (+/-A, -A) 2. English. With non-finite clauses, the Jack of a clause link is normal, e.g. crossing. he lifled the rolled umbrella high. (Biber et al. 1999, 135, 198.) The two syntactic variants: finite clauses (the clause link lacking in some ofthem) and non-finite clauses (the clause link lacking in all of them). l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: l.l. >sem (+fini te, -fini te) / clause Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a finite clause is more natura! than a non­finite clause. (Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 325.) 1.2. >sem (+/-clause link, -clause link) / clause type I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, a clause type comprising clauses containing a clause link and clauses lacking a clause link is more natural than a clause type whose clauses invariably lack aclause link.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1, >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem ( conversation, written registers) I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, conversation is more natural than the writ­ten registers. (Dotter 1990, 228.) 1.2. >sem ( +/-ellipted, -ellipted) / head noun of genitive, in English I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, genitives admitting both ellipted and non­ellipted head nouns are more natural than genitives admitting only non-ellipted head nouns, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem (JPersonal, demonstrative) / pronoun Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a personal pronoun is more natural than a demonstrative pronoun.-Personal pronouns are much commoner than demonstrative pronouns, for instance in English (Biber et al. 1999, 349). 1.2. >sem (+/-human, -human)/ referent Le. with respect to semantic complexity, admitting human and non-human referents is more natural than admitting only non-human referents.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, concerning any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem (+/-instantaneous, -instantaneous) / aktionsart Le. with respect to semantic complexity, expressing both instantaneous and non­instantaneous aktionsart is more natural than expressing only the non-instantaneous aktionsart.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 1.2. >sem (simple tense, progressive aspect) /in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a simple tense is more natural than the cor­responding progressive aspect, in English.-From the standpoint of English, simple tenses are of earli er origin than the forms of the progressive aspect. 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. sem tends to associate with another >sem 3. The consequences: From 1.1-2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. lfthere is any difference between the progressive aspect and the simple tenses, such that one kind denotes instantaneous or non-instantaneous aktionsart, and the other kind denotes only non-instantaneous aktionsart, it is the progressive aspect that tends to denote only the non-instantaneous aktionsart. Q.E.D. From 1.1-2 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3.2. lfthere is any difference between the progressive aspect and the simple tenses, such that one kind denotes instantaneous or non-instantaneous aktionsart, and the other kind denotes only non-instantaneous aktionsart, it is the simple tenses that tend to denote both the instantaneous and the non-instantaneous aktionsart. Q.E.D. 6. English. Most of the verbs common with get passive convey that the action of the verb is difficult or to the disadvantage of the subject, e.g. my head got stuck up there. (Biber et al. 1999, 481.) The two syntactic variants: the be passive, and the get passive. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sem (be passive, get passive) /in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, the be passive is more natura} than the get passive, in English.-The get passive is of much younger origin than the be passive. Many languages lack a special 'get' passive. 1.2. >sem (+/-positive attitude, -positive attitude) Le. with respect to semantic complexity, having a positive or a negative attitude is more natura} than having a negative attitude.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions ofthe Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem (+/-passive, -passive) / transitive verb in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, the transitive verb that admits the active and the passive is more natura! than the transitive verb that rejects the passive, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 1.2. >sym (more transparent, less transparent) / syntactic unit Le. with respect to encoding, a syntactic unit of greater syntactic transparency is more natura! than a corresponding syntactic unit of lesser syntactic transparency. (Mayerthaler 1981, 35; Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 186. On the notion oftransparency see Mayerthaler 1987, 49.) A special case of 1.2: 1.2.1. >sym (verb + preposition + object, verb + object) /in English te. with respect to encoding, the pattem verb + preposition + object is more natu­ra! than the pattem verb + object, in English. 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate with sem 3. The consequences: From 1.1, 1.2. l and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. If there is any difference between the single-object prepositional verbs and the direct-object verbs, such that one kind can be used both in the active and in the pas­sive, and the other kind can be used in the active only, it is the single-object preposi­tional verbs that tend to be used in the active only. Q.E.D. From 1.1, 1.2.1 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3.2. If there is any difference between the single-object prepositional verbs and the direct-object verbs, such that one kind can be used both in the active and in the pas­sive, and the other kind can be used in the active only, it is the direct-object verbs that tend to be used both in the active and in the passive. Q.E.D. 8. English. Adjectives occur as detached predicatives, e.g. slender and demure. she wore a simple ao dai. (Biber et al. 1999, 520-1.) A comparison between the example­sentences containing detached predicatives and the list of common predicative adjec­tives (ibidem 517 and 521) shows that detached predicatives contain mostly non-fre­quent adjective lexemes. The two syritactic variants: adjective as detached predicative, and predicative adjective. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sym (more transparent, less transparent) / syntactic unit l.e. with respect to encoding, a syntactic unit of greater syntactic transparency is more natura} than a corresponding syntactic unit of lesser syntactic transparency. (Mayerthaler 1981, 35; 1998, 186. On the notion of transparency see Mayerthaler 1987, 49.) A special case of 1.1: 1.1.1. >sym (detached, intra-clausal) / predicative l.e. with respect to encoding, a detached predicative is more natura} than an intra­clausal predicative.-Detached units are more conspicuous than intra-clausal units. 1.2. >sem (+/-frequent, -frequent) / class ofunits l.e. with respect to semantic complexity, a class comprising frequent and infrequent units is more natura} than a class comprising only infrequent units.-The scale bas the format >sem (+/-A, -A). Cf. the scale in item 1.2 of deduction 19. 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, concerning any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate with sem 3. The consequences: From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3. l. IUhere is any difference between adjectives as detached predicatives and non­detached predicative adjectives, such that one kind ofadjectives comprise frequent and less frequent lexemes, and the other kind of adjectives comprise less frequent lexemes only, it is the adjectives as detached predicatives that tend to comprise less frequent adjective lexemes only. Q.E.D. From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3.2. Ifthere is any difference between adjectives as detached predicatives and non­detached predicative adjectives, such that one kind ofadjectives comprise frequent and less frequent lexemes, and the other kind of adjectives comprise less frequent lexemes only, it is the adjectives as non-detached predicatives that tend to comprise frequent and less frequent adjective lexemes. Q.E.D. 9. English. The appositive noun phrase (as postmodifier), e.g. the dissident play­wright, Vaclav Havel, is almost always non-restrictive in function. (Biber et al. 1999, 605, 638.) The two syntactic variants: the appositive noun phrase, and other postmodifiers. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sem (+/-restrictive, -restrictive) / postmodifier Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a postmodifier which can be restrictive or non-restrictive is more natura! than a postmodifier which is only non-restrictive.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 1.2. >sym (pure juxtaposition, other relationship) / as postmodification Le. with respect to encoding, pure juxtaposition is more natura! than other types of postmodification. (In the spirit of Dotter 1990, 47.) 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, concerning any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with sym 3. The consequences: From 1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. Ifthere is any difference between the appositive noun phrase and other postmod­ifiers, such that one kind ofpostmodifiers can be restrictive or non-restrictive in func­tion, and the other kind of postmodifiers is only non-restrictive, it is the "other" mod­ifiers that tend to be either restrictive or non-restrictive in function. Q.E.D. From 1.1, 1.2 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3.2. Ifthere is any difference between the appositive noun phrase and other postmod­ifiers, such that one kind ofpostmodifiers can be restrictive or non-restrictive in func­tion, and the other kind of postmodifiers is only non-restrictive, it is the appositive noun phrase that tends to be only non-restrictive in function. Q.E.D. 1O. English. Postmodifiers in academic prose. A passive clause is used instead of an ed-clause when tense, perfect aspect, or modality are mentioned in the clause, e.g. selections retained from the second year v. the mistaken view is that theory refers to ideas which have never been tested. (Biber et al. 1999, 630, 632.) The two syntactic variants: passive clause, and ed-clause (both postmodifiers). l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: l.l. >sem ( +finite, -fini te) / clause Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a finite clause is more natural than a non­ finite clause. (Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 325.) A special case of 1.1: 1.1. l. >sem (passive clause, ed-clause) / in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a passive clause is more natura! than an ed-clause, in English. 1.2. >sem ( +/-[tense, perfect aspect, or modality ], -[tense, perfect aspect, or modality ])/ in an English clause Le. with respect to encoding, the presence or absence of tense, perfect aspect, or modality is more natural than the absence of tense, perfect aspect, or modality, in an English clause.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sym (subject/object gap, adverbial/prepositional object gap) / infinitive clause in English Le. with respect to encoding, an infinitive clause showing a subject or object gap is more natural than an infinitive clause showing an adverbial or prepositional object gap, in English.-Subject and object gaps are easier for the hearer to process than adverbial and prepositional object gaps. 1.2. >sem (+/-[preposition + relative pronoun], -[preposition + relative pronoun]) / introducing postmodifying infinitive clause Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a postmodifying infinitive clause admit­ting introduction by a preposition + relative pronoun is more natural than a postmodi­fying infinitive clause rejecting such introduction.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate with sem 3. The consequences: Fram 1.1-2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. If there is any difference between a postmodifying infinitive clause showing sub­ject or object gap, and a postmodifying infinitive clause showing an adverbial or pre­posit1onal object gap, such that one kind of postmodifying infinitive clauses can be introduced by a preposition + relative pranoun, and the other kind of postmodifying infinitive clauses cannot be introduced by a preposition + relative pranoun, it is the postmodifying infinitive clause showing a subject or object gap that tends not to be introduced by a preposition + relative pranoun. Q.E.D. Fram 1.1-2 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3.2. Ifthere is any difference between a postmodifying infinitive clause showing sub­ject or object gap, and a postmodifying infinitive clause showing an adverbial or prepositional object gap, such that one kind ofpostmodifying infinitive clauses can be introduced by a preposition + relative pranoun, and the other kind of postmodifying infinitive clauses cannot be introduced by a preposition + relative pranoun, it is the postmodifying infinitive clause showing an adverbial or prepositional object gap that tends to allow introduction by a preposition + relative pranoun. Q.E.D. 12. English. To-clauses as noun complement clauses, e.g. you 've been given permis­sion to wear them. Such to-clauses have covert subjects. (Biber et al. 1999, 645.) The two syntactic variants: to-clauses, as noun complement clauses and as verb complement clauses. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: l.l. >sem (verb, noun) / to-clause as complement of, in English I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, a to-clause as complement of a verb is more natural than a to-clause as complement of a noun, in English.-Verbs are more sem-natural than nouns, to judge by the circumstance, obtaining in many languages, that verbal morphology is much richer than noun morphology. 1.2. >sem (+/-overt, -overt) / subject of to-clause, in English I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, the subject of a to-clause which can be overt or covert is more natural than the subject of a to-clause which can only be covert.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem (+l-would, -would) / accompanying verb of desire +complement clause, in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, the pattern +l-would + verb of desire + complement clause is more natural than the pattern -would +verb ofdesire +comple­ment clause, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 1.2. >sem (to-clause, ing-clause) /in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a to-clause is more natural than an ing­clause, in English.-To-clauses are phylogenetically earlier than ing-clauses, as com­plement clauses. 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, concerning any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem ( declarative main clause, other clause) I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, a declarative main clause is more natura! than other clauses.-The declarative sentential mode is among the most sem-natura! sentential modes (Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 326). Main clauses are .phylogenetically among the earliest clauses. 1.2. >sem (+/-fronting, -fronting) / core elements in English I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, optional fronting of core elements is more natural than no fronting of core elements, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, concerning any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sym (more transparent, less transparent)/ syntactic unit Le. with respect to encoding, a syntactic unit of greater syntactic transparency is more natural than a corresponding syntactic unit of lesser syntactic transparency. (Mayerthaler 1981, 35; Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 186. On the notion oftransparency see Mayerthaler 1987, 49.) A special case of 1.1: 1.1.1. >sym (+initial, -initial) / reporting clause in English 1.e. witb respect to encoding, an initial reporting clause is more natural tban a non­initial reporting clause, in Englisb.-Initial reporting clauses are more conspicuous than non-initial ones. 1.2. >sem (+/-inversion, -inversion) / of subject and verb in Englisb l.e. witb respect to semantic complexity, optional subject-verb inversion is more natural tban lack ofsubject-verb inversion, in Englisb.-Tbe scale bas tbe format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. Tbe assumptions of tbe Slovenian Tbeory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate witb sem 3. Tbe consequences: From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. Iftbere is any difference between initial and non-initial reporting clauses, sucb tbat one kind of reporting clauses bas optional subject-verb inversion, and tbe other kind lacks subject-verb inversion, it is tbe initial reporting clause tbat tends to lack subject­verb inversion. Q.E.D. From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3.2. Ifthere is any difference between initial and non-initial reporting clauses, sucb that one kind of reporting clauses bas optional subject-verb inversion, and tbe otber kind lacks subject-verb inversion, it is tbe non-initial reporting clause that tends to option­ally sbow subject-verb inversion. Q.E.D. 16. Englisb. Inversion in reporting clauses. Inversion is found in non-initial reporting clauses containing a simple verb. Inversion is lacking if the verb is complex. E.g. "That sthe whole trouble, "said Gwen v. "Konrad Schneider is the only one who mat­ters, " Reinhold had answered. Tbe two syntactic variants: non-initial reporting clauses containing a simple and a complex verb. l. Tbe assumptions ofNaturalness Tbeory: 1.1. >sym (more transparent, less transparent) / syntactic unit l.e. witb respect to encoding, a syntactic unit of greater syntactic transparency is more natural than a corresponding syntactic unit of lesser syntactic transparency. (Mayertbaler 1981, 35; Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 186. On tbe notion oftransparency see Mayertbaler 1987, 49.) A special case of 1.1: 1.1.1. >sym ( complex, simple) / verb of reporting clause in Englisb l.e. witb respect to encoding, a complex verb of tbe reporting clause is more natu­ra! tban a simple verb of tbe reporting clause, in Englisb. 1.2. >sem (+/-inversion, -inversion) / subject and verb ofreporting clause in Englisb Le. with respect to semantic complexity, optional subject-verb inversion is more natural than lack ofsubject-verb inversion, in reporting clauses, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate with sem 3. The consequences: From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. Ifthere is any difference between non-initial reporting clauses containing a sim­ple and a complex verb, such that one kind of reporting clauses exhibits optional sub­ject-verb inversion, and the other kind of reporting clauses lacks subject-verb inver­sion, it is the non-initial reporting clause containing a complex verb that tends to lack subject-verb inversion. Q.E.D. From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3.2. Ifthere is any difference between non-initial reporting clauses containing a sim­ple and a complex verb, such that one kind of reporting clauses exhibits optional sub­ject-verb inversion, and the other kind of reporting clauses lacks subject-verb inver­sion, it is the non-initial reporting clause containing a simple verb that tends to exhib­it optional subject-verb inversion. Q.E.D. 17. English. Inversion in reporting clauses. Inversion of subject and verb is possible if the clause does not contain the specification of the addressee. Otherwise inversion is not possible. E.g. "That sthe whole trouble, " said Gwen v. There sso much to living that I did not know before, Jackie had told her happilv. (Biber et al. 1999, 921-2.) The latter example would be more to the point ifit did not contain had (which makes the verb complex, and therefore prevents subject-verb inversion on its own, cf. deduction 16). The two syntactic variants: reporting clauses containing and lacking the specifica­tion of the addressee. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sym (more transparent, less transparent) / syntactic unit I.e. with respect to encoding, a syntactic unit of greater syntactic transparency is more natural than a corresponding syntactic unit of lesser syntactic transparency. (Mayerthaler 1981, 35; Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 186. On the notion oftransparency see Mayerthaler 1987, 49.) A special case of 1.1: 1.1.1. >sym ( +addressee, -addressee) / reporting clause in English Le. with respect to encoding, the specification of the addressee of the reporting clause is more natural than the lack ofthe specification ofthe addressee ofthe report­ing clause, in English. 1.2. >sem (+/-inversion, -inversion) / subject and verb ofreporting clause in English I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, optional subject-verb inversion is more natural than lack ofsubject-verb inversion, in reporting clauses, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate with sem 3. The consequences: Fram 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. If there is any difference between reporting clauses containing and lacking the specification of the addressee, such that one type of reporting clauses exhibits option­al subject-verb inversion, and the other type of reporting clauses lacks subject-verb inversion, it is the reporting clause containing the specification of the addressee that tends to lack subject-verb inversion. Q.E.D. Fram 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3.2. If there is any difference between reporting clauses containing and lacking the specification of the addressee, such that one type of reporting clauses exhibits option­al subject-verb inversion, and the other type of reporting clauses lacks subject-verb inversion, it is the reporting clause lacking the specification ofthe addressee that tends to exhibit optional subject-verb inversion. Q.E.D. 18. English. Inversion is overwhelmingly a · main-clause phenomenon. (Biber et al. 1999, 926.) The two syntactic variants: main and dependent clauses. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: l.l. >sem (main, dependent) / clause I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, a main clause is more natura! than a dependent clause.-Phylogenetically, main clauses are earlier than dependent clauses. 1.2. >sem (+/-inversion, -inversion) I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, admitting subject-verb inversion is more natura! than excluding subject-verb inversion, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem (+/-A, +A) 19. English. The two constituent parts of any phrasal verb tend to pertain to relatively frequent lexical items, e.g. come/golgetltake/put + up/downlon/in etc. (Biber et al. 1999, 412-3.) The two syntactic variants: phrasal verb, and single-unit verb. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sem (single-unit, phrasal) / verb in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a single-unit verb is more natural than a phrasal verb, in English.-Crass-linguistically, phrasal verbs are much less common than single-unit verbs. 1.2. >sem (+/-frequent, +frequent) / unit I.e. with respect to semantic complexity, units that comprise frequent and less fre­quent items are more natural than units that comprise only frequent items.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). Cf. the scale in item 1.2 of deduction 8. 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, concerning any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sym (more transparent, less transparent) / syntactic unit Le. with respect to encoding, a syntactic unit of greater syntactic transparency is more natural than a corresponding syntactic unit of lesser syntactic transparency. (Mayerthaler 1981, 35; Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 186. On the notion oftransparency see Mayerthaler 1987, 49.) A special case of 1.1: l.l.l. >sym (nice/good +X, X)/ X is adjective in English Le. with respect to encoding, the type nice!good + X is more natural than the type X, where X is an adjective in English. 1.2. >sem (+/-emphasis, +emphasis) Le. with respect to semantic complexity, expressing emphasis optionally is more natural than expressing emphasis obligatorily.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate with sem 3. The consequences: From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. Ifthere is any difference between the typeXand the type nice/good +X, such that one type expresses emphasis optionally, and the other type expresses emphasis oblig­atorily, it is the type nicelgood +Xthat tends to express emphasis obligatorily. Q.E.D. From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3 .2. If there is any difference between the type X and the type nice/good + X, such that one type expresses emphasis optionally, and the other type expresses emphasis oblig­atorily, it is the type Xthat tends to express emphasis only optionally. Q.E.D. 21. English. Within subject ta-clauses, extraposed constructions are more common with adjectives than with verbs. (Biber et al. 1999, 754.) The two syntactic variants: verbal and adjectival predicates. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sem (+/-extraposed, +extraposed) / subject ta-clause in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a subject ta-clause which admits extrapo­sition is more natural than a subject ta-clause which almost must be extraposed, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 1.2. >sem (verb, adjective) Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a verb is more natural than an adjective.­Adjectives are not universal (Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 19). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem ( +finite, -fini te) / subordinate clause Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a finite subordinate clause is more natural than a non-finite subordinate clause. (Mayerthaler et al. 1993, 145.) A special case of 1.1: 1.1.1. >sem (that-clause, -finite clause) / complement clause in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a complement that-clause is more natural than a complement non-finite clause, in English. 1.2. >sem (+/-modal verb, -modal verb) /in the complement clause, in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a complement clause admitting a modal verb is more natural than a complement clause rejecting modal verbs, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, -A). 1.3. >sem (+/-co-referentiality, +co-referentiality) / the subject of the complement clause with the subject of the main clause Le. with respect to semantic complexity, the subject of a complement clause which can be co-referential with the subject of the corresponding main clause is more natu­ral than the subject of a complement clause which is always co-referential with the subject ofthe corresponding main clause.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem (+/-integrated, +integrated) / into clause structure Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a unit which is or is not integrated into clause structure is more natural than a unit that is necessarily integrated into clause structure.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 1.2. >sem (few, many) / adverbials of a kind, in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a set ofonly few adverbials ofa kind is more natural than a set ofmany adverbials ofa kind, in English.-lt can be observed tirne and again that small (closed) classes are more >sem-natural than large (open) classes. 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sem (linking/stance, circumstance) / adverbial in English. 24. English. Fronting: complement clauses as fronted objects. Many examples contain a negative main clause, e.g. how he would use that knowledge he could not guess. (Biber et al. 1999, 901.) The two syntactic variants: main dause containing a fronted complement clause, and main clause containing a fronted nominal. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sem (nominal, clause) / object in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, an object which is a nominal is more nat­ura! than an object which is a clause, in English.-A nominal is nearer to the proto­typical object than a clause. 1.2. >sem (+/-negative, +negative)/ main clause Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a main clause which can be both negative and not negative is more natura! than a main clause which can be only negative.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. sym (more transparent, less transparent) / syntactic unit Le. with respect to encoding, a syntactic unit of greater syntactic transparency is more natura! than a corresponding syntactic unit of lesser syntactic transparency. (Mayerthaler 1981, 35; 1998, 186. On the notion of transparency see Mayerthaler 1987, 49.) A special case of 1.1 : 1.1.1. >sym (+fronted, -fronted) / predicative in English Le. with respect to encoding, a fronted predicative is more natura! than a non-front­ed predicative, in English.-Fronted elements are more conspicuous than non-fronted elements, ceteris paribus. 1.2. >sem (+/-cohesive, +cohesive) / predicative in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a predicative which is optionally cohesive is more natura! than a predicative which is obligatorily cohesive.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate with sem 3. The consequences: From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. Ifthere is any difference between the typefar more serious were the severe head injuries and the type the severe head injuries were far more serious, such that in one type the predicative is optionally cohesive, and in the other type the predicative is obligatorily cohesive, it is in the type far more serious were the severe head injuries that the predicative tends to be obligatorily cohesive. Q.E.D. From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2 ..2 it can be deduced: 3.2. Ifthere is any difference between the typefar more serious were the severe head injuries and the type the severe head injuries were far more serious, such that in one type the predicative is optionally cohesive, and in the other type the predicative is obligatorily cohesive, it is in the type the severe head injuries were far more serious that the predicative tends to be optionally cohesive. Q.E.D. 26. English. Fronted infinitive predicates. There is no inversion of the subject, which is usually short. Fronted infinitive predicates often repeat a previous verb or predicate, e.g. 1 had said he would come down and come down he did. The fronted element is cohesive. There is a double focus in the clause. (Biber et al. 1999, 905-6.) The two syntactic variants: fronted and non-fronted infinitive predicates. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sym (more transparent, less transparent) / syntactic unit l.e. with respect to encoding, a syntactic unit of greater syntactic transparency is more natural than a corresponding syntactic unit of lesser syntactic transparency. (Mayerthaler 1981, 35; Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 186. On the notion oftransparency see. Mayerthaler 1987, 49.) Two special cases of 1.1: 1.1.1. >sym ( +fronted, -fronted) / infinitive predicate in English l.e. with respect to encoding, a fronted infinitive predicate is more natura} than a non-fronted infinitive predicate, in English.-Fronted units are more conspicuous than non-fronted units. 1.1.2. >sym ( double focus, single focus) / clause in English l.e. with respect to encoding, a clause containing double focus is more natura} than a clause containing single focus, in English. 1.3. >sem (+/-cohesive, +cohesive) / initial element in English l.e. with respect to semantic complexity, an initial element which is optionally cohesive is more natural than an initial element which is obligatorily cohesive.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 1.4. >sem (+/-repetition, +repetition) / initial element in English 1.e. with respect to semantic complexity, an initial element which is or is not a rep­etition is more natural than an initial element which must be a repetition.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate with sem 2.3. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.4. sym (more transparent, less transparent) / syntactic unit Le. with respect to encoding, a syntactic unit of greater syntactic transparency is more natural than a corresponding syntactic unit of lesser syntactic transparency. (Mayerthaler 1981, 35; Mayerthaler et al. 1998, 186. On the notion oftransparency see Mayerthaler 1987, 49.) A special case of 1.1: 1.1.1. >sym (it ... object predicative + long direct object, object predicative + long direct object) /in English Le. with respect to encoding, the pattern it ... object predicative + long direct object is more natural than the pattern object predicative + long direct object, in English. 1.2. >sem (+/-clause, +clause) / direct object in English Le. with respect to semantic complexity, a direct object which takes the form either of a clause or of a non-clause is more natura} than a direct object which takes only the form of a clause, in English.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sym tends to associate with sem 3. The consequences: From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.1 it can be deduced: 3.1. Ifthere is any difference between the pattem it ... object predicative +long direct object and the pattem object predicative + long direct object, such that the direct object is a clause in one pattem, and the direct object is either a clause or non-clausal in the other pattem, it is in the pattem it ... object predicative + long direct object that the direct object tends to be a clause. Q.E.D. From 1.1.1, 1.2 and 2.2 it can be deduced: 3.2. If there is any difference between the pattem it ... object predicative + long direct object and the pattem object predicative +long direct object, such that the direct object is a clause in one pattem, and the direct object is either a clause or non-clausal in the other pattem, it is in the pattem object predicative + long direct object that the direct object tends to be either a clause or non-clausal. Q.E.D. 28. English. Existential clauses. Minimal existential clauses occur most frequently in conversation, commonly with negation, e.g. there's no bus. (Biber et al. 1999, 950.) The two syntactic variants: affirmation and negation in existential clauses in con­versation. l. The assumptions ofNaturalness Theory: 1.1. >sem (+/-minimal, +minimal) / existential clause Le. with respect to semantic complexity, an existential clause which can be mini­mal or non-minimal is more natural than an existential clause which can only be min­imal.-The scale has the format >sem (+/-A, +A). 1.2. >sem (affirmation, negation) Le. with respect to semantic complexity, affirmation is more natural than negation. (Mayerthaler 1981, 15.) 2. The assumptions of the Slovenian Theory, conceming any two syntactic variants: 2.1. >sem tends to associate with another >sem 2.2. SEM (+/-A, -A) IN >SEM (+/-A, +A) KOT DVE PREDLOGI ZA LESTVICE Sestavek sega v teorijo jezikovne naravnosti in predlaga dve podobni si predlogi lestvic na­ravnosti, namreč >sem (+/-A, -A) in >sem (+/-A, +A). Predlogi določata relativno sem-naravnost po dveh razredov (obliko )skladenjskih enot. V enem razredu so enote z lastnostjo A in enote brez last­nosti A, v drugem razredu enote samo z lastnostjo A ali samo brez nje. Preprost zgled: v številnih jezikih se prehodni glagoli rabijo v tvorniku in trpniku (razred takih glagolov je +/-A), le nekateri prehodni glagoli se rabijo samo v tvorniku (razred takih glagolov bodi +A; to so activa tantum) ali samo v trpniku (razred takih glagolov bodi -A; to so passiva tantum). Predlogi izražata domnevo, da je pri posamičnem prehodnem glagolu raba obeh glagolskih načinov bolj naravna kot samo raba tvornika ali samo raba trpnika. V sestavku je predstavljenih 27 angleških (obliko )skladenjskih zgledov, v katerih se je treba na­sloniti na kak.o lestvico, narejeno po eni izmed novih predlog. Vsak zgled je par (obliko)skladenjskih dvojnic, katerim se da del (obliko )skladenjskega vedenja napovedati. Do napovedi o zgledu se do­kopljemo z izpeljavo, ki temelji na primernih lestvicah naravnosti in na povezavah med njimi. Te po­vezave so (kakor obe zgoraj omenjeni predlogi) slovenski prispevek k teoriji jezikovne naravnosti. Maria Iliescu CDU 807.3-318 Universitat Innsbruck ALLGEMEINE TENDENZEN DES VULGARLATEINISCHEN WORT­SCHATZES (ALS VORSTUFE DER ROMANISCHEN SPRACHEN) 1.0. Im allgemeinen tendieren die Sprachen zur Einfachheit und RegelmaBigkeit und gleichzeitig auch zur Okonomie. Mit einem moglichst kleinen Aufwand versucht man mit der Sprache ein Maximum zu erreichen, und moglichst viel Informationen klar auszudriicken und zu verstehen. Die Okonomie, der "effort minime" bezieht sich sowohl auf den signifiant als auch auf den signifie. Der Erste sollte miihelos auszu­sprechen sein, der Letztere sollte leicht zu verstehen und zu behalten sein. Gerat dieses Prinzip der Sparsamkeit in Konflikt mit jenem der Klarheit gleicht die Sprache diese Spannung aus. Die Wechselbeziehung zwischen Einsparung und Klarheit ist gewiss eine der wichtigsten inneren Ursachen der Veranderung einer Sprache, doch nicht die einzige. Zwischen Sparsamkeit und Klarheit steht noch ein anderes wichtiges Element: die subjektive Einstellung des Sprechers, mit anderen Worten der pragmatische, situa­tive Kontext der Rede, abhangig von der Vielfalt der sprachlichen Varietaten. Dazu ge­hOrt auch die Expressivitat (Hervorhebungen verschiedener Art, Assoziationen, Stilfi­guren), die Kreativitat mit sich bringt und nicht nur die gesprochene, sondern auch die geschriebene dichterische Sprache (man denke an die poetischen Lizenzen) charakteri­siert. Die Norm, die in den kulturell entwickelteren Sprachgemeinschaften sich bemiiht in die Sprache, und zwar in die literarische unmarkierte Hochsprache Ordnung zu brin­gen -im Sinne einer Regelung und Festlegung der verschiedenen soziolinguistischen und diatopischen Varianten -hemmt in einem gewissen MaBe die natiirliche Tendenz zur Einfachheit (sage RegelmaBigkeit) und zur Kreativitat, indem sie den Sprechern gewisse Regeln auferlegt, die in viel hOherem MaBe fiir die geschriebene Sprache hOherer Stilebenen und viel weniger fiir die gesprochene, familiare und volkstiimliche Sprache gelten. Lockert die Norm ihre Ziigel -aus extralinguistischen Griinden -kommen die natiirlichen, in der Volkssprache bestehenden Tendenzen wieder an die Oberflache. Sie verandern zahlreiche Aspekte der Sprache, wobei externe Faktoren nicht auszuklam­mern sind. So geschah es, dass der langsame Zusammenbruch des romischen Reiches den Untergang der Norm, d. h. des lateinischen klassischen, literarischen Lateins weitgehend bewirkte. Die alten, volkstiimlichen Tendenzen, die schon in den Dialogen der Komo­dien des Plautus, sowie, wenn auch in geringerem MaBe in Cicero's Briefwechsel mit seinem Freund Atticus, im Satyricon des Petronius, in der Fehlerliste -die unter dem Namen Appendix Probi bekannt wurde -, in Glossen, Inschriften und Graffitti -man denke an die Mauerkritzeleien auf den Wanden von Pompej -( den Kritzeleien in Schulen, Universitaten und Aufzligen nicht so unahnlich!) zum Ausdruck kamen, setzten sich nun allgemein in der gesprochenen Sprache durch. Ich komme noch einmal auf den Begriff "Klarheit" zuriick. Was ist darunter in der gesprochenen Volkssprache, die uns hier interessiert, zu verstehen? Es geht nicht um die genaue Definition eines Begriffs, auch nicht um die eins zu eins Obereinstimmung eines Wortkorpers mit einer einzigen Bedeutung -ein Prinzip, das in natiirlichen Sprachen in einem antagonistischen Verhaltnis zur Okonomie stehen wiirde -sondern um eine moglichst handgreifliche, leichte kognitive Perzeption des Gesagten. Das heil3t als allgemein Regel: "konkret gegen abstrakt". Dieses einfache Prinzip steht m.E. hinter der allgemeinen Entwicklung der indo­europaischen Sprachen von synthetischen zu analytischen Strukturen, im Lateinischen z. B. hinter dem langsamen Wandel von synthetischen Kasus zu prapositionalen Syn­tagmen. Dasselbe Prinzip liegt in einem noch starkeren Mal3e der Entwicklung des Wortschatzes zu Grunde. 1.1. Die Tendenzen, die sich bereits in der lateinischen Umgangssprache bemerk­bar gemacht hatten und die teilweise die Struktur des vererbten romanischen Wort­schatzes charakterisieren, betreffen zum einen die Wahl zwischen bereits vorhandenen Wortern zur Benennung eines Referenten, mit anderen Worten eine Wahl zwischen vorhandenen Parasynonymen, zum anderen neue Benennungen eines bekannten Refe­renten. (Ich klammere im Folgenden die Bereicherung des Lateinischen Wortschatzes durch Fremdworter und weitgehend auch die Bereicherung durch Wortbildung aus). Die Physiognomie des vulgarlateinischen Wortschatzes lal3t sich, unabhangig von seinem Oberleben in den romanischen Sprachen, durch eine Reihe von schwacheren und starkeren Tendenzen, die wie P. Koch es in einem vor kurzem erschienen Aufsatz gezeigt hat, allgemein umgangssprachlich sind, charakterisieren. Sie konnen im Rahmen der allgemeinen Tendenz der oben erwahnten Bevorzugung des Konkreten, etwa wie folgt zusammengefasst werden: Regelmal3ig, nicht unregelmal3ig 2.1. Durchsichtig, nicht undurchsichtig (analytisch nicht synthetisch) 2.2. Markiert (konnotiert), nicht unmarkiert (neutral) 2.3. Prototypisch: weder (abstrakt) generisch noch (wissenschaftlich) spezifisch 2.4. 1.2.1. Es sei vorausgeschickt, dass diese Tendenzen nicht diskret erscheinen, sondern dass meistens zwei, wenn nicht mehrere gleichzeitig wirken, und sie aus verschie­denen, nicht immer klaren Griinden, auch nicht automatisch zum Tragen kommen. Ebenso lasst sich nicht immer erklaren, warum ein bestimmtes Wort ins Romanische ubernommen wurde, andere aber unter denselben Umstanden keine 'Nachkommen' in den romanischen Sprachen haben. Wie es schon Gillieron zu Recht sagte: chaque mot a son histoire, oder modem.er "die unsichtbare Hand"," der Mann von unter dem Tisch" bewirkt diese 'Ungereimtheiten'. 2.1. Regelmafiig, nicht unregelmafiig Bei dieser ersten Tendenz geht es um die FlexiOn. 2.1.1. Nominaljlexion. Die I. und die II. Deklinationen auf -A und auf -0, wurden schon zur Zeit des klassischen Lateins den anderen vorgezogen. Sie waren neuer, regelmaBiger und gleichzeitig durchsichtiger was das Geschlecht anbetrifft, so dass die meisten neuen Worter in diese Deklinationen aufgenommen wurden (So z. B. ROSA, ASINUS, CATTUS usw.) Die III. Deklination war die unregelmafiigste, weil die meis­ten Worter athematisch, viele auch ungleichsilbig waren, manche mit Akzentwechsel (IMPERATOR, IMPERATORIS). Dazu kam noch die Undurchsichtigkeit des Geschlechts. So wie spater in den romanischen Sprachen hat sich diese Deklination den 'Luxus' der Unregelmafiigkeiten leisten konnen, da sie den GroBteil des indo­europaischen Kemwortschatzes, d.h. der oft benutzten Worter enthielten. (Es geniigen Beispiele wie PATER, MATER, FRATER, REX). Die IV. u. die V. Deklinationen, der Themen in -U und -E waren seitjeher schwach. So wurde eine Anzahl von Wortem der III. Deklination durch regelmaBigere Para­synonyme ersetzt, die nicht nur vom signifiant, sondem auch vom signifie besser den. Anforderungen der Umgangssprache entsprachen, indem sie eine konkretere, besser umschriebene Bedeutung besaBen und/oder sich auch mehr der Tendenz zur Prototypie naherten. Ein gutes Beispiel ist das Wort fiir den Begriff "Weg". Das alte athematische, ungleichsilbische Substantiv ITER, ITINERIS hatte in der Hochsprache mehrere Be­deutungen: 1. eine abstrakte, als Handlung "Weg, Reise, Fahrt" und 2. eine konkrete "Weg, StraBe, in der nachklassischen Zeit auch "StraBe in einer Stadt." Zuerst wurde das Substantiv nur in dieser letzten Bedeutung durch das regelmaBige, der I. Dekl. angehorige Wort VIA ersetzt, spater blieb VIA als allgemein beniitztes umgangs­sprachliches Wort. Wahrend ITER sich in keiner romanischen Sprache erhalten hat, wurde VIA von allen romanischen Sprachen, mit Ausnahme des Rumanischen, das drum < gr. dromos als Bezeichnung fiir "Weg" genommen hat, weitergefiihrt. Auch das alte Wort der III. Deklination IGNIS "Feuer" in abstraktem und konkre­tem Sinn, wurde vom konkreten, regelmafiigen Substantiv der II. Dekl. FOCUS "Feuer­statte des Hauses, Herd > Feuer" ersetzt. Im Unterschied zu IGNIS, das von keiner romanischen Sprache geerbt wurde, wird FOCUS zu einem panromanischen Wort. IECUR, schon im Lateinischen mit zwei Varianten im Genitiv (IECORIS/ IECINERIS ) "Leber" wurde durch das, aus der Kiichenterminologie stammende Wort FICATUM ersetzt. Das Wort (ein adjektivisches Derivat von FICUS "Feigenbaum" mit dem gelaufigen Suffix -ATUS gebildet) wurde insbesondere im Syntagma FICA­TUM IECUR "Feigenleber", im Bezug auf die mit Feigen gemasteten Ganse, die eine besonders feine Leber hatten, verwendet. Mit der Zeit wurde der generische Teil des Syntagmas eingespart und der spezifische wurde von allen romanischen Sprachen als generische Bezeichnung filr die "Leber" geerbt. Das unregelmaBige IECUR war zu schwach gewesen, um iiberleben zu konnen. 2.1.2. Verbaljlexion. Auch in diesem Fall ist das konsonantische, d. h. athematische Paradigma, hier die III. Konjugation, die unregelmaBigste. Diese Konjugation bein­haltete nicht nur suppletive Verben, sondern auch Verben mit den verschiedensten Perfektbildungen, u.a. auch das alte i.e. Perfekt durch Reduplikation TETIGI (zu TANGO, TANGERE, TACTUM "beriihren"); TOTONDI (zu TONDEO, TONDERE, TONSUM "nehmen, abnehmen, erleichtern, scheren) oder gar CECINI mit Vokalabschwachung (zu CANO, CANERE, CANTUM). Zur Beseitigung dieser UnregelmaBigkeiten gab es zwei Moglichkeiten. Nur allein das Perfekt (durch Analogie) regelmaBig zu gestalten oder aber das 'ungute' Verb zu ersetzen. Zur ersten Losung wurde bei TONDERE, durch Anpassen des Perfekts an das Partizip, gegriffen (*TONSI nach TONSUM statt TOTONDI cf. rum. a tunde aber tunsei, tuns oder it. tonsare), zur zweiten bei den Verben FERO und CANO. Das erste war von der Form her suppletiv (FERO, FERRE, TULI, LATUM), vom signifie her stark polysemantisch mit konkreten ("tragen"), und abstrakten ("ertragen") Bedeutungen. FERO wurde durch das regelmaBige PORTARE, das sich anfangs nur auf Lasten bezog, ersetzt. Fiir CANO (CANERE, CECINI, CANTUM) gab es eine einfachere Losung: CANTO (CANTARE, CANTAVI, CANTATUM) ein regelmaBiges Verb der l. Konj. stand zur Verfilgung. Das anfangs frequentative Suffix -T-wurde mit der Zeit dese­mantisiert. CANTARE bedeutete nicht mehr "mehrmals singen" sondern einfach "singen". In den Glossen von Monte Cassino (X. Jh.) wurde es bereits notwendig die frequentative Bedeutung des Suffixes -T-zu erklaren: FUGITAT: FREQUENTER FUGIT. In der Romania har sich die alte Opposition +/-frequentativ vereinzelt, bei anderen Verben, unabhangig von einem Suffix ( cf. rum. s ari "springen" < SALIRE vs. salta "hiipfen" < SALTARE), oder durch andere Suffixe ( cf. fr. sauter "springen" < SALTARE vs. sautiller "hiipfen") erhalten .. Schwierigkeiten gab es auch mit den medio-passiven Verben, unabhangig von der Konjugation, der sie angehorten: zum einen waren sie in passivischer Form in den Zeiten des Infektum, zum anderen war der Inhalt der Medialitat schon langst verblasst. Das brachte es mit sich, dass wichtige verba dicendi (FOR, FARI, FATUS SUM und LOQUOR, LOQUI, LOCUTUS SUM) aus dem Gebrauch verschwanden. Ersetzt wurden sie durch regelmaBige, durchsichtige, denominale Verben: FABULARE, anfangs umgangssprachlich konnotiert, "schwatzen, plaudern" Erzahlung" (frz. par/er, it. parlare) ebenfalls mit Verlust der ursprii.nglich begrenzten Bedeutung. Ein ahnliches Schicksal hat auch METIOR, METIRI, MENSUS SUM "messen'', ebenfalls ein medio-passives Verb, gehabt: es wurde durch das denominale durch­sichtige MENSURARE < MENSURA "Mal3" ersetzt.. 2.2. Durchsichtig, nicht undurchsichtig (d. h. motiviert, nicht unmotiviert) Dieser Grundsatz geht oft Hand in Hand mit dem allgemeinen Trend zu analyti­schen Formen. Die Motivation, ein Element, das dem Verstandnis und besonders dem Gedachtnis zur Hilfe kommt, geniigte, auch unabhangig von grammatischen UnregelmaBigkeiten Worter mit 'klarem' signifiant anderen mit 'unklarem' signifiant vorzuziehen. Ein gutes Beispiel ist das Wort "Blutegel", das das unverstandliche HIRUDO ersetzt hat (cf. Biville 1995, 197). SANGUISUGA wurde vom Franzosi­schen und Italienischen, so wie auch vom Sardischen und Dalmatischen geerbt (REW 7575). Dass der Name dieses Tieres, vom Romanischen iibernommen wurde, erklart sich auch durch seine medizinische Anwendung, die langer gedauert hat, als man annehmen wiirde. Das alte undurchsichtige Wort PUER mit nicht gut abgegrenztem, bzw. nicht spezi­fischem signifie -denn es bedeutete: "Kind", insbesondere im Plural aber auch "Knabe", "Jugendlicher"; "Sohn"; "Diener" -wurde nicht mehr verstanden und teil-. weise mit dem durchischtigen INF ANTES "nicht sprechend" ( cf. fr. enfant "Kind") ersetzt. Man liest in den Reichenauer Glossen: PUERI: INFANTES. Gut haben sich die klaren Zusammensetzungen mit MALE im Romanischen erhal­ten: so z. B. MALEHABITUS statt AEGER "krank an Korper und Seele" (REW 5267 frz. malade, it. (am)malato usw.). (Das Wort das im Lateinischen "kranklich" bedeu­tete u. zwar MORBIDUS hat eine andere semantische Entwicklung durchgemacht: "kranklicher (Mensch)" > "schwacher", "verweichlichter" (Mensch)" > "weich": cf. it. morbido.) Ebenfalls von Syntagmen stammen die Namen fiir die Jahreszeit "Friih­ling": PRIMUM TEMPUS (> frz. printemps) oder das schon bei Cato belegte PRIMA VERA(> it., sp., port. primavera, rum. primavara).Wahrend PRIMUM TEMPUS ein Ersatz fiir VER ist, scheint nach Ernout-Meillet (s.v.), PRIMA VERA bloJ3 eine Ver­starkung desselbeil einsilbigen schwachen Wortes zu sein. Im Bereich der Adverbien ware LONGE < LONGUS zu nennen, das das alte, nicht motivierte PROCUL ersetzt hat. Es ist bemerkenswert, dass es schon im Lateinischen eine ansehnliche Anzahl von derartig zusammengesetzten Wortern gab (Biville 1959, 201), auch wenn nicht alle, von den romanischen Sprachen iibernommen wurden. So z. B. lebt OSSIFRAGUS, OSSIFRAGA "Seeadler" ("das Tier, das die Knochen bricht") nur im Franzosischen (REW 6113: orfraie) weiter. Im technischen Bereich haben eine Reihe von zweiteiligen durchsichtigen lateini­schen Syntagmen vom Griechischen entlehnte Worter ersetzt. So z.B. werden FER­RUM VIVUM "Magnet" statt des griechischen MAGNES, FOCARIS PETRA statt PYRI-TES "Feuerstein" verwendet. Einige dieser Syntagmen sind durch den haufigen Gebrauch zu einem Wort zusammengeschmolzen und wurden umso bequemer um griechische undurchsichtige technische Worter aus dem umgangssprachlichen Ge­brauch zu ziehen, wie man es aus Glossen entnehmen kann. So wird das urspriinglich zusammengesetZte Wort MULOMEDICI "Maultieriirzte" statt des griechischen VE­TERINARJI "Tieriirzte" verwendet, und MALEFICUS "libel handelnd, boshaft" < MALE FACERE tritt statt MAGUS "Zauberer" < gr. magos auf. Andere Komposita, haben im Laufe der Zeit das determinierte Wort, d. h. das genus proximum, das Klassem, als liberfllissig empfunden, und sich mit einem Wort ( die diferentia specifica) begnligt, das dann ein aus verschiedenen Grilnden 'ungutes' Wort ersetzt. So z.B. steht das panromanische HIBERNUM/HIBERNUS "Winter" < HIBER­NUM TEMPUS flir das archaische, einsilbige Wort HIEMS (s. supra). Im Fall von VIA STRATA (REW 8291 afrz. estree, sp., port. estrada) und VIA RUPTA (REW 7425 frz. route) handelt es sich nicht um den Ersatz eines schon existierenden Wortes, sondem um die Benennung eines Referenten, der noch keinen Namen hatte. In den Glossen sind haufig periphrastische Erklarungen unregelmaBiger und/oder selten benlitzter undurchsichtiger Worter zu finden, ein Beweis, dass man sie im spateren Latein nicht mehr verstanden hat. Dabei geht es aber nicht um einen Ersatz, sondem um Erkliirungen. So z.B. erklaren die Reichenauer Glossen OPTIMUM mit VALDE BONUS; SEMEL mit UNA VICE, BINAS mit DUAS et DUAS. Die adver­bialen und distributiven Numeralien wurden mit der Zeit durch Kardinalia ersetzt. Beispiele dafiir findet man schon viel fruher in verschiedenen Texten. 2.3. Konnotiert, nicht neutral (d. h.: markiert nicht unmarkiert) Wie jede Umgangssprache war auch die lateinische durch ihre subjektiv-affektivi­sche Seite von Emotionalitat gepragt. Schon Hofmann spricht in einem Kapitel seines Buches liber die "vom Affekt beherrschte Sprache" ( apud Stefenelli 349). Diese Charakteristik findet ihren Ausdruck auf verschiedene Weise. 2.3.1. Erstens geht es um die Wahl zwischen mehreren Parasynonymen vom Blick­punkt der Expressivitat. Ein gutes Beispiel bietet das semantische Feld "essen". Das neutrale und auch unregelmaBige Verb fiir den Begriff "essen" war EDERE, ESSE, EDI, ESUM. Es wurde nicht vererbt, im Unterschied zum regelmaBigeren und "inten­siveren" COMEDERE "aufessen" > "essen" (REW 2077 port., sp. comer). Noch viel expressiver und auch durchsichtiger war das 'ordinare', wenn auf Menschen bezogen, und fast von allen romanischen Sprachen (REW 5292) geerbte MANDUCO "kauen (von Tieren); fressen". Dazu kam noch das Wort MANDO "VielfraB"., Auch "weinen" sagt viel liber die Affektivitat des Vulgarlatein aus. FLEO, FLERE "mit Tranen weinen" lies keine Spuren in den romanischen Sprachen. PLORARE "mit lautem Geschrei, klaglich weinen" (REW 6606) und PLANGERE (REW 6572) "laut trauem" entsprachen besser der subjektiven Einstellung der "Traurigen". Das Pferd ist in den romanischen Sprachen nicht mit seinem noblen Namen EQUUS "Pferd, RoB" geblieben, sondem durch CABALLUS "Klepper, Gaul" ersetzt worden. 2.3.2. Zweitens kommt hier nicht nur das Vorgehen 'Wahl' in Betracht, sondem auch die 'Kreativitat', d. h. einerseits die Bildung von Derivata und andererseits die Umbenennung von Referenten mit Hilfe von konkreten und plastischen Stilfiguren und Assoziationen. 2.3.2.1. Die Derivata betreffen insbesondere die Diminutiv-und Augmentativ­suffixe. Man kann miihelos eine groBe Anzahl von Wortem finden, die mit ihrer Dimi­nutivform, aber ohne Diminutivbedeutung in vielen romanischen Sprachen weiter­leben. Hier nur einige Beispiele: UNGULA "Nagel" (REW 9071) < UNGUIS, GENU­CULUM "Knie" (REW 3737) < GENUS, *ACUCULA (REW 119) und ACUCELLA "Nadel" (REW 118) < ACUS usw. 2.3.2.2. Die Stilfiguren, Metaphem und Metonymien, bilden den Ausgangspunkt fiir neue Bedeutungen eines signifiant, der so zu einem Parasynonym eines anderen signifiant wird. Zwischen den zwei Parasynonymen ist eine Wahl moglich. Der Name fiir Kopf stammt in den meisten romanischen Sprachen nicht vom un­regelmaBigen CAPUT sondem von einer Metapher: TESTA "Deckel eines Topfes" > metaphorisch "Deckel des Kopfes > metonymisch "Schadel" (noch heute rum. feasta "Schadel") > metonymisch "Kopf." (REW 8682 frz. tete, it. testa usw.). So wurde im Lateinischen TESTA zu einem konnotierten Parasynonym von CAPUT. "Zahlen" payer kommt im frz. nicht etwa von (EX)PENDERE, (EX)SOLVERE sondem von PACARE "beruhigen, zum Frieden bringen", eine Metonymie vom Typ 'Ursache > Resultat'. RECENS war anfangs bloB ein Antonym von ANTIQUUS, mit der Bedeutung "erst vor kurzem entstanden" > daher "frisch", besonders in Verbindung mit AQUA "Wasser'', CARO "Fleisch" aber auch mit DOLOR "Schmerz" usw. Von AQUA RE­CENS "frisches Wasser" > "kaltes Wasser" ( unter Weglassen des genus proximum, hier AQUA) stammt das rumanische Wort fiir "kalt": rece. "Geld" und "Besitz", Realia, die fiir jeden Menschen und in jeder Gesellschaft wichtig sind, werden in verschiedene Stilfiguren impliziert. Im Lateinischen selbst bekommt PECUNIA "Reichtum an Vieh" die Bedeutung "Geld". Rumanisch ist vita (< VITA "Leben") das Wort fiir "Rinder, Vieh": der Besitz, der zum Leben notwendig ist. Dieselbe Bedeutung " Vieh(bestand)" wird im Surselvischen muaglia genannt, das auf MOBILIA "bewegliches Hab und Gut" zuriickgeht. 2.4. Prototypisch: weder (abstrakt) generisch noch (wissenschaftlich) spezifisch Zu diesem Grundsatz passt Horatius' Vers "aurea ... mediocritas": die Volkssprache zieht das Durchschnittliche, im Rahmen des Greifbaren, dem Abstrakten, Generischen oder/und dem zu spezifisch Fachsprachlichen vor. Sie verzichtet auf eine prazise, dif­ferenzierte Wortwahl. Zusatzliche Informationen werden durch Situations-und Hand­lungseinbettung gegeben. Schon Hofmann (1951 §150; apud Stefenelli 1992 a) 356) hat diese Tendenz als eine allgemeine Charakteristik der Umgangssprachen wahr­genommen: "Allen Umgangssprachen, namentlich der unteren Schichten, eigen ist eine typische Denktragheit, die jede Anstrengung, klare und scharfe, der jeweiligen Situation entsprechende Ausdriicke zu finden, aus dem Wege geht und sich mit einer indifferenten, fiir alle moglichen Verhaltnisse passenden und erst durch den ganzen Zusammenhang naher prazisierten Bezeichnung begniigt". Stefenelli (ibid.) zitiert dazu das Kommentar der Herausgebers der italienischen Ausgabe von Hofmanns Buch (L. Ricottilli, La lingua d'uso latina, 2 1985, Bologna): "La 'pigrizia mentale' di cui parla (oggi si parlerebbe di tendenza al minimo sforzo ... ". Es ist sicher korrekt, jene "Denktragheit" mit dem Trend zum Einsparen in Verbindung zu bringen, doch heute ist sie gewiss eher mit der Tendenz zu Prototypie und mit kognitiven Vorgangen zu verkniipfen. Zwischen mehreren Parasynonymen mit unterschiedlichen spezifischen Semem, wahlt der Sprecher entweder das Allgemeinste, d. h. das Prototypischste, oder aber er laBt eines der Worter zum 'allgemeinen' werden, indem er auf die speiifische Bedeu­tung verzichtet (cf. supra "weinen"). Als Beispiele beschranke ich mich hier auf ein Verb und auf ein Adjektiv. Auf dem Gebiet der Bewegungsverben war das Lateinische fast so reichhaltig wie das Deutsche: ABIRE "weggehen", DISCEDERE u. PROFICISCI "aufbrechen", PERGERE "weitergehen" usw. Spate Texte und insbesondere Glossen zeigen, dass man fiir "gehen" die Verben VADERE, ein Wort der Umgangs-und Dichtersprache, und AMBULARE anfangs "um etwas herumgehen", ein Wort der familiaren, spater der Kirchensprache, vorgezogen hat. Dazu kommt noch das generische, klassische IRE "gehen", das sich trotz UnregelmaBigkeit durch seine Frequenz erhalten hat. Die Glossen beweisen, dass ABIRE und PERGERE nicht mehr verstanden wurden: ABIO: VADO; PERREXIT: VASIT, AMBULAVIT, IVIT). Ein anderes Beispiel bietet der Begriff "sch6n". Im Lateinischen konnte man sich sehr differenziert ausdriicken: FORMOSUS bedeutete "wohlgestaltet" (von Menschen), PULCHER bezog sich auf asthetische oder moralische Sch6nheit, mit anderen Worten auf abstrakte Schonheit. (Nihil virtute pulchrius.). SPECIOSUS hatte die Bedeutung "stattlich, prachtig, blendend", mit anderen Worten "Schonheit durch auBere Er­scheinung". VENUSTUS "liebreizend, anmutig, grazios" bezog sich insbesondere auf Frauen (Fuit voltu pulchro magis quam venusto), wahrend BELL US "hiibsch" bedeutete. Das letzte umgangssprachliche Wort ist das gelaufigste, neutralste, das Wort das man auch am leichtesten, fast unabhangig vom Kontext, damit am haufigsten beniitzen konnte. BELL US ist auch das einzige fast panromanische Wort (REW 1027). FORMOSUS lebt heute nur teilweise in der Romania weiter (REW 3450). Mehrere Beispiele zeigen, dass auch Kollektivworter, die von Natur aus eine ge­wisse Abstraktion beinhalten, von der Volkssprache eher gemieden wurden. So zieht das Vulgarlatein filr f -p, come per il triestino e il veneto giuliano folpo (ittion.). "polipo" (Rosamani 389), dal latino POLYPUS); incinase v. rifl. "inchinarsi, piegarsi" (da latino INCLINARE, con paralleli qua e la nei vari dialetti italiani, ad esclusione del veneto); maseidio s.m. "eccidio, sterminio" (deformazione di italiano omicidio, cfr. per I' aferesi l 'italiano micidiale); patruoma s. f. "pesantezza di stomaco, groppo, blocco" (parallelo all'italiano antico e al triestino paturnia "accesso di malinconia (odi nau­sea)" (GDDT 979): aggiungiamo, a completamento di quanto qui esposto, la variante, sempre rovignese patougna, ib. Pellizzer 671); pudara v. tr. "appoderare" e quindi "possedere, entrare in possesso" ( cfr. il deri vato pudaramento s. m. "capacita, facolta, possibilira", Pellizzer 720); pulsein s.m. "pulcino" (anche del dignanese, piu vicino, lessicalmente al tipo toscano -e francese (poussin) -che non al veneto puli$in); san­buta v. i. "cicalare, chiacchierare a lungo, cianciare" (con riscontri col gradese zambo­ta, col bisiacco sanbotar, col veneto periferico zambotar, (cfr. Pellizzer 809, Prati EV 151, Domini 395, Rosamani 922, 1242), cfr. pero anche l'italiano ciambolare, ant. ciambottare); sanicžare s. f. pl. "passeri", costituisce 1'anello di congiunzione, che finora mancava, tra il derivato saniciarein, anche sarniciarein, "passero" e il francese chante-claire, da cui trae origine tutta una piccola famiglia lessicale per la designa­zione di quest'uccello); sanpierla s.f. "mano o piede spropositati", anche "ciabatta", connettibile col tipo triestino zanfarda (impiegata con gli stessi due significati della M. R. Cerasuolo Pertusi, Storie di parole rovignesi, AMSIA vol. XCVI della Raccolta (XLIV della Nuova Serie), Trieste 1996, pp. 617-625. parola rovignese), ital. ant. cianfarda "sorta di veste antica" (GDDT 796), piuttosto che con zampa); servato s.m. "quercia" (da un originario *CERRUUS, ampliamento di CERRUS "cerro" (una sorta di quercia, ben presente dalle nostre parti), da cui den­dronimi vari e toponimi in Friuli ed Istria, cfr. Rosamani 935, 1008, 1253 e G. Frau in "Misc. G. Mastrelli Anzilotti", Firenze 1992, pp. 184-185); $in$iega s.f. "baldoria, molta allegria, mangiare e bere", collegabile col tipo triestino gan?ega ("scampagna­ta con bisboccia", pressocbe identico, anche per significato, GDDT 260), con l'isolano gan$ega ("gruppo di gente allegra, festa vivace e alla buona", Vascotto 122), dal tardo latino *GAUDIATICA (< GAUDEO "godo", cfr. Bondardo 80), attraverso una dis­simila-zione-assimilazione a distanza g -$ -g > $ -$ -g); squatrina v. t. "spiare, tener d'occhio" (ampliamento del tipo italiano squadrare nel significato di "osservare atten­tamente, scrutare da capo a piedi", cfr. DELI V 3607 s. v. squatra); ulivai s.m. pl. "mu­tuo, prestito" (da un livel "canone, interesse'', lat. *LIBELLUS o meglio AD LIBEL­LUM, con -a(d) o a(b) > u come in rovignese umondo "molto'', Pellizzer 1082), (dal lat. ABUNDE, cfr. M. Doria, AMSIA 1994, p. 370). Per la riprova di tutto cio riman­do a F. Semi, Glossario, p. 224, il quale cita testualmente per Pirano (a. 1305), la locu­zione "ad fictum sive libellum". Bencbe non intitolati come monografie etimologiche specifiche, segnalero, ancora, i contributi di due illustri studiosi di linguistica istriana: le pagine della prefazione al Pellizzer-Pellizzer di Franco Crevatin e una recensione di M. Doria (AMSIA 1994), il quale coglie l'occasione di tratteggiare la storia della stratificazione lessicale del rovi­gnese, distinguendo fra prestiti recentissimi (dal triestino, dal croato, dall'inglese, dal tedesco, dallo spagnolo) e presti ti -tal volta molto antichi, es. bacara "gozzovigliare" ­dal veneziano, e parole che possono definirsi del vecchio fondo dialettale preveneto, tali suritra "sorella", linbitro "sporgenza del tetto" (da gr. EMPORION "piazza, spiaz­zo"); antichi certo anche ca$al nel significato di "casa cadente, diroccata" e il gia cita­to umondo "molto" (da ABUNDE, con concordanze col gradese e, soprattutto, col friu­lano ). Ma il Doria si era occupato, anche in altre occasioni di etimi rovignesi ( e istri­oti in generale, v. note bibliografiche avanti). Rimarchevoli, come si edetto, anche le note etimologiche abbozzate dal Crevatin nella prefazione citata; come ad es. per balantron "groviglio, viluppo, intrigo" (da gr. LABYRINTHOS), balbiga o balbaga "vacillare, camminare oscillando" (da BALBI­CARE id.), ma$ido "ammansito, sottomesso, umile" (dal lat. MANSVETVS),paladit­ra anche paladoura "roncola" (dal lat. PUTATORIA). Questo mio contributo ecerto piu modesto di quelli sopra elencati, non pertanto spero riesca a gettare un po' di luce sulla storia di questo importante, caratteristico dialetto. Avverto, preliminarmente, che anche in questa seconda serie di voci (tratte dalle lettere B e P del succitato dizionario) si ricava l'impressione di un'estrema eterogenei­ta, soprattutto se riferita alla fase pili recente, direi contemporanea, del dialetto. lnfatti, solo due delle voci da me indagate rivelano un certo carattere di arcaicita e sono quin­di assegnabili al vecchio fondo dialettale preveneto ( esse sono, nella fattispecie, pri­ vial "piviale" e pulpulon "polpaccio"). Qualche interesse per la storia lessicale rovi­gnese ( ed istriana in generale) paiono offrire bruolo "piccolo orto, frutteto" e forse anche burion "tuono" (se questo eraccostabile a 'bora'). Altre parole sono adattamen­ti piu o meno vistosi di termini della lingua letteraria (tali paladiana "pietra o legno in omato posta ai lati del portale di un palazzo" e parlancein "parolaio, detto di persona verbo-sa") o sono, come capi ta spesso, venetismi piu o meno camuffati ( es. bacolo "trabaccolo"). Di minor conto le conclusioni che si possono trarre da panceiro "popone vemino", mentre pastanacia "pastinaca'', che sia pure debolmente, pare legato al Friuli (ma non per il -ča!). 1. bacolo s.m. -trabaccolo. Gli AA. non tentano alcun etimo. Certo e, comunque, che la parola non ha nulla a che fare con l 'omofono triestino bacolo "blatta, scara­faggio". Questo ricorre, veramente, come prestito anche nel rovignese, ma sotto la forma, lievemente adattata, baculo (p. 81). Data una certa propensione del dialet­to rovignese all'aferesi (qualche esempio significativo dt tale procedimento lo tro­via-mo in Doria, AMSIA 1994, p. 372, es. caco "macaco'', ossia "sciocco", e anche smonica "fisarmonica"), non esito a vedere in bacolo un abbreviamento del veneziano (del triestino ecc.) trabacolo "trabaccolo, trabiccolo" (per il suo etimo e diffusione v. GDDT 749 s. v.). L'etimo eaccettabile anche se il rovignese, in aggiunta a bacolo, conosce anche le forme complete trabacolo e trabaculo (Pellizzer vol. II, 1054 s. v.). 2. bascaran s.m. "Nel linguaggio dei pescatori il pesce al di sotto dei due etti". Gli AA. poi precisano che l'Ive menziona questa parola anche per il vecchio dialetto (che si suppone fosse anch'esso di tipo istrioto come i vidni gallesanese e sissane­se) di Pola: "dinotare quella quantita di pesce che si muove al di sopra". Collegato ad esso risulta il plurale bascarami "i pesci che non fanno parte della massa, del banco" ("pesce misto" v. un po' avanti). Evidentemente si tratta di una voce uscente al singolare con un -m-passata a -n. La considererei volentieri un derivato da PiSCULUS "piccolo pesce", da cui proviene l'antico pisano pescolo "briciolo", il lucchese piscolo "minuzzolo, bruscolo" (sull'acqua, nel vino) e simm. (cosi DEi IV 2875) e, soprattutto, il bellunese pessucola (da *PISCULU, pero rifatto su PIS­CIS > 'pesse', su cui REW(S) 6532). Ad esso si aggiunse il suffisso di collettivo italia-no -ame (cfr. rottame, sartiame, o anche gradese novelame "pesce novello", Cor-batto 186) ed -l-come piu volte in rovignese, si sara poi rotacizzato. Possibile, pero, pensare anche a un PISCARE o 'pesca' piu il suffisso composto -olame (cfr. in triestino e gradese barcolame "insieme di piccole barche"), sempre con rotacis­mo. Per lo scambio plb cfr. bacirolpanceiro (su cui v. avanti). 3. bruielo s.m. -brolo, frutteto. Attestato anche (v. avanti) bruolo, il quale concor­da con la forma, piu frequentemente attestata in Istria, brolo, che ritroviamo ad es. ad Albona, a Parenzo, a Buie, a Cittanova e a Salvore, soprattutto come toponimo. Ma a Parenzo e attestato, come toponimo (a. 1325) Broilo e l'appellativo broilo e anche del pisinese (Rosamani 119 s. v., cfr. la scrivente CES, AMSIA 1990, p. 190), quest'ultimo piu vicino al tipo friulano broili. Tomando al nostro bruielo, le voci ad esso piu vicine sono, nell'antico veneziano Brogio (su cui v. Prati EV p. 25) e il toponimo triestino antico Brojet (V. Scussa p. 23 Cam.) o Broglietto (Ireneo della Croce p. 199) o Bruiet (P. Cancellieri "il Giovane", s. XIV ex., ed. M. Szom­bathely POr. N. S. 2, 1966, p. 261), oggi Broletto, ma, fin dal '400 anche, meta­tizzato, Burieto (a. 1401, Cavalli TS '400, p. 345). Broilo, bralo e broglio sono tre evoluzioni distinte a partire da una forma originaria (di origine celtica) BROGILO, o direttamente da questa ( e questo vale, oltre che per broilo anche per il fiulano broili) o attraverso un francese breuil (v. REW 1324, ma sono possibili anche altre spiegazioni, cfr. REW(S)), da cui, appunto, broio, brogio, broglio e infine, con de­palatalizzazione, bralo. Come si constata, sul suolo istriano hanno fatto presa tutte e tre le varianti ed e questo uno dei sintomi della frammentazione dialettale e della complessita delle stratificazioni lessicali della penisola (per un altro caso, riguar­dante il nome dell"'edera" v. Doria AMSIA 88, 1988, p. 289 nonche in "Festschr. Muljačič", Hamburg 1987, p. 262). Tant'e vero che anche nell'ambito di una stes­sa area, magari molto ristretta, si sovrappongono piu forme, come succede, appun­to, per Trieste, per Parenzo, per Capodistria ( -l-successivamente sostituito, in altri prestiti, dalla mera equivalenza -rjrj-> -d-mentre il carlofortino kazada 'colostro' eanteriore al passaggio -d-?> -f-in sulcitano, documentato invece dalla variante calasettana kazara 24 . Anche gwizle 'giogo per i buoi' e 'filare di vigna' mostra uno stadio antecedente alla caduta di -l-nel sulcitano antiochese, che ha attualmente guaž25. 5. II contatto linguistico col sardo ha quindi inizio con la fondazione delle colonie, e fin da subito si presenta variegato e consistente; esso si appoggia all'introduzione di qualche elemento sardo nella fonetica e (forse) nella morfologia del tabarchino: ma l'introduzione nell'inventario fonologico tabarchino di una f intervocalica polivibrante apicale 26, ad esempio, non ha creato sostanziali rivoluzioni nella struttura del dialetto, e, soprattutto, non ha creato interferenze nell'intercomprensione con i parlanti geno­vesi; anche l'introduzione relativamente frequente di voci con -d-intervocalica non rappresenta una novita dirompente in un dialetto nel quale le desinenze in -adu, -ada sono, storicamente, tuttaltro che rare27. Quanto alla neutralizzazione occorsa nel plurale dell'articolo indeterminativo fem­minile non enecessariamente imputabile a influsso sardo, come supposto, peraltro in forma dubitativa, da E. Blasco Ferrer28. 6. L'antichita e la quantita dei prestiti ridimensiona almeno in parte l'opinione, dif­fusa anche a livello popolare, di una maggiore ricettivita verso i sardismi da parte della sottovarieta calasettana rispetto a quella carlofortina: questa opinione, appoggiata a considerazioni di ordine geografico 29 appare smentita dalla presenza di un numero preponderante di sardismi comuni alle due localita, e soprattutto dal rilievo dei sardi­smi specifici della padata di Carloforte, in parte antichi in quanto assunti verosimil­mente nella fase (1738-1769) successiva all'installazione della colonia tabarchina del­l'isola di San Pietro e prima della fondazione di Calasetta30. Che a Calasetta i prestiti legati alla terminologia rurale siano piii. numerosi e con­sistenti, sara poi, in parte, conseguenza della tradizionale specializzazione economica della localita, strutturata come si evisto sulla pratica intensiva della viticoltura. Proprio a partire dalla specializzazione agricola di Calasetta epossibile ricostruire del resto, attraverso le fonti orali, alcune modalita di assunzione dei prestiti sardi. La eonstatazione dell'esistenza di diverse voci legate ai lavori di campagna, tra­dizionalmente svolti da stagionali sardi ancora fin verso gli anni Cinquanta e Sessanta del sec. XX si spiega infatti (e viene spiegata dai locutori) col fatto che questi operai, dato il carattere precario della loro presenza in loco, non avvertivano l' esi~enza di una maggiore integrazione linguistica nel contesto locale3 1: erano i prupyetbi tabarchini, in questo caso, a dotarsi di una conoscenza piii. o meno attiva del dialetto sulcitano o di quello della zona di Teulada dalla quale provenivano molti lavoratori stagionali 32; era dunque naturale che la terminologia agricola risentisse di questa particolare situa­zione di diglossia, arricchendosi progressivamente di elementi lessicali sardi. Attualmente quasi nessun tabarchino parla il sardo3 3, tranne, appunto, quegli an­ziani di Calasetta che lo appresero nei decenni passati per le esigenze di comunica­zione coni braccianti impegnati nella raccolta dell'uva e in altre mansioni: nyitri i primi t~IJpi duv~imu parlige, IJ sirdu, s~rte paule ke nu sa.imu se fliimu kapf... 1 ~a cu fasile pe ny~tri parl~ w s~rdu ke hi w tabar~IJ... ~mupa.ule k .~IJ difisili, ufiimaycfr, u bcfr, u kcfr, nu ge a faIJ, g ~muna paula ke ly~tri nu ge a faIJ m~i, prqpyu difisilišima: u ščrf!pu34. 11 carattere «tecnico» dell'assunzione di molti prestiti trova quindi una spiegazione ancora in c. 3. f~wra, s.f CF 'ferula, pianta erbacea' -Spanoll,26feurra, DES (l,514)feurra s.v.ferula. 4. fige muriške, s.f pl. CF 'fichi d'india'; meno usato rispetto al tipo lig.fige dir;dya. A CA preva­lentemente muštaCi -Vr74, DES (1,520).figu murfska. 5. furyadr9žu, s.m. TB 'fabbricato rurale': CF 'abitazione con podere', CA piuttosto 'magazzino'; voce di scarso uso, e riferita comunque al retroterra sardo -Spanoll,48.fitrriadroxu 'ritiro, tenu­ta', DES (l,561)furrjadr6žu 'capanne di pastori ed ovile, di cui molti divennero col tempo pic­cole popolazioni e comuni'. 6. gur~u, s.m. TB 'cardo selvatico' -Spanoll,69 gureu, DES (1,300) gureu. · 7. igperdiu, s.m. CA 'selciato'; voce poco usata rispetto al sinon. ris ~ potrebbe denunciare l'antichita del prestito. 27. kana, s.f CA 'stelo del granturco' -Spanol,303 canna de trigu, d'orzu 'stelo', DES (1,283) kanna de gauli, de lattja; il tipo canna per 'stelo' non enoto in area lig. 28. kr~šta, s.f CA (ALI) 'porca del campo' -Spanol,363 crista, DES (1,406) krista. 29. maIJdeqru, s.m. CA 'rastrello' -a Sant' Antioco ima mdu de verru 'rastrello con quattro o cinque denti', DES (Il,69), s.v. manu. 30. manega, s.f TB 'covone' -Spanoll,207 miiniga de trigu 'covone'; Vr112 maniga, cfr. anche DES (11,66) s.v. manika. Calco semantico. 31. mantiIJgulu, s.m. CA 'mannello di frumento' -Vrl12, DES (Il,70) man(n)ugu. La mancata ridu­zione del proparossitono potrebbe denunciare l'antichita del prestito. 32. manulJki, v. tr. CF 'scalzare' -Spanol,147 ammanunciii 'malmenare, palpeggiare, brancicare, gualcire, toccar colle mani, comprimere'. Specializzazione semantica a partire dal concetto di 'alterare, rimuovere'. 33. mira, s.f TB 'zappa piana' -Spanoll,211 marra, DES (11,77) 'zappa, marra'. Il tipo mlira enoto anche in Liguria, ma non e usuale. 34. maragcug, s.m. TB 'zappone' -accrescitivo di marra 'zappa': cfr. mamiccu, DES (II,77), s.v. marra. 35. muliJni, s.m. CA 'termine di confine tra i campi'; concorre la forma lig. t~rmine -Spanoll,231 mullone 'limite, confine'; Vr87, DES (11,136) mulloni. Esempio tipico di sardismo non assi­milato morfologicamente ( (b. 39. piz~~i, s.f CA 'cicerchia' -SpanoII,282 piseddu, DES (11,283) pi$e<;l<;lu, s.v. piw 40. purtižu, s.m. CA 'bica di fieno o frumento' -Voce assente nei repertori·consultati. 41. škuba, s.f CA 'scopa grossolana usata per pulire l'aia' -Spanoll,140 iscoba; Vr116 iskoba 'scopa per pulire l'aia'. La forma skuba e presente in lig. per 'scopone, gioco di carte'. 42. št~ve, s.f TB 'stegola dell'aratro' -Vr92,94 steva. 43. tegperadr9žu, s.m. CA (ALI) 'coltello dell'aratro di legno'; il termine si ricorda, ma non viene piu usato -Spanoll,386 temperadroxu de orbada 'cappio del vomere', DES (II,473) tempe­radr6žu s.v. temperare. 44. trabusu, s.m. TB 'forcone' -Spanoll,399 trebuzzu; Vr119 trebattsu; DES (II,521) s.v. trivuccu cita le varianti campid. treuttsu, trebassu e, a Sant' Antioco, trafUčču. 45. vakagte, agg. CA (ALI) 'di terreno lasciato in riposo ma che viene rivoltato' -Vr70 bacantes (nei documenti antichi; mod. piuttosto vagantiu. La forma dovette appoggiarsi all'agg. vakfuJte 'vuoto, svuotato in senso generico', che dl! piu indizi sembra pero un prestito del siciliano penetrato in TB attraverso il lessico della tonnara. c) Viticoltura e vinificazione La viticoltura rappresento la principale fonte di benessere per Calasetta fino all'inizio della se­conda meta del sec. XX. 11 vino prodotto veniva trasferito a Genova su imbarcazioni provenienti dalla riviera ligure (i cosiddetti riv&ni) ed esportato in Italia e in Francia, dove veniva usato per «tagliare» prodotti piu nabili. Le tecniche di coltivazione della vite e di produzione del vino, che riflettono le modalita catalane diffuse in Sardegna, furono apprese certamente in loco dai coloni, e l'utilizzo mas­siccio di manodopera sulcitana e campidanese ebbe come conseguenza, secondo le modalita gia chiarite, il radicamento di un lessico settoriale di prevalente origine sarda. Restano tuttavia liguri, come in altri campi semantici, le denominazioni generali della pianta, dei processi di produzione, della maggior parte degli strumenti e dei recipienti impiegati per la vinificazione. 46. ameli, v. tr. CA 'scolmare un tino eccessivamente pieno mediante una cannuccia' -Spanol,149, DES (I,81) ammellare 'cessare, placare' (voce logud.). Specializzazione semantica di un ter­mine d'uso generale. 47. barbati, v. intr. CA 'dissodare' -Vr78,83, DES (1,177) brabattai s. v. barb -ll.-potrebbe denunciare un'antichita del prestito o una provenienza di esso dali' area logud., a meno che non si tratti, addirittura, di una voce ital. merid. penetrata attraverso il lessico della pesca. 168. kaša, s.f. CA 'cassapanca' -Spanol,314; Vr319 Mša 'cassapanca'; la voce, foneticamente lig., significa in primo luogo 'cassa' in senso generico; a CF ein uso kašabtivka, calco sulla voce it.; completamente assente il tipo lig. u bavkti. che ha assonanze ne! sardo logud. bangale 'cassa grande', Spanol,247. 169. katre, s.m. CA 'letto a una piazza di elegante lavorazione'; voce uscita dall'uso -Spanol,317 catre 'letto di parata', DES (1,319) ktitre 'letto di parata'. 170. l~pa, s.m. TB 'scorticatoio, coltellaccio', in particolare (ma non solo) quello dei pastori -Spano 11,188 lepa, DES (11,22) leppa. 171. mucQni, s.m. CA 'pezzetti di brace'; voce uscita dall'uso -Spanoll,229 mrucciimi 'tizzone', DES (11,153) muttsjoni 'tizzone' (s.v. muttsu). 172. paraštagu, s.m. TB 'scaffalatura', sia di casa che di negozio -Spanoll,260 parastaggiu 'guar­daroba, scaffale'; Ls212, DES (1,222) parastaggu 'scaffale' (< cat. parastatge). 173. safata, s.f. TB 'vassoio' -Spanoll,334 saffata; Ls190,211, DES (11,376) saffatta (< cat. safata). 174. serižu, s.m. CF 'crivello, piccolo vaglio' -Spanol,321 'vaglio, canestro grande', logud.; Vr153, DES (1,330) čerrlgu s.v. kerrfkru. 175. šiv~la, s.f. TB 'conca, catino di terra impiegato per preparazioni alimentari e usato anche come piatto da portata' -Spanoll,345 scivedda 'catino'; Vr154,155, DES (11,658) šive#a 'bacinel­la in terracotta in cui si lavano le stoviglie' (s. v. iskfvu); a Sant' Antioco. šijeftjtja (nostre infor­mazioni); si noti -ll-in luogo del consueto -dd-< -tjtj-. 176. špidu, s.m. TB 'spiedo' -Vr328 logud. ispfdu. 177. štr~žu, s.m. TB 'recipente in genere' -Spanoll,371 strexu de cuxina 'stoviglia', DES (11,691) strežu s. v. isterju. 178. štueadinlii, s.m. CF, štugadinti.i CA 'salvadanaio' -Spanoll,372 stuggiai 'conservare'. n) Abbigliamento e acconciatura Presso le comunita tabarchine non esistette mai un costume tipico, ed era anzi un segno di distin­zione rispetto ai Sardi il ves tire abiti di foggia continentale: « [ Alla sagra di Sant' Antioco] si girava curiosi verso le esposizioni delle varie bancarelle in mezzo ad una gran folla in costume sardo che era il quotidiano abito di quegli abitanti; noi non distinguevamo certamente il costume feriale da quello festivo. Erano tutti vestiti alla sarda e questo distingueva i Calasettani ed i Carlofortini da loro»70. 179. arbižu, s.m. TB 'orbace' -voce conosciuta principalmente in relazione all'abbigliamento tipi­co sardo: Spanoll,249 orbilci; Vr292, DES (1,68) orbtiči, arbtiči s. v. albtike. 180. b9ti, s.m. TB 'stivaloni' -Spanol,274 bottinu 'stivaletto'; Ls203,219, DES (1,220) bbttas 'sti­vali' ( -ii-che confermerebbe r antichita del prestito. 278. škrame9tii, v. tr. CF 'scottare' -Spanoll,347 scramentai 'scottare', DES (1,653) iskarmentare, skramentai 'imparare a proprie spese'. 9. Un aspetto importante della problematica legata all'assunzione di voci d'origine sarda in tabarchino equello relativo alla percezione di tali fenomeni di prestito da parte dei parlanti. L' alterita delle due comunita tabarchine rispetto al retroterra estata vissuta in pas­sato, come si edetto, in relazione a una profonda diversita di specializzazioni eco­nomiche: eper questo che la locuzione an& in Sard~fia 'andare in Sardegna', con la quale i Tabarchini intendono tuttora 'andare in qualsiasi localita sarda', compresa la vicinissima Sant' Antioco, assume un valore che trascende completamente ogni consi­derazione di carattere etnico. Questa precisa consapevolezza di un'alterita economica si appoggia peraltro agli elementi distintivi di carattere linguistico e in senso lato culturale, che, per la loro stes­sa evidenza, diventano i facili blasoni di una «genovesita» conclamata e per certi aspet­ti consapevolmente ristrutturata in alcuni dei suoi caratteri piu vistosi75. 11 concetto-base della costruzione identitaria tabarchina viene cosl riassunto dal detto se vagu pe m~ i dirki m acapaIJ, se vagu pe t~ra i sirdi m amasaIJ 76, nel quale e, palese l'impegno di enfatizzare una differenza rispetto agli abitanti del retroterra, i Sdrdi 'i Sardi', paragonandoli addirittura agli antichi nemici, i corsari bar­bareschi77• Come e dunque evidente, i Tabarchini rifiutano esplicitamente di considerare se stessi come Sardi, anche se questa distinzione perde valore nel momento in cui una persona proveniente dalla Sardegna si integra in una delle due comunita, assimilan­done in primo luogo gli usi linguistici78 . 11 prototipa del 'Sardo' per il quale si nutriva ( e in parte tuttora si nutre) un senso di netto distacco epiuttosto il Sard(Jtu akurddu il 'sardetto a stipendio' che si adattava a umili mansioni presso i proprietari o si metteva al servizio della borghesia imprenditoriale tabarchina79. Ea questo tipa di manodopera scarsamente qualificata, precaria, per certi aspetti se­minomade, che sembra adattarsi in particolare la locuzione amia k acamu w sb.rdu 'bada che chiamo il Sardo', con la quale si minacciano i bambini vivaci, a rappresen­tare cio che in italiano ecorrentemente 'l'uomo del sacco' o altra forma di spaurac­chio. Anche altre locu~ioni quali efy k9se da sb.rdi 'sono porcherie, espazzatura' (anche d11may efy k9se da sb.rdi 'domani sara un disastro, saranno cose turche'), e vive da sb.rdu 'fare il fannullone', chiariscono meglio il senso di una contrapposizione legata piuttosto alle categorie urbano -rurale (pastorale) o stabile/accentrato -seminomade/ disperso che non a una categorizzazione di carattere etnico80. 10. Se si considera la valutazione fortemente positiva dell'uso del tabarchino, non sorprendera allora che ad esso si attribuisca, rispetto all'apporto sardo, una impermea­bilita e una purezza che appare ampiamente smentita dalla quantita di prestiti penetrati dal sardo. Alla domanda ti df k 9w sardu u 1a lašliu kwark9sa 6 tabarkfIJe?, la prima risposta di un informatore calasettano cinquantenne colto, rappresentativa di un'opinione corrente, tende ad esempio a minimizzare: n~IJte. škw~ži nfIJte. Co~ g ~ de pawle I)ta nezd:iiu ~a!J i, peškw~i perk~ til.tu 1 il]v~i;nu i pe~kwil.i nu fivan nfl]te, bark~te picfIJe, t~l]pi katfvi, e aliia pigi°ival] a t~ra, tiivaIJ i birke 1J t~ra e sen anival] a fi w ku!Jtadf!J...» ('II pescatore era un morto tli farne. Se c'era una famiglia bisognosa era quella del pescatore, non facevano nulla tutto l'inverno, per via delle barche piccole, del cattivo tempo, e allora stavano a terra, tiravano le barche a secco e facevano i giornalieri in campagna', informatore calasettano, classe 1912). La frequenza tli cogno­mi siciliani (Sgro, Ventaglio, Cincotti, Scopelliti) o ponzesi (Aversano, D'Amico) conferma la provenienza forestiera tli molti pescatori, che sceglievano poi tli trasferirsi presso le comunita tabarchine attratti dalla pos­sibilita tli partecipare stagionalmente alla tonnara o tli arrivare a possedere un terreno. Ancor oggi a Calasetta si verifica una significativa migrazione stagionale tli pescatori da Ustica e da Mazara del Vallo. 40 Tra i soprannomi raccolti a Carloforte e Calasetta numerosi, anche attribuiti a persone o famiglie tli pretta origine tabarchina, utilizzano materiale lessicale sardo, scelto evidentemente in ragione tli una particolare espressivita, che si riconosce in genere nell'utilizzo tli suffissi vezzeggiativi o peggiorativi: basti ricordare per Carloforte Bacucefda, Badadu, Balaycefda, Biriygefda, Biseytfku ('Vincenzino'), per Calasetta Bepižefdu ('Giuseppino'), Beližefdu, Kazarefdu, Pulitefdu, ecc. Curioso e il nomignolo Pitan~du attribuito a Carloforte alla statua del re Carlo Emanuele III, sul lungomare della cittadina. 41 L'utilizzo tli suffissi d'origine sarda riguarda sia sostantivi d'uso comune (Cilefda 'pene del bimbo', zigitu 'giocattolo', papelftu 'pezzetto tli carta', forse veytižijlu 'venticello', lebeeijlu 'venticello tli libeccio', raygitu 'zoppetto'), sia, soprattutto, i nomi propri e i loro ipocoristici, come Balfta 'Isabella', Bepika 'Giuseppina', Cicitu 'Francesco', Andrižiy 'Andrea' ecc. Per completezza, va osservato che il suffisso -ijlu ha una discre­ta diffusione anche in Liguria, ove e comunque d'origine non locale. Quanto a -itu, e frequente in terraferma nei nomi propri importati dall' America Meridionale in seguito a consistenti fenomeni d'emigrazione tli ri­torno (Terezita, Markitu, Kwaysita 'Juancita', Kelftu 'Angelito'), e !o si incontra saltuariamente anche in so­stantivi d'uso (papelftu). Sulla diffusione popolare della suffissazione d'origine spagnola in Liguria si veda Toso 1993. 42 Es. prevacu 'pretaccio', pwiaca 'grosso spavento'. 43 Tra le concordanze tli natura fonetica o morfologica citeremo solo la desinenza del participio passato in -tiu e la presenza ricorrente del fono ž. Tra i sardismi elencati da BLASCO FERRER, 1994: 189-190 per il tabarchi­no, l'occasionale somiglianza tli forme lessicali liguri e sarde ha prodotto qualche interpretazione meritevole tli approfondimento: ad esempio il tipo ka de sefne 'colore tli cenere' per 'grigio' e tli larga diffusione in Li­guria (cfr. PETRACCO SJCARDI -Toso ET AL, d'ora in avanti VPL, s.v. curu) e non va quindi considerato, ne­cessariamrnte, un calco sul campidanese kol6ri ( d)e žinfžu. Lo stesso autore (p. 190) attribuisce a influsso sardo la voce tuydu 'piatto', attribuendola a specializzazione semantica dell'agg. sardo tundu 'rotondo', ma la voce e da sempre l'unica nota in Liguria in questo significato (VPL s. v.), ed e quindi arrivata in Sardegna coi Tabarchini. Anche un caso tli concordanza casuale come briska 'favo', presente in ligure (VPL s. v.) e in campidanese rende problematico l'accertamento dell'origine del tabarchino briška, che appartiene peraltro a una sfera semantica interessata da vistosi fenomeni tli prestito (v. Glossario). C'e da chiedersi se una voce come de Mda 'gratis', tli antica e diffusa presenza in Liguria, abbia visto rafforzata la sua vitalita in tabarchi­no grazie all'influsso del sardo de bbadas. 44 Oltre al caso gia citato tli briška e particolarmente significativo, tra gli altri, quello tli pwasa 'potatoio': lavo­ce compare identica in gran parte della Liguria, ma appartiene a un campo semantico, quello della viticoltura, ne! quale il lessico tabarchino e in gran parte improntato al modello sardo. Un adattamento o sovrapposizione del campidanese pudasa 'id.' non e quindi da escludere. Per il loro carattere tli termini dell'uso generale non dovrebbero invece esservi dubbi sull'appartenenza al fondo originario del tabarchino di voci di antica e docu­mentata presenza in Liguria come baysiglise 'dondolarsi', cfkera 'tazza' (e Cikeruy),frazd 'consumare', sef da bUka 'palato', tiay 'tegame', malgrado la corrispondenza riscontrabile coi tipi sardi bantsigai, Clkkera, fradzai, keflu dessa (b)ukka, tianu. 45 Un caso tipico e quello di štayku 'tabaccaio', voce d'origine spagnola ben documentata in Sardegna (e per­tanto indicata come sardismo in BLASCO FERRER, 1994: 189), ma altrettanto ben attestata in Liguria (Toso, 1993: 116); Jo stesso si puo dire per muiiu 'crocchia' (in area ligure dal sec. XVII, Toso, 1993: 97) e per škabefcu 'modo di preparare il tonno', radicato sia in Liguria che in Sardegna (skabečču) e da connettere con sp. escabeche, cat. escabetx. Voci come traypaya e traypazu tra le altre sembrano presupporre un tramite sardo (v. Glossario), ma non va dimenticato che I' ispanismo trampa e documentato in genovese del sec. XVII (Ibid., p. 121). Pili complessa e la vicenda di baštašu 'facchino specializzato nel trasporto dei tonni nello sta­bilimento a terra': la voce e presente in sardo, mala specializzazione semantica pare connetterla all'influsso lessicale siciliano, piuttosto consistente nel lessico della tonnara. In ogni caso la voce dovrebbe risalire, in ultima analisi, al cat. bastaix; tuttavia bastaxo si incontra anche in genovese del sec. XIII (ANONIMO GENO­VESE, 1994: 549, rima 71, verso 34): l'esistenza di bastasu ne! dialetto di Alassio (PEZZUOLO, 1989: 17) rende­rebbe allora plausibile l'ipotesi di una sopravvivenza dell'antica voce ligure anche in tabarchino, se non fosse noto che da Alassio aveva luogo in passato una consistente migrazione stagionale di tonnarotti verso Carlo­forte e l'Isola Piana, da dove la voce sara risali ta sulla riviera ligure assieme a qualche altro terrnine tabarchi­no. Un esempio per tutti: la locuzione a [cu fcu 'appena appena', che corrisponde ad Alassio al tipo Iigure comune a fsa a fsa (PEZZUOLO, 1989: 40), trova riscontro sol o nel tabarchino a fcu fcu, che ha tutta I' aria di un «cavallo di ritorno» sulcitano in concorrenza col tipo genuinamente Iigure (presente nella variante a l [su a l fsu). Altro caso interessante e quello dell'arabismo rliiže 'rais, capo della tonnara': il sardo arrais viene ascritto dal Wagner all'influsso siciliano, e cio lascerebbe pensare che la voce tabarchina abbia seguito un analogo percorso: tuttavia proprio la forrna raixo e presente nel senso di 'capo di un equipaggio turco' in un testo genovese del 1781 (Toralbo Armonico in Toso, 2000b: 260), fatto che ne attesta la diffusione in area Iigure indipendentemente dalla rete dalle relazioni sardo-sicule in cui i Tabarchini si trovarono coinvolti. 46 Sui francesismi in sardo cfr. DEITORI, 1988. Una voce tabarchina come fNna 'imbarazzo' corrisponde sia a · forrne genovesi documentate gia ne! sec. XVIII, sia al sardo gefna 'noia, fastidio'. 47 WAGNER, 1997: 246-247 (d'ora in avanti: Ls. La classica opera del maestro della linguistica sarda, del 1950, verra citata nel prosieguo sulla base di questa recente, ottima riedizione, con riferimento al numero delle pagine ). 48 1 miei informatori tabarchini sono in genere convinti, ad esempio, che la voce libs, z presso le giovani generazioni calasettane, la develar­izzazione di &presso molti carlofortini o, al contrario, la sua pronuncia come r. fenomeno quest'ultimo di ampissima diffusione. 58 Come in sardo, il nome del 'corvo' (kri}u), ad esempio, epassato a indicare anche il 'cormorano'. 59 Su questa voce cfr. anche le osservazioni di DETIORI, 1993: 217, 222. 60 La variante potrebbe riflettere un influsso di lig. kumeflu 'un tipo, un tale' usato con funzione apotropaica per non citare il vero nome del rapace notturno, considerato apportatore di malasorte. In Liguria la 'civetta' ha infatti, accanto al nome vero, una serie di nomignoli e ipocoristici che evitano di fare ad essa riferimento diretto. 61 Per questa voce il Wagner (Vr206) risale ad alcune voci catalane; non escluderei comunque qualche collega­mento con ciro 'nome di un vitigno calabrese coltivato nella zona di Ciro Marina'; in questo caso pero, il TB potrebbe essere il tramite per la diffusione della voce in area campid.: in TB einfatti piuttosto frequente il passaggio c>gin voci d'origine forestiera o semidotta (es. gištefrna 'cisterna'). 62 Cfr. anche il sardo reg6ttu Vr273 'ricotta': la concordanza potrebbe avere contribuito al mantenimento di rek>, I, pp. 1-11. Sobrero, A. (1974), Il tabarchino: processi di disgregazione linguistica in atto, in Id., Dialetti diversi. Proposte per lo studio delle parlate alloglotte in Italia, Milella, Lecce 1974, pp. 17-32. Spano = Spano, G. (1998). Spano, G. (1998), Vocabolariu sardu-italianu, a cura di G. Paulis, Ilisso, Nuoro (Iled., 2 voli.) Toso, F. (1993), Gli ispanismi nei dialetti liguri, Ed. dell'Orso, Alessandria. Toso, F. ( 1999), La componente ligure nel lessico capraiese, «Zeitschrift fiir romanische Philologie», 115, 3, pp. 472-501. Toso, F. (2000a), Per una storža linguistica del genovese d'Otramar, in Fusco-Orioles-Parrneggiani (2000), pp. 327-341. Toso, F. (2000b ), La letteratura in genovese, vol. II, L'eta repubblicana, Le Mani, Recco. Toso, F. (in corso di stampa A), Specificita linguistica e percezione dell'altro nella societa tabarchina contem­poranea, in Atti del Convegno Intemazionale di Studi «Che cosa ne pensa oggi Chiaffredo Roux?» Percorsi della dialettologia percettiva all'alba del nuovo millennio (Bardonecchia 25-27 maggio 2000). Toso, F. (in corso di stampa B), Conservazione e innovazione in tabarchino, in Atti del Convegno Intemazionale di Studi Una lingua del mare: il genovese tra Liguria e Mediterraneo (Genova-Arenzano, 22-23 novem­bre 1998). Tropea, G. (1970), La letteralizzazione dei dialetti galloitalici di Sicilia, "Atti del Convegno di Studi su lingua parlata e lingua scritta", Bollettino del Centra di Studi Filologici e Linguistici Siciliani, 11, pp. 3-31. Vallebona, G. (1987), Dizionario Tabarkino-Italiano, Compagnia dei Librai, Genova. Vallebona, G. (1988), Carloforte. Storia di una colonizzazione, Edizioni della Torre, Cagliari (IIIed.). Virdis, M. (1978), Fonetica del dialetto sardo campidanese, Edizioni della Torre, Cagliari. Vr =Wagner, M.L. (1996). VPL = Petracco Sicardi, G. -Toso, F. et AL (1985-1992). Wagner, M.L. (1960-1964), Dizionario etimologico sardo, Winter, Heidelberg. Wagner, M.L. (1996), La vita rustica della Sardegna riflessa nella lingua. Saggio introduttivo, traduzione e cura di G. Paulis, Ilisso, Nuoro (Ued.). Wagner, M.L. (1997), La lingua sarda. Storia, spirito eforma, a c. di Giulio Paulis, Ilisso, Nuoro (Ued.). Povzetek SARDSKE JEZIKOVNE PRVINE V LIGURSKEM GOVORU TABARKINOV Prispevek skuša osvetliti govor, imenovan tabarchino; to jezikovno enoto tvorijo prebivalci dveh naselij, Carloforte in Calasetta, na otokih San Pietro in San Antioco ob jugozahodni obali Sardinije: koloni, ki so poprej bivali v Tuniziji kot ostanki genoveške kolonizacije iz 16. stoletja, in sicer na oto­ku Tabarca, odtod ime govora, so v 18. stoletju prinesli s seboj ligursko-genoveški govor. Ohranja­nje originalnega govora kaže z ene strani kolektivno sposobnost prebivalstva, da se obdrži jasna raz­lika s sardščino na otoku, z druge pa socioekonomski prestiž tabarkinske skupnosti in pa stalne vezi z matično deželo in te so utrjevale genoveško narečje. Kljub temu, da so bili Tabarkini docela v sard­skem okolju, se je njihov val obnašal kot vsi kolonialisti: izrabljanje in izvažanje krajevnih virov za življenje. Ta dejavnost pa obenem v dobri meri utemeljuje iz sardščine prevzete besede in tudi potek prevzemanja: čeprav jih je veliko in kažejo, da je prišlo do prevzemanja že v prvi dobi naseljevanja, so prevzete besede v glavnem omejene na agrarno življenje in nanj vezano dejavnost; ali pa kažejo posebnosti okolja (krajevna imena, oblike tal, rastlinstvo), torej to, česar doseljenci niso mogli pri­nesti s seboj. Sardsko besedje je kdaj pa kdaj pogojeno z močno izraznostjo, vendar ni prevladalo nad ligursko komponento v govoru Tabarkinov v vseh tistih situacijah, ki so zahtevale jezikovno skladnost z genoveškim narečjem, torej povsod tam, kjer posebnih razlogov ni bilo, kjer je tradicija obstala. Študija obravnava v svojem prvem delu nekaj splošnoveljavnih ugotovitev o jezikovnih posledi­cah stičnosti dveh jezikovnih variant; ugotavlja pa, da mogočno število sardizmov ni načelo glaso­slovno in oblikovno-skladenjsko podobo tabarkinskega govora: izposojenke iz sardščine so se vanj vklopile, ne da bi povzročile kakršno koli nelagodnost v fonološkem sistemu ali v skladenjskih struk­turah. Sledi izbran seznam izrazov, ki so sardskega izvora, z etimologijo in semantičnimi opombami, kjer je bilo to potrebno. Končni del študije je namenjen podrobni obravnavi sociolingvističnih prob­lemov, ki se porajajo, ko tabarkinsko govoreči prebivalci sprejemajo izraze iz sardščine. K temu se še dodaj;'I, da sta obe jezikovni skupnosti, tista v Carloforte in tista v Calasetti, na različen način izpostavljeni tujim jezikovnim vplivom -misli se na italijanščino, uradni jezik in jezik v javni rabi ­in da prihaja v besedju celo do neke težnje k purizmu. Yolanda Ruiz de Zarobe CDV 802/806-56: 371.3 Universidad de Pais Vasco, Espafia CONCORDANCIA COPULATIVA, PRONOMBRES SUJETO Y ADQUISICION DE SISTEMAS NO NATIVOS El presente articulo investiga la actuaci6n de distintos pronombres sujeta en la adquisici6n de un sistema no nativo. Por un lado, estudiamos la evoluci6n en el procesa adquisitivo de los sujetos referenciales. Por otro, analizamos algunas construcciones con sujetos pleonasticos, que incluyen oraciones existenciales y construcciones de concordancia copulativa. Tras realizar varias pruebas a estudiantes espafioles de ingles, pudimos determinar c6mo el procesa adquisitivo dijiere con respec­to a los distintos suj etos. Los pronombres pleonasticos fueron los ultimos en adquirirse, sobre todo en aquellos contextos que resultan semanticamente complejos para los hablantes nativos de espaiiol, como es el caso de las construcciones de concordancia copulativa. Estos resultados haran que debamos replantearnos algunas teorias sobre el valor de los sujetos pleonasticos en la reestructu­raci6n del parametra de Sujeta Nulo. Dentro del marco de la teoria de la Recci6n y el Ligamiento (Chomsky 1981, 1982), el modelo lingiiistico de los Principios y Parametros establece que toda lengua se adquie­re gracias a una Gramatica Universal, que todo ser humano posee innatamente. Esta Gra­matica Universal consta de unos principios o reglas, que son universales, y que ayudan a que la adquisici6n de toda lengua se lleve a cabo de forma rapida, sin tener que realizar continuas hip6tesis sobre la misma. Segiln esta teoria, algunos de estos principios univer­sales estan parametrizados, es decir, poseen un nlli:nero determinado de valores que deben ftjarse a traves de evidencia positiva. El ser humano debe seleccionar aquellas opciones que se ajusten a los datos aportados por el entomo. Uno de los parametros que mayor con­troversia provocan es el llamado Parametro Pro-drop o.de Sujeto Nulo (Chomsky 1981, Jaeggli & Safir 1987), que recientemente ha sido reformulado como Parametro de Argumento Nulo (Hyams 1994). Este parametro establece una divisi6n tipol6gica entre lenguas, segiln admitan sujetos fonol6gicamente nulos o no. 1 Lenguas como el ingles o el frances no admiten la omisi6n de sujetos referenciales. Dentro de las propiedades que forman parte del Parametro Pro-drop, algunos estudiosos han incluido otras caracteristicas, como son la posibilidad de contar en espaiiol con sujetos postverbales, Pedro vino ayer. Vino Pedro ayer. Peter came yesterday. *Came Peter yesterday. o el llamado filtro que-h, que admite extraer un sujeto de una oraci6n subordinada encabezada por el com­ plementante que. l,Quien dices que va a venir? Who do you say is going to come? *Who do you say that is going to come? ( 1) He came yesterday. *Came yesterday. (2) II est venu hier. *Est venu hier. El espafiol, por otro lado, no requiere la presencia de sujetos referenciales.2 (3) Vino ayer. No puedo ir a tu fiesta. Ademas, en ingles o frances encontramos elementos pleonasticos con funci6n de sujeta, mientras que en espafiol estos no existen. (4) It rains. *Rains. (5) II pleut. *Pleut. (6) Llueve. *Ello llueve. El objeto de nuestro articulo es analizar el comportamiento de estas propiedades en la adquisici6n de un sistema no nativo. Vamos a estudiar el procesa adquisitivo en ingles por parte de hablantes nativos de espafiol, para comprobar posibles implica­ciones de unas caracteristicas con respecto a otras. Dentro de estas caracteristicas incluiremos, por un lado, los sujetos referenciales, y por otro los sujetos expletivos, que los dividiremos en distintas categorias: sujetos existenciales, (7) There is a book on the table. *ls a book on the table. (8) Hay un libro en la mesa. *Ello hay un libro en la mesa. sujetos expletivos, (9) It is easy to pass the exam. *Is easy to pass the exam. (10) Es facil aprobar el examen. *Ello es facil aprobar el examen. No obstante, estas caracteristicas se pueden explicar por reglas de movimiento: Regla R o affzx hopping en el caso de los sujetos postverbales (Chomsky 1981, Hyams 1986) y el Principio de la Categoria Vacia en el caso del efecto que-h (Chomsky 1981), que establece que la variable h debe estar regida y el complementante that del ingles no la puede regir. Por Jo tanto, y ya que pueden surgir divergencias al respecto, nos vamos a cen­trar en aquellas caracteristicas centrales al parametro en cuesti6n. Las oraciones con sujetos referenciales en espafiol tinicamente se utilizan por enfasis o para marcar algtin cambio en el discurso. Si no cumplen ninguna funci6n pragmatica, tienden a ser eliminadas. y construcciones de concordancia copulativa, que estan formadas por un sujeto exple­tivo y un objeto en acusativo. (11) It was him who told me. *Was him who told me. (12) Fue el quien melodijo. *Ello fue el quien me lo dijo. En nuestra investigaci6n hemos contado con un abanico amplio de estudiantes espafioles de ingles de la Universidad Puhlica de Navarra, en Espafia. Todos ellos formaban parte de un programa de autoaprendizaje, que consistia en la asistencia a clases de ingles durante tres horas a la semana y la posibilidad de trabajar aut6noma­mente en un centro de autoacceso. Al comienzo del curso escolar, estos estudiantes habian realizado una prueba escrita y una entrevista oral con un tutor para conocer su competencia en ingles, y habian sido en consecuencia distribuidos en cinco niveles, de acuerdo con los existentes en distintos organismos oficiales. Para nuestra investiga­ci6n, les pedimos que rellenaran un cuestionario con su historial lingiiistico donde con­testaban preguntas relevantes para la investigaci6n, como los afios que habian estado aprendiendo el idioma, los examenes realizados, las estancias en paises de habla ingle­sa y su conocimiento de otros idiomas, aspectos que eran importantes para tener un conocimiento amplio de todos ellos. Ademas, nos pareci6 oportuno que realizaran una . prueba paralela a la llevada a cabo al inicio del curso, para reafirmar el nivel estable­cido en cada uno de los casos. Para ello, les pedimos que completaran un test de cloze, ya que este tipo de pruebas son faciles de administrar y muestran unos resultados glo­bales (Oller 1991, Fotos 1991). Despues de realizar las distintas pruebas, seleccionamos un total de 150 alumnos, 61 mujeres y 89 hombres, y los subdividimos en cinco niveles segun su nivel de com­petencia linguistica. Nivel 1: 29 alumnos Nivel 2: 49 alumnos Nivel 3: 34 alumnos Nivel 4: 20 alumnos Nivel 5: 18 alumnos Los estudiantes debian traducir veintiocho oraciones que ejemplificaban aquellos aspectos que nos interesaba analizar. Ademas, incluimos oraciones afirmativas, nega­tivas, interrogativas, y subordinadas para contar con un muestreo amplio de todas las propiedades. Con la traducci6n de estas oraciones podiamos observar los errores que los estudiantes cometian y estos mostraran las reglas innatas que se utilizan. Los resultados en la prueba de traducci6n fueron los siguientes: Nii.mero de errores3 cometidos en cada nivel Nl N2 N3 N4 N5 Suj. referenciales 8 12 5 o o Existencial "there" 1 18 4 1 o Expletivo "it". 18 21 18 6 6 Cone. Copulativa 91 140 83 34 30 Nii.mero medio de errores cometidos en cada nivel Nl N2 N3 N4 N5 Suj. referenciales .28 .24 .15 0.00 0.00 Existencial "there" .03 .37 .12 .05 0.00 Expletivo "it" .62 .43 .53 .30 .33 Cone. Copulativa 3.14 2.86 2.44 1.70 1.67 Diferencial de errores cometidos en el paso de un nivel a otro 112 123 134 145 Suj. referenciales .03 -.10 -.15 0.00 Existencial "there" .33 -.25 -.07 -.05 Expletivo "it" -.19 .10 -.23 .03 Cone. Copulativa -.28 -.42 -.74 -.03 Si comparamos el funcionamiento de los sujetos referenciales y los sujetos pleonas­ticos, vemos c6mo ambos siguen un desarrollo desigual. En el primer caso apreciamos un movimiento decreciente a lo largo de los niveles, hasta llegar al nivel 4 de adquisi­ci6n, donde ya no encontramos ningun error con este tipa de sujetos. Sin embargo, las distintas construcciones con sujetos pleonasticos muestran una evoluci6n diferente. El numero de omisiones en su conjunto es significativamente mayor al existente en el caso de los pronombres referenciales. Como afirmabamos anteriormente, los sujetos pleonasticos no existen en espafiol y los sujetos pronominales unicamente se utilizan para cumplir con alguna funci6n pragmatica. No obstante, estos sujetos pleonasticos nunea pueden marcar otra funci6n que no sea la puramente gramatieal. No pueden mostrar enfasis ni marcar un cambio en el discurso, (13) She is not coming, he is. *lt's not snowing, it's raining. (14) It doesn't seem that we are crazy, it seems thatyou are. *It doesn't seem that we are crazy, it seems that you are.4 3 AI hablar de errores, aludimos a omisiones de los distintos elementos con funci6n de sujeto en contextos obligatorios. 4 Por medio de la Jetra cursiva, seiialamos aquellos elementos que estan acentuados. Asi pues, estos sujetos son eliminados en espafiol.5 Cuando los estudiantes espa­fioles adquieren una segunda lengua, en este caso el ingles, transfieren la informaci6n existente en su lengua materna, y asumen que estos sujetos pleonasticos no se encuen­tran en la lengua meta, omitiendolos de forma mas continuada que los sujetos referen­ciales, que si existen en la lengua fuente. Los estudiantes irin utilizindolos de forma progresiva, aunque su dominio se veri postergado hasta los estadios mas avanzados del proceso adquisitivo. La adquisici6n tardia de los pronombres expletivos va a hacer que debamos replan­tearnos su papel en una segunda lengua. Algunos estudiosos (Hyams 1986, 1989, en la adquisici6n de una primera lengua y Hilles 1986 en la adquisici6n de una segunda) afirman que los pronombres expletivos son de vital importancia a la hora de reajustar el valor del parametro de Sujeto Nulo: los nifios ingleses comprenden que existen unos pronombres cuya funci6n es meramente gramatical y estos provocan el reajuste del parimetro, haciendo que comiencen a utilizar algunas de las caracteristicas que hasta entonces han omitido, como es el caso de los sujetos referenciales. Sin embargo, los estudiantes espafioles de ingles no siguen este mismo planteamiento a la hora de adquirir el ingles como segunda lengua. Los sujetos expletivos no van a determinar la fijaci6n del parametro sino que se van a adquirir con posterioridad, cuando se hayan controlado el resto de pronombres sujeto. Ademas, ambos pronombres pleonasticos no se comportan de igual forma. El. nilmero de omisiones en el caso del expletivo it es bastante mayor al existente con el existencial there. A nuestro modo de ver, existen dos causas que explican este compor­tamiento. Por un lado, los estudiantes espafioles conocen el locativo there, que es uno de los primeros en aprenderse en el aula, y tambien en adquirirse tanto en las primeras como en las segundas lenguas.6 Bloom, Lightbown y Hood (1975) muestran ejemplos tempranos del uso del locativo there, que suele ir acompafiado de elementos no verbales. (15) There birdie (el nifio sefiala al mismo tiempo un pajaro) There is book (sefialando un libro) Baby there (el nifio mira dentro de la cuna) Tanto los nifios en el proceso adquisitivo de su lengua materna como los adultos que adquieren un segundo idioma dominan el uso del locativo there con celeridad. Este conocimiento hace que el existencial there les resulte mas familiar, e incluso es posi­ble que confundan el locativo y el existencial en los niveles inferiores de adquisici6n, intercambiandolos. Utilizan oraciones como (16) There is a beautiful girl. 5 El Principio de Elisi6n del Pronombre establece que todo elemento pronominal lexico debe eliminarse si un elemento pronominal nulo es posible (Chomsky 1981). 6 Cuando hablamos de una segunda lengua, nos referimos a toda aquella que se adquiere con posterioridad a la Iengua materna. y pueden significar que "hay una nifia guapa" o que "alli hay una nifia guapa'', enfati­zando el lugar en el que se encuentra. Por otro lado, la ensefianza del existencial desarrollada en el aula puede igualmente haber influido en su adquisici6n. En los programas educativos espafioles, el existencial siempre viene acompafiado del verbo copulativo be (there žslthere are). Los estudiantes aprenden ambas particulas de forma conjunta, e inconscientemente las vinculan dentro de un mismo constituyente. De este modo, les resulta dificil eliminar un elemento de los dos que configuran un todo. Este hecho puede tambien haber influido en el reduci­do numero de omisiones que encontramos con el existencial en el primer nivel de ad­quisici6n. Los estudiantes ban conocido el sujeto expletivo there eri ese mismo perio­do, y lo usan con mas asiduidad por estar reciente su aprendizaje. Sin embargo, no debemos magnificar la influencia de la ensefianza en el aula. Si esta fuera tan importante, no podriamos explicar el elevado numero de errores exis­tentes en el caso de los pronombres expletivos con respecto a los pronombres referen­ciales. Los primeros se utilizan frecuentemente ya en los primeros niveles adquisitivos y nunca se pueden omitir, mientras que los sujetos referenciales pueden eliminarse en situaciones especiales, como en contextos informales o en cartas y diarios.7 Si la fun­ci6n de la ensefianza en el aula fuera tan importante, no entenderiamos por que el nu­mero de errores es mayor en el caso de los pronombres expletivos, que aparecen de forma obligatoria y temprana en la ensefianza de idiomas. De entre todas las caracteristicas analizadas, el mayor numero de errores lo encon­tramos en el caso de las construcciones de concordancia copulativa. Estas construc­ciones resultan complejas para los estudiantes, al constar de un elemento expletivo con funci6n de sujeto, que como hemos visto anteriormente se adquieren de forma tardia, y de un objeto en acusativo. Su adquisici6n se vera postergada, y existe un porcentaje significativamente alto de omisiones incluso en los niveles superiores del proceso adquisitivo. Conclusžones En esta investigaci6n hemos analizado el comportamiento de algunos pronombres sujeto en la adquisici6n del ingles como segunda lengua. Nuestros resultados indican que aquellas construcciones con sujetos pleonasticos son las ultimas en adquirirse. De entre ellas, las construcciones de concordancia copulativa son las que mas problemas presentan, al resultar semanticamente complejas para los estudiantes. Ademas, encon­tramos diferencias significativas en el uso de los sujetos existenciales y expletivos, que pueden parcialmente explicarse por el planteamiento didactico desarrollado en el aula. Rizzi (1994) y Haegeman (1989, 1990) sefialan que el elemente que se omite en construcciones informales o en diarios no es pro. Se trata de una constante nula que no es pronominal, sino una opci6n vacia que se iden­tifica por el contexto. La adquisici6n tardia de los sujetos pleonasticos bara que debamos revisar algunas teorias sobre el valor de los sujetos pleonasticos en la reestructuraci6n del parametro del Sujeto Nulo. Bibliograjia BLOOM, L., Lightbown, P. & L. Hood. (1975). Structure and varitation in child language, Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Development, 40, 2. CHOMSKY, N. (1982). Some concepts and consequences ofthe theory ofGovernment and Binding. Linguistic Inquiry Monograph, MIT Press, Cambridge: Mass. CHOMSKY, N. (1981). Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht: Foris. Foros, S. (1991). "The cloze test as an integrative measure ofEFL proficiency: A substitute for essays on col­lege entrance examinations?". Language Learning 41, 313-336. HAEGEMAN, L. (1989). Understood subjects in English diaries. On the relevance oftheoretical syntaxfor the study o/register variation, ms. Universidad de Ginebra. HAEGEMAN, L. (1990). "Non-overt subjects in diary contexts". En J. Mascaro. & N. Nespor (eds), Grammar in progress: GLO W Essays for Henk van Riemsdijk (167-17 4 ). Dordrecht: Foris. HILLES, J. (1986). "Interlanguage and the pro-drop parameter''. Second Language Research 2, 33-52. HYAMS, N. (1986). Language acquisition and the theory ofparameters. Dordrecht: Reidel. HYAMS, N. (1989). "The Nuli subject parameter in language acquisition". En O. Jaeggli & K. Safir ( eds), The nuli subject parameter (215-238). Dordrecht: Reidel. HYAMS, N. (1994). "V2 nuli arguments and COMP projections". En Hoekstra, T. & B. Schwartz), Language acquisition studies in generative grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. JAEGGLI, O. & K. SAFIR. ( 1987). The nuli subject parameter. Dordrecht: Reidel. OLLER, J., Jr. (1991). "Foreign language testing: I: Its breadth; II: Its depth". ADFL Bulletin 22; 23, 33-38/5-13. Rlzz1, L. (1994). "Early nuli subjects and root nuli subjects". En Hoekstra, T. & B. Schwartz (eds), Language acquisition studies in generative grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Ru1z DE ZAROBE, Y. (1995). La actuaci6n del parametra pro-drop en la adquisici6n del ingles como segunda lengua, tesis doctoral. Universidad del Pais Vasco, . Ru1z DE ZAROBE, Y. (1996). "Expletive pronouns and the readjustment ofthe pro-drop parameter". The Forum of Phi Sigma lot, Intemational Foreign Language Honor Society, University ofNevada, 18(1), 10-11. Ru1z DE ZAROBE, Y. (1998). "El parametro pro-drop y la adquisici6n de segundas lenguas". ITL: Review of Applied Linguistics, 121-122. Ru1z DE ZAROBE, Y. (1998). "Uniformidad morfol6gica y adquisici6n de sujetos en ingles lengua extranjera". Langues et Linguistique, 24. Povzetek SKLADNOST V VEZAVI, ZAIMKI KOT OSEBEK IN USVAJANJE TUJIH JEZIKOVNIH SISTEMOV Prispevek skuša osvetliti pojavljanje zaimka kot osebek ob usvajanju sistema v tujem jeziku. Z ene strani se tehta raba referenčnih osebkov, z druge pa se analizira strukture, kjer se pojavlja ob glagolu osebni zaimek kot slovnični osebek. Primerja se sistem s španščini s tistim v angleščini, deloma tudi v francoščini: španščina ne dovoljuje osebnega zaimka, npr., v izjavi llueve (*ello llueve), taka zgradba pa je v angleščini obvezna, it rains, tudi francosko il pleut. Avtorica ugotavlja tri različne zgradbe, ki so v španščini drugačne kot v angleščini; njena anketa je bila izvedena na gradivu, ki ga je nudilo učenje angleščine, in s tem težave, ki so jih imeli španski študenti. Pri tem je prišla do spoznanja, da so bile ravno strukture s slovničnim osebkom v angleščini tiste, ki so jih špan­ski govorci usvojili kot zadnje, zlasti takrat, ko je bil stavek pomensko močno zapleten. S tega vidi­ka bo koristno na novo pretehtati teorijo o slovničnih osebkih, oziroma o ničtem osebku. Pavao Tekavčic CDU 808.62-22 BICE : 801.5 Zagreb SEMANTIKA IMENJCE BICE U PROZNIM DJELIMA ŽELJKE ČORAK Prilog se bavi semantičkim sadržajem navedene imenice u prozi poznate ličnosti suvremene hrvatske kulture, i to u četiri temeljne kategorije (ljudi, životinje, stvari, apstraktni pojmovi), s meta­forama, personifikacijama i uvijek prisutnom afektivnošcu. 1. O bogatstvu stila i jezika opusa Željke Čorak do sada je dovoljno rečeno1 , a semantičkaje komponenta u torne naravno jedna od glavnih. Tom je dijelu lingvistike posve-cen i ovaj prilog, koji analizira semantički sadržaj imenice bice. I ovdje kao i u pret-hodnim radovima, proučavamo samo autoričinu prozu. Buduci da je semantika usko povezana sa sadržajem tekstova, prije primjerii dajemo kratak prikaz korpusa krono-loškim redom. Sva su djela izašla u Zagrebu. 1) Kaleidoskop, 1970: zbirka kritika i osvrtii na izložbe i druge manifestacije, kao i neka urbanistička pitanja: mladenačko a vec zrelo djelo, odlično informirano, s kri­tičkim sudovima i duhovitim poentiranjima. Kratica KAL. 2) Lanjski snijezi, 1979: zbirka prepjevii francuske lirike (od Guilhema IX, vojvode akvitanskoga, do baroka) i francuskih pjesama R. M. Rilkea, i s tirne povezanih auto­ričinih eseja, takoder sa bogatim refleksijama i kritičkim zapažanjima. Kratica LS. 3) U funkciji znaka. Drago Ibler i hrvatska arhitektura izmedu dva rata, 2000 (1. izd. 1981 ), doktorska disertacija (ohranjena g. 1976), interpretacija arhitekture kao svo­jevrsnoga lingvističkog sustava u semiotičkom ključu, sa širokim pogledima na kulturnlll i opcu povijest. Kratica UFZ. 4) Zagrebačka katedrala, 1988 (u suautorstvu s Anom Deanovic i za fotografije Nenadom Gattinom): monografija u kojoj Željka Čorak obraduje XIX. stoljece, posebno obnovu katedrale nakon potresa g. 1880, pisana vrlo angažirano i toplo, s pozitivnim sudom o Hermannu Bolh~u. Kratica ZK. 5) Krhotine. Prilog poznavanju hrvatske provincije u devetnaestom stoljecu, 1991: najpoznatije i najljepše djelo naše autorice; u osnovi memoari, ali i znanstveno­stručni prikaz kuea, osoba, inventara i svega s tirne povezanoga, a što je u golemom dijelu uništeno u požaru u Prezidu g. 1942. i kasnije, u reformama i konfiskacijama, od 1945. dalje. Krhotine su apsolutno jedinstveno djelo, kako se točno reklo, brez pret­hodnih uzora i suvremenih paralela 2 , pisano s erudicijom, filozofskim refleksijama, V. Boškovic 1997, Maroevic 1994, Šafranek 1998, Škunca 1995, Tekavčic 1997, 1998 a-d, 1999. »Kažemo Ji daje riječ o knjizi koja u našoj literaturi ne poznaje prethodnike i stilske srodnike, dovoljno smo kazali u prilog njezine iznimnosti i nepotkupljive vrijednosti« (Boškovic 1997, str. 59). aluzijama, ali i s vrlo jasnom nostalgijom i nevjerojatnom senzibilnošeu, a sveto bez ikakvoga revanšizma, dostojanstveno, uzvišeno i pomalo indirektno. Taj naslov, na­veden kao jedini u Hrvatskom opcem leksikonu (HOL, v. bi-bliografiju) 3 , bez sum­nje ce ostati kao autoricin monumentum aere perennius. Kratica KR. 6) Oproštajno pismo gospodinu Mitterrandu, 1993: nevelika zbirka osam tekstova (od kojih je četvrti eponim cijeloj knjizi) na temu nedavnog rata u Hrvatskoj i Bosni i Hercegovini, prožetih oštrom kritikom agresora s jedne, i farizejštine i indolentnosti Zapada s druge strane. Svi su prilozi puni ogorčenosti, ironije i sarkazma, ali i ponosa na povijesnu i kulturnu vrijednost vlastitoga naroda. Tom se knjigom Željka Čorak afirmirala i na polju politike, naročito kulturne politike, a mračni i ogorčeni ton svih tekstova ima veze s našom temom, kako cemo kasnije pokazati. Kratica OPGM. 7) Zagreb, pisani prostor, 1994: zbirka tekstova (objavljenih od 1966. do 1987.g.) o arhi­tektonskim i urbanističkim problemima Zagreba i povijesti nekih poznatih obje­kata (Muzej Mimara, Obrtna škola i Muzej za umjetnost i obrt, katedrala, krema­torij, zahvati u Jelačicev trg i drugo), sve s potpunim poznavanjem problematike, uobičajenim angažmanom i duhovitim kritičkim stilom. Kratica ZPP. 8) Predgovor (str. 5) u knjizi Željka Zorice Fantastični bestijarij ili usnuli čuvari grada Zagreba (Zagreb 1996): s mnogo mašte i topline napisan uvodu knjigu koja se bavi opi­som zagrebačkih spomenika i njihovim fantastičnim, irealnim tumačenjima. Kratica ŽZ. 9) Ptica mojega jezika, "Vijenac" 13.11.1997: napis o više aktualnih problema; unatoč torne, tekst pun poetičnosti i osjeeajnosti, ovaj put s jasnom osudom svega tragično­ga u obitelji, a naročito žalosne sudbine autoričine majke. Po sadržaju i stilu dostojan nastavak Krhotina (koji ne bez razloga nosi nadnaslov Nove Krhotine!). Kratica PMJ. 2. U pregledanom korpusu našli smo 48 primjera s imenicom bice. Dimenzije ovo­ga priloga nalažu dakako selekciju, pa donosimo taj izbor, redom kao u prethodnom paragrafu, s kraticom i stranicom. Primjeri su kontekstualizirani i, koliko je potrebno za razumijevanje, protumačeni. 1) [O slikarstvu Gabrijela Stupice] Jaš uvijek zatim preostaje svijet stvari[... ] Savez bica i stvari: mala cfjevojčica sjedi na stolici i }edino su njih dvije u cijelom svije­tu koji ih okružuje [...](KAL 34) 2) [isti kontekst] Savez bica i bica: uho slikara koje sluša nečujan mali glas, ruka u gotovo beznadnoj dubini ipak na domaku drugog bica. (K.AL 34-35) 3) [Osvrt na slikarstvo Nives Kavuric-Kurtovic] Ljudsko bice u odnosu prema dru­gim ljudskim biCima; ljudsko bice u odnosu prema nespoznatljivoj biti stvari; 3 Uvezi sa Željkom Čorak u tom se leksikonu opaža izvjesna nedosljednost. U tekstu natuknice kaže se, naime, da je ona hrvatska povjesničarka umjetnosti, da se bavi hrvatskom arhitekturom od historicističke do suvre­mene, osobito zagrebačkom katedralom, dok se njezina književna djelatnost spominje samo riječju književni­ca; od tekstova se, pak, navode samo Krhotine kao »glavno književno djelo«. Ako je kao glavni naslov nave­deno književno djelo, onda je u natuknici trebalo reCi da je Željka Čorak i kritičarka, esejistica, prevodi­teljica i (g. 1996) potpredsjednica hrvatskoga PEN-a; ako pak praktički cijela natuknica govori o njezinu umjet­ničkom i arhitektonskom radu, valjalo je navesti glavne naslove i iz toga področja: barem UFZ, ZK, ZPP. ljudsko bite pred naletom svoje neznane unutrašnjosti; ljudsko bite koje želi progledati kroz naplavine svakodnevnog. (KAL 41) 4) [O čuvanju ali i gubitku kulturne baštine] ako se odričemo mjesta koja su nas zadužila, znak je da umire nešto u nama: lišavajuCi se svoje povijesti, to jest svog zavičaja, bite se nepopravljivo lišava sebe sama. (KAL 78) 5) Tema: Gaston Bachelard i svjetiljka] Rasvjetljujuti svjetiljku i ljudsko bite u nje­zinu krugu, stari filozof otvorio je jedan »nadzirani prostor«u kojemu te zadugo svaka svjetiljci uputena misao biti i sjetanje na njega. (KAL 135) 6) [O Rilkeovim pjesmama, koje se često bave stvarima] One su čitanje stvari kao znakova i kao pisma, pa su i same gotovo simboličan izlazak iz vlastitog jezika ususret govoru drugih bita. (LS 114) 7) [Isti kontekst] Rilke je secesijski pjesnik [ ... ] upravo po središnjem mjestu koje posrednička bita stvari imaju u njegovu pjesništvu. (LS 121) 8) [O zgradi Epidemiološkog zavoda u Zagrebu] To se zdanje ne trudi biti strojem nego naprotiv bicem. (UFZ 45) 9) [Razmatranje o zagrebačkoj katedrali] Katedrala je bice kojemu je jedna od osnovnih zadata da nas sve nadživljuje. (ZK 295) 10) [Slučajni susret s ostatkom jednog prezidanskog spomenika] neobično slijeplje­no bice koje je privuklo moju pažnju. Bio je to anileo s Vjeričina ili Hinkova groba. (KR 85) 11) [O obiteljskom foto-albumu, s aluzijom na H. Boscoa, koji voli biljke jer umiru tamo gdje su rodile] Nanin modri album s metalnim okovima bio je moj herbarij za bica. (KR 104) 12) [O lijepoj djedovoj sestri Toti] Tota je bila, što bi se danas reklo, sofisticirano, estetizirano bice. [...] Tota je bila stilsko bice. (KR 116-117) 13) [O dva starinska obiteljska džepna sata] Razlika je možda u milimetru. Ali hoce reti daje svaka bice bite za sebe. (KR 126) 14) [O garnituri čašica, s aluzijom na uništenje inventara] Preživjelo je samo šest ovih malih, bojom obilježenih bica. (KR 129) 15) [Poglavlje o Totinom ogledalu, puno refleksija i gotovo okultnih elemenata.] Zna se koliko su ogledala opasna bica. (KR 134) 16) [O preostaloj Totinoj garderobi] Ovi komadi čipaka, ostaci njezinih haljina [ ... ] dovoljni su za rekonstrukciju bica. (KR 139) 17) [Kratki opis jedne štale, koju je autorica rado posjecivala] Jer su se u štali o bi eno nalazili telčici, zečici i druga sitna dlakava i strigava biea. (KR 1 78) 18) [Autoričina majkaje bila zamoljena da za autoričinu kcerku, dakle svoju unuku, sačuva »les tres riches heures« 4 iz Prezida] godišnja doba s mirisima i okusima, sjetanje na betlehemska bica, bezazlene sjene kravica, konja i pasa ... (KR 180) To je dio naslova najpoznatijega brevijara izraženoga za vojvodu i velikoga bibliofila Jeana de Berryja ( 1340­1416; v. HOL). Podatak zahvaljujemo sveučilišnoj lektorici prof. Blaženki Bubanj. 19) [Autoricaje u mladosti voljela čitati u prezidanskom vrtu, a] Kao pojačanje, neko je dežurno krpeno bice ležalo kraj mene[... ] (KR 192) [bila je to dakako lutka na stalku starog glačala kao »kreveticu«] 20) [Autorica se s ganucem sjeea krasnih naušnica svoje majke] Svrha tih naušnica na svijetu [...] bilaje da mi pokažu neizmjerljivu veličinu bliskog bica. (KR 203) 21) [U vezi s rušenjem starih kuca na početku Tkalčiceve] Gradove, kao i bica, volimo Jer se razlikuju. (ZPP 35) 22) [Uvezi sa vlastitim proučavanjem zagrebačke katedrale] že/jela sam [ ... ] vidjeti jasno razloge i dosege svojih sklonosti. Na vagi su dakle bila dva bica istodobno: bice katedrale i moje[... ] (ZPP 161) 23) [Hermann Bolk i zagrebačka katedrala] Hermann Bo/le nije zbrisao niti idea­lizirao prošlost na licu »svoje« katedrale. [...] Zagrebačka katedrala ostala je osobna, bice prepoznatljivog, očuvanog identiteta. (ZPP 166) 24) [Simbolika ukrasa na zagrebačkim zgradama i sl.] Kako ne zavidjeti na pretvaranju bica u bice-uspomenu koje je trajnije i [...] >>fzzičnije« od tjelesnog stvora [...] (ŽZ) 25) [Odlomak o obiteljskim problemima i teškoj bolesti autoričine majke] Mila Totka [...] suautorica Krhotina, našla se iz čovjeka pretvorena u nepomično bice, bez riječi, bez raspolaganja sobom. (PMJ) 3. Semantička analiza 3.1 Iz primjera se vidi da imenica bice dolazi u četiri semantičke kategorije, koje se prema komponencijalnoj analizi mogu formulirati kao tri binarne alternative, s tim da se druga i treea primjenjuju na pozitivni odgovor na prvu odnosnu drogu: 1) [konkretno/apstraktno] 2) [živo/neživo] 3) [čovjek/životinje] Te četiri kategorije mogu se dakle formulirati kao 1) [čovjek], 2) [životinje], 3) [stvari], 4) [apstrakti]. Po kognitivnom gledanju unutar svake od kategorija moguce su distinkcije ska­larnog tipa: Tota (12) je sigurno više prototipična u prvoj kategoriji nego nepomično biee (25), telčici i zečici (17) bolji su prototip u drugoj kategoriji nego betlehemske kravice itd. (18), kao što su čašice (14) prototipičnije u treeoj kategoriji nego gradovi (21) ili katedrala (9, 23) itd. Uto medutim ovdje ne možemo dublje ulaziti. 3.2. Naše se binarne semantičke alternative mogu prikazati obliku »stabla« i kao binarne formule s odgovorima +/-(brojevi se odnose na primjere, od kojih je 22 dva puta brojen, jer sadrži bice u kategorijama 1 i 3): + -(2) + (3) ­ + r1 ~ l [čovjek] [životinje] [stvari] [ apstrakti] 1) [1+2+3+] = [čovjek]: l,2,3,5,11,12,l6,22,25; 2) [1+2+3-] = [životinje]: 17,18; 3) [1+2-] =[stvari]: 6,7,8,9,10,14,15,19,20,22,23; 4) [1-] = [apstrakti]: 4,13,21,24 3.3. Značenje može biti izrečeno eksplicitno ili se može razabrati iz konteksta: usp. npr. za kategoriju [čovjek] primjere 1 i 12. 3.4. Od značenja koja nalazimo u suvremenim rječnicima hrvatskogjezika (Benešic 1985 i.d.: »stvorenje, narav, postojanje«; Anic 1998: »ono što živi, stvorenje; unutraš­nja priroda čovjeka; život, postojanje; bit, suština«) u našim primjerima ostvaruju se gotovo isključivo prva značenja, a samo u nekim druga, npr. u sintagmi bice grada, ZPP str. 59. i 62. 3.5. Sve kategorije osim [čovjek] sadrže dakako personifikaciju, a o bogatoj meta­forici ne treba ni govoriti. 3.6. U svim se primjerima osjeea autoričina simpatija, osjeeajnost, toplina i srodne konotacije. To je naročito jasno u autoričinu obraeanju katedrali u 2. licu, kao živoj osobi (ZK: Ante scriptum i Post scriptum), a i u primjeru 25, koji striktno logički ne bi mogao uči u kategoriju [čovjek] (opozicija čovjek/nepomično bice), ali afektivna kono­tacija to ne samo dopušta nego upravo nalaže. 3.7. Na kraju, valja istaknuti još nešto. Svi primjeri imenice bice u istraženom su. korpusu konotirani kao subjektivno pozitivni, tj. svi izriču, u vrlo različitoj mjeri -što ce reci da i tu nalazi primjenu kognitivni pristup i skalarne pod-distinkcije -autoričinu simpatiju, sklonost, prijateljski stav (pa naravno i ljubav). To vrijedi i za primjer 15, jer ni tu subjektivni stav nije negativan, nego uslijed spomenute »okultne« kompo­nente možda samo malo simpatično »naježen«. Samo u jednom od pregledanih djela nema n i j e d n o g a primjera imenice bice, a to je OPGM. Kako smo rekli u uvodu, cijela je ta knjiga prožeta ironijom, sarkazmom, ogorčenošcu i prkosom, pa se riječ bice sa svojom temeljnom pozitivnom subjektivnom konotacijom u tu atmosfero nika­ko ne uklapa (a onih nekoliko vedrijih pasusa u OPGM nije dovoljno da tu atmosfero razbije). 1 taj je detalj dokaz istančanosti sadržaja i njemu primjerenog jezika. 4. Semantička raznolikost i dodatne afektivne konotacije odraz su bogata duševnog i duhovnog života Željke Čorak, a jednako tako i bogatstva stila i jezika. Uvjereni smo da njezina djela pružaju neiscrpivo gradivo i za druge slične studije i da ce se struč­njaci za to pozvaniji od potpisanoga autora latiti toga zlatnog rudnika suvremene hrvatske pisane riječi. Navedena djela Anič 1998: V. Anič, Rječnik hrvatskogajezika, Zagreb. Benešič 1985 i d.: J. Benešič, Rječnik hrvatskoga književnogjezika od Preporoda do Ivana Gorana Kovačica, Zagreb. Boškovič 1997: l. J. Boškovič, Prozna vremena, osobni abecedarij, Zagreb. HOL: Hrvatski opCi leksikon, ur. A. Kovačec, Zagreb 1996. Maroevič 1994: T. Maroevič, What a Kaleidoscope -Željka Čorak Krhotine (»Fragments«), The Bridge 3, str. 74-75. Šafranek 1998: l. Šafranek, Lichen de ruines (A propos du livre de Željka Čorak Debris), Most -Le pont 3-4, str. 222-227. Škunca 1995: A Tender Book ofHard Resistance: Željka Čorak interviewed by Andriana Škunca, The Bridge 9-10, str. 131 -132. Tekavčič 1997: P. Tekavčič, O nekim problem ima u jeziku suvremenih hrvatskih nefikcionalnih pisaca (na tek­stovima Željke Čorak), Filologija 28, str. 35-45. Tekavčič 1998a: P. Tekavčič, Italianismi nella prosa non narrativa croata contemporanea (sulle opere di Željka Čorak), Linguistica 38/2, str. 149-155. Tekavčič 1998b: P. Tekavčič, Tvorba riječi ujednom zanimljivom korpusu, ib., str. 157-166. Tekavčič 1998c: P. Tekavčič, Plurilinguismo nelle opere di una eminente personalita della cultura croata con­temporanea (Željka Čorak), Incontri linguistici 21, str. 173-180. Tekavčič 1998d: P. Tekavčič, O jednoj posebnoj vrsti zavisnih rečenica, na jednom zanimljivom korpusu, Suvre­mena lingvistika 45-46, str. 65-70. Tekavčič 1999: P. Tekavčič, Latinizmi u djelima Željke Čorak, Rasprave Instituta za hrvatski jeziki jezikoslov­lje 25, str. 345-357. Ključne riječi: Hrvatsko bice, semantika, metafora, personifikacija, afektivnost. Parole chiave: Croato bice, semantica, metafora, personificazione, affettivita. Key words: Croatian bice, semantics, metaphor, personification, affectivity. Povzetek SEMANTIKA SAMOSTALNIKA BJCE V PROZI ŽELJKE ČORAK Prispevek obravnava pomene hrvaške besede bite 'bitje' v proznih besedilih znane sodobne hrvaške umetnostne zgodovinarke in pisateljice. Beseda 'bitje' je konotirana vedno pozitivno in sicer v štirih osnovnih semantičnih kategorijah: osebe, živali, materialni svet, abstraktni pojmi, ima pa tudi različne figurativne pomene, v metaforah, personifikacijah in seveda jasno afektivno komponento. Andlrej Bekeš CDU 809.56 : 801.21 WA Ljubljana MEASURES OF TOPIC CONTINUITY AND THE WA-TOPIC IN JAPANESE In this paper I examine three statistical measures oftopic continuity, i.e., Topic Quotient (TQ), Referential Distance (RD) and Topic Persistence (TP), using the text ofa short novel, Rashomon by Ryunosuke Akutagawa. It turns out that these measures are very unreliable as predictors ofthe WA­topic in Japanese. Even worse, in the case of TP, and for different referents, contradictory results were obtained. At closer inspection it turns out that this is due to the differences in status which ref­erents possess within some segment ofa text. What matters is not the numerical frequency ofa ref­erent, but its status, i.e., whether it referrs to a topic entity, or, from the expression point ofview, to a topic chain ofreferentialforms within the text, or not. Key words: topic, topic continuity, Topic Quotient, Referential Distance, Topic Persistence, coreference O. Introduc11:ion Strict definition of functional notions in linguistics is a never-ending uphill battle with the menace of circularity, topic not being an exception. The following quotation (Lambrecht 1994: 131) shows, how intuitively clear the noti on of topic is: A referent is interpreted as the topic of a proposition if in a given situation the propo­ sition is constructed as being about this referent, i.e. as expressing information which is relevant to and which increases the addressee's knowledge ofthis referent. The problem is that this and other definitions of topic do not provide sufficient means to identify particular topics in actual propositions. The reason is that topic is a functional notion and definitions of functional notions tend to be circular: form and function are difficult if not impossible to separate. Topic (in the Prague tradition 'theme') has been studied from two different per­spectives. The first is the treatment of topic on the level of a single sentence. This involves discovering syntactical properties of sentences with a topic (in the case of Japanese, Mikami 1953, 1960; Kuno 1973; Kuroda 1972). The second approach tries to catch the regularities involving topics from the wider perspective of text and con­text. This approach lays stress on the functional aspects of topic as seen from the point ofview of text and context and is concerned with text-pragmatic issues and conditions for topicalization. Pioneer work within this approach has been done by Yamada ( 1908), Matsushita (1928, reprinted 1978) for Japanese and by Danep 1974, Chafe 1976, Givon 1979, 1983, 1987 from a more general linguistic perspective. The first perspective, which 1 will call the local approach, usually postulates the topic as a sentence element accompanied by a topic marker, for example in Japanese, a noun phrase marked with the so called topic particle WA (see for example Noda 1994). The second, the global approach, on the other hand is preoccupied with identifying topic elements in their contexts and with marking of such elements. To provide an independent criterion for "topicness" of elements, a number of em­pirical parameters have been proposed, such as topic quotient (TQ), referential dis­tance (RD), and topic persistence (TP) etc (Giv6n 1983, 1989, Myhill, J. 1992). The purpose of this study is to 1) examine the validity of the aforementioned sta­tistical measures, proposed to overcome the inherent circularity of the definition of a topic and 2) to find a possible reason for their inherent insufficiencies by relating the noti on of topic to the way the narrative is structured around different referents. An earlier version of this study was presented at the JLAO workshop, EHESS, Paris, May 15-16, 2000. l. Topic in Japanese In this section, a short sketch oftopic in Japanese will be given. The most common topic marker is particle wa, though other markers, such as nanka, nara, toieba, etc, are used in particular contexts as well. 1 will limit my short introduction to topics marked with wa. Syntactically, a sentence with a topic is seen as having the following struc­ture (Shibatani, 1978): [TOPIC] [PROPOSITION] There was a long discussion conceming the question whether there are cases with topic being syntactically incorporated into proposition, but pragmatic considerations point towards the above structure as being generally valid for such sentences (Shibatani, ibid.). (1) Basu ga ki-ta. [sentence without a topic (mudai bun)] bus NOM. come-PAST. The bus came (2)a Watasi WA Tanaka desu [sentence with a topic (yuudai bun)] 1 TOPIC T.(name) copula-PRESENT-FORMAL. 1am Tanaka. b [context] Atarasii gakka ga dekita (A new department has been opened.) Gakkatyoo WA Tanaka sensei da. Head TOPIC T. (name) professor. copula-PRESENT-INFORMAL. The head is Prof. Tanaka. c Kuzira WA honyurui da. whale TOPIC mammal copula-PRESENT-INFORMAL. Whales are mammals Only elements accessible in their context can become topics, e.g.: a) those accessible directly in the immediate context of communication ( ex. 2a); b) those accessible from the context of communication on the basis of our general knowledge of the world ( ex. 2b ); c) generic assertions, not depending on any particular situation ( ex. 2c ); 2. Methodological remarks 2.1 Choice ofdata Empirical analysis is based on the short novel Rashomon (R. Akutagawa, comput­er readable version from "Aozora bunko" (http://www.voyager.eo.jp/aozora/, approx. 6750 characters). The choice was motivated with the rich narrative structure of this work, with many animate (human) and inanimate referents appearing throughout the text. The human referents are: Servant, Old woman, Corpse(s) (referred to when they were still alive), Woman, Crow(s), and Author. The most frequently mentioned inani­mate referents are: the gate Rashomon, Rain, Hair ( of the dead people ), Fire, Kyoto, Twilight, Furuncle (on servants cheek), and Cricket. The ease of accessing the com­puter-readable version can stimulate further analysis of this work. 2.2 Parsing the text into clauses Statistical measures examined in the next section are based on how coreferential forms appear in subsequent clauses of a text. It has been shown that clause in spoken language is a primary phenomenon, related to human cognitive capabilities (Chafe 1980, 1987 etc.). As argued in Bekes (1987, 1994), clause can also be validly consid­ered in the same way in written language in spite of the differences in its production. The question of what to consider as a clause and how to handle discontinuous top­ics in Japanese, with its rich system of modal suffixing on the predicate, posed some problems. 1 defined clause boundaries, basing my decisions on Minami (1974) as described in Bekep (1994). 1 treated discontinuous topics or topics, which are, shared by several clauses as sep­arate units. An example of a discontinuous topic is given in (3). (3)a Yuuzin wa Friend TOPIC. b "denwa no koe wa toku ni kawatta yoosu ga nakatta" "there was nothing weird about his voice on the phone" c to iu. [he] says. Coreferential noun phrases, both modified and unmodified, often appeared in shorter forms in the coreferential chain. Since the main goal of this study is to shed light on the topicalization of coreferential noun phrases and not on the referential form itself, I considered any noun phrase of this sort as an instance of the same NP. In the text of"Rashomon", a total of 495 clauses were found. 3. Statistical measures of "topicness" 3.0 Introduction To circumvent the built-in circularity offunctional notions, various statistical meas­ures have been proposed for measuring the "topicness" ofthe referents. The best over­all presentation of methodologies involving such measures is given in Mylhill (1992). In the following subsections I will examine the three most common statistical measures of "topicness", i.e., topic quotient (TQ), referential distance (RD) and topic persistence (TP) and their relation to various referential forms. The main purpose ofthis study is to examine the predictive power ofthe above sta­tistical measures for the appearance ofthe canonical topic in Japanese, i.e. noun phrase + topic particle wa (N+WA). Other important referential forms are zero anaphora (0) and full noun phrase accompanied by a case particle (N+P). Thus, the referential forms considered in this study are: a) noun phrases, including full reference to the referent + case particle (N+P) b) noun phrases, including full reference to the referent+ topic particle wa (N+WA) c) zero anaphora ( 0) d) other forms, involving other particles, such as mo (also) etc. The three statistical measures will be examined as both necessary and sufficient pre­dictors for a "noun phrase+wa" and other referential forms. Here, "necessary" means that whenever a certain referential form is attested, there is a high probability that a given statistical measure is within a certain range of values, either high or low. On the other hand, "sufficient" means that a given statistical measure being within a certain range of values, either high or low, implies with high probability a certain choice of referential form. 3.1 Topic quotient (TO) TQ is supposed to measure "topicness" ofa referent over the whole text. It is meas­ured as the proportion ofclauses in a given text, referring to the given referent, i.e., the number ofclauses referring to the given referent (frequency) divided by the total num­ber of clauses in a text (Myhill 1992). The relation between TO and referential forms of various referents is shown in TABLE 1. It can be seen from the table that different referents appear in the text with differ­ent frequencies. TQ does not seem to predict anything. The only correlation easily observed is the correlation between +animate (human) referents and high frequency of zero anaphora on one band, and inanimate referents and high frequency of nontopical full referential forms on the other. This simply reflects the fact that the narration in "Rashomon" is built around the actions of human referents. TABLE 1: TOPIC QUOTIENT (R. Akutagawa: "Rashomon") Referent Frequ-TQ -------------------REFERENTIAL FORMS -------------------­ ency (F/495) N+P N+WA 0 Other +animate (human) Servant 211 0.43 0.12 (26/211) 0.19 (42/211) 0.66 (140/211) 0.03 (3/211) Old woman 115 0.23 0.29 (33/115) 0.1 o(12/115) 0.57 ( 65/115) 0.03 (2/115) Corpse 39 0.08 0.44 (l7 /39) 0.05 (2/39) 0.46 ( 18/39) 0.05 (2/39) Woman 17 0.03 0.17 (3/17) 0.12 (2/17) 0.71 (12/17) o Crow 12 0.02 0.33 (4/12) 0.09 (1/12) 0.58 (7/12) o Author 7 O.OJ o 0.14 (117) 0.86 (6/7) o -animate Rashomon 55 0.11 0.75 (41/55) 0.07 (4/55) 0.16 (9/55) 0.02 (1/55) Rain 17 0.03 0.59 (10/17) 0.12 (2/17) 0.29 (5/17) o Hair 14 0.03 0.72 (10/14) 0.14 (2/14) 0.14 (2/14) o Pire 13 0.03 0.61 (8/13) 0.08 (1/13) 0.31 (4/13) o Kyoto 11 0.02 0.36 (4/11) 0.36 (4/11) 0.28 (3/11) o Twilight 7 0.01 0.86 (6/7) 0.14 (117) o o Furuncle 4 0.01 1.00 (4/4) o o o Cricket 2 0.004 0.50 (112) o o 0.50 (1/2) Only the highest TQ (the case ofreferent Servant) seems to predict necessarily and sufficiently slightly higher relative frequency of wa topics. TQ is basically a rough measure of referent anaphoricity and thus its accessibility. TQ might somehow work in analyses of shorter segments oftext, centered around just a few referents (see Bekes 1995). Yet, as we can see from the above table, it may safe­ly be concluded that in any longer text, such as "Rashomon", TQ is a very unreliable predictor of wa topics or any other referential form. 3.2 Referential distance RD 1calculated referential distance by finding the most recent previous mention ofthe referent ofthe NP and then counting how many clauses back it occurred (Myhill 1992: 34 ). Contrary to standard practice, 1 included relative clauses in the count of interven­ing clauses because they seemed to be as demanding for processing as other subordi­nate clauses. There is a problem of how to treat RD in the case of discontinuous topics and top­ics extending over severa! clauses. Discontinuous topics are common in reported speech, where the reported part can be of any length, as in example (3) in section 2. Here, Yuuzin (friend) in (3)a is the topic ofthe clause consisting of the "[reported part] +to iu". In counting the intervening clauses belonging to the reported part 1 treated the topic separately. Thus I analyzed (3) as three units, counting the topic element yuuzin wa as a separate unit. However, since yuuzin wa is not a clause, I did not include it in the count of intervening clauses. This made it easier to count the RD between the topic element and the coreferent in preceding clauses as well as the RD between a referent in the last clause with a discontinuous topic and coreferents in the clauses that follow. Thus, I counted the RD between (3)c and (3)a as l, while I counted RD=O (co-occur­rence in the same clause) for the case where there were no intervening clauses con­veying the content of the reported speech, such as Taroo wa iu (Taro says ). I used a similar reasoning in my treatment of topics extending over several claus­es, such as shown in ( 4) below. The only difference was that the intervening clauses share the topic element. (4)a Yukisan wa Y. TOP. b [oj tooka gogo sitizi han koroni zitaku ni denwa o žreta no o saigo ni telephoning home for the last tirne on the tenth at about half pastseven c [oj syoosoku o tatta stopped informing [ about herself] Again, I did not include the topic unit [i.e., (4)a] in the count ofintervening clauses. In cases such as (4), the RD from the ellipted topic in (4)b to the topic (4)a was counted as O and in the clause(s) following the clause, adjacent to the topic element [i.e., (4)c], RD was l. Referential distance is a rough measure of referent anaphoricity and thus of its accessibility. The largest meaningful distinction ofRD is up to 20 clauses. Occurrences of a referent beyond 20 clauses are treated as having the referent as inactive as a ref­erence 20 clauses away (Giv6n 1983, 1989). To get meaningful data including a variety ofRD only the most frequently appear­ing referents were chosen, i.e. Servant and Old woman among human and "Rasho­mon'', "Hair" and "Rain" among inanimate referents. TABLE 2: REFERENTIAL DISTANCE • SERVANT •OLDWOMAN • INANIMATE* • RD N+P N+WA 0 •RD N+P N+WA 0 •RD N+P N+WA 0 1-4 16 29 131 ** 1-4 23 10 61 1-4 28 5 13 4-20 8 12 6 5-20 15 4 5-20 36 6 2 * = "Rashomon'', "Hair" and "Rain" ** numbers of cases exceeding half of the total in each category are underlined. Table 2 shows RD data for each referent or group ofreferents split into two groups. Shorter RDs, from 1 to 4, being one group, and RDs, equal to or longer than 5, being the other group [1]. The property ofRD asa measure ofaccessibility is reflected in the correlation of short RDs with zero anaphora in the case ofboth human referents. In the case of inanimate referents, even short RDs co-occur most often with full nontopical noun phrases. With longer RDs, less frequent referents, such as Old woman and inan­imate referents, also correlate with full nontopical noun phrases. Either way, there seems to be no pattern correlating topical noun phrases and RD. In the case of Servant, topical noun phrases even become the relatively most frequent referential form for long RDs. 3.3 Topic persistence (TP) Topic persistence is a measure of importance of a referent in the context that is fol­lowing some particular occurrence. It is defined as the number of clauses referring to the referent within 10 clauses following the particular occurrence (Givon 1983, 1989). TP is similar to TQ in that it is supposed to roughly reflect the referent's "topic­ness" in its context. The more topic-like the referent is, the more likely it is that it will continue to be referred to in the context, following some particular occurrence. I have examined the distribution ofreferential forms in relation to topic persistence for the two main human referents in the story, the Servant (references in 211 clauses) and the Old woman (references in 115 clauses). The number of references being quite high, much higher than what we find in short conversations and newspaper articles, it is reasonable to expect that the trends, supposedly predicted by TP, would emerge quite clearly. TABLE 3a: TOPIC PERSISTENCE (SERVANT-211 references) TP N+WA 0 N+P OTHER TOTAL 0-3 0.15 (8) 0.70 (36) 0.15 (8) 0.00 (O) 52 4-6 0.24 (15) 0.61 (38) 0.15 (9) 0.00 (O) 62 7-10 0.20 (19) 0.68 (66) 0.09 (9) 0.03 (3) 97 TABLE 3b: TOPIC PERSISTENCE (OLD WOMAN -115 references) TP N+WA 0 N+P OTHER TOTAL 0-3 0.06 (2) 0.63 (22) 0.31 (11) 0.00 (O) 35 4-6 0.13 (5) 0.57 (23) 0.25 (10) 0.05 (2) 40 7-10 0.13 (5) 0.50 (20) 0.37 (15) 0.00 (O) 40 Let us have a look at Table 3 (a, b) above. This table shows the referential form asa function of topic persistence in the case of the coreferential chains of the Servant and the Old woman. In the case ofServant (Table 3a), N+WA (noun phrase + particle WA), the form that is supposed to indicate the topic is exhibiting a rather modest relative fre­quency. The relative frequency, though increasing toward mid range of TP, is then slightly decreasing again. On the other hand, in the case ofOld woman (Table 3b ), the relative frequencies ofN+WA are even lower, though increasing with higher TP. Ellipsis shows a more or less permanent relative frequency for both referents, in the range between 0.50 and 0.70. The reason why ellipsis is so frequent is that, most often, after tbe referent is introduced in full form, eitber as N+WA or N+NP, it is tben repeat­ed in ellipted form. Witbin one sentence, tbis is more or less obligatory, but it bappens also across sentence boundaries. Tbe bebavior ofN+P is even more interesting. In tbe case of Servant its relative frequencies are decreasing witb bigber TP values, as TP is supposed to predict. On tbe other band, in tbe case of the Old woman, tbe relative fre­quencies are increasing as tbe TP gets to tbe bigbest range. Tbe absolute frequency of sucb cases increases, too. Tbis is exactly the contrary of wbat tbe TP is supposed to predict. Since tbe topics bave bigber TP, it is natura} to suppose tbat a form sucb as N+WA, if being marked for "topicness", sbould systematically exbibit stronger affinity witb bigber TP. Let us bave a look at Table 4 ( a, b ), witb TP expressed as a function of ref­erential form. TABLE 4a: TOPIC PERSISTENCE (SERVANT-211 references) TP 0-3 4-6 7-10 TOTAL Av. TP MD N+WA 0.19 (8) 0.36 (15) 0.45 (19) 1.00 (42) 5.93 6.0 0 0.26 (36) 0.27 (38) 0.47 (66) 1.00 (140) 5.56 6.0 N+P 0.30 (8) 0.35 (9) 0.35 (9) 1.00 (26) 4.65 5.0 OTHER o o 1.00 (3) 1.00 (3) 9.00 TABLE 4b: TOPIC PERSISTENCE (OLD WOMAN -115 references) TP 0-3 4-6 7-10 TOTAL Av. TP MD N+WA 0.16 (2) 0.42 (5) 0.42 (5) 1.00 (12) 5.17 5.0 0 0.34 (22) 0.35 (23) 0.31 (20) 1.00 (65) 4.65 5.0 N+P 0.30 (11) 0.28 (10) 0.42 (15) 1.00 (36) 5.17 5.5 OTHER o 1.00 (2) o 1.00 (2) 6.00 In Table 4 (a, b) tbe observations from Table 3 (a,b) become even clearer. In tbe case ofServant, tbe relative frequencies ofbigber range TP, associated witb botb N+Wa and ellipsis, tend to increase. On tbe otber band, TPs associated witb N+P tend to bave tbe same relative frequency regardless of their range. Tbis is just wbat tbe TP is supposed to predict. But tben again, in tbe case of tbe Old woman tbe picture is the reverse of wbat we would expect TP to predict. We not only bave an increase of relative fre­quencies for mid and bigb range TP values, associated with N+WA, but also an increase and not decrease for TP values associated witb N+P. Here, tbe relative fre­quencies of TP associated witb ellipsis are tbe same regardless of tbe TP range. From tbe above empirical observation it can be concluded, tbat TP as sucb is not a reliable predictor of tbe referential form, in particular of tbe form supposed to signal a topic. 3.4 Topic asa chain of coreferential noun phrases The contradictory behavior of the two coreferential chains that we have observed in the previous section indicates that there might be coreferential chains that manifest a topic-like behavior (i.e. the Servant), and chains that do not (i.e. the Old woman). Indeed, a closer inspection of the text confirms this prediction. For example (5), a segment ofRashomon (S80-S83), reveals two parallel corefer­ential chains. One is the Servant's, around which the narration is centered, and which manifests a topic-like behavior. The other is the Old woman's. In this narration in gen­eral, and in this segment in particular, the Old woman is subsidiary to the Servant. So it can be said that what was called topic until now is just the local manifesta­tion at the sentence level of a global property, i.e. the speaker's (narrator's) choice of the topic entity, i.e. a referent, around which some particular segment of discourse is built. (5) TOPIC COREFERENTIAL CHAIN AND NONTOPIC COREFERENTIAL CHAIN Servant Old woman Sent. TEXT (each line a clause, a conjunction or a topic) chain chain No. ref. form ref. form Nwa 80: sore hoda, kono otoka no aku o nikumu kokoro WA Np -rooba no yuka ni sasita -matu no kigire no yooni, 0 -ikioi yoku moeagaridaasite ita no de aru. Nwa 81: Genin ni WA, Nga -motiron, naze rooba ga sinin no kami no ke o nuku ka 0 -wakaranakatta. 82: Sitagatte, Np -gooriteki ni wa, sore o zen-aku no izure ni katadukete yoi ka 0 -siranakatta. Nwa 83: Sikasi, genin ni totte WA 0 -kono ame no yoru ni, kono Rasyoomon no ue de, sinin no kami no ke o nuku 0 -toiu koto ga, sore dake de sude ni yurusu bekarazaru 0 -aku de atta. TP(old woman/R) 3 ( explicit ref. =2) / nontopic coreferential chain TP(servant/G) 5-6 (explicit ref. =2) / topic coreferential chain Sent. No. number of sentence in the text # frq frequency of pinting paragraph boundaries This is the entity which, in the simplest of cases, can be manifested in some segment of the text as a coreferential chain of noun phrases, referring to the topic entity in the textual world. It is this choice and not merely numerical parameters that are responsi­ble for the local topic marking [2]. 4. Conclusion From the above analysis we can conclude that the parameters that we have exam­ined are, at least as far as the Japanese language is concerned, very unreliable predic­tors of "topicness" and referential forms that signal it. In the light oftheir mechanical definition, this should not surprise us. In section 3.3 in particular, it has been enlightning to see how just the mechanical adherence to one such parameter, TP, does not reveal important and so far unnoticed facts. As stated in section 3.4, the most important point is what to consider asa topic. As we have seen, sheer mechanical repetition, related to cognitive accessibility, obvious­ly is not enough. Topic is a textual phenomenon, and has to be analyzed and explained from the point of view of text. Its manifestation in some particular sentence is but a local aspect of the complex issue we can call "topic". As can be seen from the exam­ple ofthe two parallel topic chains, the Servant's and the Old woman's, the "topicness" itself is a question of speakers choice, how to structure the narration and what entities to choose for this purpose. Though starting from a different starting point, Maynard (1987) also arrives at a similar conclusion. It is this creative aspect that lays behinds the elusive nature of the numerical parameters examined here. To stress again, coreferential chain is just the simplest case of text coherence, of structuring a text, involving the topic entity and descriptions of actions and states cen­tered on it. More complex ways of global structuring of a text do exist as well. Also, to further clarify the choice of some particular referential form, marked for topic, it is necessary to examine the coreferential chain in relation to the way the text is structured as a narration. The primary candidate for this examination is the content paragraph structure of the text. NOTES [1] The line could be drawn between shorter RDs (3 or 4) without changing the picture in any substantial way. [2] It is nota coincidence, that at approximately the same tirne Y. Sunakawa (in print) has arrived at a sim­ilar conclusion, discovering topical chains and non topical chains in expository prose texts. Applying the same general methodology, centered on empirical examination ofwhole texts, such a view was the natural outcome ofthe adopted methodology. LITERATURE Bekes,A. (X.-7Y:J.. • A.) (1995) r::x:Jllii:n'€>5tt.:::E~1i{l::c IJ\J, !l\fEEr..19:ft!l*"1 !!'B;1s:IBO)::t~c.!fJ<:7~f'f~it:iE.liifl'.z:O)/E®i c73'!l@i~t:l!'J , fti:AF·1* !<))J;.*-!li r~~:><:o)~:eyi,m~. -· --a *~~;J1lt WcOO~M&JifO)f,:~~::--~ m:3:&tpp28-47, u--.JG~~-**· ---(1992) r::x:(J)mJJJtcitnO)J:i;J~a~r:it~n~IJ J , :><:fl::§Bi·"f:ii~~~:@<*-!li W:><:fl::§~~$ ~O)J'JlfE e:~ ©!:JJ ' .=.~'.Jt' **· --(1987) ~7:?:::zl--cY/:9:?:::zJJ, <0G:t.ot!J)\j, **· Chafe, W. (1987) Cognitive constraints on infonnation flow, in R. Tomiin (ed.). ---(1980) The deployment of consciousness, in W. Chafe (ed.). --(ed.) (1980) The pear stories. NJ: Ablex, Norwood. ---(1976) Givcnness, contrnstiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics and point ofview. In C. Li (ed.) Subject and topic. NY: Academic Press. Cornrie, B. (1981) Language universals and linguistic theory. O"ford: Basi! Blackwell. D;incp, F. (1974) 'Functional sentence perspective and the organization ofthe tcxt', in Danep (ed.). Danep, F. (ed.) ( 1974) Papers in functional scntence perspectivc, Mouton, Thc Ha!,,'lle and Academia, Prague. Firbas, J. ( 1974) 'Some aspects of the Czecoslovak approach to problems of functional sentence perspective', in Danes (ed.). Givon, T. ( 1989) Mind, code and context, Ch.6, Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. ---(1983) Topic continuity in discourse: an introduction, in Givon (ed.) (1983). ---(ed.) (1983) Topic continuity in discourse, Amsterdam: John Benjamins. ---(1979). On understandinggrammar. NY: Academic Press. Halliday, MAK & R. Hasan (1976) Cohesion in English, Longman, London. Hamada, M. ( 1983) Referential choices in theme, subject, and ellipsis in written narrative discourse: a case study of Japanese folktales, unpublished MA thesis, Comell U. Hinds, J. (1987) Thematization, assumed familiarity, staging, and syntactic binding in Japanese. In J. Hinds et al (eds.) ---(1983) Topic continuity in Japanese, in T. Givon (ed) (1983). Hinds, J. et al. (eds.) (1987) Perspectives on topicalization: the case of fapanesc W A. Amsterdam: John Be11iamins. Kuno, S. (1973) WB *:>1:$.filf~~ , **~g~J;5, *~?~" Kuroda, S.Y. (1972) The categorical and theticjudgement: Evidence from Japanese. Foundations ofLanguage 9: 153-185. Lambrecht, Knud (1994) lnfonnation stmcture and sentence fonn: A theory oftopic, focus, and the mental representation ofdiscourse referents. Cambridge: Cambdridgc University Press. Matsush.ita, o. (1928) rrt1:m~~El*x$.1i tj:i)l:ft§lfQi, Minami, F. (1974) n~ftB*~O)fPf~Ji , :k{~~:fihš, .*})?:, M11ynard, S.K. (1987) Thematization asa stageing device in Japanese namitive. In J. Hinds et al. {eds.). Mikami, A. <:::.J:lil'.) (1953) nJ1.{-t~IJ$Ffm.H , murlllt, --(1960) u-®.fi~iJ~:&v>.lJ , <;s L,.:J3, ~uic Myhill, J. (1992) Typological discourse analysis: quantitative approaches to the study oflinguistic fnnction. Oxford: Blackwell. Nagano, S. (1986) rx~m1li~im.ll , lWJ::@":fihš, *Ji?:, Noda, H. (7J\-1./~i§O)±*j{t, f"§'~.filf~.ll 105:32-53, Prince, E. (1981) Toward a taxonomy of given/new infonnation. In P. Cole (ed.) Radical Praqgmatics. NY: Acadenlic Press. Shibatani. (1978) r 8 *~/t(f):5:J'.tJTJi , ::k{~~~J;5, *:li'.:o Sunakawa, Y. (in print). Thompson, C. (1990) On treatment of topical objects in chepang: Passive or inverse? Studies in Language 14:405-27. Tomlin. R. (cd.) (1987) Coherence and grounding in discoursc, John Benjamins, Amsterdam. Yamada.Y. (i.J.1812?-t\"ft) (1908) tr'EJ*x!:tiliifu,1, -:t<:>z:m CORPUS 1. R. Akutagawa "Rashomon" 2. 4 short articles from Asahi Shinbun Povzetek MERE TEMSKE ZVEZNOSTI IN TEMA S ČLENKOM WA V JAPONSKEM JEZIKU V članku obravnavam tkzv. teme s členkom WA v japonskem jeziku, in sicer v luči treh besedil­no statističnih parametrov, tematski kvocient (TQ), referenčno razdaljo (RD) in tematsko vztrajnost (TP), ki naj bi odražali tematskost dane samostalniške fraze v besedilu. V uvodu na kratko podam historiat proučevanja tematizacije in v razdelku 1. orišem temo v japonščini. V razdelku 2. opišem metodo določanja teh parametrov na osnovi manifestiranja koreferenčnih samostalniških fraz v be­sedilu, segmentiranem v stavke (clause). Za gradivo je izbrana novela R. Akutagawa, "Rashomon", in sicer zaradi bogate narativne strukturiranosti ter zaradi dolžine, ki omogoča statistično obravna­vanje koreferenčnih samostalniških fraz. V razdelku 3. obravnavam posamične parametre. Izkaže se, da če parametri napovedujejo karkoli, je to kvečjemu elipsa samostalniških fraz pri visokih vredno­stih ter morda pojav netematiziranih polnih samostalniških fraz pri nizkih vrednostih. Posebne pozornosti je deležen parameter TP, kjer pri sicer primerljivo pogostih pojavljanjih dveh referentov v besedilu pride do povsem nasprotnega obnašanja. Tam, kjer naj bi višje vrednosti TP napovedovale pojav tematiziranih samostalniških fraz v sobesedilu, en referent to napoved izpolnjuje, drugi pa se obnaša popolnoma nasprotno. Natančnejši pregled besedila pokaže, da je pojav tematiziranih samo­stalniških fraz samo lokalna manifestacija pripovednikovega izbora nekega referenta kot izhodišča, okoli katerega gradi pripoved. Temskost teme je torej v izboru referenta in v besedilu lahko govori­mo o temskih koreferenčnih verigah in ne-temskih koreferenčnih verigah. Izbor tega, okrog katerih referentov bo pripoved gradil, je odvisen od govorca (pripovednika) in ga ni moč mehansko napove­dati samo iz statističnih posebnosti konteksta. Tako vsi trije parametri v najboljšem primeru izražajo samo potrebne pogoje za tematiziranje, zadostnih pa zaradi kreativne narave govornega dejanja ne morejo. COMPTES RENDUS, RECENSIONS, NOTES POROČILA, OCENE, ZAPISI France Bezlaj, ETIMOLOŠKI SLOVAR SLOVENSKEGA JEZIKA. Dritter Band P-S. Erganzt und redigiert von Marko Snoj und Metka Furlan. Herausge­geben von der Slowenischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste, Institut fiir Slowenische Sprache. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1995. 355 Seiten. Der nach einer mehr als zehnjahrigen Pause (1/1976, 11/1982) erschienene dritte Band des Etymologischen Worterbuchs der slowenischen Sprache ist um ein Drittel umfangreicher als die bisherigen zwei Bande und bringt auf 355 Seiten mehr als 2200 Stichworter mit den Anfangsbuchstaben P, R, S. Rund 620 Stichwortartikel hat noch der im Friihjahr 1993 verstorbene France Bezlaj verfasst, die ubrigen Stichworter wur­den von den beiden Indogermanisten Metka Furlan (Abkiirzung M. F.) und Marko Snoj (Abkiirzung M. S.) beigetragen, die bereits bei der Entstehung des zweiten Bandes mitgewirkt haben. Ihr Verdienst ist es nicht nur, dass der hier behandelte Band erschienen ist, sondern auch, dass das gesamte Worterbuchprojekt zum Abschluss kommen wird und sein Umfang von den urspriinglich vorgesehenen drei Banden auf vier Bande (und einen fiinften Band mit Wortverzeichnis) erweitert ist. Diese beiden Autoren haben auch die technische Redaktion derjenigen Stichwortartikel ubernom­men, die vor geraumer Zeit noch von F. Bezlaj verfasst wurden, und -wo sich dies als erforderlich erwies -in eckigen Klammern am Ende der Stichworter neue etymolo­gische Erklarungen und andere Erganzungen sowie auf 1 O Seiten die berucksichtigte Literatur und eine erganzende Liste der verwendeten Abkiirzungen hinzugefiigt. Der Band wurde vollstiindig im originaren Computerprogramm Eva von Primož Jakopin gesetzt, technisch wurde er von M. Snoj bearbeitet und gestaltet. Dieses Worterbuchprojekt wurde bald nach der Grundung der slowenischen Aka­demie der Wissenschaften und Kunste (1939) in deren Arbeitsplane aufgenommen, sein Konzept wurde Ende 1942 von Fran Ramovš im Namen der Kommission fiir das Etymologische Worterbuch der Slowenischen Sprache in groben Umrissen vorgestellt und durch 20 ausgewahlte Worter illustriert (siehe Letopis AZU I, 1938-1942-XXI, Ljubljana 1943, 352-359). Das Worterbuch sollte in erster Linie ein handliches, zu­gleich aber wissenschaftlich fundiertes Werk sein, das den slowenischen Grundwort­bestand erfasst; einerseits sollten allgemein bekannte Worter aufgenommen werden, andererseits sollten auch weniger bekannte Worter (z. B. Dialektismen, nur sprach­geschichtlich verzeichnete Worter) lautlich standardisiert werden, die schon alt sind und auf den Kulturstand und die kulturellen Verbindungen mit Nachbarvolkern in fruheren Zeiten hinweisen. Ramovš spricht zwar von einem etymologischen Worter­buch, doch meint er eigentlich ein historisches Worterbuch und betont ausdriicklich, dass dieses *selo gebildet sein (und nicht iiber das neutrale Partizip *reklo). Die Be­deutung 'origo' ist auf jeden Fall sekundar auf Grundlage der Bedeutung 'Name' gebildet (vielleicht im Sinne eines Sippennamens). Im Worterbuch sind viele Details zu finden, die unsere Kenntnisse der einzelnen Wort­bildungs-, arealen u. a. Charakteristiken der urslaw. Lexik mosaikartig ausbauen, vor­wiegend -nicht jedoch ausschlief3lich -auf Grundlage von slowenischem Material. Erstaunlich ist, dass z. B. neben urslaw. *seme -ene aus kroat. (čak.) s'imen auch das bisher unbekannte urslaw. ( dial. ?) *semy -ene mit einer Parallele in lit. semuo semefls 'Saat, Samen' (seme) rekonstruiert werden kann. Unter slowen. s~-a 'urina' sind neben urslaw. *shč -a < *sik:'j6-auch die Varianten *shCh -a (altruss., kroat.-čak.) < *sik:'o­und *shČh -i < *sik:'i-(slowen.) supponiert. Neben dem Morphem *slab-in urslaw. *slabina kommen auch siidslawische W6rter vor, die auf die morphematische Variante *slap-in slowen. slapina 'Weiche der Seite' (Pohlin, Gutsmann), serb./kroat. dial. slap 'Bezeichnung eines Knochens im hinteren Teil des menschlichen Oberk6rpers' neben lit. slepsna 'Weiche, Diinnung (bei Tieren und Menschen), Deckleisten dem Euter der Kiihe' <*slep-(slapina) hinweisen. Die Moglichkeit einer Variante mit dem generali­sierten nasalen lnfix *te-n-k-zu urslaw. *tek-'cadere' (neben 'ire, currere') wird im Zusammenhang mit slowen. dial. preteknjen 'mager, hager', poln. pocieknqc 'abma­gem', pociekly 'abgemagert' (pretaknjen) erwahnt. Aufdie lange o-Stufe des Stammes zu urslaw. *z'bvati zovQ weisen slowen. dial. pozavCin 'Hochzeitslader' (neben po­zvačln) und kroat.-kajk. dozavati (zum Verb *zavati) hin. Aufdie o-Stufe des Stammes *tek-'currere', mit der die Bedeutung 'rabiosus' ausgedriickt wird, deutet slowen. dial. stok 'Hundswut' < *v'hztok'h mit den kroat.-kajk. Parallelen sztochen 'rabiosus', fztochi­nalfztochnofzt 'rabies' neben dem allgemeineren slaw. *v'hztekh -la -la: slowen. stekel stekla, tschech. vztekly, poln. wsciekly, ukr. vsteklyj usw. aus demselben Stamm. Auf ein mogliches urslaw. dial. *sleza 'lacrima' wird aufgrund der ukr. dial. Reflexe sliza und des Diminutivs slizka (neben urslaw. *slbza) geschlossen, doch ist bei ihm wegen der ukr. Entwicklung von urslaw. *-/b!'b-> ly (d. h. slyza) in dieser Basis eine etymo­logische Verbindung mit *s/bza (sqlza) nicht vollig ausgeschlossen. Bei einzelnen Wortem, die bereits urslawisch waren, jedoch nicht gemeinslawisch sind, erfahrt man, dass sie auch in slowenische bzw. siidslawische Mundarten reichen, z. B. slowen. sirom 'Baumstamm' (Gutsmann), serb. strom 'Baumstamm', kroat. dial. stromica 'allein stehender Baum' < urslaw. *strom'b; die urslaw. Basis *slim-ist auch in slowen. s/ima 'saliva, Speichel' (aufgezeichnet im Jahre 1607) ausgewiesen; urslaw. dial. *b'brna, identisch mit lit. burna", ist auch aus slowen. dial. pOdbrnki 'Doppelkinn, Kragen' feststellbar und erganzt dessen bekanntes siidslawisches Areal. Von denjenigen Fallen, bei denen das Vergleichsmaterial aus unbekannten Griinden ausgeblieben ist, obwohl es bereits auch in etymologischen Worterbiichem erscheint (jedoch ohne slowenische Parallelen), sei folgender angefilhrt: slowen. dial. stijgla 'Schniirriemen, Bundschuhschnur', stqgelj -lja mit der Ableitung stf?gljaj < *s'b -tQg'b­la, *s'b-tQg'h -l 'b (zu urslaw. *s'h -t~gnQti, Wurzel *t~g-), bei dem Wortbildungsaquiva­lente in slowak. dial. stuhl'a -le, stuhel' (und stuhol) < *s'b-tQg'hl'a, *s'b-tQg'hl'b (und *s'h-tQgih) neben dem auf einem gr613eren Areal belegten *s'btQga (z. B. tschech. sluha, stouha, alttschech. vztuha 'Schniirriemen', slowak. sluha -y 'trak', niedersorb. stuha, poln. wst~ga, altruss. s'htuga 'Verbindung') bestehen. Das Worterbuch bringt auch interessante slowenische Worter slawischen Ursprungs ohne entsprechende Wortbildungsparallelen anderswo, die der Wortbildung oder nur der Bedeutung nach vielleicht wahre Slowenismen sind und liber die etymologische Analyse verstandlicher werden: z. B. procke 'aus diinnen Ruten geflochtene Schnee­schuhe' (Valvasor) < Adj. *prQtbSk'h (urslaw. *prQt'b 'Rute, Zweig'); rejava 'leeres Feld, kahles Gelande' < *red'a (urslaw. *red'bk'b), rise! 'Masem' < *rys'hl'b (urslaw. *rys'h 'rot, braunlich'); slug 'Schnecke ohne Haus' < Wurzel *sleyg(h)-'rutschen, gleiten, kriechen' (vgl. ahnliche Bedeutungsmotivation filr urslaw. dial. *pblžb), sgkva 'steiler Felsen' < *iyso/iy-'bve (urslaw. *iysok'h),pasanke 'Kleie' wegen slowen. dial. pasal)ke < *po-sev'hk'h (urslaw. *sejati). Oberraschend sind nur die slowenischen Form­en fpatje und fpietje (Gutsmann) neben dem iiblichen spanje: Die Autorin erklart sie als alte Wortsch6pfung *s'bpa-tb-je < idg. *supii -(Aoriststamm) und *s'bpe-tb-je < idg. *supe-(d. i. der Prasensstamm ohne das Merkmal -j -) (spati spim). Besonders mochte ich auf die originaren neuen etymologischen Erklarungen urslawischer Worter hinweisen, filr die bereits eine oder mehrere Erklarungen beste­hen. Hierzu kann die Erklarung des urslawischen Omithonyms *strMadb/*stbrnadb (slowen. strnad) gezahlt werden, die von einem alten Kompositum ausgeht, das als *strhn-ad'b mit der urspriinglichen Bedeutung '*der Getreide, Komer Fressende' (vgl. dt. Kornvogel, Gersterammer) zerlegt und rekonstruiert ist: Das zweite Glied -ad'b soll den idg. Stamm *Hed-'essen, beil3en' enthalten, und zwar die Bildung *Hod6­'BeiBende' (ahnlich vielleicht auch urslaw. *obadi, und *ovadi,, vgl. lit. uodas 'Stech­miicke'), wahrend beim ersten Glied mit Vorbehalt von idg. *k'ri-m(e)n-ausgegangen wird, klassisch 'Kind, Nachkommenschaft', auch die etymologische Herleitung von slowen. pleme I in der Bedeutung 'genus, indoles' aus der urslaw. Basis *plet-(d. h. als *plet-men-und nicht ausschlieBlich aus *pled­men-) vorgeschlagen. Von den etymologischen Erkliirungen, auf die man sicherlich noch wird zuriick­kommen miissen, sei die Etymologie von slowen. dial. (Prekmurje) porta 'Regen­schauer' erwiihnt, was ein Deverbativ von *po-vbrta und etymologisch mit der bulg.­mak.-serb. Basis vrn-mit der Bedeutung '*fallen (Regen, Schnee, Hagel)' identisch sein soll; bei ihr soll es zu einer Bedeutungsentwicklung aus der urslaw. Basis *-vbrt­(vgl. die Verben *vbrt-nQ-ti, *vhrteti) gekommen sein. Dieser Erklarung des Sbst. porta konnte aus folgenden Griinden widersprochen werden: (a) die Bedeutung 'fallen (Regen usw.)' in der Basis vrn-ist ausgesprochen siidlich (bulg.-mak.-serb.), im Norden miisste sie entweder ein urslaw. Dberrest oder ein Uskokenelement sein; (b) das Sbst. porta hat im Siiden keine Wortbildungsparallele und auch -ort-schwer zu erkliiren und miisste angesichts des Akzents bereits relativ friih verlaufen sein. Ebenso unzuverlassig scheint auch die Er­kliirung von slowen. sn?t II 'secundina' mit sn-ausgeht. Die Erklarung ist in phonetischer Hinsicht schon an sich unzureichend, weil: (a) das Wort urspriinglich nicht sm-, sondem zm-< *jhz-m-enthal­ten haben soll, wobei die Entwicklung zm-> sm-bei einem Sonanten nicht iiblich ist; (b) es ist nicht wahrscheinlich, dass es in drei Sprachen zu dieser Entwicklung ge-kom­men ist; (c) die kroatischen Worter izmet, izmetak 'Friihgeburt', 'Missgeburt', izmetine auch 'Auswurf, Missgeburt' weisen drei Charakteristiken auf, und zwar einen kurzen Stammvokal, ein o-Paradigma und -sd-> -zd-). Ungewohnlich scheint auch die vorgeschlagene Be­deutungsmotivation fiir slowen. posanica 'Trinkglas', rekonstruiert als '* Pu§cariu (pijavka), poln. stativy > statiwy (stiitve), formatom > formantom (p6tle), Letopis LMS >Letopis MS (seženj), urslaw. *svitajet'h 3. Sg. Pras. > *svitajetb (svitati se), poln. jestdmi > jestesmy (sem). Ungeachtet obiger Anmerkungen ist der dritte Band ein fiir die slowenische und slawische Etymologie relevantes Werk mit reichem Material und zuverlassigen Erklarungen. Sein Wert bestatigt sich bei der Benutzung stets von neuem. Alenka Šivic-Dular «Quaderni di Filologia e Lingue romanze», Ricerche svolte nell'Universita di Macerata, Terza serie, volume 14; Macerata, 1999; 464 pp. +Indice Poiche le linee direttrici del periodico maceratese continuano ad essere quelle dei volumi precedenti, anche la presente recensione segue i principi finora adottati, con­centrandosi sui contributi linguistici e/o filologici e abbreviando la presentazione licističnih besedilnuh vrstah "novica" in "glosa"; 261-272 XXXV/2, 1995 151. Rada COSSUTTA: I romanismi nella terminologia viticola dell'Istria slovena -Romanizmi v vinogradniški terminologiji Slovenske Istre; 3-36 152. Marko JESENŠEK: Zur Entwicklung der Partizipial-und Gerundialkonstruktionen auf -č und -ši in der slowenischen Schriftsprache des 19. Jahrhunderts -Razvoj deležniško-deležijskih skladov na -či in-šiv slovenskem knjižnem jeziku 19. stoletja; 37-89 153. Rastislav ŠUŠTARŠIČ: Pitch and tone in English and Slovene -Tonska višina in tonski potek v angleščini in slovenščini; 91-106 154. Irena OREL-POGAČNIK: Le systeme prepositionnel dans le developpement de la langue slo­vene litteraire du 16eme au 19eme siecle -Predložni sistem v razvoju slovenskega knjižnega jezika od 16. do 19. stoletja; 107-134 155. Marina ZORMAN: Verbasuffixe mit Liquida -Glagolske pripone z likvido; 135-170 156. Vida JESENŠEK: Medienwirksame Neologismen in der deutschen Gegenwartssprache -Medijsko učinkoviti neologizmi v sodobnem nemškem jeziku; 171-207 157. Teodor PETRIČ: Nominalisierungen als Beispiel geschwachter syntaktischer Konstruktionen -Posamostaljenje kot zgled ošibljenih skladenjskih zgradb; 209-255 158. Renata HROVATIČ: Slowenische Ortsnamen in Latein -Latinska imena slovenskih krajev; 275-274 159. Eva SICHERL: Verb + Praposition Kombination im Deutschen und Slowenischen -Kombi­nacija glagola in predloga v nemščini in slovenščini; 287-301 160. Le lingue indoeuropee, a cura di A. Giacalone Ramat, P. Ramat, Bologna 1993 (Giuliano BON­FANTE); 303-311 161. C. Santoro, Sul caduceo con !'epigrafe IM. 13, 11 (Taranto) e i rapporti latinomessapici, "Studi linguistici salentini", 18 (199091), (Giuliano BONFANTE); 312-313 162. Antonio e Giovanni Pellizzer, Vocabolario del dialetto di Rovigno d'Istria, Trieste-Rovigno 1992 (Pavao TEKAVČIC); 314-320 163. VARIETAS DELECTAT, Vermischte Beitrage zur Lust an romanischer Dialektologie erganzt um Anmerkungen aus verwandten Disziplinen, Wilhelmsfeld 1993 (Pavao TEKAVČIC); 321-323 164. Un nuovo periodico di studi italiani "Nuova Corvina", Rivista di Italianistica dell'Istituto Italiano di Cultura per l'Ungheria, num. 1, Budapest 1993 (Pavao TEKAVČIC); 324-325 165. Saggi dialettologici in area italo-romanza, Nuova raccolta, a cura di Giovan Battista Pellegrini, Padova 1995 (Pavao TEKAVČIC); 326-328 166. Milan Moguš, Povijest hrvatskoga književnogajezika (Storia della lingua croata), Zagreb 1993 (Zorica VUČETIC); 329-331 167. Liliana Spinozzi Monai, DAL FRIULI ALLA RUSSIA. Mezzo secolo di storia e di cultura In margi­ne all'epistolario (1875-1928) Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, Udine 1994 (Franc JAKOPIN); 332-334 168. Gianfranco Polena, Vocabolario del veneziano di Carlo Goldoni, Venezia 1993 (Mitja SKUBIC); 335-337 169. Roberto Dapit, La Slavia friulana-Beneška Slovenija. Lingue e cultura: Resia, Torre, Natisone -Jezik in kultura: Rezija, Ter, Nadiža. Bibliografia ragionata -kritična bibliografija, San Pietro al Natisone-Špeter (Mitja SKUBIC); 338-340 170. Amulf Stefenelli, Das Schicksal des lateinischen Wortschatzes in den romanischen Sprachen, Passau 1992 (Mitja SKUBIC); 341-343 171. Pierluigi Cuzzolin, Sull 'origine della costruzione dicere quod: aspetti sintattici e semantici, Firenze 1994 (Matjaž BABIČ); 345-346 172. Sormig, Karl, Sprache: Spiel. (Das agonale Prinzip in der Kommunikation) (Irrtiimer, lrrefilhrungen, Spiel der Gestalten), Graz 1993 (Stojan BRAČIČ); 347-351 XXXVI, 1996 173. Pierre SWIGGERS: XX:th-century theories of language: an epistemological diagnosis -Jezikovne teorije v dvajsetem stoletju. Epistemološka diagnoza; 3-16 174. David EDDINGTON: The psychological status ofphonological analyses -Status fonoloških analiz z vidika psihologije; 17-37 175. Giuliano BONFANTE: L'alimentazione degli indoeuropei -Prehrana Indoevropejcev; 39-41 176. Renato GENDRE: Sulla flessione indoeuropea -O pregibanju v indoevropščini; 43-49 177. Gabor TAKACS: Aegyptio-Afroasiatica VIII; 51-55 178. Vera GERERSDORFER: Zaladija, eine metapher? -Zaladija, metafora?; 57-62 179. Pavao TEKAVČIČ:: II vallese odiemo nell'antologia "Istria nobilissima" -'Današnji govor mesta Bale v antologiji "Istria nobilissima"; 63-75 180. Goran FILIPI: Omitonomia istriana: i nomi popolari del succiacapre europeo (Caprimulgus europaeus)-Istrska omitonomija: ljudska imena za kozodoja; 77-82 181. Zorica VUČETIC: Contributo allo studio della suffissazione verbale nell'italiano contempora­neo -K preučevanju tvorbe s priponami v sodobni italijanščini; 83-96 182. Hussein REHAIL: L'acquisition des locutions d'une langue etrangere: aspects linguistiques et semantiques -Usvajanje stalnih besednih zvez tujega jezika. Jezikoslovni in semantični vidi­ki; 97-102 183. Abdullah A. KHUWAILEH: ESP after thirty years: an overview ofthe position ofESP in the 1990s -ESP po tridesetih letih: njegov položaj v devetdesetih letih; 103-11 O 184. Ladinia XVII (1993). Ladinia XVIII (1994), San Martin de Tor (Pavao TEKAVČIČ:); 111-114 185. Quaderni difilologia e lingue romanze, 7 (1992), Macerata (Pavao TEKAVČIČ:); 115-117 186. Jtaliano e dialetti ne! tempo, Saggi di grammatica per Giulio C. Lepschy, Roma, 1996 (Pavao TEKAVČIČ:); 118-121 XXXVII, 1997 187. Roland BAUER: Die historische Entwicklung der Mehrsprachigkeit im Aostatal aus sprach­soziologischer Sicht: eine diachrone Riickschau samt Ausblick ins 21. Jahrhundert -Razvoj večjezičnosti v Aosti s sociolingvističnega vidika: pogled nazaj, vizija stanja v 21. stoletju; 3-25 188. Toshiko YAMAGUCHI: The elements church, Idrk and kir(k)by in English place-names and their distribution-Razporeditev prvin church, Idrk in kir(k)by v angleških krajevnih imenih; 27-51 189. Gabor TAKACS: Note on the Name ofKing Narmer-O imenu kralja Narmerja; 53-58 190. Milena MILOJEVIC-SHEPPARD: Morpho-syntactic expansions as structural changes in trans­lation -Oblikoslovno-skladenjske razširitve kot strukturne spremembe pri prevajanju; 59-66 191. Vladimir POGAČNIK: Le relatif qui/qu' sujet en fran9ais contemporain -Osebkovni inačici oziralnih qui/qu' v sodobni francoščini; 67-70 192. Primož VITEZ: Accent d'intensite et action intonative en fran9ais modeme -Jakostni naglas in delovanje stavčne intonacije v sodobni francoščini; 71-80 193. Zorica VUČETIC: Alcune riflessioni contrastive su1 verbo-Kontrastivna razmišljanja o glagolu; 81-88 194. Vesna DEŽELJIN: Funzioni testuali dei proverbi ne! testo tli Maldobrie -Funkcionalnost pre­govorov v Maldobrijah L. Carpinterja in M. Faragune; 89-97 195. Mitja SKUBIC: Calchi tli provenienza romanza nello sloveno occidentale -Kalki romanskega izvora v zahodni slovenščini; 99-106 196. Zoltan MIKLOS MOLNAR: Recherche comparee du corpus lexical des residents de langue matemelle hongroise dans deux regions differentes -Primerjalna raziskava besedišča rojenih govorcev madžarskega jezika na dveh območjih; 107-123 197. A linguist 's Lije. An English Translation ojOtto Jespersen 's Autobiography with Notes, Photos and a Bibliography. Edited by Arne Juul, Hans F. Nielsen, forgen Erik Nielsen. Odense Uni­versity Press; Odense 1995 (Gunver SKYTTE); 125-128 198. Roberto Gusmani, Itinerari linguistici, Scritti raccolti in occasione del 60° compleanno, a cura . di Raffaella Bombi, Guido Cifoletti, Sara Fedalto, Fabiana Fusco, Lucia Innocente, Vincenzo Orioles; Edizioni dell'Orso, Alessandria, 1995 (Pavao TEKAVČIC); 129-131 199. Giuseppe Francescato, Saggi di linguistica teorica e applicata, Edizioni dell'Orso, Alessandria, 1996 (Pavao TEKAVČIC); 132-135 200. Femando Picchi, LANGUAGE & BUSINESS, Dizionario inglese-italiano, italiano-inglese, economico, commerciale e di lingua moderna, Bologna, Zanichelli editore, 1993, pp. 1788 (Zorica VUČETIC); 136-139 201. Enzo Croatto, Vocabolario ampezzano, Cortina d'Ampezzo, 1986 (Mitja SKUBIC); 140-141 202. Pierre Swiggers, Histoire de la pensee linguistique, Analyse du langage et reflexion lingui­stique dans la culture occidentale, de l 'Antiquite au x1xeme siecle, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1997 (Mitja SKUBIC); 142-145 203. Beitrage zur rumiinische Sprache im 19. Jahrhundert, Akten sem (+/-A, -A) and >sem (+/-A, +A) -Jezikovna naravnost: >sem (+/-A, -A) in >sem (+/-A, +A) kot dve predlogi za lestvice; 237-262 271. Maria ILIESCU: Allgemeine Tendenzen des vulgarlateinischen Wortschatzes (als Vorstufe der romanischen Sprachen) -Splošne težnje vulgarnolatinskega besedja; 263-272 272. Mojca SCHLAMBERGER BREZAR: Les connecteurs en combinaison avec les marqueurs modaux: l'exemple du franc;ais et du slovene-Povezovalci v povezavi z zaznamovalci za epi­stemično modalnost: primer francoščine in slovenščine; 273-282 273. Maria Rosaria CERASUOLO PERTUSI: Etimologie Rovignesi -Rovinjske etimologije; 283-290 274. Fiorenzo TOSO: Contatto linguistico e percezione. Per una valutazione delle voci d'origine sarda in Tabarchino -Sardske jezikovne prvine v ligurskem govoru Tabarkinov; 291-333 275. Yolanda RUIZ DE ZAROBE: Concordancia copulativa, pronombres sujeto y adquisici6n de sistemas no nativos -Skladnost v vezavi, zaimki kot osebek in usvajanje tujih jezikovnih siste­mov; 327-334 276. Pavao TEKAVČIČ:: Semantika imena bice u proznim djelima Željke Čorak -Semantika samostalnika bice v prozi Željke Čorak; 335-340 277. Andrej BEKEŠ: Measures of topic continuity and the wa topic in Japanese -Mere temske zveznosti in tema s členkom wa v japonskem jeziku; 341-352 278. France Bezlaj, Etimološki slovar slovenskega jezika, Dritter Band P-S. Ergiinzt und redigiert von Marko Snoj und Metka Furlan. Herausgegeben von der Slowenischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste, Institut ftir Slowenische Sprache. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1995. 355 Seiten (Alenka ŠIVIC-DULAR); 353-362 279. »Quademi di Filologia e Lingue romanze«, Ricerche svolte nell'Universita di Macerata, Terza serie, volume 14, Macerata, 1999; 464 pp. +indice (Pavao TEKAVČIČ:); 363-366 280. Jožica PIRC: LINGUISTICA XXXI-XL; 367-391 SEZNAM AVTORJEV ČLANKOVIN RECENZIJ (velike tiskane črke) SEZNAM CITIRANIH AVTORJEV (male tiskane črke) INDEX DES AUTEURS DES ARTICLES OU DES RECENSIONS (majuscules) INDEX DES AUTEURS CITES (minuscules) Teddy ARNAVIELLE 87 John Ole ASKEDAL 88 Matjaž BABIČ 47, 171, 246, 247 W. Bal 44 Emanuele BANFI 48 Irene BARON 89 Roland BAUER 58, 187, 261 Andrej BEKEŠ 64,277 Monica BERRETTA 19 Gaetano BERRUTO 7 Pier Marco BlERTINETTO 50 Marja BEŠTER 140, 216 France Bezlaj 278 M. Bilger 249 Giuliano BONFANTE 160, 161, 175 Stojan BRAČIČ 90, 137, 172, 210 Francesco Bruni (a cura di) 126 Evelyne BULOT-DELABARRE 91 Concepci6n CABRILLANA -Mercedes DIAZ DE CERIO 256 Maria Rosaria CERASUOLO PERTUSI 54, 273 Manlio CORTELAZZO 26 Rada COSSUTTA 151 Denis CREISSELS 92 Franco CREVATIN 253 Enzo Croatto 201 Pierluigi Cuzzolin 171 Varja CVETKO OREŠNIK 65 Darko ČUDEN 222 Željka Čorak 228, 229, 276 Roberto DAPff 122, 169 Aleksandra DERGANC 93 Piet Desmet 204 Vesna DEŽELJIN 194 Gabriele DIEWALD 134, 211 Mario DORIA 53, 258 Vlado DRAŠKOVIČ 37 Michel DUC GONINAZ 94 David EDDINGTON 174 Gerhard ERNST 17, 203 K. van den Eynde 49 Fedora FERLUGA-PETRONIO 39 Goran FILIPI 55, 120, 180 Kerstin FISCHER 211 Ulla FIX 207 Gianfranco Folena 168 Giuseppe Francescato 199 Korsten Fudeman 268 Metka FURLAN 66, 278 David GAATONE 95 F. Gadet 249 Paul A GAENG 45 Nora GALLI DE' PARATESI 51 Gabriel Garcia Marquez 227 Paul GARDE 96 Renato GENDRE 52, 176, 255 Vera GERERSDORFER 36, 178 J. Germain 244 Mihael GLAVAN 107 Vera GLAVINIC 28 Zrinjka GLOVACKI-BERNARDI 146, 213 Hans GOEBL 32, 269 Gertrud GRECIANO 97 Ada GRUNTAR (GRUNTAR JERMOL) 145, 262 Petar GUBERINA 43 Roberto GUSMANI 67, 198 Robert A. HALL, Jr. 3 Eric P. HAMP 68, 123 Michael HERSLUND 98 Siegfried HEUSINGER 44, 132, 133, 205, 206 Horacij 255 Livio HORRAKH 42 Ludvik HORVAT 252 Renata HROVATIČ 158 Maria ILIESCU 11, 127, 271 Gustav INEICHEN 15 Roxana IORDACHE 46, 69, 254, 265 Franc JAKOPIN 167 Anton JANKO 132, 205 Christina JANZ 138 Marija JAVOR BRIŠKI 226 Frane JERMAN 85 Josip JERNEJ 6, 236 Vida JESENŠEK 150, 156, 218 Marko JESENŠEK 152 Otto Jespersen 197 Višnja JOSIPOVIC 119 Ana JUVANČIČ MEHLE 63 Dieter KATTENBUSCH 41 Abdullah A KHUWAILEH 183 Ivan KLAJN 22 J. Klein 244 Silvin KOŠAK 70 Avgust KOVAČEC 56 Uršula KREVS 221 Mirko KRIŽMAN 142, 215 Wilfried Kiirschner (Hg.) 124 Aaron Lawson 268 Julie LEBLANC 4 Anna Laura e Giulio LEPSCHY 49 Gulio Lepschy 186 Fredrik Otto LINDEMAN 71 Alja LIPAVIC OŠTIR 225 Ines LOI CORVETTO 57 Helmut LUDTKE 8 Rosemarie LUHR 72 Dora MAČEK 119 Frans;oise MADRAY-LESIGNE 108 Joža MAHNIČ 109 Jasna MAKOVEC-ČERNE 115 Witold MANCZAK 35, 264 Jasmina MARKIČ 227 Wagner Marxgut 127 Carlo Alberto MASTRELLI 25 Milko MATIČETOV 122 Željka MATULINA 99, 143 Willi MAYERTHALER 100 Pavle MERKU 29, 259 385 Dieter MESSNER 59 Tjaša MIKLIČ 21, 231 Zoltan MIKLOS MOLNAR 196 Radivoj Mikuš 106 Milena MILOJEVIC-SHEPPARD 190 Milan Moguš 166 G. Battista MORETTI 20 Žarko MULJAČIC 14, 124 Rolf MULLER 135, 209 Joachim Neppert 128 Erich NEU 73 RudolfNEUHAUSER 110 Norbert OETTINGER 74 Irena OREL-POGAČNIK 154 Janez OREŠNIK 62, 86, 270 Martina OROŽEN 101 Sorin PALIGA 9, 75, 238 Fernando Venancio PEIXOTO DA FONSECA 38 Giovan Battista PELLEGRINI 31, 130, 165 Antonio e Giovanni Pellizzer 162 Gregor PERKO 248, 251 Hubert PETERSMANN 76 Magnus Petersson 128 Teodor PETRIČ 102, 149, 157, 219 Fernando Picchi 200 Jožica PIRC 280 Guntram A. PLANGG 33 Frans PLANK 112 Vladimir POGAČNIK 111, 191, 204, 232, 235, 243, 249 Breda POGORELEC 113 France Prešeren 142 J. Pruvost 248 Jaan PUHVEL 77 B. Quemada 248 Fran Ramovš 101 Hussein REHAIL 60, 117, 182, 242 Lorenzo RENZI 18 Helmut RIX 78 Eugeen ROEGIEST 12 Yolanda RUIZ DE ZAROBE 275 Carol Rosen 268 Arno RUSSEGGER 144 Oana Sali~teanu Cristea 267 Didier SAMAIN 103 C. Santoro 161 Richard SARBU 13, 121 Momčilo D. SAVIC 10 Mojca SCHLAMBERGER-BREZAR 241, 272 William R. SCHMALSTIEG 79 Karl Horst SCHMIDT 80 Riidiger SCHMITT 81 Kenneth SHIELDS 82 Eva SICHERL 159 Mitja SKUBIC 34, 129, 130, 168, 169, 170, 195, 201, 202, 203, 233, 244, 266 Gunver SKYTTE 24, 197 Marko SNOJ 83, 278 Karl Sormig 172 Rosanna SORNICOLA 23 Liliana SPINOZZI MONAI 167, 237 Tatjana SREBOT REJEC 61, 128 Amulf STEFENELLI 16, 170 Devon Strolovitch 268 Pierre SWIGGERS 30, 104, 173, 202, 244, 246, 247, 257 Agata ŠEGA 224 L. Šega 251 Petar ŠIMUNOVIC 40 Danko ŠIPKA 116 Sergij Šlenc 233 Neva ŠLIBAR 141 Fran Šturm 114 Rastislav ŠUŠTARŠIČ 153 Gabor TAKACS 177, 189 PavaoTEKAVČIC 1,2, 125, 126, 127, 162, 163, 164, 165, 179, 184, 185, 186, 198, 199,228,229, 234,245,267,268,276,279 Karmen TERŽAN-KOPECKY 148, 220 Lucien Tesniere 85, 86, 87, 88, 91, 95, 96, 97, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113 Ingo THONHAUSER-JURSNICK 147, 217 Jože TOPORIŠIČ 105, 129 Fiorenzo TOSO 274 Daniela VERONESI 212 Ada VIDOVIČ-MUHA 106 Istvan Vig 245 Claude VINCENOT 5 Primož VITEZ 192, 240 Zorica VUČETIC 118, 166, 181, 193, 230, 239, 260 Ingo WARNKE 139, 208 Calvert WATKINS 84 Martin WIERSCHIN 136, 214 A. Wouters 246, 247 Toshiko YAMAGUCHI 188, 263 Alberto ZAMBONI 27 Marina ZORMAN 155, 223 STVARNO KAZALO -INDEX PAR MATIERE Aegyptio-Afroasiatica 177 albanščina 68 albanais angleščina 153, 188, 214 anglais antroponimika 29 antroponymie armenščina 81 armenien balkanistika 48 balkanistique besedila -časopisna 216 textes -de joumal -znanstvena 21 7 -scientifiques besedilne vrste types de textes 133, 134, 135, 136,138, 140, 141, 144, 145, 146, 147,150, 206, 207, 209,213,214,215,218,220 besedilni elementi 21 O elements textuels besediloslovje analyse de textes, textologie 139, 148, 216, 219, 221, 222, 227, 214,241 besedišče 117 vocabulaire besedni red 256 ordre des mots besedotvorje 155, 239 morphologie bibliografija 2, 63, 124, 169, 197, 244, 145 bibliographie členek wa v japonščini 277 particule wa en japonais členki -naklonski 149,211 particules modales -aber, auch, doch,ja 211 človeški govor 3, 204 Iangage de l'homme didaktika 260, 275 didactique des Iangues določni člen article defini -v romanskih jezikih 8, 237 -en langues romanes -v francoščini 3 -en fram;:ais -v romunščini 238 -en roumain dvojina 112 duel egipčanski jezik 253 egyptien esperanto 94 esperanto etimologija 273 etymologie fonetika 153, 174, 192,240 phonetique francoščina 35, 37, 87, 89, 92, 191, fran9ais 192,232,240,241,243,272 furlanščina 30 frioulan grščina, stara 256 grec ancien hetitščina 71, 73, 74, 82 hittite 389 hrvaščina 39, 40,119, 228, 229, 230, 231,239,276 indoevropski jeziki 175, 176 islandščina 263 istroromunščina 13, 56, 121 istrski jeziki 14, 27, 28, 53, 55, 120, 151, 179, 180 italianizmi 228 italijanščina 7, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, 49, 50, 51, 52, 56, 118, 181, 212, 231, 236, 239, 260 -kot drugi jezik 260 -piemontsko narečje 261 japonščina 64, 277 jezikovni atlas 32, 58, 266, 269 ladinščina 58, 266 latinizmi v slovenščini 224 latinščina 11, 30, 47 -klasična 46, 69, 254, 255, 256 209, 213, 215, 220 -vulgarna 45, 271 leksikologija 116, 242 lingvistika izrekanja 4 lingvistika, uporabna 6 madžarščina 196 medbesedilnost 42, 208, 210, 212 Narmer, ime kralja 189 navodila za uporabo 146 nemščina 102, 156, 159, 211, 212, 214, 225,226 oskijščina 78 Opčina (ital. Opicina) 258 ornitonomija 55, 120, 180 osetsko 80 oziralni zaimek quilque 191, 232 pasiv 47, 70, 263 podrednost 5, 95 portugalščina 38, 59 praslovanščina 83 pregovori 143, 194, 215 croate Ianguesindoeuropeennes islandais istroroumain langues d'Istrie italianismes italien -langue seconde -dialecte piemontais japonais atlas linguistique ladin Iatinismes en slovene Jatin -classique -vulgaire Iexicologie linguistique -de l'enonciation -pragmatique hongrois entretextualite Narmer, nom du roi mode d'emploi allemand osque omitonomie ossete pronom relatif qui/que passif subordination portugais ancien slave proverbes prevajanje 41, 42, 60, 94, 109, 111, 142, 190, 193 primerjalno jezikoslovje 65, 66, 72, 75, 76, 77,84 psiholingvistika 174 retoromanščina 31, 130 rezijanščina 122, 169 rodilnik 225 romanizmi -v slovenščini 34, 158, 195, 224 -v Istri 151 romanski jeziki na splošno 8, 33, 254 romunščina 9, 10, 11, 12, 65, 238 samostalnik 243 samostalnik bice 276 sardščina 57, 274 scenarij 144 semantika 67, 96 sinonimi 223 sintaksa 87, 88, 96, 100, 104, 105, 106, 113 slovenščina 39, 61, 93,140, 152, 159, 195, 196, 224, 272 -knjižna 154 -tržaško narečje 29, 54, 112, 259 slovnica 98 -besedilna 90, 115 -francoska 257 teorija jezika 43, 44, 92, 98, 103, 157, 173,270 toponomastika 52, 53, 158, 188, 258 toposi 241 trapassato deli 'indicativo 231 turistični prospekti 145 večjezičnost 187, 196 traduction linguistique comparee psycholinguistique retoromain langue de Resia genitif romanismes -en slovene -en Istrie langues romanes en general roumain substantif substantit' croate bice sar de scenario semantique synonymes syntaxe slovene -litteraire -dialecte triestin grammaire -textuelle -fram,:aise theorie de la langue toponomastique topol plus-que-parfait opuscules touristques bilinguisme VSEBINA -SOMMAIRE Hans Goebl LA DIALECTOMETRISATION DE L'ALF: PRESENTATION DES PREMIERS RESULTATS Dialektometrična študija Jezikovnega atlasa Francije: prvi dosežki .......... 209 Janez Orešnik NATURALNESS: THE SCALE FORMATS >SEM (+/-A, -A) AND >SEM (+/-A, +A) Jezikovna naravnost: >sem (+/-A, -A) in >sem (+/-A, +A) kot dve predlogi za lestvice ..................................................... 237 Maria Iliescu ALLGEMEINE TENDENZEN DES VULGARLATEINISCHEN WORTSCHATZES (ALS VORSTUFE DER ROMANISCHEN SPRACHEN) Splošne težnje vulgarnolatinskega besedja ............................. 263 Mojca Schlamberger Brezar LES CONNECTEURS EN COMBINAISON AVEC LES MARQUEURS MODAUlC L'EXEMPLE DU FRAN<;:AIS ET DU SLOvENE Povezovalci v povezavi z zaznamovalci za epistemično modalnost: primer francoščine in slovenščine ................................... 273 Maria Rosaria Cerasuolo Pertusi ETIMOLOGIE ROVIGNESI Rovinjske etimologije ............................................. 283 Fiorenzo Toso CONTATTO LINGUISTICO E PERCEZIONE. PER UNA VALUTAZIONE DELLE VOCI D'ORIGINE SARDA IN TABARCHINO Sardske jezikovne prvine v ligurskem govoru Tabarkinov .................. 291 Yolanda Ruiz de Zarobe CONCORDANCIA COPULATIVA, PRONOMBRES SUJETO Y ADQUISICION DE SISTEMAS NO NATIVOS Skladnost v vezavi, zaimki kot osebek in usvajanje tujih jezikovnih sistemov ... 327 Pavao Tekavčic SEMANTIKA !MENICE BICE U PROZNIM DJELIMA ŽELJKE ČORAK Semantika samostalnika bice v prozi Željke Čorak ....................... 335 Andrej Bekeš MEASURES OF TOPIC CONTINUITY AND THE WA-TOPIC IN JAPANESE Mere temske zveznosti in tema s členkom wa v japonskem jeziku ........... 341 COMPTES RENDUS, RECENSIONS, NOTES -POROČILA, OCENE , ZAPISI France Bezlaj, ETIMOLOŠKI SLOVAR SLOVENSKEGA JEZIKA, Dritter Band P-S. Ergiinzt und redigiert von Marko Snoj und Metka Furlan. Herausgegeben von der Slowenischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und Kunste, Institut fiir Slowenische Sprache. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1995. 355 Seiten (Alenka Šivic-Dular) ............................................. 353 «Quademi di Filologia e Lingue romanze», Ricerche svolte nell 'Universita di Macerata, Terza serie, volume 14, Macerata, 1999; 464 pp. + Indice (Pavao Tekavčic) ................................................ 363 Jožica Pirc LINGUISTICA XXXI-XL ......................................... 367 LINGUISTICA XL/2 Izdala in založila Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani Revue publiee et editee par la Faculte des Lettres et Philosophie de l'Universite de Ljubljana Glavni in odgovorni urednik -Redacteur en chef Mitja Skubic Tajnica redakcije -Secretaire de la redaction Jožica Pirc Nasloviti vse dopise na naslov Priere d'adresser toute correspondance a Mitja Skubic Filozofska fakulteta Aškerčeva 2 SI-1000 Ljubljana linguistica@uni-lj.si Tel.: +386 1 241 14 06 Fax: +386 1 425 93 37 Računalniški prelom -Mise en page KUDov Grafični biro Tisk -Imprimerie Tiskarna Littera picta, d.o.o. 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