Psiholo.ka obzorja / Horizons of Psychology, 9, 2, 121-130 (2000Ö © Dru.tvo psihologov slovenije 2000, ISSN 1318-18y Strokovni teoretsko-pregledni prispeve÷ Violence, shame and humiliationR ORAVECZ ROBERT ¶ Psihiatriena bolni.nica Ormo . Abstract: The phenomenon of shame came into the focus of psychology and psychiatry only a fe . years ago. Psychopathology recognizes many shame related syndromes and disorders. Recognition o . the scientific importance of shame is connected with the change in theoretical understanding of neuroN ses. Scientific evidence confirm the connection between violence and humiliation of human dignity o Humiliation seems to effect the individual through destruction of social competence and psychosocia× identity. But, humiliation and exclusion of individuals and groups have also an important sociocultura× effect. The author tries to describe the interaction between violence, shame, humiliation and relateB psychopathological disturbances in an attempt to contribute to a victim oriented mental health disN course o Key words: trauma, shame, humiliation, culture, mental healtO Nasilje, sram in poni.anostR ORAVECZ ROBERu Psychiatric hospital Ormo., Sloveni a Povzetek: Sram je pritegnil znanstveno pozornost psihologije in psihiatrije .ele pred nekaj leti o Zanimanje za fenomen poni.anja in sramu je nedvomno povezano s spremembami v razumevanjß nevroz. Psihopatologija danes prepoznava kar nekaj psihopatolo.kih motenj, ki so jasno povezane ä obeutki sramu in poni.anosti. Znanstveni dokazi potrjujejo jasno povezavo med nasiljem iU poni.evanjem elove.kega dostojanstva. Zdi se, da poni.evanje deluje na posameznika tako, da unie o njegovo socialno kompetentnost in posledieno tudi njegovo psihosocialno identiteto. Poni.anje iU dru.bena izloeenost ne prizadaneta le posameznika, ampak delujeta tudi na sociokulturno dimenzijo o Avtor opisuje povezave med nasiljem, poni.evanjem, sramom in psihopatolo.kimi motnjami z namenom ¸ da bi prispeval k razvoju diskurza .mentalnega zdravja., ki bi bilo (bolj) usmerjeno na .rtve nasilja o Kljuene besede: trauma, sram, poni.evanje, kultura, mentalno zdravjI CC=330 1 *Naslov / address: Oravecz Robert, dr. med., spec. psihiat., Psihiatriena bolni.nica Ormo., Ptujska c. 33 ¸ 2270 Ormo., Slovenija; e-mail: robert.oravecz@guest.arnes.so 122RR. Oravecä The psychology of shameR The phenomenon of shame was the .property. of cultural anthropology for a long timI (Heller, 1996) o Shame became a joint focus of psychology, psychiatry and philosophy only a few years ago. Kaufman (1989) wrote that recognition of the scientific importance o . shame is connected with a change in the theoretical understanding of neuroses. ThI phenomenon of shame came into the spotlight through the appearance of newly inN vented psychopathological entities such as syndromes and disorders. The phenomN enon of shame is connected to several psychopathological entities, named .shamI based syndromes. (Kaufmann, 1989) o They areç N Physical Abuse syndromeR N Eating Disorder SyndromeR N Sexual Abuse SyndromeR N Addictive SyndromeR N Phobic SyndromeR N Borderline SyndromeR N Sexual Dysfunction SyndromeR N Depressive, Paranoid, Schizoid Syndromes o The above listed syndromes and disorders made possible scientific insight into thI world of trauma- and violence-related psychopathological phenomena. The scientifi ¬ discourse on shame suggests that contemporary psychological concepts focus on difN ferent aspects (or meanings) of shame than those in traditional use by ethnologists anB anthropologists. It is possible that different scientific meanings are connected to difN ferent phenomenological aspects of shame o Heller (1985/1996) pointed out the difference between .skin-related shame0 (blush) and .deep shame. in primitive cultures, where the intensity of shame is deterN mined by the character of the violated rule. In contemporary society, the intensity o . this feeling is determined also by the individual relationship of the person who vioN lates the rule. The plurality of rules (or moral norms) is the crucial element in underN standing the difference in shame perception of primitive and contemporary cultures o That suggests that today shame manifests in different way than in primitive societies o Wurmser (1981) pointed out three different psychological aspects of shameç N Shame - a specific sort of anxiety in a situation of threatened exposure or huN miliation o N Shame . an emotion, or cognitive-emotional reaction o N Shame . a reactive formation (characterological traitÖ It seems that contemporary manifestations of shame (in the sense of a psychoN iolence, shame and humiliatioU 123R pathological entity) are almost always connected to an experience of violence, in thI sense of physical, verbal and sexual abuse, neglect, torture, abandonment, embarrassN ment, humiliation, mortification etc o The word .shame. originates from the Teutonic root word .skem. which meanR .to cover oneself. (Cloke, 1998). Therefore, shame is deeply connected to the pracN tice of violent behavior appearing in some specific human relations. Schultz (1996Ö stated, that .the parts of ourselves we wish to hide are the shameful parts, and we als 1 wish to hide the fact that we are ashamed. (pg. 24). Psychological and behaviora× approaches to shame recognize it as a phenomenon of basic affect. But shame is als 1 an emotion. Emotion in the sense of .involvement into something. (Heller, 1985/1996) o Summarizing Heller.s theoretical contributions, it should be pointed out, that the .inN volvement of a human. means emotion, and the arbitration, made by human authoriN ties values the emotion, produced in the process of human involvement. According t 1 the fact that authorities of human behavior are normative authorities, .involvement0 in this sense is strongly connected with the sphere of morality. Shame is thereforI connected to specific social situations, determined by the presence of an authority o . human behavior. Kaufman (1989) described two activators of shame. The innate ac-ztivator is the .incomplete reduction of interest or joy. (Kaufman, 1989). Accordin . to Tomkins (1963) Kaufman stated ... shame is an affect auxiliary because it operate 1 only after the positive affects, interest or enjoyment, have been activated. Shame funcN tions as a specific inhibitor of continuing interest and enjoyment. (page 30). KaufmaU (1989) also declared that .whenever an individual.s fundamental expectations (imagN ined positive scenes or desired outcomes in relation to people, events, or accomplishN ment) are suddenly exposed as wrong, shame is activated. Whenever expectation 1 thwarted or disappointed, shame is also activated. These are all instances of the inN nate activation of shame, triggered by the partial or incomplete reduction of positivI affect or of the imagined scenes thereof. (pg. 31) o According to Kaufmann (1989) the interpersonal activator of shame is .breakN ing the interpersonal bridge.. He gave an insight into the interpersonal genesis o . shame through presentation of the bonding process between mother and infant. HI emphasized the role of eye contact (gazing) between them. .The eyes are indeed winN dows of soul.. Identification is the central term in understanding the bonding process o And the benefit of bonding is .the infant.s feeling of oceanic oneness or union. (witO mother). That he recognized as .basic security. o Heller (1985) also pointed out the role of eyes, observed through the linguisti ¬ expression of shame-related events. She connected the role of gazing with the specifi ¬ relation between an individual and the authorities of human behaviour. She stated thas shame is connected to the presence of external authorities. According to M. Webe . (1978), domination (.authority.) should be understood to be .the probability thas specific commands (or all commands) will be obeyed by a given group of persons. 0 From this follows that authority is a legitimate relation of domination (participants iU the exercise of authority) and subjection (those excluded from the exercise of authorN ity) o 124RR. Oravecä Shame production is one of the subordination - implementing mechanism. Is seems that eye-control over the violation of the rules is necessary for the appearancI of shame. Therefore, the role of external authority is associated with the role of .obN server.. The internalization of the external authorities is associated with the internaliN zation of moral values. An individual values his own behaviour in accordance witO the values represented by moral authorities. Violation of external or internalized valN ues terminates in exclusion or alienation (of the individual or group). Association o . authority with a violent style of implementation should be recognized by contempoN rary society as the appearance of a .perpetrator. o Heller.s ethical.philosophical concepts (Heller,1985) point out the regulativI (authoritarian) aspects of shame production and of the development of moral values o It seems that the basic social role of authority is reality-construction through a procesR of meaning-production and selection. External authority is only able to maintain conN trol over human behavior ifç N N N the norms of behavior are homogenous ¸ the community is smal× the members of different generations living in the same community don.t perN ceive social changes (Heller, 1985) o In other settings, implementation of an internal authority is needed. The role o . external authority is to supervise the only acceptable reality o Shame and violenceR Evaluating the developmental dimensions of bonding, Kaufman stated: .An interperN sonal bridge forms out of reciprocal interest and shared experiences of trust. Trustin . must be matched by the parent behaving in a trustworthy fashion. (pg. 36). KaufmaU (1989) identified also consistency and predictability as crucial factors in building aU interpersonal bridge. The above described mechanism of interpersonal bridge buildN ing does not exist only on the level of individual, but also on the group and societ level. The insufficiency of bonding and the broken interpersonal bridges are strongl connected to the dysfunctional authority relation, expressing in inconsistency anB unpredictability o Tracing possible shame-producing events, Kaufmann (1989) emphasizedç N the role of early parental expression of anger ¸ N the connection between shame and the fear of abandonmens N the shame-producing mechanism of the utterance: .Shame on you. o The shame-productive effects of blame, contempt, and humiliation were als 1 described. It seems that the last ones (blame, contempt and humiliation) are most connecteB iolence, shame and humiliatioU 125R to interpersonal and social aspects of violence. Humiliation of human dignity necessaril presuppose the existence of an authority related relationship. Namely, humiliation is aU verbal performative act, which works only in certain condition of subordination. Fo . example, the expression, .Shame on you!. produces feelings of shame only in the case ¸ if the .shamed. person recognizes and accepts the authority of the .shaming. person o From that reason, humiliation is perhaps one of the most efficient way to wound the sel . and destroy the identity. Breaking the will, defeating, violently and repeatedly beating, o . sexually abusing an individual (especially an infant) causes severe feelings of shame ¸ along with various ideas about oneself, like .I don.t belong, I don.t deserve to be here, . am no good. 0 Shultz (1996) explains the effect of humiliation, ..it so disrupts our functioU that the ego is temporarily dissolved and dead. Shame comes with consciousness ¸ particularly self consciousness.self consciousness that is the awareness of our conN stitutional inadequacy, our essential inferiority, worthlessness and evil. It is the affecs of knowing the shadow. It comes with dismemberment, in the sense of being cut of . from an essential source of survival, be it mother, clan, community, self, God, or other ¸ and it comes with dismemberment also in the sense of splitting off or repressing thI shameful part. 0 Cloke (1998) defined the shame caused by violent events: .Shame can best bI described as an emotional wound to the self for which one blames oneself as if one. 1 person is the reason.. He stated also: .Shame wounds that occur as a result of chilB abuse whether from neglect, violence, sexual abuse, humiliation, betrayal or abanN donment are often subsumed into a child.s self image. These experiences producI .bad self. feelings and are felt as self-loathing, inadequacy, powerlessness, weakN ness, and worthlessness.. It is very easy to imagine the overwhelming pain caused b abuse, neglect, or humiliation o Humiliation seem to effects the individual through destruction of social comN petence. Violent implementation of social rules (by an external authority) causes feelN ings of impotence, suppression or numbing. But in clinical praxis, humiliation is nos often observable as a unique phenomenon. Nathanson (1992) described four strateN gies to defend the self from shame- producing experience. These are: withdrawal ¸ avoidance, attacking others, and attacking the self. The strategy of attacking others iR strongly connected with rage, which often follows the shame.producing events o . neglect, abuse or humiliation. Anger and rage are often described as secondary emoN tional responses to primary painful experiences (Cloke, 1998). That causes a circle o . shame . envy . rage . guilt. This circle is very important to the understanding of thI transformation of victims into perpetrators o Denial seem to be the most insufficient defense, which is often connected to thI above-described strategies of protection against shame. Elias (1978) understood thI significance of the denial of shame: .it goes underground, leading to behavior that i 1 outside of awareness and compulsive.. A similar mechanism is described in traumaN related situations (Oravecz, 1999a). Therefore, shame plays a central role in the reguN lation of human behavior and consequently also in the development of individua× 126RR. Oravecä psychosocial identity o Shame and identityR Contemporary theories of personal identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1986; Bruner, 1987; Barresi ¸ 1997; Oravecz, 1999b) stress the interpersonal and narrative aspects of identity buildin . processes. The .locus. of individual identity is in the .Persona.. Although Locke (1694 » 1975) described the .Persona. in the sense of Self, contemporary science recognizeR some important differences between the two terms. The key for understanding thI difference is social experience (Cohen, 1994). Social experience might cause a certaiU tension between the definition of Self and the Persona, which should be defined aR .social identity.. This model presupposes a view of a sociocultural environment whicO just surrounds the individual, not influencing the integrity of the stable, long lastin . autoreflexive matrix of the Self. Persona was perceived like a less valuable concept ¸ which defines the individual in the mirror of the sociocultural environment. (Like a soldier, a mentally ill person, a victim, etc.) Individual identity is a product of aU autoreflexive, and at the same time a time- related process. Namely, autoreflexion iR possible only in the case of successful anticipation of the future. Barresi (1998) stateB that one of the greater achievements of human consciousness is the ability to build a narrative connection between past, present and future, which means at the same timI also the past, present and future of a certain individual o Some authors stated that active story-telling shapes the individual into a Self o Narrative story-construction contributes to the rationalization of our meanings and iR the way to define ourselves in terms of our long-range goals (Carr, 1986; Bruner ¸ 1990; Barresi & Juckes, 1997; Oravecz 1999b). Narrative identities are possible onl if they show congruence with the possible identities offered by the sociocultural enviN ronment. In the case of incongruence, the environment is not able to recognize thI identity enacted by the individual. Sociocultural environment is the metaphor of thI .life-theater.. Narrative identity theories imply the existence of a stable self, which iR from time to time reconstructed through narrative construction. Self.narratives arI time dependent, however, and the position of the narrator also changes all the time o Therefore, the individual should build up many identities, which are often in opposiN tion to each other (Barresi, 1998) o The process of identity building is inevitably connected with the dimension o . time. This is because time (history) structures the individual and also the community o So the analysis (interpretation) of individual and community-based events dependR on the same narrative rules. Therefore, personal narrative construction is possiblI only under the condition of a linguistic symbolical matrix, structured by the culturI (László, 1999). The late-modern and post.modern identity concepts pointed out thI importance of intersubjectivity. Intersubjectivity as a theoretical concept offers plasN ticity, very convenient to understand the dynamics of individual identity, anchored iU the rules of narrative reality building o iolence, shame and humiliatioU 127R Finally, semiotic theory, constructed by Geertz (1994) accentuates the situationa× power of social discourse, able to .impregnate. the individual with meanings, whicO construct a sociocultural reality, encompassing the individual o Narratively constructed individual identity is extremely important for underN standing the impact of violence and shame on the coherence of Self and functionalit of the Person. Holocaust researchers such as Virág (1996) recognized the role of lon . - term denial of some traumatogenic and shameful events. The transgenerational transN mission of Holocaust-related horrific experiences is significantly connected with feelN ings of shame. (On both the German and the Jewish sides.) The situation is very simiN lar in the case of sexual abuse (Polcz, 1998). The terrible experiences of survivorR (victims) are not only traumatogenic, but in some aspects also shame- producing o (This shame is connected with experiences such as humiliation, devaluation, socia× exclusion etc. Ö In victim.related discourse, shame strongly influences the coherence of narraN tive life history. Schank and Abelson (1995) support the narrative nature of the humaU knowledge. They state that we interpret our new experience through previous stories o Shank and Abelson (1995) pointed out, that understanding is a mapping procedure iU the sense of looking for accord between the stories of different people o This accord among different stories is not only a horizontal issue between narN ratives, existing simultaneously, but also has vertical, (time related) dimension. Thas means that we have to find connection between our previous and recent stories and as the same time, we have to connect our narratives to the related stories of others(László ¸ 1998). The shameful experiences which hide behind life histories tend to cause narraN tive incoherence. That means that shame-generation (such as shaming, humiliation ¸ etc.) should be understood in the sense of an identity-destroying process which tendR to lower the future perspective of individual identity regeneration. The psychologica× disturbance of identity .lesion. is reflected in the persistence of the victim.perpetraN tor relationship. Humiliation is therefore a process of generalization which transformR the individual into a person who has lost the main references of individual identity o (An example is the symbolic role of yellow star for the Jews in Nazi Germany.) HuN miliation of human dignity is probably the process, which transforms the person, sufN fering traumatogenic events into the victim. Victimization is a sociocultural process ¸ which .labels. the individual, and makes him .strange. and .rejectable.. Therefore ¸ humiliation is one of the factors, which are responsible for the preservation o . victimhood (often for many generation) o Violence, shame, humiliation and mental healthR Shame and humiliation of human dignity are very often interlacing with mental healtO issues, especially connected to prior abuse and violence. Abusive experiences proN foundly affect the individual and should play an important role in development of diversI 127 R. Oravecä psychopathological disorders and syndromes. Shame and humiliation seems to be ver important factors in development and maintenance of this phenomena o Therefore, shame and humiliation acts in two different waysç N N Where cultural tradition and shame impede discussions about sexual assauls and physical violence, mental health providers do not inquire about past abusI in regard to diagnosis and/or treatment o In the light of socioculturally determined meanings, victims are also unable t 1 verbalize the shame . producing and trauma related experiences o Without this critically important information, mental health providers cannos possibly provide the type of care necessary for trauma . related healing o The victims of violence, and also the mental health professionals are in a ver delicate situation o N Namely, the language of violence (and exclusionism) very often impregnateR the discourse of mental health facilities, especially the psychiatric institutions o N The lack of sensitivity of medical staff can make institutional life terrifying fo . victims of violence o N Therapeutic treatments and certain physical restraint techniques, used in psyN chiatric institutions retraumatize persons who have experienced violence in thI past o In general, the psychiatric ideology points out the idea of .deviation. (pe . definitionem: ..person, who deviates especially from the principles of a social o . political system.; Hornby, 1986). The term of .deviation. originates in the philosoN phy of .enlightenment., namely in connection with the idea of »possible human perN fection« and the experience of »human incorrigibleness«. »Deviation« seems to bI the key to the understanding of the relation among psychiatry and victims of violence o »Deviation« is a historical category, associated to the dynamics of social discourse o »Deviation« is needed all the time, to preserve the identity of the »healthy« majority o From this purpose, culture re-generate the discourse, which contributes to the develN opment of criteria of rule-violation o Therefore, the criteria of »deviation« are associated with the actual socioculN tural reality. And they are also connected with the process of »labeling« and »excludN ing« o The consequence of above described is, that psychiatry is impregnated witO (and by) the sociocultural reality. More precisely, existence of psychiatry is condiN tioned by the sociocultural need for labeling, excluding and correcting individuals ¸ who deviates from the majority. However, psychiatry is a public institution, protectN ing the interest of majority and therefore it can not be victim sensitive. For the psychiN atric praxis, influenced by the sociocultural tradition, the phenomenon of victim iR incomprehensible. The current psychotraumatological publications often describe thI iolence, shame and humiliatioU 129R psychiatric misrepresentations of trauma related psychopathological disturbanceR (Eisenbruch, 1991; Eisenbruch, 1992; Zalokar, 1994). These originate from the fact ¸ that psychiatry is unable to percept and understand the victim as a person, who iR seeking protection and support, but only as a person, causing or representing »deviaN tion«. The phenomenon of .victim blaming., often present in the psychiatric and juN ridical praxis should be understood through the above described transformation of thI victim into the »problem« o For distinction from psychiatry, the modern, multi . and interdisciplinary baseB mental health paradigm originates in the idea of »human improvement«. The ideolN ogy of mental health seems to have the same roots, like the modern pragmatic phiN losophy (Rorty,1999) and it is absolutely oriented into the protection and improveN ment of mental health potentials and the individual human rights. Supported by thI identification with the pain of individual the contemporary mental health ideology iR definitely victim oriented o Therefore, the tolerance of a mental health facility (community mental healtO centers, community centers, outpatient services, therapeutic communities etc.) is ofN ten connected with the coherence of social (socioculturally determined)discourse, reN lating to violence and humiliation. The only solution for solving the problems, origiN nated in violence, shame and humiliation is systematic development of a sociocultura× (especially professional) discourse on violence, which supports the expression (verN balization) of violent and shameful experiences by the victim. Namely, verbal expresN sion of traumatic and humiliating experiences is a very important act of the impleN mentation of truth o erbalization of the traumatic and shameful experiences by the victim has ç N N N N N Trauma-healing effect, by enabling the cognitive processing of visually storeB imagery (Oravecz, 1999) o Devictimizing effect, through articulation of hidden shameful experiences. (ExN pression of the shameful events causes cathartic feelings of liberation. Ö Identity-constructing (and reconstructing) effect, through construction (reconN struction) of personal narrative history o Social reality-building effect, namely, the verbalized contents influence actua× social reality. The .truth., mixed up from the painful experiences of differens people, groups and points of observation contributes to solidarity and empath among individuals and groups o Social coherence-building effect, from the reason of inclusion of previousl excluded community (family) members. Statements made by victims of huN miliation contribute to decreasing of the tension in the community o Therefore, through the healing the consequences of violence, mental healtO professionals contribute to the resolution of individual suffering and also to the transN formation of the sociocultural tradition. Healing the individual is at the same time als 1 healing the sociocultural roots of the whole society o 130R. Oravecä Opomba gl. urednika: eden od recenzentov je osnovno verzijo prispevka oznaeil kot primerno z a objavo, drugi pa primerno za objavo z veejimi, pomembnej.emi vsebinskimi popravki. Nekatere je avto . upo.teval, z nekaterimi pa se ni strinjal in smatra, da pri njih ne gre za napaene prikaze ali interpretacije ¸ temvee za razlike v legitimnih strokovnih pogledih na obravnavano temo. Zato smo se odloeili deln 1 popravljen elanek vseeno objaviti, pri eemer raeunamo na morebitno nadaljno strokovno polemiko 1 predstavljeni tematiki o eferencesR Barresi, J. & Juckes, T. 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