374
Documenta Praehistorica XLVII (2020)
Bell Beaker cultural package
in the East European periphery of the phenomenon>
a case of ritual features in north-eastern Poland
Dariusz Manasterski 1, Katarzyna Januszek1, Adam Wawrusiewicz2,
and Aleksandra Klecha 3
1 Institute of Archaeology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, PL
dmanasterski@uw.edu.pl< katarzyna.januszek@uw.edu.pl
2 Podlachian Museum in Bial⁄ystok, Bial⁄ystok, PL
adamwawrusiewicz@op.pl
3 Antiquity of Southeastern Europe Research Center, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, PL
aleksandraaklecha@gmail.com
ABSTRACT – The Bell Beaker (BB) cultural package is one of the concepts explaining the extensive
diffusion of this phenomenon in Europe. Artefacts associated with the package, discovered mainly
in the graves of men, form groups defining the status of the deceased. The BB package is a dynamic
turn of events, changing depending on the region, but preserving certain characteristic traits. The
complete set of its initial ingredients was not copied in any location, and new local elements were
added in various areas of its diffusion. The ritual features unearthed in north-eastern Poland, which
contained elements of the BB package, are the assemblages located the furthest in the East European
periphery of the phenomenon. The eco- and artefacts from these assemblages are difficult to inter-
pret conclusively within the framework of the classic BB package, as well as in terms of its changes
associated with its diffusion. This is connected with the fact that they include elements unknown
among the local cultural entities, which reflect the broad circle of contacts their owners maintained.
IZVLE∞EK – Kulturni paket zvon≠astih ≠a∏ je eden od konceptov, s katerim razlagamo obse∫no ∏ir-
jenje tega pojava v Evropi. Najdbe, ki jih povezujemo s tem paketom, so bile odkriti predvsem v mo∏-
kih grobovih, pri ≠emer oblikovane skupine dolo≠ajo status pokojnika. Ta kulturni paket predstav-
lja dinami≠en razvoj dogodkov, ki se spreminja glede na regijo, pri ≠emer pa ohranja dolo≠ene zna-
≠ilne lastnosti. Celoten nabor za≠etnih sestavin tega paketa ni bil kopiran na nobenem mestu, so pa
bili dodani novi lokalni elementi na razli≠nih obmo≠jih njegove difuzije. Ritualne zna≠ilnosti, ki so
jih izkopali na severovzhodu Poljske, vsebujejo elemente kulturnega paketa zvon≠astih ≠a∏ in so
hkrati primer najbolj oddaljenega obrobja tega pojava v vzhodni Evropi. Ekofakte in najdbe teh zbi-
rov je te∫ko dokon≠no interpretirati tako v okviru klasi≠nega paketa kulture zvon≠astih ≠a∏ kot v
smislu sprememb, ki so povezane z difuzijo tega paketa. To je povezano z dejstvom, da paket vklju-
≠uje neznane elemente med lokalnimi kulturnimi entitetami, ki odsevajo ∏ir∏i krog povezav, ki so jih
vzdr∫evali njihovi nosilci.
KEY WORDS – Bell Beaker cultural package; ritual features; north-eastern Poland
KLJU∞NE BESEDE – kulturni paket zvon≠astih ≠a∏; ritualne zna≠ilnosti; severovzhodna Poljska
Kulturni paket zvon;astih ;a[ na obrobju pojava v vzhodni Evropi>
primer ritualnih zna;ilnosti na severovzhodu Poljske
DOI> 10.4312\dp.47.20
Bell Beaker cultural package in the East European periphery of the phenomenon> a case of ritual features in north-eastern Poland
375
to demonstrate the prestige of the owner, who en-
joyed a high status in a given society (see also Ren-
frew 2001.122). The cultural package, free from the
limitations of strict relations between the artefacts
and time and space (intra-assemblage relationships
acc. Hodson), emphasizes the properties showing
significant dynamics of participation of various indi-
viduals and their groups (e.g., secret societies) in
the transmission of cultural information (codes). Ja-
nusz Czebreszuk, although he agreed with the basic
assumptions concerning the cultural package, sug-
gested that it should be specified and used with ref-
erence to phenomena characteristic of BB and visi-
ble in the south-western Baltic zone (Czebreszuk
2001.44–47, 140–142). According to him, the identi-
fication of a phenomenon as a cultural package (in
this case the BB package) does not determine its cul-
tural character, although it is still associated with a
particular cultural content. The package set, both the
objects and ideas (selected objects symbolizing an
idea), is such an attractive cultural value that it
spreads over large territories, but observes the rule
of diffusion among societies which had somehow
been connected with each other before. For this rea-
son, it is a dynamic phenomenon, it changes on a
regional scale, but preserves certain similarities.
The initial version of the package is not completely
copied in any region, and new local elements are in-
corporated in the course of diffusion. In this way, the
cultural package, being subject to change in time and
space, leads to transformation of only some elements
of the culture associated with a given society, e.g., a
particular tradition in a certain group, usually leav-
ing other aspects without material changes.
In the case of the classical (Iberian) version of the
BB cultural package, objects associated with burials,
apart from bone remains of individuals deposited
lying on the side with bent knees, are its essential
indicators. The objects include, most of all, the bell
beaker, decorated with a zone or zone-metopic pat-
tern, sometimes with other vessels decorated in a si-
milar manner, archer’s accessories, copper dagger
and Palmela point, nodular bone beads with V-shap-
ed perforations, a diadem or gold foil plaquette (e.g.,
Garrido-Pena 2007.1, Fig. 1). Nevertheless, due to
the movement of the package in time and space,
some changes appeared, e.g., bell beaker-shaped
goblets and mugs, sometimes without any decora-
tion, or other previously foreign objects were depo-
sited with the burials of the societies adopting this
package. Gold lunulas, whose distribution is limited
mainly to north-western Europe, are also associated
with BB. Apart from that, the movement of the BB
Introduction
Bell Beakers (BB) as a cultural phenomenon have
been a subject of research since the 19th century.
This is a consequence of not only the high level of
identification of sources associated with this cultural
entity (mainly pottery) in archaeological material,
but also their broad distribution in Europe and even
in north-western Africa. The reasons for such disper-
sion are still under analysis. Some data also indicate
significant mobility of representatives of this cultur-
al formation, which is confirmed by analyses of stron-
tium and oxygen isotopes, e.g., in the Amesbury ar-
cher (Chenery, Evans 2011). One of the results of
such a situation is a high degree of heterogeneity
of the artefacts associated with BB in a given area,
which often led to issues with interpretation. This is
reflected by various concepts accounting for this
phenomenon – from an archaeological culture, cul-
tural package to civilization perspective (cf. Lemer-
cier 2018.Fig. 4). Other studies on trends in the im-
plementation of various innovations connected with
BB in several European regions show that there were
many local ways in which the groups adopted or
even invented different innovations (e.g., metallur-
gy or a certain type of pottery), as well as many
ways of exchange of ideas, traffic of various objects
and migration of particular individuals (Kleijne 2019.
194). As indicated by Oliver Lemercier (2018.77),
both the similarities and differences in BB sources
probably stem from the means of diffusion, which
might have been connected with the artefacts or
ideas themselves, particular individuals, or whole
populations. One of the possible means of diffusion
is associated with a broader understanding of the
term cultural package.
In methodological assumptions the term cultural
package refers to an artefact assemblage, not to an
archaeological culture, with both terms used in con-
trast to the other. Archaeological cultures in the clas-
sical definition are stable entities (taxonomical units)
with discriminative traits, determined on the basis
of internal similarities and external differences, vis-
ible mainly in portable artefacts and fixed features
characterized by a strictly defined location in time
and space. From the perspective proposed by Frank
Roy Hodson, in which significant characteristics and
style types are essential, a culture is a recurrent set
of style types (Hodson 1980.6).
On the other hand, a cultural package is, according
to Steven Shennan (1982.159), a group of status-de-
fining objects, i.e. a set of personal belongings used
Dariusz Manasterski, Katarzyna Januszek, Adam Wawrusiewicz, and Aleksandra Klecha
376
package was associated with the conversion of bur-
ial practices from inhumation to cremation in some
regions (the Lower Rhine River and Central Europe),
which is obviously evidence for changes in the be-
lief system and rituals.
Sources discovered in recent years in north-eastern
Poland (Supraśl, site 3) belong to sealed assemblages
connected with the BB phenomenon located fur-
thest northeast (Wawrusiewicz et al. 2015). The
eco- and artefacts from these assemblages are diffi-
cult to interpret conclusively in the context of the
classical BB package, and in terms of its transforma-
tions in the course of the journey ‘from neighbour
to neighbour’. For this reason, the most important
research issue is to establish the origin of the un-
earthed sources and the associated socio-cultural ac-
tivity. This will also answer the question as to whe-
ther this is a case of diffusion of ideas or migration
of individuals.
The area of modern north-eastern Poland, which
consists of the Masurian Lake District and the North
Podlachian Lowland, was still dominated by hun-
ter-gatherer societies of the Neman Cultural Circle
(NCC) in the Late Neolithic
and Early Bronze Age (Mana-
sterski 2016.16). In the Early
Bronze Age they became a
part of the Trzciniec cultural
circle, which formed at that
time. It is difficult to find a
reason why these groups
changed their cultural profile.
The recurrent attempts to po-
pulate this region in the Neo-
lithic, made by farming and
pastoral communities, did not
bring substantial changes in
the traditional economic and
social structure of the auto-
chthonic populations which
would be visible in archaeo-
logical material. Archaeologi-
cal discoveries from the Ma-
surian Lake District were the
first to shed some light on the
transformation of these local
groups into Early Bronze Age
societies (Manasterski 2009).
However, the absence of evi-
dence necessary for conclu-
sive identification of ‘West Eu-
ropean immigrants’ in north-
eastern Poland was a major cognitive dissonance.
This big area delivered only isolated small fragments
of vessels with zone-metopic decoration, which were
identified with the influence of the Iwno culture (IC)
– a group with a marked BB component (Manaster-
ski 2009.74–81; 2012a; 2014). The situation chang-
ed only when features with artefacts characteristic
of BB were discovered at site 3 in Supraśl in north
Podlachia (Wawrusiewicz et al. 2015.23–27, Fig. 5;
Manasterski 2016.12–13, Figs. 1, 2). The artefacts
from that site can be regarded as critical for discus-
sion of BB in north-eastern Poland. It is even more
interesting that up to that moment the frontier of
the north-eastern ecumene of this cultural phenome-
non (cf. Machnik 1979b; Czebreszuk 2001.116–
142, Fig. 35; Vander Linden 2004; Budziszewski,
Włodarczak 2010.9–10, Fig. 25) was marked by di-
scoveries from areas previously populated by agri-
cultural societies (cf. Fig. 1).
Bell Beaker features from Supraśl, site 3
This multi-cultural site is situated in north-eastern
Poland in the North Podlachian Lowland, in the Kny-
szyn Primeval Forest. It is located on a flood plain
Fig. 1. Location of archaeological site in Supraśl. 1 Supraśl, site 3; 2
physicogeographical border of the West and East of Europe; 3 range of the
Neman Cultural Circle; 4 range of the Bell Beaker phenomenon (4a cul-
ture, 4b peripheries); (acc. Józwiak 2003.Map 8; Wawrusiewicz et al. 2015.
Fig.5; Lemercier 2018.Figs. 1, 4).
Bell Beaker cultural package in the East European periphery of the phenomenon> a case of ritual features in north-eastern Poland
377
on the right bank of the Su-
praśl River on an elevation
which is an erosion mound
of the Pleistocene river (Fig.
2). The hill where relics of
pre-historic societies were un-
earthed is composed of sandy
fluvio-glacial sediments cov-
ered with brown soil. Four
features (assemblages of eco-
and artefacts), clearly con-
nected with the BB phenom-
enon, were found in its cen-
tral, uppermost portion (Fig.
3). Their deposition, distribu-
tion and certain recurrent features indicate ‘planned
behaviour’ (for the theory of see Ajzen 2005.117–
119).
Feature 1
It was an oval concentration of eco- and artefacts,
measuring approx. 90 x 120cm and displaying inten-
tional distribution (Fig. 4; Wawrusiewicz et al. 2015.
33–90). The assemblage consisted of: fragments of
burned bones, an intact vessel and fragments of ten
other vessels, two damaged
amber beads, 20 flint and four
stone artefacts. Two of the lat-
ter were intact and the other
two fragmented.
A large undecorated pottery
vessel (Fig. 4.1) was deposit-
ed in the centre, with anoth-
er, also undecorated one (Fig.
4.2), inside. Next to these ves-
sels, there was a small assem-
blage of fragmented and
burned human bones (Fig.
4.E), weighing almost 24g in
total. These remains came
from two individuals (Jaskul-
ska 2015.249–251). There
were halves of two amber
beads (Fig. 4.3,4; Kwiatkow-
ska 2015.325–334) among
the bone fragments. The
bones and beads were most
likely deposited in an organ-
ic container of a bag type
(pouch?) and covered with a
large fragment of a decorated
vessel (Fig. 4.5). Two blade
flint tools (Fig. 4.6,7) were
found between the centrally located vessel and the
bone assemblage, and slightly further away there
were some small pottery fragments of several dec-
orated vessels (Fig. 4.8–11). Four polished stone in-
serts (Fig. 4.12), parts of a knife/dagger blade, were
discovered slightly northwest of the centre. Other
objects in that location include a fragment of a bowl
(Fig. 4.13) and flint artefacts – a damaged arrowhead
(Fig. 4.14), a backed insert (Fig. 4.15), three splin-
tered pieces (Fig. 4.16–18), a retouched para-blade
Fig. 2. Location of archaeological site Supraśl 3 in Supraśl River valley
(photo by Damian Marczak).
Fig. 3. Supraśl, site 3. Location of fixed features. A range of trenches; B
Bell Beaker features; C Early Iron Age features; D Corded Ware culture
feature (acc. Januszek et al. 2019.Fig. 2).
Dariusz Manasterski, Katarzyna Januszek, Adam Wawrusiewicz, and Aleksandra Klecha
378
(Fig. 4.19), as well as a stone axe (Fig. 4.20), a half
of a sickle-shaped stone knife (Fig. 4.21) and a frag-
ment of another bowl (Fig. 4.22). South of the cen-
trally located vessel there were more shards of deco-
rated vessels (Fig. 4.23,24), a stone arrow shaft
straightener (Fig. 4.25), and flint artefacts – a bro-
ken arrowhead (Fig. 4.26), a perforator (Fig. 4.27)
and a splintered piece (Fig. 4.28).
Feature 2
It was an oval darker area measuring 50 x 60cm,
with eco- and artefacts inside (Fig. 5). The assem-
blage consisted of pottery vessels, stone and flint
objects, fragments of amber beads, burned bone
remains and a chunk of calcareous sinter. There was
also a concentration of eco- and artefacts that had
probably been deposited in a small organic contain-
er (pouch?). This group of objects consisted of pieces
of burned and badly fragmented sheep or goat bones
(analysed by Anna Gręzak from the Institute of Ar-
chaeology of the University of Warsaw), weighing
18g in total, four fragments of different amber beads
(Fig. 5.1–4; Manasterski, Kwiatkowska 2018.58–
60, Fig. 2.3,4,7), a decorated disc-shaped pottery ob-
ject (Fig. 5.5), four shards of different decorated pot-
tery vessels (Fig. 5.6–9), as well as eight flint arte-
facts – three arrowheads (Fig. 5.10–12) showing dif-
ferent types of damage, a retouched blade (Fig. 5.13),
an axe-like tool (Fig. 5.14), and three splintered pie-
ces (Fig. 5.15–17). These items were incorporated in
a compact mass formed with sand and powdery soil,
which differed from the soil present at the site.
The ‘bag’ with its contents was placed on a fragment
of a large storage vessel bearing rich decoration (Fig.
5.18), together with a ‘triangular’ flat object with dril-
led perforations, which was made of slate and re-
sembled the blade of a copper dagger (Fig. 5.19), as
well as a small stone slab with an incised saltire (Fig.
5.20). All these objects were covered with a large frag-
ment of a decorated bowl (Fig. 5.21). Close to that,
there were also shards of five different decorated
pottery vessels (Fig. 5.22–26), a stone axe (Fig. 5.27),
an arrow shaft straightener/sharpening stone (Fig.
5.28) and a chunk of calcareous sinter (Fig. 5.29).
Feature 5
It was visible as a circular darker area of a diameter
reaching almost 30cm (Fig. 6). The ceiling contained
an amber pendant (Fig. 6.1; Manasterski, Kwiat-
kowska 2018.59, Fig. 2.9), with a slender stone
blade (Fig. 6.2) underneath and an assemblage of
15 artefacts below. It should be emphasized that
this feature contained no bone material.
Fig. 4. Supraśl, site 3. Generalized plan of feature 1 with location of artefacts. A shards of different pot-
tery vessels; B stone artefacts; C flint artefacts; D fragments of amber beads; E fragments of burned bones
(acc. Januszek et al. 2019.Fig. 3).
Bell Beaker cultural package in the East European periphery of the phenomenon> a case of ritual features in north-eastern Poland
379
The contents of the feature included nine fragments
of different decorated pottery vessels (Fig. 6.3,4,6–
12), a flint insert (Fig. 6.13), three flint arrowheads
(Fig. 6.14–16), a stone pendant with a drilled per-
foration (Fig. 6.17) and a nodular item with an in-
cised three-arm cross (Fig. 6.18). These objects, con-
centrated as if they had been deposited in an orga-
nic container (pouch?), were placed on a fragment
of a large decorated bell beaker (Fig. 6.5). Another
part of this vessel was found in feature 6.
Feature 6
It formed a circular darker area of a diameter of al-
most 30cm (Fig. 7). Its fill contained a concentration
of eco- and artefacts, which suggests that they had
been deposited in an organic container of a pouch
type, just as in the case of the other features.
The contents of the ‘bag’ were deposited in the cen-
tre, on a large fragment of a decorated bell beaker
(Fig. 7.1). The assemblage consisted of very frag-
Fig. 5. Suprasssl, site 3. Generalized plan of feature 2 with location of artefacts. A shards of different
pottery vessels; B stone artefacts; C chunk of calcareous sinter; D concentration of eco- and artefacts
(1–4 fragments of burned bones, sand and powdery soil, fragments of amber beads, 5 disc-shaped pot-
tery object, 6–9 small shards of different pottery vessels, 10–17 flint artefacts).
Dariusz Manasterski, Katarzyna Januszek, Adam Wawrusiewicz, and Aleksandra Klecha
380
mented burned human bones (analysed by Elżbieta
Jaskulska of the Institute of Archaeology of the Uni-
versity of Warsaw), weighing 21g in total, mixed
with 17 flint arrowheads (Fig. 7.2–18), a half of an
amber bead (Fig. 7. 19) and a decorated slate pen-
dant (Fig. 7.20). The ‘bag’, deposited on the large
shard of the beaker, was covered with almost a half
of a bowl (Fig. 7.21). Next to the ‘bag’ contents there
were: a sharpening stone (Fig. 7.22), a chunk of white
limestone (Fig. 7.23) and a large shard of a beaker
(Fig. 7.24), another part of which was found in fea-
ture 5.
Chronology and cultural identification of the
discovered objects
Apart from burned bones and some carbon deposit in
one of the vessels, no organic substances which could
be used for absolute dating were preserved in the fea-
tures due to the sandy and light soil. In the case of
the bones, the radio-carbon dating was unsuccessful
because of their small amount and absence of colla-
gen. However, the radio-carbon analysis of the car-
bon deposit from a bowl fragment from feature 6 de-
livered a date: (Poz-116826) 5110±35 cal BP (95.4%
probability: 3976–3799 cal BC). This cannot be ac-
cepted as it comes from a vessel typical of BB, but
precedes the emergence of this cultural phenomenon
by a millennium. Apart from the vessel shards, which
became the basis for establishing the chronology, no
other artefacts found in the context bear diagnostic
elements which would indicate the time of formation
of the analysed features. Nevertheless, they are help-
ful for identification of other cultural components
than BB, which also contributed to the making of the
ritual relics of the societies that left these features.
Pottery
In addition to vessel shards displaying components
of the general European BB style, the group consist-
ed of others which diverge from this cannon. Ana-
lysis of their elements made it possible to indicate
potential locations of their origin. It should be
stressed, however, that the results of petrographic
analyses of the pottery suggest a likely import of the
Fig. 6. Supraśl, site 3. Generalized plan of feature 5 with location of artefacts. A shards of different pot-
tery vessels; B stone artefacts; C flint artefacts; D amber pendant.
Bell Beaker cultural package in the East European periphery of the phenomenon> a case of ritual features in north-eastern Poland
381
pattern of pottery tradition, and not of already made
vessels (Krajcarz, Manasterski 2015).
On one hand, they include forms with parallels in the
Ciempozuelos style – typical of the Iberian Penin-
sula. Vessels in this category are characterized by
geometric decoration distributed in zone and zone-
metopic patterns, made by incision or stamping
(Figs. 4.5; 5.5,18,21,25,26; 6.5,7; 7.1,21,24). The de-
coration was made mainly on the outer surfaces, and
sometimes on the rims and inner portions around
the rim. The motifs include lines around the circum-
ference of the vessel, diagonal criss-cross pattern,
zigzags, bands of short diagonal lines, sometimes
arranged in a herringbone pattern, triangles filled
with short lines and concentric triangles, as well as
groups of short vertical lines alternating with unde-
corated areas. In one case, the decoration was disco-
vered on the bottom of a fragment of a semi-spher-
ical bowl – it is a solar motif and extends towards
the top of the vessel (Fig. 7.21). The carbon deposit
from this vessel was used for radio-carbon dating
and delivered the date mentioned above. It could be
supposed that a small pottery object from feature 2
(Fig. 5.5) with a similar decoration pattern is a no-
dular bottom of another, possibly miniature vessel.
Another group consists of vessels which, apart from
elements typical of general BB components, display-
ed other elements, characteristic for places of local
innovations. One of the most interesting specimens
in this group is a fragment of a decorated bowl with
an incised zone-metopic pattern of the saltire motif
(Fig. 4.13), which originated in the area east of the
Rhine River and is usually associated with the Velu-
ve type (Wawrusiewicz et al. 2015.53–54). Another
interesting item is a fragment of a profiled bowl with
a wide mouth, decorated with an incised criss-cross
Fig. 7. Supraśl, site 3. Generalized plan of feature 6 with location of artefacts. A shards of different pot-
tery vessels; B stone artefacts; C flint artefacts; D chunk of white limestone; E concentration of eco- and
artefacts: fragments of burned bones, sand; 2–18 flint arrowheads; 19 fragment of amber ornament.
Dariusz Manasterski, Katarzyna Januszek, Adam Wawrusiewicz, and Aleksandra Klecha
382
pattern on the rim, below which a zone-metopic de-
coration was made with the same technique (Fig.
5.23). Two decoration zones were made on the out-
er surface – horizontal cord impressions in the up-
per part, with a band of incised criss-cross pattern
below. Due to its form and style, the bowl has par-
allels in the south-western BB zone, where the cord
motifs are found together with motifs incised or im-
pressed with a comb (cf. Harrison 1977.13ff). Cord
decoration was made in the upper portion of the
vessels, sometimes on the inner surface just below
the rim, and the pottery was characterized by a red-
brown or reddish colour, which fully corresponds
with the specimen in question. However, cord im-
pressions are regarded as foreign in Western Europe
and associated with the influence of the Corded
Ware culture (CWC) (from another perspective, as
one of the results of the Rückstromm). Whole it is
the only specimen of pottery decorated in this man-
ner which has been found in Podlachia, a few ves-
sels decorated in a similar way (Manasterski 2016.
57, 68–69, Fig. 12.1, Fig. 20.2–3) have been disco-
vered in north-eastern Poland – in the Masurian Lake
District, where CWC and BB materials have also been
unearthed (Manasterski 2009.67–81). Therefore, it
is possible that the vessel from Supraśl was made in
the area of the Masurian Lake District.
Large fragments of S-shaped vessels are another two
examples. Apart from the typical BB decoration in
a zone-metopic pattern, they are characterized by
the presence of cordons and nodules. Both were de-
posited in feature 2. One has a large nodular handle
placed below the rim (Fig. 5.18), and the other a cor-
don around the circumference in the place where
the neck meets the body of the vessel (Fig. 5.26).
Such elements are relatively rare in the archetypal
BB pottery, and were usually fixed on undecorated
vessels found in settlement contexts (Prieto Martí-
nez 2013). However, after diffusion of this cultural
phenomenon over considerable portions of Western
and Central Europe, local components were absorb-
ed, including cordons and nodules, which were ab-
sent in initial pottery forms (Besse 2004). For this
reason, it is difficult to conclude where these two
types of vessels originated. In addition, it can be as-
sumed that they might have been made in north-
eastern Poland, as parallel nodules below rims are
known from the Rzucewo culture (RC) (cf. Machnik
1979a.369–372), which occupied south-eastern coa-
stal Baltic areas. In this region, at a settlement at
Suchacz, apart from local vessels with nodules and
cordons (Ehrlich 1936.64–70), shards of BB vessels
were found along with pottery displaying mixed BB
and RC features (Manasterski 2012b; 2016.90–92).
S-shaped vessels from the nearby Mazovian Lowland,
decorated with incised zone-metopic motifs separat-
ed with a cordon situated in the area where the neck
meets the body of the vessel (Manasterski 2016.132,
Fig. 42), seem to be an example of a parallel but
probably slightly more recent phenomenon. This is
even more likely because some, althouth relatively
few, fragments of BB vessels were identified in this
region (Manasterski 2016.83–90).
Accessories of an archer-warrior
Arrowheads
The analysed features contained 25 flint arrowheads
(Figs. 4.14,26; 5.10–12; 6.14–16; 7.2–18) in total, five
of which had been damaged (Figs. 4.14,26; 5.11; 6.15;
7.7) before their deposition. All the specimens are
triangular and made of flakes, and represent three
morphological types characterized by the shape of the
notch at the base: arched, triangular, or semi-circular.
One was formed with bifacial retouch (Fig. 5.12),
most with retouch around the edge. Twenty-one
specimens have polished edges (Figs. 4.26; 5.10,11;
6.14–16; 7.4–18), which are rare, and among them
six have polished surfaces (Figs. 7.4–6,8,10,11).
Apart from the form with bifacial retouch and a tri-
angular notch at the base, characteristic for CWC
(e.g., Włodarczak 2008.Fig. 2.37,40), the arrow-
heads can be classified as typical of BB, and at the
same time atypical because of the polishing marks
(Januszek et al. 2019.508–509). In the BB package,
arrowheads show variety in terms of morphology
and presence of characteristic regional modifications.
For instance, arrowheads with tangs are the most
typical variety in the Atlantic region of Europe, while
specimens with a notch at the base (hollow-based
type) are the prevalent type in Central Europe (e.g.,
Case 2004.28; Bailly 2014.358–362). For this rea-
son, it is the shape of the arrowheads with a semi-
circular notch rather than the technique of making
that is the criterion used to indicate the closest par-
allels in a few regions of the European range of BB.
Such artefacts have been found in the Czech Repub-
lic and south-western Norway (cf. Kopacz 2012.Fig.
5.4,5,13; Prescott, Glørstad 2015.Fig. 8.4.1l,II,10/
20). They are also known from sites of other cultur-
al entities with a marked share of BB, e.g., IC from
central Poland (Makarowicz 1989.Fig. 27.3).
With regard to the number of deposited arrowheads
in the features (2-3-3-17 respectively), feature 6 seems
extraordinary as it contained 17 specimens. This
Bell Beaker cultural package in the East European periphery of the phenomenon> a case of ritual features in north-eastern Poland
383
number corresponds with arrowhead assemblages
from funerary contexts with the richest equipment
of BB archers, such as the Amesbury archer in Bri-
tain (Harding 2011.91, Fig. 30).
Arrow shaft straighteners
Two single-element arrow shaft straighteners (Figs.
4.25; 5.28) made of different types of sandstone
were discovered in features 1 and 2 (Januszek et al.
2019.509). Their supposed use for straightening
reed arrow shafts was confirmed experimentally (cf.
Dmochowski 2015). Both specimens bear marks in-
dicating their additional functions. One of them, with
a polished surface of a portion of its circumference,
was also a sharpening stone, the other, with marked
crushed areas, additionally served as an anvil. These
features have parallels in morphologically similar ar-
tefacts associated with various Eurasian cultural con-
texts connected with at least 60 archaeological cul-
tures spanning from the Mesolithic to the Early
Bronze Age, that is, from the 9th to the beginning
of the 2nd millennium BC (cf. Usacheva 2016.590,
Fig. 1.3,17,20, Fig. 2.1, Fig. 3.11, Fig. 4). In most
cases, the straightening of reed was the primary but
not the only function of these tools (Usacheva 2016.
602). However, such forms from BB contexts have
not been published. The only known BB specimens
are composed of two elements, but even this type is
not a common find (e.g., Budziszewski, Włodarczak
2010.52, Pl. VI.5–5,5–6).
Daggers/knives
Four fully polished stone artefacts correspond with
the morphology of knives/daggers. They are all cha-
racterized by very good quality, particularly the accu-
racy of shaping, but they represent four different
types. Three of them are forms with unsegmented
blades and the fourth is a segmented one. One of
them, preserved intact, is actually the back portion
of a blade made of amphibolite (Fig. 4.21; Wawru-
siewicz et al. 2015.72, Fig. 37). Another is an intact
triangular blade made of slate (Fig. 5.19; Manaster-
ski 2016.Fig. 31.6). The third has a slender lancet-
shaped amphibolite blade (Fig. 6.2). Inserts of the
fourth one (segmented specimen) were made of gra-
nite gneiss (Fig. 4.12; Wawrusiewicz et al. 2015.
73, Fig. 39). None of the artefacts has direct paral-
lels in published pre-historic material, and thus they
are the first in BB contexts. Since rocks from the
Fennoscandian Shield, possibly sourced in Scandina-
via, were used for their production and the speci-
mens were made with a high degree of accuracy,
they might have originated in some societies from
Northern Europe. However, the raw material might
have also represented glacial erratic rock connected
with the most recent glacial period.
Stone and flint tools
Stone artefacts
Each feature contained rather sparse tools, made of
various rocks identified on the basis of petrographic
analysis by Maciej T. Krajcarz from the Institute of
Geological Sciences of the Polish Academy of Scien-
ces in Warsaw. These artefacts include: an orthoam-
phibolite adze (Fig. 4.20), an amphibolite axe (Fig.
5.27) and a polishing pad/sharpening stone made of
Jotnian sandstone (Fig. 7.22). Apart from the poli-
shing pad/sharpening stone with low diagnostic va-
lue, the other tools correspond with common forms
found at relatively close sites of Late Neolithic cul-
tural entities of the south-eastern coastal regions of
the Baltic Sea (e.g., πventoji 6 in Lithuania – cf. Ri-
mantiene 2005.Abb. 262). Other parallels were di-
scovered in the Masurian Lake District, although they
were only partially preserved (Manasterski 2009.
97–101). Apart from that, axe-like tools of various
forms and dimensions, made of different rocks, are
known from many other regions situated within the
range of BB. In the case of the artefacts from Supraśl,
it should be emphasized that the rock material used
for their production is common in north-eastern Po-
land in post-glacial sediments, but also has natural
outcrops in various European regions, including
Scandinavia. For this reason, the provenance of the
raw material cannot be conclusively indicated.
Flint artefacts
The raw material used for production of these arte-
facts were two varieties of erratic chalk flint. One of
them is local, the other, defined as ‘Pomeranian flint’,
is not found in Podlachia. The specimens made of
the former include, among others, four blade tools
(Figs. 4.6,7,19; 5.13), two of which are knives for
cutting meat with bone (Fig. 4.6,7), another is asso-
ciated with skin processing (Fig. 4.19; cf. Pyżewicz
2015.298–300). Others are flake forms (a perfora-
tor and two inserts) without any marks of use. The
forms made of Pomeranian flint include seven splin-
tered pieces (Figs. 4.16–18,28; 5.15–17) and a pol-
ished axe-like tool (Fig. 5.14), probably used for cut-
ting wood (according to an unpublished use and
wear analysis by Katarzyna Pyżewicz from the Insti-
tute of Archaeology of Adam Mickiewicz University
in Poznań). Specimens made of this raw material
have parallels at RC sites located in the south-east-
ern coastal region of the Baltic Sea (cf. Januszek
2010.72–74; Kabaciński 2018.155, Figs. 3,4). How-
Dariusz Manasterski, Katarzyna Januszek, Adam Wawrusiewicz, and Aleksandra Klecha
384
ever, splintered pieces made of Pomeranian flint
were identified much closer to Supraśl, at Ząbie site
in the Masurian Lake District, where pottery bearing
BB features was also unearthed (Manasterski 2009.
102–104, Pls. 10.7–8, 12.56, 13.9). Splintered pie-
ces are virtually absent from other Polish sites with
the BB phenomenon – only one specimen was disco-
vered at Święcice in Lesser Poland (Budziszewski,
Włodarczak 2010.59). South-eastern France is an
area where they are commonly found at settlement
sites (Furestier 2004.84).
Jewellery
Amber jewellery
The features contained eight artefacts made of suc-
cinite (Baltic amber), seven of which were fragments
of six different cylindrical beads (Figs. 4.3,4; 5.1–3;
7.19) and a nodular one with a V-shaped perforation
(Fig. 5.4), and the eighth one is a trapezoid pendant
(Fig. 6.1), which was damaged in its upper part in
the course of excavations (Manasterski, Kwiatkow-
ska 2018.57–59). Apart from the latter, the patina
which covered their surfaces indicates that the spe-
cimens were broken and deposited in the same form
as the one in which they were unearthed.
Cylindrical amber beads are known from BB con-
texts, but their territorial range is basically limited
to the British Isles (Manasterski 2016.104–105).
The nodular bead is a form which can be found in
BB burials in the Czech Republic (e.g., Hájek 1957.
398–421; Czebreszuk 2011.41–43). As opposed to
the beads, the pendant was made of a natural chunk
of amber and was only minimally processed to alter
its shape and drill a hole in it. Parallel pendants are
not known from BB contexts, but are associated
with local societies from the Late Neolithic and Early
Bronze Age occupying the Vistula and Oder Rivers
basins (cf. Bukowski 2002.15, 25, 32, 33, 35, Figs.
11a, 20, 21).
The processing marks visible on the surfaces under
microscope as well as comparative and experimen-
tal research indicate that metal tools (a drill and a
‘knife’), made of copper or copper alloy, were used
in the production process (cf. Popkiewicz 2016.
60). Since no traces of the use of such tools from the
Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age have been found
at amber-processing ‘workshops’ on Baltic coasts, it
should be assumed that these artefacts originated in
other areas of production. Available data suggest that
in this period corresponding ‘jeweller’s’ tools were
used in the British Isles and the area of the Aegean
Sea (Mazurowski 1983.113). Considering other ar-
guments, connected with the context of the analysed
amber artefacts, their origin might be found in ‘je-
weller’ traditions of the British Isles. Nevertheless,
it does not mean that they were made there as they
might as well be the products of a incomer.
Stone jewelry
These artefacts include two pendants made of diffe-
rent raw materials. One of them is a mudstone peb-
ble turned into jewellery by drilling a perforation in
it (Fig. 6.17). The other is a broken oval plaquette-
like form made of slate and has surfaces covered
with decoration (Fig. 7.20), whose motifs correspond
with the ones found on pottery. It shows a surpris-
ing similarity to geometric plaquettes from the south-
western part of the Iberian Peninsula, dated to 3500–
2750 cal BC (Garcia Rivero, O’Brien 2014.1). Some
researchers regard them as representations of the
Mother Goddess (Almagro Gorbea 1973; Rodrigues
1986a; 1986b; Gonçalves 1999). Others believe these
plaquettes express ‘collective heraldry’ understood
as lineage identifiers, which were used as an ordered
and important system for transmission of informa-
tion (Lisboa 1985; Bueno Ramírez 1992; Lillios
2002). The latter group also emphasizes their signi-
ficance in funerary rituals. However, a phylogenetic
analysis recently conducted by Daniel García Rivero
and Michael J. O’Brien showed that such plaquettes
cannot be genealogical systems for recording gene-
rations (Garcia Rivero, O’Brien 2014.12–17). They
also concluded that these artefacts might have had
a common origin in terms of concepts, e.g., religious
or apotropaic ones, and their variety was connected
with different developments from the initial idea,
which resulted in many variable elements, that is,
mutations and variants.
Artefacts and ecofacts with arbitrary meanings
These include two objects made of different types of
sandstone, two fragments of white rock: calcareous
sinter and limestone rock, as well as some badly
burned and fragmented human and animal bones.
One of the artefacts is a small flat slab with an in-
cised saltire (Fig. 5.20) and a plano-convex form
made of a pebble with an incised three-arm cross on
the convex surface (Fig. 6.18). Neither of these ob-
jects have parallels in BB contexts. However, they
are similar to pottery tokens from the Near East,
used from the 8th to the 3rd millennium BC as sym-
bolic counting aids for particular goods or their mea-
sures, e.g., for a sheep or large measure of grain (see
Schmandt-Besserat, Erard 2007.8–9, Fig. 1.2).
Bell Beaker cultural package in the East European periphery of the phenomenon> a case of ritual features in north-eastern Poland
385
The chunks of calcareous sinter and limestone rock,
which were also sources of white pigment, have pa-
rallels in funerary rituals of the Late Neolithic Pit
Grave culture in the area of steppes near the Black
Sea, where they are found in chunks next to the de-
ceased or as powder on skulls of men only (cf. Wo-
źny 2011.67). A man covered with white marl in a
burial identified with BB funerary rituals, found at
Ząbie in the Masurian Lake District, received a simi-
lar treatment (cf. Manasterski et al. 2001.148).
Burned and badly fragmented bone remains were
identified in three out of the four features. Two
features contained human bones and another one –
sheep or goat bones. Their total weight oscillated
around 20g (24g, 18g, 21g), and in the case of fea-
ture 1 they belonged to two individuals, an adult
and a juvenile. On the one hand, there were very
few bone remains, on the other, the presence of
sheep or goat bones seems to suggest unidentified
funerary rituals rather than a burial. At this stage of
research it is impossible to indicate any parallels
either in the whole region covered with the BB phe-
nomenon, or in areas occupied by other European
Neolithic and para-Neolithic societies.
Discussion
Considering all the data presented above, do the
eco- and artefacts from Supraśl 3 reflect adoption of
the BB cultural package by a group which cannot be
conclusively identified in terms of its cultural affil-
iation? The answer is not simple. On one hand, there
are only some elements of the BB culture together
with other elements, which are not associated with
autochthonic societies of north-eastern Poland in the
Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. They might
have been adopted ‘on the way’, which could be
connected with the phenomenon of the ‘package’.
However, there are no parallel discoveries from the
area of broadly understood Central Europe, which
would legitimize the assumption of diffusion of the
BB package ‘from neighbour to neighbour’. It could
thus eventually arrive north in Podlachia, even if
this area is regarded as peripheral for the pheno-
menon and the adoption of only some elements
would take place without awareness of its basic ide-
ology (cf. Turek 2013.9). In the presented case, it
most likely involved the arrival of a group (or
groups) of BB people from the West, which brought
‘behaviour’ representing the BB cultural package.
This is suggested by some of the artefacts characte-
ristic for Western Europe, and in the case of the de-
corated slate plaquette/pendant, directly from the
Iberian Peninsula, the only location where it has pa-
rallels. Only after that some components of the BB
package would spread, and they would be limited to
the style of pottery vessels, which is reflected in
sources from the final phase of NCC and the period
of formation of the Trzciniec cultural circle (Czebre-
szuk 2001.164–169; Manasterski 2016.131–137).
At this stage, some artefacts characteristic of late
Neolithic societies from the south-eastern Baltic re-
gion were incorporated into the package. Perhaps
the amber artefacts which are atypical in Podlachia
were made in that Baltic region (Manasterski, Kwiat-
kowska 2018).
On the basis of the presented pottery vessels, sup-
ported with amber, flint and stone artefacts found
in this context, it is possible to suggest a possible se-
quence of movement of elements of the package,
starting from the suggested place of origin and fol-
lowing the route from south-western Europe to Su-
praśl. Thus the probable place of origin would be
located in the Iberian Peninsula, which could be sug-
gested by the pottery of the Ciempozuelos style and
the decorated slate plaquette/pendant. Further on,
the route would probably run across the La Manche
area, Jutland and the Baltic Sea to its south-eastern
coastal regions. Within this space, the adopted pack-
age components included: the saltire motif as well
as cordons and nodules in pottery decoration, tech-
niques of processing of amber jewellery, flint arrow-
heads with a semi-circular notch at the base, splin-
tered pieces and stone tools, as well as the conver-
sion of funerary practices from inhumation to cre-
mation. The route then ran across the Masurian Lake
District to North Podlachia, where Supraśl 3 is situ-
ated, and the movement resulted in the adoption
of flint arrowheads with an arch-shaped notch at the
base, cord decoration motifs in pottery, most likely
due to contacts with CWC societies. However, taking
Belarusian artefacts with BB features into consid-
eration, we can get an impression that the area of
Supraśl was not the frontier zone for the diffusion
of this phenomenon (cf. Czebreszuk, Kryvaltsevich
2003; Matuszewska 2004; Wawrusiewicz et al.
2015.192, 194). Nevertheless, it might have been an
area of interactions between the BB influence from
the west and an influx of stimuli from the broadly
understood southeast. These stimuli are manifested
by the presence of eco- and artefacts which are ab-
sent from both BB contexts and from sources left by
autochthonic hunter-gatherer groups (stone ‘tokens’,
multi-functional reed arrow shaft straighteners, se-
dimentary rock in rituals).
Dariusz Manasterski, Katarzyna Januszek, Adam Wawrusiewicz, and Aleksandra Klecha
386
However, the origin of the ritual involving the depo-
sition of fragments of objects, confirmed in all the fea-
tures, and its incorporation into ritual practices can-
not be accounted for. This practice was applied main-
ly in the case of pottery and some pieces of amber
jewellery, or, rather rarely, weapons. Similar acts of
intentional fragmentation of artefacts (mostly pot-
tery) deposited in burials, pits and treasure contexts
are known from the Neolithic and Chalcolithic disco-
veries in the Balkan Peninsula (cf. Chapman 2000.
53).
Conclusions
Supraśl site 3 is an isolated sandy elevation situated
among water-logged meadows associated with wet-
lands of the Supraśl River, which is now a regulated
watercourse. They occupy a stretch of land which is
more than a kilometre wide. The landscape in its vi-
cinity consists of barren moraine hills covered with
forests as well as lakes and ponds, mostly with peat
vegetation. Palynological analysis shows that these
areas were only sporadically used for farming from
the Early Bronze Age to the 20th century AD (Ku-
prianowicz, Szal 2015). At the same time, they were
a perfect location for the economic activity of hun-
ter-gatherer societies, which were represented by
NCC in the late 3rd and early 2nd millennium BC.
For this reason, it could be surprising that BB rep-
resentatives arrived in this region. The answer can
be found in the analysis of the natural and archaeo-
logical context. On one hand, there existed a water
communication network which served for transport
and isolated artefacts with typical BB components
were found (Wawrusiewicz et al. 2015.Fig. 101;
Manasterski 2016.Fig. 2). On the other hand, it was
close to chalk flint mines located along the Ros River
and flint workshops situated in the vicinity of the
mines (Gurina 1976; Wawrusiewicz et al. 2015.
190–191, Fig. 106). All these indicate that this was
most likely an attempt to find trade partners and or-
ganize communication routes or take control of the
existing ones (Wawrusiewicz et al. 2015.185–186).
For these reasons, it should not be surprising that
mainly isolated BB artefacts without a clear settle-
ment or funerary context were unearthed in north-
eastern Poland. The discoveries from Supraśl 3 es-
cape this pattern. They cannot be conclusively clas-
sified as isolated finds, settlement relics, or classic
burials. Both the choice of the place (an isolated ‘is-
land’ among wetlands, with access from the river-
side, surrounded by large forests – a secret place for
the initiated) and the selection of the objects in the
discovered features suggest that relics of a certain
form of a ritual system, most probably funerary
practices, were found. This is indicated by the pres-
ence of human cremation remains identified in two
features as well as sets of artefacts found in burials
of BB men – archers/warriors (beakers, archer’s ac-
cessories, daggers, jewellery). The recurrence of the
sets of eco- and artefacts and their arrangement in
the assemblages suggest the existence of ritual tradi-
tions. Although most pottery vessels and the deco-
rated slate plaquette/pendant may suggest their Ibe-
rian lineage, it is difficult to list parallels in terms of
place and behaviour relics. This is relevant to both
autochthonic and allochthonic societies occupying
north-eastern Poland.
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