Gesa Biffio
Musikhochschule Münster der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität
NEW EXTENSIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL CELLO
TONE
Abstract
Extended playing techniques describe gradual extensions of well-known
playing techniques as well as radical changes. While the Anomalous Low
Frequencies consciously ignore the principles of producing a so-called beautiful
tone (in terms of a Helmholtz motion), multiphonics deal traditionally with
harmonics and flageolet nodes on string instruments. Both playing techniques are
described in specialist literature, but need specification for cello playing as well
as an enhancement of certain parameters, to which this study is contributing.
Playing with scordatura expands the tonal range of the cello and reveals new
overtone structures. The use of two bows increases the number of strings that are
either played together or are newly combined. The process with current music is
open, discussable and changeable. It incorporates the interaction between
composer and interpreter in the same way as with free experimentation and
improvisation.
Key words: extended techniques, beautiful cello tone, Helmholtz-motion,
frequency analysis, Anomalous Low Frequencies (ALF), multiphonics,
scordatura, 2-bows-techniques, curved bow, movement choreography,
development process, sound experiment, improvisation.
Izvleèek
Nove razširitve lepega tona na violonèelu.
Nove tehnike igranja v pomenu angleškega strokovnega izraza „Extended
playing Techniques“ pomenijo tako postopno razširjanje znanih naèinov igranja
kot tudi radikalne spremembe. Medtem ko je pri nenormalno nizkih frekvencah
(ALF) zakonitost za izvajanje tako imenovanega lepega tona – v smislu
Helmholtzovega nihanja  zavestno zanemarjena, pa multifoniki temeljijo na
tradiciji ukvarjanja z alikvotnimi toni in nihajnimi vozli na godalih.
Obe tehniki igranja sta za violonèelo opisani v specialistièni literaturi, vendar
so za igranje potrebna natanèna navodila kot tudi razširitev doloèenih
parametrov, k èemur pripomore prièujoèa študija. Igra s skordaturo razširi tonski
obseg violonèela in pripelje do izraza nove strukture alikvotnih tonov. Uporaba
dveh lokov pomnoi število strun, ki so igrane soèasno ali v novih kombinacijah.
Proces pri sodobni glasbi je odprt, sposoben dialoga in spremenljiv. Vkljuèuje
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tako interakcijo med komponistom in izvajalcem kot tudi prosto
eksperimentiranje in improvizacijo.
Kljuène besede: razširjene tehnike, lep ton violonèela, Helmholtzova
nihanja, analiza frekvence, nenormalno nizke frekvence (ALF), multifoniki,
skordatura, tehnika dveh lokov, ukrivljeni lok, koreografija gibanja, razvojni
proces, zvoèni eksperiment, improvizacija.
Introduction
Due to its pitch range and richness of sound as well as the size of the corpus
and the frontal playing visible to the audience, the cello appears to be especially
suitable as experimental ground for new sounds and playing techniques. This
observation was already made by Bernd Alois Zimmermann in his essay Über die
neuerliche Bedeutung des Cellos in der neuen Musik (Zimmermann 1968) and
was implemented by Siegfried Palm and other distinguished cellists, who
devoted themselves to the playing of contemporary works.
While we observe the effects of cello music of the 1960s-1980s in retrospect,
though this is definitely about music by contemporary composers, my study is
about cello music in the last 20-25 years, with still-unfiltered results.
A multi-dimensional observation of new playing techniques is required. It
means that one or more suitable starting points need to be found to do justice to
the events.
Extension and break-down of the beautiful cello tone
The generation of the so-called “beautiful cello tone” is based on the balance
of bow-bridge-distance, bow velocity and bow pressure as main parameters of
bowing. This observation is widely known among cellists and taught in cello
lessons for students of all levels.
The pedagogue Walter Mengler has pictured these relations as tendencies in
his cello tutor from 1995, which I would like to present as a short summary of
common knowledge:
– High bow force has a tendency towards slow bowing near the bridge.
– Middle bow force has a tendency towards middle bow velocity on a middle
bow-bridge distance
– Low bow force has a tendency towards high speed near the fingerboard.
The balance of these three main parameters helps us to keep the string
oscillation within the range of traditional sounding.
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Figure 1: The 3 traces of a highway
(Mengler 1995: 18)
The range of “beautiful tone” is synonymous with the generation of sustained
Helmholtz motions. On the side of too low bow force, “surface sound” occurs and
too much bow force, in relation to the bow-bridge distance, produces
raucousness.
In connection with extended playing techniques, the borderline between
“good sound” and “exaggeration” and the wide areas of surface sound and
raucousness are most interesting. The borderlines are related to gradual
extensions, pointed out in the question: “What would happen, if I were to change
one or more parameters of my playing?”
The wide areas of surface sound and raucousness represent the idea of a
complete break with the rules of traditional cello playing. The relevant question
would be: “How to produce…such or such effect?”
Anomalous Low Frequencies (ALF)
The first extended technique I would like to discuss is initially experienced as
an increase of the bow pressure. Crossing the borderline of noisy tone to
raucousness, three categories of phenomena will appear:
1. The romantic Russian string schools, in particular, have developed
exercises, such as sons filés, developing a manner of bowing “into the string”
with a heavy stroke, in order to fill concert halls with a brillant big sound, which is
then accompanied by an abundance of noise directly around the instrument.
These noises are not sustainable; they do not spread around the hall, but they do
give us information about the enormous strain put on the bow.
As Schoonderwaldt says, “the brilliance of the tone can be controlled via the
bow force, providing an important expressive means to the player."
(Schoonderwaldt 2009: 6-7)
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Bow pressure is the most distinguished medium for controlling the quality of
sound.
2. From there, increasing the bow force will lead to a sinking of the pitch. This
sinking is due to a delay in the change of sticking and slipping. According to
Schoonderwaldt (2009: 6 ff) the kink Helmholtz discovered is more a rounded
corner because the velocity of string motion does not change abruptly from
sticking to slipping and vice versa. There is a small delay in the reaction of the
string when it tears off the bow or when the bow catches the string. This delay
leads to a flattening effect on the pitch. Thus, the flattening effect is the indicator
for a (too) heavy stroke. And the flattening effect is a quality limitation of bow
pressure in traditional playing.
An increase in bow pressure can cause an elongation of the amplitude with a
flattening effect. At the same time, it can evoke unusual modes of string vibration
which lead to specific sound manipulations. The range of sound production is
enlarged as long as the player and composer agree to include the borderline
sounds in their repertoire.
3. Anomalous Low Frequencies (ALF) are not borderline sounds anymore.
Their frequencies are far below the flattening effect. ALF were first described by
violinist Mari Kimura.
“One day nearly 20 years ago, violinist Mari Kimura was practicing a son filé
exercise she’d long used to improve her sound on the E string, and on a lark
decided to try it down on her G string. She drew her bow very slowly, and applied
a bit more pressure than usual. Suddenly she heard a crunch and a scrape—and a
G note a whole octave below what the violin is supposed to be able to play
without changing the tuning. “ (Reel 2009)
The most remarkable point is that Kimura specifies that she does not need too
much pressure to obtain an ALF. For her it is a sensitive matter of finding the right
grip via the bow. Since Kimura’s range of ALF-pitches oversteps the octave
below, the tone is for a semitone only. She uses both categories of ALF (torsional
and transverse triggering, explained below) and probably also a combination of
them. Kimura fills up the octave in a melodic way. We will see how far the violin
grip can be adopted to the generation of ALF on the cello.
Increasing or changing the bow force even more leads to several categories of
ALF.
In Guettler’s diagram, different paths of prolongation are pictured:
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Figure 2: Paths of triggering waves
(Guettler 2002: 23)
Guettler found two categories of ALF:
– ALF with torsional triggering
– ALF with transverse triggering
Unlike Helmholtz motion (path a), ALF with torsional triggering (path b) are
caused by a medium increase of the bow force. Torsional waves, reflected by the
bridge, help the string to tear away from the bow. In so doing, a period is created.
The delay in slipping causes the lowering of the frequency.
The resulting tones in a simulation model (Guettler 1994: 12) show a
prolongation of the period of about 20.4-29.3% with a sounding pitch of about a
minor third below the periodicity pitch of the string.
With fourfold bow force compared to the normal bow pressure, ALF with
transverse triggerring (path c) of nearly 100% prolongation occur. The resulting
sound is about one octave below the periodicity pitch of the open string or
fingering. (Guettler 1994: 13)
In this case, the prolongation is not due to a delay, but to the complete
reflection of waves. The bow works as a perfect arrester barrier and reflects the
waves towards the nut or finger. By the second attempt of the corner to slip under
the bow, the transverse waves have increased enormously and make the tearing
off possible. This time, of course, the moment of deliberation or slipping depends
on the battle of these forces.
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Approach to ALF for cellists and composers
On the cello the increase in bow pressure is much higher than on the violin.
This is the reason why the composer Michael Maierhof, working with ALF,
which he calls “undertones” UT, suggests a fist grip for the bow.
Up to now, ALF playing on the cello has not been specified systematically.
Therefore my departure is from observational research, supported by frequency
analysis and analysis of the playing manners resulting in ALF.
To start with general observations on how to play ALF on the cello, I noticed
that:
– ALF occur suddenly.
– The fundamental jumps one or more intervals below the original tone.
– The structure of partials changes immediately.
– ALF are very loud.
– The character of cello ALF is “hard edged”.
– The fingering is not changed.
– The pitch depends on the amount of pressure and the bow-bridge distance.
Double stops of ALF and normal tones, as Kimura practices them on the
violin, seem to be impossible on the cello because the ways of tone production are
so different. The same problem occurs as soon as ALF on the cello are integrated
into a melodic line: the tone production as well as the character of the sound is so
different from the usual cello tone that ALF would disrupt a musical line.
Thanks to Prof. Kob, I had the opportunity to record ALF and multiphonics
and to make frequency analyses at the Erich-Thienhaus-Institute for acoustics at
the Detmold Music Academy, of which he is Head. I was invited to conduct a
colloquium on those playing techniques with live demonstrations and live
analyses, beamed on the screen for the students to watch the process (Biffio
2009).
On the figure below, the equal structure of the partial of a normally bowed
tone is visible in the beginning; (after the click), it suddenly changes to a very
dense partial structure with a lot of noise and the fundamental jumps below. The
apparently chaotic structure of the partials changes in form. The high partials
have a tendency to shift upwards.
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Figure 3: Bbes3 – transition to ALF
(Biffio 2009)
The Bbes3 was played in the 4th fingering position on the D-string. The
resulting ALF extreme bow pressure was almost a Bbes2.
Maierhof’s cello solo splitting 14 (2003-05) on ALF starts with a long F5.
That is why this tone was of special interest for me. I made frequency analyses
and observed the playing conditions.
As indicated in the third line of his score, Maierhof demands jumps into three
levels of ALF. To my surprise, he estimates a dynamic range from forte to piano,
indicated in the first line.
Figure 4: Undertones of different levels
(Maierhof: 2003-2005: 2)
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Figure 5: ALF under F5 with three leaps downwards
(Biffio 2009)
The figure above shows more than one ALF on a stopped note F5. On the
bottom right hand side, one can see ALF on the third level below the stopped note
with an instable pitch, drifting upwards.
Figure 6: ALF under F5 with change of bow bridge distance towards the
fingerboard
(Biffio 2009)
This figure indicates a change in bow bridge distance on ALF. The
frequencies are heightened with the bow shifting towards the fingerboard. Once
one of the ALF levels is reached, the deviations of pitch are in a microtonal or
tonal range. A frequency glissando is possible.
Being a cellist himself, Maierhof is probably the most prominent composer
writing ALF for cello as well as for string quartet. And still, the effect of jumping
intervals beneath the stopped tone was already used in the 1990s by other
composers e.g. Daniel N. Seel in Skordaturen II (1992-94). He notes the
ALF-levels as arrowheads.
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Figure 7: Increasing bow force
(Seel 1992-94: 7)
The vertical arrow indicates an increase of bow force. The result is a creaking
noise.
Figure 8: First level and second level ALF
(Seel 1992-94: 7)
With progressive increase of bow pressure, ALF of the first level occurs
(addition of a second arrowhead) and, further on, the ALF on the second level
(addition of a third arrowhead). The arrowhead pointing upwards indicates the
release of bow pressure back to the usual tone production.
Both samples are played on high tones on the A-string, which is the thinnest
string, very much shortened by the finger. Almost violin conditions! Maierhof
suggests using a damping finger to disturb the “normal” string oscillation. And
Mari Kimura dicovered that old strings are better for ALF than perfect ones
(Bundler 1999).
The playing of ALF works on the IV cello string as well. This time, the ALF is
indeed abnormally low: far below the cello range. I do not know any cellist,
including myself, who is able to play second or third level ALF on the C-string.
The pitches for ALF on the cello, according to my classification, are as
follows:
– First level ALF: around an octave below the fingered note or open string
– Second level ALF: around an octave plus a fifth below the fingered tone or
open string
– Third level ALF: around two octaves below the fingered tone or open string
The fundamental of the ALF jumps upwards at intervals that are reminiscent
of the inversion of the overtone series. For that reason, the terms “undertones”
(especially as used by Michael Maierhof) or “subharmonics” seem to be justified.
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These terms feel right if an inversion of the overtone series is expected. But the
real pitches differ up to a major third.
As Guettler outlined above, the length of the vibrating string is not doubled.
The triggering is much more complex and the paths of triggering waves are
multiple.
With respect to the non-linear system of triggering ALF, further research
would probably lead to other factors, such as strange attractors or corpus
resonance.
In addition to the frequency analyses, I find it important to report on some
experimental series on ALF:
Table 1: ALF table
Stopped
note
Str
ing
Bow-
bridge
distance
Bow force Resulting
pitch
Sound
quality
Remarks
F5 A A Ord. 0 little supination 1. level:
Fsharp4
+ 50 ct
sustained
and clear
tone
noisy
traditional
bow grip
increasing force 2. level:
B3 - 20 ct
Limit of bow
force in relation
to the shortening
of the string
3. level:
Eflat3
+ 20 ct
scratchy,
pitch
hardly
identifiable
F5 A Ord. – 1 adaptation to
weakness of the
string near the
fingerboard
requested
1. level:
G4
sustained glissando
possible
via change
of bow-
bridge
distance
F5 A sul tasto limit of bow
force
1. level:
Gsharp4
+ 50 ct
unstable bowing
angle is
difficult to
find
Bbes3 D Ord. 0 bow force more
than fortissimo
playing, slow
velocity
1. level:
B2 - 50 ct
sustained,
clear
traditional
bow grip
Bbes3 D Ord. - 1 Cf. ordinario 0 B2 – 20 ct sustained,
clear
glissando
possible
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Bbes3 D Ord. + 1 increasing bow
force
Bes2
+ 20 ct
sustained,
clear
fist bow
grip
helpful,
increasing
bow
velocity
possible
C2 C Ord. - 1 high bow
pressure, slow
velocity
Csharp
1- 50 ct
sustained,
raucous
fist bow
grip
Further research on ALF would need to be done with a team of cellist,
composer and acoustician. For example, measuring the bow pressure with a plate
under the bridge would give more precise data which could be tested with
frequency analyses. Nevertheless, the ear and the kinesthetic sense of the
professional musician cannot be replaced.
Multiphonics
With my next point, multiphonics on the cello, we enter the spectrum of high
partials together with a breakable and split cello sound.
Marc Dresser states that “multiphonics are complex sounds generated from a
single source. [...] It is the result of various conflicting messages being sent to the
string at the same time.” (Dresser 2009: 73)
It is important to note that these conflicting messages are coming from the left
hand as well as from the bow. Two or more natural harmonics are triggered to
form a cluster of partials, including or excluding the fundamental.
A deep understanding of the nodes, in other words contact points for natural
harmonics is needed.
Figure 9: Nodes of the 5th partial
Figure 10: Nodes of 7th partial
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As can be seen on the figures, the string naturally vibrates as a whole. At the
same time it vibrates in integer divisions, known as modes. By the time the finger
touches the string on one of the nodes (= points which separate the integer
divisions) it annihilates larger oscillations and triggers the division into certain
partials: the frequency of the harmonic partial will be heard. Since the harmonic
relates to the frequency of an unstopped string, the resulting harmonic is called a
“natural harmonic”, the playing technique used is known as flageolet playing.
When you overlap the nodes of several partials, you will see that in the middle
of the string there must be a natural accumulation of nodes. The longer divisions
are stronger than the shorter ones and with the “fat finger” technique the cellist is
able to cover more than one flageolet point at the same time.
One famous example is the space around the tritone, which is densely
populated with flageolet nodes, among which the 5th and 7th partials are dominant.
Under certain circumstances of bow pressure, the fundamental of the open string
will be added to the chord of partials. Michael Bach points out the occurrence of
strong differential tones, characterizing the sound (Bach 1991: 32).
John Cage finds the beautiful expression “universe of partials” for the
multiphonics in his cello piece One8 (Bach 1991: 32), dedicated to Michael Bach.
Figure 11: Universe of partials by John Cage
(Bach 1991: 32)
Coming back to the left hand triggering, one should realize that the
fingering touch is flexible in all directions.
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Figure 12: Differentiation in fingering touch
Note: the space of a flat finger is not just covering a few nodes
at the same time.
In addition, by adjusting the pressure, the finger will give conflicting
messages to the string regarding the transmissibility of oscillations. It is
important to know that even for stopped tones there is always an air corridor
between the fingered string and the fingerboard. The enlargement of this corridor
gives space for variation and differentiation in timbre and in triggering single
harmonics.
Furthermore the bow itself can be placed on nodes and trigger harmonics. In
general, a bow placement sul ponticello boosts the higher partials of the tone.
Increasing the bow pressure makes it possible to play the partials series near the
bridge without fingering. Therefore the bow needs to be tilted because the nodes
are close to each other. Very high partials will sound at the bridge.
The most advanced technique of triggering harmonics with the bow (without
the touch of left hand fingers) would be the placement of the bow on all nodes
over the whole length of the string. The bowing of harmonics and the knowledge
of nodes which can be reached by the bow is less widespread among cellists than
among double bassists. Obviously, compared to the cello, the dimensions on the
double bass and the playability of audible harmonics are more suitable. However,
playing on the nodes of the string demands extra sensitivity for the string
vibration and friction. With a view to these skills, Mark Dresser shows bowing
exercises for double bass in The Strad issue of October 2009 (Dresser 2009).
Starting from exercises to heighten the sensitivity of the bow hand, Dresser
makes the bassist aware that sounding partials, triggered by the bow only, are one
octave below placed partials.
The tromba marina effect with the flageolet finger between the bow and the
bridge (see below) brings more freedom to the string vibration.
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Figure 13: The tromba marina effect on the cello
Guettler mentions two classes of multiphonics, depending on the bow
placement. It is obvious that this bow placement has an emphasizing effect on
single harmonics too (Guettler, Thelin 2010: 4). He notes that it is less practical
on shorter-stringed instruments. The playing technique, proposed by double bass
players Guettler and Thelin, seems to be less common among cellists. Still this
extended technique is reasonable and effective on the cello too.
In his article, Multiphonics – neue Möglichkeiten im Cellospiel (Liebman
2004) in Das Orchester issue of October 2004, Michael Liebman was the first to
analyze and review the state of the art in multiphonic playing on the cello,
although he is not a cellist himself. Nevertheless Liebman experimented with a
cello and he got advice from cellist friends. His research on multiphonics for cello
led him, before writing the article, to the viola sonata Tremolet-Sonata (1997) and
the cello solo Movement of Repose (1998), primed by Frances-Marie Uitti in
Moscow. Unfortunately, his second solo cello piece with multiphonics,
Transmutations, is not yet published. In January 2010 I was able to work together
with Michael Liebman at the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance/Hebrew
University.
Liebman took a lot of inspiration from woodwind multiphonic sounds such as
frullato or whistle tones. Working together with him on his solo pieces, I realized
that my tendency is towards a strict orientation on the nodes of a string. Instead of
writing notes with lozenges my preference is for the (additional) indication of the
harmonic.
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Figure 14: Composition with multiphonics
The score of Liebman’s Movement of Repose, here above, includes my own
inscriptions of the partial nodes for the left hand. Based on my playing
experience, the release of the open string is much too long compared to the
flageolet tone, although it is true that, in general, flageolets continue sounding
after the abandonment of the string. Singular effects which are possible in a
rehearsal situation or figured out one-by-one are not necessarily reproducible in a
concert setting.
The bow-bridge distances indications in cm, which will appear later in this
piece, but also in Liebman’s tables of chords, should, in my opinion be replaced
by common cellistic terms. Liebman’s argument that multiphonics should be
produced by carefully following the instructions of the composer (Liebman 2004:
16) should be seen critically: the extreme complexity of multiphonics implies an
interrelation between sensation and movement adjustment, which necessarily
needs to be developed by the cellist.
The volume of multiphonics is achieved by bow velocity not by bow pressure.
Other composers describe the connection between right hand and left hand
triggering of multiphonics in a more intuitive way.
Composer Robert HP Platz (Platz 1990: Book II), for example, is, by
emboosting several partials, looking out for formants of a tone, which determine
its color.
Matthias Pintscher (Pintscher 2000: 1) creates a smooth transition from the
left hand to the right hand trigger and back. While the bow glides from estremo
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vicino al ponte to ordinario, the fingers of the left effect a trill with loose fingers.
The poco glissando of the left hand is accompanied by an enhancement of bow
pressure, resulting in extreme pressure. His instruction to let as many harmonics
as possible pass, charaterizes the whole multiphonic passage.
The exercises, I delevoped for multiphonics on cello:
– indicate an explicit orientation to the string nodes for the left hand
– train the sensitivity for fingering pressure
– train the ability and the sensitivity for bowing on the nodes, which is less
developed among cellists
– train the sensitivity for small changes in bow force and bow bridge distance
– tend to develop a spontaneous connection between inner hearing of partials
and small playing adjustments
– are open for surprises out of the “universe of partials”
– help to build up multiphonics by adding partials one by one
The enhancement in the tromba marina technique, which is also less common
among cellists, does not only help to free the oscillation of harmonics. It also
allows special effects such as soft rattling tones and others.
Multiphonics on the cello belong to the sphere of fragile tones which stimulate
the inner hearing of both the cellist and the listenar.
Upside down
New playing techniques with obvious changes in material, such as
2-bows-techniques and the curved bow, certainly give an important visual effect
to the audience, too. And radical changes of the tonal material, such as produced
by scordatura tuning, turn listening expectations upside down.
2-bows-techniques
Diverse concepts of vertical playing will be shown on an instrument, which is
mostly associated with melodic or horizontal playing.
2 bows/1 hand
Showing the latest developments in playing with two bows would have been
impossible without referring to Frances-Marie Uitti’s achievements, even though
she has already thoroughly documented them herself. Besides the fact that the
innovations in playing techniques that she initiated in the 1970s have led to many
outstanding compositions, her inventions have triggered other ones and have
stimulated discussions and compositions of young composers, which emphasized
interesting aspects of the 2-bows-technique.
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Note that one bow is held above and the other one beneath the strings. The
sketches from her website, given below, describe the various combinations of
bows. Frances-Marie Uitti adds fingering charts for composers to these sketches
which she has published on her website as well. It is hugely to her credit that she
has not just developed innovative playing techniques in decades of research, but
has also described them thoroughly and published them for public use.
The 2bows/1hand-technique has been adopted by many composers such as
György Ligeti, Vinko Globokar, Richard Barrett, Fung Lam and others. It is
especially fascinating to play strings together, which are not juxtaposed. That is
how some strings can obviously be bowed both from, above and below. It is
possible for each combination to lead to different conditions of playing
techniques as well as different tonal results.
Figure 15: Two bows: chart
(Uitti)
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The left hand stays free and is able to grip accords or tonal sequences on one or
two strings.
Through this technique, the cellist is able to produce full chords, to combine
strings which are not adjacent, to vary the number of strings he is bowing from
one to four, generating different sound colors, depending on the bowing angle.
And, he can use his left hand for gripping, which simply means for playing
different tones and tone combinations.
Of course, there is a price to pay!
Analyzing the skills for the left hand, two new characteristic movements are
found:
– Series of four-part chords without breaks.
– Simultaneous gripping on strings which are far away from each other in
melodic lines.
Both skills are demanding for the cellist and need to be implemented carefully
and consciously.
Long series of chords, since all fingers are constantly gripping, are exhausting
for the hand. And also the finger combination matters: they will need to be
changed at the same time from one grip to another.
In the case of two melodic lines on non-adjacent strings, the finger spread is
going in all directions. Especially combinations of extension and flexion in one
grip or even in one finger challenge the left hand to a significant degree.
I am glad that I was introduced to the medical side of the musician’s hand by
piano didactics professor Ulrike Wohlwender, who assisted Prof. Christoph
Wagner in publishing his standard book Hand und Instrument (Wagner 2005).
She told me that research on the requirements of extended techniques is in
demand.
Curved bow
The cellist who founded his cellistic approach on the possibilities and limitations
of chordal playing on the cello is Michael Bach with his book Fingerboards and
Overtones (1991) Bach had to solve the problem of chordal playing for his own
invention of a modern curved bow, which allows him to play one to four strings
together.
To make the possible fingerpositions available, he put Japan paper under the
strings and colored his fingertips. The prints of his fingers left marks for all
possible combinations, which you can determinate under a translucent tabulature
of the fingerboard.
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Figure 16: Extraction of Fingerboards
(Bach 1991)
Bach remarks that chord changes do need enough time for displacing all fingers.
He does not recommend the use of the fourth finger because it does not enlarge
the handspan. All recommendations need to be seen in the context of the
conditions for the right hand playing a curved bow.
Figure 17: BACH.Bow1
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Gesa Biffio, NEW EXTENSIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL CELLO TONE
1 With kind permission of Michael Bach given on 10.07.2009.
As to be seen, the BACH.Bow is playable on all four strings together as well as
on one, two or three strings as long as they are adjacent strings.
Both techniques, the curved bow as well as 2 bows in 1 hand involve certain
limitations with respect to the independency of the four voices, the response of
the bow and the ability to play short notes and fast, especially saltato strokes.
Both techniques are forseen for sustained notes, while the color of tones bowed
from above and from underneath differ a lot.
Limitations can be turned into special expressive meanings, for example, by
England-based Chinese composer Fung Lam who wrote a solo piece called
Caged (2006). Here the melodic lines represent the narrow “caged” feeling,
which is inserted in the bowing manner with two bows, playing partly from under
the string.
The composer described the structure as follows:
– Frustrated, trying to break through but being restrained...
– Struggling, getting more emotional...
– Questioning...
– Being surrounded...
– Slower - gradually giving up...
2bows/2 hands
Bowing with one bow in each hand opens up freedom and independence to each
bow. The price to pay, on the other hand, is the lack of fingering possibilities for
the left hand as long as it is holding a bow. For most compositions using this
playing technique, an extra chair is provided on which to place the left bow from
time to time in order to liberate the left hand.
On the other side, all imaginable bowing strokes can be played simultaneusly
from both sides of the instrument.
Uroš Rojko: Ja (1986/90)
The use of two bows is coherent with a score with two lines. In cases of mirror
image moves of both hands, the notation expands in waves. The visual impression
of wing beats corresponds in an ideal manner to the inner representation of the
movement of the two arms.
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Figure 18: Mirror image moves
(Rojko 1986/1990: 3)
Figure 19: The author, demonstrating the symmetrical playing technique in
waves
The passage pictured above is introduced by the only word spoken by the
cellist: an expanded “Ja” [= yes] as a statement for the enlarged space the cello
takes up.
Rojko uses a very advanced form of seagull flageolet and established the
“mute bow”, lying on the string and disturbing the vibration the other bow is
generating. This damping bow triggers uncontroled partials.
Carlo Forlivesi: Pú Mesto (2003)
Piú Mesto (2003) is an homage to Bartók’s 6th string quartet, in which he uses the
term “mesto” [= sad] several times to express his desolate feelings.
Carlo Forlivesi was given an award for his research on traditional Japanese
music, which led him to long study visits in Japan. Forlivesi feels especially
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Gesa Biffio, NEW EXTENSIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL CELLO TONE
attracted by the biwa because of its foreignness as well as its aggressiveness, due
to its origin as a war instrument. In Più Mesto Forlivesi gives this expression over
to the solo cello.
Figure 20: Benjamin Carat performing Carlo Forlivesi’s Più Mesto for 2-bow
cello2
(Photo: Mickaël Grefferat)
A very dramatic effect is achieved by a sudden intake of breath “as though
choked” (bar 11) and the jerky lifting of the left arm with left bow up to the chin.
The bow arm is quasi strangling the cellist before he starts scuttling down the
fingerboard while exhaling.
Gesa Biffio: Synchronisation (2004)
Synchronisation was composed in 2004 for the art festival “Arte è Vita”, which
supported Potsdam’s candidature for the title of “European Capital of Culture”.
The first performance took place on May 21, 2005 at Waschhaus (former wash
house of the garrison and since 1993 a centre of culture) on Schiffbauergasse in
Potsdam. Due to the acoustical and visual features of the wash house as an early
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2 With permission of Forlivesi 9.4.2008
industrial building, the solo cello composition was conceptualised to fill a large
hall with sound and to provide extra visual attraction, responding to the
dimensions and the raw ambience of the building.
The 2Bows/2Hands technique was, in my opinion, the perfect choice for these
skills. In my solo composition, Synchronisation, the alteration of large theatrical
movement and small interference beats corresponds to the scordatura with large
intervals between the outer strings and small intervals between the middle strings.
The tuning is: Bflat3 – B2 – A2 – Aflat1. In fact, between string I and II we have a
major seventh, between II and III a major second, between III and IV a minor
none. Using this spread of intervals, the energy of the playing action, put into full
chords on four strings, is audible as large and sharp sounds. Small timbre and
pitch variations come naturally on the middle strings in second-tuning, reflected
as small movements.
My composition was very much inspired by the solo piece Ja by Uroš Rojko,
which I had been performing around that time.
Pitch alteration with two bows
A novelty, I have developed, is controlled chromatic pitch alteration using
2Bows, without fingering the notes. The mute bow changed into a flageolet bow
and I developed certain techniques to control pitches, bowing on nodes and all
over the string.
In the beginning of Synchronisation this idea is already introduced, presenting
the tuning and a few bowing manners with 2Bows:
Figure 21: Presenting the tuning
(Biffio 2004: 1)
At the end of part A, a sequence of ten semitone intervals is generated through
different playing techniques such as ordinary; “mute bow”; bowing in opposite
directions; one bow standing on a flageolet node - pressed down or released;
bowing with different bow velocities for each bow; conflicting bow-bridge
distances; behind the bridge (example below).
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Gesa Biffio, NEW EXTENSIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL CELLO TONE
Figure 22: Semitone intervals with two bows
(Biffio 2004: 4)
Figure 23: The author: First performance of Synchronisation on May 21, 2005
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As described above, in Synchronisation the use of two bows is related to a
dramatic predisposition of the cello’s tuning. Apart from the consequences of the
tonal material, the enormous increase of string tension for the up-tuned strings
and the decrease for the down-tuned strings has an important impact on the
playability and sound quality of the strings.
Hereby, the critical point is in the middle of my scordatura: in order to attain a
major second between the strings II and III, the G-string is heightened to an A2.
The heightening for a major second comes near to the breaking point; whether the
string or the instrument’s body might be affected, depends on their quality and
age.
Scordatura
Through noticeable tuning up, the inner layers of the string construction will be
weakened. The string loses its sound quality for normal playing in standard
tuning as well. For this reason, most cellists prefer using extra strings put on a
second cello, in case the whole setting is provided for scordatura. Obviously the
scordatura implies practical problems.
From the point of view of playability, the differences in tension provoked by
tuning up or down (sometimes on the same instrument), make an adaptation of the
bowing hand necessary.
Since the strings have been constructed for a certain defined pitch, with the
whole set of strings in balance, each change of tension causes a loss of the
playing features. On the other hand, playing on detuned strings with different
modified tension and friction forces gives a fresh sensomotoric stimulus to the
performer.
Creation of a prototype scordatura string
Discussions about the sonority and playability of strings in scordatura led to
Laurits Larsen at Larsen Strings and to the measuring instruments of his company
in Denmark.
i.e. ordinary A-string changes in tension approximately according to the
following scheme:
Table 2: The tension of a detuned A-string
C4 13,4 kp
B3 11,9 kp
Bflat3 10,6 kp
A3 9,4 kp
Aflat3 8,6 kp
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Gesa Biffio, NEW EXTENSIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL CELLO TONE
The breakage problem is obvious. For the down-tuned C-string, playability
was the focus. As an experiment, we created a prototype string on Aflat1 and
compared it with the quality characteristics of a C-string, lowered to Aflat1,
which we usually do with scordatura. Larsen manufactured the prototype and we
discussed all the steps of this creative process while I was trying out each
experimental string on my cello. With Larsen’s generous permission, I was able
to use this prototype Aflat1-string in concert for my solo Synchronisation and to
compare it to a down-tuned C-string under concert conditions.
The result of my observations could be represented schematically as follows:
Table 3: Observations on a prototype scordatura string, compared to a normal
de-tuned string
C- string, down-tuned to
Aflat1
Aflat1-string prototype
tension 13,4 kp on C2, with
scordatura ca. 11 kp
11 kp
volume inhibited full sound
timbre in piano snarling warm
timbre in forte dashing against the
fingerboard
brilliant
playability sluggish, delayed quick response
touch loose comfortable
Discussion
At first sight, the evaluation of a normal de-tuned string, compared to the new
construction, is negative. The newly constructed string, which fits perfectly to its
pitch, conforms to our requirements. Does it? Is not the de-familiarization of
sound and timbre part of the scordatura an effect? Is the strange sound also
desirable or is it only accepted, being the price to pay for the change of the
pitches?
Movement choreography
My last point is the collaboration between composer and cellist on the process
of generating a cello piece. I will discuss about a very quiet piece called
Morgenlachen (1997). The German composer Friedemann Schmidt-Mechau and
cellist Matthias Lorenz tend to transfer the dual nature of “chronos” and “kairos”
into all layers of his composition. Both of these elements are attributes of time. In
addition the order of tones and the notation are also incorporated into the
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complexity of the compositional process. The central point for interpretating the
paradoxical nature of time is its realization in motor activity.
While the motor skills meld with each other and form new visible elements,
the tone intervals are in a state of suspense: exclusively in the beginning and at the
end of the activity the pitch is hardly recognizable.
Schmidt-Mechau has developed nine motor activities for the cellist, which can
function independently or be combined in a counterpoint manner:
Right hand activities:
– tangential movement across the instrument (pizzicato, down- and up bow)
– concentric movement (string crossing)
– longitudinal movement along the string (bow glissando and hand glissando
from the pegbox to the endpin, wiping)
– vertical movement (battuto, bow pressure, Bartók-pizzicato)
– turning around the centre line (ordinario, col legno)
– turning around the cross axis (bow angle on the string)
Left hand activities:
– vertical movement (stopped notes, flageolet, tapping)
– longitudinal movement along the string (shifting, glissando, wiping)
– transversal movement (fingering on adjacent strings, pizzicato, pitch
bending)
These movements are worked out in a “quasi serial counterpoint” (preface by
Schmidt-Mechau). The resulting movement intervals are related to tone intervals
from minor second to major seventh, up- and downwards. To my question
concerning the choice of the cello Schmidt-Mechau answered via email on
September 28, 2009:
„The possibilities of the instrument are, first of all, a question of perception to
me. Thereby I keep on discovering novelties, often as a result of ‘faulty’ or
‘incorrect’ play. The cello is an instrument of almost limitless possibilities. […]
The cello‘s material nature is of a much greater interest to me in this context. You
will have seen in my biography that I worked as a carpenter for 15 years. Matthias
refers to that, which he then expresses as: ‘To Friedmann the cello is always just a
wooden box as well.’“(Email Schmidt-Mechau 29.9.2009)
With a genuine sense of humor in his pointed remark, Schmidt-Mechau refers
back to Lachenmann’s “instrumental musique concrète” (Lachenmann 1996:
381) in Pression (1969), which left its impression on many contemporary
compositions. Above all, Lachenmann experienced all the effects for Pression on
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Gesa Biffio, NEW EXTENSIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL CELLO TONE
the cello, as he was able to produce them by himself. In a workshop he held at the
Münster Academy in June 2009, I was able to see Lachenmann demonstrate all
the techniques he demanded from the violinist, the cellist and the pianist.
Schmidt-Mechau’s concept is broadly open to all kinds of results with respect
to the sound. Lachenmann notates the action but knows the result, which only
differs marginally from player to player. Schmidt-Mechau, by contrast, opens up
a palette of expressive meanings. Therefore he decided not to give me any
recording of his works. According to him, each performance has a completely
different outcome. He comments: “My expectations are focused on the cellists,
whether and how they grasp, use and control all the ranges of their instrument.”
(Email Schmidt-Mechau 29.9.2009)
The cello player, interpreter and dedicatee Matthias Lorenz describes his work
on Morgenlachen as follows:
“[…] Thereafter three things especially are uncommon:
The orientation alongside the moves instead of sounds: One knows bit by bit
only, how a certain part is supposed to sound, the way there is rather abstract with
respect to the musical-phonetic aspects. Afterwards one can stick to the sound as
usual.
The extension of moves beyond their usual limits: The turn of the bow, for
example, reaches from a 75° down- and upwards rotated tip, the contact point for
stringing in the peg box reaches via the cords up to the endpin.
The exact designation of the bow‘s position above the fingerboard. The bow’s
position is indicated here as a tone pitch on a certain chord respectively (like in
the sample notation). Even if the orientation is a bit difficult here at first: This is
especially easy to hear. With legno battuto anyway, but also the stringing on the
simple overtones of the tones creates a very distinct sound.” (Email Lorenz
27.9.09)
Figure 24: Bow position above the finger board
(Schmidt-Mechau 1997: part 19)
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As Schnmidt-Mechau says, “Morgenlachen was inspired by the playing of the
Canadian violinist Malcolm Goldstein […] who developed an unusual movement
repertoire by improvising.” (Email 29.9.2009)
Discussion: Working process
The process of creation makes clear how open-minded the composer’s and
interpreter’s attitudes are with respect to the exploration of sound and movement.
They do not consider either sound or movement as an end in itself. However the
need to isolate elements triggers discoveries and inventions of movement
variations as new musical material. This arrangement itself has, in turn, brought
things to light, which they could not foresee in advance.
It is worthy of note that the cellist works from outside to inside. The reading
and practicing of movement indications makes him discover a specific sound,
which he needs as a mark for reproduction. On the other hand, the composer is
very much fascinated by the diversity of movements on the cello and he takes the
way via movement to sound differentiation.
Conclusion and perspective
Anomalous Low Frequencies as a complete break with the rules of bow
pressure and velocity have been analyzed in frequency analyses and in practice.
Different ways of building up mutiphonics are outlined in the context of
expanded knowledge of flageolet playing and bowing on the harmonic nodes of
the string.
Visible innovations have been made in the field of chordal play. On the one
hand, there is the entrance of two bows held, to some extent, in one hand, to some
extent played with two hands or the curved bow. On the other hand, diverse
scordaturas considerably extend the range of the cello, especially downwards,
and turn the conventional pitching upside down.
Their documentation supports the process of understanding as well as the
conveying of these techniques and therefore their reproducibility at any place.
Still the genuine artistic aspect of intuitive creating and finding of sound is not
supposed to stand back because the artist has his imagination, inner hearing and
proprioceptive at his disposal which are linked in a direct circuit.
In the New Music medium the “player-composer-composition” triangle is
enlarged by another factor: the dynamic of an unfinished developmental process.
This experience of developing contemporary music in an exchange together
with living persons is an important experience for every student and musician. It
also affects the interpretation of concluded works and music of past times.
Meanwhile didactics of traditional cello playing manners is very advanced,
the handling of contemporary works often appears as a confrontation with an
overabundance of unfiltered information and complex connections. And still, it is
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Gesa Biffio, NEW EXTENSIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL CELLO TONE
possible to advance from the easy to the complex or from known to unknown
fields respectively.
The term of „extended techniques“ is to be taken in a literal sense! For
example the production of multiphonics requires the play and comprehension of
natural and artificial harmonics as well as a differentiated prospect of string
vibration modes. However, they can be inserted at an early stage of the training
appropriate to the student’s age. They especially need to be a part of the teacher’s
education and training.
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