3
T H E  B U D D H I S T  C O N C E P T  O F 
P A Ṭ I C C A S A M U P P Ā D A  B A S E D 
O N  P Ā L I  M A N U S C R I P T S : 
G E N E S I S ,  M E A N I N G S , 
A N N O T A T E D  T R A N S L A T I O N , 
I N T E R P R E T A T I O N  A N D 
D O C T R I N A L  S I G N I F I C A N C E
S a n j o y  B a r u a  C h o w d h u r y
Introduction 
The doctrine of Paṭiccasamuppāda is considered a “central principle”1 
of the Buddha’s teachings2. The Buddha acknowledged that the doc-
trine of Paṭiccasamuppāda appeared to him as an astonishing and eye-
opening discovery that brought him vision, knowledge, wisdom and a 
deep understanding on the occasion of his enlightenment.3 In clarify-
ing its doctrinal value along the path of awakening, the Buddha as-
serted that the realization of the Paṭiccasamuppāda is like the under-
1  The phrase, “central principle” alludes to the depth of the doctrinal worth of the Paṭiccasa-
muppāda based on Buddhist soteriology, i.e., nibbāna. The Buddha states that when one realizes 
the Paṭiccasamuppāda, they can experience the bliss of nibbāna. For a detailed analysis, see M I 
184. 
2  Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Great Discourse of Causation: The Mahānidāna Sutta and its Commen-
taries (Kandy: Buddhist Publications Society, 1995), 1. 
3  See S II 104. 
https://doi.org/10.35469/poligrafi.2022.336 Poligrafi, no. 105/106, vol. 27, 2022, pp. 3–20
P o l I g r a F I
4
standing of his “subtle and profound teachings”,4 i.e., the Dhamma.5 
Because of its doctrinal prominence, the discourse of Paṭiccasamuppāda 
is frequently found in the mainstream Pāli manuscripts from Tipiṭaka6. 
on the basis of canonical scriptures, scholars and Buddhist monks de-
scribed the Paṭiccasamuppāda in various ways for thousands of years. 
The paper aims to clarify the genesis [or origin] of Paṭiccasamuppāda 
and its meaning, annotated translation, interpretation and doctrinal 
significance, based on the Nikāya manuscripts.7 Prior to academics and 
practitioners, an in-depth study of this research reveals why and to what 
degree the Pāli tradition values the thought of Paṭiccasamuppāda as ar-
ticulating its insight into how to attain the path of ultimate liberation 
from a Buddhist perspective. 
The genesis of the Paṭiccasamuppāda
The Buddha stated that one of his quintessential teachings is the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda.8 Hence, it was expressed in various ways through-
4  In the Buddha‘s teaching, the “subtle and profound teachings” are designated as the Dham-
ma in accordance with the Pāli Tradition, which is equivalent to Dharma in Sanskrit. according 
to Nyanatiloka, the four noble truths synthesize the Dhamma, the liberating law that the Bud-
dha discovered and proclaimed. See the Venerable Nyanatiloka, Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of 
Buddhist Terms and Doctrines (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1960), 97. 
The four noble truths are expounded in the Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta from the Digha Nikaya as 
“subtle and profound teachings”. The Buddha asserted that he experienced enormous sorrow 
for innumerable rebirths as long as he did not understand the essence of the four noble truths. 
For a detailed analysis, see D II 91. 
5  M I 184: yo paṭiccasamuppādaṃ passati. So dhammaṃ passati. Yo dhammaṃ passati. So 
paṭiccasamuppādaṃ passatī.
6  Tipiṭaka is a Pāli or Tripiṭaka in Sanskrit, which means “Three Baskets”. The collections of 
the scriptures from the Suttas, Vinaya and Abhidhamma - the three divisions that constitute the 
Buddhist Canon - were originally preserved in the “three baskets” on palm-leaf manuscripts. 
See Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History, and Practices (New York: 
Cambridge Universiry Press, 2012), 459-462.  
7  The Nikāya manuscripts allude to the subdivisions of the Suttapiṭaka (Basket of Discour-
ses) in the Pāli canon. as shown by the Tipiṭaka, there are five Nikāyas (collections) of suttā 
(discourses), namely: Dīgha Nikāya (The Long Discourses); Majjhima Nikāya (The Middle-length 
Discourses); Saṁyutta Nikāya (The Connected Discourses); Aṅguttara Nikāya (The Numerical Dis-
courses); and Khuddaka Nikāya (The Minor Collection). “Tipitaka: The Pali Canon”. available 
online: https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/ (accessed on July 11, 2022). 
8  Bodhi, The Great Discourse of Causation: The Mahānidāna Sutta and its Commentaries, 1. 
T H E  B U D D H I S T  C O N C E P T  O F  PA Ṭ I C C A S A M U P PĀ D A  B A S E D  O N  P Ā L I  M A N U S C R I P T S
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out the Tipiṭaka. Inquiring into the Pāli manuscripts, we learn that 
the thought of the Paṭiccasamuppāda appeared as a remarkable, stun-
ning, and eye-opening discovery during the Buddha‘s inward journey 
along the way of his journey to awakening. He further clarified that 
the Paṭiccasamuppāda articulated itself to him as vision, knowledge, in-
sight, understanding and light.9 according to the Udāna,10 we come to 
know about the three watches of the night during the Buddha’s journey 
into awakening. Each night, the concept of the Paṭiccasamuppāda was 
applied to observe in one of three different ways: forwarding, reversing 
and both forwarding-reversing orders.11 Due to their applicability to 
understanding the process of life from its origins to eradication-from ex-
istence in saṃsāra12 to attainment in nibbāna,13 – the three distinct for-
mulas are recognized as the practical aspects of the Paṭiccasamuppāda.14 
aside from its practical aspect, the abstract formula of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda was discovered during an insightful conversation 
that an arahat,15 assaji Thera,16 had with Brahmin Upatissa, thereaf-
9  See S II 105. 
10  The Udāna, the third manuscript of the Khuddaka Nikāya (the Minor collection), contains 
a rich collection of concise discourses, each of which culminates with a short verse spoken by 
the Buddha. The Udāna consists of eighty suttā (discourses) arranged into eight vaggas (chap-
ters). 
11  See Ud 1-3. 
12  The Pāli word, saṃsāra, is frequently translated as “the cycle of life”. Nyanatiloka defines 
the term saṃsāra as “round of rebirth”. See Nyanatiloka, Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Budd-
hist Terms and Doctrines, 297-298. 
13  The Pāli term nibbāna, also known nirvāṇa in Sanskrit, translates as “blowing out” or “ex-
tinction”. See Nyanatiloka, Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, 201. 
The goal of the Buddhist path is nibbāna, which is seen as the ultimate release from suffering 
in this existence. See robert E. Buswell Jr. and Donald S. lopez Jr., The Princeton Dictionary of 
Buddhism (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2013) 589-590. 
In a Buddhist context, nibbāna could be defined as going beyond the “cycle of life” of saṃsāra. 
according to the Ādittapariyāya Sutta of Saṁyutta Nikāya, the Buddha stated that the whole 
world is in flames and the extinction of greed, hatred and delusions are the state of nibbāna. For 
a detailed analysis, see S IV 19-20.
14  Sanjoy Barua Chowdhury, “Unfolding Dependent origination – a Psychological analysis 
for Disclosing the root of the afflictive State of Mind”, Journal of International Buddhist Stu-
dies, Vol. 13 No.1 11-43 http://www.ojs.mcu.ac.th/index.php/JIBS/article/view/6913/4529
15  The Pāli phrase “arahat” designates people who have eradicated greed, hatred and delusion, 
and are free of all affiliations or cankers. See I. B. Horner, Early Buddhist Theory of Man Per-
fected: a Study of the arahan (london: William and Norgate ltd., 1936) 44. 
16  assaji Thera was one of the first five arahats of the Buddha. See S III 66, S IV 420.
P o l I g r a F I
6
ter known as Sāriputta.17 The Venerable assiji responded when asked 
about the philosophy of his instructor that the Buddha defined both 
the origins of all things [of dhammā]18 and how to eradicate them.19 
The abstract formula of the Paṭiccasamuppāda exposes cause and effect, 
also known as the law of conditionality (idappaccayatā20),21 which was 
found in a dialogue between the Buddha and his attendant, Ānanada.22 
Since the teaching of the Paṭiccasamuppāda is positioned as a crucial 
discourse, it can be found in every Nikāya of Pāli manuscripts. Both 
the theoretical and practical aspects of the Paṭiccasamuppāda are equally 
important prior to the methodology of Buddhist soteriology. 
The Meanings of the Paṭiccasamuppāda
The Pāli word Paṭiccasamuppāda23 is derived from a combination of 
two words: paṭicca and samuppāda. The first term paṭicca means “be-
cause of” or “on account of”, whereas the second word samuppāda re-
fers to “arising on the ground of”, or “happening by way of cause”. 
Following the Pāli grammatical structure of sandhi (union), samuppāda 
17  Sāriputta is one of the chief male disciples of the Buddha, together with Moggallāna. 
after hearing assaji Thera’s presentation of the Buddha’s teaching, he proceeded to meet with 
the Blessed one and became his sincere student See Ñāṇapoṇika Thera and Hellmuth Hecter, 
Great Disciples of the Buddha: Their Lives, Their Works and Their Legacy, ed. Bhikkhu Bodhi 
(Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2003) 49-53. 
18  In this regard, dhammā is denoted as the phenomenal object of things. See D II 290. 
19  Vin I 40: ye dharmā hetuprabhavā hetuṃ teṣāṃ tathāgato hyavadat, teṣāṃ ca yo nirodha 
evaṃvādī mahāśramaṇaḥ. 
20  The Pāli term idappaccayatā is analyzed by Bhikkhu Bodhi as a specific conditionality 
of the doctrine of the Paṭiccasamuppāda. He added that idappaccayatā, also referred to as the 
law of cause and effect, is the emergence of phenomena in dependence on specific conditions 
and circumstances. See Bodhi, The Great Discourse of Causation: The Mahānidāna Sutta and its 
Commentaries, 2. 
21  M III 63: imasmiṃ sati idaṃ hoti, imassuppādā idaṃ uppajjati, imasmiṃ asati idaṃ ha hoti, 
imassa nirodhā idaṃ nirujjhati.
22  Ānanada served as the Buddha’s primary attendant. according to the Mahānidāna Sutta 
of Dīgha Nikāya, we can find a conversation between the Buddha and Ānanada in which the 
Blessed one addressed how the doctrine of the Paṭiccasamuppāda is marvelous, astounding, 
eye-opening and deep to comprehend. In the same discourse, we further observe the Buddha’s 
admonishment to Ānanada while he mentions that the teaching of the Paṭiccasamuppāda was 
easy and clear to understand. For a detailed analysis, see D II 55. 
23  See Vin II 96; S III 16; a III 406. 
T H E  B U D D H I S T  C O N C E P T  O F  PA Ṭ I C C A S A M U P PĀ D A  B A S E D  O N  P Ā L I  M A N U S C R I P T S
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can be subdivided into two words: saŋ or saṃ and uppāda [saŋ (with) 
+ uppāda (arising)].24 Both the words samuppāda and uppāda imply 
“origin”, “arising”, “genesis”, “production” or “coming to be”.25 Bud-
dhaghosa26 defines the term Paṭiccasamuppāda in terms of three words: 
Paṭicca, sammā, and uppāda [Paṭicca (having dependent) + sammā (a 
right) + uppāda (arising)].27 according to Buddhaghosa, the Pāli word 
Paṭiccasamuppāda can be rendered as either “having dependent, a right 
arising” or “dependent on causes rightly by”.28 literally, the Pāli term 
Paṭiccasamuppāda can be translated into English as “Dependent origi-
nation,” or “Dependent arising”.29 Peter Della Santina transliterated 
the Paṭiccasamuppāda as “Interdependent origination” or “the chain of 
causation”.30 
annotated Translation of the Paṭiccasamuppāda
The discourse of the Paṭiccasamuppāda, in both theoretical and prac-
tical formats, is found in a number of places in the Pāli manuscripts. The 
theoretical formula of the Paṭiccasamuppāda, also known as the law of 
conditionality (idappaccayatā), is articulated through the exposition of 
causes (hetu) and conditions (paccaya). referring to the “Bahudhātuka 
24  Paṭiccasamuppāda is rendered in Sanskrit as Pratītyasamutpāda, which is also derived from 
the combination of two words:  pratītya and utpāda [pratītya (dependent)+ utpāda (origina-
tion)]. This Sanskrit translation is similar to the Pāli phrase and follows the same grammatical 
structure. See Chowdhury, “Unfolding Dependent origination,” 6930. 
25  Ibid. 
26  Buddhaghosa was a commentator, translator and philosopher of Theravāda Buddhism. 
He is well known for his monumental book Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification), which was 
compiled around the 5th century. The translator of the Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification), 
Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu, stated that the Visuddhimagga is recognized as a masterpiece of world lite-
rature that methodically organizes and interprets the teachings of the Buddha found in the Pāli 
Tipiṭaka. See Bhadantācariya Buddhaghossa, Visuddhimagga: The Path of Purification, trans. 
Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (Colombo: Samayawardana Printers, 2010) xxvii. 
27  Vism 574: Keci pana paṭicca sammā ca titthiyaparikappitapakatipurisādikāraṇanirapekkho 
uppādo paṭiccasamuppādoti evaṃ uppādamattaṃ paṭiccasamuppādoti vadanti. 
28  Buddhaghossa, Visuddhimagga, 533. 
29  Bodhi, The Great Discourse of Causation: The Mahānidāna Sutta and its Commentaries, 1. 
30  Peter Della Santina, The Tree of enlightenment (Taiwan: Buddha Dharma Education asso-
ciation Inc., 1997) 119. 
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8
Sutta” of the Majjhima Nikāya,31 a conversation between the Buddha 
and Ānanada can be found, where the Blessed one32 introduces the law 
of causationality [or the theoretical formula of the Paṭiccasamuppāda] 
as follows: 
“When this exists, that comes to be; with this arising from this, that arises. 
When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, 
that ceases.”33
on the other hand, the practical aspect of the Paṭiccasamuppāda was 
presented through introducing twelvefold links within two sequenc-
es of forwarding (anuloma) and reversing (paṭiloma) orders.34  The 
twelvefold linkage of the Paṭiccasamuppāda are: (i) ignorance (avijjā), 
(ii) mental formations or fabrication (saṅkhāra), (iii) consciousness 
(viññāṇa), (iv) mentality and materiality (nāmarūpa), (v) sixfold sense 
bases (saḷāyatana), (vi) contact (phassa), (vii) feeling (vedanā), (viii) 
craving (taṅhā), (ix) clinging (upādāna), (x) becoming (bhāva), (xi) 
birth (jāti), and (xii) aging and death (jarāmaraṅa).35 The discourse of 
the Paṭiccasamuppāda in terms of practical aspects is translated into two 
sequences, with reference to the “Nidāna Vaggo” of Saṁyutta Nikāya,
i. Forwarding order (anuloma) of the Paṭiccasamuppāda: 
With the condition of ignorance, mental formations,36 arise; 
With the condition of mental formations, consciousness,37 arises; 
31  See M III 63.
32  The Blessed one is referred to the Buddha. See Vism 210. 
33  The Middle length Discourses of the Buddha, trans. Ñaṇamoli Bhikkhu; ed. Bhikkhu 
Bodhi (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1995) 927. 
34  Ud 1-3; S II 25-26.
35  Ibid. 
36  Bhikkhu Bodhi translates the Pāli term saṅkhārā as “volitional formation”. See Bodhi, The 
Great Discourse of Causation: The Mahānidāna Sutta and its Commentaries, 55. 
a.P. Buddhadatta Mahāthera defines saṅkhārā as “mental coefficients”. See a.P. Buddhadatta 
Mahāthera, Concise Pali-English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private li-
mited, 1994) 225.
I. B. Honor renders saṅkhārā as “habitual tendencies”. See Majjhima Nikāya: The Collection 
of the Middle Length Saying. Vol 1. Trans. I. B. Horner (oxford: Pali Text Society, 1995) 360. 
37  T.W. rhys Davids and William Stade interpreted “mental quality” as “consciousness 
(viññāṇa)”. See T.W. rhys Davids and William Stade, Pali-English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal 
Banarsidass Publishers Private limited, 2007) 618-619. 
T H E  B U D D H I S T  C O N C E P T  O F  PA Ṭ I C C A S A M U P PĀ D A  B A S E D  O N  P Ā L I  M A N U S C R I P T S
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With the condition of consciousness, mentality and materiality aris-
es; 
With the condition of mentality and materiality, sixfold sense bases 
arise; 
With the condition of sixfold sense bases, contact arises; 
With the condition of contact, feelings arise; 
With the condition of feeling, craving arises;
With the condition of craving, clinging arises; 
With the condition of clinging, becoming arises; 
With the condition of becoming, birth arises; 
With the condition of birth, ageing and death, sorrow, lamentation, 
pain, grief and despair [come into play]. This is the genesis of all of this 
suffering [stress and dissatisfaction].38 
ii. reversing order (paṭiloma) of the Paṭiccasamuppāda: 
With the cessation of ignorance, mental formations cease; 
With the cessation of mental formations, consciousness ceases;
With the cessation of consciousness, mentality and materiality cease; 
With the cessation of mentality and materiality, sixfold sense bases 
cease;
With the cessation of the sixfold sense base, contact ceases;
With the cessation of contact, feeling ceases; 
With the cessation of feeling, craving ceases;
With the cessation of craving, clinging ceases; 
With the cessation of clinging, becoming ceases;
With the cessation of becoming, birth ceases; 
In a study of Pāli literature, mental states [or consciousness] can be defined using four different 
terms, such as mentality (nāma), thought (citta), mind (mano) and consciousness (viññāṇa). 
See Sanjoy Barua Chowdhury, “The Process of life in Dependent origination: an analysis 
Based on Buddhist Psychology”, Ph.D. Dissertation (ayutthaya: Mahachulalongkornrajavi-
dyalaya University, 2019) 51.  
38  S II 2: Avijjāpaccayā bhikkhave, saṅkhārā. Saṅkhārapaccayā viññāṇaṃ. Viññāṇapaccayā 
nāmarūpaṃ. Nāmarūpapaccayā saḷāyatanaṃ. Saḷāyatanapaccayā phasso. Phassapaccayā vedanā. 
Vedanāpaccayā taṇhā. Taṇhāpaccayā upādānaṃ. Upādānapaccayā bhavo. Bhavapaccayā jāti. Jāti-
paccayā jarāmaraṇaṃ, sokaparidevadukkhadomanassūpāyāsā sambhavanti. Evametassa kevalassa 
dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti.
Translation by the author of the article.
P o l I g r a F I
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With the cessation of birth, ageing, and death, sorrow, lamentation, 
pain, grief, and despair cease. This is the cessation of all this suffering 
[stress & dissatisfaction].39
 Interpretations of the Twelvefold links of the Paṭiccasamuppāda
The Buddha’s proposal of the twelvefold links and their active 
roles are delineated within the forward and reverse models of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda. In addition to the work of Buddhist scholars, Bud-
dhist scriptures provide detailed information on these twelvefold for-
mulas. Based on the Nikāya manuscripts and scholars‘ views, Buddhist 
interpretations of the twelvefold formulas are as follows: 
1. The first constituent of the cycle of the Paṭiccasamuppāda 
is ignorance (avijjā), which refers to “lacking knowledge or 
information”.40 The Buddha defines ignorance as the lack of 
knowing the four noble truths (cattāri ariya saccāni),41 namely 
suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the way to its cessation.42 
gethin defines “ignorance” as a positive misconception and not 
the mere absence of knowledge.43 Based on the wisdom of the 
Pāli manuscripts, ignorance is defined as the foundation of all 
evil actions and wrong views,44 along with the taproot of suf-
fering (dhakka);45 therefore, it stands first in the formula of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda. 
39  S II 4: Avijjāya tveva asesavirāganirodhā saṅkhāranirodho, saṅkhāranirodhā viññāṇanirod-
ho, viññāṇanirodhā nāmarūpanirodho, nāmarūpanirodhā saḷāyatananirodho, saḷāyatananirod-
hā phassanirodho, phassanirodhā vedanānirodho, vedanānirodhā taṇhānirodho, taṇhānirodhā 
upādānanirodho, upādānanirodhā bhavanirodho, bhavanirodhā jātinirodho, jātinirodhā jarāma-
raṇaṃ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā nirujjhanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhand-
hassa nirodho hotī“ti. 
Translation by the author of the article.
40 “oxford learner’s Dictionary”. available online: https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.
com/definition/english/ignorance?q=ignorance+  (accessed on July 13, 2022) 
41  See D II 91. 
42  See S II 4. 
43   rupert gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism (oxford: oxford University Press, 1998) 150. 
44  S V 1. 
45  See S II 2; S XII 4; D II 91.  
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2. The second link in the cycle of the Paṭiccasamuppāda is mental 
formation (saṅkhāra). Bhikkhu Bodhi translates the Pāli term 
saṅkhārā as “volitional formation”,46 whereas a.P. Buddhadatta 
Mahathera defines it as “mental coefficients”.47 I. B. Honor ren-
ders saṅkhārā as “habitual tendencies”.48 The Buddha acknowl-
edges three kinds of volitional formations: bodily volitional 
formation, verbal volitional formation, and mental volitional 
formation.49 In brief, the mental formation can be expressed as 
habitual tendencies [whether positive or negative] that lead the 
mind to attach to the aforementioned three actions. Based on 
the Buddha’s above exposition, Bhikkhu Bodhi asserts that the 
Buddhist concepts of Kamma (actions) and mental formation 
(saṅkhāra) are synonymous.50 
3. The third is consciousness (viññāṇa), which defines the mental 
quality.51 Inquiring in the Nikāya manuscripts, the words men-
tality (nāma), thought (citta), mind (mano) and consciousness 
(viññāṇa) are all used as synonyms for one another. according 
to Buddhist doctrine, the mind predominates over both whole-
some and unwholesome actions.52 In this sense, consciousness is 
crucial to understanding how the mind generates phenomenal 
and physical actions. The Buddha classified consciousness into 
sixfold categories: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-
consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness and 
mind-consciousness.53 However, the Buddhist teaching of con-
sciousness offers the basis for a comprehensive understanding of 
46  Bodhi, The Great Discourse of Causation: The Mahānidāna Sutta and its Commentaries, 55. 
47  a.P. Buddhadatta Mahāthera, Concise Pali-English Dictionary, 225. 
48  Majjhima Nikāya: The Collection of the Middle Length Saying. Vol 1. Trans. I. B. Horner, 
360. 
49  See S II 4. 
50  The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, Vols 2, trans. Bhikkhu Bodhi (Boston: WisdomPub-
lications, 2000) 45-47. 
51  T.W. rhys Davids and William Stade, Pali-English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass 
Publishers Private limited, 2007) 618-619.  
52  Dhp 1-2: Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā manoseṭṭhā manomayā; Manasā ce paduṭṭhena bhāsa-
ti vā karoti vā. 
53  See S II 4. 
P o l I g r a F I
12
mental states, whether wholesome or unwholesome. Bhikkhu 
Bodhi signifies the appearance of consciousness as follows:
“Consciousness appears as an enduring subject due to a lack of attention. 
When it is mindfully examined, the appearance of lastingness is dissolved by 
the perception of its impermanence.”54
additionally, Buddhist scripture clarifies that consciousness and wis-
dom are inseparable and precisely states that wisdom cannot flourish 
alone without an awareness of consciousness.55 The Buddhist interpre-
tation of consciousness reveals a clear notion of the role of the mind 
and its various directions [or mental concomitants].
4. Mentality and materiality (nāma-rūpa) are listed as the fourth 
link together. according to Buddha, mentality (nāma) is pre-
cisely correlated to feeling (vedanā), perception (saññā), voli-
tion (cetanā), contact (phassa) and attention (manasikāro), while 
form or materiality (rūpa) derives from the four great elements 
(mahābhūtānaṃ upādāyarūpaṃ).56 The Venerable Buddhaghosa, 
in The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), affirms that when 
mentality and materiality (nāma-rūpa) are connected to the five 
aggregates (pañcakhandha), mentality (nāma) is correlated with 
the three aggregates of feeling (vedanā), perception (saññā) and 
mental formation (saṅkhāra), whereas materiality is signified 
with the aggregate of material form (rūpa).57 
5. The fifth link in the cycle of the Paṭiccasamuppāda is the six sense 
bases (saḷāyatana), which define the six sense organs, including 
the eye base (cakkhāyatana), the ear base (sotāyatana), the nose 
base (ghānāyatana), the tongue base (jivhātana), the body base 
(kāyāyatana) and the mind base (manāyatana).58 Inquiring into 
the Nikāya manuscripts, the six sense doors are operated by the 
54   Bodhi, The Great Discourse of Causation: The Mahānidāna Sutta and its Commentaries, 27. 
55  J. allam Hobson, “Normal and abnormal States of Consciousness” in The Blackwell Com-
panion to Consciousness, ed. Max Velmans and Susan Schneider (oxford & Ma: Blackwell 
Publishers, 2007)101.
56  S II 3. 
57  See “Paññā-bhūmi-niddesa”, Vism Ch. XVII.
58  S II 3. 
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mind base.59 In fact, the mind is the key term for noticing re-
sponses from the bodily organs.60
6. The sixth link of the Paṭiccasamuppāda is contact (phassa), as it 
results from the interaction between mentality (nāma) and ma-
teriality (rūpa).61 rhys Davids and William Stede define contact 
(phassa) as the fundamental fact in the sense of impression.62 In-
quiring into the Nikāya manuscripts, Mahākacchāna63 expresses 
contact as follows:
“Dependent on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises. The meeting 
of the three is contact.”64
The aforesaid statement clearly indicates the crucial significance of 
consciousness in the process of the mentality and materiality mechanism. 
The Buddha classified contact into six ways : eye-contact (cakkhusam-
passo), ear-contact (sotasamphasso), nose-contact (ghāṇasamphasso), 
tongue-contact (jivhāsamphasso), body-contact (kāyasamphasso) and 
mind-contact (manosamphasso).65 
7. The seventh link is feeling (vedanā). Interpreting the cycle 
of the Paṭiccasamuppāda, feeling is distinguished into six as-
pects: feeling born of eye-contact (cakkhusamphassajā), feel-
ing born of ear-contact (sotasamphassajā), feeling born of nose-
contact (ghāṇasamphassajā), feeling born of tongue-contact 
(jivhāsamphassajā), feeling born of body-contact (kāyasamphassajā) 
and feeling born of mind-contact (manosamphassajā).66 
8. The eighth formula is craving (taṇhā), which is also denoted as 
one of the chief roots of suffering.67 Buddhist scripture makes 
59  See Dhp 1-2. 
60  See M I 108. 
61  Sn 170: Nāmañca rūpañca paṭicca phassā; icchānidānāni pariggahāni, icchāya‘santyā- na 
mamattamatthi, rūpe vibhute na phusanti phassā. 
62  T.W. rhys Davids and William Stade, Pali-English Dictionary, 478.  
63  Mahākacchāna is recognized as one of the skilled and versatile teachers of eighty out-
standing disciples of the Buddha in accordance with the Nikāya manuscripts. For a detailed 
investigation, See Thag 494-501. 
64  M I 111: Cakkhuñcāvuso paṭicca rūpe ca uppajjati cakkhuviññāṇaṃ. Tiṇṇaṃ saṅgati phasso.
65  See S II 3. 
66  See S II 3; M I 396; S III 226. 
67  See Dhp 334-359. 
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14
it clear that craving rules the world.68 In the discourse of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda, the Buddha expounds upon six classes of 
craving: craving for forms (rūpataṇhā), craving for sounds 
(saddataṇhā), craving for smells (gandhataṇhā), craving for tastes 
(rasataṇhā), craving for tactile objects (phoṭṭhabbataṇhā) and 
craving for mental phenomena (dhammataṇhā).69
9. The ninth constituent, clinging (upādāna), is commonly referred 
to as grasping.70 The Blessed one expounds on four kinds of cling-
ing: clinging to sensual pleasures (kāmūpadāna), clinging to views 
(diṭṭhūpādāna), clinging to rules and vows (sīlabbatūpādāna), 
and clinging to a doctrine of self (attavādūpādāna).71 In ad-
dition, the process of clinging has a strong bond with the five 
aggregates (pañcakkhandho). Therefore, on the basis of the ag-
gregates, the Blessed one classified clinging-aggregates into five 
aspects: form as a clinging-aggregate (rūpūpādākkhandho), feel-
ing as a clinging-aggregate (vedanūpādākkhandho), perception 
as a clinging-aggregate (saññūpādākkhandho), fabrication as a 
clinging-aggregate (saṅkhārāūpādākkhandho) and consciousness 
(viññāṇūpādākkhandho) as a clinging-aggregate.72 
10. The tenth link of the Paṭiccasamuppāda is the existence or be-
coming (bhāva), which refers to the sensual characteristics of 
the body.73 The Buddha describes its threefold existences: sense-
sphere existence (kāmabhavo), form-sphere existence (rūpabhavo) 
and formless-sphere existence (arūpabhavo).74 
11. The eleventh link is birth (jāti), which comprises the entire em-
bryonic process beginning with conception and ending with par-
turition.75 The Blessed one expounds upon birth as follows:
68  M II 54: ūno lko atitto taṇhādāso. 
69  See S II 3; a II 211; M I 256. 
70  Nyanatiloka. Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, ed. Nyanapo-
nika (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2004) 184. 
71  See S II 3. 
72  M III 15. 
73  Nyanatiloka. Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, 31.
74  See S II 3. 
75  Nyanatiloka. Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, 69.
T H E  B U D D H I S T  C O N C E P T  O F  PA Ṭ I C C A S A M U P PĀ D A  B A S E D  O N  P Ā L I  M A N U S C R I P T S
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“The birth of the various beings into various orders of beings, they are be-
ing born, descend into production, the manifestation of the aggregates, the 
obtaining of the sense bases.”76
12. The twelfth constituent is ageing and death (jarāmarana). ac-
cording to the discourse of the Paṭiccasamuppāda, the Blessed 
one explained that ageing (jarā) refers to a being’s old age, bro-
kenness, greyness, wrinkling, decline of vitality, and degeneration 
of the faculties, whereas death (marana) refers to a being’s deceas-
ing, passing away, breaking up, disappearance, mortality, death, 
completion of time, breaking up of the aggregates and casting off 
of the body.77
The Doctrinal Significance of the Paṭiccasamuppāda 
Despite the fact that the four noble truths (cattāri ariyasaccāni) 
are regarded as the Buddha’s awakening discovery, the concept of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda is the methodological approach to how to end suffer-
ing along the path to ultimate freedom. The four noble truths and the 
concept of the Paṭiccasamuppāda are integral to each other because the 
principal object of both doctrines is to clarify the taproot and cessation 
of suffering, i.e., dukkha.78 according to the Buddha’s first discourse, 
“Setting the Well of Dhamma in Motion”, the four noble truths79 are 
expounded as follows: 
1. The first noble truth is suffering, which includes birth, ageing, 
illness, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair. 
2. The second truth is the origin of suffering, which is defined as 
clinging that leads to further becoming within the cycle of saṃsāra. 
76  Ibid. 
77  See S II 3. 
78  Despite the Pāli term, dukkha is commonly translated as suffering or dissatisfaction, its 
intricate meaning makes it difficult to convey in English. according to the discourse of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda, the Buddha mentioned eight types of suffering, including birth, aging, de-
ath, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair. See S II 3-4. 
79  See S V 420. 
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16
The discourse mentioned three kinds of craving: craving for sensu-
al pleasure, craving for existence, and craving for non-becoming.80 
3. The third noble truth is the cessation of suffering that can be 
acquired by abandoning craving.81 
4. The fourth noble truth is the path leading to the cessation of suf-
fering. Here, the path refers to the noble eightfold path.82 
as per the above description, the four noble truths can be divided 
into two groups: (I) the first two are grouped together as suffering and 
its origin, and (II) the final two are placed in a separate category as the 
end of suffering and the path to ceasing the suffering. Both groups 
explicitly demonstrated the Buddhist soteriological approach, which 
is methodologically articulated in the two sequences of forwarding 
(anuloma) and reversing (paṭiloma) orders in the Paṭiccasamuppāda. 
Practical aspects of the Paṭiccasamuppāda clarify its connection with 
the four noble truths as follows: 
1. Forwarding (anuloma) of the twelvefold constituents of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda: Ignorance (avijjā) → Volitional formation 
(saṅkhāra) → Consciousness (viññāṇa) → Mentality and mate-
riality (nāma-rūpa) → Six sense bases (saḷāyatana) → Contact 
(phassa) → Feeling (vedanā) → Craving (taṇhā) → Clinging 
(upādāna) → Becoming (bhāva) → Birth (jāti) → aging and 
Death (jarāmarana) → … Sorrow (soka), lamentation (parideva), 
pain (dukkha), grief (domanassa) and despair (upayasa) = The ori-
gin of suffering (dukkha samudaya) = the first and second noble 
truths.
2. reversing the order (paṭiloma) of the twelvefold constituents of 
the Paṭiccasamuppāda: Ignorance (avijjā) ceases → Volitional 
formation (saṅkhāra) ceases → Consciousness (viññāṇa) ceases 
→ Mentality and materiality (nāma-rūpa) ceases → Six sense 
bases (saḷāyatana) ceases → Contact (phassa) ceases → Feeling 
(vedanā) ceases → Craving (taṇhā) ceases → clinging (upādāna) 
80  Ibid. 
81  See a II 211; M I 256; S III 227; S v 420. 
82  The noble eightfold path includes the right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, 
right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. For a detailed investi-
gation of the noble eightfold path, see a 1 178; D II 72; M I 299; S II 104. 
T H E  B U D D H I S T  C O N C E P T  O F  PA Ṭ I C C A S A M U P PĀ D A  B A S E D  O N  P Ā L I  M A N U S C R I P T S
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ceases → Becoming (bhāva) ceases → Birth (jāti) ceases → aging 
and Death (jarāmarana) ceases → … Sorrow (soka), lamentation 
(parideva), pain (dukkha), grief (domanassa) and despair (upaya-
sa) cease = The cessation of suffering (dukkha nirodha) = the third 
and fourth noble truths.
Based on the notes mentioned above, if the realization of the four 
noble truths is considered to be the ultimate goal for seekers and devo-
tees, the doctrine of the Paṭiccasamuppāda is applied as the methodolo-
gy of Buddhist soteriology, i.e., nibbāna. 
Conclusion 
The concept of the Paṭiccasamuppāda describes the vision of life 
through demonstrating twelvefold links – from birth to death. Exami-
ning the depth of every link brings an explicit notion that everything 
is interconnected and inseparable, i.e., nothing exists independently 
of its cause and condition. The causal relationships of the law of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda assert that the process of life and its motion are a 
part of the chains of twelvefold links. The Buddha’s teaching of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda clearly outlines the taproot of suffering and its path 
to cessation. The doctrinal and scriptural study of this paper clarifies the 
connection between the concept of the Paṭiccasamuppāda and the four 
noble truths. If realizing the four noble truths is considered to be the ul-
timate aim for seekers and followers, the understanding of the doctrine 
of the Paṭiccasamuppāda – also known as the attainment of nibbāna – is 
applied as the Buddhist soteriological methodology. 
We can conclude from the discussion in the scripturally based rese-
arch paper that the doctrine of the Paṭiccasamuppāda is unquestiona-
bly the most profound, distinctive and dynamic yet subtle teaching in 
Buddhist doctrine. By providing a landscape of its historical genesis, 
explicit meaning, annotated tradition, interpretation and doctrinal si-
gnificance, the discourse of the Paṭiccasamuppāda can be considered 
the pivotal Buddhist teachings that succinctly articulate the path of ul-
timate liberation. The Buddha’s objective was to present the teaching of 
the Paṭiccasamuppāda to delineate clear steps and motions of life from 
womb to tomb, in addition to seeking out the taproot of suffering and 
P o l I g r a F I
18
the method to vanquish it. The concept of Paṭiccasamuppāda is valued 
for the teaching of the Buddhist method of eradicating dukkha as well 
as directions for an ethical life, which is how its doctrinal relevance and 
significance are expressed.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in 
the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. 
acknowledgements 
My sincere gratitude goes out to Prof. anja Zalta, for inspiring me 
to conduct this research paper for the journal Poligrafi. For their valu-
able time in collecting and sharing insightful information for this rese-
arch project, my sincere gratitude to eminent Pāḷi scholar and Nikāya 
text translator Bhikkhu Bodhi; respected Prof. Dr. Kapila abhyawan-
sa; Prof. Dr. Padmasiri De Silva; Prof. lozang Jamspal; larry Mallet 
and dedicated western Dharma practitioner Ms. Eunice E. Cerezo. 
It would be incomplete if I did not mention the late Sādhanānanda 
Mahāsthabir Bana Bhāntē, who introduced me to the concept of the 
Paṭiccasamuppāda during my earlier path to Buddhist spirituality. I am 
grateful to Dr. Phibul Choompolpaisal, the Dean of the College of 
religious Studies (CrS) of Mahidol University (MU), for his conti-
nuous support and encouragement throughout my academic journey 
at Mahidol University. I greatly appreciate assoc. Prof.  abanti Barua’s 
thoughtful assistance in editing and reviewing the final edition of this 
article. last but not least, I am deeply indebted to my late mentor, 
Phra Khru Baitika Dr. Barton Yanathiro, for inspiring and guiding me 
on the path of academia. For her unwavering support throughout, my 
mother, Mrs. ruma Barua Chowdhury, deserves my deepest gratitude 
and respect.
T H E  B U D D H I S T  C O N C E P T  O F  PA Ṭ I C C A S A M U P PĀ D A  B A S E D  O N  P Ā L I  M A N U S C R I P T S
19
abbreviations 
a Aṅguttara Nikāya 
D Dīgha Nikāya
Dhp Dhammapada
M Majjhima Nikāya 
S Saṁyutta Nikāya 
Thag Theragāthā
Ud Udāna 
Vin Vinaya-piṭaka
Vism Visuddhimagga 
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