X. ZHU et al.: EFFECT OF A MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES ...
129–135
EFFECT OF A MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE
AND PROPERTIES OF RESISTANCE SPOT WELDED JOINTS OF
444 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL/6082 ALUMINUM ALLOY
VPLIV MAGNETNEGA POLJA NA MIKROSTRUKTURO IN
LASTNOSTI UPOROVNO TO^KOVNO ZVARJENEGA FERITNEGA
NERJAVNEGA JEKLA TIPA 444 IN Al ZLITINE TIPA 6082
Xiaoou Zhu
1*
, Zhanqi Liu
1
, Qi Zhou
1
, Jie Chen
2
, Shouhong Li
2
1
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Liaoning University of Technology, Jinzhou, China
2
Panasonic Welding Systems (Tangshan) Co., Ltd., China
Prejem rokopisa – received: 2023-11-27; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2024-01-22
doi:10.17222/mit.2023.1055
To improve the welding quality of resistance spot welding joints of steel/aluminum lightweight structures, the steady magnetic
field-assisted resistance spot welding method was used to weld 444 ferritic stainless steel and 6082 aluminum alloy, both with a
thickness of 1 mm. Under the same welding parameters, the effect of a magnetic field on the microstructure and mechanical
properties of the joint was analyzed. It was found that the Lorentz force generated by the addition of a magnetic field promoted
the circumferential movement of the molten metal in the nugget zone, increased the size of the Fe/Al contact interface in the
joint along the horizontal direction, and made an effective use of the heat generated during resistance spot welding. Although
the intermetallic compounds in the intermediate transition layer of the two welded materials were mainly composed of (Fe, Cr,
Si)Al2 and (Fe, Cr, Si)Al3, relatively low contents of (Fe, Cr, Si)Al2 and (Fe, Cr, Si)Al3 were foundand a there was a significant
decrease in the thickness of the intermetallic compound layer when the magnetic field was applied. Compared with the welded
joint devoid of a magnetic field, the tensile strength and ductility of the joint were effectively improved, and the dimples in the
fracture surface became relatively deep and numerous. In essence, resistance spot welding joints of steel/aluminum obtain better
comprehensive mechanical properties when a magnetic field is applied.
Keywords: stainless steel, aluminum alloy, magnetic field-assisted resistance spot welding, mechanical properties
Avtorji ~lanka so zato, da bi izbolj{ali kvaliteto uporovno to~kovno zvarjenih spojev lahkih konstrukcij sestavljenih iz nerjav-
nega jekla in aluminijevih zlitin uporabili postopek uporovnega to~kovnega varjenja podprtega s stalnim magnetnim poljem. Za
preizkuse varjenja so uporabili preizku{ance iz plo~evine feritnega nerjavnega jekla vrste 444 in Al zlitine vrste 6082 debeline
1 mm. Pri enakih parametrih varjenja so dolo~ili vpliv spremembe gostote magnetnega polja na mikrostrukturo in mehanske
lastnosti zvarnih spojev. Ugotovili so da Lorentzova sila povzro~ena z magnetni poljem pospe{uje gibanje robov raztaljene
kovine proti sredi{~u zvarnih spojev, kar pove~uje velikost kontaktne povr{ine med Fe in Al v spoju vzdol` vodoravne smeri in s
tem pove~a izkoristek toplote nastale med varjenjem. ^eprav je bila vmesna prehodna cona zvara v glavnem sestavljena iz
intermetalnih spojin (Fe, Cr, Si)Al2 in (Fe, Cr, Si)Al3, se je debelina sloja iz teh intermetalnih spojin pomembno zmanj{ala v
prisotnosti magnetnega polja. Natezna trdnost in duktilnost zvarnih spojev se je u~inkovito izbolj{ala zaradi prisotnosti stalnega
magnetnega polja ter prelomna povr{ina zvarov je postala jami~asto duktilna. V bistvu uporovno to~kovno varjenje nerjavnega
jekla in aluminija, podprto s stalnim magnetnim poljem celovito izbolj{a mehanske lastnosti zvarnih spojev te vrste.
Klju~ne besede: nerjavno jeklo, zlitina na osnovi aluminija, z magnetnim poljem podprto uporovno to~kovno varjenje,
mehanske lastnosti
1 INTRODUCTION
With the increasing pursuit of low-energy consump-
tion in the manufacturing industry, hybrid structures
composed of stainless steel and an aluminum alloy are
increasingly used for automobiles, spacecraft and ships
to obtain high rigidity and lightweight structures.
1
At
present, the biggest problem of combining dissimilar
metals, i.e., aluminum and steel is the formation of an
Al-Fe brittle intermetallic compound (hereinafter re-
ferred to as IMC).
1,2
As the base metal remains solid during resistance
spot welding (henceforth referred to as RSW) and the
welding temperature is low, the interatomic interaction
and diffusion at the interface are substantially dimin-
ished. Consequently, the generation of the IMC can be
suppressed to a great extent, enabling a high-quality con-
nection of Fe/Al dissimilar metals, which is an effective
way from a theoretical point of view.
2,3
Simultaneously, a number of scholars have conducted
in-depth research on the RSW of stainless steel and alu-
minum alloy.
4–6
Despite the fact that currently an alumi-
num alloy and stainless steel can be connected by RSW,
the physical and chemical properties of Al and Fe are
quite different, and their solid solubility is negligible.
Therefore, a substantial IMC persists in an Al/Fe joint
formed by RSW, affecting the improvement of the joint’s
tensile properties. When the thickness of the IMC ex-
ceeds 1.5 μm, the mechanical properties of the joint are
found to deteriorate seriously.
5,6
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 129–135 129
UDK 669.1:669.71:669.711621.791.763 ISSN 1580-2949
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 58(2)129(2024)
*Corresponding author's e-mail:
clzxo@lnut.edu.cn (Xiaoou Zhu)

Experimental investigations confirmed that, unlike
arc welding and laser welding, RSW does not need to be
filled with a welding wire, the molten pool solidifies rap-
idly due to a short welding period, and the resulting weld
is often prone to shrinkage defects.
7
Presently, researchers have found that the application
of a magnetic field into the welding process can effec-
tively improve the mechanical properties of welded
joints, representing a feasible auxiliary welding method.
Although there is no obvious arc or liquid molten pool in
RSW, the presence of the current ensures that the mag-
netic field continues to have an important role. Some
scholars that apply a magnetic field to the RSW of Fe/Al
dissimilar metals discover that it greatly improves the
mechanical properties of the joint.
8,9
Ferrite stainless steel and a 6XXX aluminum alloy
are widely used in the automobile industry, marine engi-
neering and other fields because of their exceptional
weldability and unique advantages.
10,11
Therefore, the
connecting of the two materials is both necessary and
possible. However, at present, an analysis of the
microstructure and properties of dissimilar-metal RSW
joints between the above two materials is limited, as is
research on the effect of the microstructure and proper-
ties of welded joints that occur after an external magnetic
field is applied.
In this paper, 444 ferritic stainless steel (henceforth
referred to as 444) and 6082 aluminum alloy (hereinafter
referred to as 6082) are taken as the research objects, and
a steady-state magnetic field is applied during the resis-
tance spot welding test (MA-RSW) of Fe/Al dissimilar
materials to explore the influence of the steady-state
magnetic field on the macro-morphology, microstructure
and tensile properties of Fe/Al welded joints, so as to op-
timize the welding process parameters of Fe/Al dissimi-
lar materials and broaden the application range of mag-
netic field-assisted welding.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PART
The materials selected for this experiment included
444 and 6082, both of which were manufactured in
China, with corresponding supply statuses of cold-rolled
and T6. The sample dimensions of the two materials
were (75 × 20 × 1) mm. The alloy elements and mechan-
ical properties of the two materials are shown in Ta-
bles 1 and 2, respectively.
Table 1: Alloy elements’ maximum concentrations (wt.%)
CS iM nC rPSM gA lF e
444 0.025 1.0 1.0 18.0 0.035 0.03 – – Bal.
6082 – 1.3 0.95 0.25 – – 1.1 Bal. 0.5
Table 2: Mechanical properties (minimum)
Yield strength (MPa) Tensile strength (MPa)
444 245 410
6082 260 310
Initially, the RSW samples were overlapped up and
down along the horizontal direction, with an overlapping
area of (20 × 20) mm, the top of which was 6082 and the
bottom was 444. An RSW test was conducted at the cen-
X. ZHU et al.: EFFECT OF A MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES ...
130 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 129–135
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of welding technology: a) MA-RSW apparatus, b) magnetic field distribution at the faying surface, c) magnetic
force at the faying surface

ter of the lap joint using a Panasonic YR-350 S sin-
gle-phase AC resistance welder. The electrode material
was Cr-Zr-Cu, with a 5-mm-diameter end face and an
electrode pressure of 2.0 kN; the welding time was 20
cycles, and three groups of RSW tests were carried out
with a welding current of 10.5 kA.
In order to explore the effect of a magnetic field on
the microstructure and mechanical properties of RSW
welded joints, three sets of MA-RSW experiments were
carried out. After adopting the same pre-welding prepa-
ration and welding process parameters, eight NdFeB cy-
lindrical permanent magnets, each measuring 6 mm in
diameter and 3 mm in thickness, were horizontally af-
fixed around the electrode while maintaining a surface
magnetic induction of 30 mT. The arrangement of the
magnets is as shown in Figure 1a, and the magnetic in-
duction lines produced by the permanent magnets pass
through the welding nugget to form the Lorentz force.
Figure 1b illustrates the directions of the induced mag-
netic field and the external magnetic field.
8,9
In this struc-
ture, the interaction between the external magnetic field
and welding current produces a circumferential Lorentz
force, which promotes the circumferential movement of
the molten metal inside the nugget,
8,9
as shown in Fig-
ure 1c. Under the combined influence of the induced
magnetic field and the external magnetic field,
12
the Lo-
rentz force monotonically grows from the center of the
nugget to its edge, propelling the molten metal in all di-
rections from the welding center.
13
To reveal the microstructure of the interface area, a
metallographic sample of the joint was prepared using
wire cutting after the welding, followed by polishing and
etching with the Keller reagent, 5 mL nitric acid, 1 mL
HF and 44 mL water. The macro-morphology of the joint
was observed using a Zeiss Stemi 508 stereoscopic mi-
croscope, while the nugget size and the fracture area
were recorded. Using a Zeiss SIGMA 300 field-emission
scanning electron microscope (SEM), an energy dis-
persive spectrometer (EDS) and an Ultima IV combined
multifunctional horizontal X-ray diffractometer (XRD),
the structure and characteristics of the IMC at the Fe/Al
interface of two welded joints were observed. Six groups
of welded joints were measured utilizing a CMT 5305
electronic universal testing machine, and the value of the
peak load of each group was documented. In order to en-
sure the stress uniformity during the tensile test,
1 × 20 × 20 mm steel plates were positioned on the sur-
faces of both extremities of a sample. The fracture mor-
phology was observed using SEM.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It is evident from Figures 2a and 2b that the struc-
tures of the RSW and MA-RSW joints include two nug-
gets, one in the 444 plate and the other in the 6082 plate;
there are no welding defects such as shrinkage, and the
weld is well-formed. The 444 plates within the two
welded joints solidified to form nuggets that were oval;
the nuggets of 6082 solidified in the direction of the
Fe/Al surface toward the interior of the 6082 plates,
showing a trapezoidal shape. Through measurement and
comparison, it is observed that the nugget sizes for the
two welded joints are obviously different. In the RSW
joint, the nugget diameter of 444 is 4.6 mm, and in the
MA-RSW joint, the nugget diameter of 444 is higher by
6.6 %, that is, 4.9 mm. In the RSW joint, the upper width
of the 6082 nugget is 5.0 mm, while the lower width is
2.95 mm; In the MA-RSW joint, the upper width is
higher by 10 %, that is, 5.5 mm, and the lower width is
decreased by 18.64 %, that is, 2.4 mm. The corner of the
6082 block in the RSW joint is about 140°, while in the
MA-RSW joint, it is about 155°, representing an increase
of 10.71 %.
This is due to the fact that during the conventional
RSW of Fe/Al, 75 % of heat is concentrated in the Fe
plate used for heating the Al plate, resulting in the for-
mation of Al side and 444 inside nuggets.
14
During
MA-RSW, the Lorentz force generated by the external
magnetic field accelerates the circumferential movement
of the 444 molten metal towards the outside of the nug-
get, hence causing the nugget to grow in size. Simulta-
neously, the Lorentz force also extends the upper part of
the 6082 nuggets outward on the Fe/Al surface along the
horizontal line, leading to a reduction in the heat transfer
to the interior of the Al plate, causing the corner of the
upper width of the Al side nugget to increase and the
length of the lower width to decrease significantly. After
the addition of the magnetic field, the contact surface
area of Fe/Al increases and the heat of RSW is effec-
tively utilized.
Figure 3 shows the SEM microstructure and EDS
analysis of the IMC at the Fe/Al interface in the center of
the weld. As can be seen from Figure 3, the thickness of
the IMC at the center of the RSW joint is 2.6 μm, while
X. ZHU et al.: EFFECT OF A MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 129–135 131
Figure 2: Macro-morphology of cross-sections: a) RSW, b) MA-RSW

it is 1.0 μm at the center of the MA -RSW joint, indicat-
ing a 61.54 % reduction.
The obtained result can be explained using the reac-
tion diffusion principle, that is, the thickness X of the in-
terfacial reaction layer can be expressed as Equation 1
15
:
Xk
Q
RT
t =−
⎛ ⎝ ⎜ ⎞ ⎠ ⎟ ⎡ ⎣ ⎢ ⎤ ⎦ ⎥ 2
0
12
exp
/
(1)
where k
0
is the growth constant of the reaction layer, Q
denotes the activation energy of the growth of the reac-
tion layer, R is the gas constant, T represents the heating
temperature, and t is the reaction time.
According to Equation (1), X is related to t, that is, as
the heating temperature increases, so does the reaction
time, and the thickness of the reaction layer is increased.
In the process of MA-RSW, the Lorentz force promotes
the circular motion of the molten metal, leading to a rela-
tively low maximum temperature in the central area of
the joint interface and rapid heat dissipation, which in
turn shortens the reaction time and reduces the thickness
of the interface reaction layer to a certain extent. Mean-
while, according to references,
15,16
it can be inferred that
the reaction layer is thicker in the central area and de-
creases with an increasing distance from the weld center.
A reduction in the IMC thickness reduces the crack sen-
sitivity and improves ductility.
17
In the center of the RSW weld, only the flat surface
of the 444 side and the serrated surface of the 6082 side
are observed at the interface, which aligns well with the
results observed in reference.
15
However, the IMC thick-
ness is considerably reduced in the center of the
MA-RSW weld, resulting in a flat surface on the two
sides of the Fe/Al interface, as shown in Figure 3.
X. ZHU et al.: EFFECT OF A MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES ...
132 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 129–135
Figure 3: IMC layer characteristics: a) RSW, b) MA-RSW
Table 3: EDS analysis results for the IMC layer
Elements
Al Fe Cr
Possible compound composition
w/%  /% w/%  /% w/%  /%
P1 68.25 81.46 26.30 15.17 5.45 3.38 Al, -Fe-Cr (a small amount), FeAl
2
and FeAl
3 P2 82.74 90.71 13.64 7.22 3.63 2.06
P3 0.43 0.88 81.64 80.20 17.93 18.91 Al (a small amount), -Fe-Cr, FeAl
2
and FeAl
3 P4 60.71 75.96 32.89 19.88 5.39 3.31
Figure 4: Micro-X-ray diffraction curve: a) RSW, b) MA-RSW

Figures 3a and 3b also show the findings of the lin-
ear scanning analysis of EDS perpendicular to the Fe/Al
interface, demonstrating that Al and Fe have undergone
mutual diffusion. At the same time, it is found that the
Lorentz force increases the diffusion of Fe into the tran-
sition zone and reduces the Al proportion in the IMC re-
gion, which is consistent with the results of the EDS
point scanning analysis of the IMC layer presented in
Table 3.
Combined with the XRD and EDS data shown in
Figure 4 and Table 3, respectively, it is confirmed that
the primary components of the IMC at the Fe/Al inter-
face are FeAl
2
and FeAl
3
prior to the addition of the mag-
netic field. Due to the presence of trace amounts of Cr
and Si that are unavoidable, the phase composition of the
components indicated in Figure 4a can be expressed as
iron-rich (Fe, Cr, Si)Al
2
(FeAl
2
) and aluminum-rich (Fe,
Cr, Si)Al
3
(FeAl
3
). A similar finding was also found by
Ranfeng et al.
17,18
During MA-RSW, the electromotive force facilitates
the acceleration of Fe diffusion within the melting zone,
reduces the maximum interface temperature, shortens the
dwell time at high-temperatures, and inhibits the nucle-
ation of FeAl
2
and FeAl
3
, consequently reducing the
thickness of the IMC layer and undoubtedly improving
the plasticity of the welded joint structure.
19
In contrast
to Figure 4a, Figure 4b illustrates a comparatively re-
duced composition of FeAl
2
and FeAl
3
, a finding that
corroborates the aforementioned analysis.
For the two types of welds, SEM was used to deter-
mine the IMC thickness of 11 evenly distributed areas at
the Fe/Al interface; the corresponding statistical results
are shown in Figure 5. Statistics show that the IMC
thickness in the center near the Fe/Al interface in the
RSW welds is maximum, measuring 2.6 μm, and it is
minimum in the outermost position, measuring 0.6 μm.
In the MA-RSW welds, the maximum IMC thickness is
observed at the center near the Fe/Al interface, measur-
ing 1.0 μm, while the minimum is observed at the weld’s
edge, measuring 0.3 μm. The result shown in Figure 5 is
consistent with the analysis and assumption based on
Equation 1 and references.
15,16
It is thus anticipated that
an MA-RSW welded joint with a thin IMC layer would
exhibit excellent tensile properties.
Figure 6 shows the load-extension curves of RSW
and MA-RSW joints. Comparatively speaking, it is not
difficult to conclude that MA-RSW joints can obtain a
greater ductility. Three groups of RSW tensile samples
have an average peak load of 1786.67 N, whereas the av-
erage peak load of three groups of MA-RSW tensile
samples is 3613.33 N, which is 102.2 % higher than that
of RSW tensile samples. This result is attributed to the
increase in the Fe/Al horizontal contact interface area of
the joint due to the Lorentz force generated after the ad-
dition of the magnetic field. In addition, the thickness of
the IMC at the interface is substantially reduced, which
also plays an important role in enhancing the tensile
properties of the joint.
Fracture morphologies of RSW and MA-RSW joints
on the Al plate are illustrated in Figure 7. As determined
with a stereoscopic microscope, the dark gray region sit-
uated at the center of the two welds is the fracture area.
X. ZHU et al.: EFFECT OF A MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 129–135 133
Figure 6: Load-ductility curves of welded joints
Figure 5: IMC thickness statistics of RSW and MA-RSW welds

Based on the SEM observation, we can see that the frac-
ture surfaces of these two joints are mostly brittle.
Among them, the dimple on the fracture surface of the
RSW joint is relatively shallow and the fracture area is
relatively small, significantly diminishing the mechanical
properties of the joint. On the other hand, the fracture
dimple of the MA-RSW joint is comparatively deep as a
result of a substantial drop in the IMC thickness and
component content, so the plasticity of the joint is dra-
matically improved. This is consistent with the analysis
results shown in Figures 5 and 6.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The 444-6082 welded joints devoid of obvious weld-
ing defects were obtained with both RSW and MA-RSW,
and the joint structures exhibited two nuggets, located in
444 and 6082. However, the external magnetic field
caused a 6.6 % rise in the size of the nugget on 444, a 10
% increase in the upper width, a 10.71 % increase in the
corner of the 6082 block, and an 18.64 % drop in the
lower width. The contact surface area of Fe/Al increased.
This finding demonstrates that the addition of a magnetic
field significantly improves the heat-utilization effi-
ciency of RSW.
The IMC transition layers of the two joints predomi-
nantly consist of (Fe, Cr, Si)Al
2
and (Fe, Cr, Si)Al
3
. The
IMC has a greater thickness in the central region and a
diminishing thickness with an increasing distance from
the center of the 444-6082 joints. The introduction of a
magnetic field induces the Lorentz force, which expe-
dites the diffusion of Fe within the melting zone, reduces
the high-temperature dwell time of the transition layers,
prevents the nucleation of internal IMC, and results in a
relatively reduced content of IMC, while the peak thick-
ness of internal IMC decreases by 61.54 %.
Under the action of the external magnetic field, the
average peak load of MA-RSW joints is 3613.33 N,
which is 102.2 % higher than that of RSW joints. At the
same time, the fracture dimples of these joints are deeper
and larger, and the comprehensive mechanical properties
are improved.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the support
from the Basic Scientific Research Project of Liaoning
Provincial Department of Education (grant number:
JYTMS20230848), and the Doctoral Start-up Foundation
of Liaoning Province (grant number: 2023-BS-195).
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