75DOI: 10.4312/as.2025.13.2.75-96 The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness from the Theravāda Buddhist Perspective Tamara DITRICH*7 Abstract This article discusses three important concepts of ancient Indian discourse, namely absence, nothingness and emptiness, and examines their representations in Theravāda Buddhism. Firstly, it overviews the early Indian records of the concept of absence and then focuses on the role of absence in Theravāda Buddhism. It shows how the ethical foundations of the Buddhist path to liberation from suffering are largely expressed through the absence of unethical behaviour, and how meditation practice involves the cultivation of mental states that are based on the absence of unwholesome mental fac- tors. The article then discusses specific higher states of meditative absorption, as pre- sented in the canonical and postcanonical Pāli sources, which include experiences of infinite space, infinite consciousness, and nothingness, the latter being articulated as the absence of anything at all. According to the Theravāda tradition, the experience of nothingness, which is perceived as complete absence, devoid of any phenomena, is not considered final liberation, because it still involves perception, feeling and other mental components and thus remains in the sphere of impermanence. Only in the state of ultimate emptiness of nibbāna (Sanskrit nirvāṇa) is complete liberation from suffer- ing reached. The realization of nibbāna is presented as the very foundation of a deep transformation of consciousness, reflected in the partial or complete absence of fetters, defined as phenomena that bind living beings to suffering. In summary, the article shows how, in Theravāda Buddhism, absence plays the central role in the cultivation of moral virtue and meditation, including the experience of nothingness, and how the realization of the emptiness of nibbāna, regarded as the final liberation from suffering, is reflected in the concomitant ethical perfection. Keywords: absence in Theravāda Buddhism, ākiñcañña, suññatā, nibbāna and ethics in Theravāda Buddhism * Tamara DITRICH, University of Sydney and University of Ljubljana. Email address: t.ditrich@gmail.com 76 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... Pojmi odsotnosti, praznine in niča z vidika theravādskega budizma Izvleček Članek obravnava tri pomembne koncepte staroindijskega diskurza, in sicer odsotnost, nič in praznino, ter proučuje njihove predstavitve v okviru theravādskega budizma. Na- jprej na kratko predstavi staroindijske zapise o konceptu odsotnosti, nato pa se osredotoči na vlogo odsotnosti v theravādskem budizmu. Pokaže, kako se etični temelji budistične poti do osvoboditve od trpljenja večinoma izražajo skozi odsotnost neetičnega delovanja in kako meditacijska praksa vključuje razvoj mentalnih stanj, ki temeljijo na odsotnosti škodljivih mentalnih faktorjev. Članek nato obravnava višja stanja meditativne absorp- cije, kot so predstavljena v kanoničnih in postkanoničnih virih, ki vključujejo izkušnje neskončnega prostora, neskončne zavesti in niča, pri čemer je slednji izražen kot odsot- nost česar koli. Po theravādskem izročilu izkušnja niča, ki jo dojemamo kot popolno odsotnost, brez kakršnih koli pojavov, ne velja za končno osvoboditev, saj še vedno vkl- jučuje zaznavo, občutke in druge mentalne faktorje ter tako ostaja v območju spremembe in minljivosti, medtem ko je popolna osvoboditev od trpljenja dosežena šele v stanju dokončne praznine, nibbāne (sanskrtsko nirvāṇa). Uresničitev nibbāne je predstavljena kot temelj globoke preobrazbe zavesti, ki se odraža v delni ali popolni odsotnosti vseh mentalnih faktorjev, ki živa bitja vežejo na trpljenje. Če povzamemo, članek pokaže, kako ima v theravādskem budizmu odsotnost osrednjo vlogo pri razvoju moralnih vrlin in meditaciji, vključno z izkušnjo niča, in kako se spoznanje praznine nibbāne, ki velja za končno osvoboditev od trpljenja, odraža v etični popolnosti. Ključne besede: koncept odsotnosti v theravādskem budizmu, pālijski koncept nič (ākiñ- cañña), pālijski koncept praznina (suññatā), nibbāna in etika v theravādskem budizmu Abbreviations1 A Aṅguttaranikāya Paṭis Paṭisambhidāmagga As Atthasālinī PED Pāli-English Dictionary D Dīghanikāya RV Ṛgveda DP A Dictionary of Pāli S Saṃyuttanikāya Dhp Dhammapada Sn Suttanipāta Dhs Dhammasaṅgaṇi Ud Udāna M Majjhimanikāya Vibh Vibhaṅga Nidd I Mahāniddesa Vibh-a Sammohavinodanī Nidd II Cullaniddesa Vin Vinaya Ps Papañcasūdanī, Majjhimani- kāyāṭṭhakathā Vism Visuddhimagga 1 The abbreviations of Pāli sources and the quotation system follow A Critical Pāli Dictionary (Ep- ilegomena to vol. 1, 1948 5*–36*, and vol. 3, 1992, II–VI). The numbers used for the quotations of Pāli sources refer to the volume and page of the PTS edition (e.g., M I 21 refers to the Majjhima Nikāya, vol. 1, 21). 77Asian Studies XIII (XXIX), 2 (2025), pp. 75–96 Introduction As the earliest extant literary records indicate, ancient Indian culture had a par- ticular interest in and fascination with questions around existence and non-ex- istence, emptiness and fullness, absence, zero and infinity. These notions have been explored in several domains of human endeavour, such as cosmology, the sciences and contemplative traditions. They were approached at three levels: at a macrosphere of the cosmos, a mesosphere of human life on Earth, and a micro- sphere through in-depth analyses of the fundamental elements of material and mental phenomena involved in human experience. The earliest recorded text of ancient India, the Ṛgveda, a collection of hymns situated in the middle of the second millennium BCE, narrates or alludes to many cosmogonic myths that position the beginning or the origin of the universe in various ways, including non-being, absence and emptiness. For example, the Nāsadīya Sūkta (RV X 129), which is one of the most famous and enigmatic hymns, questions and ponders the cosmic origins without providing a definite answer. The hymn positions absence at the very beginning of the universe: 1 There was neither non-existence nor existence at that time. There exist- ed neither space nor the heaven beyond. What stirred? From where and under whose protection? Did water exist, a fathomless depth? 2 There was neither death nor immortality then. There was no sign of night nor of day. That one breathed without wind through its inherent impulse. There was nothing else beyond that. 3 Darkness was hidden by darkness in the beginning. All this was a sign- less water. That one coming into being was covered with emptiness, that one then arose by the power of heat. 4 Desire came upon that one in the beginning, which was the first seed of the mind. Searching in their hearts with wisdom, sages found the con- nection of the existent in the non-existent. 5 Their cord was stretched across. Was there something below? Was there something above? There were seed-placers and there were powers. There was inherent impulse below, offering above. 6 Who really knows? Who shall here proclaim it? Whence was it born, whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this world. Who then knows from where it came to be? 78 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... 7 From where this creation has arisen, was it produced or not? The one who oversees this world from the highest heaven, only he knows. Or maybe he does not know? (Nāsadīya Sūkta, Ṛgveda X 129)2 The hymn describes that in the beginning there was absence, namely the absence of non-existence (nāsad) and absence of existence (sad), signless and empty. It then positions desire as the seed of mind and thought, from which the expansion of this universe emerges. However, the hymn concludes that nobody really knows how the universe began, implying that the mind or thought is not the instrument for such profound knowledge. The theme of the initial absence or emptiness, fol- lowed by desire as the seed of creation, recurs again and again in various ways in most of the religio-philosophical traditions of ancient India. From the post-Vedic period onwards, with the emergence of the Upaniṣads, followed by Buddhism, Jainism, Yoga and many other traditions, it became generally accepted that living beings are endlessly reborn in multiple worlds comprising the universe and that such entanglement in continuous rebirths is the source of suffering or unsatis- factoriness. Hence, most ancient Indian religions seek liberation from rebirth by aiming to reach beyond the mind into an unconditioned primordial state, which is often portrayed as nothingness, emptiness, signlessness, or neither non-existence nor existence. For example, the earliest Upaniṣad, the Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad, states that “in the beginning there was nothing whatsoever here,”3 and the Chānd- ogyopaniṣad says that “in the beginning all this was just non-existent”.4 In Indian traditions, the realization of this primordial state and beyond can be achieved through various meditative practices, most of which involve the cultivation of absences, above all the absence of desire. According to another Vedic cosmogonic myth, the universe was created through sound or speech; in the Ṛgveda it is attributed to the cosmogonic goddess Vāc, who created speech as well as all creatures, the sky, the Earth and beyond (RV 10.125). It was believed that the primordial state or hidden truth is articulated in the language of the Vedas, hence through mastery and understanding of the laws of the language, the laws of the universe and ultimate truth can be revealed. The study of language was consequently one of the earliest sciences to develop within the Vedic tradition. The most fundamental and influential grammatical text of ancient India is the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, usually positioned in the middle of the 2 Translated by the author, having consulted the existing English translations, especially The Rigve- da (2014, III 1607–09); Brereton (1999, 250–58); and Doniger (1981, 25–26). 3 Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.2.1: naiveha kiṃcanāgra āsīt (Īśādidaśopaṇiṣadaḥ 1964, 612). 4 Chāndogyopaniṣad 3.19.1: idam agre asat eva āsīt (Īśādidaśopaṇiṣadaḥ 1964, 439). 79Asian Studies XIII (XXIX), 2 (2025), pp. 75–96 first millennium BCE (e.g., von Hinüber 1990, 34; Falk 1993, 304; Bronkhorst 2013, 177), but it is probably based on an earlier tradition. This seminal text is a structural and generative grammar, comprising over 4,000 algebraic rules that can be used to derive Sanskrit words and phrases. The processes of word derivation in the Aṣṭādhyāyī involve a wide range of elements, including the bases (roots of words), to which affixes (pratyaya) can be added in different contexts and under several different conditions. In the derivation process, the numerous conditions or affixes (pratyaya) represent a central mechanism and tool of the grammar. A particular feature of Pāṇini’s structural grammar is the inclusion of the notion of absence or zero (lopa), defined as “non-appearance”.5 When a condition or affix (pratyaya) is substituted by zero (pratyayalope), its operational characteristics (pratyayalakṣaṇam) still function.6 Significantly, this means that although it is absent, the zero affix still influences grammatical operations, which are executed as if it were present. In other words, the presence of absence is required because as a component within the derivation process, absence has a consequent effect.7 The concept of linguistic zero in all likelihood influenced the emergence of the concept of zero in mathematics, as some scholars suggest (e.g., Allen 1956; Staal 1974; Joseph 2016, 98–99). Although the mathematical texts that we know today are of a later date, with the earliest record from the third century CE onwards, they are most likely based on an older tradition. The Sanskrit term for zero in In- dian mathematics is śūnya, which is usually translated as “empty” or “nothing”.8 The earliest known text to treat zero as a number in its own right was a treatise by the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta from the seventh century CE. He also introduced the concept of infinity (ananta) and distinguished between finite, in- numerable (asaṃkhyāta) and infinite (ananta) numbers.9 The notion of infinity has ancient roots in Vedic cosmology, where the universe is viewed as infinite, often represented as the goddess Aditi, called the Boundless, Infinite, from whom everything emerged (RV 1.89.10). In summary, as already witnessed in the earliest Indian records, the notions of ab- sence, emptiness and infinity were discussed in the cosmological sphere, as well as in the sphere of the sciences, such as linguistics and mathematics. 5 P I.1.60: adarśanaṃ lopaḥ. For discussions on the notion of lopa and the linguistic zero see, for example, Allen (1956); Staal (1974, 6); Joseph (2016, 98–99). 6 P 1.1.62: pratyayalope pratyayalakṣaṇam. 7 For a short presentation of the Aṣṭādhyāyī and linguistic zero, see Ditrich (2023a). 8 The term śūnya was used very early, and is attested in a Sanskrit prosody text from the 3rd century BCE, called the Chandaḥśāstra, by Piṅgala, used for notifying short syllables in his binary system of zero and one. 9 For a comprehensive survey of Indian mathematics, see Joseph (2016). 80 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... The Role of Absence on the Buddhist Path When Buddhism10 emerged in India towards the middle of the first millennium BCE, it largely reflected the cultural milieu of the time, and hence viewed the universe as infinite, without beginning or end, containing multiple worlds in which living beings (including humans) are born, die and are reborn endlessly in various forms. Such entanglement in the cycles of rebirths was considered undesirable and the source of suffering. Along with this cosmological perspec- tive, Buddhism also approached the problem of suffering on a psychological level, from the perspective of human experience. As already stated in the Bud- dha’s first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta (S V 420–24), which succinctly outlines the teachings in the four noble truths (ariyasaccāni),11 de- sire or craving (taṇhā) is identified as the source of suffering, while the extin- guishing of desire and thus the cessation of suffering is positioned in nibbāna (Sanskrit nirvāṇa), which can be reached by following the noble eightfold path (ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo). The path consists of the following eight interrelated components: appropriate12 view, appropriate intention, appropriate speech, ap- propriate action, appropriate livelihood, appropriate effort, appropriate mind- fulness and appropriate concentration. It is often presented in three interrelated clusters: the first two components constitute wisdom (pannā), encompassing an appropriate view or deep understanding (sammā diṭṭhi) of the imperma- nent and impersonal nature of all phenomena, and appropriate thought (sammā saṅkappa), founded on such wisdom. The next three components constitute moral virtues (sīla), which include appropriate speech (sammā vācā), action (sammā kammanta), and livelihood (sammā ājīva). The last three components are related to meditation practice (samādhi) and encompass appropriate effort (sammā vāyāma), mindfulness (sammā sati), and concentration (sammā samā- dhi). As will be argued below, the entire path is largely based on the cultiva- tion of absences. 10 In this article, the exploration of absence draws primarily on the Theravāda Buddhist canon and its commentaries (aṭṭhakathā), particularly those of Buddhaghosa. All translations from Pāli in this article are by the author. 11 The most widely used English translation of the Pāli term sacca is “truth” (PED, s.v.). However, it could also be rendered as “reality”, as Harvey (2013, 50–52) argues. 12 All eight components have the attribute of “right” or “appropriate” (sammā), meaning that they are appropriate or suitable for achieving liberation from suffering (dukkhanirodha). 81Asian Studies XIII (XXIX), 2 (2025), pp. 75–96 Cultivation of Moral Virtue through Absence The cultivation of moral virtue (sīla) encompasses the following: appropriate speech (sammā vācā), appropriate action (sammā kammanta) and appropriate livelihood (sammā ājīva). Appropriate speech is presented as the cultivation of absences, meaning that one should abstain from false speech, slander, harsh speech, and frivolous talk.13 Similarly, appropriate action (sammā kammanta) involves abstaining from killing living beings, from taking what is not given, and from sensual misconduct.14 Appropriate livelihood (sammā ājīva) is de- scribed as making one’s living in such a way as not to harm other beings,15 or simply as refraining from wrong livelihood.16 The cultivation of moral virtue is also described as the practice of the five precepts (pañcasīla), represented as the absence of immoral speech and action. The five precepts include restraint from: (1) killing living beings, (2) taking what is not given, (3) sensual mis- conduct, (4) false speech and (5) consuming intoxicants.17 Significantly for the discussion here, Buddhist moral codes are largely described in “negative” terms by absence and prescribe refraining from harmful verbal and physical behav- iours towards all living beings. Training in moral virtue is therefore largely de- scribed as the absence of harming other beings, and is regarded as an essential precondition for the development of all the other components of the eightfold path, namely mental training in meditation (samādhi), development of wisdom (paññā) and liberation. 13 This is described in several texts, for example in the Vibhaṅgasutta of Maggasaṃyutta, the Mahā- cattārīsakasutta of the Majjhimanikāya or the Vibhaṅga (S V 9; M III 74; Vibh 105: Musāvādā ve- ramaṇī pisuṇāya vācāya veramaṇī pharusāya vācāya veramaṇī samphappalāpā veramaṇī: ayaṃ vuccati sammāvācā). 14 S V 9; M III 74; Vibh 105: Pāṇātipātā veramaṇī adinnādānā veramaṇī kāmesu micchācārā vera- maṇī: ayaṃ vuccati sammākammanto. 15 For more details on appropriate livelihood, see the Mahācattārīsakasutta (M III 75) or the Upā- sakavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya (A III 208). 16 The latter is presented in the Vibhaṅga (Vibh 105: Idha ariyasāvako micchā-ājīvaṃ pahāya sam- mā-ajīvena jīvitaṃ kappeti: ayaṃ vuccati sammā-ājīvo). 17 Lay people can also follow eight precepts, which include the five aforementioned ones while re- placing rule (3) with celibacy, and in addition, three further abstinences from: (6) eating at the wrong time, (7) entertainment, dancing, wearing ornaments, etc., and (8) sleeping on luxurious beds. The five and eight precepts are described in the Dhammikasutta (Sn 66–70). Monastics are expected to follow a great number of rules, which are expounded and discussed in detail in the Vinayapiṭaka. 82 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... Meditation as the Cultivation of Absence Meditation in the Buddhist tradition is presented in the eightfold path as consisting of appropriate effort (sammā vāyāma), appropriate mindfulness (sammā sati) and appropriate concentration (sammā samādhi). Appropriate effort is the inclination or mental energy18 required to focus the mind on a wholesome meditation object. It is often described as avoiding the arising of unwholesome states, abandoning unwholesome states that have already arisen, developing wholesome states, and maintaining wholesome states that have already arisen (S V 9; Vibh 105). Med- itation is thus a mental training that begins with an effort to develop the absence of unwholesome mental states and to maintain wholesome ones. This articulation of meditation reflects the foundational Buddhist premise about the structure and workings of human consciousness, as expressed in its cognitive models: the ab- sence of unwholesome or unethical mental states, which are based on ignorance, greed and aversion, reveals “positive” qualities such as peace, trust, mindfulness, compassion and so on, which in turn serve as a portal to wisdom and liberation. For meditative training, Buddhism has created meditation “maps”, conceptualiz- ing and precisely articulating the meditative path in which absences play a central role. The records indicate that as early as in the third century BCE, a fully fledged cognitive model had been developed, described in a collection of texts, called the Abhidhamma. With great precision, these texts analyse human experience at a mi- cro level by presenting basic components, called dhamma (Sanskrit dharma), of- ten rendered into English as “phenomena” (Warder 1971, 272–95), which partici- pate in a rapid flow of momentary mental and physical processes.19 Each moment of cognition (citta) arises in conjunction with a number of mental components (cetasika), which combine in a variety of ways and are viewed as interdependent, ever-changing, and without an intrinsic self behind them. They are classified in reference to ethics, based on the notion of kusala, which is usually translated as “good, wholesome, skilful” (PED; DP s.v.), and classified as wholesome or ethical (kusala), unwholesome or unethical (akusala) or variable. The ethical constituents always appear together in various combinations and are incompatible with the unethical ones, and vice versa. The classification is based on the premise that only through ethical states can wisdom arise, which in turn can lead to ultimate liber- ation. The entire model is fundamentally grounded on the absence of an intrinsic self (anattā), which is the central premise of Buddhist cognitive analysis, as it is 18 Effort (vāyāma) is similarly explained in the Vibhaṅga: “What is effort? It is a mental concomitant of energy” (Vibh 213: tattha katamo vāyāmo? Yo cetasiko viriyārambho). 19 The Abhiddhamic cognitive model is briefly presented in Ditrich (2022), and comprehensively discussed in Karunadasa (2010). 83Asian Studies XIII (XXIX), 2 (2025), pp. 75–96 considered the very basis for reaching awakening.20 Conversely, any identification with the phenomena and processes experienced creates an illusory self or identity that leads to confusion and suffering (dukkha) (Vism 436–38). According to Abhidhammic analysis, each moment of cognition (citta) arises due to multiple causes and conditions (paccaya). In the Paṭṭhāna, the last and largest book of the Abhidhamma corpus, the interdependent conditionality of all phenom- ena (dhamma) is represented by twenty-four kinds of conditions or modes (pac- caya) that govern all the interrelated phenomena.21 Among them, the root con- dition (hetu-paccaya) can be considered the most fundamental one, comprising the six roots (mūla), i.e., delusion, greed, aversion, non-delusion, non-greed, and non-aversion; the first three occur only in unwholesome states and the last three only in wholesome ones. The absence of delusion (moha), greed (lobha) and aver- sion (dosa), which is articulated as non-delusion (a-moha), non-greed (a-lobha), and non-aversion (a-dosa), is a necessary condition for the emergence of ethical or wholesome mental states and represents the foundation for wisdom and ultimate liberation. Among the 24 kinds of conditions, there is, significantly, a condition of absence (natthi-paccaya) which exerts, by non-being, an influence on mental states conditioned by it. This structural premise reflects the role of the grammatical zero in Pāṇini’s grammar (predating the Abhidhamma) which, through absence, affects the operations of grammatical derivation (Ditrich 2023a, 417). As previously mentioned, three components of the noble eightfold path, (i.e., appropriate effort, appropriate mindfulness and appropriate concentration) con- stitute meditation. Through appropriate effort (sammā vāyāma), the absence of unwholesome or unethical (akusala) mental components (cetasika) is cultivated, because their absence is the essential condition for the emergence of wholesome mental states. Appropriate mindfulness (sammā sati) is then practiced in the four domains (i.e., mindfulness of the body, feelings, mind and phenomena) with ar- dency, clear comprehension and mindfulness, while being without desires and discontent (S V 9; Vibh 105).22 This means that appropriate mindfulness only occurs when unwholesome mental states are absent. 20 The Abhidhamma’s structural model was probably influenced by ancient Indian linguistics that predated Buddhism, as several parallels with Pāṇini’s structural grammar can be identified (Ditrich 2023a). 21 In other words, the basic components of lived experience, i.e., dhammas, are not regarded as dis- tinct entities but rather as a dynamic web of interrelated phenomena (dhamma) that are conditioned by and conditioning each other in multiple ways (Ditrich 2023a; Karunadasa 2010, 275–95). 22 In the Satipaṭṭhānasutta and many other Pāli canonical and post-canonical texts, the meditator who cultivates appropriate mindfulness (sammā sati) is described as someone who cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness, while being ardent (ātāpī), clearly comprehending (sampajāno), mindful (satimā) and having abandoned desires and discontent in regard to the world (vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ) (e.g., M I 56; M III 84; D II 94‒95; D II 100; D II 276; S V 9; Vibh 105, 194). 84 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... Along with appropriate effort (sammā vāyāma) and appropriate mindfulness (sam- mā sati), appropriate concentration (sammā samādhi) evolves. When the absence of unwholesome or unethical mental components is established and mindfulness is well developed, concentration on a chosen meditation object (most commonly breathing) strengthens and the mental states of peace, clarity and serenity are ex- perienced until the mind is completely absorbed in rapturous concentration on the meditation object and reaches a unified state of meditative absorption (Pāli jhāna, Sanskrit dhyāna). Appropriate concentration (sammā samādhi) is often described as a state of meditative absorption (jhāna).23 Since sense desires and unwhole- some mental states are at that point completely absent, meditative absorptions are considered to be another plane of existence, called the sphere of fine materiality (rūpadhātu), in contrast to the lower sphere of sense desire (kāmadhātu), in which there is attachment to the pleasures derived from the bodily senses. These spheres are not only discussed at the psychological level of human meditative experience of absorption but are also in parallel represented on the cosmological level as realms where beings can be reborn. The sphere of fine materiality (rūpadhātu) is represented as one of the heavenly realms, comprising four specific heavenly worlds (each corresponding to one of the four absorptions) into which those be- ings who have attained the absorptions are reborn.24 Thus, these heavenly worlds, described in Buddhist cosmology at the macro level, are presented in parallel with human experience at the meso level, while the fundamental components of human experience are then analysed at the micro level, particularly through the Abhidhammic model of cognition. As described previously, during meditation training the meditator focuses exclu- sively on a selected meditation object until meditative absorption is reached. In the sphere of first absorption, the mental components include thought (vitakka) based on wholesomeness, which is sustained (vicāra) and can continue arising with the same meditation object, accompanied by joy (pīti), happiness (sukha) and one-pointedness (ekaggatā).25 In the succeeding spheres of absorption, as 23 For example, appropriate concentration is described in the Maggasaṃyutta (S V 10) and in the Vibhaṅga (Vibh 105) as the succession of absorptions up to the fourth jhāna. 24 Therāvada Buddhist cosmology describes thirty-one realms of existence in which living beings can be reborn. They are grouped into three major spheres: (1) the world of the five senses, consist- ing of hell, the world of animals, hungry ghosts, demons and lower heavens, (2) the world of fine materiality (rūpadhātu), comprising heavenly worlds in which beings who have attained the four jhānas are reborn, and (3) the immaterial world (arūpadhātu) in which beings who have experi- enced the immaterial jhānas are reborn (for a brief overview of Buddhist cosmology, see Harvey (2013, 32‒39). 25 Listed here are the five components of the first jhāna: (1) applied thought (vitakka), (2) sustained thought (vicāra), (3) joy (pīti), (4) happiness (sukha) and (5) one-pointedness (ekaggatā). Many canonical and postcanonical texts provide detailed descriptions of the jhānas and their components 85Asian Studies XIII (XXIX), 2 (2025), pp. 75–96 concentration increases and becomes more refined, the mental components are progressively reduced (or their absences increased) in the following way: 1. The sphere of the first jhāna: the main components are initial (vitakka) and sustained (vicara) attention (on the meditation object of), joy (pīti), content- ment (sukha) and one-pointedness (ekaggatā). 2. The sphere of the second jhāna: the main components are joy (pīti), content- ment (sukha) and one-pointedness (ekaggatā). 3. The sphere of the third jhāna: the main components are contentment (sukha) and one-pointedness (ekaggatā). 4. The sphere of the fourth jhāna: the main components are one-pointedness (ekaggatā) and equanimity (upekkhā). From the fourth jhāna onwards, meditation can be further developed into even more subtle levels of absorption, called the immaterial absorptions (arūpajhāna) or the immaterial spheres (arūpāyatana), in which the two components of the fourth material sphere—i.e., one-pointedness (ekaggatā) and equanimity (upek- khā)—remain present in all, while the objects of concentration differ, becom- ing in each sphere progressively more subtle and refined.26 The four immaterial spheres are: 1. The sphere of infinite space (ākāsānañcāyatana). 2. The sphere of infinite consciousness (viññāṇañcāyatana). 3. The sphere of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana). 4. The sphere of neither perception nor non-perception (nevasaññā- nāsaññāyatana).27 After entering the fourth material absorption, as concentration becomes more sub- tle, the meditator may reach a stage where she or he no longer perceives the chosen material meditation object, such as breathing or any other material object in the sphere of fine materiality. In the absence of the perception of any materiality, the (e.g., M I 40–41; A IV 438–48; S IV 217; D I 73–74; Dhs 31–56; Vism 137–69, 326–40). The descriptions of the absorption factors vary slightly between the canonical texts of the Suttapiṭaka and the Abhidhamma, as well as the commentarial literature, particularly the Visuddhimagga. For a discussion of these differences, see Bucknell (1993). 26 According to the Atthasālinī commentary, the mental factors of the fourth material absorption which are present in the immaterial spheres are much more refined (As 209). 27 The four material and four immaterial spheres are briefly listed in the Sallekhasutta (M I 40‒41), but described in more detail in the Abhidhamma texts and the commentaries (e.g., Vibh 262–63; As 200–11), especially in the Visuddhumagga (Vism 137–69, 326–40). The information about ma- terial absorptions is quite abundant in the textual sources, especially in the commentaries, whereas the immaterial absorptions have received significantly less attention. 86 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... object of meditation can then become infinite space (ākāsānañcāyatana), in which the meditator knows or perceives only endless space.28 This is followed by an even more subtle perception of infinite consciousness (viññāṇañcāyatana); since the consciousness (viññāṇa) which knows the object and the object of knowing arise together, the perception of the object (i.e., space) was initially at the forefront, but now it is the knowing of it (since knowing or cognizing is the function of consciousness). At the next stage, along with the perception that there is no con- tent whatsoever in the perceived infinite consciousness, the meditator reaches the sphere of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana), a complete absence of anything. The sphere of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana) is regarded as one of the most re- fined meditative states, in which the complete absence of anything is perceived. There are several Pāli terms for “nothingness”, such as ākiñca, ākiñcana and ākiñcañña. They are rarely attested in the canonical texts, appearing mainly in the Khuddhakanikāya when describing renunciates who cling to nothing or desire nothing (e.g., Sn 190; 206; 282). The term for nothingness (ākiñcañña) is found more frequently in the commentaries, where it is defined as a “state of nothing” (As 206; Vism 334)29 or “absence of any object” (Ps II 353).30 So the object of perception in this sphere is the complete absence of anything. Most commonly, the term for nothingness (ākiñcañña) appears in a compound ākiñcaññāyatana, usually rendered as the “sphere of nothingness”, referring to the meditative ob- ject of nothingness through which the third immaterial absorption (arūpa-jhāna) is reached. The Theravāda Buddhist theory and practice of meditation therefore proposes that nothingness or complete absence can be directly perceived as an object of meditation, leading to the third immaterial absorption. The perception of nothingness is then followed by the most refined state of nei- ther perception nor non-perception (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana), when the medi- tator enters the fourth immaterial sphere. In the Poṭṭhapadasutta (D I 184–185) it is stated that when the final limit of perception is reached in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, perception itself ceases.31 Conversely, in com- mentaries such as the Atthasālinī and Visuddhimagga (As 208; Vism 337) it is 28 It is stated, for example, in the Mahānidānasutta, that beings who have overcome the sense desire and completely transcended all perception of matter, live or are reborn in the sphere of infinite space (ākāsānañcāyatana) (D II 69: rūpasaññānaṃ samatikkamā paṭighasaññānaṃ atthaṅgamā nānattasaññānaṃ amanasikārā “ananto ākāso’ti ākāsānañcāyatanūpagā). 29 As 206; Vism 334: akiñcanassa bhāvo ākiñcaññaṃ. 30 Ps II 353: ākiñcaññāti ārammaṇakiñcanassa abhāvato ākiñcaññā. 31 D I 184–185: Tassa acetayato anabhisaṃkharoto tā c’ eva saññā nirujjhanti, aññā ca oḷārikā saññā na uppajjanti. So nirodhaṃ phusati. Evaṃ kho Poṭṭhapāda anupubbābhisaññā-nirodha-sampadā- na-samāpatti hotīti (this passage is referred to in Bucknell 1993, 402). 87Asian Studies XIII (XXIX), 2 (2025), pp. 75–96 explained that this sphere is called neither perception because it cannot perform the distinctive function of perception, nor non-perception because it is still present in a subtle form as a residual formation.32 Therefore, it is through an increase in absences that the highest states of meditative absorption are directly experienced, from infinity of space to nothingness and beyond.33 Similar to the four material spheres, the non-material spheres are also in parallel represented on a cosmolog- ical level as four heavenly realms of the sphere of immateriality (arūpadhātu), in which beings who have attained immaterial absorption are reborn. However, as pointed out in several canonical texts and commentaries, the spheres of material and immaterial absorptions, which are achieved through the practice of high concentration, still involve perception and other components of cogni- tion, however subtle they may be, and they are consequently impermanent, con- ditioned, subject to dependent arising and suffering. Hence, already in the ear- liest texts of the Theravāda Buddhist tradition, such as the Cūḷasuññatasutta, it is stated that only after deep insight into the emptiness and impermanence of all conditioned states, is final liberation reached, which is beyond perception, feeling and any other components of cognition. This is the ultimate emptiness of nibbāna (nirvāṇa), a “pure, supreme emptiness” (M III 109).34 Wisdom: The Absence of Self and the Emptiness of Nibbāna After examining the significance of absence in the two clusters of the eightfold path, namely the cultivation of virtue (sīla), including appropriate speech, action and livelihood, and meditation (samādhi), comprising appropriate effort, mind- fulness and concentration, the role of absence is also pivotal for the development 32 As 208; Vism 337: yā yam ettha saññā, sā paṭusaññākiccaṃ kātuṃ asamatthatāya neva-saññā, sankhārāvasesasukhumabhāvena vijjamānattā nāsaññā ti nevasaññā-nāsaññā 33 The canonical texts and commentaries describe that there is a state beyond the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, called nirodha samāpatti, in which feeling and perception cease (saññāvedayitanirodha). For example, the Anupadasutta says: “After seeing them with wisdom, the taints [i.e., predispositions such as sense desire, becoming, ignorance and views, which ob- struct liberation and motivate further existence] are eradicated” (M III 28). According to the com- mentaries, these states can only be achieved by those who have developed profound wisdom and have already attained supramundane states. In recent decades, there has been much debate and some disagreement among scholars regarding the interpretation of the role of absorption in reach- ing ultimate liberation (e.g., Bucknell 1993; Bronkhorst 1993; Gethin 2004; Wynne 2007). 34 In the Cūḷasuññatāsutta (M III 104–09), the four immaterial spheres are described as well as how they are transcended in final liberation, called “pure, supreme emptiness” (M III 109: parisuddhaṃ paramānuttaraṃ suññataṃ). Similarly, the Mahāsaccakasutta describes how the Buddha, after at- taining absorption, developed wisdom and insight and became completely free from all taints (M I 247–51). 88 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... of the third cluster of the path, wisdom (pannā), encompassing an appropriate view or deep understanding (sammā diṭṭhi) of the impermanent, unsatisfactory and impersonal nature (i.e., the absence of a self or an “I”) of all phenomena, and the appropriate thought (sammā saṅkappa) which is founded on such wisdom. Based on moral virtue and concentration, wisdom (pannā) primarily refers to a clear insight into the three characteristics (tilakkhaṇa) of all phenomena (i.e., the absence of permanence, the absence of satisfactoriness and the absence of self), the four noble truths (cattāri saccāni)35 and the conditioned reality of all phenomena and processes (paṭiccasamuppāda).36 Buddhism proposes that appro- priate view (sammā diṭṭhi) emerges through such a direct insight into the nature of lived experience. For example, the Sammādiṭṭhisutta (M I 46–55) explains that right view encompasses an understanding of wholesomeness and unwholesome- ness in relation to moral virtue, as well as an insight into the four noble truths and the dependent origination.37 In other words, when the absence of greed (lobha), aversion (dosa) and delusion (moha) is established and the conditioned reality is understood, the meditator clearly comprehends renunciation (nekkhamma), repre- sented as freedom from desires and aversions,38 which is an important component in the arising of appropriate thought (sammā saṅkappa). With the emergence of appropriate thought (sammā saṅkappa), moral virtue (sīla) strenghtens,39 which in turn deepens meditation practice. As postulated in the four noble truths, 35 The four noble truths, which include the truth of suffering, its origin in desire, its end in nibbāna, and the path to freedom from suffering, are discussed in numerous canonical and postcanonical texts. According to the Theravāda tradition, they were first expounded by the Buddha in the Dham- macakkappavattanasutta (S V 420–24). 36 The doctrine referred to as “dependent origination” (paṭiccasamuppāda) is the one of the central Buddhist teachings about the conditionality of all phenomena experienced, presented in a sequence of causation, comprising twelve interrelated links in the following formula: conditioned by (1) ignorance (avijjā) are (2) mental formations (saṅkhāra); conditioned by mental formations is (3) consciousness (viññāṇa); conditioned by consciousness are (4) mentality and materiality (nāmarū- pa); conditioned by mentality and materiality are (5) sense bases (saḷāyatana); conditioned by sense bases is (6) contact (phassa); conditioned by contact is (7) feeling (vedanā); conditioned by feeling is (8) craving (taṅhā); conditioned by craving is (9) clinging (upādāna); conditioned by clinging is (10) becoming (bhava); conditioned by becoming is (11) birth (jāti); conditioned by birth are (12) ageing, death, suffering, lamentation, pain, displeasure and despair (jarāmaraṇaṃ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā) (S II 1–139). 37 A number of canonical and post-canonical texts speak about appropriate view, such as the Mahā- cattārīsakasutta (M III 71–72) or the Visuddhimagga (Vism 509; 519). 38 The term nekkhamma usually means detachment, freedom from desires and aversions, or renunci- ation of worldliness (DP; PED, s.v.). In the Vibhaṅga it is stated that all wholesome states (kusala) are components of renunciation (Vibh 86). 39 According to the Visuddhimagga, the meditators “follow renunciation for perfection of moral vir- tue” (Vism 325: sīlaparipūraṇatthaṃ nekkhammaṃ bhajanti). 89Asian Studies XIII (XXIX), 2 (2025), pp. 75–96 through deep wisdom, together with well-developed moral virtue and well-estab- lished meditation practice, the practitioner can eradicate desire or craving (taṇhā) through reaching the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodha), nibbāna. According to the Paṭisambhidāmagga, there are four aspects of the cessation of suffering, namely, the escape (nissaraṇa) from saṃsāra, the seclusion or separation (vive- ka) from defilements,40 the uncompounded or unconditioned (asaṅkhata) nature of nibbāna, and deathlessness (amata), meaning that it is the state beyond life and death, beyond change (Paṭis II 105).41 The term nibbāna means “blowing out, extinction, cessation” and so on (DP; PED, s.v.). It is regarded as the end of suffering, the extinguishing of the roots of suffering (i.e., desire, aversion, and delusion), and consequently, the absence of any notion of an intrinsic self or “I”. In the Dhammapada it is described as “emp- ty and without a sign, their trail is difficult to trace like that of the birds in the sky” (Dhp 26),42 and “boundless, empty, signless” (Ps II 355).43 In the Nibbānasutta of the Udāna, it is portrayed as follows: Monks, there is a domain, where there is no earth, no water, no fire, no air; no sphere of infinite space, no sphere of infinite consciousness, no sphere of nothingness, no sphere of neither perception nor non-percep- tion; neither this world, nor a world beyond, nor both; neither sun, nor moon. There, monks, is no coming, no going, no staying; neither passing away nor arising; unestablished, unmovable, without support. Just this is the end of suffering. (Ud 80)44 Through the eradication of desire or craving (taṇhā), the cessation of suffering is reached in nibbāna, the state of neither existence nor non-existence. This pos- tulation reflects one of the major themes of the ancient Indian religions, already expounded in one of the earliest recorded texts, the Nāsadīya Sūkta of the Ṛgveda 40 The term defilement (kilesa) commonly encompasses the following mental constituents (cetasi- ka): greed (lobha), aversion (dosa), delusion (moha), conceit (māna), views (diṭṭhi), doubt (vici- kicchā), sloth (thīna), restlessness (uddhacca), shamelessness (ahirika) and disregard for conse- quence (anottappa) (Dhs 257; Vibh 341). 41 Paṭis II 105: nissaraṇaṭṭho vivekaṭṭho asaṅkhataṭṭho amataṭṭho. Ime cattāro nirodhassa nirodhaṭṭhā tathā avitathā anaññathā. See also Vibh-a (83). 42 Dhp 26: suññato animitto ca vimokho yesaṃ gocaro, ākāse va sakuntānaṃ gati tesaṃ durannayā. 43 Ps II 355: appamāṇaṃ ākiñcaññaṃ suññataṃ animittanti hi sabbānetāni nibbānasseva nāmāni. 44 Ud 80: atthi bhikkhave tad āyatanaṃ, yattha n’ eva paṭhavī na āpo na tejo na vāyo na ākāsānañcāyatanaṃ na viññāṇānañcāyatanaṃ na ākiñcaññāyatanaṃ na ne- vasaññānāsaññāyatanaṃ n’ āyaṃ loko na paraloko no ubho candimasuriyā, tatra p’āhaṃ bhik- khave n’ eva āgatiṃ vadāmi na gatiṃ na ṭhitiṃ na cutiṃ na upapattiṃ, appatiṭṭhaṃ appavattaṃ anārammaṇam eva taṃ, es’ e’ anto dukkhassā’ ti. 90 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... (discussed at the beginning of this article), in which the very beginning of the cosmos is set in absolute absence, namely the absence of non-existence and the absence of existence, described as signless and empty, while desire is positioned as the seed of mind and thought. In Buddhism, entanglement in the world through desire is viewed as suffering and only the extinguishment of desire leads to the unconditioned primordial state of ultimate emptiness, of neither existence nor non-existence. It is also described as the emptiness of the five aggregates,45 mean- ing the empty nature of materiality (rūpa), feeling (vedanā), perception (saññā), mental formations (saṅkhāra) and consciousness (viññāṇa) that constitute lived experience (Vism 513; Vibh-a 261). Unlike the experience of nothingness which still involves, albeit at a very subtle level, perception and other mental compo- nents, nibbāna is viewed as the ultimate emptiness, which can be called neither absence nor non-absence. Although emptiness is the central theme in later Buddhist schools (from early Mahāyāna onwards), it is also a fundamental concept in the Theravāda tradition, attested in both canonical and post-canonical sources. The word for emptiness in Pāli is suññatā (Sanskrit śūnyatā), usually rendered in English as “emptiness, void, unsubstantiality” (CPD, s.v.), an abstract noun, derived from suñña, mean- ing “empty, void, uninhabited”. The notion of emptiness occurs in several inter- related contexts. Firstly, it is often used in reference to an empty place, where monks are instructed to remain while practicing deep meditation. For example, in the Satipaṭṭhānasutta (M I 56), in the section on mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasati), the Buddha instructs as follows: “Here, monks, a monk, gone into the forest, or to the root of a tree, or to an empty hut (suññāgāra), sits down having folded his legs crosswise, set his body erect and established mindfulness in front, mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out”.46 Here the compound suññāgāra refers to an empty, solitary, uninhabited place (agāra); in a similar sense the compound suññāgeha is used when referring to an empty dwelling site (geha), which is considered the right place for sages.47 Another term that often denotes a dwelling place is vihāra; however, in the com- pound suññatāvihāra it refers to a meditative state of emptiness in which arahats abide when they experience the fruition (suññataphalasamāpatti) of arahatship. For example, in the Cūḷasuññatasutta (M III 104–09) the Buddha explains that he 45 The five aggregates are discussed in numerous canonical texts and commentaries, exhaustively in the Khandhasaṃyutta (S III 1–188). 46 M I 56: Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu araññagato vā rukkhamūlagato vā suññāgāragato vā nisīdati pallaṅkaṃ ābhujitvā ujuṃ kāyaṃ paṇidhāya parimukhaṃ satim upaṭṭhapetvā. Cf. D (II 291); A (V111); S (V 311). 47 E.g., S I 106: yo suññagehāni sevati, seyyo so muni attasaññato. 91Asian Studies XIII (XXIX), 2 (2025), pp. 75–96 often dwells in the abode of emptiness,48 and then describes how this is reached through a gradual refinement of perception of material and immaterial meditative states, and the elimination of the four taints (āsava) (i.e., the underlying predispo- sitions, such as sense desire, becoming, ignorance and views),49 until emptiness is reached. In the Mahāsuññatāsutta (M III 109–18), the Buddha further explains how to “enter emptiness internally by giving no attention to any signs”,50 by seek- ing seclusion from unwholesome states, developing meditative absorption, and bringing the mind to signlessness and emptiness. As already mentioned, the Theravāda tradition strongly emphasizes that the path to nibbāna involves a deep insight into the impermanence (anicca), non-satisfac- toriness (dukkha) and non-self (anattā) of all phenomena. The absence of an in- trinsic self (anattā) is also, although less commonly, articultated as being “empty of self” (suññaṃ attena). For example, the Suññasutta (S IV 54) and, similarly, the Attadaṇḍasuttaniddeso (Nidd I 439–40) discuss the emptiness of self or what belongs to self (suññam attena vā attaniyena vā) with regard to the six sense spheres,51 and explain how the eye, the visual object and visual consciousness are empty of self, or of what belongs to self, and in a similar way how the other five sense spheres, sense contacts and feelings are also empty of self and of what belongs to self.52 In other words, the entire lived experience, represented here by the six senses spheres and feelings, is explained to be empty of self. In addition to representing human lived experience through the six sense spheres, the Theravāda tradition developed several other interconnected models, such as the five aggregates (khandha), consisting of materiality (rūpa), feeling (vedanā), 48 M III 104: suññatāvihārena bahulaṃ viharāmi. 49 The term “taint” (āsava) refers to predispositions such as sense desire (kāma), becoming (bhava), ignorance (avijjā) and views (diṭṭhi), which obstruct liberation and motivate further existence (see DP, s.v.) According to the Atthasālinī, the term āsava refers to deeply rooted corruptions, defile- ments, or “intoxicants”, which flow through the five senses and the mind (As 48). 50 M III 111: sabbanimittānaṃ amanasikārā ajjhattaṃ suññataṃ upasampajja viharituṃ. 51 Depending on the senses and their respective objects, six kinds of consciousness (viññāṇa) are listed in the Pāli canon and its commentaries: (1) eye-consciousness (cakkhuviññāṇa), (2) ear-consciousness (sotaviññāṇa), (3) nose-consciousness (ghānaviññāṇa), (4) tongue-con- sciousness (jivhāviññāṇa), (5) body-consciousness (kāyaviññāṇa) and (6) mind-consciousness (manoviññāṇa). The six sense spheres are discussed in the collection of suttas in the Saḷāyatana- saṃyutta (S IV 1–261). 52 S IV 54: Cakkhuṃ kho Ānanda suññaṃ attena vā attaniyena vā. Rūpā suññā attena vā attaniyena vā, cakkhuviññāṇaṃ suññam attena vā attaniyena vā, cakkhusamphasso suñño attena vā attaniye- na vā. … Yampidam manosamphassapaccayā uppajjati vedayitaṃ sukhaṃ vā dukkhaṃ vā aduk- kham asukhaṃ vā, tam pi suññam attena vā attaniyena vā. Yasmā ca kho Ānanda suññam attena va attaniyena vā. Tasmā suñño loko ti vuccatī ti. Cf. Paṭis (I 109, II 177, 178, 181); Kv (67). 92 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... perception (saññā), mental formations (saṅkhāra) and consciousness (viññāṇa);53 dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda), which represents the conditionality of all compounded phenomena (i.e., how they arise in dependence on other phe- nomena) (S II 1–139), and the Abhidhamma model of cognition, in which hu- man experience is analysed according to four categories: the mind (citta), mental concomitants (cetasika), materiality (rūpa) and nibbāna.54 All of these models are embedded in the absence of self, and therefore the analysis and articulation as well as the aim of the Buddhist path axiomatically revolves around absence. From the perspective of ultimate emptiness, the entire teaching, summed up in the four noble truths, encompassing (1) the dissatisfaction and suffering of hu- man existence (dukkha), (2) its cause in craving (taṅhā), (3) the possibility of liberation from suffering through nibbāna, and (4) the noble eightfold path (ari- yo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo) (S V 420–25), is empty. This is said, for example, in the Visuddhimagga: In the ultimate sense, all the [four] truths should be understood as emp- ty because of the absence of knower, doer, the extinguisher and goer. Therefore, it is said: ‘There is suffering, but nobody suffers, there is doing, but no doer exists. There is ceasing but nobody has ceased, there is a path, but no goer exists.’ (Vism 513)55 Concluding Remarks This article has demonstrated that the Theravāda Buddhist path is largely about the cultivation of absences. Absence, emptiness and nothingness are not just con- cepts but, importantly, as Buddhism postulates, they can be experienced directly in meditative practice. Hence, the absence of unwholesome states, the perception of nothingness in deep concentration or the realization of the emptiness of all phenomena are considered first-person experiences. 53 They are discussed in numerous canonical texts and commentaries, and in more detail in the Khandhasaṃyutta (S III 1–188). 54 For a comprehensive study of the Abhidhamma model, see Karunadasa (2010); a short overview is given in Ditrich (2022, 374–85). 55 Vism 513: paramatthena sabbān” eva saccāni vedaka-kāraka-nibbuta-gamakābhāvato suññānī ti veditabbāni. Ten” etaṃ vuccati: Dukkham eva hi na koci dukkhito kārako na kiriyā va vijjati, atthi nibbuti, na nibbuto pumā, maggam atthi, gamako na vijjatī ti. 93Asian Studies XIII (XXIX), 2 (2025), pp. 75–96 From the perspective of absence, the Buddhist eightfold path, which consists of three clusters (i.e., moral virtue, meditation and wisdom) could be represented by the following interrelated components: • Moral virtue, achieved through the cultivation of the absence of harmful or immoral speech and actions; • Meditation training, involving the development of the absence of unwhole- some or unethical mental components (i.e., greed, aversion, delusion), mind- fulness and concentration, through which higher meditative states are ex- perienced, such as the absence of anything (i.e., nothingness) and neither perception nor non-perception; • Wisdom as absence of self (anattā) or the state of “being empty of self” (suññam attena), which is an insight into the intrinsic emptiness (sunnatā) of all phenomena; • The ultimate emptiness of nibbāna, which could be regarded as neither ab- sence nor non-absence. Although unwholesome mental components are (temporarily) absent in the med- itative states of absorption, Buddhism teaches that only in the total emptiness of nibbāna, described as the absence or cessation of all conditioned and com- pounded (saṅkhata) phenomena, are the fetters (saṃyojana)56 and dormant un- derlying taints (āsava) eradicated.57 In other words, the ultimate emptiness of nibbāna is not only the absence of desires or any other phenomena, but even the very absence of absence (i.e., neither absence nor non-absence) itself. Nibbāna is therefore seen as an essential event (or rather, non-event), which brings with it a profound transformation of human consciousness, reflected in a new, different perspective in relation to the experience of the world, namely that an intrinsic emptiness is perceived in every phenomenon, seen or cognized without a self or 56 Fetters (saṃyojana) are bonds that bind living beings to continuous becoming (bhava) and rebirth. They are gradually eradicated through the four stages of awakening, and only arahats are com- pletely free of them. The most common list of fetters includes the following ten: (1) personality or identity view (sakkāyadiṭṭhi), (2) doubt (vicikicchā), (3) attachment to rites and rituals (sīlabbata- parāmāsa), (4) sense desire (kāmacchanda), (5) ill will (vyāpāda), (6) desire for material existence (rūparāga), (7) desire for immaterial existence (arūparāga), (8) conceit (māna), (9) restlessness (uddhacca) and (10) ignorance (avijjā); see the Oghasutta (S V 61) or Sammappadhānasaṃyutta (S V 247–48). 57 Nibbāna, the ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is described in a variety of ways in Pāli texts; e.g., as the extinction of greed, aversion, and delusion (S IV 251), the cessation of craving, detach- ment and extinction (A II 34), or the relinquishment of the defilements (Vibh-a 317). In the Ther- avāda teachings, there are four stages of awakening: stream-winner (sotāpanna), once-returner (sakadāgāmin), non-returner (anāgāmin) and arahat (cf. A IV 292). At each stage a certain number of fetters (saṃyojana) and taints (āsava) are eradicated, until reaching arahatship, when all of them are completely uprooted. 94 Tamara DITRICH: The Notions of Absence, Emptiness and Nothingness ... without any point of reference. Such a transformation has crucial ethical impli- cations: after reaching nibbāna and the associated eradication of all delusions, desires, and aversions, ethical perfection is achieved because unwholesome states can no longer arise, and the cultivation of moral virtue and meditation is no longer needed.58 This is the end of the Buddhist path, which involves the cultivation of absences through the training of moral virtue, meditation and wisdom until ulti- mate emptiness is realized. 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