PARENTS AND SPORT ACTIVITY OF THEIR
PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
STARŠI IN ŠPORTNA AKTIVNOST NJIHOVIH
PREDŠOLSKIH OTROK
Veronika L. Kropej
1
Mateja Videmšek
2
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Kropej, V. L., & Videmšek, M. (2002). Parents and sport activity of their preschool children KinSI 8(1), 19–24
Abstract
The aim of this research is to determine the possi-
bilities of achieving higher sports activity among
preschool children. We have used a questionnaire
for children’s parents to gather data for this re-
search. The sample included 154 parents. This re-
search has shown that there are factors that could
increase sport activities among preschool children
and that these factors are directly influenced by the
children’s parents. These factors are: parents’ invol-
vement in sport activities, spending active holidays
together, sociability, and their parents’ positive at-
titude towards sport.
Key words: sport, child, kindergarten, parents, envi-
ronment, questionnaire, maximum likelihood met-
hod
Contact address
2
Mateja Videnšek
University of Ljubljana – Faculty of Sport
Gortanova 22
SI-1000 Ljubljana
Slovenia
Tel:: +386 1 520-77-00
Fax.: +386 1 520-77-50
E-mail: Mateja.Vidensek@sp.uni-lj.si
1
Independent researcher, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Izvleček
S pomočjo raziskave smo želeli ugotoviti, kakšne
so možnosti za doseganje čim večje športne aktiv-
nosti predšolskih otrok. Podatke smo zbirali s po-
močjo anketnega vprašalnika, na katerega so odgo-
varjali starši. Vzorec je vseboval 154 staršev.
Ugotovili smo, da obstajajo dejavniki, ki lahko
povečujejo športno aktivnost otrok in na katere
imajo starši neposreden vpliv, in sicer: športna de-
javnost staršev, aktivno preživljanje počitnic druži-
ne, navajanje otroka na družbo in starševsko pozi-
tivno mnenje o športu.
Ključne besede: šport, otrok, vrtec, starši, okolje, an-
ketni vprašalnik, metoda največjega verjetja
(Received: 09. 01. 2002 – Accepted: 19. 06. 2002)

Introduction
The preschool period is the fundamental period for
the development of a child’s motor abilities. In ear-
ly childhood children are most affected by influen-
ces from the society and the surrounding environ-
ment; this influences the development of their
personalities. Experts have established that whate-
ver is missed in the early childhood is difficult to be
compensated for in later periods. A child’s activities
in the early years represent a foundation for later
sports activity and at the same time affect the de-
velopment of their skills and characteristics (Videm-
šek, Strah, & Stančevič, 2001).
The environment we live in does not affect only the
development of a child’s motor skills. It is also one
of the main elements contributing to forming a hu-
man personality, most notable in the preschool pe-
riod. Battelino (1986) is of the opinion that it is the
preschool period when the fundamentals of a
healthy physique, psychosomatic characteristics
and basic motor habits are being formed. Videm-
šek (1996) states that if we want the child to achie-
ve an optimal development regarding his or her ge-
netic potential, the environment we live in should
be creative, heterogeneous and stimulating. Capa-
bilities and characteristics that do not develop in
the early childhood are less likely to develop at a
subsequent time or even to develop at all.
The most important factors in a child’s environ-
ment, affecting the formation of the entire persona-
lity are the family, the kindergarten and wider social
community (Videmšek, & Karpljuk, 1999).
In this research, the term environment, which is de-
fined as a primary, is family environment. The fa-
mily represents a child’s first social environment
and has therefore a primary influence on the child’s
motor, cognitive, emotional and social develop-
ment. Kalish (2000) quotes an American research
which has shown that children whose mothers are
sport-active are twice more active than those who-
se mothers who are not active in sport. The influen-
ce of fathers in the family is even more significant
– children whose fathers are sport active are three-
and-a-half-times more active than those whose fat-
hers are not active in sport. If both parents are ac-
tive in sport, their children are far more sport-active
– even six times more than those whose parents
are not active in sport. Kalish (2000) mentions three
factors which are important to improve the health
and the physical condition of the family:
• Parents should offer their children positive ver-
bal and non-verbal messages about a healthy life-
style.
• Parents themselves should be in good shape.
• Parents should have an active interest in the sport
activities of their children. They should be invol-
ved in sport activities together and they should
raise their children to have respect for an active
and healthy life-style. 
In this research the characteristics of the environ-
ment are defined with the help of explanatory fac-
tors. These factors define the characteristics of pa-
rents (such as age, education, earnings, sport
activity, etc.) Furthermore, we have focused on four
to six year-old preschool children. We have studied
their sport activity and defined it as an indication of
sport activity among preschool children.
Methods
The subject sample
In this research, the sample has been selected
among three randomly chosen kindergartens
from the urban (Ljubljana) and the rural (the
outskirts of Ormož and Moravče) environ-
ments. We have used a questionnaire for chil-
dren’s parents to gather data for this research.
The sample includes 154 parents, 86 from the
urban and 68 from the rural environment.
The sample of variables
The questionnaire was based on a questionnaire
used by Videmšek (1996). However, several chan-
ges was made regarding the defined aim of the re-
search. The questionnaire was presented by Kro-
pej (2001). Variables obtained by the questionnaire
have been divided into 5 dependent variables (in-
dicators of children’s sport activity) and 19 expla-
natory factors (predictors). The dependent variab-
les or indicators of children’s sport activity are:
• organized forms of sport activities the children are
involved in (yes, no);
• number of sport activities children are involved
in (one, two, three or more);
• visit of a sport playroom (yes, no);
• parents involvement in children’s sport activities
(yes, no);
• parents willingness to have their children partici-
pate a sport week or a sport weekend, if profes-
sionally organized and conducted (yes, no);
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Kropej, V. L., & Videmšek, M. (2002). Parents and sport activity of their preschool children KinSI 8(1), 19–24

Explanatory factors of children’s sport activity are
the following variables: 
• environment (urban, rural environment);
• gender of the questioned parent (male, female);
• age of the questioned parent (number of years);
• education of the questioned parent (1. primary
school or no formal education, 2. vocational or
secondary school, and 3. higher school or uni-
versity education);
• marital status of the parent (married, single);
• sport activity of the parent (1. considers him/her-
self a seasonal athlete, a hiker, a recreational ath-
lete or nothing of that, 2. is organized, unorgani-
zed or not occupied with sports, and 3. how often
is he/she practicing sports (several times yearly,
1-3 times monthly, several times weekly or ne-
ver); 
• monthly earnings of the parent (1. less than EUR
280, 2. between EUR 280 and EUR 560, and 3.
more than EUR 560);
• employment of the parent (1. employed, 2. self-
employed or manager, and 3. other);
• living environment (flat, a house);
• way of spending the holidays (1. place of spen-
ding the holidays (at home, at a seaside or elsew-
here), and 2. how the family spends their holidays
(actively or inactively));
• number of children in the family,
• number of kindergarten children, 
• children’s sociability (the child is sociable, the
child is not sociable);
• child’s opinion about the kindergarten (child likes
to go to the kindergarten, child does not like to
go to the kindergarten);
• availability of a sport playroom (sport playroom is
available, sport playroom is not available) and
• parent’s opinion about the influence of sport on
the child’s development (the influence of sport
on the child is positive, the influence of sport on
the child is negative).
The method of data processing
For each criterion (indicator of sport activity) the
correlations with explanatory variables have been
determined, on the basis of which we could deter-
mine those factors that affect the children’s sport
activity, and how they affect it. The findings of this
research are interpreted with a matrix table combi-
ning sport activities and explanatory variables,
which explains an overall picture of correlations de-
pendencies.
The usual regression analysis (least squares) was
not appropriate for studying the influence of indi-
vidual explanatory factors on the children’s sport
activity and its importance. Instead, the statistical
method adjusted to nominal variables has been
used. Greene (1997) suggests in the case of nomi-
nal variables an application of maximum likelihood
method. With a least maximum function we esti-
mated the probability that the observed dependent
variable would have a certain value in regard to dif-
ferent values of explanatory variables. Similar to the
regression analysis the maximum likelihood met-
hod shows the correlation between the explana-
tory variables (predictors) and dependent variable
(criterion). The disadvantage of this method is that
it does not provide the researcher with the explai-
ned variance of the criterion (R-Square in case of re-
gression analysis). Therefore the researcher could
not simply estimate the portion of the total varian-
ce of the criterion that has been explained by the
predictors, but could only argue that the selected
or found group of predictors has a statistically sig-
nificant influence on the criterion and present cor-
responding probability values.
Results
An overall picture of the analysis’ results is shown
in the matrix table explaining how the explanatory
variables influence all the examined indicators of
sport activity among preschool children (Table 1). 
The matrix table shows how the explanatory variab-
les influence the dependent variables. The charac-
ter plus (+) denotes a positive influence of an expla-
natory factor, whereas the character minus (-)
denotes a negative influence of the explanatory va-
riable. For example, the explanatory factor urban
environment (in comparison to the rural environ-
ment) increases the likelihood that the child would
be occupied with three or more sport activities (for
18%), and decreases the probability that a child
would be occupied with only one sport activity
(for 9%). The matrix table indicates the direction
of the correlation (positive/negative) and not how
strong the correlation is. A more detailed insight in
the results of the research has been presented by
Kropej (2001). The matrix table shows that some
explanatory variables influence mostly certain in-
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Kropej, V. L., & Videmšek, M. (2002). Parents and sport activity of their preschool children KinSI 8(1), 19–24

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Kropej, V. L., & Videmšek, M. (2002). Parents and sport activity of their preschool children KinSI 8(1), 19–24
Table 1: Influence of explanatory variables on all examined indicators of sport activity among
preschool children.

dicators of sport activity, whereas other indicators
influence others. However, there are some explana-
tory variables that have a significant effect on all
the dependent variables. 
The research results indicate primarily the follo-
wing: 
– Mothers care for children’s sport activity more.
– Children who live in the urban environment are
more sport active.
– Older and single parents devote more of their
time for children’s sport activities.
– Higher earnings and education of parents has a
positive influence on children’s sport activity.
– Children who live in a flat are on average more
sport active.
– Active families stimulate children to be more
sport active.
– Children who are more sociable are usually
more sport active.
– Availability of a sport playroom represents a fac-
tor that increases children’s sport activity.
– Parents’ positive attitude towards the effect of
sport on children’s development encourages
children to be more sport active.
Discussion
Based on this research, we can conclude that
mothers are more concerned about children’s
sport activity. This confirms also Petrovič
(1986) who established that mothers mainly
prefer sport activity in a family environment,
whereas fathers are mainly sport active with
their friends.
Regarding the effect of the urban and rural envi-
ronment, the results show that children from an ur-
ban environment are more sport active than their
coevals from the rural environment. The environ-
ment a family lives in also has a significant effect. If
a family lives in a flat and not in a house, a child is
in all respects more sport active. Petrović, Ambro-
žič, Sila, Doupona and Bednarik (2000) state that
people from the urban environment are more acti-
ve than those from the rural environment. The city
environment itself forces children to play in a play-
ground. Children are never alone there; there are
always other children there, each with a toy or sport
device such as a ball, roller-blades, a scooter, a bike,
etc. The environment compels the child to be so-
ciable; at the same time he or she gets acquainted
with different sport devices and sport requisites. Si-
milarly, Petrović et al. (2000) and Mihovilović
(1974) are of the opinion that an urban environ-
ment stimulates sport activity.
Older parents devote more time to their children’s
sport activity, but are less likely to take them to an
organized sport course. Such an outcome could be
explained with a thought that older parents feel ca-
pable enough to educate children on their own,
without having to sign their children to an organi-
sed sport course.
The social status of parents plays an important role.
Parents with higher education and higher earnings
are probably able to buy their children different
sport devices. This way, children get to know them
well and are more likely to show interest for nume-
rous sport activities. Petrovič, Sila and Ambrožič
(1989), Saksida and Petrovič (1972) and Mlinar
(1977) have established similar findings as well. Vi-
demšek (1996) has ascertained that a parent’s le-
vel of education significantly relates to the method
and form of children’s sport activity. Among chil-
dren whose parents have a lower level of educa-
tion, a higher percentage is not involved in sport.
Generally, they are also more involved in unorga-
nised forms of sport activities. Videmšek (1996) has
also established that the parents’ level of education
and their sport activity is significantly correlated
with motor abilities of their three-year-olds, among
which in particular manual skills prevail.
The research has shown that parents who are more
active in sport (hikers, recreational athletes, and
those involved in sport in an organised way) stimu-
late their children to be more sport active. The re-
sults have been expected; if parents are at least hi-
kers or even recreational athletes, the probability
that with their example they will influence their chil-
dren is higher. Besides, these children get accusto-
med to spending their spare time more efficiently.
Hikers and recreational athletes spend a lot of time
outdoors. The nature offers a child many new ex-
periences, exciting activities, such as orientation in
nature, building shelters, the basics of climbing and
other activities.
The way a family spends their holidays has an im-
portant effect on preschool children’s sport acti-
vity as well. The place of holidays is not that impor-
tant as is the quality and the way of spending it. If
holidays are spent actively, it is more likely that chil-
dren would be more sport active. Videmšek and
Karpljuk (1999) have established that sport activity
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Kropej, V. L., & Videmšek, M. (2002). Parents and sport activity of their preschool children KinSI 8(1), 19–24

of parents of three-year-olds is correlated with the
way of spending weekends, winter and summer ho-
lidays that they spend as a family. Parents who are
more sport active spend their summer and winter
holidays and weekends more actively as well.
The finding that single parents devote more time
for their child’s (unorganised) sport activity is also
relatively clear and logical. These parents are awa-
re of their double role as a father and mother and
feel obligated and responsible for their children.
Usually single parents do not have a considerable
amount of money, thus they cannot afford organi-
sed sports activity for their children; however they
spend almost all of their free time with their chil-
dren.
A child’s sociability and his/her attitude towards
the kindergarten have a similar effect on sport in-
dicators. A sociable child and a child who likes to
go to the kindergarten is involved in sport activities
more and he/she would also more likely take part
in an organised sport exercise. Besides that, the
probability that parents would be prepared to send
him or her to an organised sport weekend or week,
if it was professionally organised and conducted, is
higher.
With this research, we have ascertained that avai-
lability of a sport playroom is one of the significant
factors for participating in a sport course. The re-
search showed that a sport playroom is available
to less than half of the families (48%). The fact is
that far more parents would take their children to
a sport playroom if it was available. 
This research also confirmed a hypothesis that pa-
rents, who have a positive opinion about the effect
of sport on a child’s development, encourage their
children to be more sport active. Being their mo-
dels, their parents’ opinion and behaviour is natu-
rally very important and useful, far more than me-
rely saying how good sport activity is and how
harmful it is to sit in front of a computer or TV (Vi-
demšek, Strah, & Stančevič, 2001).
We believe that parents are becoming more awa-
re of the real meaning of sport activity for their chil-
dren. With this research we have established that
some social and demographic factors exist which
could not be directly affected. Nevertheless, there
are also some factors, which could be directly inf-
luenced. Our aim is to stimulate a higher percenta-
ge of children to become active in sports. If chil-
dren get used to being sport active in their early
years, it is less likely they would give up sports when
they grow up. Petrović et al. (2000) have found for
adults that »those who are used to regular sport ac-
tivity, those whose sport is a regular and indispen-
sable part of leisure, these will hardly and unwil-
lingly give up this habit over the years.« The factors
that parents can influence are their own sport acti-
vity, active holidays, stimulating children’s sociabi-
lity and a positive attitude towards sports. 
Our further researches will be focused on additio-
nal detailed study of children’s sport activity. With
a larger sample we would be able to use more com-
plex statistical methods and in this way form groups
of explanatory variable(s) from a range of explana-
tory factors, and one or at the most two hybrid de-
pendent variable(s), which would be common
sport indicator(s). This would help us to get a bet-
ter view on how individual factors influence chil-
dren’s sport activity.
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Kropej, V. L., & Videmšek, M. (2002). Parents and sport activity of their preschool children KinSI 8(1), 19–24