REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE
JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

ISSN 2350-4803 (SPLET/ONLINE)
ISSN 1855-4431 (TISK/PRINT)

Revija za elementarno izobraževanje
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Matjaž Duh
(Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija)
Silva Bratož
(Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija)
Sonja Starc
(Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija)
Tomaž Bratina
(Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija)
Jerneja Herzog
(Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija)
Kosta Dolenc
(Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija)

MEDNARODNI UREDNIŠKI ODBOR
dr. Herbert Zoglowek, (UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Norveška), dr. Maria Aleksandrovich,
(Akademia Pomorska w Slupsku, Poljska), dr. Grozdanka Gojkov, (Univerzitet u Beogradu, Srbija), dr. Jelena
Prtljaga, (Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača »Mihailo Palov« Vršac, Srbija), ddr. Jürgen
Kühnis, (Pädagogische Hochschule Schwyz, Švica), dr. Marie Fulková, (Univerzitě Karlově, Češka), dr. Oliver
Holz, (KU Lueven, Belgija), dr. Siniša Opić (Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Hrvaška), dr. Ivana Batarelo Kokić,
(Sveučilište u Splitu), dr. Anita Zovko (Sveučilište u Rijeci, Hrvaška), Nickolas Komninos (Univerza Udine,
Italija), dr. Dean Iliev, (Univerza St. Klement Bitola, Severna Makedonija), dr. Ljubica Marjanovič Umek,
(Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Janez Vogrinc, (Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Milena Valenčič
Zuljan, (Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dddr. Joca Zurc (Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Alenka Valh
Lopert (Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Michelle Gadpaille, (Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Andrej
Šorgo (Univerza v Mariboru Slovenija), dr. Mateja Ploj Virtič (Univerza v Mariboru), dr. Kosta Dolenc
(Univerza v Mariboru), dr. Majda Schmidt Krajnc, (Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Alenka Lipovec,
(Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Mara Cotič (Univerza na Primorskem, Slovenija), dr. Tina Štemberger,
(Univerza na Primorskem, Slovenija)
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Journal of Elementary Education
Editor-in-Chief:
Editor for Social Sciences:
Editor for Humanities:
IT Editor:
Technical Editor:
Head Secretary:

Matjaž Duh
(University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia)
Silva Bratož
(Universitiy of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Slovenia)
Sonja Starc
(Universitiy of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Slovenia)
Tomaž Bratina
(University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia)
Jerneja Herzog
(University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia)
Kosta Dolenc
(University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenija)

INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD
Herbert Zoglowek, PhD (University of Trømso, Norwegian Arctic University, Norway), Maria
Aleksandrovich, PhD (Pomeranian University in Słupsk, Poland), Grozdanka Gojkov, PhD (University of
Belgrade, Serbia), Jelena Prtljaga, PhD (Preschool Teacher Training College »Mihailo Palov«, Serbia), Jürgen
Kühnis, Phd, (The Schwyz University of Teacher Education, Switzerland), Marie Fulková, PhD (Charles
University, Czech Republic), Oliver Holz, PhD (KU Leuven, Belgium), Siniša Opić, PhD (University of
Zagreb, Croatia), Ivana Batarelo Kokić, PhD, (University of Split, Croatia), Anita Zovko, PhD (University of
Rijeka, Croatia), Nickolas Komninos, (University of Udine, Italy), Dean Iliev, PhD (University St. Kliment
Bitola, North Macedonia), Ljubica Marjanovič Umek, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Faculty, Slovenia) Janez
Vogrinc, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Slovenia), Milena Valenčič Zuljan, PhD (University of Ljubljana,
Slovenia), Alenka Valh Lopert, PhD (University of Maribor, Slovenia), Michelle Gadpaille, PhD (University
of Maribor, Slovenia), Andrej Šorgo PhD (University of Maribor, Slovenia), Mateja Ploj Virtič, PhD
(University of Maribor), Kosta Dolenc PhD (University of Maribor), Majda Schmidt Krajnc, PhD (University
of Maribor, Slovenia), Joca Zurc, PhD (University of Maribor, Slovenia), Alenka Lipovec, PhD (University
of Maribor, Slovenia), Mara Cotič, PhD (University of Primorska, Slovenia) Tina Štemberger, PhD
(Univesrity of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia)
EDITORIAL OFFICE ADDRESS
Journal of Elementary Education, Editorial Board of Journal of Elementary Education
Koroška cesta 160, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenija , e-pošta: rei.pef@um.si, http://rei.um.si
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der Zeitschriftenliteratur), Proquest, dLib.si, DKUM, COBISS (Co-operative Online Bibliographic System and
Services).
Journal of Elementary Education is a peer-reviewed journal, open access journal that publishes scientific articles
primarly but not limited to the area of elementary school education. More about the journal:
https://journals.um.si/index.php/education
Manuscripts should be uploaded at https://journals.um.si/index.ph–p/education/about/submissions.

Revija za elementarno izobraževanje
Journal of Elementary Education
Volume 16

Number 4

December 2023

Kazalo / Table of Contents
Prispevki / Articles
The Social, Cognitive and Socio-Demographic Profile of Potentially Gifted Children
Socialni, kognitivni in sociodemografski profil potencialno nadarjenih otrok
Mira Klarin, Slavica Šimić Šašić & Ana Proroković

357

Investigating the Source of Student Self-Efficacy and its Relations to Affective Factors
in Mathematics Learning
Raziskovanje izvora študentove samoučinkovitosti in njenega odnosa do afektivnih dejavnikov pri učenju
matematike
Sulthon Amien, Ratno Abidin & Muhammad Ridlwan

375

Differences in Students’ Physical Self-Perception in PE Classes According to Gender
and Nutritional Status
Razlike v telesnem samozaznavanju učencev pri pouku športne vzgoje glede na spol in prehranski status
Donata Vidaković Samaržija, Lara Pavlić Karamatić & Jelena Alić

393

Greek Primary School Teachers’ Professional Experience as Digital Actors
Poklicne izkušnje grških osnovnošolskih učiteljev kot digitalnih akterjev
Panagiotis Giavrimisv

409

Digital Devices and Interpersonal Communication Over Time
Digitalne naprave in medosebna komunikacija skozi čas
Tomaž Bratina

425

Video in Blended Teacher Education: A Tool for Practicing Teaching Analysis
Video v kombiniranem izobraževanju učiteljev: orodje za praktično analizo poučevanja
Jana Stara, Tereza Krčmářová & Jana Krátká

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Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 357–374, December 2023

THE SOCIAL, COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC
PROFILE OF POTENTIALLY GIFTED CHILDREN

Potrjeno/Accepted
23. 3. 2023
Objavljeno/Published
11. 12. 2023

MIRA KLARIN, SLAVICA ŠIMIĆ ŠAŠIĆ & ANA PROROKOVIĆ
University of Zadar, Department of Teacher and Preschool-Teacher
Education, Zadar, Croatia
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR
ssimic@unizd.hr
Abstract/Izvleček

Keywords:
giftedness, academic
competence, sociability,
gender, parental
education

Ključne besede:
nadarjenost, akademska
kompetenca, družabnost,
spol, izobrazba staršev

UDK/UDC
159.924.7

The research results suggest that teachers find potentially gifted children to
be academically more competent and sociable as opposed to students
without the same potential. Likewise, potentially gifted children tend to have
better academic achievements. When it comes to their socio-demographic
profile, there seem to be more female students than male, and they often live
in urban areas. Additionally, both parents of potentially gifted children show
higher levels of education when compared to parents of non-potentially
gifted children. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis point to
significant effects by gender, place of residence and parental education have
in explaining children’s academic competence and sociability; results also
reveal significant incremental validity in the assessment of cognitive ability,
motivation, and creativity.
Socialni, kognitivni in sociodemografski profil potencialno nadarjenih
otrok
Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da učitelji potencialno nadarjene učence
ocenjujejo kot bolj učno kompetentne in družabne v primerjavi z učenci, ki
to niso. Prav tako imajo potencialno nadarjeni učenci boljši šolski uspeh.
Glede njihovega sociodemografskega profila se zdi, da je učenk več kot
učencev in da pogosteje živijo v večjih urbanih območjih. Prav tako imata
oba od staršev potencialno nadarjenih otrok višjo stopnjo izobrazbe kot
starši otrok, ki niso prepoznani kot potencialno nadarjeni. Rezultati
stopenjske regresijske analize kažejo na pomemben prispevek spola, kraja
bivanja in izobrazbe staršev pri razlagi učne kompetence in družabnosti
otrok, medtem ko naj bi imele ocene kognitivnih sposobnosti, motivacije in
ustvarjalnosti pomembno inkrementalno veljavnost.

DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.3116
Besedilo / Text © 2023 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s)
To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna.
Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje,
dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja
izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Giftedness signifies the possession and use of unlearned and spontaneously
expressed abilities in at least one ability domain, whilst implying that the individual
in question is at least in the top 10% among his peers (Gagné, 2004). The term
presupposes relatively high intellectual capacity and an advanced level of at least one
of the following capabilities: general intelligence, creativity, socioemotional ability
and/or sensorimotor ability (França-Freitas, Prette and Prette, 2014).
Renzulli’s three-ring model of giftedness (Renzulli, 2005) represents an applicable
model in the school environment. This model often forms the basis for the
development of assessment scales intended for teachers and parents who seek to
identify gifted students. The three-ring model assumes that giftedness comprises of
three characteristics: ability, motivation/task orientation and creativity. It is only
when these three characteristics combine that we can consider giftedness. Abilities
imply above average general intellectual abilities and/or specific abilities, which are
measured with an intellectual ability test. Motivation does not primarily belong to
the intellectual domain; it implies commitment to a task, perseverance, dedication,
positive energy and an especially strong motivation in solving a problem. Creativity
refers to curiosity, originality, ingenuity, fluency, flexibility, curiosity, as well as
solving problems in a new, different way.
When it comes to gifted children and their characteristics, the literature thus far has
been mostly saturated with research referring to their intellectual abilities, while the
studies dealing with their social and emotional characteristics, as well as their
adjustment, are relatively scarce and of recent date.
It is clear that high intellectual abilities separate the gifted from the non-gifted.
Indirectly, we could conclude that high intellectual capacities contribute to academic
success, although some research indicates that gifted students do not always prove
to be the most academically successful ones, and that academically successful
students need not always be extremely gifted (Parekh, Brown and Robson, 2018).
However, in gifted children there tends to be a discrepancy in developmental aspects
relating to outstanding intellectual abilities that surpass the intellectual abilities of
their peers, while the emotional and social development is at the same level. Authors
have different names for this “discrepancy” in development, such as “dyssynchrony”
(Terrassier, 1985) or “asynchrony”. Inconsistency in terms of developmental aspects
results in internal and social gap (Shechtman and Silektor, 2010). This discrepancy
can cause problems with child’s emotional and social adjustment.

M. Klarin, S. Šimić Šašić & A. Proroković: The Social, Cognitive and Socio-Demografhic Profile of
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The same discrepancy is also at the root of specific emotional and social needs of
gifted children, which makes them different from non-gifted ones. This in turn
indicates that gifted children belong to an emotionally and socially sensitive group.
It is safe to assume that gifted children feel “different” and have different emotional
and social needs that affect their social relationships (Bain and Bell, 2004).
The most common specificities connected with giftedness, apart from those
pertaining to intellect, are excitability, sensitivity, persistence and self-determination
(Lovecky, 1992). These specificities lead to increased awareness of one’s own
emotions (Cross, 2002). Thus far, the results pertaining to this field of research
pointed to strength, but also to sensitivity of gifted people; in other words, giftedness
can be both positive and negative at the same time (Peterson, 2009). This is why we
come across opposite conclusions in literature. On one hand, the research results
suggest that gifted students tend to have more developed social skills (FrançaFreitas, Prette, Prette, 2014), more developed self-regulation and self-efficacy (Guez,
Peyre, Le Cam, Gauvrit and Ramus, 2018), more positive self-esteem (Amini, 2005;
Bain and Bell, 2004), more positive academic self-image and more developed
empathy (Shechtman i Silektor, 2010). By comparing social aspects of gifted
students’ self-image and of students with high academic achievements, Bain and Bell
(2004) concluded that gifted children achieved higher results on the assessment scale
of physical abilities, physical appearance and generally had a more positive selfimage, whereas teachers’ assessment of peer relationships suggested otherwise – an
absence of differences between students assessed as gifted and those who are not.
By comparing self-concept and perceived competence of gifted and non-gifted
students, Litster and Roberts (2011) concluded that gifted students rated academic
and behavioural competencies significantly higher than non-gifted students.
Likewise, gifted students seemed to have a more positive general self-concept, and
yet, when compared to non-gifted ones, they perceived their physical appearance
and sports competence to be lower. The following variables were found as
moderating ones: the classes students attended, the method by which giftedness was
identified, and the year of publication. The less recent papers favour the absence of
differences between gifted and non-gifted children, while recent studies point to
their existence. The reason behind these opposite interpretations seems to primarily
be in the fact that the methods and measures that were used to identify giftedness
differed across time periods.

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Research conducted on preschool children indicated that there were no behavioural,
emotional or social differences between gifted children and non-gifted children
(Peyre, Ramus, Melchior, Forhan, Heude and Gauvrit, 2016). Gifted children were
generally more socially mature (Robinson, 2008).
On the other hand, the results indicated an insufficient adaptation of gifted students,
which manifested in the greater presence of behavioural disorders in gifted students
as opposed to non-gifted ones (Guénolé et al., 2013). Moreover, gifted students tend
to have a greater sense of isolation and are less satisfied with social support (Vialle,
Heaven and Ciarrochi 2007). When it comes to comparisons in terms of well-being,
the data indicated a relatively small difference concerning lower self-esteem and
social acceptance in gifted students (Kroesbergen, van Hooijdonk, Van Viersen,
Middel-Lalleman and Reijnders, 2015). Gifted children seem to have the same needs
as everyone else, but is their interests and aspirations that make them special.
Diverging interests and environment not suited to their interests can become a
possible source of boredom, which may lead to depression, social anxiety
(Stankovska, Pandilovska, Taneska and Miftari Sadiku 2013) and isolation
(Shechtman and Silektor, 2010).
An important issue associated with giftedness is related to personal characteristics
and their interrelationship, and consequently to the adaptation of gifted children. In
this context, the relevant set of variables covers both parents’ gender and education.
Research results indicate that male children whose parents have high-status jobs are
more likely to be identified as gifted (Parekh, Brown and Robson, 2018). Likewise,
academic achievement is connected to parents’ level of education (Guez et al. 2018),
as well as with the students’ gender (Parekh, Brown and Robson, 2018). Male
students are more often identified as gifted, while female students are identified as
academically more successful. Students who have parents with higher levels of
education are typically more successful in terms of academic achievement, as
opposed to those who have parents with lower levels of education. The level of
education, employment and average earnings of both parents stand out as significant
predictors of giftedness and they have been shown to explain 5% of the variance in
college enrolment (Conejeros-Solar and Gómez-Arízaga, 2015). Research conducted
on children between the ages of 4 and 7 indicated the importance that sociodemographic properties have on giftedness.

M. Klarin, S. Šimić Šašić & A. Proroković: The Social, Cognitive and Socio-Demografhic Profile of
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For example, boys show a higher level of creativity than girls, while children who
attend private preschools tend to be more creative than the ones attending public
schools, and the same goes for children whose parents have better economic status.
It has been assumed that more educated parents, and parents with better earnings,
understand their child's needs better and use adequate parenting behaviours
(Çetinkaya, 2010). It has been shown that stimulative parenting and school
environment contribute to the adaptation of gifted children (Reis and Renzulli,
2003), i.e., they affect both self-image and the child’s adaptation (Bain and Bell,
2004). However, some authors were keen to conclude that the identification of
giftedness connects more to economic wealth than achievement, which in turn
makes giftedness a symbol of prestige and academic dominance (Parekh, Brown and
Robson, 2018).
In any case, giftedness is doubtlessly a very complex phenomenon that depends on
three factors, as described in Renzulli’s three-ring model. Nonetheless, identification
of gifted children has been affected by individual socio-demographic profile. In
order to resolve some of the aforementioned issues, one of the goals of this research
is to identify clear social and socio-demographic characteristics that potentially
distinguish gifted children from non-gifted ones.
The primary goal of our research was to examine the differences in academic
achievement, academic competences and inter-peer sociability, between children
who were identified as potentially gifted by teachers and those who were not.
Additionally, the research examined the differences between the two groups of
students with regard to some of the socio-demographic characteristics (gender,
parents’ education, place of residence). Finally, we made an effort to determine the
predictive value of socio-demographic characteristics and characteristics of gifted
children when it comes to explaining their academic competence and sociability.
Method
Research participants
The study involved 76 primary school teachers from all across the Republic of
Croatia, with assessments being collected for 1419 students of the 2nd grade of
primary school (some of the data was incomplete). The nation-wide sample
consisted of 48.27% (N=685) female students and 49.47% (702) male students
coming from four different regions of the country:

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littoral part of Croatia, N=910 (64.13%); Lika, N=81 (5.71%), Central Croatia
N=303 (21.35%); Slavonia, N=125 (8.80%). When it comes to the place of
residence, 77.38% of students were from an urban area (N=1098), and 22.62% were
from a rural area (N=321).
The subgroup of participants on which we collected data on cognitive abilities and
on parents’ education consisted of students from primary schools in Zadar (N=487).
As far as data on parents is concerned, the information was collected on 378 parents.
The average age of mothers was 37.73 years, while the average for fathers was 40.31
years. The majority of parents completed high school education, with some having
acquired a university degree or having completed higher vocational education, while
the smallest portion of parents had only primary school education. The percentage
of girls in this subsample was 51.59%, and boys 48.15%, which corresponds to the
entire sample.
Measuring instruments:
A scale for assessing potential giftedness in children (Šimić Šašić, Proroković, Klarin
and Šimunić, 2020). The scale consists of 13 subscales and a total of 86 statements.
Eleven subscales refer to abilities (linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical,
physical-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, artistic, technological, theatrical
and attentive). The data obtained from the subscales on their technological abilities
and attention were not included in further analyses because a large number of
assessments on the subscale of technological abilities were missing (the teachers
found it difficult to provide them), while assessments of attention correlated highly
with other subscales of abilities. Additional two subscales evaluated motivation (task
orientation) and creativity. This scale was intended for teachers. Their task was to
provide assessments on a five-point rating scale in relation to specific students –
whether something applies to them or not (1 – doesn’t apply at all, 5 – fully applies).
They were also provided an option I am unable to assess. The results on all subscales
have been formed as the sum of assessments on their corresponding individual
statements. Higher scores on these subscales indicate that a particular trait/ability
has developed more in an individual.
The criterion for identifying potential giftedness was an achievement on at least one
of the subscales of abilities, and on the scales of motivation and creativity, which
ranked above the 3rd quartile, i.e., it fell within the 25% of the highest assessments.

M. Klarin, S. Šimić Šašić & A. Proroković: The Social, Cognitive and Socio-Demografhic Profile of
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As a result, two groups of students were formed: those who are potentially gifted
and those who are not gifted according to the criteria defined. Based on it, 233
students were identified as potentially gifted (16.51%), and 1178 as non-gifted
(83.49%). The lack of assessments of all student characteristics resulted in a different
number of participants in individual analyses.
Adapted questionnaire of the Academic competence (Zeidner and Schleyer, 1998) is a
scale containing 6 statements on a five-point scale where 1 indicates the stated statement
does not apply to the student at all and 5 indicates the stated statement fully applies to the student.
The results of our research revealed a one-factor structure of this measuring
instrument with Eig=3.98, while the total variance explained was 66.26%. The
following is an example of a typical statement included in the questionnaire: He/she
often does not understand teaching materials. The score on the questionnaire stands for a
teacher’s assessment of student’s academic competence.
Adapted peer sociability questionnaire (Curby, Rudasill, Rimm-Kaufman and
Konold, 2008) consisted of 5 statements with the possibility of answering on a fivepoint scale where 1 indicated the stated statement does not apply to the student at all and 5
indicated the stated statement fully applies to the student. The results revealed a one-factor
structure (Eig. =4.13) which explained 82.65% of the common variance. With
statements such as He/she has a lot of friends, the overall result on the questionnaire
represents a teacher’s assessment of student’s social competence.
The study also collected data on academic achievement, students’ gender and, only
for sub-sample purposes, data on the parents’ level of education and the place of
residence.
Procedure
The research was carried out as part of a wider project “ZadarZaDar” Doživljajna
pedagogija u prirodoslovnim predmetima za razvoj darovitih učenika UP.03.2.2.02.0102 (eng.
Experimental pedagogy in natural sciences for the development of gifted students).
The teacher’s task was to assess each student, but it also included data on school
achievement, gender, place of residence, and for a subgroup of children attending
primary schools in Zadar County, we collected data on parent’s level of education
(N=371).

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Results
The first research question referred to the potential differences between two student
peer groups in terms of their academic achievement, academic competence and
sociability.
Table 1. Results of descriptive statistics and internal consistency for scales assessing potential giftedness
in children, academic competence, sociability among peers and academic achievement for children
identified as either gifted or non-gifted (N=1419)
Variable
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Physical Kinaesthetic
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Artistic
Theatrical
Motivation
Creativity
Academic competences
Sociability
Academic achievement

Ngifted
231
232
210
213
233
232
232
233
232
233
233
219
233
216

Nnongifted

1175
1175
981
1093
1178
1171
1175
1170
1177
1146
1168
1167
1177
1108

Mgifted
4.77
4.60
4.80
4.54
4.86
4.15
4.66
4.61
4.76
4.91
4.80
4.88
4.82
4.97

Mnongifted

3,01
2.82
3.42
3.22
3.86
2.96
3.30
3.35
3.29
3.15
2.90
3.54
3.75
4.80

SDgfted
0.50
0.65
0.64
0.81
0.60
0.63
0.53
0.85
0.61
0.30
0.37
0.50
0.61
0.29

SDnongifted

1.08
1.18
1.03
1.11
1.05
0.88
0.96
1.13
1.16
1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
0.44

Cr
α
0.96
0.98
0.93
0.93
0.92
0.70
0.92
0.91
0.93
0.97
0.96
0.90
0.95

Given that the variance was inhomogeneous in both groups and that the Levene's
homogeneity test is deemed important in this context, we turned to the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test, and the results are shown in Table 2.
When it comes to differences across the observed groups, the results show better
academic achievement, more positive academic competence and greater sociability
among the peers of gifted students when compared to non-gifted ones.

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Table 2. Results of the Mann-Whitney U test for academic achievement, academic competence and
sociability among peers between non-gifted students (group 1) and potentially gifted students (group
2)

Academic
achievement
Academic
competences
Sociability

Rank Sum 1

Rank Sum 2

U

713542.0

163608.0

99156.00

708660.5

252530.5

741060.5

253694.5

Z

p

N1

N2

-3.99

0.00

1108

216

27132.50

-18.52

0.00

1167

219

47807.50

-15.73

0.00

1177

233

The next research question referred to differences between potentially gifted and
non-gifted students with regard to some socio-demographic characteristics. To this
end, a series of ꭓ2 tests was done and they are shown in Tables 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.
Table 3. Differences between groups of potentially gifted and non-gifted students in terms of gender
Gifted students
f
%
Boys
99
43.23
Girls
130
56.77
ꭓ2 =5.87; df=1; p=0.015

Non-gifted students
f
%
598
52
552
48

Total
f
697
682

%
50.54
49.46

Results shown in Table 3 indicate the existence of a statistically significant difference
between groups of potentially gifted and non-gifted students with regards to gender.
Girls were more often identified as potentially gifted than boys.
Table 4. Differences between groups of potentially gifted and non-gifted students with regards to their
place of residence
Gifted students
f
%
Rural area
34
10.59
Urban area
199
18.26
ꭓ2 =10.57; df=1; p=0.001

Non-gifted students
f
%
287
89.41
891
81.74

Total
f
321
1090

%
22.75
77.25

Results from Table 4 indicate that there were significantly more potentially gifted
students who lived in the urban area compared to those who lived in the rural area.
Tables 5 and 6 reveal significant differences between potentially gifted and nongifted students with regard to the education of the father and the mother.

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366

Since there were fewer parents in categories with lower educational status, the
educational status has been reclassified into two categories: one category contained
parents with completed high school education, and the other contained parents with
degrees from higher vocational institutions and universities.
The results (Table 6) indicate a clear statistically significant difference between
groups of potentially gifted and non-gifted students with regards to fathers’ level of
education. Fathers of gifted children held post-secondary level degrees in 50.88% of
cases, and only 27.96% of fathers of non-gifted children had the same qualification.
Table 5. Differences between gifted and non-gifted students with regards to father’s level of education
Level of education
Completed secondary level of
education
Higher vocational education
or a university degree
ꭓ2 =10.99; df=1; p=0.001

Gifted students
f
%
28
49.1
29

50.88

Non-gifted students
f
%
170
72.03
66

27.96

Total
f
%
198
67.58
95

32.42

Table 6. Difference between potentially gifted and non-gifted students with regards to the mother’s
level of education
Level of education
Completed secondary level of
education
Higher vocational education or a
university degree
ꭓ2 =12.36; df=1; p=0.000

Gifted students
f
%
20
32.79
41

67.21

Non-gifted students
f
%
159
57.61
117

42.39

Total
f
179

%
53.12

158

48.88

Mothers’ levels of education were also significantly different between groups of
gifted and non-gifted children. The results show that mothers of gifted children are
generally of higher educational status.
The next issue in our study concerned the predictive value of socio-demographic
characteristics (gender, place of residence and education level of mother and father),
as well as some other characteristics of potentially gifted students, when it comes to
explaining assessments of academic competence and sociability among peers.
In the first step, the education of the mother was singled out as a significant predictor
of academic competence, but it lost its significance the second step, turning it over
to verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visuo-spatial, musical and intrapersonal
abilities, and finally, motivation.

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Both sets of predictors explained 79% of the variance in academic competence.
When it comes to sociability, the gender of the child and the education of the mother
stood out as predictors in the first step. In the second step, mother's education
remained a significant predictor together with visuo-spatial abilities, intrapersonal
and especially interpersonal abilities. Both sets of predictors explained 71% of the
variance in sociability among children.
Table 7. Results of hierarchical regression analyses where the sociodemographic characteristics and
other traits of potentially gifted children were included as potential predictors, while the assessments
of academic competence and sociability among children were the criteria (N=187)
academic competences
ꞵ

sociability
ꞵ

Step 1

Gender
Rural/Urban area
Father’s education
Mother’s education

-0.02
0.07
0.12
0.21*

R=0.30
R2=0.09
F(4,187)=4.61
p=0.001

-0.17*
-0.02
0.00
0.21*

R=0.27
R2=0.07
F(4,187)=3.73
p=0.006

Step 2

Gender
Rural/Urban area
Father’s education
Mother’s education
Verbal-linguistic abilities
Logical-mathematical abilities
Visuo-spatial abilities
Musical abilities
Physical-kinaesthetic abilities
Intrapersonal abilities
Interpersonal skills
Artistic abilities
Theatrical abilities
Motivation
Creativity

-0.04
-0.05
0.05
0.04
0.21*
0.36*
0.12*
-0.16*
-0.01
0.18*
0.03
-0.04
0.10
0.40*
-0.02

R=0.89
R2=0.79
F(15,176)=44.01
p=0.000
ΔR2=0.70
p=0.000

-0.04
-0.01
-0.02
0.13*
-0.10
0.03
0.15*
-0.08
0.07
-0.29*
0.75*
0.03
0.09
0.13
0.03

R=0.84
R2=0.71
F(14,177)=29.05
p=0.000
ΔR2=0.64
p=0.000

Discussion
Previous research did not provide consistent results when it comes to the potential
of high intellectual abilities to clearly differentiate students in terms of their school
achievement and some socioemotional features. Consequently, the primary objective
of our research was to determine whether the group of students identified as
potentially gifted by teachers differ in some characteristics from students who were
deemed otherwise.

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The results indicate that teachers’ assessments of sociability and academic
competences differ across these two groups of students. In other words, teachers
assessed that potentially gifted students were academically more competent and
more successful in peer relationships. Based on the data indicating their better school
performance, we argue that potentially gifted children tend to be more successful in
mastering educational content. Despite some findings that support the discrepancy
in the development of cognitive abilities in relation to social and emotional
development, or the propositions that gifted children resemble their peers in
socioemotional development (Silverman, 2002), the results of this research suggests
otherwise. Teachers assess intellectually advanced children as being more
academically and socially competent than average children. Based on the results of
this research, it appears justified to conclude that potentially gifted students in the
developmental period of middle childhood not only have above-average cognitive
abilities, but are more socially competent and more successful in peer relationships;
these results are corroborated by some other research as well (see França-Freitas,
Prette and Prette, 2014). The abilities that gifted children possess, especially in terms
of self-regulation, empathy and self-efficacy, probably contribute to the quality of
their relationships with peers (Guez et al., 2018). Moreover, gifted students are
probably better in their cognitive evaluations, which should contribute to more
effective coping with different social situations. We could also assume that better
success in school contributes to a more positive self which in turn contributes to
social competence. Nevertheless, some studies have spoken in favour of higher
academic competences (Ayğar and Gűndoğdu, 2017; Infantes-Paniagua, FernándezBustos, Ruiz and Contreras-Jordán, 2022), but weaker social competences when it
comes to children in middle childhood years and adolescent age (Infantes-Paniagua
et al., 2022). This leads us to conclude that the child’s age should be kept in mind
when interpreting the obtained research results. Despite the fact that giftedness
manifests itself at children’s earliest ages, the self-image develops as a function of
social relationships and social comparison. School becomes a place where students
compare themselves, compete, and make efforts in all fields of development.
Experiencing yourself as different, or gifted, tends to be a process that occurs during
adaptation to various cognitive tasks and environmental demands. Correspondingly,
the research conducted on children in their early childhood phase indicated an
absence of differences between gifted children and those who were not (Peyre et al.,
2016), which does not entail that these differences will remain invisible as the child

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grows up. In the end, the social maturity that some authors talk about (Robinson,
2008) and that gifted children seem to possess, contributes to the use of mechanisms
that enable them to successfully adapt in peer relationships. In this context, we ought
to stress the importance of assessing and identifying giftedness in terms of cognitive
abilities and academic success, as well as monitoring socioemotional requirements
that may be specific to gifted children.
The following relevant set of variables that was tested in the context of students’
potential giftedness were socio-demographic ones, especially those pertaining to
student’s gender, place of residence and their father’s and mother’s education. The
obtained results reveal that female students were identified as potentially gifted more
often than their male colleagues, and that the students who live in the urban areas
were more frequently identified as gifted as opposed to students from smaller rural
areas. Likewise, the students who were identified as potentially gifted more often
had both parents of higher educational status.
The results of a large number of studies indicate a tendency of giftedness being more
frequently identified in male students (see Greeman and Garces-Bacsal, 2015;
Petersen, 2013; Çetinkaya, 2010; Parekh, Brown and Robson, 2018). In this context,
Petersen discussed gender bias when identifying gifted students (2013); her metaanalysis of 130 studies showed that male students were 1.19 times more likely to be
identified as gifted. The author pointed out that these gender differences were most
prominent with students of pre-adolescent age. One related hypothesis that agrees
with such results refers to greater variability of cognitive abilities in male students,
which in turn relates to higher probability of them being identified as gifted
compared to female students (Petersen, 2013; Freeman and Garces-Bacsal, 2015).
Also, it is important to point out that the identification of giftedness with regard to
gender differs according to the area of giftedness. The ratio of gifted male students
to gifted female students in the STEM field is 3:1, while the ratio in the area of verbal
giftedness favours the female students and is 2:1 (Heilbronner, 2013), i.e., giftedness
appears to heavily depend on the field in question. When it comes to teacher
assessments as a criterion, male students tend to be more often identified as gifted
compared to female students (Greeman and Garces-Bacsal, 2015). It is certainly
possible that the difference stems from the assumption of gifted female students
being less able to withstand pressure and competitiveness, as well as needing more
time to think when performing tasks when compared to their male colleagues
(Boaler, Wiliam and Brown, 2000).

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The results of our research do not speak in favour of male-dominant giftedness; on
the contrary, female students were more often assessed as gifted by teachers.
However, it seems important to point out that some studies support these findings
when it comes to teacher assessments of younger children, where female students
tend to be identified as gifted more frequently, which then changes at a later age,
with male students being more often identified as gifted (Reis, 2002).
Furthermore, a higher level of parental education has proven to be a characteristic
of gifted children in other studies as well (Guénolé et al., 2013). The assumption has
been that parents with higher levels of education better understand their child and
their needs, and at the same time have a better chance to financially afford their
children some, otherwise less accessible, life experiences that stimulate intellectual
development. Similar research conducted on gifted children aged 4 to 7 shows that
their fathers and mothers were more likely to work as government officials, which
provided the family and children greater financial support and consequently a richer
environment that encourages giftedness (Çetinkaya, 2010). The results of our
research support these findings, i.e., point to the conclusion that children of parents
with higher educational status were more likely to be identified as gifted. In this
regard, Sekulić-Majurec (1995) argued that the fact that gifted children appear more
often in families of higher social and educational status does not entail them being
more often born in these families, but only indicates that a higher socioeconomic
status provides an incentive for the development of giftedness. A richer
environment certainly appears to contribute to richer experiences and talent
development. It seems plausible to assume that parents with a higher educational
status tend to have higher expectations of their child and provide them with support
in this regard. Additionally, place of residence has proven to be a significant
determinant of potential giftedness; potentially gifted children live in urban areas
more often than children who are not identified as such. We should interpret this
data in a similar manner as with the role of parents’ education; urban environments
probably provide children with significantly more content and opportunities for
giftedness to manifest, develop, and to be subsequently identified.
The results of the regression analysis indicate a significant effect that some sociodemographic characteristics had in explaining academic competence and sociability,
however, the independent contribution of cognitive abilities, motivation and
creativity was significantly greater for both academic competence and sociability.

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In other words, the variables that define giftedness according to Renzulli’s model
explain both criterion variables to a considerably greater extent in this research.
Finally, we could conclude that cognitive abilities and motivation stand out as
significant predictors of academic competence, whereas interpersonal and
intrapersonal abilities as predictors of sociability. Gender, parents’ education and
place of residence contribute to a significantly smaller degree in the explanation of
variance regarding both academic competences and socialization among peers.
Conclusion
The results of this research lead us to infer greater academic competence and better
socialization skills among peers in children who have been identified as potentially
gifted as opposed to those who have not. In addition, girls were more often
recognized as gifted. Parents of potentially gifted children tend to have a higher
educational status and these families live more often in urban areas compared to
parents of non-gifted children. In general, the results of this study suggest that the
factors of giftedness, proposed by Renzulli’s three-ring model of giftedness,
contribute significantly more to academic and social competences in children than
their socio-demographic characteristics.
The primary contribution of this research has been a rather large sample size, as well
as its representativeness, which enables the generalization of the obtained results.
Moreover, given the rarity of research regarding the socioemotional development of
gifted children, the research has not only theoretical, but also important practical
value for all experts who work with gifted children in the educational system. On
the other hand, the method used to assess the potential giftedness in children should
be singled out as a serious shortcoming of this research, i.e., the study relied solely
on teachers’ assessments of children’s abilities and other characteristics. Such
assessments need not necessarily be objective, due to some individual inclinations
and other biases of those who assess, or their inability to have complete insight into
all behavioural aspects of the children they assess. Future research should also take
into account some other criteria when identifying potential giftedness in children
(e.g., apply greater number of specific cognitive abilities tests, examine some
behavioural correlates of giftedness, mutually compare performances and
achievements among children etc.).

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Longitudinal research and long-term tracking of children identified as gifted should
also help us figure out the best criteria for identifying giftedness.
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Authors:
Mira Klarin, PhD
Full professor, University of Zadar, Department of Teacher and Preschool-Teacher Education, Franje
Tuđmana 24i, 23000 Zadar, Croatia, e-mail: mklarin@unizd.hr
Redna profsorica, Univerza v Zadru, Oddelek za izobraževanje učiteljev in vzgojiteljev, Franje
Tuđmana 24i, 23000 Zadar, Hrvaška, e-pošta: mklarin@unizd.hr
Slavica Šimić Šašić, PhD
Associate professor, University of Zadar, Department of Teacher and Preschool-Teacher Education,
Franje Tuđmana 24i, Zadar, Croatia, ssimic@unizd.hr.
Izredna profesorica, Univerza v Zadru, Oddelek za izobraževanje učiteljev in vzgojiteljev, Franje
Tuđmana 24i, 23000 Zadar, Hrvaška, e-pošta: ssimic@unizd.hr
Ana Proroković, PhD
Full professor, University of Zadar, Department of Psychology, Krešimirova obala 2, 23000 Zadar,
Croatia, e-mail: aprorok@unizd.hr
Redna profesorica, Univerza v Zadru, Oddelek za psihologijo, Krešimirova obala 2, 23000 Zadar, epošta: aprorok@unizd.hr

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Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 375–391, December 2023

INVESTIGATING THE SOURCE OF STUDENT SELFEFFICACY AND ITS RELATIONS TO AFFECTIVE
FACTORS IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING
SULTHON AMIEN, RATNO ABIDIN, ACHMAD HIDAYATULLAH & MUHAMMAD
RIDLWAN
Potrjeno/Accepted
13. 4. 2023

Universitas Muhammadiyah Surabaya, Faculty of teaching and education,
Surabaya Jawa Timur, Indonesia

Objavljeno/Published
11. 12. 2023

CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR/
achmadhidayatullah@um-surabaya.ac.id
Abstract/Izvleček

Keywords:
self-efficacy, attitude,
student motivation,
teacher support

Ključne besede:
samoučinkovitost,
odnos, motivacija,
podpora učitelja
UDK/UDC
[37.091.3:37.015.3057.87]:51

The purpose of this study was to explore the source of students’ self-efficacy and
its relation to motivation, attitude, and students’ perception of teacher support in
mathematics learning. Three hundred and fifty participants were selected using a
stratified random sampling method. The study was survey-based and quantitative;
data were analysed through statistical tests. Findings showed that most students
reported having good grades in math. The source of self-efficacy in mathematics
significantly correlates with attitude, intrinsic motivation, and students’
perception of teacher support.
Raziskovanje izvora študentove samoučinkovitosti in njenega odnosa do
afektivnih dejavnikov pri učenju matematike
Namen te študije je bil raziskati vir samoučinkovitosti učencev in njihov odnos
do motivacije, njihova stališča ter njihovo dojemanja podpore učiteljev pri učenju
matematike. Tristo petdeset udeležencev je bilo izbranih z metodo stratificiranega
naključnega vzorčenja. Študija je temeljila na anketi in kvantitativni analizi;
podatki so bili analizirani s statističnimi testi. Ugotovljeno je bilo, da ima večina
učencev dobre ocene pri matematiki. Vir samoučinkovitosti pri matematiki je
pomembno povezan z odnosom, notranjo motivacijo in učenčevim dojemanjem
podpore učitelja.

DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.2463
Besedilo / Text © 2023 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s)
To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna.
Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje,
dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja
izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Introduction
Describing the factors behind student performance in mathematics learning is a
challenging task for researchers. Some researchers have suggested that self-efficacy
is a powerful factor in determining student achievement. Jiang et al. (2014) defined
self-efficacy as the conviction that one can succeed in certain purposes. Self-efficacy
also plays a critical role in shaping motivation, learning, engagement, and
achievement (Chong et al., 2018).
In Indonesia, students have struggled with mathematics achievement, according to
international surveys such as PISA (OECD, 2018) and TIMMS (Patahuddin et al.,
2020). Although researchers such as Usher and Pajares (2009) suggested that student
performance can be explained by measuring student self-efficacy, there is a scarcity
of investigation about the extent of Indonesian students’ self-efficacy in
mathematics learning. Suryadi and Santoso (2017) reported that self-efficacy was
associated with achievement, although the contribution of student self-efficacy was
weak. Simamora et al. (2019) suggested that self-efficacy could be increased using a
certain method, but the researchers did not explain how student self-efficacy could
do so. However, both studies were conducted in secondary schools, and there was
no explanation of whether beliefs were associated with other factors.
In the literature review, the association of self-efficacy beliefs with non-cognitive
factors (e.g., attitudes, motivation, and perception of teacher support) in
mathematics learning has been extensively studied in research (Chong et al., 2018;
Li, 2012; Skaalvik et al., 2015). Attitude is a personal tendency to respond to an
object positively or negatively. Intrinsic motivation involves doing an activity for the
inherent satisfaction of the activity itself (Schukajlow et al., 2017). Perceptions of
teacher support are students’ beliefs about their teacher in mathematics learning, for
example, the perception of whether the mathematics teacher is friendly or not (Op’t
Eynde and De Corte, 2003). For example, Li (2012) reported on the association
between self-efficacy and attitudes. The more positive student attitudes increase
their self-efficacy in mathematics. Skaalvik et al.(2015) through their investigation in
secondary schools, suggested that self-efficacy was strongly associated with intrinsic
motivation in mathematics learning. Chong et al. (2018) stated that self-efficacy
moderately correlated with students’ perception of teacher support, where both selfefficacy and students’ perception of teacher support also determined performance
in grades 7-8.

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Therefore, most of the previous research (Chong et al., 2018; Li, 2012; Skaalvik et
al., 2015) was conducted in secondary schools and focused on a particular aspect of
self-efficacy in mathematics. Little attention has been addressed to the extent to
which students shaped their self-efficacy beliefs in mathematics. Also, little is known
whether the source of self-efficacy beliefs is associated with attitudes, motivation,
and student perception of teacher support, especially for primary education.
Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the source of self-efficacy beliefs
and their relation to attitudes, motivation, and perception of teacher support. Four
research questions were formulated to answer the research purposes of the present
study:
Research questions:
1. How do students express their source of self-efficacy in mathematics?
2. What kind of relationship can be described in the investigation of the
correlation of the source of self-efficacy with attitude toward mathematics?
3. What insight can be gained through investigation into the source of selfefficacy and motivation toward mathematics?
4. What kind of correlation can be explained through investigation into the
source of self-efficacy and students’ perception of the teachers?
Theoretical framework
Self-efficacy and academic performance
Most definitions of self-efficacy in the literature review refer to Bandura’s idea; selfefficacy is the judgment of confidence to perform tasks or succeed in activities
(Ellez, 2020; Yıldırım and Güler, 2020; Usher and Pajares, 2009). Self-efficacy is also
perceived as the concept built on the perception that students are individuals who
actively influence the direction of their learning approach and achievement (Yıldırım
and Güler, 2020; Rohatgi et al., 2016; Bandura, 1997). According to Hatlevik et al.
(2018), self-efficacy beliefs are personal beliefs about what someone is capable of
doing or learning and are not the same as knowing what to do.
The source of self-efficacy consists of four dimensions: mastery experience,
vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological state (Usher and Pajares,
2009). Mastery experience is the degree to which a student has experienced academic
success or failure (Gao, 2020). We would ask students about their experience in the
past rather than their grade in academic achievement.

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Vicarious experience deals with the degree to which students perceive the academic
skills of career role models, parents, teachers, and older students. Social persuasion
relates to external encouragement for students in their academic capabilities, such as
support from their parents, teachers, and peers. Physiological states are physiological
aspects such as feelings about the subject, how much students like or dislike the
subject, feeling positive or negative about the subject, etc. (Gao, 2020; Klassen,
2004). In the present study using these constructs, researchers testify to the
intercorrelation and the influence of this self-efficacy on other aspects such as
motivation, attitude, and achievement.
Attitude towards mathematics
Attitude concerns students’ positive or negative feelings about studies and whether
these determine student success in all subjects. As mentioned by Aiken (1970),
attitude is a tendency on the part of an individual to respond positively or negatively
to some object, subject, situation, concept, or another person. According to Nja et
al. (2022), attitude is an emotional and mental entity that propels students to take
any strategy toward an object or subject. Di Martino and Zan (2011) state that there
are two kinds of attitude definitions: simple and three-dimensional. The simple
definition refers to the terms positive and negative as associated with the current
subject, while the three-dimensional definition incorporates emotional dispositions,
beliefs, and behaviour. In this study, however, researchers emphasize students’
positive attitudes toward mathematics to represent the consistency and affirmation
of mathematics learning.
Intrinsic motivation
Concerning the construct of motivation, there is a variety of conceptions among
researchers. Commonly, researchers differentiate motivation into two categories:
intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to doing an
activity for the inherent satisfaction of the activity itself (Ryan and Deci, 2020;
Schukajlow et al., 2017). Intrinsic motivation refers to the student’s tendency to
enjoy an activity with no need for an external reward because he/she is driven by
inherent value (Karimi et al., 2022).

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For instance, students enjoy mathematics learning because of their inherent interest,
or they experience satisfaction from mastering mathematical knowledge. In contrast,
extrinsic motivation refers to the commitment to achieve something because of
external factors (Yarin et al., 2022).
For instance, students commit to reaching a high score in mathematics because they
want to get rewards from their teachers and parents. In the present study, we are
interested the value of inherent personal value. Therefore, researchers investigate
the intrinsic motivation of students in mathematics learning.
Students’ perception of teacher support
In mathematics learning, the teacher also plays a key role in determining students’
learning and development. The ways teachers transform and set the class are
important to cultivate students’ beliefs, motivation, and achievements (Raufelder et
al., 2016). The habits of teachers in teaching and solving problems in mathematics
also encourage students to solve mathematical tasks using the same techniques
(Garofalo, 1989). De Corte (2015) deals with students’ perception of mathematics
teachers in mathematics learning as part of their beliefs about the mathematics class
context. These perceptions involve student perceptions of their teacher in
mathematics learning. For instance, our teacher is friendly to us, or our teacher really
wants us to understand mathematics concepts, not only memorize them (Op’t
Eynde and De Corte, 2003). In the present study, the researcher seeks to measure
whether students’ perception of their teacher is associated with their self-efficacy in
mathematics learning.
Methods
Participants
Twelve classes were selected randomly from five schools in Surabaya, Indonesia.
Participants in this study were 350 students from fifth and sixth grade (total students
grade fifth-sixth = ± 1,250 from 5 schools). The participants in the present study
were 9-12 years old. All the schools were in urban areas, and the school system uses
zoning. The location between school and home was close, meaning that there were
students in every school from various economic backgrounds. Table 1 shows the
demographics of the study sample.

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Table 1. Demographics of participants
Category
Fifth grade
Sixth grade
Boys
Girls
Age 9
Age 10
Age 11
Age 12

N
169
181
166
184
7
114
175
54

Percentages
48%
52%
47%
53%
2%
33%
50%
15%

Instruments
Source of self-efficacy. Sixteen items were selected from the source mathematics selfefficacy questionnaire developed by (Usher and Pajares, 2009). This instrument
consisted of four dimensions; we selected four items to measure students’ mastery
experience, five items for vicarious experience, four items for social persuasion, and three
items for the physiological state. For instance: “I do well on my examination,” “Seeing
kids do better than me in the class pushes me to do better,” “My mind goes blank,
and I am unable to think clearly during examination,” and “My whole body becomes
tense during my learning in class.” This questionnaire uses a Likert scale (1= Strongly
disagree to 5 = Strongly agree).
Attitude towards mathematics. Attitude is students’ evaluation of and feelings about the
learning process, whether positively or negatively. These attitudes were measured by
four items adapted from Grootenboer and Marshman (2016). Examples of these
items were “Mathematics learning is very cool,” “I like learning mathematics,” and
“I am happy working on mathematics.” This questionnaire uses a Likert scale (1=
Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree).
Intrinsic motivation. Students’ intrinsic motivation in the present study was measured
by a five-item set adapted from PISA. These are some sample items: “I enjoy reading
about mathematics,” and “I do mathematics because I enjoy it.” This questionnaire
uses a Likert scale (1= Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree).
Perception of teacher support. Students’ perception of teacher support is the students’
perception of the role and functioning of their mathematics teachers. This
perception was measured using three items. These items were adapted from a
mathematics-related beliefs system questionnaire (MRBQ) developed by Op’t Eynde
and De Corte (2003).

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For instance, “My teacher tries to make the lessons interesting,” and “My teacher
gives me time to really explore new problems and to try out possible strategies.”
This questionnaire uses a Likert scale (1= Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree).
Procedure
Researchers administered the questionnaire to students in the fifth and sixth grades.
The class was selected randomly in every school. The teacher participated in the
present study to help with the data collection. This study uses the paper-pencil test
technique. Students completed the profile and the questions about personal
background, such as gender. Students were allowed to complete the questionnaire
at home. This technique was chosen to avoid student fatigue. We allowed two weeks
for students to complete this questionnaire.
Data analysis
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to confirm the validity of the
construct of the questionnaire, using the principal component method, TLI, CFI, >
0.9, and RMSEA < .005 to indicate the model fit (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Cronbach
alpha was used to examine the reliability of the questionnaire, with an alpha
coefficient above 0.7 indicating the instrument’s reliability (Hair et al., 2009). In the
second step, descriptive statistics were performed to answer the first question. In
the third step, Pearson correlation was performed to answer the second to fourth
questions.
Results
Confirming the validity and reliability of the instruments
CFA confirmed the validity of this questionnaire by confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA). We found the fit model, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = .06, Chi-Square
= 281.74, df = 125, p < .001, The loading factors range from 0.44 – 0.81. We
reexamined the reliability of each factor. The result showed that all the factors from
this questionnaire were reliable. Mastery experience (𝛼 =.77), vicarious experience
(𝛼 =.78), social persuasion (𝛼 =.71), and physiological state (𝛼 =.79). This
questionnaire used a Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree). We
also confirmed the reliability of the attitude, motivation toward mathematics, and
students’ perception of teacher support.

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The Cronbach alpha coefficient showed that attitude (𝛼 =.88), motivation, and
students’ perceptions of teacher support (𝛼 =.82) were reliable.
Descriptive statistics and the correlation of each source of self-efficacy factor
Table 2 describes the descriptive statistical analysis of the source of student selfefficacy beliefs in mathematics. Generally, all the sources of self-efficacy dimensions
were mutually correlated.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics on student self-efficacy in mathematics
Variables
1.
2.
3.
4.

Mastery experience
Vicarious experience
Social persuasion
Physiological state

Mean
3.84
3.56
3.71
2.75

SD
0.72
0.68
0.71
0.82

1
1
.60
.50
-.14

2

3

.57
-.24

-.03

All variables show correlation except the correlation between physiological state and
social persuasion (r = .03). The highest correlation occurs for the pair vicarious
experience and mastery experience (r = .60). Social persuasion also correlates with
physiological mastery experience (r = .50) and vicarious experience (r = .57).
Physiological state correlates with mastery experience (r = -.14) and vicarious
experience (r = -.24).
RQ1; How do students express their source of self-efficacy in mathematics?
Table 3 describes statistics for the items dealing with student source of self-efficacy
in mathematics. Mastery experience shows students’ perception of their experience in
mathematics learning. Generally, students reported positive experiences with
mathematics learning, as indicated by the high mean results concerning the
corresponding items (3.64 - 3.94, on a 5-point Likert scale, 5 = strongly agree).
Students expressed strong self-efficacy in their report of doing well concerning
mathematics learning, as indicated by the mean result for the item “I do well on
mathematics assignments” (M = 3.88, SD = 0.97). Students also reported receiving
strong scores in mathematics class, as indicated by the high mean results of the item
“I got good grades in math” (M = 3.88, SD = 0.97).

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Table 3. Student source of self-efficacy in mathematics learning
Self-efficacy in mathematics
Mastery Experience
I do well on math assignments
I do well on even the most difficult math
assignments, even though math is difficult
I make excellent grades on math tests
I got a good grade in math
Vicarious Experience
I have good ability in math
I think I can overcome any challenge in math
Seeing my friends doing math assignments
encourages me to finish mine too
Seeing friends who are better at math encourages
me to study better
The way the teacher does math encourages me to
do it too
Seeing other people who are good at math
encourages me to study well
Social Persuasion
My friends like to work with me in math because
they think I am good at math
My parents have told me that I am good at
mathematics
My teachers have told me that I am good at
mathematics
Physiological state
Only in math class do I get lazy
Learning math makes me tired
My mind goes blank, and I am unable to think
clearly when doing math problems
I often get depressed when studying math
I'm often confused and don't understand math

Mean

SE mean

Median

SD

3.64

.05

4.00

1.00

3.94

.04

4.00

0.89

3.93
3.88

.04
.05

4.00
4.00

0.86
0.97

3.23
3.38

.05
.05

3.00
3.00

1.02
0.94

3.69

.05

4.00

0.96

3.69

.05

4.00

1.05

3.74

.05

4.00

0.96

3.76

.05

4.00

0.97

3.39

.04

3.00

0.89

3.94

.05

4.00

0.94

3.81

.04

4.00

0.85

2.28
2.78

.06
.06

2.00
3.00

1.14
1.17

2.79

.06

3.00

1.12

2.87
3.02

.05
.05

3.00
3.00

1.11
1.05

In the Vicarious experience factors, the data on the six items of this factor indicate that
strong self-efficacy is also formed by other people, as indicated by the high mean
results for the items (3.69 – 3.76, on a 5-point Likert scale, where 5 = strongly agree).
Students expressed strong self-efficacy in studying math after seeing other students
who were good at mathematics, as indicated by the high mean result for the item
“Seeing friends who are better at math, encourages me to study better” (M = 3.69,
SD = 0.96).

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According to the mean result, students also had strong self-efficacy because of seeing
the way their teacher solved mathematics problems (M =3.74, SD = 0.96). For
instance, the mean result for the item “The way the teacher does math encourages
me to do it too” was high (M= 3.74, SD = 0.96). However, we also found that
students did not strongly believe in their math capability (M = 3.23, SD = 1.02).
Regarding Social persuasion, there were three items of self-efficacy in mathematics.
Students’ self-efficacy about their capability in math related to group work is
moderate, as indicated by the mean result of the item “My friends like to work with
me in math because they think I am good at math” (M = 3.39, SD = 0.89). Students
strongly believed that they were good at mathematics, according to their parents’
points of view, as indicated by the mean result for the item “My parents have told
me that I am good at mathematics” (M = 3.81, SD = 0.85).
Concerning the physiological state, the data showed that students’ response to the five
items in this factor was low, as indicated by the mean result (2.28 -3.02, on a 5-point
Likert scale), and many students did not decide to agree or disagree. For the first
item, “Only in math class do I get lazy,” we found that many students disagreed with
this item, as indicated by the low mean results (M = 2.78, SD = 1.17). The mean
result for the item “I often get depressed when studying math” was 2.87 (M = 2.87,
SD = 1.11), indicating that there some students experienced depression during
mathematics lessons, even if the number was not high. We found the mean result,
“My mind goes blank, and I am unable to think clearly when doing math work”, was
low (M = 2.79, SD = 1.12).
RQ2; What kind of correlation can be described in the investigation of source of self-efficacy and
attitude towards mathematics?
There is a scarcity of investigation about the relationship between self-efficacy and
attitude toward mathematics, particularly in mathematics learning. A Pearson
correlation was performed to examine the relationship between student self-efficacy
in mathematics and their attitudes toward mathematics (See Table 4). All the factors
of self-efficacy in mathematics correlate with attitudes towards mathematics.
Mastery experience has a positive correlation with attitudes towards mathematics (r
= .39, p < .001).

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Table 4. Correlation between source of self-efficacy mathematics and attitude, students’ perception and
motivation
Attitude towards
Motivation towards
Students’ perception
mathematics
mathematics
of math teacher
1. Mastery experience
.39**
.33**
.41**
2. Vicarious experience
.46**
.36**
.53**
3. Social persuasion
.36**
.33**
.49**
4. Physiological state
-.14**
.09
-.07*
Mean (SD)
15.59 (3.10)
14.81 (2.99)
15.50 (2.79)
Note: *significant at a level of 0.05 (p <.05), ** significant at a level of 0.001 (p < .001)
Self-efficacy mathematics

Vicarious experience gained the highest correlation with attitude towards
mathematics, among other factors (r = .46, p <.001). Social persuasion is associated
with attitudes towards mathematics (r = .36, p < .001), while physiological states are
negatively correlated with students’ attitudes toward mathematics (r = -.14, p <. 001).
It means that when students perceive that mathematics is difficult for them, they are
more likely to have negative attitudes towards learning mathematics.
RQ3: What insight can be gained through investigation into the source between self-efficacy and
motivation toward mathematics?
In the previous study, there was a dearth of empirical studies about the relationship
between self-efficacy and motivation toward mathematics. We also identified this
relationship by performing Pearson correlations (see Table 4). We found that
mastery experience was positively correlated with students’ intrinsic motivation
towards mathematics (r = .33, p < .001). Vicarious experience was also positively
correlated with their intrinsic motivation for mathematics (r = .36, p < .001). In
other words, students’ beliefs about their parent’s perception of their capabilities in
their math assignments correlate positively with intrinsic motivation, such as their
desire for mathematics (r = .33, p < .001). We also found an insignificant correlation
between the physiological state and intrinsic motivation (r = .09, p = .16).
RQ4: what kind of correlation can be explained through the investigation of source of self-efficacy
and students’ perception of the teachers?
We performed a Pearson correlation between students’ perception of their teacher
in mathematics and their self-efficacy (See Table 4).
We found that mastery experience positively correlated with their perception of their
teacher (r = .41, p < .001). For instance, students’ perceptions that their teacher tried
to make mathematics class interesting in the past may also be associated with their

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beliefs about themselves, such as believing they could get the highest math score.
Vicarious experience correlated positively with their perception of the role of their
teacher (r = .53, p < .001). Social persuasion was positively correlated with their
perception of the role of their mathematics teacher in the class (r = .49, p < .001).
Physiological state’s correlation with students’ perception of the role of their teacher
was not significant (r = -.07, p < .005).
Discussion
The present study has examined student source of self-efficacy in towards
mathematics in the Indonesian context by applying the theoretical framework
proposed by Usher and Pajares (2009). This theoretical framework consists of four
dimensions: mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and
physiological state. We also examined whether these dimensions correlated with
attitude, motivation, and student’s perception of the role of their mathematics
teacher.
For the mastery experience dimensions, researchers found students reporting a
positive experience with mathematics learning. Most students also reported that they
got good scores in mathematics. This finding indicates that students have no
problem with their scores in mathematics based on their experience. In this stage,
we assume that student response on the items about the mathematics grade refers
to their achievements in the past, for example, their mathematics score in annual
book reports. In the Indonesian system, the minimum grade for all subjects is 75
(range 1-100). In the second dimension, vicarious experience, researchers found
students expressing a strong belief that they could be motivated to solve their
mathematical tasks by observing the time in which their friends could finish the
tasks. Possibly, students who are good at mathematics also inspire their peers in the
class. They also become more interested in solving mathematics tasks after watching
their teacher solving mathematical problems. According to social cognitive theory,
students’ beliefs are determined by social stimuli (Bandura, 2001; Usher and Pajares,
2009). Therefore, it is important for mathematics educators to involve students in
the working group because this would improve students’ beliefs about their own
relation to mathematics.
Concerning social persuasion, researchers found that students expressed a strong
belief that they were good at math according to their parents, teachers, and friends.

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In the primary education context, we assume that parents’ and teachers’ appreciation
of students would shape student self-efficacy in math. The involvement of parents
and greater effort by mathematics educators to care about student learning would
increase students’ beliefs in their own relation to mathematics.
The physiological state dimension deals with students’ mood and anxiety during
mathematics learning. Although the percentage was not high, we did find that 25%
of students experienced their mind going blank during mathematics class. One
explanation for this stage is the way math teachers set the class and choose their
teaching strategy; these can be a factor behind student difficulty in understanding
math. This finding is important for encouraging mathematics educators to change
their teaching strategies and put more effort into improving student self-efficacy
beliefs in mathematics learning. The second finding of this study establishes that
self-efficacy correlates positively with students’ attitudes towards mathematics. This
finding is in line with previous research by Kundu and Ghose (2016), who found a
relationship between the two (r =.72). In the Indonesian context, the correlation
between self-efficacy and attitude varies. Mastery experience, vicarious experience,
and social persuasion do significantly correlate with attitude towards mathematics.
In other words, student self-efficacy, such as the statement “I do well on
mathematics assignments”, is associated with their feelings, such as the statement “I
like working on math.” A significant negative relationship has been identified
between physiological state and attitudes (r = -.14). In other words, students’ moods,
such as those expressed in the statement “I often get depressed during mathematics
classes,” are negatively related to their attitudes towards mathematics. The more
negative student self-efficacy becomes in mathematics learning, the less positive
their attitudes will be towards mathematics. Third, researchers find a significant
relationship between source of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. This finding
was in line with previous studies, such as the finding by Skaalvik et al. (2015) showing
a significant correlation between the two (r =.66). Researchers found motivation
correlating positively with mastery experience (r = .33), vicarious experience (r =.36),
and social persuasion (r = .33). In the Indonesian context, students who perceive
themselves as having positive experience with mathematics were more likely to have
high levels of intrinsic motivation.

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Self-efficacy in mathematics also positively correlates with students’ perception of
the role of their mathematics teacher in the class. This means the way students
perceive their mathematics teacher is associated with students’ experience in
mathematics. Therefore, it is important for mathematics educators to provide a
positive experience for students because students’ experience in the class is
associated with their perception of the role of their teacher.
Limitations and suggestions
Some limitations of this study should be considered for future research. This
research measures the relationship between the source of self-efficacy and other
relevant factors. There is space to confirm the extent to which self-efficacy in
mathematics influences mathematics achievement. However, the findings of this
study contribute to providing empirical evidence of studen' self-efficacy in the
Indonesian context.
Implication for teaching practice
For mathematics educators, it is important to use this finding as a foundation for
improving student achievement. The finding of this study also contribute to
unpacking the relationship between self-efficacy, attitude, intrinsic motivation, and
students’ perception of the function of teachers in mathematics learning.
Mathematics education should try to organize their classes to increase student selfefficacy beliefs. This could be achieved by, for instance, arranging the class into
working groups. It is also suggested that teachers appreciate each student’s effort,
since the findings of this study indicate that when teacher or parents appreciate their
children, this shapes their children’s efficacy in mathematics.
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Authors:
Dr. Sulthon Amien, MM
Assistant Professor, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surabaya, JI. Surorejo 59 Surabaya, Indonesia, e-mail:
sulthon.amien@um-surabaya.ac.id
Docent, Univerza Muhammadiyah Surabaya, JI. Surorejo 59 Surabaya, Indonezija, e-pošta:
sulthon.amien@um-surabaya.ac.id

Dr. Ratno Abidin, M.Pd
Assistant Professor, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surabaya, JI. Surorejo 59 Surabaya, Indonesia, e-mail:
ratnoabidin@um-surabaya.ac.id
Docent, Univerza Muhammadiyah Surabaya, JI. Surorejo 59 Surabaya, Indonezija, e-pošta:
ratnoabidin@um-surabaya.ac.id
Dr. Achmad Hidayatullah
Assistant Professor, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surabaya, JI. Surorejo 59 Surabaya, Indonesia, e-mail:
achmadhidayatullah@um-surabaya.ac.id
Docent, Univerza Muhammadiyah Surabaya, JI. Surorejo 59 Surabaya, Indonezija, e-pošta:
achmadhidayatullah@um-surabaya.ac.id
Dr. M. Ridlwan, Muhammad
Associate Professor, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surabaya, JI. Surorejo 59 Surabaya, Indonesia, Email
Address: ridlwan@pps.um-surabaya.ac.id
Izredni professor, Univerza Muhammadiyah Surabaya, JI. Surorejo 59 Surabaya, Indonezija, e-pošta:
ridlwan@pps.um-surabaya.ac.id

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Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 393–407, December 2023

DIFFERENCES IN STUDENTS’ PHYSICAL SELFPERCEPTION IN PE CLASSES ACCORDING TO
GENDER AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS
DONATA VIDAKOVIĆ SAMARŽIJA1, LARA PAVLIĆ KARAMATIĆ2 & JELENA
ALIĆ1
Potrjeno/Accepted
13. 4. 2023
Objavljeno/Published
11. 12. 2023

Keywords:
individual perception,
motor abilities, primary
school, BMI, physical
activity
Ključne besede:
posameznikova
percepcija, gibalne
sposobnosti, osnovna
šola, BMI, telesna
dejavnost
UDK/UDC
796.012-053.5:373.3

1University

of Zadar, Department of Teacher and Preschool Teacher
Education, Zadar; Croatia
2Ministry of Defence, Zagreb, Croatia
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR/
dovidak@unizd.hr
Abstract/Izvleček
The purpose of the study was to examine the level of physical self-perception
(PSP) in the Physical Education class, and to determine differences in
dimensions of PSP according to gender and nutritional status. On a sample
of 283 4th- and 8th-graders in primary school, an anonymous questionnaire
was applied. Fourth-graders made higher assessments of their coordination,
sport competences, strength, flexibility and endurance than 8th graders.
Moreover, significant differences were obtained in certain dimensions of PSP
with regard to gender and nutritional status. A low level of PSP may be an
obstacle to physical activity. These results indicate that PSP decreases by age
and by gender.
Razlike v telesnem samozaznavanju učencev pri pouku športne vzgoje
glede na spol in prehranski status Namen raziskave je bil preveriti stopnjo
telesnega samozaznavanja (angl. physical self-perception – PSP) pri pouku
športne vzgoje ter ugotoviti razlike v dimenzijah telesnega samozaznavanja
glede na spol in prehranjenski status. Na vzorcu 283 učencev 4. in 8. razreda
osnovnih šol smo izvedli anonimni vprašalnik. Učenci 4. razreda so bolje
ocenili svojo koordinacijo, športne kompetence, moč, gibčnost in vzdržljivost
kot učenci 8. razreda. Prav tako so bile pridobljene pomembne razlike v
nekaterih dimenzijah telesnega samozaznavanja glede na spol in prehranski
status. Nizka raven telesnega samozaznavanja je lahko ovira za telesno
dejavnost. Ti rezultati kažejo, da se telesno samozaznavanje zmanjšuje s
starostjo in spolom.

DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.2557
Besedilo / Text © 2023 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s)
To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna.
Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje,
dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja
izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Introduction
There are numerous definitions of self-perception, all of which unite a set of
opinions and attitudes that an individual has about himself (Neljak, 2013). The
different dimensions of self-perception may not necessarily be related. Specifically,
a high level of self-perception in one dimension does not necessarily mean that it
will be high in other dimensions. There are several dimensions to self-perception,
and the relation of those dimensions with healthy behaviour can determine selfimprovement actions (Marsh and Redmayne, 1994; Pastor, Balaguer and GarciaMerita, 2006) such as taking part in PA and having adequate nutrition, in the pursuit
of quality of life. For physical education classes (PE), the primary meaning is physical
self-perception, more precisely self-perception of one’s own motor abilities, which
can contribute to better or worse performance on certain motor tasks that are set in
front of the student. Physical self-perception is defined as an individual’s perception
of himself or herself in aspects of physical domains such as strength, endurance,
sport ability, and physical appearance (Fox and Corbin, 1989) and is a reflection by
students about their capacity to meet the physical limits in PA and sports (Murcia,
Gimeno, Vera Lacárcel and Ruiz Pérez 2007). Physical self-perception can
contribute to better or worse performance on certain motor tasks that are assigned.
It has a significant impact on the development of students’ motivation for better
motor performance, but also on the frequency of physical exercise. Numerous
studies indicate differences in the level of self- perception with regard to gender:
male students have better physical self-perception than do female students (RuizMontero, Chiva-Bartoll, Baena-Extremera and Hortigüela-Alcalá, 2020; PalenzuelaLuis, Duarte-Clíments, Gómez-Salgado, Rodríguez-Gómez and Sánchez-Gómez,
2022). Male students perceive better physical self- perception because of the high
satisfaction in everything related to the physical activity inside and outside of the
school context (Murcia et al. 2007). Authors indicate that strategies focused to
improve physical self-perception are necessary in female adolescent students,
because personal physical self-perception must be considered as an important social
cognitive perspective to provide suitable mental health in children and adolescents
(Ruiz-Montero et al. 2020).
Better physical self-perception is mostly related to regular physical exercise (Haugen,
Ommundsen and Seiler 2013) and participation in PE classes and sport.

D. Vidaković Samaržija, L. Pavlić Karamatić & J. Alić: Differences in Students’ Physical Self-Perception
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More precisely, physical and motor self-perception can be predictors of satisfaction
or boredom in PE (Morales-Sánchez et al. 2021). To create a positive environment
that includes student engagement in PE class, it is important to understand how
outcomes such as motor skills influence motivation for PE class. Both real and
perceived approaches to understanding motor skills have implications for healthy
lifestyles in childhood and adolescence (Estevan et al. 2021). During early
adolescence, PE programs should not be focused only on teaching movement skills
but should also foster perceived motor competence to promote motivation for PE,
especially among students with lower levels of self-perception (Estevan et al. 2021).
The results of numerous studies indicate a positive relationship between the
dimensions of self-perception in general and the level of physical activity, and a
negative relationship between the dimensions of self-perception and the amount of
time an adolescent spends sitting (Fernández-Bustos, Infantes-Paniagua, Cuevas and
Contreras 2019; Onetti-Onetti, Chinchilla-Minguet, Martins and Castillo-Rodriguez
2019). We are witnessing an increasingly prevalent sedentary lifestyle among children
and young people, and a decreasing level of daily physical activity. Low levels of
physical activity are associated with the development of obesity among children and
adolescents (Hills, Andersen, and Byrne, 2011; Hong, Coker-Bolt, Anderson, Lee
and Velozo 2016), as well as decreasing levels of motor skills (McDonough, Liu, and
Gao, 2020). Obesity has become a global public health problem. Of particular
concern is the increase in obesity among children and young people, which has
increased dramatically over the last few decades. Numerous studies highlight the
interaction of multiple factors that contribute to the development of obesity (Sahoo
et al. 2015). One of the factors that indirectly contributes to the development of
obesity is a low level of physical self-perception. More precisely, a low level of
physical self-perception decreases motivation, commitment, and participation in
physical activity (Borrego-Balsalobre, Cavas-García, Díaz-Suárez and MartínezMoreno 2023), and physical activity (PA) is a significant factor in the prevention of
childhood obesity (Wyszyńska et al. 2020).
The purpose of this study was to examine the level of physical self-perception (PSP)
among lower and upper primary school students in the Physical Education class
(PE), and to determine differences in the dimensions of PSP with regard to gender
and nutritional status.

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Methods
We conducted the study on a sample of 283 participants (134 participants from the
4th grade of primary school (10 ± 6 month) and 149 participants from the 8th grade
of primary school (14 ± 6 month)) in Zadar County in Croatia. The research was
approved in advance by the Faculty Council of the Department of Teacher and
Preschool Teacher Education of the University of Zadar, Croatia. For each
participant, the guardian’s permission for voluntary participation in the research was
requested.
For the purposes of the research, we created an anonymous survey questionnaire,
which was completed by fourth- and eighth-grade primary school participants. We
aimed the first part of the questionnaire at collecting general data on gender, grade
and school and the second part of the questionnaire at examining students’ selfperception in the PE class. Items for self-perception were taken from The Physical
Self-Description Questionnaire (Marsh, 1996) in Neljak (2013). The questionnaire
comprises 47 items and has good metric characteristics (Marsh, 1996). For the
implementation of this research, we used only the items for assessment of
participants’ coordination, sports competence, strength, flexibility and endurance in
PE class. We asked the participants to rate their degree of agreement with a particular
statement on the Likert scale (I strongly disagree, mostly disagree, not sure, mostly
agree, completely agree). Furthermore, for the purposes of the study, we calculated
body mass index (BMI) as an indicator of nutritional status and categorized
participants by their BMI values into two groups (normal weight and
overweight/obese). Categorization was performed according to Cole, Bellizzi, Flegal
and Dietz (2004).
We processed the collected data with the Statistica 7.0 program and calculated basic
descriptive indicators: arithmetic mean, and standard deviation, as well as response
frequencies for individual items. We tested the normality of the distribution by the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Since the distributions of all variables deviated
significantly from normality, we applied the Mann-Whitney U test to determine
statistically significant differences in self-perception dimensions depending on
gender and nutritional status. For this purpose, we calculated the median and quartile
rank, z-values and significance level (p).

D. Vidaković Samaržija, L. Pavlić Karamatić & J. Alić: Differences in Students’ Physical Self-Perception
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Results
We calculated basic descriptive indicators of self-perception dimensions, which are
shown in Table 1. Based on the high values of the arithmetic means, it is evident
that most participants estimate that in most physical activities they perform
movements harmoniously (4th graders 4.56 ± 0. 97 vs. 8th graders 4.14±0.90) and
that they easily control their body movements (4th graders 4.54 ± 0. 74 vs. 8th
graders 4.39 ± 0.84). Also, most participants estimate that they are good at most
sports (4th graders 4.34 ± 0. 96 vs. 8th graders 3.91 ± 1.19). Only 22.53% of
participants believe that they are completely stronger than most of their peers, and
an arithmetic mean of 4th graders 3.35 ± 1. 29 and 8th graders 3.28 ± 1.25 was
determined.
The results showed that participants generally felt that they could lift heavy objects
(4th graders 3.89 ± 1. 17 vs. 8th graders 3.90 ± 1.04) and were considered flexible
enough for most sports (4th graders 4.16 ± 1. 08 vs. 8th graders 3.71 ± 1.14).
Participants generally thought that they could run for a long time without stopping
(4th graders 3.80 ± 1. 25 vs. 8th graders 3.36 ± 1.34) and that they could run for a
long time without getting tired (4th graders 3.36 ± 1. 37 vs. 8th graders 3.08 ± 1.41).
According to the results (Table 1), most participants have a high level of selfperception. More precisely, most participants consider themselves extremely
coordinated and flexible, which is evident from the high arithmetic means, and the
large share of students who gave the maximum answer. The lowest average values
were obtained in the variables by which participants assessed their strength and
endurance.

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Table 1. Descriptive Parameters (Mean and Standard Deviation) and Response Frequencies to
Individual Self-Perception Variables in the Total Sample of Participants
4th
M±SD

In most physical
activities, I perform
movements
harmoniously
I easily control my
body movements
I’m good at most
sports
I am stronger than
most of my peers
I can lift heavy objects
I think I am flexible
enough for most
sports
I can run for a long
time without stopping
I think I could run for
a long time without
getting tired

8th
M±SD

I don't
agree
at all

Mostly
disagree

I'm
not
sure

Mostly
agree

I
totally
agree

%

%

%

%

%

4.56±0.79

4.14±0.90

1.02

3.41

10.24

32.76

52.22

4.54±0.74

4.39±0.84

0.68

2.73

6.48

29.69

60.70

4.34±0.96

3.91±1.19

3.07

6.83

16.38

22.53

50.85

3.35±1.29

3.28±1.25

11.26

10.58

35.49

19.79

22.53

3.89±1.17

3.90±1.04

3.75

6.14

24.23

27.99

37.54

4.16±1.08

3.71±1.14

4.44

6.48

21.16

26.96

40.61

3.80±1.25

3.36±1.34

10.72

9.56

21.84

26.28

31.06

3.36±1.37

3.08±1.41

17.41

11.60

25.60

22.18

22.87

We applied the Mann-Whitney U test to define significant differences in the
dimensions of PSP with regard to gender (Table 2) and specifically calculated the
analysis of differences on subsamples by age.
On a sample of 4th grade participants, we obtained statistically significant differences
in two variables. Fourth-grade male participants have significantly better results than
female participants in the variables used to assess strength. Male participants rate
their strength significantly higher than do female participants (I am stronger than most
of my peers (Z=3,90; p=0,00); I can lift heavy objects (z=3,32; p=0,00)). On the sample
of 8th-grade participants, we obtained statistically significant differences in all
variables. Male 8th-grade participants rate their coordination, strength, flexibility,
sports competences and endurance significantly higher than female participants do.

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in PE Classes According to Gender and Nutritional Status

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Table 2. Differences among Participants in PSP Dimensions Relevant for the Subject of PE by Gender
(at the Age Subsamples)
Male
MED
(QR)
In most physical
activities, I perform
movements
harmoniously
I easily control my
body movements
I’m good at most
sports
I am stronger than
most of my peers
I can lift heavy objects

4th grade
Female
MED
Z
(QR)

5.00/
1.00

5.00/
1.00

5.00/
1.00
5.00/
1.00
4.00/
2.00
5.00/
1.00

5.00/
1.00
5.00/
1.00
3.00/
2.00
4.00/
2.00

8th grade
Female
MED
Z
(QR)

p

Male
MED
(QR)

-1.02

0.31

4.00/
1.00

4.00/
2.00

-0.91

0.36

0.55

0.58

3.90

0.00*

3.32

0.00*

5.00/
1.00
5.00/
1.00
3.00/
2.00
5.00/
1.00

4.00/
1.00
4.00/
1.00
3.00/
2.00
3.00/
1.00

I think I am flexible
5.00/
5.00/
4.00/
4.00/
enough for most
-0.30
0.77
2.00
1.50
2.00
1.00
sports
I can run for a long
4.00/
4.00/
4.00/
3.00/
0.97
0.33
time without stopping
2.00
2.00
2.00
3.00
I think I could run for
4.00/
3.00/
4.00/
3.00/
a long time without
0.79
0.43
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
getting tired
MED- QR- median-quartile range; Z-z score; p- statistical significance (<0,05)

p

2.62

0.01*

2.68

0.01*

4.36

0.00*

3.61

0.00*

5.05

0.00*

2.62

0.01*

5.83

0.00*

4.84

0.00*

Table 3 shows the results of the Mann-Whitney U test used to define significant
differences in the dimensions of PSP relevant for the subject of PE with regard to
nutritional status. We specifically calculated the analysis of differences on
subsamples by age.
On the sample of 4th-grade participants, we obtained statistically significant
differences in five variables. Normal weight 4th-grade participants rate their
coordination (In most physical activities, I perform movements harmoniously Z=-3,22; p=0,00;
I easily control my body movements (Z=-2,49; p<0,01); flexibility (I think I am flexible enough
for most sports z=-2,49; p<0,01) and endurance (I can run for a long time without stopping
Z=-2,61; p<0,01; I think I could run for a long time without getting tired Z=-2,22; p<0,03)
significantly higher than overweight participants. On the sample of 8th-grade
participants, we obtained statistically significant differences in two variables.

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400

Overweight 8th-grade participants rate their strength (I am stronger than most of my peers
Z=2,82; p=0,00; I can lift heavy objects Z=3,32; p=0,00) significantly higher than
normal weight participants. There were no statistically significant differences in the
other variables.
Table 3. Differences among Participants in PSP Dimensions Relevant for the Subject of PE by
Nutritional Status (at the Age Subsamples)
4th grade

In most physical
activities, I perform
movements
harmoniously
I easily control my
body movements
I’m good at most
sports
I am stronger than
most of my peers
I can lift heavy
objects
I think I am flexible
enough for most
sports
I can run for a long
time without
stopping
I think I could run
for a long time
without getting tired

8th grade

Normal
weight

Overweight

Normal
weight

Overweight

MED
(QR)

MED
(QR)

Z

p

MED
(QR)

MED
(QR)

Z

p

5.00/
0.00

4.00/
1.00

-3.22

0.00*

4.00/
1.00

5.00/
1.00

1.18

0.24

5.00/
1.00
5.00/
1.00
3.00/
1.00
4.00/
2.00

4.00/
1.00
4.00/
2.00
4.00/
2.00
4.00/
2.00

-2.49

0.01*

0.78

0.06

1.31

0.19

1.59

0.11

2.82

0.00*

0.78

0.43

5.00/
1.00
5.00/
2.00
4.00/
2.00
5.00/
1.00

0.28

-1.86

5.00/
1.00
4.00/
2.00
3.00/
2.00
4.00/
2.00

3.32

0.00*

5.00/
1.00

3.00/
2.00

-2.49

0.01*

4.00/
2.00

4.00/
2.00

0.43

0.66

4.00/
2.00

3.00/
1.00

-2.61

0.01*

4.00/
2.00

3.50/
2.00

0.01

0.99

4.00/
3.00

3.00/
2.00

-2.22

0.03*

3.00/
2.00

3.00/
2.00

-0.18

0.85

MED- QR- median-quartile range; Z-z score; p- statistical significance (<0,05)

Discussion
Assessment of one’s own abilities gives a significant contribution to the performance
of certain motor tasks, but also to general participation in physical activity.

D. Vidaković Samaržija, L. Pavlić Karamatić & J. Alić: Differences in Students’ Physical Self-Perception
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Studies have shown that a high level of physical self-perception is positively
associated with the motivation for participation in physical activity (Biddle and
Wang, 2003; Palacios-Cartagena, Parraca, Mendoza-Muñoz, Pastor-Cisneros,
Muñoz-Bermejo and Adsuar, 2022). In addition, a high level of self-perception
contributes to the achievement of better results on individual motor tests (Carraro,
Scarpa, and Ventura, 2010; Cecić Erpič and Bezjak, 2021).
In this paper we examined individual dimensions of students’ self-perception
relevant to PE classes. The results showed that most participants rate themselves as
sufficiently coordinated, strong, flexible and skilful in performing motor tasks. We
obtained significant differences in certain dimensions of self-perception with regard
to gender. These results are consistent with other studies that have also found
differences in self-perception with respect to gender (Klomsten, Skaalvik and
Espnes, 2004; Williams, 2013; Ruiz-Montero et al. 2020). Some authors found that
male students have a higher level of self-perception in those dimensions that are
socially imposed as more acceptable to a particular gender (Klomsten et al. 2004,
according to Beasley and Garn, 2013). With increasing age, the number of items on
which students differ by gender with respect to age also increases. In the fourth
grade, male students’ self-rate their strength significantly better than their female
peers do, while in the eighth grade, this difference is significant in all variables.
Testing the differences in physical self-perception by age after controlling for gender,
the research results of Cecić Erpić and Bezjak (2021) pointed to significant
differences in the dependent variables of body fat, strength, flexibility, and global
self-esteem. The results of our research indicate that body self-concept significantly
decreases with increasing age, especially in girls, which has been confirmed by the
results of other studies (Inchley, Kirby and Currie, 2011; Nobre and Valentini, 2019;
Navarro-Patón, Pazos-Couto, Rodríguez-Fernández and Arufe-Giraldez, 2020).
The relationship between obesity and physical self-perception, especially in children
and young adults, has important implications for physical performance and the
systematic implementation of physical activity. Obesity has negative effects on both
motor performance and physical self-perception (Morano, Colella, Robazza, Bortoli
and Capranica, 2011). In this study we obtained significant differences in the
dimensions of self-perception according to nutritional status.

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In our study, participants with normal weight gave more positive assessments of
their coordination, flexibility, and endurance, while obese participants gave more
positive assessments of their strength, a finding which is similar to the research
results of Lazarević, Radisavljević Janić, Milanović and Lazarević (2011).
Moreover, in a study by Monacis, Trecroci, Invernizzi and Colella (2022), the results
showed significant differences in physical self-perception between normal-weight,
overweight, and obese children. In other studies, overweight children have a poorer
perception of most of their abilities, but also estimate their strength to be greater
(Sung, Yu, So, Lam and Hau 2005). The authors point out that exercise programs
for overweight children should be targeted according to better assessed dimensions
of self-perception. This would improve the motivation to participate in physical
activity. Otherwise, low levels of perceived physical competence, which are common
in obese children, may result in less motivation to engage and persist in physical
activities, resulting in fewer opportunities to improve their skills and their perception
of competence (Stodden et al. 2008).
Numerous authors indicate that children with a higher degree of motor competence
and higher self-perception have a higher level of physical activity (De Meester et al.
2016; Jaakkola et al. 2019; Britton, Issartel, Symonds and Belton 2020). The
development of motor skills and the acquisition of motor competences during
childhood contributes to the formation of experiences related to physical activity, a
higher level of physical self-perception, and thus to the maintenance of their physical
activity in the future (Loprinzi, Davis and Fu, 2015). A better assessment of physical
self-perception increases motivation, commitment, and participation in physical
activity (Borrego-Balsalobre et al. 2023) and is a significant predictive factor for their
future physical activity (Utesch, Dreiskämper, Naul and Geukes, 2018). Research
conducted on a sample of overweight children (Morano et al. 2020), shows that the
systematic implementation of a multi-component exercise program can improve the
level of PA, fitness and perception of competence among overweight participants.
Authors Borrego-Balsalobre et al. (2023) indicate the need for diverse and
motivating approaches in physical education classes for students with different
nutritional status to acquire commitment to the practice of physical activity and thus
to maintain healthy habits throughout life.
There are limitations in this study that could influence the interpretation of the main
outcomes. The sample for this research comprised preadolescent and adolescent
students who were in the period of maturation accompanied by multiple changes.

D. Vidaković Samaržija, L. Pavlić Karamatić & J. Alić: Differences in Students’ Physical Self-Perception
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Maturation processes accompanied by multiple changes are not the same in all
individuals, so it can be a confounding factor that needs to be minimized or
eliminated in future studies. This is a relatively small sample of respondents from a
certain region in Croatia, so the data cannot be extrapolated.
Despite the limitations, the present study contributes to better understanding of
changes in physical self-perception according to gender and indicates a decrease in
physical self-perception with age. The results of this study indicate risk groups that
need strategies aimed to raise the level of PSP and thus to increase participation in
physical activity. Low levels of PSP may be an obstacle to engaging in physical
activity, so intensive work should be done to increase physical self-perception
especially on the sample of female students who stood out as a risk group.
Conclusion
The results of this study indicate that most students make adequate evaluations of
certain dimensions of self-perception high. However, comparing the evaluation of
individual dimensions that are important for successful performance of motor tasks
in PE class, we observed significant differences depending on gender and nutritional
status. We also observed that the significant differences were more pronounced with
age. In 4th grade, male students report better self-perception only on the dimension
of strength, while in 8th grade, male students compared to female students report
more positive assessments of all dimensions important for successful performance
of motor tasks in PE class. The sample for this research consisted of preadolescent
and adolescent students who are in the period of maturation accompanied by
multiple changes. This period is also characterized by a decrease in the level of
physical activity, so physical self-perception is an important determinant of
adolescent physical activity. Strategies for raising the level of PSP should be focused
on those dimensions that participants value highly. In this way, there will be no lack
of motivation to participate, and a comprehensive approach will contribute to better
physical fitness and an improved level of physical activity and will affect the raising
of other dimensions of self-perception.
Future research should be aimed at the target group of adolescent students with
similar characteristics. It would be desirable to assess the relationship between
physical self-perception and the actual assessment of physical fitness.

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Also, when assessing physical self-perception, the factors that should be taken into
consideration and that could have a significant impact are the curriculum of the PE
class as well as the student’s previous involvement in sports activities.
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Authors:
Donata Vidaković Samaržija, PhD
Associate professor, University of Zadar, Departmen of Teacher and Preschool Teacher Education,
Ul. Franje Tuđmana 14 I, 23000 Zadar, Croatia, e-mail: dovidak@unizd.hr
Izredna profesorica, Univerza v Zadru, Oddelek za izobraževanje učiteljev in vzgojiteljev predšolskih
otrok, e-pošta: dovidak@unizd.hr
Lara Pavelić Karamatić, PhD
Ministry of Defence, Trg kralja Petra Krešimira IV br. 1, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail:
larakaramatic@gmail.com
Minstrstvo za obrambo, Trg kralja Petra Krešimira IV br. 1, 10000 Zagreb, Hrvaška, e-pošta:
larakaramatic@gmail.com
Jelena Alić PhD
Associate professor, University of Zadar, Departmen of Teacher and Preschool Teacher Education,
Ul. Franje Tuđmana 14 I, 23000 Zadar, Croatia, e-mail: jcetinic@unizd.hr
Izredna profesorica, Univerza v Zadru, Oddelek za izobraževanje učiteljev in vzgojiteljev predšolskih
otrok, e-pošta: jcetinic@unizd.hr

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JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 409–423, December 2023

GREEK PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL
EXPERIENCE AS DIGITAL ACTORS

PANAGIOTIS GIAVRIMISV
Potrjeno/Accepted
31. 8. 2023
Objavljeno/Published
11. 12. 2023

Ključne besede:
Osnovnošolski učitelji,
IKT, digitalna
neenakost, Grčija

Keywords:
Primary school
teachers, ICT, digital
inequalities, Greece

UDK/UDC:
37.014(495)

University of Aegean, Departmen of Socilogy, Mytilene-Lesvos, Greece

CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR
giavrimis@soc.aegean.gr
Abstract/Izvleček
The present study investigates teachers’ views on their experience as digital
actors in the context of Greek educational policy. The interview was used as
a tool for data collection. Findings revealed that the teachers in our survey
highlighted the shortcomings of the Greek educational approach in terms of
material and technical infrastructure and the training of teachers regarding
ICT. Through this new digital context of education, teachers conceptualize
their competence and self-efficacy, their self-perception, and their emotional
response to integrating new digital tools into teaching practice.
Poklicne izkušnje grških osnovnošolskih učiteljev kot digitalnih
akterjev
V študiji raziskujemo stališča učiteljev o njihovih izkušnjah v vlogi digitalnih
akterjev v grški izobraževalni politiki. Kot orodje za zbiranje podatkov je bil
uporabljen intervju. Ugotovitve so pokazale, da so učitelji v naši raziskavi
izpostavili pomanjkljivosti grškega izobraževalnega pristopa v smislu
materialne in tehnične infrastrukture ter usposabljanja učiteljev glede IKT.
Učitelji s tem novim digitalnim kontekstom izobraževanja konceptualizirajo
svoje kompetence in samoučinkovitost, dojemanje sebe in čustveni odziv na
vključevanje novih digitalnih orodij v pedagoško prakso.

DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.2762
Besedilo / Text © 2023 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s)
To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna.
Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje,
dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja
izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Introduction
In recent years and since the COVID-19 pandemic, a rapid change in the status of
ICT in educational practice has been observed. Educational systems are increasingly
investing in new technologies. The fourth industrial revolution, with the automation
of production and the development of artificial intelligence, is leading to an ongoing
transformation of teaching practice (Schleicher, 2020). Interactions in the learning
context deconstruct the traditional contract of face-to-face teaching, and the
spatiotemporal classroom boundaries are widening. The appropriation of knowledge
is mediated by digital factors (e.g., internet, digital information, etc.), the arbitrary
authority of the teacher’s dominant figure has long since faded, and learning has
moved away from the former objectified form it used to take and is becoming
multifaceted as new modes of transforming, organizing, and analysing it have
emerged (Pokhrel and Chhetri, 2021; Zhao and Watterston, 2021). The
contemporary history of social life dynamically blends the local with the global and
symbiotic educational reality with new technology’s synchronic or asynchronous
digital reality.
Theorists approach digital inequalities and knowledge as forms of power signalling
and, simultaneously, as a field of social struggle, control, domination, or negotiation.
The possession, access, and usage of technological tools and technological products
define a special cultural status and identity, which presupposes the acquisition of
digital knowledge and skills and are manifestations of power and relative strength.
The new digital reality is how the ideological underpinnings of social reproductive
practices document current social arrangements as necessary and justified (Drucker,
1996).
The Teachers’ Role in the postmodern era
Postmodern societies rely more on information management and skills specialization
than pre-industrial societies (Kelpanidis and Vriniotis, 2004). According to Giddens
(2001), the new way of approaching knowledge subverts the traditional mechanisms
of knowledge appropriation. The globalized economic context through the power
of ICT impacts knowledge and its transformation and the emergence of information
as a commoditised product. The production and accessibility of information and its
usage have been commodified (Raggneda and Muschert, 2013).

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Contemporary capitalism is based more than ever on the distribution of information,
and digital networking is creating digital capitalism (Fuchs, 2013). Knowledge takes
on multifaceted dimensions, and the new cognitive tool transforms the organization,
analysis, and interpretation of knowledge, as well as factors of consideration of
sociocultural reality, merging the local with the global (Robins and Webster, 1999).
Teachers are proselytized and act as mediators in establishing the dominant sociopolitical system perpetuating the social inequalities that have emerged in the
Information Society (Witte and Mannon, 2010).
In the post-modern educational context, the teacher himself does not determine the
educational practices of education (teaching models, curricula, syllabuses, etc.). The
teacher has limited autonomy, while educational practices are shaped within the
structured framework of the state and the epistemological demands of the
contemporary era. It is difficult for teachers to objectify their work as an artefact of
their personality and professional identity. Teachers also have difficulty recognizing
themselves, their skills, abilities, and creativity, on account of their activity in the new
era. At the same time, the colonization of education by the new methodological tools
is shaping new conditions for conceptualizing work and the self. Difficulty in
determining one’s professional and personal identity shapes the borders of others’
management within the educational community. Under stress, disembodiment, and
the imposition of cultural differentiation by dominant groups in their school life,
teachers become alienated from themselves and their relationships with community
members (Mesaros, 1974).
All the above imposes much pressure on the teachers and brings up the project of
their training. In such an environment of fluidity and change, teachers thus require
education and training (Elliot, 1977) adapted to the new social conditions to acquire
a higher level of skills, a comprehensive education, and the establishment of a
lifelong education (Hargreaves, 1994). The use of ICT on its own does not
automatically mean the modernization of a school system. The availability of a
specific training policy can contribute to this, which, in the context of a broader
educational policy, should promote the teachers’ academic, professional, and
personal development.

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ICT education in Greece
The integration of ICT in Greek education follows the general development of ICT
in Greece. In 2014, Greece had not yet captured the full range of benefits from ICT
adoption, as it was still lagging behind Europe in 65 out of 84 ICT indicators (77%),
based on the European Digital Agenda Scoreboard (2014) (Foundation for
Economic and Industrial Research, 2015). However, the Greek ICT sector grew
faster than the global ICT sector over the years 2017-2021, especially during the
pandemic. According to the Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI), Greece,
although it has made much progress in recent years, still ranks among the lowest
(25th) in the EU-27 regarding human capital, connectivity, digital technology
integration, and digital public services (European Commission, 2022). Fifty-two
percent of people (age 16-74) and 88% of young people (16 - 24 years) have at least
basic digital skills. There were 8.5 million internet users in Greece in January 2022
and 7.40 million social media users in Greece in January 2022. In Greece, individuals
and workers often lack the foundation skills necessary to flourish in a digital world.
In Greece, the connectivity gap between households in rural areas and large urban
areas exceeds ten percentage points. In Greece, more than one in five households is
not connected to the Internet (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, 2019, p. 143). In 2005 the proportion of people with internet skills
was 25.2%; in 2007, 36.01%; and in 2013, it reached 62.44% (Eurostat, 2023a). Also,
in 2015, 44.01% of individuals had digital skills, and 2019 50.52% (Eurostat, 2023b).
In this framework of the Greek educational system, ICT teaching was initially
implemented fragmentarily in the 1980s. The Unified Curriculum (YPEPTH, 1998)
systematized the introduction of ICT in education, while the Cross-Thematic
Curriculum Framework (Greek Ministry of Education and Culture, 2003) innovatively
aimed at compulsory education to develop digital literacy in students and to
familiarise them with the various applications of computers as a learning tool, as a
cognitive - exploratory tool and as a tool for communication and retrieving
information in the context of daily school activities (Greek Ministry of Education
and Culture, 2003). The new 2021 Curricula for informatics are by the
Interdisciplinary Unified Curriculum Framework from the first grade to the Lyceum
(I.E.P, 2021).

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Furthermore, in the past two decades, in Greece, educational training activities for
teachers regarding constantly renewing ICTs have been developed by private
educational institutions and associations (Hellenic Mathematical Society, Greek
Physicists’ Union, etc.) and universities. The first training effort in ICT for teachers
was conducted through the PEK (Regional Training Centres), which were
established in 1992. A great impetus was given by programs funded through the EU.
In the initial programs, the emphasis was on knowledge and skills in new
technologies (A-level training course, “Training of primary and secondary teachers
in the basic skills of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in
education” (2002-2008). It should have paid more attention to the pedagogical and
instructional integration of ICT. Research results on the above have shown that
there was a change in the level of knowledge and skills among teachers who attended
the programs, and the usage of ICT in teaching practice increased significantly after
the training (Jimoyiannis and Komis, 2007). However, support for instructional
activities was inadequate (Author, 2011; Komis, 2000), the organization of training
programs had considerable problems (Jimoyiannis and Komis, 2007), and doubts
were also raised about their effectiveness (Kyridis et al., 2006). At the end of the first
decade of the 21st century, a long-term program on the pedagogical usage of ICTs
in instruction, as well as training programs for trainers (B-level training course,
“Training of teachers in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)”
2008-2014) began to be implemented.
Finally, the implementation of “emergency remote education” during the pandemic
period and the resulting violent and dynamic change in educational processes
revealed several aspects related to the digital literacy of teachers, such as a) teacher
confusion and stress (Koutsogiannis, 2020, p. 550; UNESCO, 2020), and their lack
of training (KE.ME.TE, 2021; Perifanou et al., 2022; Samioti, 2021); b) the social
and digital inequalities that digital technology causes in both teachers and students
(Author, 2020; Ralli, 2021), and c) the reflection on the transformation of the role
of teachers and in the methodology of teaching practice (Author, 2020; Jimoyiannis
et al., 2020). The integration of ICT in Greece during the COVID-19 period revealed
barriers to its implementation and the direction in which educational policies should
be oriented. Two of the most significant issues, upgrading the logistical
infrastructure and teacher training, have not yet been addressed.

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The present study investigates teachers’ views on their experience as digital actors in
the context of Greek educational policy. Research questions included how teachers
experience themselves as digital actors and evaluate Greek educational policies on
ICT use.
Method
Qualitative research was used. Qualitative research involves a naturalistic and
interpretive approach to social phenomena, in their natural context, through the
discourse of individuals and their interpretive schemas (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005).
In addition, qualitative research approaches social phenomena by conceptualizing
the acting subjects and their social action as a complex symbolic construction
adopting reflection processes (Tsiolis, 2014). A phenomenological approach was
chosen in the context of qualitative research in which the common
conceptualizations of individuals of their lived experience regarding the
phenomenon under study are captured. The phenomenological approach enables
the researcher to identify and interpret the phenomenon’s essence. The participants
selected all had experience related to ICT implementation in Greek education and
wanted to record their views in the research (Creswell, 2013; Denzin and Lincoln,
2005).
Participants
This study used the qualitative method to assess the participants’ interpretations and
social experiences. Participants were selected to ensure the appropriateness and
adequacy of responses to the research questions (Iosifidis, 2017). Purposive
sampling was used, and two strategies were followed: a) selecting those critical cases
that are experts in the field of our research and b) ensuring maximum sample
diversity (gender, age, years of service) (Flick, 2017). In total, 29 primary school
teachers were selected, ten males and 19 females of several age groups. Participants’
age ranged from 32 years old to 54 years old, with an average of about 41.5 years.
Years of service were between 1 and 36 years, with an average of 13.5 years.

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Table 1. Demographic Profile of Participants
Years of service
1-5 years
6-15 years
16-25 years
26 years and over
Area
Urban
Countryside

7
8
8
6
17
9

Age
30-40 years old
40-50 years old
50 years and over

Primary Education category
14 PE70
12 PE11
3 PE06
Work Position
Typical class
Educational Priority Zones
Integration class/Parallel support

23
3
3
16
2
5

Research Implement
For the present study, we used interviews for data collection and, more specifically,
the semi-structured interview, characterized by a looser question structure. This is a
qualitative research tool that aims to organize a communicative relationship between
the interviewer and the interviewee, for the former to obtain information from the
latter through appropriate questions (Iosifidis, 2017). The interview guide included
four thematic axes:
- The first thematic area concerned teachers’ conceptualizations regarding the
digital divide. Indicative questions were: “What does the digital divide mean to
you?”, “Can you give us an example of a digital divide through your experience
in school?”.
- The second thematic area was related to the causes of the digital divide.
Indicative questions were: “What are the causes of the digital divide?”, “What
explanation do you give for the existence of the digital divide in education?”
- The third thematic area referred to the consequences of the digital divide.
Indicative questions were: “What do you think are the consequences of the
digital divide in your daily life?”, “What do you think are the consequences of
the digital divide in your instructional work?”, “Who is most affected by the
digital divide in the school context?”
- The fourth thematic area included questions about ways to address the digital
divide. Indicative questions were: “In your opinion, to address the digital divide,
what can you personally do?”, “In your opinion, what can the education system
do to address the digital divide?

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Research procedure
In the present study, we chose the thematic analysis method to analyse the
information from the interviews with teachers. Essentially, this is a method that
identifies patterns within the data allowing the researcher to understand the research
data in depth. Thematic analysis is valuable for studying data collected from openended research questions such as focus group discussions or interviews. In this
research, coding was carried out after the data was collected through semi-structured
interviews. Coding is a technique for identifying themes and concepts in the text and
finding relationships between them. The central unit of analysis was sentences,
paragraphs, or the whole interview text (Kyriazi, 2009, p. 238). In addition, coding
was guided by concepts drawn from existing literature and theory. The next step was
categorizing the data into multiple categories and sometimes subcategories. In the
end, the processing of existing ideas and concepts was conducted.
Results
In the present study’s findings, teachers’ views on their experiences as digital actors
are presented. Teachers’ views are related to intrapersonal and interpersonal
dimensions of their experience and the educational policies implemented during the
integration of ICT in the Greek educational system.
Teachers’ experience as digital actors (Intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions)
- Positive Teacher experiences
Most teachers in our survey mention the positive effects of digital literacy on
teaching practices. Digital literacy, according to these teachers, facilitates the learning
practices and the instructors’ actions and fosters an emotionally positive climate
based on cooperation and emotional closeness between student and teacher. In
addition, ICT supports the development of a network of information on educational
work between schools.
Facilitate educational activities: “Those who are familiar with using... They have collected
supervisory material and not only their own, but they have the supervisory material of many
teachers;” “... it is easy for me, who knows to search about the first flight into space...I can easily
be ready in two minutes” (E3).
Use of different teaching methods: “I think a teacher working with technology can teach the
same thing in various ways, with many comparisons...” (E8).

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Engagement - learner agency: “With new technologies, students can be more engaged... you do
not provide them with information that is, let us say, 'sterile;’ they work on their own doing what
they want to do, they feel more productive...” (E12)
Increased emotional closeness with the teacher: “And they feel closer to the teacher...the
lesson becomes more pleasant, more immediate with the students, they feel more comfortable and
relaxed, you interact better with each other” (E1).
Developing an information network between schools: “...you can communicate with other
schools in Greece about the same subjects and how they teach them, to provide the children with
additional information” (E17).
- Negative teacher experiences
Nevertheless, some teachers have negative professional experiences as digital actors.
For example, they feel undervalued or threatened and have feelings of burnout or
feelings of knowledge inadequacy.
Underestimation: “... Those who can use it are considered better. The others feel inferior, feel
disadvantaged. I could place it in that way” (E20)2.
Threat: “I am threatened in some way on a daily basis. Because while I have some basic knowledge
about technology, this constant growth is scary...” (E143).
Emotional burnout: “...apart from the fact that it is exhausting, and you do not have the
patience, neither can I afford to follow it, nor do I have the time to deal with new technologies all the
time” (E7).
Feelings of knowledge inadequacy: “Yes indeed, I feel that I should be able to learn some
things; I lack skills, and I would only want to be trained to learn how to operate laptops,
projectors...” (E22).
Digital technology also harms people’s social networking in terms of communication
because of a lack of appropriate equipment or skills and their relationships with
others, which can turn into dependent relationships.
Communication: “In my everyday life... I think it has affected me most in the communication
field. As some friends of mine do not have certain applications that I have or do not have the
knowledge to use them” (E28).
Interpersonal relations: “... it can also affect relations with colleagues. Of course, it can have an
impact…” (E10).
Dependency on others: “I find it quite difficult. I can be familiar with new technology and be
a little independent regarding computers and not depending on other colleagues, to whom you become
a burden” (E4).

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According to the teachers in our study, negative professional experiences are related
to the insufficient utilization of ICTs in teaching practice, as a result of inadequate
skills or inferior logistical equipment. In addition, teachers mentioned that
professional inequalities are increasing as a result of a deficit in the necessary skills,
and there is the stigmatization of schools that cannot use ICT.
Low usage of ICT in classroom practice: “Regarding teachers, some of them may not use
digital media so often to support their teaching practice” (E25).
Negative consequences for students due to teacher inefficiency: “I think students
experience a learning disadvantage if the teacher does not know something to demonstrate to them
... the stimuli teachers provide may be less” (E2).
Establishing a professional divide: “... anyone who does not comply will be left behind ... that
is, the one who does not have an internet connection and a computer is left behind” (E21).
Education Policy on ICT Digital
Teachers reported outdated ICT resources in schools, which can malfunction.
Usually, the Ministry of Education offers limited funding, which is insufficient for a
fully equipped school, and the level of flexibility in the usage of ICT depends on the
school’s culture.
“Uh... okay… There are some worthy efforts to have the appropriate infrastructure available.
However, unfortunately, school facilities are deplorable regarding infrastructure; there are schools
with few labs or even no computers. Without interactive whiteboards even. I think there should be
better material infrastructure, and every class should have its proper computer and projector” (E16).
“My difficulty is the infrastructure that does not exist in several schools to use the new technologies
properly as I know how ... I do not feel that I can search; there is no electronic ‘library’ ...” (E19).
“We are privileged as a school compared to other schools I hear about since we have three interactive
whiteboards” (E24).
State support is insufficient regarding equipment and teacher training, resulting in
negative feelings concerning this issue. Teachers referred to the failure of the State
to develop teachers’ digital skills training at an adequate level. In-service training in
Greece needs to be improved or extended. Teachers are often forced to join training
programs on their initiative and at their own expense to cope with the new cognitive
challenges of ICT.
“Training is not at all encouraging, and it depends on the teachers and their willingness to offer as
well as their knowledge” (E11).
“I think training is not enough; I was trained too, but there were so many things I had to learn
that maybe I could not sufficiently assimilate them as to feel secure” (E14).

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“... for example, ICT training has stopped being provided. They only conduct exams, and as far as
I know, these are administered in large testing centres located off-island” (E8).
Discussion
Teachers’ life experiences in their professional careers and encounters as individuals
with the differentiation of teaching practices and the postmodern context contribute
to forming their identity as teachers (Hargreaves and Goodson, 2006). The present
study investigated teachers’ views on their experience as digital actors in the context
of Greek educational policy.
Teachers in our survey mentioned both positive and negative aspects of their
interaction with ICT. The positive reports from the group of teachers in our survey
concerned pedagogical practices, since ICT facilitates instructional practice, and
teachers’ actions and forms an emotionally positive climate based on collaboration
and student-teacher emotional closeness. In addition, ICT supports the
development of a network of information on learning and teaching between schools.
Studies have highlighted the above aspects of ICT’s positive effects (Diamantaki et
al., 2001; Gulbahar and Guven, 2008; Jimoyiannis and Komis, 2006; Jonassen et al.,
1998; Kafai et al., 2002; Kyridis et al., 2003; Rumpagaporn and Darmawan, 2007).
Moreover, many teachers had negative learning experiences as digital actors. They
felt undervalued or threatened and had feelings of burnout or feelings of knowledge
inadequacy. According to the teachers in our study, negative professional
experiences were related to the low usage of ICT in teaching practices due to
inadequate skills or lack of logistical equipment. Teachers mentioned that
professional inequalities are growing on account of the lack of necessary skills, while
there is a stigmatization of schools that cannot use ICT. Digital technology also
harms people’s social networking in terms of communication because of a lack of
appropriate equipment or skills and their relationships with others, which can also
turn into dependent relationships. Dysphoric states (e.g., anxiety, fear) have been
confirmed in several studies (Demetriadis, 2003; Pelgrum, 2001; Preston et al., 2000;
Vosniadou, 2006).
To deal with these issues, an effective education policy would be necessary. Teachers
in our survey stated that educational policy in Greece for ICT integration in schools
is inadequate or insufficient because of limited State funding, inadequate training,
and the inappropriate culture of some schools.

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State support needs to be improved in terms of financial support for the digital
upgrading of schools and in the training of teachers, since the present situation has
resulted in an unfavourable climate around the issue. In-service training in Greece is
limited and needs to be improved. Teachers are often directed to join training
programs on their initiative and at their own financial expense to cope with the
demands of contemporary education.
The new cognitive tools of the postmodern era shape the different accessibility of
teachers to learning resources and individuals derived professional experiences,
making ICTs part of the interest conflicts between social groups (Giddens, 2001).
The ‘colonization’ of education by new methodological tools alienates aspects of the
teacher’s experience of learning, such as their relationship with knowledge, their
educational practice, their relationships with members of the educational
community, and their relationship with themselves. Their differentiated views result
from their professional trajectory in the postmodern and digital context. The social
differentiation in subsystems that is taking place is a dynamic and continuous process
that transforms social structures into new levels of social inequality, which have the
management of new cognitive tools as a fundamental component (Giannakopoulos,
2005, p. 37), along with the manipulation and exclusion of individuals and groups
(Melucci, 2002). Thus, the availability of digital resources establishes a new level of
social stratification and new forms of inequality. Inequality and social classes are not
approached materialistically but as unequal access to digital literacy. Digital
inequalities and knowledge are perceived as both forms of power signalling and,
simultaneously, as a field of social struggle, imposition, domination, or negotiation.
As a mediating framework in teachers’ pedagogical experience, the Greek
educational policy function raises issues of the reproduction of social inequalities,
which have been transformed into digital disparities. The school’s orientation is also
determined by digitally dominant social groups, which can impose ideological and
educational policy agendas as another form of symbolic violence. Simultaneously,
the public area of education, with its conditions of underfunding and insufficient
teacher training, operates as a part of a commercialized education by reducing the
availability of public resources, subverting the social contract of public free
education, and pushing teachers to join private training organizations. The
instrumentalization of the production process, the commodification of knowledge,
and the increasing influence of market practices in education are among the
inevitable consequences emerging in this context.

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Conclusion
Overall, the teachers in our survey highlighted the shortcomings of Greek
educational policy in terms of material and technical infrastructure and the training
of teachers regarding ICT. The educational environment that is formed shapes the
teachers’ professional experience regarding the use and usefulness of ICT at Greek
schools. Through this new digital context of education, teachers conceptualize their
competence and self-efficacy, their perception of themselves, and their emotional
response to integrating new digital tools into teaching practice. There is, therefore,
an educational project to build a functional framework for introducing ICT in
education that aligns with the latest cognitive tools provided in the post-modern era.
At the same time, increased funding is deemed necessary to upgrade the quality of
the material and technical infrastructure and train teachers in ICT.
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Author:
Giavrimis Panagiotis, PhD
Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, University of the Aegean, Greece, Pamfilis 17, 81100
Mytilene-Lesvos, Greece, e-mail: giavrimis@soc.aegean.gr
Izredni profesor, Oddelek za sociologijo, Univerza v Egeju, Grčija, Pamfilis 17, 81100 Mytilene-Lesbos,
Grčija, e-pošta: giavrimis@soc.aegean.gr

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Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 425–439, December 2023

DIGITAL DEVICES AND INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION OVER TIME
TOMAŽ BRATINA
Potrjeno/Accepted
31. 8. 2023
Objavljeno/Published
11. 12. 2023

Keywords:
mobile devices,
interpersonal
communication,
simultaneous digital
communication,
phubbing, text
messaging
Ključne besede:
mobilne naprave,
medosebna
komunikacija, sočasna
digitalna komunikacija,
teleignoriranje,
besedilna sporočila

onološko zavedanje,
začetni/končni glas,
branje besed, vrtec, 1. ra
UDK/UDC:
316.77:004

Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Maribor, Slovenija
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR
tomaz.bratina@um.si
Abstract/Izvleček
Digital communication supported by mobile devices has an essential impact on
interpersonal relations. Face-to-face communication is significantly affected
because of the habits of simultaneous use of mobile devices and digital
communication. The effect on interpersonal relations is negative since the
behaviour affects personal closeness, empathy, and trust, including the feeling that
a physically present person is unwanted or redundant, even replacing face-to-face
communication with text messaging. The behavioural patterns significantly change
if a loved one is involved. Results show that behaviour patterns did not change
considerably over five years. Simultaneous digital communication, replacing faceto-face contact or voice call with text messaging is still present, with minor
deviations in the post-pandemic period. Nevertheless, personal contact with
beloved persons is still the primary preference over time compared to digital
contact.
Digitalne naprave in medosebna komunikacija skozi čas
Digitalna komunikacija, podprta z mobilnimi napravami, pomembno vpliva na
medsebojne odnose. Kadar oseba hkrati uporablja mobilno napravo in digitalno
komunicira, je medosebna komunikacija zelo omejena in negativno vpliva na
medosebne odnose. Tako vedenje vpliva na osebno bližino, empatijo in zaupanje,
vključno z občutkom, da je fizično prisotna oseba nezaželena ali odveč. Vedenjski
vzorci pa se bistveno spremenijo, ko je prisotna ljubljena oseba. Rezultati kažejo,
da se vedenjski vzorci v petih letih niso bistveno spremenili. Še vedno sta prisotna
sočasna digitalna komunikacija in nadomeščanje medosebnega stika ali klica s
tekstovnim sporočanjem, z manjšim odstopanjem v obdobju po pandemiji, ki
kažeta željo po več osebnih stikih. Osebni stik z ljubljenimi osebami namesto
digitalnega je še vedno primarna izbira.

DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.2958
Besedilo / Text © 2023 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s)
To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0
Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno
reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod
pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Introduction
It is impossible to imagine life without digital communication via the Internet, which
is supported by various technical devices. Until recently, the mobile phone was the
most commonly used device for interpersonal communication involving voice calls.
Nowadays, voice calls are not necessarily made exclusively by mobile phones, so the
term ‘mobile phone’ has been replaced by ‘mobile device’. Calls in any form are
increasingly made via portable or wearable devices. Therefore, in our article, we use
the term mobile device(s) instead of mobile phone unless it is necessary to refer to
the latter device specifically. Younger generations become owners of mobile devices
even before the start of formal education. As a result, the software on these devices
and the influence of practically constant use have significantly changed the way of
communication and lifestyle. (Matijević and Topolovćan, 2019)
Digital and interpersonal communication
As a result of lifestyle changes, certain behavioural patterns have also arisen. We
mean the way interpersonal communication has been transformed from the
traditional face-to-face kind to other parallel forms. Text messages, social networks,
and other applications on mobile devices are in use as intermediaries. In this way,
the frequency of face-to-face communication is decreasing and is being replaced by
these other forms. Moreover, the Internet and especially social media, have evolved
into a new format for socialization and a means of interpersonal communication
(Blažević and Klein, 2022). The phenomenon particularly intensified during the
pandemic. Replacing face-to-face communication with digital increased even when
contacts were not officially restricted. Eighty-six percent of participants in a survey
on the use frequency of both communication methods during the pandemic period
in several countries confirmed the replacement of face-to-face communication with
digital communication. This was done equally by women and men. However,
women used video communication more often. Regarding age, younger people (up
to 36 years) preferred digital communication, while older people communicated
more often by voice call (Newson, et al., 2021).
The absence of direct interpersonal communication lowers the quality of
relationships, and other negative consequences are also noticeable. Those include
the decline of reading literacy, in the quality of messages and in the content.

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Research shows that we cannot neglect the importance of face-to-face
communication. People perceive face-to-face interactions as more valuable or
meaningful, enabling better social connections and emotional closeness than digital
communication like text messages, e-mail, social media, etc. Digital communication
generates the absence of nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, body language,
tone of voice, and eye contact, which convey emotions and intentions (Nguyen, et
al., 2022).
On the other hand, digital or computer-mediated communication allows
interpersonal connection when someone is not physically present for various
reasons. The benefits are closely dependent on the ways digital communication is
used (Newson, et al., 2021). According to Liu (2019), text-based messaging brings
positive associations with psychological well-being, while gaming brings negative
associations.
The value of face-to-face communication in interpersonal relationships is
unquestionable. Of course, we cannot pay attention to this alone. Digital
communication is practical, enabling connection, constant communication, and
availability. Our research focuses on interpersonal relationships and the
simultaneous use of digital communication, mainly from the perspective of teacher
education since our students, as pre-service teachers, will teach children in the near
future, and many of them already display such behavioural patterns.
Many mobile device owners admit to using them during various social activities,
including face-to-face communication. Such behaviour causes unfavourable feelings
for the person involved. This kind of behaviour affects personal closeness, empathy,
and trust. Affected persons feel that a virtual person is more important than a
physically present person. The oddest situation, according to Štrukelj (2017) is the
use of a mobile device even during sexual intercourse, which has a directly negative
impact on relationships. All such behaviour patterns can, without exception, be
classified as the Phubbing phenomenon. Phubbing means ignoring the present
person in favour of a mobile device, thus harming the relationship.
In most cases, phubbing is present among closely related persons, and among
partners, it often causes jealousy (Al-Saggaf and O’Donnell, 2019). Phubbing has
become increasingly common since mobile devices have been around to play a
significant role. It often happens when individuals are engaged in face-to-face
conversations, social gatherings, or other interpersonal situations.

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When someone participates in phubbing, they may constantly check their phone,
browse social media, send text messages, or engage in other digital activities instead
of being fully present in the conversation or the moment. This behaviour can be
seen as disrespectful and negatively affect interpersonal relationships. Phubbing can
lead to feelings of exclusion, frustration, and decreased social connection for the
person being ignored. (Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2018). It conveys that the
person’s presence or conversation is less important than digital distractions. Over
time, repeated phubbing can erode trust and intimacy in relationships and hinder
effective communication.
Multicommunication
The simultaneous use of mobile devices and digital communication negatively
impacts interpersonal relations. However, when more people are involved for some
reason, multiple forms of communication can confer benefits, for example, if group
interaction is required or desired during organizational sessions or meetings. The
group members can simultaneously interact through text messaging in any form and
or face-to-face interaction. However, this solution or possibility is not always
welcome and is considered distractive. Some researchers classify this under the term
multitasking, which is a practice mainly attributed to younger people. More
descriptively, the concept of simultaneous communication can be described by the
term multicommunication, which supports effectiveness, participation, and task
orientation (Paskewitz and Beck, 2019). We believe that the concept is suitable for
corporate activities, but less so or not at all, from the point of view of interpersonal
relations and education.
Text messaging as digital communication and education
We must recognize the concerns that text messaging, as an integral part of digital
communication, leads to decreased writing quality. Some research also suggests a
decline in reading literacy and in the quality of message writing as side effects,
primarily of text messaging. All this is mainly due to emoticons, which replace words
and enable a shortcut past grammatically correct notation. Some studies suggest that
emoticons enhance expressivity in communication, and people may even perceive
messages without these as rude (Sanpietro, 2020).

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The survey about the grammar of emoji shows that textual communication with
emoticons does not involve grammatical complexity (Cohn, Engelen, and
Schilperoord, 2019). We have no absolute confirmation of this, as opinions change
over time. In the period before the pandemic, the view prevailed that the effects
were negative, but according to other research results, the impact of text messaging
on literacy does vary. Some studies have found a positive correlation between texting
and literacy, while others have found negative or non-significant correlations. One
example of such a negative impact is the finding that points to the fact that students
who use text messaging need more time to complete a reading task or may feel sleepy
during the daytime (Yilmazsoy, Kahraman, and Köse, 2020).
On the other hand, a summary of research (Using texting to promote learning and
literacy, 2014) on the impact of text messaging shows the positive role of its use for
building foundational reading skills and encouraging the participation of students
with learning disabilities or those who have difficulty engaging in discussions or do
not feel confident about participating in class discussion. Even in persons with
dyslexia, establishing a positive relationship with reading ability may result. The
analysis of more than five hundred text messages showed creative, communicative
ability without affecting the quality of language expression. Most existing research is
conducted on younger children from the upper grades of primary and secondary
schools. Therefore, the researchers emphasize that the focus in the future should be
on the impact of text communication in connection with formal academic language,
which lies more in the domain of older adolescents.
Regardless of the divergent findings, we believe choosing between the beneficial
effects and the excessive use of digital communication, especially in education, is
necessary. Constant changes in findings are evident regarding the analysis of
teachers’ views on the reception ability of younger students after emergency remote
teaching. The results show moderate and significant differences in receptive skills
(Kerneža, 2023). Although this fact is not directly related to the consequences of
excessive digital/text communication, it somehow belongs in the context of digital
communication. In general, text communication, as part of digital communication,
does not affect reading literacy and understanding of messages among older
adolescents.

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Methodology
Purpose
The research aims to identify changes in social behaviour involving the use of mobile
devices over the years. We paid extra attention to the differences before and after
the pandemic. The research focused on social interaction between two persons and
on interaction between the person and a group of persons.
The following research questions were posed:
-

Have there been any changes in the time students spend on digital
communication per day?
Have there been any changes in the time students spend using mobile phones
per day?
Has behaviour involving simultaneous use of mobile devices during in-person
contact changed over time?
Has the behaviour of simultaneous digital communication during contact with
single or several people changed over time?
Has there been any change in the preferred type of digital communication with
a beloved person over time?
Has the usage of textual messages instead of voice calls changed over time?

Sample
The sample includes 417 pre-service teachers (hereafter, students) of Elementary
Education and Preschool Education at the Faculty of Education in Maribor and
students of Pedagogy at the Faculty of Arts in Maribor. These students were
attending the first year of study in the academic years 2018/19 (185 students),
2021/22 (101 students), and 2022/23 (131 students). The survey does not include
the 2020/21 academic year because of the pandemic. The average age of the students
is 20 years. The structure of the sample by study program shows Table 1.

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Table 1. Students in the sample by academic year
Frequency
2018/19
2021/22
2022/23
Total

Percentage
185
101
131
417

44.4
24.2
31.4
100.0

Data collection
Data were collected by questionnaire using the online surveying tool. To exclude the
eventual effect of novice students’ uncertainty, they received the questionnaires in
the summer semester, which we found to be a reasonable time for adaptation. The
data were processed using SPSS statistical software, using the statistical methods of
descriptive statistics, chi-square test, ANOVA, and selected non-parametric tests for
analysis of the rating scales.
Results
Digital communication per day
Communication and digital communication in particular are a necessity and a daily
routine, whether in the desire for information or for assigning tasks or assignments.
The students estimated the time spent on digital communication per day. The results
in the Table 2 show the average time spent on digital communication over time,
considering all communication tools such as social media, e-mail, messaging
applications, etc. Only valid responses are analysed.
Table 2. Digital communication per day (in hours) by academic year
Academic year
2018/19
2021/22
2022/23
Total
*p<0.05, df=2

N
185
101
131
396

Mean
4.23
3.46
3.63
3.75

SD
2.775
2.390
2.631
2.411

F
2,929*

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The average time spent on digital communication is between 3 and 4 hours daily.
Compared to the academic year 2018/19, the amount of time has decreased.
According to the general opinion that more communication is being conducted
digitally, this result is unexpected. We estimate that the most reliable reason is that
it is difficult to correctly estimate the time spent on it, given the multitude of digital
communication forms. The results also show the least time spent on digital
communication being during the pandemic, when in-person interactions were
limited. It is somehow surprising, since researchers discovered that direct, in-person
interactions during the pandemic and after were replaced by digital communication
(Skalacka and Pajestka, 2021). In our opinion, the reason is that digital
communication plays more of a supportive role and less the role of a replacement
for in-person interaction. We should investigate this phenomenon in the future.
Daily use of mobile phones
In terms of their functionality, mobile phones serve more as multifunctional
communication devices than telephones exclusively. Despite being aware of this, we
ask students to estimate the daily time spent on ordinary phone calls. The results in
Table 3 show the average time for phone calls. Only valid responses are analysed.
Table 3. Table: Average daily use of mobile phones in hours by academic year
Academic year
2018/19
2021/22
2022/23
Total
*p<0,05, df=2

N
180
94
38
396

Mean
4.21
3.02
3.63
3.75

SD
2.799
1.760
2.066
2.411

F
8.008*

The students report spending between 3 and 4 hours daily making phone calls. This
time has decreased, reaching the lowest level during the pandemic, after which it
increased again. The lowest average time spent making regular phone calls
corresponds with the findings shown in the Table 3, which emphasizes other forms
of digital communication. During the pandemic, the amount of time expended on
digital communication via messaging, social media, and e-mail increased at the
expense of regular phone calls (Nguyen, et al., 2020). The decreased time spent on
phone calls agrees with these findings.

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Despite this, there is a specific reservation about the results because using mobile
phones to facilitate a variety of digital communication media can make it difficult
for students to accurately estimate the usage time for one particular form of digital
communication. In this case, we are only talking about normal phone calls, not any
type of voice calls over a broadband internet connection or, more technically correct,
Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP). Nevertheless, the results are interesting and
provide an answer to the research question posed.
Interpersonal behaviour over time
Recently, many experts on social and society relations, including technology gurus,
have pointed to problems in establishing quality interpersonal relationships due to
inappropriate and simultaneous use of ICT during meetings. The problem is that
people find face-to-face interactions more meaningful and useful for building social
relationships and emotional closeness (Nguyen, et al., 2022). Being aware of those
facts, we expect changes in behaviour involving simultaneous use of mobile devices
during in-person contact and analyse the answers from the past three academic years.
The focus is on simultaneous digital communication during face-to-face contact with
another person or several persons.
Our observations show that the habit of simultaneous digital communication during
face-to-face contact is widespread, regardless of whether one or more persons is
involved. The analysis by the Kruskall-Wallis test in the Table 4 presents the state of
this habit over time.
Table 4. Simultaneous digital communication during face-to-face contact by academic year

Simultaneous digital
communication during faceto-face contact with several
persons
Simultaneous digital
communication during faceto-face contact with one
person

Academic year
2018/19
2021/22
2022/23
Total
2018/19
2021/22
2022/23
Total

N
185
94
123
402
185
94
123
402

Mean Rank
210,32
186,01
200,08
213,15
192,10
191,17

p
0.196

0.120

Whether one or more persons is involved in face-to-face communication, the habit
of simultaneous communication remains the same over time.

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The observed differences between the academic years are not statistically significant
(p>0.05). The outcome is not encouraging, considering that paying full attention to
the person(s) to whom we are talking is more appropriate. More detailed analysis
indicates that this is not such a poor outcome as it appears at first glance. The results
in Table 5 suggest that the most frequently chosen options in academic years and,
regardless of the number of persons involved, are “rarely” and “occasionally”. Such
an outcome is better than we could have inferred from the results in the previous
tables, but such behaviour is very common.
Table 5. Habits in digital communication during face-to-face contacts by academic year
Simultaneous digital communication during face-to-face contact with several persons
2018/19
2021/22
2022/23
%
%
%
Never
4.3
3.2
4.9
Rarely
36.2
51.1
43.1
Occasionally
49.2
37.2
39.0
Very often
10.3
8.5
13.0
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
Simultaneous digital communication during face-to-face contact with one person
2018/19
2021/22
2022/23
%
%
%
Never
13.5
14.9
17.9
Rarely
50.8
60.6
56.1
Occasionally
32.4
22.3
22.8
Very often
3.2
2.1
3.2
Total
100.0
100,0
100.0

Less than 5% of students never e-communicate simultaneously in the presence of
more than one person. On the other hand, when just one person is present, this is a
common habit in between 13% and 18% of cases. This indicates an attitude of
greater politeness towards a single person than towards multiple persons.

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But there are still too many cases of simultaneous digital communication during faceto-face contact, regardless of the number of persons involved and academic year. In
total, more than 80% of students in every academic year simultaneously ecommunicate rarely or occasionally during face-to-face contact, regardless of how
many persons are involved. Such a situation is bad and indicates worsening
interpersonal respect and relationships. We believe that this requires in-depth
sociological analysis.
Preferred type of digital communication with a beloved person over time
The previous analysis reveals the behaviour in interpersonal communication when
fewer affiliated persons are involved. When communicating with a loved one, a
different attitude can be expected, mainly because contact and communication
among beloved persons are more personally oriented and feature closer personal
interaction. Communication via social media, messenger apps, or simple text
messaging options is meant under the electronic communication option. The results
in Table 6 show communication preferences over time.
Table 6. Preferences in communication with a beloved person
Academic year
Preferred way of communication
2018/19
2021/22
Preferably electronically
1 (0.5%)
4 (4.3%)
Preferably in person
110 (59.5%)
59 (63.4%)
Both ways equally
14 (7.6%)
6 (6.5%)
Adapt communication to the needs or
60 (32.4%)
24 (25.8%)
possibilities
Total
χ²=6,920, df=6, p>.05 Numbers in parentheses indicate column percentages.

2022/23
2(1.6%)
69 (56.1%)
12 (9.8%)
40 (32.5%)

The results regarding the findings of simultaneous digital communication during
face-to-face contact are significantly more favourable. The preference for
maintaining personal connection prevails, regardless of the academic year, followed
by adaptation when required by circumstances. Nearly 60% of students prefer
personal contact with a beloved person rather than digital communication. This
share remains constant over time.

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A slight increase is noticeable for the academic year 2021/22, which we consider to
be the consequence of the post-pandemic period and the re-establishment of
personal contacts. Considering the modern trend towards full-time work, the need
to periodically adjust contact options is understandable, and almost a third making
this choice is not a bad result. However, a lower share appears again in the academic
year 2021/21, owing to the re-establishment of personal contacts after pandemic
restrictions and the desire for closer connections. The proportion of students
communicating with a loved one exclusively electronically is negligible, again with a
minor increase in the post-pandemic period. However, a relatively uniform share of
those who are equally likely to communicate in person and electronically is
noticeable throughout the years. In these cases, we believe it is about people with a
specific social deficit, anxiety, or difficulty establishing relationships with others.
Messaging instead of voice conversation
Changing patterns of social behaviour lead to more frequent use of communication
services like text messaging, multimedia messages, or social media to avoid voice
conversation. The five-level scale was used to estimate the extent of the habit of
using messaging services instead of voice conversation. The scale range is from never
to always.
Table 7. Using messages instead of voice calling

2018/19
24 (13.0%)
60 (32.4%)
91 (49.2%)
10 (5.4%)

Rarely
Occasionally
Very often
Always
χ²=10.901, df=6, p>.05
Numbers in parentheses indicate column percentages

Academic year
2021/22
21 (22.6%)
31 (33.3%)
34 (36.6%)
7 (7.5%)

2022/23
12 (9.8%)
39 (31.7%)
60 (48.8%)
12 (9.8%)

The results in Table 7 show that nearly 50% of students often replace voice calls by
sending messages, and about a third do this occasionally. Outcomes do not change
significantly over time. Given that the options of ‘occasionally’ and ‘often’ avoiding
voice conversation together amounted to approximately 80%, the phenomenon of
avoiding voice conversation is apparently widespread.

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According to the findings of previous studies, we assume that the reasons may vary,
from avoiding direct conversation or having direct personal contact only when
necessary, to other personal reasons. Students did not want to explain the reasons
behind or purpose for such a decision. Again, we are dealing with a relatively uniform
share of less than 10% of those who continually avoid voice calls by sending
messages. A specific social deficit is the most likely reason. The least frequent
occurrence of this phenomenon was observed in the academic year 2021/22, which
could be related to the post-pandemic situation and the desire for closer contact. In
general, the results of such behaviour are many short messages, often with very lax
grammatical correctness.
Based on our experience working with the students, mail or text messages have many
typos, lack polite phrases, and indicate poor understanding of instructions. This is
particularly true for the inability to read a higher amount of textual content when
instructions require this, as in the case of instructions for seminar assignments, rules
for attending tutorials, and exams, along with other study obligations. Research in
Canada, for example, points to a negative correlation with spelling (Grace, Kemp,
Martin, and Parrila, 2014). Conversely, the traditional belief that text messaging
influences reading literacy is not confirmed. A correlational, quantitative study
among youngsters (Zebroff and Kaufman, 2017) showed that text messaging is not
significantly associated with literacy.
Discussion
The behaviour patterns of young people when using digital communication did not
change significantly over five years. There is variation only in some results related to
the post-pandemic period, when the desire for more personal contacts increased
slightly. However, the differences are not statistically significant compared to the
previous years and last year. The time spent on digital communication is mostly
constant and is estimated at just under 4 hours. Phone usage time is similarly assessed
as for other kinds of digital communication. However, we are aware that the amount
of time for a typical telephone conversation and the time for an equivalent type of
communication in the form of VoIP when using applications are challenging to
separate and assess with accuracy. Simultaneous digital and face-to-face
communication is almost the norm, regardless of whether one or more people are
involved.

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We can easily classify this as Phubbing, which exerts a relatively strong effect on the
relationship with the affected person. There is even slightly more simultaneous
digital communication when only one person is involved. However, behaviour
changes significantly when it comes to communication with a loved one. In such
cases, interpersonal or direct communication prevails. Owing to a variety of current
influences, such as all-day work, business trips, etc., the combination of face-to-face
and digital communication is also desirable for maintaining contact with a loved one.
The habit of writing text messages instead of voice calls is widespread. This habit
shows that young people often want to avoid direct conversation and prefer the
indirect option. Preferring indirect to direct conversation is a peculiar sociological
phenomenon. Frequent or even excessive writing of text messages causes a flood of
short and mostly grammatically or content-deficient messages, often replacing verbal
expression with emoticons.
Despite the research findings not having shown a connection between text
messaging and reading literacy, when working with students, we do notice a lower
ability to read and understand more extensive textual content. This fact is most
evident when reading teacher or administrative notices, whether electronic or
printed. These communications are often poorly understood or processed without
the essentials. The results also show that about 10% of students want only digital
communication, which is not the most encouraging news for future teachers. The
present research findings provide new directions in observing the effects of digital
communication tools on interpersonal relationships. Insight and knowledge will
benefit teachers and parents of children and the work of counsellors. Nevertheless,
work on this topic is a constant need and challenge in the future.
References
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Chotpitayasunondh, V., and Douglas, K. (2018). The effects of “phubbing” on social interaction.
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Grace, A., Kemp, N., Martin, F., and Parrila, R. (2014). Undergraduates’ text messaging language and
literacy skills. Reading and Writing, 27(5), 855-873. doi:10.1007/s11145-013-9471-2

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Kerneža, M. (2023). A Survey of Teachers’ Perspectives on the Reception Ability of Younger Students
after Emergency Remote Teaching During COVID-19. Journal of Elementary Education, 16(1)
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Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 24,
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Digital contact does not promote wellbeing, but face-to-face contact does: A cross-national
survey during the COVID-19 pandemic. New Media & Society. doi:10.1177/14614448211062164
Nguyen, M. H., Gruber, J., Fuchs, J., Marler, W., Hunsaker, A., and Hargittai, E. (2020). Changes in
Digital Communication During the COVID-19 Global Pandemic: Implications for Digital
Inequality and Future Research. Social Media & Society, 6(3), 1–6.
Nguyen, M. H., Gruber, J., Fuchs, J., Marler, W., Hunsaker, A., and Hargittai, E. (2022). Staying
connected while physically apart: Digital communication when face-to-face interactions are
limited. New Media & Society, 24(9), 2046–2067.
Paskewitz, E. A., and Beck, S. J. (2019). Exploring perceptions of multicommunicator texting during
meetings. Computers in Human Behavior, 238–247. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2019.07.032
Sanpietro, A. (2020). Use and Interpretation of Emoji in Electronic-Mediated Communication: A
Survey. Visual Communication Quarterly, 27(1), 27–39. doi:10.1080/15551393.2019.1707086
Skalacka, K., and Pajestka, G. (2021). Digital or In-Person: The Relationship Between Mode of
Interpersonal Communication During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Mental Health in Older
Adults From 27 Countries. Journal of Family Nursing, 27(4), 275–284.
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Education: A Brief Review on WhatsApp Example. Journal of Educational Technology & Online
Learning, 3(1), 69–90. doi:10.31681/jetol.662746
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adolescents’ literacy levels. Education and Information Technologies, 22(5). doi:10.1007/s10639016-9544-3
Author:
Tomaž Bratina, Phd
Associate professor, University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor,
Slovenia, e-mail: tomaz.bratina@um.si
Izredni professor, Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor,
Slovenija, e-pošta: tomaz.bratina@um.si

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Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 441–455, December 2023

VIDEO IN BLENDED TEACHER EDUCATION: A TOOL
FOR PRACTICING TEACHING ANALYSIS
JANA STARA1, TEREZA KRČMÁŘOVÁ2 & JANA KRÁTKÁ
Potrjeno/Accepted
27. 10. 2023
Objavljeno/Published
11. 12. 2023

1Charles

University, Faculty of Education, Prague, Czech Republic

KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR/CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
jana.stara@pedf.cuni.cz
Abstract/Izvleček

Keywords:
teacher education,
teacher training, video
use, blended teacher
education
Ključne besede:
izobraževanje učiteljev,
usposabljanje učiteljev,
uporaba
videoposnetkov,
kombinirano
izobraževanje učiteljev

UDK/UDC:
37.091.12

The article presents a case study of using videos to develop primary school
student teachers’ skills when analysing teaching. It is based on a content
analysis of teaching observations, students’ written work, teacher feedback,
curriculum, student evaluation, and teacher interviews. The research results
show that using video is meaningful and motivating to student and university
teachers. However, students rarely draw on theoretical knowledge in analysing
the situations. To connect theory and practice, it is desirable to consistently
apply the requirement to reflect on observed phenomena with the
underpinning of theory and to strengthen the connections between
theoretical and practical courses.
Video v kombiniranem izobraževanju učiteljev: orodje za praktično
analizo poučevanja
V članku je predstavljena študija primera uporabe videoposnetkov za
razvijanje spretnosti študentov razrednega pouka pri analizi pouka. Študija
temelji na vsebinski analizi opazovanja poučevanja, pisnih del učencev,
povratnih informacij učitelja, učnega načrta, virov, evalvacij študentov in
intervjujev z univerzitetnimi učitelji. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da je uporaba
videoposnetkov smiselna in motivacijska za študente in univerzitetne učitelje.
Prav tako rezultati kažejo, da se študenti pri analizi situacij le redko opirajo na
teoretično znanje. Za povezovanje teorije in prakse je zaželeno, da se
dosledno izvaja refleksija o opazovanih pojavih, ki temelji na teoriji, in da se
okrepijo povezave med teoretičnimi in praktičnimi predmeti.

DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.2993
Besedilo / Text © 2022 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s)
To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0
Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno
reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod
pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Introduction
In recent years, owing to the shortage of qualified teachers, there has been an
increasing demand for undergraduate studies in a blended form, i.e., a form that
combines face-to-face teaching and online teaching (Rooney, 2003). It is also
necessary to recruit candidates for teacher education from among people who have
been working in the field of education for a long time and who therefore, often
because of family commitments, cannot pursue a full-time form of study
(Brücknerová et al., 2020). Teacher educators are faced with the challenge of
designing their courses to achieve maximum effect with a limited number of faceto-face meetings and practice in schools under the supervision of selected teachers
(Loudová Stralczynská et al., 2022; Stará et al., 2020). The notion of the teacher as a
reflective practitioner (Schön, 1983) requires finding new ways to link theory and
practice even in these limiting conditions.
The use of videos in teaching is one of the ways to achieve the connection between
theory and practice and the development of reflective skills among students
(Vondrová et al., 2020). The literature on the use of video to link theory and practice
in teacher education is relatively extensive, but the time constraints of teacher
education students’ curricula and conditions are not always considered. In our
article, we will therefore present a case study of the use of videos in a blended form
of study, where the teacher must choose teaching approaches and methods that
respect the low time allocation for teaching. Our intention was to describe and
evaluate these approaches. We believe that this case study can encourage other
teacher educators to think about the potential for using video in teaching and any
possible teaching innovations in the limited conditions of teaching and practice.
Video in teacher education
Videos are a valuable tool for learning by and for training future teachers. The
criticized gap between theory and practice in teacher education can be bridged to a
certain extent through videos (Laurillard, 2002, Cannings and Talley, 2003;
Vondrová et al., 2020; Wang, 2013).
The use of videos has been facilitated by technological advances and the digitization
of teaching resources (Brunvand, 2010; Calandra and Rich, 2014; Goldman et al.,
2007; Sherin and Han, 2004).

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The experience of distance learning in the COVID-19 era has led to significant
development in the skills of teacher educators in using digitized materials to support
and manage student teachers’ learning (Ali, 2020; Sari and Nayır, 2020). Analysis of
video sequences of teaching has become an important part of teacher education in
many departments (Masats et al., 2007).
According to Yung et al. (2010), video recordings of authentic situations have a
positive impact on the professional skills of teachers and student teachers and enable
learning at the emotional, social, cognitive, and psychomotor levels. After working
with videos during autonomous training, teachers demonstrated a better ability to
define and exemplify targeted professional competences (Meyer, 2010).
Yung et al. (2010) identified three main processes that accompany video use and
support learning. These are critical thinking, meaningful comparison, and productive
discussion. These then lead student teachers to theorize, contextualize and design
contextual adaptations in their own practice.
Masats and Dooly (2011) point out that when watching video recordings, student
teachers view the observed teaching from the position of the teacher as well as the
student, which is crucial for the development of their teaching competences.
In teacher training, it is often impossible to provide sufficient direct contact between
teachers, students in schools, and student teachers, especially in distance or blended
forms of study (Moore and Kearsley, 1996; Northrup, 1997). It is here that working
with videos seems very important.
Working with video offers multiple advantages. It allows one to link video viewing
with discussion or to watch specific parts of a video repeatedly and focus on details.
Student teachers can observe other teachers’ teaching, but they can also make
recordings of their own lessons and reflect on these–individually or in a group of
student teachers. Research has confirmed the greater emotional engagement of
students when watching videos of other teachers compared to watching their own
videos (Kleinknecht and Schneider, 2013), while other studies have found the
opposite (Seidel et al., 2011). According to Kleinknecht and Schneider’s (2013)
research, watching videos of others allows for deeper engagement in the analysis of
problematic events. Observing one’s own videos versus observing others’ videos
requires more prearrangement and scaffolding. Zhang et al. (2011) point out that the
use of other people’s video recordings is often insufficiently contextualized. It is also
common that it is inconsistent with the observers’ experience or does not match
their knowledge.

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When working with videos of others, it is possible that the observers are unable to
empathize with the teachers and students in the videos (Vondrová et al., 2020).
Group viewing and discussion of the videos allow personal teaching experiences to
be brought to the group and learning to be shared with others (Kang and van Es,
2019). It is also research verified (Tripp and Rich, 2012) that teachers and student
teachers prefer group reflective tasks over individual reflective tasks, but also that
group reflection is more effective when preceded by individual reflection.
The literature cites the benefits of working with videos that are examples of good
practice (Kang and van Es, 2019) as well as the benefits of using cases depicting
teaching that is in some way lacking (Krammer et al., 2015). In particular, the
advantage of videos that are examples of good practice is that they are more
motivating for students. Students’ reflection on such videos tends to be more
thorough and sophisticated (Janík and Minaříková, 2011). The disadvantage is that
these videos do not offer the student situations in which mishaps occur. However,
the student should also be systematically prepared for these. Conversely, the
advantage of videos that are not examples of good practice is that they can be used
to demonstrate specific and clear deficiencies. As a rule, they are obvious and can
therefore be easily detected by the student. However, analysing these videos risks
providing students with insufficient stimuli to develop adequate professional
competences (Gaudin, 2014).
Aim and methodology of the research
Undergraduate teacher training programs in a blended form, suffering from lack of
time for supervised practice in schools, can use virtual apprenticeship through video
teaching sequences. Since we could not find research on how individual teacher
education programs and individual teachers approach such an option, we decided to
map this issue as a descriptive case study (Yin, 2009).
The aim of the research was to describe a case of using video in the blended form
of studying a key course in the undergraduate preparation of primary school teachers
at the Faculty of Education of Charles University in Prague. We posed the research
question, How are video recordings of lessons used in a course that aims to teach
student teachers to analyse primary school teaching?
In order to meet this objective, the use of videos in teaching the course was
examined through observation, analysis of audio recordings of discussion in face-to-

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face teaching, analysis of students’ written work and teacher feedback on this work,
analysis of documents such as the curriculum of the Primary Education Teaching
program, course syllabuses, analysis of student evaluation of lessons, analysis of
video recordings used, and analysis of interviews of university teachers.
The main research (observation of teaching, interview of university teachers) was
carried out in the academic year 2020/2021. Analysis of documents, student
assignments, and their evaluation were also carried out for the two previous
academic years.
The data collection and analysis were conducted by 3 university teachers, one of
whom is a teacher of the course under study. We are aware of the limitations of this
approach because the teacher of the course is not an independent researcher.
However, given that this researcher has a broad understanding of the case study
context and is motivated to truthfully describe and evaluate the reality of teaching
the course with the use of video recordings to learn from and participate in
innovations in the use of video in further teaching, we believe that the limitation of
the approach is outweighed by these advantages.
Observation records and written materials were subjected to content analysis, with
the researcher focusing on the characteristics and type of video recordings used, the
way of watching the video and working with video recordings, course evaluation by
students, and evaluation of the work with video recordings by university teachers.
Regarding the latter point, the researchers independently conducted a subjective
evaluation of the use of videos in the course. They freely articulated the individual
strengths and weaknesses of the case. The researchers presented and discussed their
evaluations in a joint meeting.
An audio recording was made of the presented evaluations and the subsequent
discussion, a recording which was then made available to all three researchers. This
was then compiled by one of them into written conclusions. These were then
commented on and discussed in a shared environment until the researchers agreed
on an evaluation with which all three agreed.
Teaching practice course – context and objectives
TP I is taught in the 2nd year of the 5-year master’s degree program Teaching at
Primary School in parallel with the course Theory of Primary Education I (TPE I).

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It aims to link the knowledge acquired in the latter course with observation and
reflection on teaching in primary school, to broaden students’ understanding of the
ways of teaching in a contemporary school. Different teachers are involved in the
teaching of the two courses. In both courses, self-study, and completion of tasks by
the students are assumed. In the blended form of study, TPE I is endowed with 4
ECTS and 18 hours of face-to-face lessons. The monitored course TP I is also
endowed with 4 ECTS, but only 4 hours of face-to-face lessons organized in one
block at the beginning of the semester. In addition to the face-to-face sessions,
students are expected to complete at least 12 hours of individual practice in a school
where the student works or which he/she addresses independently.
The TP I group consists of 35 to 40 students. Several of them are already working
in education, usually as primary school teachers, and are now completing the
required qualifications by studying. The study group also includes individuals with
no previous practical experience.
The course aims to develop the skill of systematic analysis of teaching. Students learn
to observe other instructors’ teaching, reflect on it, and evaluate its quality in
evidence-based criteria. Students’ base knowledge is provided by the parallel course
TPE I. The course under review is followed by Teaching Practice II (TP II) and
Theory of Primary Education II (TPE II). In TP II, students are already
independently teaching and analysing videos of their own teaching.
Research results and discussion
The teacher chose to use a video containing a recording of a lesson taught by an
experienced primary school teacher. The teacher justifies the choice of the video by
stating that some students are overly critical after watching an example of inferior
practice and make and verbalize quick and fundamental judgments that need to be
worked with (Kleinknecht and Schneider, 2013). The researchers agreed that
students, especially those from sites where there are limited numbers of teachers,
need to encounter good practice more often, which is why they consider the choice
of a video recording with good practice to be an effective step.
Nevertheless, some students argue that they find it difficult to believe the reality of
the recordings. This fact confirms that selecting recordings of good practice can be
motivating and allow students to have higher expectations of their practice.

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Before the viewing, students were asked to think of one lesson they had taught or
attended as an observer, which they subjectively considered successful.
In heterogeneous groups, they then briefly described each lesson to the others,
highlighting the phenomena they considered to signal teaching quality. The group
task was to find common characteristics of ‘good teaching’. The teacher facilitated
the discussion to reach collective agreement among all groups on the typical
characteristics of good teaching. The result of the joint discussion was then
compared with the list of observable teacher skills formulated in the document
Framework of Teacher Professional Qualities (PQF) (Tomková et al., 2012), which is one
of the tools used for self-assessment and evaluation of teaching in the Czech
Republic in conditions where there is no standard for the teaching profession
(Loudová Stralczynská et al., 2022).
The aim of this part of the lesson was to make students realize that they can
intuitively identify many of the teaching qualities, but at the same time, that opinions
on what can be considered quality vary. In the researchers’ peer discussion, it was
pointed out that in this activity, students were not challenged to argue with the
support of theoretical concepts conveyed to them in theory-based courses, including
the concurrently taught course TPE I.
While watching the video together, the students were supposed to focus attention
on the teacher’s assigned professional skills area from PQF. Supported by a
worksheet listing 4 to 5 criteria from that document, the student is to record whether
evidence of meeting the criteria can be found in the lesson.
After watching the video, the students shared their notes in groups, and in a teacherfacilitated discussion, they argued, supporting their assessment of the observed
teacher’s skills. In case of disagreements, a selected portion of the recording was
watched repeatedly. They were also aware of the interrelationships between each
criterion in a complex teaching situation. Students were encouraged to reflect on the
observed and described teaching, and to consider alternative solutions. PQF served
as support. The researchers agreed that students were not encouraged to make more
substantive and reasoned responses in line with the theory of teaching. The theory
was not usually explicitly mentioned, nor was it directly referred to. To make
students aware of the importance of theory, the theory could be explicitly mentioned
by the teacher, and students could be directly asked about it. For example, in the
demonstration below, students could have been asked about what they were being
taught simultaneously in TPE I, e.g., what features of dialogic teaching could have

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been and were not seen in the recording. In this way, students could revise the theory
(Šeďová, 2021).
T: Do you think that criterion 2.5 has been met?
S1 I think definitely. The teacher repeatedly asked the students for their
opinion and praised them.
T: Is there an agreement then? Or does anyone have a different opinion?
S2 Well, I don’t know, she asked, but then maybe she didn’t react to what
they said. The boy who asked if the animal was a mammal or not didn’t get
an answer to his question.
S1 Oh, I didn’t even notice that.
S3 Maybe it has more to do with criterion 2.4., but it seems to me that it was
the extroverted kids who raise their hands and are fast enough that had the
chance to say something.
S4 She didn’t have to call them out right away, but maybe should have
required everyone to write down the answer first. Or use a lucky dip; it’s
worked well for me.
T: Does anyone have any other recorded moment that would be evidence
of meeting or not meeting criterion 2.5?
S5: Although it was not seen in this lesson how they work with it, they have
a rule on the notice board ‘We listen to each other’, so I suppose it is
important for the teacher to guide them to do that.
S6: Or maybe it’s just formally on there. Other times she might do it, but it
wasn’t visible in this lesson.
Students then independently briefly summarised the strengths and weaknesses of
the lesson, formulated questions they would like to ask the observed teacher and
reflected on the benefits the observation had for their own teaching.
S1: The strength of the lesson was the use of a wide range of methods with
an emphasis on active learning and cooperation. Students worked in pairs
and in cooperative groups, where they had assigned roles to promote
positive interdependence between members. The teacher often asks openended questions in discussion to promote the development of higher-level
thinking skills and encourage students. The classroom environment was
tailored for cooperative learning. Collaboration between the teacher and
assistant was effective. Question for the teacher: How should group
members be changed and how frequently?

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In the final discussion, students were asked to generalize the experience.
Direct teaching was followed by a series of tasks in the LMS Moodle environment.
In 2020/2021, students individually analysed in writing a video recording of the
lesson different from the one used in the direct session. They observed different or
additional quality criteria from the PQF observable in the lesson. They rated each
other’s work anonymously. The video recording matched the same criteria as the
video recording observed together and was selected by the teacher.
In 2018/2019, students freely discussed a specific video recording in an online
discussion forum. Each student was required to contribute to the discussion at least
once. On average, each student contributed twice to the discussion. The lecturer
entered the discussion twice, mainly to appreciate the activity and encourage a
plurality of opinions, to monitor compliance with the rules of the discussion, and, if
necessary, to point out deviations from them, to give suggestions for new aspects of
the discussion.
Spontaneously, student attention has been shown to be directed toward the teacher’s
activity rather than the students’, which is especially common in the early years of
study (Santagata et al., 2007). Students focused on the quality of the teaching process
rather than on the effectiveness of the process for students’ learning relative to the
objectives, even though the objectives are the core curriculum in TPE I (Stará and
Starý, 2019). Students who were concurrently teaching often compared the teaching
from the video with their own, thus reassuring themselves about the quality of their
own practice. At the same time, they tended to point out critical points in the
analysed teaching but were not always consistent with their supporting arguments.
Arguments explicitly pointing to connections with theory were sporadic and tended
not to refer to specific research or researchers; instead, students made comments
such as; “That’s what we talked about in the lecture.” The contributions of students
with little or no actual teaching experience were fewer and less comprehensive.
These mainly appreciated specific ideas from the teacher and possibly fellow
students, and only rarely suggested alterations. Some students contributed rather
formally to the discussion, or it was clear that they had not watched the video in its
entirety. Some commented, in the teacher’s opinion, on irrelevant details about the
lesson or details without much potential for generalization. The discussion was long;
some students did not read it all, and therefore some comments were repeated. This
is also why, subsequently, in 2019/2020 and 2020/2021, students had the option to
choose from three different shorter video recordings, one of which, given the
situation of the COVID-19 pandemic, was a demonstration of online teaching.

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This video recording was clearly responsive to the current needs of students, as it
received by far the most comment.
In all three years, students were asked to select three different situations from
another video lesson. They were to label the selected sections with a time stamp and
comment on them. After all the assignments had been handed in, the teacher
summarised in writing the phenomena that the students had selected and how they
had commented on them. She also summarised what had attracted little attention.
The teacher provided the teachers on the recordings with the comments of students.
They reported that this served to motivate them for future cooperation.
Evaluation of the use of video recordings by the teacher and students
The course has always received high ratings (95%, 81%, 94%, 86%) in the
anonymous student university evaluation survey. Below are typical student
comments on this evaluation:
S1: The course confronts us with real practice. I find it greatly beneficial
because as an observer I can replay interesting moments or pause and reflect
on them. It is true that the viewer misses out on the specific atmosphere in
the classroom, but it has these certain advantages as well; S2: The
opportunity to watch videos is inspiring for me, their analysis makes me
think not only about the work of my colleague in the video but also about
my own work; S3:Practical demonstrations, sharing ideas – anything that
helps to bring practice closer. I appreciate and find the forums helpful in
sharing ideas and experiences. I have started to use some of the ideas shared
in my own practice. I also find it beneficial to work with video recordings
of lessons, especially for time reasons. It is very problematic to combine the
time of classroom observations with one’s own schedule.
Collaborative video analysis brings experience and emotion into the
classroom (Kleinknecht and Schneider, 2013): S1: I was pleased that the
teacher handled it in a similar way to me, assured me that it is a good way;
S2: It was only when watching the video that I realized why giving precise
instructions to the students is so important; S3: Ugh, I hope I don’t really
come off like that.
The main benefits of the use of video, as the teacher and two colleagues affirm, are
that it allows bringing the image of practice into the lessons. The students are highly
active in such teaching, even in a relatively large group.

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They consider that by watching, analysing, and discussing the video situations, they
are learning important skills that are relevant to practice.
The researchers stated that the practice of stopping the video and replaying some
parts of it according to the needs of the group was effective. In addition to other
benefits, it encouraged students to seek evidence for their claims and evaluations.
Less often there was a naming of what was seen with the backing of theory.
Collaborative practice in analysing observations using video is likely to translate into
a relatively high-quality level of performance in subsequent tasks in the online
environment and can be expected to enhance the effectiveness of observations in
individual practice where the tutor cannot be present with the students.
The linking of video work in a face-to-face meeting and subsequent independent
work with another video in an online environment was identified as a supporting
factor. In addition, a combination of individual and group reflective tasks also
proved appropriate to eliminate the drawbacks of each approach and reinforce the
benefits.
Watching videos can also encourage students to use video training, or filming and
analysing their own teaching, as one of the effective methods of supporting the
development of professional practice skills (Hamel et al., 2019; Janík et al., 2016).
The researchers believe that students with longer experience gain less from the
course and that, conversely, students with little or no practical experience of selfdirected teaching and students with low reflective skills in general particularly benefit
from the course. However, this hypothesis has not been verified. In future, there is
a need to identify greater challenges for students with more experience and more
highly developed professional skills and to provide them the support enabling them
to work effectively on their professional development.
According to the researchers, the phenomena that the students notice and how they
interpret, comment, and evaluate them are also enriching for teachers and increase
their understanding of the specifics of the context in which the students work in
practice.
The researchers also agreed that providing the primary school teachers with
feedback makes them feel the importance of their work and deepens the
collaboration between primary school teachers and university teachers and their
mutual learning.

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Video usage limits
Over the years that videos have been used in education, the GDPR rules have
gradually become stricter. Unfortunately, these rules have led to a reduced database
of suitable recordings and increased cost and time to acquire new recordings.
Another limitation may be the exclusive use of video recordings illustrating good
practice (see above). One of the practical implications of this study was the decision
of lecturers to focus on the facilitation of common practice video recordings in other
courses in the curriculum. Also, the fact that the course does not offer students the
opportunity to work with video recordings of their own practice, even though we
know from the literature (see above) about the benefits of working with this type of
recording, led the researchers involved to conclude that the follow-up course would
predominantly use recordings of student teachers’ own teaching experiments.
Conclusions
The ability to analyse learning situations is a prerequisite for effective action in these
situations (Sherin and Han, 2004; Sherin, 2007; Berliner, 2001; Kersting et al., 2012).
The use of videos enables the development of the ability to analyse situations and
thus contributes to the development of desirable professional skills. In this respect,
the use of videos in the case under study has proved to be meaningful to both
student and university teachers.
The use of videos allowed students to practice argumentation and learning through
sharing of individual opinions and arguments in a limited time. It was evident that
the advantage was that the videos made it possible to observe the given teaching
repeatedly.
However, it has been shown that students rarely rely on theoretical knowledge, even
though they have a course dealing with the theory of teaching in the curriculum in
parallel with the observed course. In this respect, we consider it desirable to deepen
the cooperation between teachers of theoretical and practical courses and to
consistently apply the requirement to reflect on observed phenomena with the
support of theoretical knowledge.
The opportunity for group reflection on video situations is highly appreciated
because it allows students to view the same elements from various angles, making
them aware of details they may not have otherwise noticed and significantly
improving their learning.

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In this instance, there was also learning by the instructors, who provided a recording
of their lessons and then received written comments from the students. This is a
good illustration of effective collaboration between university and primary school
teachers.
It appears to be effective and to ensure the systematic development of student
teachers’ analytical skills when video work is combined with individual and group
reflective tasks in both face-to-face and online settings. The practical emphasis of
the instruction, the applicability of the learned material to the practice, and the
motivational quality of the observed instances are all valued by the students. The
lessons are made more emotional and experiential by the videos and their analysis.
The results of the study contributed to the planning of partial innovations in several
courses of the study program and the introduction of a collaborative system of
setting requirements for the fulfilment of these courses to link the theoretical and
practical knowledge acquired in these courses.
Given the time constraints on teacher education, we hope that these findings will
inspire teacher educators in using video in their teaching, especially when they suffer
from a lack of the time that would allow them to guide student teachers in regular
practice in schools.
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Authors
Jana Stara, PhD
Associate Professor, Charles University, Faculty of Education, Pre-primary and Primary Education
Department, M. Rettigové 4, 11639 Praha 1, Czech Republic, e-mail: jana.stara@pedf.cuni.cz
Izredna profesorica, Karlova univerza, Pedagoška fakulteta, Oddelek za predšolsko in osnovnošolsko
izobraževanje, M. Rettigové 4, 11639 Praga 1, Češka, e-pošta: jana.stara@pedf.cuni.cz
Tereza Krčmářová, PhD
Assistant Professor, Charles University, Faculty of Education, Pre-primary and Primary Education
Department, M. Rettigové 4, 11639 Praha 1, Czech Republic, e-mail: tereza.krcmarova@pedf.cuni.cz
Docentka, Karlova univerza, Pedagoška fakulteta, Oddelek za predšolsko in osnovnošolsko
izobraževanje, M. Rettigové 4, 11639 Praga 1, Češka, e-pošta: tereza.krcmarova@pedf.cuni.cz
Jana Krátká, PhD

Assistant Professor, Charles University, Faculty of Education, Pre-primary and Primary Education
Department, M. Rettigové 4, 11639 Praha 1, Czech Republic, e-mail: jana.kratka@pedf.cuni.cz
Docentka, Karlova univerza, Pedagoška fakulteta, Oddelek za predšolsko in osnovnošolsko
izobraževanje, M. Rettigové 4, 11639 Praga 1, Češka, e-pošta: jana.kratka@pedf.cuni.cz

NAVODILA AVTORJEM
Osnovni namen revije je povezati širok spekter teoretičnih izhodišč in praktičnih rešitev v izobraževanju
ter tako spodbujati različne metodološke in vsebinske razprave. Uredniški odbor združuje strokovnjake in
raziskovalce iz več evropskih držav in s tem želi ustvariti možnosti za živahen dialog med raznovrstnimi
disciplinami in različnimi evropskimi praksami, povezanimi z izobraževanjem.
Revija za elementarno izobraževanje torej objavlja prispevke, ki obravnavajo pomembna, sodobna
vprašanja na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja, uporabljajo primerno znanstveno metodologijo ter so
slogovno in jezikovno ustrezni. Odražati morajo pomemben prispevek k znanosti oziroma spodbudo za
raziskovanje na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja z vidika drugih povezanih ved, kot so kognitivna
psihologija, razvoj otroka, uporabno jezikoslovje in druge discipline. Revija sprejema še neobjavljene članke,
ki niso bili istočasno poslani v objavo drugim revijam. Prispevki so lahko v slovenskem, angleškem ali
nemškem jeziku.
Sprejemanje člankov v objavo
Prejete prispevke najprej pregleda urednik/založniški odbor in ugotovi, ali vsebinsko ustrezajo konceptu
in kriterijem revije.
1. Če prispevek ustreza konceptu in kriterijem revije, ga uredniški odbor pošlje dvema anonimnima
recenzentoma. Članek, ki je vsebinsko skladen s konceptom revije, vendar ne ustreza drugim
kriterijem, lahko uredništvo vrne avtorju, da ga popravi.
2. Avtor dobi recenzirani prispevek vključno z morebitnimi priporočili za izboljšave/popravke, v
primeru zavrnitve pa z navedenimi razlogi zanjo.
3. Končno odločitev o objavi članka sprejme urednik na temelju priporočil recenzentov. Pri tem
utemeljitve za svojo odločitev ni dolžan navesti.
4. Besedilo prispevka mora biti pripravljeno v skladu z Navodili avtorjem.
5. Avtor jamči, da so v prispevku predstavljeni podatki natančni, verodostojni in izvirni. Ko je
članek sprejet v objavo, avtor podpiše Izjavo o etičnosti raziskovanja in Izjavo avtorja o izvirnosti
prispevka. Vsi prispevki gredo skozi postopek za ugotavljanje plagiatorstva.
Navodila za oblikovanje besedila
Pri pripravi besedila prispevka upoštevajte naslednja navodila:
1.

2.
3.

Tipkopis oddajte kot dokument v programu Microsoft Windows. Nabor pisave je Times New
Roman, velikost črk 12 za osnovno besedilo in 10 za povzetka v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku,
literaturo in citate, če so daljši od treh vrstic, razmik med vrsticami pa je 1,5. Velikost pisave v
tabelah in naslovih tabel ter grafov je 10; razmik med vrsticami pa enojni. Širina tabele naj ne
presega 12,5 cm. Besedilo naj bo obojestransko poravnano. Vodilni naslovi naj bodo zapisani
krepko, prvi podnaslovi ležeče, drugi podnaslovi pa navadno. Naslovov in strani ne številčite in
ne uporabljajte velikih tiskanih črk.
Besedilo prispevka naj ne presega 38.000 znakov s presledki, vključno s povzetki, literaturo in
ključnimi besedami.
Naslov prispevka naj ne presega 15 besed in naj bo v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku.

4.

5.
6.

7.

Prispevek naj ima na začetku povzetek v slovenskem jeziku ter njegov prevod v angleškem jeziku
(oziroma obratno) in naj ne presega 100 besed. Za povzetkom naj bo 5 ključnih besed. Poleg
povzetkov naj prispevek na koncu prispevka, pred literaturo, vsebuje daljši povzetek (500-700
besed) v angleščini, če je članek napisan v slovenščini.
V prispevku ne uporabljajte ne sprotnih ne končnih opomb.
Vire navajajte v skladu s standardom APA (American Psychological Association). V seznam
literature vključite samo v tekočem besedilu navedene vire, ki jih uredite po abecednem vrstnem
redu.
V posebnem dokumentu pošljite naslednje podatke: ime in priimek avtorja, akademski naziv,
organizacijo, kjer je avtor zaposlen, elektronski naslov, naslov bivališča in naslov prispevka.

Primeri:
Knjige: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov, kraj, založba.
Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didaktični problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta.
Članki v revijah: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, ime revije, letnik, številka,
strani.
Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Šport, 50(1), 11–15.
Prispevki v zbornikih: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, podatki o knjigi ali
zborniku, strani, kraj, založba.
Fošnarič, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juričič (ur.), Šolska
higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27–34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD.
Vključevanje reference v tekst: če gre za dobesedno navedbo, napišemo v oklepaju priimek avtorja, leto
izdaje in stran (Lipovec, 2005, str. 9), če pa gre za splošno navedbo, stran izpustimo (Lipovec, 2005).

Prispevke avtorji oddajo na spletni aplikaciji:
https://journals.um.si/index.php/education/about/submissions.

MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION GUIDELINES
The basic purpose of the journal JEE is to cover a broad spectrum of education theory and its implications
for teaching practice, seeking to bridge and integrate diverse methodological and substantive research. The
Editorial Board brings together academics and researchers from different European countries, who seek to
promote a vigorous dialogue between scholars in various fields both central and related to scientific enquiry
in education.
Articles accepted for publication in JEE should address an important, up to date issue in education, apply
appropriate research methodology, and be written in a clear and coherent style. Accepted articles should
make significant contributions to the field. In addition, JEE accepts articles which promote advances in
education from closely related fields, such as cognitive psychology, child development, applied linguistics
and others. JEE does not publish articles that have appeared elsewhere or have been concurrently
submitted to or are already under consideration for publication in other journals. The languages accepted
for the papers eligible for publication in JEE are Slovene and English.
Paper Acceptance Procedure
After a paper is submitted to JEE, the editor/publishing board first establishes if it is within the journal's
domain of interests and meets the journal's requirements for style and quality.
1.

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If the paper meets the standard and the concept of the journal, it is sent to reviewers. JEE uses
a double-blind review. Papers which are within the journal's domain but do not meet its
requirements for style or quality, may be returned to the author for revision.
The reviewed papers are returned to the authors with reviewers’ feedback and suggestions for
improvement or an indication of the reasons for a rejection.
The decision regarding publication is made by the editor after considering the reviewers’
recommendations. The editorial board is under no obligation to provide justification for its
decision.
The text of the paper should be edited in accordance with the Submission Guidelines.
Authors must certify that the data cited in the article are, to the best of their knowledge, accurate,
reliable and authentic. When the article is accepted for publication, the author has to sign the
Publishing Ethics Statement and the Statement of Authenticity. Manuscripts will also be
submitted to plagiarism detection software.
Preparation of Copy
Follow these instructions for the preparation of the manuscript:

1.

Submit your manuscript as a Word file. Use Times New Roman: 12 pt, for main text and 10 pt,
for abstract in Slovene and English, and for references and quotations of three lines or more. All
text must be 1.5 spaced and justified. The fint size in table and diagram titles is 10; the line spacing
is single. Maximum table width is 12,5 cm. The text should bi aligned on both sides. Use boldface
type for first level headings, italics for second level headings and regular type for all other
headings. Do not number headings. Do not number headings or use uppercase.

2.
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The length of your paper should not exceed 38,000 characters with spaces including the abstracts,
bibliography, and key words.
The title of your article should not exceed 15 words. The title should be written in English and
in Slovene.
At the beginning of the manuscript include an abstract (up to 100 words) in the language of the
article, and its translation into the other language, followed by 5 key words. In addition to the
abstracts also include a longer summary (about 500-700 words) at the end manuscript, before
reference - in English if the article is in Slovene and in Slovene if the article is in English.Do not
use either footnotes or endnotes.
Do not use either footnotes or endnotes.
Quote references in accordance with the American Psychological Association (APA) style.
Include only the sources cited in current text, arranged in alphabetical order.
Send a separate document with the following information: author’s name and family name,
address, full title of the article, academic title, affiliation and e-mail address.

Example:
Books: last name and name of the author, year of publication, title, location, press.
Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didaktični problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta.
Articles from Magazines: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, name of the
magazine, year, issue number, page(s).
Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Šport, 50 (1), 11–15.
Academic Journals: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, information about
the journal, page(s).
Fošnarič, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juričič (ur.), Šolska
higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27–34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD.
Citing sources in the body of the text: If a direct quotation is cited, write the last name of the author, year
it was published and page number. Put this information in parenthesis (Lipovec, 2005, pg. 9). If the
information is paraphrased, leave out the page number (Lipovec, 2005).
Manuscripts should be uploaded at https://journals.um.si/index.ph–p/education/about/submissions.