Organizacija je interdisciplinarna znanstvena revija, ki objavlja prispevke s področja organizacije, informatike in kadrovskega managementa. Primeri tematskih sklopov, ki jih pokriva revija, so: ■ teoretične osnove organizacijskega razvoja ter spreminjanja organizacijskih struktur in procesov ■ novi organizacijski pristopi ter njihova uporaba ■ organizacijski ukrepi za doseganje večje produktivnosti, ekonomičnosti in rentabilnosti poslovanja in proizvodnje ■ management kakovosti ■ kadrovanje in izobraževanje kadrov pri prestrukturiranju podjetij ■ stimulativnost nagrajevanja v spremenjenih lastninskih razmerah ■ prestrukturiranje organizacijskih in informacijskih sistemov ■ načrtovanje, razvoj in uporaba informacijske tehnologije in informacijskih sistemov ■ medorganizacijski sistemi, elektronsko poslovanje ■ odločanje, podpora odločanju, direktorski informacijski sistemi Vsebina ni omejena na navedene tematske sklope. Še posebej želimo objavljati prispevke, ki obravnavajo nove in aktualne teme in dosežke razvoja na predmetnem področju revije, ter njihovo uvajanje in uporabo v organizacijski praksi. Organizacija, volume / letnik 43, number / številka 1, January-February / januar-februar 2010 Contents/Kazalo 1/2010 EDITORIAL RESEARCH PAPERS 3 4 DEJAN DINEVSKI, SAMO FOŠNARIČ, TANJA ARH Open Educational Resources in e-Learning 9 EVA JEREB 21 VANDA REBOLJ 35 FRANC GIDER, TANJA URBANČIČ 40 VILJAN MAHNIČ, STRAHIL GEORGIEV, TOMO JARC Elements Influencing Study Success The Importance of Perception and Consciousness for E-Learning Developing Soft Skills for Engineering: Experience With Student Team Projects Teaching Scrum in Cooperation with a Software Development Company SUPPLEMENT / DODATEK RAZPRAVE 49 IVAN GERLIČ A1 BORIS HORVAT, MATIJA LOKAR, PRIMOŽ LUKŠIČ Challenges of Advanced Technologies and School of the Future E-izobraževanje z naprednimi učnimi kockami - NAUK.si A10 LILIANA BROZIC, DUŠAN SUŠNIK A18 BOJAN BURGAR, joZe florjančič, MOJCA BERNIK A23 MATEA CURKOVA, VLADISLAV RAJKOVIČ Evalvacija izobraževalnega procesa s poudarkom na vojaških vsebinah Medosebna vloga ravnatelja - managerja v procesu dela in funkciji humanistično-antropocentričnega managementa človeških virov Izbira šolskih in obšolskih dejavnosti otrok s pomočjo odločitvenega modela POVZETKI / ABSTRACTS A35 DONATORJI A37 1 Organizacija, Volume / letnik 43 Number / številka 1, January-February / januar-februar 2010 UREDNIK / EDITOR UREDNIŠKI ODBOR REVIJE / EDITORIAL BOARD Paula Swatman, University of South Australia, Australia Jože Zupančič, Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za organizacijske vede Rado Bohinc, Univerza na Primorskem, Slovenija Brian Timney, The University of Western Ontario, USA Roger Blanpain, Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium Franc Čuš, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija Maurice Yolles, Liverpool John Moores University, United Kingdom SOUREDNIKI I CO-EDITORS Douglas Vogel, City University of Hong Kong Marko Ferjan, Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za organizacijske vede Daniel C. Ganster, University of Arkansas, USA Gerhard-Wilhelm Weber, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Jože Gričar, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija Stanislaw Wricza, University of Gdansk, Poland Boštjan Gomišček, Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za organizacijske vede Werner Jammernegg, Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration, Austria Marjan Senegačnik Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za organizacijske vede Marius Alexander Janson, University of Missouri, USA Milton A. Jenkins, University of Baltimore, USA Stefan Klein, University of Muenster, Germany Miroljub Kljajic, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija Hermann Maurer, Technical University Graz, Austria Matjaž Mulej, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija Milan Pagon, University of Iowa, Henry B. Tippie College of Business, CIMBA Campus, Italy Björn Pappe, Technical University Aachen, Germany Dušan Petrač, NASA, USA Hans Puxbaum, Vienna University of Technology, Austria Vladislav Rajkovič, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija Henk G. Sol, Technical University Delft, The Netherlands Velimir Srica, University of Zagreb, Croatia 2 Organizacija, Volume / letnik 43 Number / številka 1, January-February / januar-februar 2010 Editorial / Uvodnik 1/2010 A Word from the Editors How to extract information from data, how to transform information into knowledge and how to make the transition from knowledge to cognition and wisdom? Humans have been looking for answers to these questions ever since the prehistoric times. As witnesses to this search stand among others creations of the cavemen on the walls of Altamira, Lascaux and other caves, the wealth of literary heritage as well as Internet with its potential infinity. In these endeavors humans have created various technologies and methodologies which alone have not led and could not have led to satisfactory answers. The answer can be provided only together with the human who is familiar with the content. Only when the content, technology and methodology are in sync, new value can be created, that is the human value. Let us quickly remind ourselves what is it that the computer contributes on the path from data to knowledge? For quite some time now the computer has no longer been considered only a machine for merely performing calculations but a machine for handling symbols. The knowledge inside the computer is presented in the form of symbols. In comparison to a book, inside which according to Einstein the knowledge is 'dead', the knowledge inside a computer can also be 'alive'. This means that the computer operates and solves problems. However, there is one key difference between a human and a computer. A human takes a creative approach to problem solving and finds a way in new unpredictable situations. The computer, fortunately or unfortunately, practically cannot do this despite the endeavors in the field of artificial intelligence. Still, computers are regarded as a basic technological invention. Due to computer science and informatics we create new knowledge what leads to new inventions that would otherwise not be within our reach. New knowledge as well as inventions are possible and necessary also in education. Technology enables us to make existing knowledge available to everyone at all times. It is this fact that is profoundly changing schools of all kinds. The search for appropriate changes is a never-ending story. Every stakeholder in the process of education from students to teachers and parents has to fulfill their duty for finding new solutions to problems. This brings about new more humane relationships among people within and outside the educational process. It is not a search for 'recipes' on how to do something but a matter of knowing what is the purpose of doing this in the first place. A professional is the one who puts to use theory from her/his field of interest and delivers new solutions through a creative process. To these new professional solutions is dedicated also the present issue of Organizacija titled »Education in information society«. Vladislav Rajkovič, Mojca Bernik, Eva Jereb, Tanja Urbančič 3 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 DOI: 10.2478/v10051-010-0001- 6 Open Educational Resources in E-Learning Dejan Dinevski1, Samo Fošnarič1, Tanja Arh2 1University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Koroška c. 160, Maribor, Slovenia institute Jožef Stefan, Jamova cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Open educational resources in e -learning are the future source of information for lifelong learners. Open source and open standards are defined as the basis of the "Open educational resource movement" that is beginning to form on a global level in the last decade. The characteristics of the OS are investigated in the relation to e -Learning, existing and new pedagogical principles and copyright issues. Several good practices, ideas and existing initiatives are presented and the vision of the future of open educational resources is introduced. Keywords: e -Learning, Open Source, Open educational resources 1 Introduction, Open Source Model At present a world-wide movement is developing which promotes unencumbered open access to digital resources such as content and software-based tools to be used as a means of promoting education and lifelong learning. This movement forms part of a broader wave of initiatives that actively promote the "Commons" such as natural resources, public spaces, cultural heritage and access to knowledge that are understood to be part of, and to be preserved for, the common good of society. (Barnes et al., 2006) To relevantly describe the meaning of the Open educational resources movement for lifelong learning we have to introduce the Open source and Open standards. The Open Source (OS) model as defined by Open Source Initiative (OSI - http://www.opensource.org/) has a lot to offer. It's a way to build open standards as actual software, rather than paper documents. It's a way that many companies and individuals can collaborate on a product that none of them could achieve alone. It is proved (the references are listed at the mentioned OSI web page) that OS generally means higher security and higher reliability. The real-world evidence shows that OS also brings robustness, clear flexibility and higher quality if compared to closed software in general. In the "Bazaar-mode" development as described in the highly cited and excellent source on OS philosophy "The Cathedral and the Bazaar" (http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/) one can expect higher development speed and lower overhead. What is the relation between open source software and open standards? Open source software is based on open distribution of the source code that forms the software's founda- tions. This means that any technically competent programmer can examine the inner works of the source code, and potentially make changes to the operation to the software. Open source software is typically provided free of charge or with a nominal distribution cost. Open standards are transparent descriptions of data and behavior that form the basis of interoperability. Interoperability is the ability of different software systems to exchange information in such a way that they can both act in equivalent ways on the information, leading to equivalent user outcomes. In practice, interoperability means that users are not locked to any software system - they can substitute a standards-compliant system for another standards-compliant system. Open standards can be implemented by commercial systems and open source systems alike. In the 1990s open source software has had success in horizontal applications, or applications that are useful in many different industries. These applications include operating systems, web servers, enterprise resource planning and customer relationship management. But open source has had less impact vertically, in applications specific to one single industry, such as e-learning. In addition, open source software tended to focus on rapid innovation rather than the slower consensus-building approach which is typical of open standards. Open source software has become mainstream today. Applications such as the Firefox Web browser, Apache Web server, Linux operating system, MySQL database platform, and PHP programming language continue to gain popularity. Most importantly, these applications often equal or even surpass the quality of well-known commercial, proprietary software. 4 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 2 Open Source and Open Standards in E-learning E-learning technology went trough intense early development without standards or open source software; e-learning standards were initially developed without widespread vendor adoption or open source software examples. While open source software has both historical and philosophical roots within universities, e-learning was not one of the major focus areas of the early open source software movement. The early development of e-learning technology was based on the rise of the web and the widespread adoption of e-learning software and courses, especially Learning Management Systems such as WebCT and Blackboard in the education sector, and Saba, Click2Learn, and others in corporate training. On the other hand there are early attempts to create open standards for e-learning software and content, driven by specification organizations such as IMS Global Learning Consortium, AICC and ADL, and relevant committees of international standards bodies such as the IEEE LTSC. Despite the potential relevance of these open standards for the proprietary e-learning systems, the consistent adoption of e-learning standards by LMS vendors was slow, particularly in the education sector. When advocating OS in e-learning applications most of the readers will search for the benefits of the "customers" instead those of developers. What is the main advantage that the OS applications bring to the educational and training institutions? Generally the benefits of open source in e-learning are (Dooly, 2005): low initial cost, flexibility and customizability, extensive active user communities, multi-platform capabilities, adherence to standards and tendency to use and link to other open source software. The past decade have seen wider adoption of standards by e-learning vendors, especially in corporate training through the adoption of the Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) from ADL, which builds on work from IMS and AICC. At the same time, there are a number of solid open source software development initiatives, especially in the LMS market like Moodle, OpenUSS, Ilias, Claroline, Dokeos and many others including the Sakai project in the US which is a good example where a consortium of universities is working together to develop a learning environment. Open source software is already being used by educational institutions not only for basic IT infrastructures but also for educational applications such as Learning Management Systems (LMS), Learning Content Management Systems (LCMS), course authoring tools, tools to create media elements such as animations, audio, and video clips, browsers and players to present content and courseware libraries. Recent empirical evidence comes from the OSS Watch Survey 2006, conducted by the University of Oxford's Research Technologies Services, with 103 ICT managers responding from UK Higher Education and Further Education institutions. The survey found that more than three quarters (77%) consider open source options when engaging in IT procurement exercises. The most important reasons for choosing OSS are an expected lower total cost of ownership (74%), lower likelihood of getting "locked in" by a software provider (63%), better interoperability with other products (59%), and the possibility to migrate data better across systems (52%). The use of OSS is most common for database servers (62% of institutions), Web servers (59%) and operating systems (56%); most institutions that use OSS on their servers rely on in-hou-se support for the OSS. Of particular interest are the results regarding the use of Virtual Learning Environments, of which the two proprietary systems Blackboard and WebCT and the open source VLE Moodle were considered in the survey. In the Higher Education institutions there is a greater presence of the proprietary systems (WebCT 20%, Blackboard 17%) than the OSS Moodle (9%). However, 56% of the Further Education institutions make use of Moodle, while Blackboard is used by 21% and WebCT by 3%. 3 Open Educational Resources The term Open Educational Resources (OER) has been introduced and promoted in the context of UNESCO's aim to provide free access to educational resources on a global scale. The term was first adopted by UNESCO in 2002 in the final report of the Forum on the Impact of Open Courseware for Higher Education in Developing Countries, to refer to "the open provision of educational resources, enabled by information and communication technologies, for consultation, use and adaptation by a community of users for non-commercial purposes". (UNESCO 2002). With regard to this definition, it is important to note that "resources" are not limited to content, but comprise "three major areas of activity: the creation of open source software and development tools, the creation and provision of open course content, and the development of standards and licensing tools. The outputs of all three may be grouped together under the term Open Educational Resources (OER)." There are also much broader interpretations of Open Educational Resources (OER). For example, the OECD's Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) states on the webpage of their OER survey that this would comprise "Open courseware and content; Open software tools; Open material for e-learning capacity building of faculty staff; Repositories of learning objects; Free educational courses". The most descriptive and practical definition comes from the cited report (Gesser, 2007) which tries do define it with the statement that it is based on the following core attributes: ■ that access to open content (including metadata) is provided free of charge for educational institutions, content services, and the end-users such as teachers, students and lifelong learners; ■ that the content is liberally licensed for re-use in educational activities, favorably free from restrictions to modify, combine and repurpose the content; consequently, that the content should ideally be designed for easy re-use in that open content standards and formats are being employed; ■ that for educational systems/tools software is used for which the source code is available (i.e. Open Source software) and that there are open Application Programming Interfaces (open APIs) and authorizations to re-use Web-based services as well as resources (e.g. for educational content RSS feeds). 5 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 The definition is concluded by the very brave statement: »It is expected that adherence to the principles outlined above can bring about tremendous benefits for education and lifelong learning in a knowledge society, not least of which is to eliminate many inefficiencies and bottlenecks in the current provision of e-learning opportunities.« For the detailed set of discovered benefits of OER as seen from the viewpoints of educational networks, teachers and students please consult the report itself. It is pretty obviously that pedagogical model is not a key point in the OER as such. The discussion of OER has often been dominated by technical and management considerations rather than the perspectives of educational practitioners. To achieve the ambitious goals of the presented lifelong learning philosophy the didactics and pedagogy must be deeply involved into the practical solutions. This subject requires a wide and integral approach that exceeds the scope of this paper. Obviously serious research will have to be invested in the direction of pedagogical models in lifelong learning. 3.1 Open Educational Resources idea and initiatives With reference to the OER movement, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation justifies their investment in OER as follows: "At the heart of the movement toward Open Educational Resources is the simple and powerful idea that the world's knowledge is a public good and that technology in general and the Worldwide Web in particular provide an extraordinary opportunity for everyone to share, use, and re-use knowledge. OER are the parts of that knowledge that comprise the fundamental components of education - content and tools for teaching, learning and research." There is an established understanding that easy access to educational resources is required to promote lifelong learning by active learners of all ages. Also the role of such access in reducing social inequalities, fostering social inclusion of migrants, and supporting education in developing countries is often acknowledged. (Halimi 2005). No doubt that open access to resources is an important element in educational innovation; on the other hand it is also clear that it doesn't solve all the problems. The decisive factor is that open educational practices are fostered by the appropriate institutional culture and mindset and supportive environment, including easily accessible and shareable tools, services and content. There are a variety of "Open questions" on this subject among which the most important is: Who (and why) will create and provide educational content? The answer to this question is not easy. Probably the public and politics must answer it (and not the publishers). Today, one can find several repositories of learning and teaching resources that are accessible freely by anybody. They are of several kinds but mostly project based with a lot of volunteering work invested. The amount of the learning material is usually very low and the diversity is limited. Other type of repositories is in a way "public", but not free for all. The most important are those initiated by national Ministries of Education or other political initiatives. The special place has the European SchoolNet (EUN), which is a collaboration of ministry departments and national educational networks throughout Europe. The initial idea of the EUN, which was started in 1996, was a "bottom-up" process with the EUN as a central access point to educational resources from the national and regional networks. This included the idea that in the emerging digital environment educators would themselves increasingly create and provide content to a common pool of teaching and learning materials. Over the following years the EUN, and the national educational networks, learned that there are considerable barriers to an effective participation of educators in pooling educational resources. Consequently, the approach shifted towards a more "top-down" approach, which over the years has been massively supported through project-based EU funding. Today, the core longer-term initiative of the EUN is the European Learning Resource Exchange (LRE), which will be accessible to all interested Ministries of Education participating in the EUN and other public and private sector owners of educational content repositories. Important ongoing work is the creation of the LRE Application Profile, which provides a set of metadata elements and vocabularies that are to be used by all participating learning object repositories. The MIT. Open Courseware initiative, which started in "early" 2001 was one of the first and the most well-known all over the world as a single institution effort for open content (in March 2006 about two thirds of MIT professors had their courses online). In the Higher Education, the "MIT broadened" Open Courseware Consortium with over a 100 participating universities from all over the world seems to have a critical mass for a serious breakthrough. There are also several other excellent repositories initiatives, like the US-based Connexions platform which has about 200,000 unique visitors per month who come from over 150 countries. The special place among the "big plans" deserves the Google Print Library Project which has the ambitious aim of digitally scanning millions of books from the collections of major American libraries and making them searchable online via Google's search engine. On a global level an encouraging example is the recent establishment of the Global Learning Objects Brokered Exchange (GLOBE) initiative, which is a collaboration of ARIADNE (Europe), Education.au (Australia), eduSource Canada, MERLOT (USA) and NIME (Japan). To come to the big repositories of high quality content which will be free for all, still a lot of answers have to be answered and finding them will be one of the major research trends in lifelong learning and e-learning in the following years. Clearly open content itself (though high quality one and even localized for the end user) is not enough for effective lifelong learning. Before addressing useful open content, tools and licenses, one must consider the pedagogical approaches in which these resources could make a difference, i.e. by being used in innovative forms of teaching and learning. 3.2 The nature of open content Open digital content has some fundamental differences when compared to the published commercial content. The roles of 6 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 all the stakeholders in learning processes are different when open content is used as a learning material. Though there are several licensing, accessibility and copyright solutions for open content, we can draw some general principles of its lifecycle (creating, using, modifying, sharing, licensing, controlling quality and managing): Open content obviously has many authors, including professional authors, teachers and also learners and is therefore in the constant improvement process. Open content quality control is in the hands of learners and teachers (and is conducted simultaneously with the learning process) instead of instructional experts. The learning units are constantly evolving with various granularity of interlinked material, variety of micro content from different content feeds is present and updates are frequent. Wikis, Weblogs, RSS feeders and aggregators, are the authoring tools together with content acquisition and creativity tools which results in different formats and usually poor metadata structures. The creation of rich metadata will remain costly and OER initiatives will need to strike the right balance between the achievable richness of metadata and the costs they incur (e.g. due to the need to employ skilled personnel). Open content licensing is a separate story, where the leading role is that of "Creative Commons" (CC). As a response to "open content unfriendly" commercial "all rights reserved" license, the non-profit organization Creative Commons provides an easy to use mechanism for choosing and attaching to a creative work one of six standardized CC licenses from the most liberal "Attribution" to more restrictive (but still open) "Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives". Creative Commons licenses have already been "ported" into several legal jurisdictions around the world and are in the process of integration into many others (http://creativecommons.org/ worldwide). 3.3 The vision for the future of Open Educational Resources In the excellent recent publication »Open Educational Practices and Resources« (Gesser, 2007) the vision for the situation in »Open educational resources in e-learning in 2012" is presented approximately like this: Educational institutions from primary schools to universities and lifelong learning providers will foster and support open learning practices that help equip teachers, students and workers with the competences, knowledge and skills to participate successfully in the knowledge society. Educational institutions and teachers will understand their key role in a knowledge society much better, and will be encouraged to employ and experiment with innovative educational practices making use of a rich pool of open resources. The current dominant paradigm of teacher- and subject-centred learning in formal education will have given way to a learner-centred, competency-based paradigm. In particular, learning communities and collaborative approaches will flourish, making use of a new generation of easy-to-use Web-based tools and information services (e.g. Wikis for collaborative work on study projects, Weblogs for sharing ideas and comments, RSS feeders and aggregators for receiving current "real world" information, etc.). As a rule, all educational material as well as research publications, the creation of which has been publicly (co-) funded, will have to be published under an appropriate open content license. With respect to Open Educational Resources, teachers will not be simple "end-users", as they understand the importance of continuous questioning, evaluation and improvement of educational practices and resources. 4 Conclusion Author believes that one of the most important e-learning development directions, in order to come to the lifelong learning reality, are open access to learning, open source software, open standards, and open educational resources. To come to the big repositories of high quality content which will be free for all, still a lot of answers have to be answered and finding them will be one of the major research trends in lifelong learning and e-learning in the following years. Clearly open content itself (though high quality one and even localized for the end user) is not enough for effective lifelong learning. Before addressing useful open content, tools and licenses, one must consider the pedagogical approaches in which these resources could make a difference, i.e. by being used in innovative forms of teaching and learning. References Barnes, P., Bollier, D. & Rowe, J. (2006). The Commons Rising. Tomales Bay Institute http://onthecommons.org/files/Com-mons_Rising_06.pdf, accessed 1.1.2007. Dinevski, D. & Brodnik, A. (2005). Lifelong learning technology innovations for efficient adult education. In: Florjancic, J. & Paape, B. W. (editors): Personnel and management : selected topics. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, pp. 135-144. Dooly, B. J. (2005). Open Source E-Learning: Alternatives to Proprietary Tools, Systems, and Courseware. Brandon Hall Research, Sunnyvale, CA. Gesser, G., ed. (2007). Open Educational Practices and Resources. Published by »Open e-Learning Content Observatory Services« project, Salzburg, Austria, ISBN 3-902448-08-3. Halimi, S. (2005). Lifelong learning for equity and social cohesion: A new challenge for Higher Education. In: Mcintosh, Christopher (Ed.): Lifelong Learning and Distance Higher Education. Commonwealth of Learning /UNESCO 2005, pp. 11-22, http://www. col.org/colweb/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/docs/PSeries_ LLLDHE.pdf UNESCO. (2002). Forum on the impact of Open Courseware for higher education in developing countries. Final report. Paris: UNESCO. Dejan Dinevski is an associate professor at the Faculty of Education and Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor. He coordinated several international and national projects in the wider area of e -learning. He is an author of several pub I i-cations on e -learning, including scientific articles and books. Samo Fosnaric is full professor and a dean of Faculty of Education, University of Maribor. He is a holder of subject 7 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 »Didactics of Natural Science« and »Child Ergonomics« in the department of Elementary teacher education on the same faculty. He is an author of several publications on the fields: special didactics, ergonomics, human factors, including scientific articles, textbooks, manuals and books. He is an active member of many national and international associations. Tanja Arh obtained her Master's degree at the Faculty of Organizational Sciences, University of Maribor. She works in Laboratory for Open Systems and Networks at Jožef Stefan Institute in Ljubljana as a researcher in the field of e -learning and organizational learning. Her current research work is performed mostly for European-wide research pro -grammes (GLOBAL, iCoper, e4VET, etc.) with focus on application of information and communication technology in education, standardization of e learning and organizational learning. She is a PhD candidate at Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana. Prosto dostopni izobraževalni viri v e-izobraževanju Prosto dostopni učni viri v e -izobraževanju so vir informacij prihodnosti za udeležence vseživljenjskega izobraževanja. Oprta koda in odprti standardi predstavljajo temelj »Gibanja prosto dostopnih učnih virov«, ki se v zadnjem desetletju oblikuje na globalni ravni. V članku so raziskane karakteristike odprte kode v re I aciji z e-izobraževanjem, obstoječimi in novimi pedagoškimi principi ter problemi avtorske zaščite. Predstavljene so dobre prakse, ideje in obstoječe iniciative ter vizija prihodnosti prosto dostopnih učnih virov. Ključne besede: e -izobraževanje, odprta koda, prosto dostopni učni viri 8 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 DOI: 10.2478/v10051-010-0002-5 Elements Influencing Study Success Eva Jereb Faculty of Organisational Sciences, University of Maribor, Kidričeva 55a, 4000 Kranj, Slovenia, eva.jereb@fov.uni -mb.si Study success can be inf I uenced by following factors: (i) social elements (social class position, parents' education, parents' profession, parents' income); (ii) student -related factors (motivation, aptitude, effort, IQ, time spend on study, opportunity to learn, pre -university education); (iii) quality of instruction (organisation, course material, communication, assignments, exams, grading, course outcomes); (iv) curriculum (number of courses, sequence of courses, test schedule, system- block or paral I el); (v) government (grant, student accommodation). In the paper the influence of these factors on study success is presented. Social and academic integration are central aspects. In the research we found out that "social elements" greatly influence the decision to enrol, but have less influence on marks received and the duration of study. Grants also greatly influence study success. We were surprised when we found out that factors from the "quality of instruction" group can only explain 12.3% of the variance of exam results. Keywords: study success, students, social elements, academic elements 1 Introduction On average, one-third of students in OECD1 countries drop out before they complete their first degree, regardless of whether they are following university-level or advanced programmes. The dropout rate is much higher for advanced research programmes, with a survival rate of less than 60%. University-level survival rates differ widely among OECD countries, ranging from below 60% in Austria, France, Italy and Sweden to above 80% in Ireland, Japan, Turkey and the United Kingdom. Advanced vocational survival rates range from above 80% in Denmark, the Flemish Community of Belgium, Japan, Mexico, Poland and Sweden, to around 50% in Ireland and Italy (Higher Education: Quality, Equity and Efficiency 2006). In Slovenia the survival rate is about 66%. Comparison of the study time needed to complete a first degree in the university sector shows that the United Kingdom clearly has the shortest study time, at 3.4 years, closely followed by Ireland with 3.6 years. At the other end of the scale, we find graduates in Germany and Austria take on average of up to twice as long (6.8 and 6.7 years). In Finland and in Portugal, students take about 6 years to graduate from university. The Netherlands and Spain are mid-range with average times of 5.2 and 5.5 years. In most of these countries, a degree in "engineering" takes longer than a degree in "humanities and arts". Particularly in Portugal, the Netherlands and Austria, these differences are substantial and amount to between one and two years (Eurostudent Report 2005). However, in Germany students studying "humanities and arts'' take about 6 1 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development months longer to complete their studies than those studying engineering subjects (van den Berg and Hofman 2005). In Slovenia the average graduation time is 6.9 years. The typical graduation age for students completing higher professional studies is between 24 and 25 years, for university studies 25 years, and for postgraduate studies between 30 and 34 years. On average, women graduate a year earlier than men. In 2004, 1,829 students graduated from vocational colleges, half of whom were women. The total number increased by 46.3% from 2003. Social sciences had the most graduates, followed by engineering and services. 11,608 students completed their undergraduate higher education studies, 3.3% more than in 2003. The proportion of women was 63.2%. 49.1% of students graduated from higher professional programmes and 50.9% from university programmes. In 2004, 1,096 students completed their master's degrees or specialisation studies, 1.3% more than in 2003. The proportion of women was 54.4%. The highest academic title, i.e. doctor of science, was awarded to 355 persons, 3.3% down on the previous year. Of these, 40.6% were women (Rapid Reports 2005). In this study we aim to determine the extent to which: (i) social elements, (ii) quality of instruction, (iii) the curriculum, (iv) government and, (v) students themselves contribute to study success. 2 Elements influencing study success The following five key elements influencing study success in higher education were considered: (i) social elements (social 9 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 class position, parents' education, parents' profession, parents' income); (ii) student-related factors (motivation, aptitude, effort, IQ, time spend on study, opportunity to learn, pre-uni-versity education); (iii) quality of instruction (organisation, course material, communication, assignments, exams, grading, course outcomes); (iv) curriculum (number of courses, sequence of courses, test schedule, system-block or parallel); (v) government (grant, student accommodation). Social elements The different ways in which children are brought up influence their desire and capacity to learn, and their adaptability to the requirements of school. Middle-class parents have been found to expect more of their children, who internalise those expectations - expecting more of themselves, they care more about achievement at school. Moreover, in middle-class families, children will generally have been better prepared to make good use of school, because their relations with their parents will have prepared them for relations with their teachers, and the activities their parents encourage will have resembled those of the school (Phelps Brown 1979). Analysing extensive US data, Duncan (1967) found that large families exerted a consistently depressing effect on educational attainment relative to the attainments of children from small families. It is understandable that where there are fewer children in the family, the parents have more resources with which to support the education of each child and more time in which to attend to the progress of each. But they will not do this simply because their children are few: they must also have the will to do it. Blau and Duncan (1967) found that with parents of a given socio-economic status, boys from small families where the eldest brother did not go beyond elementary school enjoyed no educational advantage over boys from large families. Bowles and Gintis (2001) found that parental economic status is passed on to children in part by means of unequal educational opportunity, but that the economic advantages of the offspring of higher social status families go considerably beyond the superior education they receive. The authors believe that the social class into which an individual was born leads to the principal differences in educational levels. Van den Berg and Hofman (2005) claim that the education and professions of students' parents, as well as parental income, are strongly associated with students' study progress. Bevc (2003) measured the success of students at Slovenian faculties, and found that the ratio of graduate students is proportional to the level of education of their parents. But she also found that, in Slovenia, a relatively large number of graduate students also come from poor families. This is, for instance, not the case in the United Kingdom. In the UK, university dropout rates for working-class students have been identified as one of the most pressing issues in the higher education sector (Quinn 2004). The aim of our study was to determine the extent to which the social class into which students are born, and their parents' education, profession and income affect students' study progress. The Goldthorpe class schema was used to define social class position (see Goldthorpe, 1980). Student-related factors Developmental factors and students' perceptions about their own abilities also affect their level of engagement in learning. The older that students get, the less likely they are to take risks and engage themselves fully in activities at which they are not sure they will succeed. Students' attitudes about their abilities and their interpretation of success and failure further affect their willingness to engage themselves in learning (Anderman and Midgley, 1998). According to Jansen (2004), dedication, planning behaviour and the way time is spent also affect academic success. It goes without saying that the amount of time students spend studying is an important factor. Carroll's model of school learning (1963) established the importance of effective study time. Carroll stated that effective use of study time is enhanced by an optimal learning environment, with two preconditions: 'quality of instruction' and 'opportunity to learn'. Furthermore, there is evidence that student characteristics like sex, age, and grade point average in pre-university education are linked to study success or study progress (Jansen 2004). Van der Hulst and Jansen (2002) and Lindblom-Ylanne et al. (1999) reported that ability or grade point average (gpa) in pre-university education affected achievement in higher education. As far as access to higher education is concerned, women have in the meantime overtaken men (Eurostudent Report 2005). In Slovenia, 60.4% of graduates in 2004 were women (Rapid Reports 2005). Shah and Burke (1999) also reported better university results for female students. According to Macan et al. (1990), women are better time managers than men and have greater work discipline. Intrinsically motivated students actively engage themselves in learning out of curiosity, interest, or enjoyment, or in order to achieve their own intellectual and personal goals. According to Dev (1997) "A student who is intrinsically motivated . . . will not need any type of reward or incentive to initiate or complete a task. This type of student is more likely to complete the chosen task and be excited by the challenging nature of an activity". Perhaps this helps explain why female students are performing better than male students. Finally, age can be seen as a proxy for ability. Older students have likely had more delays in pre-uni-versity education, and we can expect their suitability in terms of ability to be lower (Jansen 2004). Quality of instruction Slavin (1995) assumed that quality of instruction refers to the extent to which information or skills are presented to students clearly. Studies on the quality aspect of instruction have shown that knowledge and skills must be presented in an organised and structured manner (Feldman 1989; Slavin 1995). In courses, teachers can achieve structure and organisation by, e.g. presenting information in an organised and orderly way, noting transitions to new topics, using clear and simple language, using many vivid images and examples and rating essential principles (Slavin 1995). In addition to presenting content in an organised and structured manner, research has shown that it is important that students know how to complete and what to expect from a particular course (Feldman 1989; Creemers 1994; Finaly-Neuman 1994). 10 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 This feedback loop is one of the most important stimulating mechanisms; what is being assessed determines what students study, how many hours they spend studying, how many classes they attend, and the approaches they take to studying (Biggs 1996). Another important aspect pertaining to the quality of instruction is the pace of instruction. Whenever the teacher sets a pace appropriate to the needs of students with the required background knowledge, students lacking this required background will fall behind. On the other hand, setting the pace to suit the needs of students without the required background knowledge will result in a motivational loss (Slavin 1995). Another aspect pertaining to the quality of instruction is the stimulating effect of instruction. The student's motivation to study may come from the intrinsic value of the subject that is being studied, but it can also be enhanced by extrinsic incentives, such as positive feedback, stimulation of interest in the course and subject-matter, encouraging students to ask questions, discussion and openness to opinions, intellectual challenge, encouragement of independent thought and teacher's enthusiasm (Feldman 1989). Tuckman (1991) found that factors such as the scale of the task, informational feedback, encouragement, goal setting, group outcomes and preset versus normative standards had a considerable influence on effort and persistence. Curriculum There are many different conceptions of curriculum. The curriculum may include any educational experience. It may also be conceived of in a relationship, and it is this phenomenon that is the new paradigm view of the curriculum. The curriculum may relate to the range of courses that students can select from, but may also relate to a specific programme. In the latter context, the curriculum describes the collective teaching, learning and assessment materials available for a particular course. A crucial part of the curriculum is the definition of the course objectives, often expressed in terms of learning outcomes and normally including the assessment strategy for the programme. These learning outcomes (and assessments) are often grouped into units (or modules) and the curriculum, therefore, comprises a collection of such units, each concentrating on a specific part of the curriculum. So a typical curriculum would include units on communications, information technology, inter-personal skills together with more specialised provision (Curriculum, 2007). Cornbleth (1990) stated: "Curriculum construction is an ongoing social activity that is shaped by various contextual influences within and beyond the classroom and accomplished interactively, primarily be teachers and students. The curriculum is not a tangible product but the actual, day-to-day interactions of students, teachers, knowledge and milieu." Jansen (2004) demonstrated in his research that scheduling fewer parallel courses helps improve study progress. Students adjust their study behaviour to the way the curriculum is organised. Students' study attitudes change when an exam or test is approaching. Having fewer courses and tests to contend with at the one time will lead to the optimal use of study time. Block teaching, i.e., where courses are taught one at a time and are immediately completed with a test, results in improved study progress (Vaughan and Carlson 1992; Nonis et al.1998; Jansen 2004). Starting from time management behaviour, they stated that exams, assignments and projects should be scheduled at short, regular intervals, and that major assignments and projects should be divided into smaller parts with separate deadlines. Furthermore, Jansen (2004) claims that it is far better not to spread re-tests over the whole year. Opinions gathered in his research differ as to when re-tests should be taken. They should almost certainly be taken as close as possible to the initial exam, in order to make full use of the knowledge already acquired. Once classes have resumed, it is unwise to also have re-tests, as almost invariably both will suffer. Government The last element of our study progress model in higher education is government. In Slovenia, regular education is free. There are no tuition fees yet, but the government is considering introducing them into the school system. Students claim that about 30.0% of today's students will be unable to study if tuition fees are introduced. In 2003 Slovenia set aside 130 million euros for scholarships, with 37.3% for secondary schools and the rest for university faculties. Slovenia provides 29 student residences containing 10,010 beds. Residences give priority to individuals with lower income (Annual Statistics of the Republic of Slovenia 2005). 3 Methodology In our research we wanted to find out: (i) which elements influence study success and (ii) to which extent. We tested the validity of the model through a questionnaire. The paper-and-pencil survey was carried out. We interviewed 1068 students at three universities in Slovenia: the University of Ljubljana, the University of Maribor, and the University of Primorska. We interviewed only students who had passed at least one year of study at university. Sampling was random. The questionnaire comprised 45 questions relating to (1) data on the respondent (age, sex, year of study, study method etc.) and (2) elements described in the previous chapter. The questionnaire was of the closed type. The characteristics of the sample compared to the whole student population are as follows (Table 1, Table 2): The average age of those surveyed was 23 years 1 month. The youngest was 19 and the oldest 50. In Slovenia there is still no report on research into membership of social classes, and so we were unable to compare the structure of the sample with the actual structure of the whole population with regard to membership of social classes. We did however compare the education of the fathers of those surveyed with the educational structure of the total population of employees in Slovenia. The results of the comparison are shown in the table 2. Educational degrees: (I) did not finish primary school, (II) finished primary school (8 years), (III) secondary school (2 years), (IV) secondary school (3 years), (V) secondary school (4 years), (VI) two year study, (VII) higher education and (VII+) master's degree, doctorate degree. 11 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 1. Comparison of the structure of the sample with the total student population TOTAL STUDENT POPULATION IN SLOVENIA, 2005/6* SAMPLE Total number of students 92.204 Number students surveyed 1068 Of which male 52,678 (40.1%) Of which male 452 (42.3%) Of which female 55,318 (59.9%) Of which female 616 (57.7%) Number part-time students 21,289 (23.0%) Surveyed part-time students 254 (23.8%). Number full-time students 70,915 (76.9%) Surveyed full-time students 814 (76.2%), * Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Slovenia 2006 Table 2. Comparison of structure of the sample with regard to father's education and the educational structure of the total population of employees SAMPLE Education of father of surveyed students Total population of employees in Slovenia * Frequency Percent Percent I 23 2.2 0.3 n 63 5.9 12.4 EI 71 6.6 5.9 IV 306 28.7 28.0 V 353 33.1 28.3 VI 86 8.1 7.2 VII 122 11.4 16.9 VII+ 19 1.8 1.0 Total 1043 97.7 100 Not known 25 2.3 0 Total 1068 100.0 100 * Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Slovenia 2006 Educational degrees: (I) did not finish primary school, (n) finished primary school (8 years), (III) secondary school (2 years), (IV) secondary school (3 years), (V) secondary school (4 years), (VI) two year study, (VII) higher education and (VII+) master's degree, doctorate degree. For questions 23 to 45 (where we offered respondents a scale of answers from 1 to 7) we calculated Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The value calculated is 0.944, which indicates great reliability of measurement. With regard to the composition and characteristics of the sample, we believe that it is representative. 4 Results "Study success" was measured by asking students the following: A - How many months did you take to complete your last study year? The survey asked students how long (months) they needed to successfully complete their previous study year. B - Average grade for last completed year. We asked students what was their average grade for exams in their last completed year. A scale from 1 to 10 is used in Slovenia, where a grade of 1 to 5 means that the student failed the exam, 6 means "satisfactory", 7 means "good", 8 and 9 mean "very good" and 10 means "excellent". We only surveyed students who had successfully completed at least one study year. C - Grade (1 to 10) received at the last exam you sat. We asked students the grade they received at the last exam they sat. D - Number of re-tests of the last exam. We asked students how many times they had taken the exam they last sat. Variables A, B, C and D are dependent variables (Table 3). Social elements Our research measured the following "social elements" (Table 4): E - Father's education and F - mother's education. The definitions used in Slovenia for level of education are ((I) did not finish primary school, (II) finished primary school (8 years), (III) secondary school (2 years), (IV) secondary school 12 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 3. Frequency table for variables A, B, C, D A B C D N = 1068 Valid 1029 1053 1061 1052 Missing 39 15 7 16 Mean 11.94 7.5745 7.26 1.74 Median 10.00 7.5000 7.00 1.00 Std. Deviation 5.391 .70121 1.494 1.121 A - How many months did you take to complete your last study year? B - Average grade in last completed year. C - Grade (1 to 10) received at the last exam you sat. D - Number of re-tests of the last exam. Table 4. Frequency table for variables E, F, G, H E F G H N = Valid 1043 1059 1009 1067 1068 Missing 25 9 59 1 Mean 4.67 4.72 4.64 3.54 Median 5.00 5.0 4.00 4.00 Std. Deviation 1.439 1.527 2.581 0.797 E- father's education F- mother's education G- social class H- current financial-material conditions Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficients (n=1068). A B C D E F G H A 1 B -,223(**) 1 C -,125(**) .359(**) 1 D .164(**) -,248(**) -,277(**) 1 E .000 .046 -.001 .016 1 F -.013 .002 -.054 .029 .578(**) 1 G .005 -.021 .015 -,067(*) -.514(**) -,568(**) l H -.062(*) .115(**) .040 -.019 .155(**) .188(**) -.185(**) 1 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). (3 years), (V) secondary school (4 years), (VI) two year study, (VII) higher education, and (VII+). G - Social class. In the questionnaire we used the Goldt-horpe class schema (Goldthorpe, 1980). H - We asked students about the financial and material conditions in which they live, and offered responses from 1 (socially at risk) to 5 (excellently provided-for). Calculation of the Pearson correlation coefficients between the dependent variables and the variables from the "social elements" group is shown in Table 5. We could conclude from Table 5 that there is no correlation between the dependent variables and the social elements (parental education, social origin and financial and material conditions). During detailed analysis of the results, we came to the following conclusions. 13 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 The level of risk of poverty in Slovenia in 2003 was 11.7%. Of the surveyed students, only 1.2% were "socially at risk". In the whole sample, 15.3% came from families whose financial status was poor, 43.1% from the middle, 37.6 regarded their financial status as satisfactory, and 3.9% as excellent. From this we conclude that the "financial status of the family" greatly influences the decision to go to university. These findings match those of Bowles and Gintis (2001), which we have already cited in this paper. We also observed very great differences in the structure of students with regard to the difficulty level of study. In Slovenia, faculties offer study at the more demanding, so-called university level and at the less demanding, so-called higher education professional level. Of students at university level, as many as 70.6% came from higher social classes (classes I, II, IIIa and IIIb in the Goldthorpe class scheme). We interpret this to mean that children from higher social classes have higher goals, which matches the findings of other authors, e.g. Hyman (1953), Van den Berg and Hofman (2005), Bevc (2003). However, our findings do not match those of Quinn (2004). We draw the following conclusions: 1. We did not find any direct correlation between the dependent variables and the observed social elements. 2. "Social elements" in Slovenia indirectly influence the final educational outcome of the individual. Social elements influence whether someone will go to university, and the difficulty level at which they will study. Our findings are thus not inconsistent with those of Hyman (1953) and Phelps-Brown (1979), as well as Bowles and Gintis (2001) and Tolicic and Zorman (1977). 3. An important limitation of our research is that, due to the protection of students' personal data, we could not study those who had enrolled at university but had failed. Student-relatedfactors We researched the influence of the following "student related factors" on the dependent variables (Table 6): 1. Gender, age. 2. Method of study (full-/part-time). 3. Time spent on study (we asked students how many hours a week they spend studying). 4. We asked students how often they attended lectures, offering the possible responses: 1-"I attend up to 20% of lectures", 2-"I attend between 20 and 40% of lectures", 3-"I attend between 40 and 60% of lectures"; 4-"I attend between 60 and 80% of lectures" and 5-"I attend between 80 and 100% of lectures". 5. Pre-university education (we asked students how successful they were at secondary school, with the following options: 1-completed after re-tests; 2-satisfactory; 3-good; 4-very good and 5-excellent. We did not ask students what type of school (e.g. gimnazija, secondary technical school, ...) they attended. 6. We did not ask students questions relating to motivation for study. We did however ask students how satisfied they were with their educational achievements. We offered them options from 1 ("very unsatisfied") to 5 ("very satisfied). It is clear from Table 7 that there is a weak correlation (r=0.223; Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)) between the time taken to complete the year and the average grade for the year. Those who completed the year quicker generally have slightly better grades. There is a correlation (r=0.368) between the average grade for the last completed year and success at secondary school. Van der Hulst and Jansen (2002), Lindblom-Ylanne et al. (1999) reported that ability or grade point average (gpa) in pre-university education affected achievement in higher education. We found that the sample included only 15 (1.4%) students who repeated at least once year in secondary school, and only 38 (3.6%) who had completed secondary school with only satisfactory results. We therefore also conducted correlation analysis on a stratified sample (n=75). The calculated Pearson correlation coefficient for the stratified sample is 0.350. This confirms the finding that there is a significant correlation between success at secondary school and success at university. We did not directly measure the influence of motivation on success. We believe that an individual's motivation cannot be directly measured using objective criteria. We therefore asked students how satisfied they were with themselves. The- Table 6. Frequency table for variables I, J, K, L, M I J K L M N = 1068 Valid 1059 1045 1065 1066 1035 Missing 9 23 3 2 33 Mean 3.61 3.54 23.12 4.00 23.42 Median 4.00 4.00 22.00 4.00 20.00 Std. Deviation 0.819 0.773 4.870 1.1098 14.837 I - How successful were you at secondary school? J - How satisfied in general are you with your success? K-Age L - How often do you attend lectures? M - How many hours a week on average do you spend studying (attending lectures, practicals, learning, seminar papers etc.)? 14 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 7. Correlations between dependent variables and certain factors from the "student" group (n=1068) A B C D I J K L M A 1 B -,223(**) 1 C -.125(**) .359(**) 1 D .164(**) -.248(**) -.277(**) 1 I -.161(**) .368(**) .088(**) -.141(**) 1 J -,228(**) .406(**) .210(**) -.222(**) .180(**) 1 K ,065(*) .034 .174(**) -,116(**) -.079(*) .057 1 L -.053 .134(**) .148(**) -,093(**) .081(**) ,098(**) .056 1 M -,065(*) ,208(**) .003 -.007 ,205(**) .054 -,264(**) ,259(**) 1 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). re is a considerable positive correlation between self-image and average grade for the year (r=0.406). Through regression analysis (AR2=0,166) we confirmed the findings of Anderman and Midgley (1998), who emphasise the importance of motivation. We found there is no correlation between the age of the student and the average grade for the year. Likewise, there is no correlation between attendance at lectures and average grade. This result surprised us somewhat. We interpret it to mean that many faculties have well organised distance study, and so many students are successful despite not actually attending lectures. In addition, many students also work. They organise their time in their own way, and are evidently fairly successful in doing so. There is however a correlation between time spent studying and average grade (r=0.208). This confirmed the findings of Caroll (1963) and Jansen (2004) on the existence of this correlation. We find however that the correlation is less than we expected. We further found that part-time students spend less time studying. We therefore calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient between time spent studying and average grade sepa- rately for the sample of part-time students. Even in this case the correlation is fairly small (r=0.278). Our research did not examine the mental abilities of students and their IQs. Given the results of the correlation analysis between average grade and most factors from the student group, we suspect that the most important factor is in fact the mental abilities of students. Shah and Burke (1999) reported better results in university for female students. We also investigated how the sex of students influences outcomes. The results are shown in Table 8. We performed the mean difference test. We found: 1. There is no statistically significant difference (t = -1.907; a=0.05; pa=0.057) between men and women at faculties in the average grade of the last completed year, although we found that women had completed secondary school with slightly better average results (t = -4.984; a=0.05; pa=0.00). 2. The mean difference test showed that there were no statistically significant differences between men and women in the grade received at the last exam. 3. There are statistically significant differences between men and women in the time spent on study (t = 4.267; a=0.05; Table 8: Comparison of the state of dependent variables with regard to the sex of the student A B C D male female male female male female male female Valid 435 594 436 597 436 597 436 597 Missing 17 22 16 19 16 19 16 19 Mean 12.83 11.28 7.5313 7.6128 7.21 7.29 1.78 1.70 Median 11.00 10.00 7.5000 7.5000 7.00 7.00 1.00 1.00 Std. Deviation 6.770 3.977 0.70856 0.69469 1.532 1.477 1.186 1.054 Min 2 2 6.00 6.00 1 1 1 1 max 60 36 10.00 9.60 10 10 9 8 A - How many months did you take to complete your last study year? B - Average grade in last completed year. C - Grade (1 to 10) received at the last exam you sat. D - Number of re-tests of the last exam. 15 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 9: Comparison of time spent on study (hours weekly). N=1068 N=1064 men women Full-time Part-time Valid 436 595 792 239 Missing 16 21 19 14 Mean 21.63 24.76 26.33 13.85 Median 20.00 20.00 25.00 12.00 Std. Deviation 14.004 15.279 14.828 10.031 Table 10: Comparison of the state of dependent variables with regard to study method A B C D N =1064 Full- Part- Full-time Part-time Full- Part- Full- Part- time time time time time time Valid 779 222 779 222 779 222 779 222 Missing 32 31 32 31 32 31 32 31 Mean 11.79 12.36 7.5751 7.6155 7.14 7.71 1.83 1.42 Median 10.00 12.00 7.5000 7.5000 7.00 8.00 1.00 1.00 Std. Deviation 5.523 5.051 0.70251 0.67579 1.454 1.540 1.129 1.016 Min 2 2 6.00 6.00 1 1 1 1 max 60 36 10.00 9.60 10 10 9 8 A - How many months did you take to complete your last study year? B - Average grade in last completed year. C - Grade (1 to 10) received at the last exam you sat. D - Number of re-tests of the last exam. pa=0.00). Women complete years faster than men, We see the reason for this in the fact that women spend more time per week studying than men. Women spend more hours a week studying than men. This is clear at first glance from Table 9, and the conclusion is confirmed by the t-test (t = -3.455; a=0.05; pa=0.001). According to Macan et al. (1990), women are better time managers than man and have higher work discipline. Full-time students spend considerably more time studying than part-time, as can be seen from Table 10 and from the t-test (t=14.929; a=0.05; pa=0.00). We conducted the mean difference test. We found that there was no statistically significant difference (t = 0.035; a=0.05; pa=0.972) between full-time and part-time students in the average grade for the last completed year. Likewise there was no statistically significant difference between fulltime and part-time students in the time taken to complete the last completed year, which surprised us (t = 1.385; a=0.05; pa=0.166). Quality of instruction We studied the influence of factors under the heading "quality of instruction" by determining the influence of 23 factors. On the basis of this factor analysis we obtained five new factors from 23 elements of quality. We also conducted regression analysis, from which we found the influence of factors on the dependent variable (see Table 11 and Table 12). The dependent variable was the grade received at the last exam. We found that the five new variables can account for 12.3% of the variance of grades received at the last exam. The total influence of the factors from the "quality of instruction" group seems smaller than expected. Within this influence, we used regression analysis to investigate the influence of individual factors on the grade at the exam. We found that the first four factors (1) organisation, (2) course outcomes, (3) course material, and (4) assignments, exams, grading were statistically significant. "Course outcomes" and "assignments, exams, grading" are particularly important. Like Jansen (2004), we also believe that the type of testing can play an important role in achievement. The factor "organisation" is not the most important. Its influence is in fact much less than we expected. In our research, we found that many students in Slovenia very rarely attend lectures. Only 62% attend at least 60% of lectures. The reason for this situation is that only 27.1% of students surveyed have no job outside study, while some 37.9% work 20 hours or more per week to pay for their upkeep. The system of work in faculties evidently enables this. The "frequency of attending lectures" and consequently also the "organisation" factor has therefore (statistically speaking) relatively little influence on study success. This means that many students study alone and prepare individually for exams. Materials replace professors. Elements such as accessibility of materials, 16 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 11: Regression factore score Model R R2 AR2 Std. Error of the Est. 1 .3 5 lia) .123 .118 1.405 a Predictors: (Constant), REGR factor score 5 for analysis 1, REGR factor score 3 for analysis 1, REGR factor score 1 for analysis 1, REGR factor score 2 for analysis 1, REGR factor score 4 for analysis 1 Table 12: Coefficients of the five new variables Unstandardised Coefficients Standardised Coefficients T Sig. B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 7.356 .046 159.268 .000 Factor 1: "Organisation" .187 .045 .125 4.134 .000 Factor 2: "Course outcomes" .326 .046 .216 7.084 .000 Factor 3: "Course material" .191 .045 .130 4.277 .000 Factor 4: "Assignments, exams, grading" .302 .045 .203 6.673 .000 Factor 5: "Communication" .003 .045 .002 .058 .954 a Dependent Variable: Grade received (1 to 10) at the last exam sat. structure and content of materials therefore have an important influence on the success of students in studying individual subjects and preparing for exams. In a similar way, we also investigated the influence of "quality of instruction" factors on the variable "number of re-tests of last exam". Once again in this case factor analysis revealed factors in terms of content almost entirely matching the content elements shown in Table 1. We were surprised when we found that their influence on the number of re-tests was statistically similarly small as the influence on the grade received at the exam. The research did not confirm the influence of the "communication" factor. This conclusion does not surprise us, since in practice we find that the tutorial method of study has not yet become established in Slovenia. There were 87,205 students enrolled in faculties in 2003/4, and 6137 full time teachers. Professors in numerous faculties are overburdened. In their studies, many students therefore never seek individual help from a professor. This is a weakness of the system of higher education in Slovenia. Viewed as a whole, the research confirmed the previous conclusions of researchers mentioned in the first part of the paper. The influence of factors from the "quality of instruction" group seems small to us. We interpret this to mean that students have to adapt to the professor. They prepare for exams even if they are not satisfied with the quality. Government In our research we measured the following factors from the "government" group: We asked students if they live in student residences. Of the students surveyed, 173 (16.2%) live in student residences, with the remainder living elsewhere. We did not ask students about the distance from their place of residence to school. We asked students if they receive a grant. Of 1068 students surveyed, 322 (30.1%) received a grant, 80 (7.5%) had partly or fully paid tuition, and 666 (62.4%) received neither a grant nor tuition. We found that living in a student residence is not a factor influencing the duration of study. This is also confirmed by the t-test (t=-1.453; a=0.05); pa=0.147). Living in a student residence is likewise not a factor that influences the average grade of the last completed year (Table 13). This is again confirmed by the t-test (t=1.105; a=0.05; pa=0.269). On the basis of analysis of the results of the survey, we believe that living in a student residence is not a factor influencing study success. Of course we cannot speculate on how things would be if those living in student residences did not have this option. We found that receipt of a grant is a factor influencing the duration of study (Table 14). We found that students not receiving grants on average took somewhat longer to complete the previous year. The difference is not great, but is statistically significant. This is confirmed by the t-test (t=-1.933; a =0.1; pa=0.054). Receipt of a grant is also a factor that influences the average grade of the last completed year. Again in this case the difference is not great, but is statistically significant. This is also confirmed by the t-test (t=4.206; a =0.05; pa=0.000). Based on analysis of the results of the survey, we find that receipt of a grant is a factor that influences study success. 17 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 13: Comparison of dependent variables with regard to place of residence (lives/does not live in student residence) N =1065 A B yes no yes no Valid 161 841 161 841 Missing 12 51 12 51 Mean 11.30 12.04 7.6397 7.5728 Median 10.00 10.00 7.5000 7.5000 Std. Deviation 4.388 5.591 0.7008 0.69673 A - How many months did you take to complete your last study year? B - Average grade in last completed year. Table 14. Comparison of the state of dependent variables with regard to receipt of grants (yes/no receives grant) N =1064 A B ves no ves no Valid 387 633 387 633 Missing 15 29 15 29 Mean 11.52 12.21 7.6907 7.5123 Median 10.00 10.00 7.6000 7.5000 Std. Deviation 4.333 5.956 0.74162 0.66507 A - How many months did you take to complete your last study year? B - Average grade in last completed year. Table 15. Influence of grants on the extent of student labour CLAIM Receive grant (n=403) No grant (n=665) In addition to study, I do no other work 35.2 % 22.1% In addition to study, I work 20 hours a week or more 28.8% 43.5% Those students who do not receive a grant spend more time earning money to live on. This is clear from Table 15. Student labour is reflected in study success. Of course, we cannot in this case speculate on the situation if those receiving grants did not receive them. 5 Conclusion Many authors, long before us, have asked which factors influence study success. Based on knowledge of the theories and results of previous research we established a "The model of study progress". Through the empirical research presented, we wanted to investigate whether the model also applies in Slovenia. In principle we can claim that the findings of other authors regarding the factors that influence study success and study progress also apply in Slovenia. The results of our research are in certain details somewhat different from other countries. Slovenia as a post-communist country is undoubtedly different from West European countries such as the Netherlands or the UK. Thus we found that there is no link between the "social elements" group and the average grade for the year or time taken to complete last year. We did however find that social elements influence whether someone even enrols at university. They do not however influence exam results. As said previously, we were unable to determine why students drop out of the system, and what role social elements play in this. Research dealing with these issues will in future represent a major challenge. Our research had certain limitations. One very important limitation of our research is that we were unable to study "survival" of students in the education system. Many authors have undertaken precisely such research. Slovenia is one of the countries with a very high drop out rate. Data on such students is sadly lacking in our research. In Slovenia we were unable to undertake very detailed research on a sample of these students due to legislation protecting students' personal data. For the 18 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 same reasons, we were unable to study in greater detail how certain factors from the "student" group (e.g. IQ) influence success. Due to protection of confidential data on schools, we were unable to investigate the influence of factors from the "curriculum" group (e.g. organisation of lectures) on success. We believe that the mental abilities and positive attitude and the related student motivation are still the most important factor in study success. We therefore believe that it is necessary to maintain access to education for talented students from lower social classes. We found that we will have to find a mechanism to ensure greater student attendance at lectures and to ensure greater influence of lectures on success. Given the situation we have found, we believe that at present something is not as it should be in this field. We thus advise professors and faculty management to pay considerable attention to ensuring "quality of instruction". References Annual Statistics of the Republic of Slovenia (2005). Ljubljana: Statistical Office of RS. Anderman, L. H., & Midgley, C. (1998). Motivation and middle school students [ERIC digest]. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 421 281. Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Slovenia (2005). Bean, J.P. (1982). Conceptual model of student attrition: How theory can help the institutional researcher. In E. T. Pascarella (Ed.), Studying student attrition, pp. 17-33. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bevc, M. (2003). Učinkovitost in pravičnost visokošolskega izobraževanja v Sloveniji [Efficiency and justice of higher education in Slovenia]. Teorija in praksa, 40(1):90-102. Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education, 32: 347-364. DOI: 10.1007/BF00138871 Blau, P. M. & Duncan, O. D. (1967). The American Occupational Structure. New York: The Free Press. Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in Capitalist America. London: Routledge & Kegan. Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. (2001). Schooling in Capitalist America Revisited. Retrieved May 15, 2006, from University of Massachusetts Web site: http://www.umass.edu/preferen/gintis/soced. pdf Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64(8): 723-733. Cornbleth, C. (1990). Curriculum in Context. (Basingstoke: Falmer Press.) Creemers, B. P. M. (1994). The effective classroom. London: Cassell, School development series. Curriculum (2007). Retrieved January 10, 2007, available from http:// en.wiMpedia.org/wiki/Curriculum Dev, P. C. (1997). Intrinsic motivation and academic achievement: What does their relationship imply for the classroom teacher? Remedial and Special Education, 18(1): 12-19. DOI: 10.1177/074193259701800104 Duncan, B. (1967). Education and social background, American Journal of Sociology, 72(4):363-72. Eurostudent Report (2005). Social and Economic Conditions of Student Life in Europe 2005. Hannover: Higher Education Information System. Feldman, K. A. (1989). The association between student ratings of specific instructional dimensions and student achievement: Refining and extending the synthesis of data from multisection validity studies. Research in Higher Education, 30(6): 583-645. Finaly-Neuman, E. (1994). Course work characteristics and student's satisfaction with instruction. Higher Education, 21(1): 14-22. Goldthorpe, J. (1980). Social Mobility and Class Structure in Modern Britain. Oxford: Clarendon Press) Hyman, H. H. (1953). The value systems of different classes. In: R. Bendix, & S. M. Lipset (Eds.) Class, Status and Power, pp. 426442. Glencoe IL: Free Press. Higher Education: Quality, Equity and Efficiency (2006). Background Report. Meeting of OECD Education Ministers, Athens. Jansen, E. P. W. A. (2004). The influence of the curriculum organisation on study progress in higher education. Higher Education, 47: 411-435. D0I:10.1023/B:HIGH.0000020868.39084.21 Lindblom-Ylanne, S., Lonka, K. & Leskinen, E. (1999). On the predictive value of entrylevel skills for successful studying in medical school. Higher Education, 73(3): 239-258. DOI: 10.1023/A:1003574125457 Macan, T., Shahani, C., Dipboye, R. L. & Phillips, A. (1990). College students' time management: Correlations with academic performance and stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4): 760-768. Nonis, S. A., Hudson, G. I., Logan, L. B. & Ford, C. W. (1998). Influence of perceived control over time on college students' stress and stress-related outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 39(5): 587-605. Phelps-Brown, H. (1979). The Inequality of Pay. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press) Quinn, J. (2004). Understanding Working-Class 'Drop-Outs' from Higher Education through a Socio-cultural Lens: Cultural Narratives and Local Contexts. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 14(1): 57-74. DOI: 10.1080/0962021040020119. Rapid reports (2005). Education. Ljubljana: Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. Shah, C. & Burke, G. (1999). An undergraduate student flow model: Australian higher education. Higher Education, 37(4): 359-375. Slavin, R. E. (1995). A model of effective instruction. The Educational Forum, 59, 166-176. Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, Statistical Yearbook 2006 Toličič I. & Zorman, L. (1977). Okolje in uspešnost učencev [Environment and pupils' success]. (Ljubljana: DZS). Tuckman, B. (1991). Motivating college students: A model based on empirical evidence. Innovative Higher Education, 15(2): 167176. DOI: 10.1007/BF00898028 Van den Berg, M. N. & Hofman, W. H. A. (2005). Student success in university education: A multi-measurement study of the impact of student and faculty factors on study progress. Higher Education, 50: 413-446. DOI: 10.1007/s10734-004-6361-1 Van der Hulst, M. & Jansen, E. (2002). Effects of curriculum organisation on study progress in engineering studies. Higher Education, 43: 489-506. DOI: 10.1023/A:1015207706917 Vaughan, Ch. & Chr. Carlson (1992). Teaching and learning. One-course-at-a-time. Innovative Higher Education, 16(4): 263-276. Eva Jereb is an associate professor in the Department of Education - Personnel and Information Science at the Faculty of Organisational Sciences, University of Maribor, Slovenia. She holds Ph. D., M. Sc. and B. Sc. degrees in Organising of Information Systems at the University of Maribor. She is the author or co author of scientific and professional articles published in national and internatio nal journals, and the author of the book: Office Automation - Web Technology and Dynamic HTML, and co -author of the books: (i) Up -to- date Forms and Methods in Organising 19 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Enterprises and other Organisations, (ii) Office Organisation and, (iii) DEXi - a Computer- based System for Multi -attribu -te Decision Making. Elementi, ki vplivajo na uspeh študentov Na uspeh študentov lahko vplivajo naslednji elementi: (i) socialni elementi (socialni razred, izobrazba staršev, poklic staršev, dohodki staršev); (ii) elementi, vezani na študenta (motivacija, odnos, trud, inteligenčni kvocient, čas, porabljen za študij, mož -nosti za študij, srednješolska izobrazba); (iii) kakovost izvedne izobraževalnega procesa (organizacija, učno gradivo, komunikacija, naloge, izpiti, ocenjevanje, rezultati); (iv) kurikulum (število predmetov, zaporednost predmetov, urnik izpitov, sistem - blokovni ali paralelni); (v) država (štipendija, nastanitev). V prispevku je prikazan vpliv navedenih elementov na uspešnost študenta. Ugotovili smo, da socialni elementi vplivaj o predvsem na odločitev posameznika za študij, na pa toliko na prej ete ocene in čas trajanja študij a. Uspeh je povezan tudi s prej emanjem štipendije. Presenečeni pa smo nad ugotovitvijo nizkega vpliva elementov kakovosti izvedbe izobraževalnega procesa na rezultate študentov. Ključne besede: uspeh, študentje, socialni elementi, akademski elementi 20 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 DOI: 10.2478/v10051-010-0003-4 The Importance of Perception and Consciousness for E-Learning Vanda Rebolj Glotta Nova d.o.o., Poljanska 95, 1000 Ljubljana, vanda.rebolj@gmail.com The article presents the results of a research on perception during the learning process of adults in a virtual environment. The aim of the research was to determine why the process of e -learning introduction in Slovenia has been slowed down. Percep -tion and its effects upon learning are important on the conscious as well as on the unconscious level but they have not been given as much attention as in the classical learning environment. Disturbed perception which results from the lack of expertise in preparation of the e - environment is a serious obstacle for learning. The objective of the research was to find solutions for the actual teaching practice but at the same time the research emphasizes that conclusions cannot always be made on the basis of former facts about students. We have to bear in mind that the impact of technology changes the students as well. Lack of professional arguments and of good practice leads to pedagogical conservatism which can cause the school's progress, also in the area of adult education, to be directed in the opposite direction from the one required by business processes in the organizations in which the adult students come from or in which the students are employed after they finish their education. Key words: e -learning, e- education, virtual learning environment, perception, adults, remembrance 1 Introduction 1.1 Theses on causes of deceleration of e-learning development in Slovenia Within the material1 learning environment we pay a lot of attention to student's perception, meaning sensual perception and comprehension of the world, and therefore these aspects are well researched. Colors, interior design, sounds and order all matter to the learning process. We pay attention to how our senses are a medium for motivational and emotional factors and how we influence our cognitive processes. Intensive research into the brain brings new information that deepens our knowledge on learning. Teachers think of the material environment as of greatest significance regarding successful learning. The Virtual environment gets far less attention. Since we think of classical learning and e-learning as complementary processes, the virtual learning environment plays a complementary role to the material learning environment. A roguish comment, that in a classical classroom a blackboard on the ceiling or pictures on the floor, puppies that poop around, putting down rakes or hanging out laundry would be hardly desired and no one demands that the students climb up a ladder and get the material they should later on read with a magnifier, usually astonishes the listener. But these sorts of »arrangements« are not unusual in a virtual learning environment. A possible reason for this is the poor involvement of humanistic professionals such as experts in education, adult education and psychologists and so cybernetic and technical criteria prevails - somewhat as if classic classrooms were a matter of the building and furniture industry exclusively. A lack of cognitive experts' contribution is also present. They could optimize the conditions for learning and thinking, though at the moment they have to few possibilities to transfer the fruits of extensive research into practice. Perhaps this is one of the reasons for the decrease of starting expectations of e-learning, while business environments are in the process of informatization and need people capable of e-learning2. During evaluation of e-materials and the e-environment we gather learners' reflections and participants call our atten- 1 To point out the contrast and because of separate discussion, we will reffer to the classical environment as material and the electronically created environment as virtual. A partial synonym for material is real. We use this term in the article when we are discussing the fruits of natural processes and when we are talking about the world itself, not its imitation. In the material world we can perceive in two different ways: physically, meaning by touch of the body or from a distance, by medium, e.g. joy-stick or keyboard. The material environment and learning will also be referred to as classical. 2 Learning is a lifelong conscious or unconscious, organized or random process of attaining knowledge and development of the personality. Organized and intentional learning are called education. If they are supported by IT, they are called e-learning and e-education. 21 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 tion mostly to obstacles and disturbances in sensual perception and psychologically conditioned processing meaning perception of the objects and impressions that are important for learning. First place among disturbances goes to obstacles on the way to information (Rebolj and Globocnik 2007): stiff navigation, not easily assimilated content, chaotic screen, unwanted sounds, ergonomic obstacles and wrong solutions, and also lack of stimuli (protracted content, boredom, too long menus, getting lost on the learning path, »depressive« colors) and unsuitable stimuli (jokes and sounds that do not belong to the content, too much text, too few pictures, »disorganized« material). Indirectly we can sense the braking functioning of the unconsciousness, for instance decrease in motivation with no apparent cause. To appropriately compare results we would also need to answer the question of how much an individual student has changed under the influence of information technology. We should not make any more conclusions on the basis of knowledge about the noninformatized3 student. Information technology does some tasks for the new-day student and this student accepts it as a biological characteristic - it can perceive instead of the student, process these perceptions and shows the first signs of artificial consciousness. We can ask ourselves in what measure are we dealing with a »new man« and a »new student«? Teachers, during debates and surveys on various technologically supported forms of education, also bring our attention to the misleading and/or imperfect perceptions that lead to failure and this fills them with doubt. They understand their pupils less and less. Are the pupils in renovation? Are the pupils outrunning the teachers? Perhaps we just cannot understand and explain them by existing pedagogical concepts. For these reasons we place perception, from stimuli entrance to its processing and connecting it to the consciousness, at the center of the following research. The other pole of interest is the student, perhaps changed under the influence of IT (»new student«). Though we did not research this second pole, it calls for caution in judging by »old student's« standards. 1.2 Perception of learning environments and learning Perception as defined in this article is an entrance activity in learning that continues after the reception of stimuli as processing of information in the central nervous system and then storing in the memory. Educators know how to arrange the classic learning environment in a way to support learning and can give good advice to self-learning students on how to arrange their learning environments. Care is taken of the right stimuli and appropriate intensity and synchronicity for a certain student. If perception is not regulated, stimuli can get in each other's way and exhaust or even irritate the student. Perception includes the whole body moving around in space. Can we replace this physical experience of the body in the virtual environment? Merleau-Ponty (2000), who later wrote Phenomenology of Perception, in his early works as a fan of the Cartesian cogito claims that a thought about the world cannot replace the experience of the world. Critics opposed him, saying that it is not the being of the body that receives and sends out signals, but the participation of this body in space. Merleau-Ponty (2000) himself later on denied the cause and consequence relationship in perception. He sees the body in movement and considers it to be thinking and understanding. In this manner perception does not need the material environment. The first virtual experiments brought out doubts. Can any experiment replace the experience the student would otherwise gain physically? Klahr et al. (2007) researched gaining experience in three situations: distance experimenting4 (student executes the material experiment from a distance, for example with the help of an artificial hand), virtual simulations5 (student sets the parameters, starts the film in a material environment and then watches it) and virtual experimenting (student experiments in a virtual environment with virtual means and a physical medium, e.g. keyboard. Parameters can be changed during the process). Knott (2007) claims that we can gain experience in a virtual environment foremost if we have gained our primal experience, which is the basis for the following ones, in the material environment by the so-called hands-on learning. Some other researches confirm that virtual experiments and simulations can be used for widening or gaining experience which one would otherwise experience by coincidence (flying in an airplane) or are normally dangerous (radioactive radiation) or cruel (death incidence). Today's comprehension of virtually gained experience (e.g. on-line) sees them as a quality complement to material world experience. Since we can plan them and exclude anything inconvenient or nonessential and we can repeat them, they valuably contribute to the knowledge and shared experience of man. With the help of older technology some professions (pilots, captains, and skiers) have used such acquirement of experience for a long time. The material environment does not enable ideal perception, especially if we consider the need for participation of the body. The latter is obstructed in a classic classroom. School regulations, presence of others, free use of surface, learning materials and physical obstacles are obstructing the student's perception more than the virtual environment does. Merleau-Ponty (2000) claims that the most important source of perception is the sense of touch and the second is eyesight, but most important for perception is movement of the body during perceiving. Can we touch without material touching? Heidi 3 The term informatized is used to determine a person who has internalized the concept of automatic information managment and is skilled in working and learning on-line and/or in the virtual environment. In this article assimilation of this concept will be called informatization (at the level of individual, process, organization, etc.). 4 Experimenting is a procedure during which we change different parameters in a real situation section, observe the consequences and measure and analyze the effects. 5 Simulation is a synoptical imitation of working reality, if needed especially adapted for observation (e.g. decelerated or magnified) in which we direct the process with the intent of attaining experience and skills. 22 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Cooley (Cooley, 2004) believes that human perception of the e-environment evolves by regular and motivated work behind the screen. When one starts to use the virtual environment, one sees it as a two-dimensional picture that later on becomes a 3D space of which the user becomes a part. More on the subject can be found in chapter 3.1.1. where we describe the perception of virtual environment in our sample. We emphasize here that these findings relate to non-mobile technology6, where a person is either in a material or in a virtual environment for a longer period of time. In our previous research, where we surveyed users on evaluation of the e-environment, we have also confirmed that perception of the virtual environment is developing and that it is probably dependent on the amount of time actively spent behind the computer (Rebolj, 2006). Adult students between the ages of 25 and 35, who have used the computer continuously since high-school, feel comfortable and homely in a virtual environment - the computer with all its capabilities becomes a part of the student, and the student's virtual and material environments unite. People who have used the computer for less than two years, »live« outside it and see the virtual environment flat as a board, picture or television, into which they also do not enter. The sense of touch is very important for perception. Researchers like Marzano (1993) say that we touch when we are included and strongly involved in a situation, which equals body movement in the material world. Movement here represents a strongly interested exploration of space. In this way we can touch in the virtual environment. We touch with the cursor on the flat screen, but our eyes see a picture in space and our vision is drawn to details. It does not mirror but constructs, adds Strehovec (2006). He sees eyesight as more important for perception than the sense of touch. Feeling without touching has been known for a long time, a person can fumble in the dark with a stick or in troubled water, and an organ player who knows the organ like his own home explores the instrument with pedals and keyboards. 1.3 Issues on consciousness in light of man's informatization When speaking of perception, i.e. receiving and processing information, we are often interested in human action resulting from this process. By observing action we can make conclusions about perception. Similar to perception, actions can be conscious or unconscious. 1.3.1 Perception and consciousness Considering our problem, Cvetko (2002) offers a useful presentation of consciousness when saying that people have two kinds of stimuli receptors: one sort to preserve life and one sort to perceive their bodies. Stimuli transfer to the central nervous system, where we process the information into a representation of ourselves. If we are aware of it, we are talking about consciousness. Consciousness is absent only during special states of the body, such as coma or sleeping. Perus (2000) on the other hand defines consciousness as a dual community - the centre of the first part is »I« and of the other »pure consciousness«. Consciousness seems unified on the outside, but Perus claims it is internally constructed. For studying e-learning Hoffstad-ter's (1979) definition is also interesting. He connects consciousness to intelligence and believes that consciousness has the ability to step out of an assignment on which it is working and see what it has done until that moment. In learning consciousness plays an important role since it determines the direction, intensity and speed of effort. Many forms of adult learning that evolve in modern adult education practice are based on consciousness reinforcement (Brecko, 1999) as a basis for learning. A student should be aware of himself/herself and observe himself/herself during learning, analyze and take charge of his/her own learning process. We can also understand consciousness as the final result of perception. Even lower technological levels actually even the first use of tools enabled man to expand his body physically when needed. In his consciousness he integrated himself with objects or devices, for example blind people using their canes, musicians and their instruments or typists with their typewriters. The network computer offers a lot more to the human race. It helps with perception and processing information, it supports the nervous system and in this way contributes to formation of consciousness. In comparison to simple tools, IT supports man in a stronger and more versatile way; you could say it is renovating people. Since informational technology is enforcing itself at the society level it is becoming a necessity. Without it people can lose their social networks or fall down the social ladder, learn slower or become (in comparison to others) intellectually impaired (Bakracevic Lukman, 2000). One's position in the social network is on the other hand important for learning. 1.3.2 Meaning of the unconscious During the learning process it is not important whether perception is conscious or unconscious, what matters is the effect of all perceptions7 that shows itself in action. Unconscious perception can be relieving. Students learn easily, they are in a good mood, filled with energy sometimes not knowing why; they do not have to invest in this state. On the other hand, unconscious perception can obstruct learning. The community of unconscious is built out of signals that are not perceived by human receptors, or else they are perceived, but the central nervous system does not process them to the level of consciousness. People react both to the conscious and the unconscious. The unconscious expresses itself in relations between two or 6 Mobile technology is a sort of ICT, that is mostly enabled by wireless internet and satellite navigation and is economically adapted to people (size, weight, picture resolution) so they can carry it with them. It enables the merger of the material and the virtual enviroment within human perception. Opposite to it is non-mobile technology, where a person alternatively goes from the material into the virtual environment and back. 7 Perception includes receiving the stimuli. 23 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 more people, for example as influence of one person's actions on another person's actions (Merlau-Ponty, 2000) or in the relation between man and machine. The teacher's conscious actions can often be unconscious for the student. The teacher unconsciously sends out signals that can either facilitate or obstruct learning. This also goes for agents from the environment that can be advantageous or disadvantageous, which students describe with words like depressive, sad, restrictive, decrease in concentration...learning environment. These sig -nals also come from the virtual environment. When learning with a teacher it is easier to see and correct the observed con sequences of the unconscious learning destructors than in the virtual environment, where they are harder to spot. For example, many times students are not content with e materials as can be seen during evaluation, but even they cannot describe exactly where the discontent comes from. Authors of the mate -rial are surprised by low evaluation results, since they were convinced the material was good. Sometimes users are checking out some hyperlinks for a longer time and they click on the others only once and never come back. Also in sorting learning elements by quality, which in reflection relates to popularity, the results of student evaluation are often surprising. We can only assume that the reason for this is that the authors measure with conscious criteria (objective measures of quality) and learners, on the other hand, mostly use unconscious criteria (effect of general satisfaction). When dealing with the unconscious relating to informa tional technology it is logical to bring up the information glove, which became known in the 90s. To steer in 3-dimensional virtual reality the hand is supposed to be of utmost importance, so tools have been mostly ergonomically adapted to the hand. Of course touch of skin and an object in not possible in virtual environment. The hand controls the interactive writer (keyboard, number pad or joy -stick) connected to a machine (computer, phone) which is strongly connected to vision/eyesight, eyesight is connected to the brain and the brain directs the hand. This circle hand writer machine eyes brain hand repre sents a very intensive according to Strehovec (2006) uncons -cious connection we can also call the perception loop. Along with the already mentioned intensity another characteristic is bound to this loop - inertia that maintains the intensity of reception and processing. Another important characteristic is a tendency to shrink the loop, which can be practically described as »less clicks to perception«. A person feels and negatively reacts to any disturbances in this flow. The perception loop is besides in e learning also estab lished, for example, when using a cellular phone with a screen or other communication devices and when playing games in a virtual environment. We could talk about similar connections in the past when using a classical telephone or telegraph, but they did not seem important at the time. In the informatized environment connections are more intense, there is more »body« participation, and modern mobility is the cause that »not only eyes and one hand participate, the other hand and both legs are also involved« (Strehovec, 2006). Experience of working with students shows that disturbances in the perception loop are a source of negative emotion and decrease in motivation. Deceleration of perception can s in action of the hand Processing in the central nervous system MACHINE computer telephone MEDIUM Keyboard - interactive writer/pen - joy-stick Figure 1: Touching in the virtual environment 24 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 be unpleasant, for instance because of searching for information on a disorganized or inconsistent screen view, or perhaps due to low readability. Researchers claim that reception and processing should be a matter of seconds and that everything that lasts more than three seconds (or sometimes less) can be disturbing. Obstacles in this connection can be various, some -times it is the long path, straying about or jumping movement that the interactive writer has to go through because of badly organized menus, sometimes it is necessary to turn over screen pages, or else it is just strain of watching the screen. A small loop, movements that can be made in a second, short cursor paths and continuity of movement, on the other hand, have a facilitating effect. Unconscious perception is important for learning since it takes less energy. One of the paths to unconscious actions is repeating of the conscious ones. Strehovec (2006) gives an example of unconscious writing text messages on cellular pho -nes even though we cannot explain the letter order. We also do a lot of things in a virtual environment without knowing how to describe our actions. The virtual environment should be designed in a way that automation of repeated actions is pos sible, and this also goes for its changes due to updating. 1.4. Informatization and the learning man The answers to the question of who is the new man as a product of informatization are different. Some say that man develops greater intellectual and physical capacities, others point out the common action of man and technology. Man takes on more pleasant tasks since technology can take care of the unpleasant ones. Some sociological debates bring us to the conclusion that people could be disburdened if they took advantage of this, but they commence more complex issues. In this way man is not disburdened but more efficient with the same energy investment. In the light of learning we are mostly interested in the answer to the question of whether it is easier to learn or whether people learn more, or perhaps, both and what this shift inversely contributes to people's intellectual abilities, social relations, self-image and social position. We need this answer also to estimate how much we can rely on existing truths about the adult learner in research. It is true that technology, inventing tools, progress in science and mastering the material world have always influenced man. In view of this fact, man has always been renovated under the influences of technology, but informational technology accelerated this process and research can hardly keep up with the changes. 1.4.1 Man's consciousness and its branches Consciousness is a process phenomenon, so it has no location in the brain. The definition varies among psychologists and so do their opinions on external signs of consciousness. The definition of these signs determines whether we can attribute consciousness only to humans or also to some animals or even intelligent machines. There are programs that can validate execution of certain tasks by other programs, which is enough to determine consciousness according to Hoffstadter (1979). Computer processing of perception, similar to processing in the central nervous system and partial interpretation, is also possible. Perus in 1999 (Perus, 2000) names one of his chapters Speculation on Possible Consciousness of Computers... and expresses doubt. As the main obstacle, he points out the too small capabilities of computers of that time to grasp the complexity that would relate to the complexity of »self«. Besides, at that time he believed that the condition for this is integration of technology into people and their world. At the same time he mentions the possibility of merger of the natural and artificial, physical and psychological and that computer systems could become connected to people as co-processors. Computer consciousness could in this way become a branch of human consciousness, Considering the fact that we can also perceive with the help of informational technology and that this technology can process this information and acts accordingly, can we deny the embryo of artificial consciousness?8 The question is what exactly the role of technology in the process of human consciousness is. What is the connection between artificial consciousnesses to the human biological one? Can technology with its better perception contribute to higher levels of consciousness? It is highly plausible that the relationship between biological Table 1: Structure of the sample age / regular use of 16-20 21- 35 36-45 46-55 above 55 SUM computer years years years years years before year 1990 0 0 3 2 0 5 between years 1990 and 1995 0 4 14 6 0 24 between years 1996 and 0 12 45 14 2 73 2000 from year 2000 on 12 44 55 10 2 123 last 2 years 0 0 22 8 3 33 SUM 12 60 139 40 7 258 8 The term manipulation referrs to directing another person without their will cooperation (in neutral meaning). 25 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 and artificial consciousness is still being formed and as a result forecasts are not reliable. Human consciousness and self-confidence, as consciousness about one self in one's own abilities, are important for learning. Even though consciousness about learning is not a condition for learning it is important in the process of acquiring knowledge what the learner does consciously and what unconsciously, and if he/she is aware of improving his/ her own learning. 2 Methodology 2.1 Research sample As a research instrument we used a survey that included the answers of 258 people aged between 16 and 64, who were at the time included in formal secondary and tertiary education in 11 schools for adults. All participants have experience in learning in virtual environments, since this was organized by the schools as a complement to classical learning. Assistants who conducted the survey all took part in designing learning e-en-vironments in participating schools, so they knew for sure that the basic conditions for e-learning were satisfied, which was the main condition for participation in the research. Surveying took place in March 2009. The sample is socially and culturally heterogeneous. Due to generational, experiential, social and cultural diversity, which are factors of IT availability, it is appropriate for researching our problem. When preparing the questionnaire we relied on experience from the previous two years when we surveyed users during implementation of e-environment learning. These results and the results of some other researcher available on-line led us to the conclusion that perception of the virtual environment is in the highest correlation with the total amount of time spent on working with a network computer, and in lower correlation with age, sex and a person's social and cultural background. 2.2 Content of research The survey included questions for which we had well grounded expectations that they would reveal some sources of standstill in e-learning development and therefore offer some answers to practice and guidance for further research. Some questions could be answered with the help of a 5- or 3-degree evaluation scale, which seemed reasonable since the participants could express the intensity of their observations in such manner. Considering this, the answers were ponderated from 1 to 5 (5-degree scale) and 1, 3 and 5 (3-degree scale), respectively. The questions were related to: 1. Perception support by e-learning environment optimization 2. Effect of the hybrid9 material/virtual environment, enabled by mobility of technology 3. Perception and remembrance 4. Consciousness of one's own learning/perception of perception of learning 5. Unconscious perception effects 2.3 Gathering data, processing and interpretation of results Approximately half of the adult students filled out the surveys in the classroom and the other half got the survey by e-mail. The first group got the instructions orally and the other group in writing. Typing the data into Excel and statistical processing was done by economy students during a course on Business mathematics and statistics. 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Possibilities for support of perception with optimization of e-learning environment Today comprehension of learning is going back to Piaget's thoughts (Labinowicz, 1989). This means that a student should be active and at the same time can regulate and direct his/her own learning. Learning should be close to authentic situations. Learning is a social process that takes the form of social exc -hange, which we also need to assure in every e -environment. Heidi Cooley (Cooley, 2004: 133) explains how a person perceives the virtual environment framed with a screen. She writes about levels of perception a person climbs up with time spent behind the screen. First of all the image on the screen seems like a board or a picture. Later this perception evolves into »a view through the window«, a 3D picture in the distance while the person is still outside the picture. With further use the person steps into the virtual environment, it surrounds him/ her. On the highest level known today the person lives, functions in and masters the virtual environment and this environment becomes a part of this person. For a person to function well in a virtual environment, the concepts and structures of the material environment have to be parted from. Generations, born into the informatized society, do not have to let go of old concepts and they walk through the developmental phases of virtual environment perception with speed of light. They actually arrange their material environment according to the »new« concept. These generations have an advantage in e-learning. Others catch up with them when they assimilate automatic information management, the concept and structure of virtual environment, but they have to let go of the material environment concept. Besides the learning content perception, also wholesome perception of the learning environment where this content can be found is important for the learning process. The question was interesting to the participants, though demanding, since they had not yet thought about it. If we 9 The term hybrid is used for products of mixing virtual and material elements in a learning environment or intertwining of virtual and material environment, and vice versa, in such a way that the learner conceives them as one. 26 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 2: How do you perceive the virtual environment (e.g. classroom, created with IT) when you open it on your screen? Answer Number % 1. Two-dimensional, like a board or a picture 3 1.2 2. Three-dimensional in the distance - like a view through the window 24 9.3 3. Like a three-dimensional environment in which you are entering 114 27.1 4. Like an environment that comes towards you and surrounds you 45 17.4 5. Like an environment that surrounds you and gives you energy 24 9.3 6. It sucks you in and you become a part of it 74 28.7 7. You take it in and it becomes a part of you 18 7.0 SUM 258 100 consider that the quality of perception is related to body participation, and if the body participates it also uses touch in the environment, then 61% of the participants (answers d-g) have perception of the virtual environment appropriate for learning. On the other hand, 39% of participants do not. Cooley's claim on the development of virtual environment perception has been confirmed. Participants who have used the computer regularly and reasonably for the last two years perceive the e-environment as a board or a view through the window, long-term users on the other hand are sucked into it or they internalize it. In education of adults we should evaluate the level of »informatization« of an individual who enrolls, which is already common practice in some schools, and pay more attention to the unskilled if they are part of a complementary classical education program. Attractive activities online, such as activities for interest groups, taking care of school admi- nistration, web-communities, etc. can be reasonably used to facilitate student integration into the virtual environment. One of the possible answers was a possibility that the environment »surrounds you and gives you energy«, which was offered on the basis of other researches (after opening the environment comes towards him/her like a projectile), but our participants did not express this feeling. Participants evaluated learning contents to be the most important factor that influences their emotions and learning content is a factor that is less dependent on the environment. Content is followed by navigation - other surveys have already shown us that navigation can be a factor of emotion, but mostly negative ones when it is clumsy and not positive when it works well. Greater changes in navigation, even though maybe progressive, represent an obstacle for the learner. When we close up the virtual environment after education ends, students miss it. Some schools make use of this and enable former participants of the programs to access a virtual club, an adapted Table 3: What in the virtual environment influences your emotions in a positive way? (Mean was calculated from an absolute number of answers with ponderation: absolutely not true = 1, mostly not true = 2, partially true = 3, mostly true = 4, absolutely true = 5) STATEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 SUM MEAN Effects (pictures, cartoons, jokes, funny sounds...) 0 30 201 12 20 253 3.2 partially true Interesting contents 0 11 12 131 87 241 4.2 mostly true Multimedia (videos, sound records, animations...) 0 34 111 102 5 252 3.3 partially true Electronic environment itself 56 79 96 4 17 252 2.4 mostly not true Easy navigation through the environment 21 35 117 68 9 250 3.8 mostly true Live and virtual praise 11 85 87 67 0 250 3.2 partially true I GET ATTACHED TO THE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT AFTER USING IT FOR A LONGER TIME. 44 30 98 78 45 254 3.7 mostly true EMOTIONALLY I DO NOT FEEL ANYTHING IN THE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT. 56 93 67 33 9 258 2.4 mostly not true 27 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 4: What in the virtual environment makes you feel included in the group of fellow -people? (Mean was calculated from an absolute number of answers with ponderation: absolutely not true = 1, mostly not true = 2, partially true = 3, mostly true = 4, absolutely true = 5) STATEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 SUM MEAN Lots of possibilities to communicate (e-mail, forum, blog...) 17 51 21 133 34 256 3.5 mostly true Help, when something goes wrong 0 21 98 87 50 256 3.4 partially true Feeling of commitment to the group 70 45 40 34 68 257 2.9 partially true Effects: live drawings, voice response, animated characters- 4 76 160 17 0 257 2.7 partially true Responses from fellow-students, mentor- 45 66 42 42 60 255 3.0 partially true Opportunity to observe work of others 6 44 61 74 73 258 3.6 mostly true Consciousness, that my fellow-students and mentor can see me at work 11 45 102 56 44 258 3.3 partially true MOSTLY I FEEL LONELY. 86 80 37 5 13 251 1.8 mostly not true MOSTLY I FEEL INCLUDED. 36 23 66 80 40 245 3.3 partially true learning environment with possibilities for socializing. Few (16.3%) of the participants felt nothing in such an environment, yet most are emotionally touched. In the times before the internet has established its value, limited opportunities for inclusion10 were an important obstacle for successful e-learning. Our surveys did not show this, as we have been introducing e-learning since year 2000 when internet had already been put into force. Inclusion is mostly enabled by on-line services. Participants in this research pointed out greater possibilities for communication and the opportunity to observe the work of others. Alternatives got different support from the participants but none were rejected. For some, e.g. creating a group sense, program support is not needed, since it they can be a consequence of pedagogical organization. Participants deny the feeling of loneliness, but they do not feel included. By increasing some agents of inclusion during planning the e-environment that we have already researched (Rebolj, 2008a) this important factor of effective learning can be improved. 3.2 The effect on learning of the hybrid virtual-material environment enabled by mobile technology Alternation of the material and virtual environment takes energy. There has been a lot of research done on this subject all around the world. In Slovenia we implemented trial online self-directed learning in 2006, and researched this subject among students of elementary schools and high schools (Rebolj and Pozlep, 2007) when they were asked about their feelings during general e-learning and during learning in the virtual environment supported by mobile devices. Wireless internet, satellite communication and ergonomical mobile equipment enable the student to become a nomad who constantly »lives« in a network, except when he or she willingly turns it off. The student moves from the material to the virtual world and back again. In this manner the student becomes a crossroads of real and artificial worlds that eventually integrate themselves into one hybrid world. It is necessary to think about what is reasonable to offer to this student in a classical way and what in the form of e-learning. For example, why would we study the forest on-line if it is near to the school? When the student has a wholesome experience from nature, he/she can study it further in the virtual environment and observe accelerated processes, e.g. influence of seasons or effects of pest, consequences of planet destruction or simulation of its economical meaning. When the student comprehends the forest, he/she can go on virtual excursions of forests all over the world and thus construct wholesome knowledge. Only about 10% of our participants believe they have had experience with the hybrid learning environment, while others just help themselves with certain information from another environment, but do not alternate. Perhaps this question came too early to our participants. Among their own answers the participants mentioned that mostly they do not have any influence on the choice of learning environment, since their learning environment is organized by the school, and therefore they have to adapt not choose. Computers frequently do their routine and math tasks. If a virtual environment is not well prepared, they have too much work to do on their own, so they avoid it. The virtual environment is comfortable if everything is in it not »a little bit in, a little bit out« or »don't know where 10 Inclusion is a feeling of being with fellow-people, regardless of their actual presence. A person can feel included even when alone or lonely, even if surrounded by people. Some feelings of inclusion can be virtually created. The opposite of inclusion is exclusion. 28 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 5: How do virtual and material learning environments most frequently complement each other during your learning? STATEMENT SUM of answers % I learn either in the virtual or in the material environment and during intensive learning I do not alternate with them. 95 36.8 When I learn in one of the environments I help myself with information from the other from time to time. 75 29.1 I learn alternately in one or the other environment, but not in both at the same time and I do not alternate with them during learning. 22 8.5 I learn in both environments at the same time, e.g. I read a printed book and study virtual material. 7 2.7 I learn with my laptop, wherever I am (e.g. on the train, in nature...) without any other instruments. 26 7.9 Other. 45 17.4 SUM 258 100 it is«. Some prepare copies from the web to learn on a train or by the seaside, where they are not online. They added that it is reasonable to choose an environment that takes less effort, regardless of technological development. Someone wrote: »The future of all man's activities is a combination of material and virtual and we have to accept it, but I have no intention of extra practicing. «. Mean was calculated from an absolute number of answers with ponderation: absolutely not true = 1, mostly not true = 2, partially true = 3, mostly true = 4, absolutely true = 5). Pondered means were converted back to answers. When they get an assignment on-line, they have to solve it in their notebooks or put data in web tables and then interpret them in front of the school blackboard. There is a possibility to solve the whole task in a virtual environment, where all the tools are available, but this takes special preparation. When paying more attention we could decrease the satiation with information during learning and add tools to filter and range. Students need general knowledge on information management and instructions for the use of learning sources. During »the stay« in the virtual environment, interruptions by people from the material environment are disturbing. When students in pairs worked in a virtual environment but in a common computer classroom with the teacher giving them instructions they frowned and tried to avoid his voice. Elementary school pupils chased away their classmates who joined them out of curiosity and are usually welcome during classical work. It is exhausting if they have to solve the task partially in the material and partially in the virtual environment: »It is somewhat as if someone from the street shouted remarks or instructions while they were concentrating on their work in a school classroom. «. On the other hand, it is not exhausting if they work on the assignment in the material world and use the computer for processing data, since they do not enter the virtual space. Table 6: What is true for you when you are a mobile student, who moves around different locations and from virtual to material environment and back during learning? STATEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 SU M MEAN I can learn in almost any material environment where there are not too many disturbances. 78 10 88 22 50 248 2.8 partially true If I learn in a virtual environment instructions from a live person, like a teacher in the room, bother me. 0 3 123 114 10 250 3.5 mostly true Learning with the help of mobile devices, for instance the mobile phone is a good acquisition for me. 80 117 18 40 3 258 2.1 mostly not true Feeling that learning content is connected to you everywhere and every time is burdening. 31 65 86 72 0 254 2.8 partially true I am very burdened because too much information obstructs me. 20 43 67 46 76 252 3.5 mostly true Mobile learning (partially material, partially virtual environment) takes more energy than learning the same content classically. 18 22 32 105 45 222 3.6 mostly true 29 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Mostly not true, say the participants about the positive acquisition of learning with a mobile phone, as the computer industry is trying to show us lately. This time we have no record of the causes, but in the past miniature devices that on the one side relieved the student economically (pocket size), burdened him/her on the other (strain of eyes and fingers). People also like to separate devices used for fun and devices for »serious« activities such as learning. 3.3 Perception and remembrance An important condition of successful learning is support to student's remembrance, meaning that he or she organizes and connects the perceptions. Information from the virtual world is related to information from the material world and student's experience. Penetrability of the stimulus is important for remembering, since it determines the intensity of perception (Rebolj, 2008b). Other than perception as an event of meeting information, we also have to take care of the exclusion of unnecessary and the choice of preferential information. Each student has a unique memory structure and his/her own optimal way of remembering. Since it is not possible to please everyone at the same time, we must offer information and links in the virtual environment in various ways and enable students' choice. When dealing with remembrance we are also interested in the duration of remembrance and recall of information. There is little possibility for drill in the virtual environment so we usually go around it. Often the whole learning process is oriented towards learning, and during this process the student makes sense of the content and uses it practically in various situations with various levels of skills needed. This design serves the retention of the student on the same content, as our participants confirmed. We also asked them about the effect of a 3D mind map on remembrance, since the two-dimensional version is well researched. Regarding this we tested two statements. The first is related to a table of contents in the form of a tree, which clearly represents the content structure. The other refers to tree-structured material where there are links to additional texts under the »major branches« (hypertext). We already know the advantages of a flat mind map. Our adult students mostly say that they remember the hyper texted content better. This is a tip for practice in preparing e-materials. If we add a tree-structure table of contents, remembrance will have additional support, since this enables an overview of the content. As other research has shown, multimedia are important but not at the top of the facilitating factors of remembrance. One third of the surveyed participants say that multimedia mostly do not facilitate their remembrance. Based on other researches, we could presume that multimedia play a more important role in understanding content, maintaining motivation and as a choice for students with special learning styles, but this was not an issue research. 3.4 Consciousness of one's own learning and perception of perception The intention behind this question was to find out how well adults know their own learning and whether sense important differences in their learning in the classical and virtual environments. Do they observe their own perception? Do they think about their own learning? Do they follow up on their own learning progress and their learning ability? If we start with the last of the statements, we notice that only a few participants are burdened with the thought of being unsuitable for learning in the virtual environment. The prevalent answer confirms that learning in the virtual environment is substantially different than learning in the material world. Participants also know more about their own learning in the material environment. We can see the opposite regarding the virtual environment. Participants evaluated that it is »mostly true« that they learn more easily in virtual environments than in the material one, and »mostly true« that there are more facilitating factors present in the virtual world, but they know less about their process of learning than they do in the material environment. Factors are either conscious or unconscious but very hard to determine. While schools for adults mostly offer programs for learning about learning when someone enrolls, they have no programs for these new forms of education, there Table 7: What do you remember better? STATEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 SUM MEAN I mostly remember contents on printed material better than contents I read on the screen. 63 71 51 43 16 244 2.5 mostly not true I better remember contents that are supported by multimedia (pictures, sounds, etc.). 1 83 99 22 45 250 3.1 partially true I better remember contents that touch me personally. 12 60 61 57 64 254 3.4 mostly true I better remember contents that demand more work that is also more versatile. 0 0 15 32 211 258 4.8 absolutely true I better remember the contents that are represented in the form of a tree structure. 24 67 14 91 56 251 3.4 partially true I better remember contents in multilayered texts, arranged as hypertext (with links to additional texts). 22 32 11 188 3 256 3.5 mostly true 30 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 8: How well do you know yourself as a student? STATEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 SUM MEAN I learn substantially differently in the virtual than in the material environment. 20 17 14 178 12 241 3.6 mostly true I know well how I learn in the material (classical) environment. 0 11 125 34 4 250 3.2 partially true I know well how I learn in the virtual environment. 44 111 62 15 30 236 2.8 partially true I comprehend easier in the virtual than in the material (classical) environment. 13 14 76 77 78 258 3.7 mostly true For me there are more facilitating factors for learning in the virtual than in the material environment. 2 61 10 181 12 255 3.8 mostly true I frequently seek within me for more efficient ways of learning. 3 161 27 45 15 251 2.6 partially true I perceive my learning progress during learning. 3 13 201 39 0 256 3.1 partially true It is easier for me to follow up my learning in the virtual than in the material environment. 4 26 67 145 13 255 2.8 partially true I think I am not suitable for learning in the virtual environment. 54 189 10 2 2 257 1.9 mostly not true is also a lack of didactical theory and practice, not to mention staff with this kind of knowledge. Following up on one's own progress is usually technically supported in virtual environments. Students can take tests during studying or gather progress points for the progress collection. Thus it is understandable, that most participants find it easier to follow up on their progress in the virtual than in the material environment. The answer to the question What has positive influences on your learning in the virtual environment? is known from reflection questionnaires participants fill out after finished studies. It seems that students are more perceptive of the negative influences than the positive. It is easier to range e-environ-ments or e-materials according to their attraction, but students do not recognize details. Carefully prepared, organized environments have an advantage: structured content, aesthetical image, logical environment, short response time of the mentor and »everything to learn at reach of hand« are attractive, which is greatly in concordance with theoretical conclusions on perception, the information glove and perception loop. 3.5 Effects of the unconscious on learning and student activity As we mentioned in the Introduction, the existence of the unconscious is often shown in evaluation of e-material or the learning process in the e-environment by the students. Even if there are big differences among answers, the students have a hard time explaining why something is so much better than something else or, for example, what puts them in a good mood in a certain environment and why the other environment does not. We have been asking educators about consciousness and the effects of the unconscious in e-environments during e-learning didactical seminars11. We also asked 38 IT experts from various Slovenian computer companies the same questions during the Days of Slovenian IT 2009, and these questions were also posed to participants of the first part of this research. In the survey for students and educators we named the people students, while the survey for IT experts employed the term users. Even with non-representative samples the differences are so obvious that they are worth mentioning. By valuating the answers (not true=1, partially true=3, true=5) we got the average values for each sample. We transformed them back to answers (under 2. 5=not true; 2.6 to 3.5=partially true; above 3.6=true). IT experts put the unconscious forward more than the other two groups, adult students are second. IT experts mention that marketing of computer products and services is based on the unconscious. There are some psychological studies in progress that are discovering many more unconscious factors, also some with short-term effect such as fashion. Adult students also wrote that they do not think about the unconscious. Sometimes, though, they have a hard time explaining why certain contents are so easy to learn and others that seem similar, so hard. Everyone believes in the possibility of manipulating the user, though this is not necessarily non-ethical. Teachers and students believe that unconscious factors can be a relieving help to the learner, and IT experts believe this is even stronger. We can see the mirror image of this with the question of effects of the unconscious on dehumanization (turning people into machines, blocking their minds, emotionally paralyzing them) - teachers believe, that the most and IT experts do not believe that at all. 11 Data are summarized from the survey questionnaire for participants of INTER-ES's seminars in August 2007 and September 2008 and the Andragogical institution Maribor in November 2007, 54 people altogether. 31 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Table 9: According to your experience, how important do you think the unconscious is for the user/student in an e-environment? Statement Mean Mean Mean Teachers IT expert Adult students N = 54 N = 38 N = 25data planning Matevž Completed 1 0 2 0 10 9 9 7 0 T-2-19 Authentication and connection with insurance database Matevž Completed 1 4 0 0 10 9 8 8 0 T-2-20 Implementation of control classes Matevž Completed 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 0 T-2-21 Updating the WEB interface Jure Completed 0 0 2 2 10 10 10 8 0 T-2-22 Updating the status of the patient appointment Jure Completed 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 0 Total 9 6 »L 12 240 231 226 205 ... 0 240 222 203 185 ... 0 Figure 3: Example of the Sprint Backlog form 43 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Figure 4: Graphical presentation of the amount of remaining work (in hours) - Sprint Burndown Chart SRC is one of the leading Slovenian companies in the area of IT technologies and since its beginning has been supporting new ideas and project management methods with the aim of improving the internal working environment, quality of work and customer satisfaction. They have already implemented several projects using agile methods and intend to gain more experience and knowledge in this area. Therefore, the company has accepted the offer from the Faculty of Computer and Information Science in order to improve its knowledge about the theoretical and practical background of the Scrum method. On the other hand, the students have gained the opportunity to use the method on a real project provided by the company. Since SRC and its company Infonet Kranj, d.o.o. have been offering solutions in the health area for a long time, the project was related to the development of the information system of a general hospital. The SRC company played the role of the customer, represented by their employee as a Product Owner. In order to make sure that the development would be in line with the Scrum method, we have precisely defined other roles on the project: the teacher played the role of ScrumMaster and students were grouped in three teams with four members. Each team independently developed the required software. At the beginning, the Product Owner prepared the list of requirements (Product Backlog) shown in Figure 2. The requirements were grouped in several modules which included preparing and maintaining electronic medical records for each patient, patient appointment reservations and medical examination management, connection to the insurance company which provided personal data about patients and their insurance, and recording data on operative interventions. He also prepared a rough data model and code tables, such as the code table of medicaments. The project has been divided into two iterations. As required by Scrum, each iteration started with the Sprint Planning Meeting, at which the Product Owner presented requirements, and ended with the Sprint Review Meeting at which development teams have presented the results of their work. At the end of each iteration we have organized a Sprint Retrospective Meeting at which we analyzed advantages and disadvantages in the previous Sprint and agreed on the improvements in the next iteration. Because of the obligations that students had with other courses it was impossible to expect that Daily Scrum Meetings would take place every day, as requested by Scrum. In order to follow the Scrum method requirements as closely as possible we have asked students to have meetings twice a week: on Mondays and on Thursdays. On Mondays the meetings took place during lab hours, at which the teacher (as Scrum Master) and SRC employee (as Product Owner) were present. On Thursdays the students had meetings on their own. There were 11 meetings during the first iteration, which lasted from 2nd March 2009 until 6th April 2009 and 13 meetings during the second iteration, which lasted from 9th April 2009 until 1st June 2009. For each iteration every development team maintained its own task list (Sprint Backlog). For each task the team determined the team member responsible for the implementation and estimated the number of remaining working hours necessary for the task implementation. At the Daily Scrum Meeting students recorded the number of hours spent on each task and estimated the number of hours remaining until completion of the task. The Scrum method requires only recording the 44 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 amount of work remaining, but recording the amount of work spent also enabled us to monitor performance indicators of the development process in the model described in (Mahnic and Vrana, 2007) and (Mahnic and Zabkar, 2007). In this way the project presented also the case study for the implementation of this model. We have prepared a special form for maintaining the Sprint Backlog. The completed form for one of the development groups is shown in Figure 3. Students sent the filled form to ScrumMaster after each Daily Scrum Meeting. The data about hours spent and remaining enabled the ScrumMaster and development team to regularly monitor the work progress. The total amount of work remaining was shown after each Daily Scrum Meeting as a chart named Sprint Burndown Chart which enabled comparison between the actual project progress and an ideal situation with the amount of work remaining decreasing linearly across time. Sprint Burndown Chart for the task list in Figure 3 is shown in Figure 4. 4 Questionnaire Analysis After each iteration the students were asked to answer a questionnaire in order to get the response on their satisfaction with the project progress and their opinion on the Scrum method. 30 students participated - besides the students working on the hospital information system also the students working on the tool for project management based on Scrum. The questionnaire had 14 questions, for each question answers ranged from 1 to 5. Grade 1 was the worst and grade 5 was the best. For each question the students could write their comments and explain the grade. 4.1 List of Requirements The first two questions were related to the list of requirements (Product Backlog). Question 1: Clarity of initial Product Backlog (Was the Product Backlog for the current Sprint clearly determined? Did you understand the Product Owner requirements from the short description for each requirement?) The general response was that the description of individual requirements was too short and not specific enough. But the majority of questions were answered at the meetings where Product Owner participated. As shown in Table 1 the average grade for this question improved significantly after the second iteration. The reason might be that we have prepared additional user cases for both projects, which gave students a better understanding of the requirements. Question 2: Time estimate for the individual requirements from Product Backlog (Were the time estimates for the working hours required appropriate?) The majority of students answered that the initial estimates agreed with the Product Owner were correct. The grade for this question also improved significantly in the second iteration. 4.2 The task list maintenance Question 3: Administration of the Scrum method (Were the spreadsheets clear and easy to understand?) Question 4: Administration workload Maintaining the task list (Sprint Backlog) and recording the number of hours spent and remaining required additional administrative work from the members of the development team. Therefore, we were interested to find out how students evaluate this additional workload. The answers have shown that the students had problems at the beginning, because the procedure of filling the Sprint Backlog form was not clear, especially for the cases when bigger tasks had to be split into smaller ones and the initial estimate of work remaining had to be replaced with estimates for the new tasks. But later the students got used to the principles of entering data so that there were no special problems. This is reflected in the average grade shown in table 2 which rose in the second iteration from 3.7 to 4.3. Regarding question 4 we can see from the average grade that the students were equally satisfied with the administration workload, since the average grade 3.3 did not change. Table 1: Average grades for the questions related to the list of requirements Question Sprint 1 Sprint 2 Clarity of initial Product Backlog 3.2 3.9 Time estimate for the individual requirements from Product Backlog 3 3.8 Table 2: Average grades for the questions related to the Sprint Backlog maintenance Question Sprint 1 Sprint 2 Administration of Scrum method 3.7 4.3 Administration workload 3.3 3.3 45 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 4.3 Technical and content problems Question 5: Technical problems at the beginning of the Sprint Question 6: Technical problems at the end of the Sprint Members of each development team made the choice of development technology by themselves. A few groups selected familiar technologies, already used by some members of the team. Some groups decided to use new technologies and wanted to gain additional experience and knowledge, so they had more problems at the start. Technical problems were also related to integration of code written by different developers. We can see from the answers that in the first iteration there were more problems at the beginning of the Sprint (average grade 3.3) and fewer at the end (average grade 3.9). By contrast, in the second iteration there were fewer technical problems at the beginning of the Sprint (average grade 4.1) and more at the end (average grade 3.7). This can be explained by the fact that at the beginning of the second iteration the students had already established the required technical infrastructure, but were coping with integration of the code into operational solution at the end. The details are shown in Table 3. Question 7: Content problems (understanding required functionality) at the beginning of the Sprint Question 8: Content problems (understanding required functionality) at the end of the Sprint Regarding the content problems it was important that the development teams had no user representative who could promptly answer the developers' questions. Even though the Scrum method demands an interdisciplinary development team (including the user representatives), we could not organize it since all team members were developers. Therefore, the students suggested that it would be better if the customer's representative would test the software during the iteration and give comments promptly (and not at the end). In the first iteration the average grade for question number seven was 3.5 and for the eighth question 4.1. Similarly to the questions related to the technical problems, we can see that the content problems increased at the end of the second iteration, when individual programs had to be integrated in the operational solution. The average grades are shown in Table 3. 4.4 Cooperation with other project stakeholders Question 9: Scrum Master Cooperation Question 10: Product Owner Cooperation Question 11: Cooperation with other team members Regarding questions number 9 and 10 the students were satisfied with the ScrumMaster and Product Owner cooperation. Regarding question 11 many students made comments that they knew each other very well from before and this made their working together easier. With more heterogene- Table 3: Average grades for questions about technical and content problems Question Sprint 1 Sprint 2 Technical problems at the beginning of the Sprint 3.3 4.1 Technical problems at the end of the Sprint 3.9 3.7 Content problems at the beginning of the Sprint 3.5 3.8 Content problems at the end of the Sprint 4.1 3.7 Table 4: Average grades for the questions about cooperation with other project stakeholders Question Sprint 1 Sprint 2 Cooperation with ScrumMaster 4 4.3 Cooperation with Product Owner 3.8 4 Cooperation with other team members 4 4.1 Table 5: Average grades for general questions Question Sprint 1 Sprint 2 Appropriateness of the scope of project work 3.8 3.7 General estimate of satisfaction with project work 3.7 3.8 General estimate of the Scrum method 3.8 3.9 46 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 ous groups there were more problems in this area. All grades improved in the second iteration, which shows that the Scrum method positively affects relationships and teamwork. Average grades for each question can be seen in Table 4. 4.5 General questions Question 12: Appropriateness of the scope of project work (Was the scope of project work appropriate?) Question 13: General estimate of satisfaction with project work Question 14: General estimate of the Scrum method (Was this method useful for the development team? Would you recommend it to other developers?) The answers to question number 12 show that the scope of the project work was appropriate, so that the majority of students were not overloaded and they could fulfill other student obligations at the faculty. The students were rather satisfied with the project progress and the method. We can see from their comments that they consider the Scrum method appropriate for work in bigger teams and on bigger projects. Their opinion was that the method importantly increases the transparency of development progress without demanding a lot of administration, which is difficult for the developers. Average grades for this group of questions are shown in table 5. 5 Conclusion The approach to teaching the final software technology course described in this paper represents a continuation of our efforts to ensure closer cooperation with software companies, already presented in one of our previous papers (Mahnic, 2008). The experience has shown that this kind of co-operation benefits everyone involved in the pedagogical process. While working on a real project the students obtained knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of the Scrum method, and were introduced to the problem of quantitative monitoring of the development process, which is an important research challenge for agile methods. They also gained practical experience and increased their transferrable skills like teamwork, communication, planning and task delegating, presenting the solution etc. This kind of knowledge cannot be communicated through formal lectures, but only in a professional working environment. The involvement of SRC in teaching this course enabled the company to test one of the potentially interesting agile methods without risk and additional workload for its employees, so that it could use that method in its operations. The SRC employee who was involved in the project could estimate the advantages and disadvantages of Scrum on the basis of experience and could find the way of implementing this method in the regular procedure of the company. In this way we have transferred the knowledge from the academic world to the practice, which does not happen as often as we hope and need. Based on the practical experience gained, SRC will improve its internal method of software development. Co-operation with industry enabled the teacher to expose students to one of the agile methods in a practical way. The experience has shown that students' learning motivation increases if they can test their knowledge in practice. At the same time this project had an important research component: it was used as a case study for evaluation of the measurement model developed at the faculty. This project helped us to gather the real data necessary for calculating the performance indicators for software development using the earned value method. References: Abrahamsson, P., Salo, O., Ronkainen, J. & Warsta, J. (2002). Agile software development methods, VTT Electronic, Espoo. Ambler, S. W. (2008). Has Agile Peaked? Let's look at the numbers, Dr. Dobbs Journal, May 2008, available from: http://www.ddj. com/architect/207600615 (9.6.2009). Beck, K. (2000). Extreme Programming Explained, Addison-Wesley, 2000. M. Ceschi et al. (2005). Project Management in Plan-Based and Agile Companies, IEEE Software, 22(3): 21-27. Dubinsky, Y. & Hazzan, O. (2003). eXtreme Programming as a Framework for Student-Project Coaching in Computer Science Capstone Courses, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Software - Science, Technology & Engineering (SwSTE'03), Herzlia, Israel, November 4-5, 2003. Mahnic, V. (2008). Teaching Information System Technology in Partnership with IT Companies, Organizacija, 41(2): 71-78. DOI: 10.2478/v10051-008-0008-4 Mahnic, V. & Vrana, I. (2007). Using stakeholder driven process performance measurement for monitoring the performance of a Scrum based software development process, Electrotechnical Review, Ljubljana, 74(5): 241-247. Mahnic, V. & Zabkar, N. (2007). Introducing CMMI Measurement and Analysis Practices into Scrum-based Software Development Process, International Journal of Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 1(1): 65-72. Manifesto for Agile Software Development, available from http:// www.agilemanifesto.org/ (9.6.2009). Robillard, P. N. & Dulipovici, M. (2008). Teaching Agile versus Disciplined Processes, International Journal of Engineering Educa tion, 24(4): 671-680. Schwaber, C ., Leganza, G. & D'Silva, D. (2007), The Truth About Agile Processes, available from: http://www.forrester.com/ Research/Document/0,7211,41836,00.html (05.06.2009) Schwaber, K. (2004). Agile Project Management with Scrum, Microsoft Press, Redmond. Scrum Community Wiki (2009). Firms Using Scrum, available from: http://scrumcommunity.pbworks.com/Firms-Using-Scrum (05.06.2009) Shukla, A. & Williams, L. (2002). Adapting Extreme Programming For A Core Software Engineering Course, Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Software Engineering Education and Trai-ning (CSEET'02), Covington, Kentucky, February 25-27, 2002. Xu, S. & Rajlich, V. (2006). Empirical Validation of Test-Driven Pair Programming in Game Development, Proceedings of the 5th IEEE/ACIS International Conference on Computer and Information Science and 1st IEEE/ACIS International Workshop on Component-Based Software Engineering, Software Architecture and Reuse (ICIS-COMSARV6), Honolulu, Hawaii, July 10-12, 2006. 47 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Viljan Mahnic is an Associate Professor and the Head of the Software Engineering Laboratory at the Faculty of Computer and Information Science of the University of Ljubljana. From 1999-2003 and from 2005-2006 he was also the Vice -Dean for educational affairs. He teaches courses in computer programming, software engineering and information systems technology at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. His research interests include software techno I ogy and development of information systems. He has been a member of the Board of Directors of EUNIS (European Uni -versity Information Systems Association) since 2002 and the Vice -President since June 2009. He is a member of the IEEE Computer Society and the AIS (Association for Information Systems). Strahil Georgiev graduated in Computer Science in the year of 2007, from the Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana. In the same year he joined the SRC company as a software developer. Currently he is undertaking postgraduate studies in Information Systems and Decision Making at the same Faculty. Tomo Jarc received his M.Sc. degree at the University of Ljubljana. He is the deputy of the IT department at the Uni -versity of Ljubljana. Before that, he worked at SRC company as a consultant in the department of IT services and ope -rations. He has a lot of experience in software development as well as in managing large software development and IT service support teams. Poučevanje metode Scrum v sodelovanju s podjetjem za razvoj programske opreme Vse večja uporaba agilnih metodologij za razvoj programske opreme zahteva, da učenje teh metodologij postane sestavni del izobraževanja bodočih inženirj ev računalništva in informatike. Po drugi strani pa je možno skozi poučevanje teh metodologij preveriti tudi posamezne agilne koncepte in poiskati natančnejše odgovore na vprašanja o njihovi učinkovitosti. Zato se kot najprimernejša oblika poučevanja pogosto uporablja delo na projektih, ki omogočajo, da študenti v praksi spoznajo značilnosti agilnega pristopa, obenem pa služijo kot študije primera za ovrednotenje posameznih agilnih konceptov. V članku opisujemo, kako smo v sklopu predmeta Tehnologija programske opreme izpeljali učenje agilne metode Scrum v sodelovanju s podjetjem za razvoj programske opreme. Učenje je potekalo ob delu na realnem projektu, za katerega je seznam zahtev posredovalo podj etje, sodelavec tega podjetja pa je ves čas sode I oval s študenti kot predstavnik naročnika. Študenti so pri svoj em delu dosledno uporabljali metodo Scrum in na koncu vsake iteracije s pomočjo ankete oceni I i svoje izkušnje. V članku je najprej na kratko predstavljena metoda Scrum, nato sledi opis poteka dela na proj ektu, na koncu pa so predstavljeni rezultati ankete. Ključne besede: agilne metodo I ogije, Scrum, razvoj programske opreme, izobraževanje inženirjev računalništva, sodelovanje univerze z gospodarstvom 48 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 DOI: 10.2478/v10051-010-0006-1 Challenges of Advanced Technologies and School of the Future Ivan Gerlič University of Maribor, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Koroška 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia, ivan.gerlic@uni-mb.si The era of advanced technology claims a different individual. The individual that would undisturbed function in the era of digi-talization and would better perceive and protect our environment with the help of accomplishments and benefits of advanced information and communication technology (ICT). There is no better time for learning and concretization of these values as in school. Nowadays pupils, the pupils of digital era, are more and more experienced in the usage of contemporary media and networks. That is why they require the modification of conditions and teachers' role in the school. Will new information and multimedia or hypermedia support for classrooms and new didactical ideas improve learning results, and stimulate innovation and greater pleasure towards learning and knowledge? All these questions will be answered in our contribution. Key words: traditional school, school of the future, computer classroom, multimedia classroom, hypermedia classroom, education networks. 1 Introduction Sociological and pedagogical-psychological researches (Gerlic, 2000) show us that there are more and more changes in the area of Slovene education lately, and the interest for school reforms strengthens in the education of developed countries. Political, economical and technical conditions, and also the development of social democracy require essential changes in existing education, which is frequent also in social, pedagogical and financial crisis. Today the most developed countries firmly step in the stage of development, which is called highly developed information society. That kind of society solves problems of industrial production deadlock with increasingly use of robotization, massive introduction of information and communication technologies and with impetuous science development and education. That kind of society strongly emphasizes the importance of educational system informatization in the area of contemporary information and communication technologies introduction and also the search of contemporary-innovative forms for learning and teaching (Keegan, 1993). In the last fifty years, innovations were against the old educational system rigidity. They should rather modernize school, forms and methods of work. They should concretize educational content and adapt to the interests and capability of pupils. They should solve current problems more successfully, which is an outcome of knowledge "explosion", contemporary technology, electronics, automatization and cybernetics. Hierarchical relations between teachers and pupils should be exceeded. Innovations and development should create an atmosphere, where a pupil could say "I am learning" instead of "They teach us". They should assure team work for teachers, integrity of subjects and common responsibility of every item in educational work for the quality of school work as a whole. They should assure work and pedagogical conditions in the way pupils would not participate actively only at class, but they would also contribute to their own development as much as possible. Teacher's functions should be changed, so there would be less and less "walking encyclopedias" or "talking textbooks". A teacher would rather be a strategist, researcher, planner, pedagogical diagnostician, work organizer, counselor, pedagogical therapeutist and tutor of young generations. f/> O 0 » I Figure 1:School and computer - problems with communication (Gerlič, 2000) 49 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Nowadays, there are a lot of novelties in technics and school technologies, which are more or less familiar to teachers. They look at them rather modestly and use them inconsequentially. It is absolutely true that a lot of teachers do not know the function and pedagogical power of older and especially of contemporary ICT technologies. That is why they have negative attitude or they use them didactical unsuitably or even incorrectly. The many times heard statement that the research of common ICT technologies use effect in education is still in its early phase is certainly true. Because there are too few supposed researches and mainly they study the use of contemporary ICT technologies in didactical traditional (social) teaching forms and not in new ones, where their use is more perspective. Figure 1, entitled as School and computer -problems with communication, published in Italian magazine GOLEM, felicitously exposes indicated problems! 2 Didactical characteristic of historical era for ICT use in education Historical review of ICT use in education and analysis of recent time era confirm the viewpoints of several authors that two factors had a deciding impact on the development of computer use in education: ■ Programmed sequence learning with so called machines for learning and ■ Quick development and improving the quality of computer and information technology. The analysis (Gerlic, 2007) indicated how suitable can be the division of historical development of ICT use in education on the three important and didactic characteristically eras (Figure 2): ■ Early era of ICT use in education or the era before microcomputers - PC, ■ Microcomputer - PC era and ■ The era of computer educational networks. The initial situation of computer introduction or ICT can be graphically presented as corrected didactic triangle (it contains four basic factors of a lesson: a teacher, a pupil, a teaching content and an ICT with educational function - Figure 2a). Because of the initial enthusiasm and success of computer use during lessons it was annotated too big role and reduced teacher's role. This is soon shown as a strategic mistake and corrected didactic triangle (Figure 2b) gets a new essence. The teacher gets his leading role back and ICT is used in every field of education, where it is pedagogical possible and logical (monomedia era). In the further development (the initial monomedia era) some defectiveness were soon shown of such approach and consequentially, the necessity for didactic triangle transformation into didactic square (Figure 2c), where all mentioned elements equally influence on the quality of educational system. Multimedia accession in education means an optimal use of several different media accessions and technologies simultaneously, in educational and didactic sense it means a big step ahead. With the help of multimedia we incorporate text, pictures, video, sound, animations etc. into a lesson interactively. With multimedia we can, for example, take a walk through history, fly between planets in the solar system, search the micro world of live and inanimate nature, search f EARLY ERA ICT IN EDUCATION MICROCOMPUTER-PC ERA 1 Starting Terminal era era I EDUCATIONAL NETWORKS ERA Educational internet a) b) d) Figure 2: Didactical characteristic of historical era for ICT usage in education 50 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 for chemical structure of substances, listen to the music, learn language etc. With technological development of interactive possibilities and especially the most contemporary network technologies and accessions, simultaneous linking-selective use of ICT and the latest media (responder, interactive boards - tablets) didactic square is expanded into didactic polygon (Figure 2d), which in our opinion well illustrates didactic side of contemporary multimedia accession - hypermedia accession (hypermedia era). Researches, which were performed under UNESCO, confirm so called Hebenstreit's division of countries into high developed, developed and developing countries in our analysis of development use of ICT in education (Gerlic, 2000). Three phases of ICT introduction in schools (Roblyer et al., 2007) are characteristic for all these countries: ■ The first - experimental phase (monomedia era), which has already began in high developed countries before 1970, in developed countries before 1980 and in developing countries after 1980. For this phase less national oriented projects are characteristic, which were performed by small groups under leadership of higher education institutions and with the financial aid of region and state school authorities. They studied the possibilities of ICT incorporation into traditional school organization with very expensive and unsuitable hardware. ■ The second - developmental phase (multimedia era) presents the intensity search of ICT incorporation into traditional educational forms and the search of connections with new didactic movements or educational system - reform experiments. ICT in schools understands this era as didactic innovation that is why it is studied according to many national and international projects. Characteristics for this era are many strategies of ICT introduction into educational process, greater adaptation of hardware and software for school needs and emphasizing the sense of suitable preparing of didactic equipment and teacher's education. ■ The third - stabilization phase (hypermedia era) presents the degree of ICT use development in education where it losses "aureola" of innovation and starts to use as a normal, but very efficient system of the most contemporary education technology in every field of life and school work. 3 Didactic - technological example of development use trends of ICT in education If we make some analysis and apply discussing issues on an example (for a set time) of didactic-technological designed classrooms we see that with the quick development of automatization and electronics technological achievements were quickly applied in school work, which should improved organization and quality. In the sense of classrooms, the first response was the system of electronic classrooms, usually for performing linear or branch programmed learning. In the didactic sense it represents the corrected didactic triangle, which with decreased teacher's role (Figure 3) and with the help of picture, sound and simultaneous feedback (Interactive Response System) reaches bigger motivation, individualization, differentiation and greater pupils' activity. Technological and didactic weaknesses of electronic classrooms improve computer classrooms (monomedia era), which in the didactic sense present corrected didactic triangle (Figure 3) with less or more rendered teacher's role and linking role of ICT, which is used in educational system as individual (demonstration computer) or mass form (computer classroom for individuals or team work). With more and more efficient ICT and multimedia technology so called multimedia classrooms are being formed. They incorporate hyper interactive text, pictures, video, sound, animation etc., and in didactic sense present the transformation of didactic triangle into didactic square (multimedia era). With technological development of interactive possibilities and especially the most contemporary interactive ICT technologies, which incorporate educational presentational (Interactive Whiteboard Systems, Interactive Display Frames, AirLiner Wireless Slates, Interactive Tables, Document Cameras, Interactive response systems etc.), videoconference, mobile and interactive video technology (technologies of virtual reality also undergo the development) into whole-class learning or small-group and individual learning we get hypermedia classrooms (figure 4), which expand the didactic square into didactic polygon (hypermedia era). Electronic classroom Computer classroom Multimedia classroom Hypermedia classroom Student Teaching matter Student Teaching matter Student Teachinc] matter Teaching matter Medium 2 Figure 3: Didactic - technological characteristic eras on the example of the electronic-computer classroom development 51 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Whole class learning Small-group learning Figure 5: Contemporary information and communication technologies in school 4 Conclusion It is obvious, that advanced technology claims a different individual. The individual that would undisturbed function in the era of digitalization and would better perceive and protect our environment with the help of accomplishments and benefits of advanced information and communication technology. It is also obvious, that there is no better time for learning and concretization of these values as in school. Nowadays pupils, the pupils of digital era, are more and more experienced in the usage of contemporary media and networks. That is why they require the modification of conditions and teachers' role in the school. The new information and multimedia or hypermedia supported classrooms and new didactic ideas will certainly improve learning results and stimulate innovation and greater pleasure towards learning and knowledge. That is why we have to arrange that kind of learning environment, teachers, and especially understandable school leadership and school political institutions. The results will certainly not disappoint us! 5 Literature Gerlič, I. (2000). Sodobna informacijska tehnologija v izobraževanju [Contemporary information technology in education]. DZS, Ljubljana. Gerlič, I. et al. (2002). Načrtovanje in priprava študijskih gradiv za izobraževanje na daljavo [Planning and Designing Distance Education Materials]. University of Maribor, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science. Roblyer, M. D., Edwards J. & Havriluk M. A. (2007). Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching. Merrill, New Jersey. Rowntree, D. (2004). Preparing materials for open, distance and flexible learning. Kogan Page, London. Scheffknecht, J. J. (2008). Information Technologies in schools: reason and strategies for investment. Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg. 52 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 Ivan Gerlic is associate professor of Didactics, Physics and Informatics in the University of Maribor, Faculty of Nature Sciences and Mathematics. He is Chair of Centre for Didactics of Physics and Laboratory for computation physics, researcher and author of many articles, monographs, textbooks, manuals on the field of physics, informatics and multimedia. His Research and development interest are didactic of physics, didactics of computers in education - ICT, educational technology, computer video production (video production, coding), multimedia (didactic and design), distance education and tele learning, internet application design, new video technologies (internet; VOD, cable TV), IKT technology for handicapped persons, electronic designing. Izzivi novih tehnologij in šola bodočnosti Doba napredne tehnologije zahteva drugačnega posameznika; takšnega, ki bo lahko nemoteno deloval v dobi digitalizacije in bo lahko s pomočjo znanj in prednosti napredne informacijsko komunikacijske tehnologije bolje spoznal in varoval okolje. Ni boljšega časa za učenje in konkretiziranje takih vrednot kot v šoli. Današnji učenci, učenci digitalne dobe, so vse bolj vešči v uporabi sodobnih medijev in mrež, s čimer zahtevajo spreminjanje razmer v šoli kot instituciji in tudi spremenjeno vlogo učiteljev. Bodo nove informacijsko in multimedijsko oz. hipermedijsko podprte učilnice in nove didaktične ideje izboljšale učne rezultate in spodbudile inovativnost in večje veselje do učenja in znanja? To se sprašujemo in na to bomo skušali v našem prispevku odgovoriti. Ključne besede: tradicionalna šola, šola prihodnosti, računalniška učilnica, multimedijska učilnica, hipermedijska učilnica, izobraževalna omrežja 53 Organizacija, Volume 43 Research papers Number 1, January-February 2010 UNIVERZA V MARIBORU - FAKULTETA ZA ORGANIZACIJSKE VEDE TQM ODLIČNOST 10% II -1 M j 1 1 T5 % 18% 1 1 20% 1 1 1-1 ó o Janez Marolt Boštjan Gomišček Management kakovosti Založba Modama organizacija 54 Organizacija, letnik 43 Razprave številka 1, januar-februar 2010 E-izobraževanje z naprednimi učnimi kockami - NAUK.si Boris Horvat12, Matija Lokar2, Primož Lukšič2 11nštitut za matematiko, fiziko in mehaniko, Jadranska 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija, boris.horvat@fmf.uni -Ij.si 2Inštitut za matematiko, fiziko in mehaniko & Fakulteta za matematiko in fiziko Univerze v Ljubljani, Jadranska 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija; matija.lokar@fmf.uni -lj.si, primoz.luksic@fmf.uni -lj.si Avtorji učnih e -gradiv, namenjenih učiteljem, vse prevečkrat pripravijo le -te v obliki monolitnih blokov, sestavljenih na način, kot so običajni tekstovni delovni zvezki. To zahteva, da jih učitelj uporabi kot celoto, na točno predpisan način. A ker je učitelj posrednik med učnim gradivom in učencem, je on tisti, ki mora narediti izbor gradiv in jih kombinirati na ustrezen način. E - gradiva naj bodo zato pripravljena na fleksibilen način. Zakaj ne izrabiti možnosti, ki jih ponujajo nove tehnologije in učitelju vsaj ponuditi možnost, da gradiva pripravi ustrezno svojim in učenčevim potrebam. V procesu izdelave izobraževalnih e -gradiv, ki je v Sloveniji v zadnjih letih močno poraslo zaradi različnih razpisov na to tematiko, se je vedno bolj zapostavljalo učitelja in vpeljevalo dvosmerno relacijo med avtorjem gradiva ter uporabnikom - učencem. Cilj projekta NAUK je zato izgradnja naprednih učnih vsebin, ki učitelju dajejo možnost prilagajanja, saj le -ta najbolj ve kaj potrebuje pri pouku. V prispevku tako srečamo izkušnje iz preteklih let, predstavimo možne scenarije uporabe repozitorijev učnih gradiv ter na teh osnovah zgrajenega portala nauk.si. Ključne besede: e -izobraževanje, e- gradiva, Slovenija, atomarna gradiva, učitelj 1 Uvod O tem, kaj je učenje, obstajajo različne definicije. Tako Možina v (Možina, 2000) piše, da: »splošno veljavnega odgovora na to, kaj je učenje ni, saj znanost ni uspela v celoti razkriti zakonitosti človekovih učnih in miselnih procesov. ... Na splošno lahko govorimo, da je učenje vsaka oblika aktivnosti posameznika, s katero dosežemo spremembo obnašanja oziroma vedenja...«. Učenje je torej proces, ki nastopa v različnih oblikah. Ko bomo govorili o učnih gradivih, se bomo omejili na tista učna gradiva, ki jih uporabljamo v učnem procesu, ko se učenec uči ob pomoči učitelja. Osnovni namen vsakega izobraževanja je ta, da se učeči se čim več naučijo. Večina učečih mlajših generacij (današnji osnovnošolci in srednješolci - t.i. "digitalni domačini") ima raje grafične in vizualne prikaze kot besedilo. Navajeni so pridobivati hitre in jasne odgovore na zastavljena vprašanja, potrebujejo takojšnje pohvale in nagrade za dobro opravljene naloge, povezujejo informacije (uporabljajo povezave na sorodna gradiva), igre so jim bolj všeč kot "resne" vsebine, želijo čim več interaktivnosti in večpredstavnosti, radi uporabljajo sodelovalne načine dela; glej (Prensky, 2001). Digitalni domačini vse svoje življenje uporabljajo računalnike, z njimi živijo, in zato pričakujejo, da bodo gradiva iz katerih se bodo lahko učili dobili tudi v digitalni obliki. Tudi zaradi teh razlogov je e-izobraževanje področje, ki se v zadnjih letih pospešeno razvija (Varlamis, 2006). Razvija se tako v tehnološkem smislu (z razvojem standardov in orodij), v pedagoškem smislu (predvsem z razvojem novih učnih pristopov in preko prenosa primerov dobre prakse v učni proces) ter v vsebinskem smislu (ob izdelavi kvalitetnih e-gradiv). Ker morajo kvalitetna e-gradiva učeče motivirati za učenje, morajo avtorji e-gradiv upoštevati pričakovanja učečih in zato čim bolj izkoriščati sodobne pristope, interaktivnost in večpred-stavnost. Samo kvalitetna e-gradiva pa niso dovolj; integrirana morajo biti v virtualna učna okolja, ki med drugim omogočajo vsaj sledenje napredka in znanja učečih. Ob tem ko razmišljamo o učencih, ne smemo pozabiti tudi na druge končne uporabnike (učitelje), ki lahko z uporabo e-izobraževanj učni proces bistveno izboljšajo. S pomočjo sodobnih tehnologij lahko e-izobraževanje: pripomore k vzpostavitvi oziroma povečevanju sodelovanja med učečimi se in učitelji, omogoči izvajanje izobraževanja na daljavo, interaktivno izvajanje poskusov, dinamično preverjanje znanja (Pre-ložnik, 2008) in sprotno nagrajevanje, omogoči lažje sledenje napredka ter znanja učečega se in podobno; glej tudi (Horvat et al., 2008). Predvsem pomanjkanje primernih orodij, ki so enostavna za uporabo in hkrati omogočajo funkcionalnosti, ki jih potrebujemo za izdelavo primernih e-gradiv ter zagotavljanje kvalitetnega izobraževanja, ter preveč sistemsko-tehničnega znanja, ki je potrebno za podporo izvajanju elektronsko podprtih izo- A 1 Organizacija, letnik 43 Razprave številka 2, januar-februar 2010 braževanj, sta glavni oviri, ki danes v Sloveniji onemogočata širšo uporabo e-izobraževanja (tako v šolskem prostoru kot zunaj njega). 2 Na splošno o učnih gradivih Med priprave učitelja na poučevanje sodita tudi pregled in izbor učnih gradiv, ki jih bo uporabljal. Tako na spletnih straneh Inštituta za interaktivne medije in učenje Univerze za tehnologijo v Sydneyju v sklopu priročnika za učno osebje1 med drugim piše, da je ena od pomembnih lastnosti dobrega učitelja ta, da vedno uporablja učna gradiva na način, ki najbolj ustrezajo razredu, ki ga trenutno poučuje. Če premislimo, kako pravzaprav učitelji uporabljajo »klasično« učno gradivo kot so knjige, zbirke vaj in podobno, ugotovimo, da z gradivi ves čas kombinirajo. Učencem zelo pogosto naročijo, naj si ogledajo "te in te strani v učbeniku", nato naj rešijo določen izbor nalog iz zbirke, nato naj spet nekaj preberejo itd. Ta navodila se zelo pogosto spreminjajo; v enem razredu je kombinacija takšna, v drugem nekoliko drugačna. Učitelj iz gradiva naredi kombinacijo - lekcijo oziroma zgodbo, ki kar se da najbolj ustreza učencem, ki jih uči. Zato ni čudno, da med najpogosteje uporabljenimi tehnološkimi pripomočki sodobnega učitelja najdemo škarje in kopirni stroj. Razlog za tako ravnanje je povsem naraven. Avtorji učnih gradiv si zamislijo neko hipotetično učno situacijo in hipotetičnega učenca, učitelj pa je tisti, ki se mora prilagoditi dejanskemu stanju v učnemu procesu. In to stanje največkrat vsaj nekoliko odstopa od s strani avtorja učnega gradiva zamišljenega procesa. Glede na to, da dostopnost gradiva praviloma ni problematična, je prav ta izbor, prilagajanje in rekombiniranje gradiv eno od poglavitnih učiteljevih opravil. 3 Kako dobra (e-)gradiva imamo? S podporo Ministrstva za šolstvo in šport (MŠŠ), projektov financiranih iz evropskih sredstev (najpogosteje iz sredstev evropskih socialnih skladov ESS), odprtokodnih projektov in projektov financiranih iz naslova nadgradnje odprte kode, smo v Sloveniji do danes na področju e-izobraževanja poskrbeli predvsem za razvoj e-gradiv. Najpomembnejši (celo osnovni) namen množice projektov izdelave e-gradiv je bil seveda izdelati dovolj veliko e-gradiv, na katerih bo mogoče izgraditi novo generacijo Slovenskega izobraževalnega omrežja SIO (Čač et al., 2007). Drugi (in ne le skriti) namen pa je bil motivirati učitelje, da so začeli razmišljati o tem, kako e-izobraževanje vpeljati v izobraževalni proces, kako izdelati kvalitetna e-gra-diva, kako motivirati učeče in podobno. E-izobraževanje pa je veliko več kot le kopica zbranih e-gradiv. Dobro je, da smo se v Sloveniji razvoja šolskih e-gradiv lotili dovolj široko, razumno in ne enoumno. Nastalo je več centrov e-znanj2'3, ki ponujajo brezplačno dostopna e-gradiva s šolsko tematiko. Obstoječa gradiva so bila recenzirana in so na prvi pogled povsem primerna za poučevanje. Ob tem, ko je nastalo več centrov e-znanj, smo v Sloveniji identificirali probleme, ki se pojavijo pri vpeljavi e-izobraževanja (Babic, 2006; Sajovic, 2006) in ob izdelavi e-gradiv dobili različne ideje kako jih rešiti (Horvat et al., 2007a, 2007b in 2007c; Lukšič et al. 2007; Božeglav et al., 2009; Lokar, 2009a). Pri pregledu zbirk e-gradiv4 in ostalih zbirk e-gradiv dosegljivih v našem šolskem prostoru vse prevečkrat ugotavljamo, da so gradiva (vsaj v večji meri) sestavljena tako kot običajni tiskani učbeniki oziroma tiskani delovni zvezki. Tako pripravljena e-gradiva upoštevajo le potrebe učečega se in še to v vlogi končnega in samostojnega uporabnika. Kot taka so uporabna v glavnem le pri samoučenju, kljub temu da je bila osnovna predpostavka pri razvoju teh gradiv, da se bodo uporabljala tudi v učnem procesu v katerem nastopa tudi učitelj. In če na tako pripravljena gradiva pogledamo iz stališča uporabe v učnem procesu v katerem nastopa tudi učitelj, je učitelj v resnici še na slabšem kot je bil, ko je uporabljal le klasični učbenik. Pogosto so namreč ta e-gradiva tehnološko tako »zaprta«, da učitelj nima ustreznega nadomestka za škarje, s katerimi bi »kombiniral« klasično tiskano gradivo. Učitelji tako pogosto naletijo na veliko oviro že, če želijo uporabiti le del učnega gradiva, da o možnosti, da bi želeli prilagoditi del gradiva svojim potrebam, sploh ne govorimo. Vsi učitelji seveda ne potrebujejo gradiv v enaki obliki, enakem vrstnem redu, z enakimi zgledi in enakimi nalogami. Po drugi strani pa avtorji e-gradiv na vlogo učitelja računajo, saj le malo gradiv učenca vodi avtomatsko (mu izbira primerne naloge, zaporedje tem, dodatne razlage itd.), Slika 1: e-gradivo, ki ne upošteva vloge učitelja je primerno le za samoučenje 1 IML Teaching Matters: A handbook for UTS academic staff; http://www.imLuts.edu.au/learnteach/resources/tm/teacherprep.html 2 Zbirka povezav e-gradiv izdelanih v okviru projektov MŠŠ in ESS, http://www.mss.gov.si/si/delovna_podrocja/ikt_v_solstvu/e_gradiva 3 Centri e-znanj: http://www.nauk.si, http://www.egradiva.si, http://profutura.scv.si, http://www.e-um.si, http://www.praktik.si, http://am.fmf. uni-lj.si, http://up.fmf.uni-lj.si 4 Slovensko izobraževalno omrežje SIO2, http://www.sio.si in slovensko izobraževalno omrežje SIO, http://sio.edus.si A 2 Organizacija, letnik 43 Razprave številka 1, januar-februar 2010 D Učno gradi™ Učenec flvtof Slika 2: Odnosi med učnim gradivom in vsemi udeleženci učnega procesa ampak se posredno zanašajo na dejstvo, da bo pri učenju ob učencu navzoč tudi učitelj. Kljub dobro izpeljanim "prvim korakom" pri izgradnji slovenskega izobraževalnega omrežja4 je torej potrebno pošteno oceniti trenutno stanje na področju e-gradiv. Podroben pregled vsebin namreč pokaže, da so nekatera e-gradiva kljub opravljeni recenziji za poučevanje žal neprimerna (Prensky, 2001) in so primerna le kot dopolnilna gradiva pri klasičnem izobraževanju. Avtorji tega prispevka dobro poznamo e-gra-diva iz matematike, fizike in računalništva. Na teh področjih je mogoče najti več projektov, ki vsebujejo za poučevanje neprimerna e-gradiva, taka e-gradiva pa je brez težav mogoče poiskati tudi na drugih področjih. Naštejmo najpomembnejše slabosti (in predloge izboljšav) povprečnega že izdelanega e-gradiva; te so večinoma: ■ konceptualne narave - monolitnost (e-gradivo je najpogosteje izdelano iz enega velikega kosa in kot tako neprimerno za drobljenje); e-gradivo mora biti sestavljeno iz elementarnih kosov, ki so dovolj majhni, osredotočeni in kratki, da jih je mogoče sestavljati v različne celote, - uporabljene so tehnologije, ki jih ni mogoče popravljati in dopolnjevati (recimo celotno e-gradivo je ena velika datoteka Flash); uporabljati je potrebno primerne dobro dokumentirane (odprte) formate, tako da je mogoče posodabljati tudi dele vsebin, - povezovanje med e-gradivi je oteženo; e-gradiva morajo biti opremljena s kvalitetnimi meta podatki, ki omogočajo hitrejše iskanje takšnih gradiv v velikih repo-zitorijih, učitelji bi morali imeti možnost preiskovanja repozitorijev e-gradiv, tam najti manjše elementarne vsebine, ki jih zanimajo, zato da bi iz njih lahko sestavili večje skupke - lekcije, - pretesna povezanost vsebine, funkcionalnosti in izgleda (koncept "vzemi ali pusti"); e-gradiva bi morala biti shranjena v obliki, ki učitelju omogoča posodabljanje in popoln nadzor, sestavljena bi morala biti v elementarni obliki, ki ločuje vsebino od oblike, - upravljanje z e-gradivi mora biti enostavno - poudarek mora biti na učenju; učitelj bi moral imeti prost sistem za popravljanje in upravljanje z e-gradivi, ki poskrbi za oblikovanje, strukturo in funkcionalnost; tako se lahko osredotoči na vsebino in način prikaza - na poučevanje, - dinamičnost je izredno slabo vgrajena v e-gradiva; vsebovane naloge, če obstajajo, so najpogosteje "zapisane" v samem e-gradivu (boljša e-gradiva vsebujejo naloge, ki variirajo vhodne parametre, vendar je nabor vhodnih parametrov in možnih rešitev pogosto zelo omejen); potrebna bi bila povezava s sistemom za dinamično generiranje nalog, premešanje nalog, kon-tekstna odvisnost ...; s tem dosežemo, da ob ponovni uporabi istega e-gradiva dobimo podobno, a drugačno vsebino, - rešitve nalog, če obstajajo, so skoraj vedno v e-gradivu v naprej definirane, učečim se celo predpisujejo način, v katerem morajo odgovoriti na zastavljeno vprašanje; odgovori učečih se so lahko pravilni, pa jih računalnik ne zazna (recimo odgovor x + 1 je sprejet kot pravilen, 1 + x pa kot napačen), zato bi bilo potrebno imeti bistveno močnejšo evaluacijo vnesenih odgovorov, še posebej, ker je to možno (npr. z uporabo tehnik računalniške algebre pri matematičnih odgovorih), - prilagajanje različnim skupinam uporabnikov (otroci s posebnimi potrebami, slabovidni, starejši, ... ) in scenarijem uporabe e-gradiva (interaktivna tabla, projekcija, računalnik, uporaba, ko dostop do omrežja ni možno - recimo uporaba zgoščenke itd), ■ vsebinske oziroma pedagoške narave - pogosto so e-gradiva realizirana kot digitalizirani učbeniki (čeprav imajo dodane video vsebine to še ne pomeni, da so prava e-gradiva); e-gradivo je povsem drug medij kot papir (oz. z računalnikom izdelana predstavitev, elektronski dokument), - slaba interaktivnost in omejena večpredstavnost; opazno je pomanjkanje resnično interaktivnih nalog, pri katerih učeči sodeluje (recimo z odgovori v obliki A 3 Organizacija, letnik 43 Razprave številka 1, januar-februar 2010 risbe, načrta, uporaba video kamere in mikrofona, aktivno sodelovanje pri izvajanju poskusov, reševanje problema skozi igro); na primer: interaktivna uporaba zvezdne karte ("hands-on" koncept) je veliko boljša interaktivnost kot le pasivno opazovanje filma, ki prikazuje uporabo take karte, - pomanjkanje kontekstne odvisnosti; praktično ni e-gra-diva, ki bi na trenutnem koraku znalo prikazati vsebino glede na aktivnosti uporabnika pri pregledovanju tega gradiva do tega trenutka (ta funkcionalnost je zelo uporabna, ko želimo učečega podučiti o njegovi napaki, ki jo je naredil nekaj korakov nazaj in posledicah, ki iz te napake izhajajo), - avtorji uporabijo premalo sodobnih pristopov; tukaj so mišljeni predvsem interaktivni poskusi (nekatera gradiva sicer vsebujejo video posnetke opravljenih poskusov, vendar učeči pri takih poskusih ne sodelujejo); "učenje skozi igranje oz. interaktivnost" je zelo pomembno za t.i. "digitalne domačine"; glej (Prensky, 2001), - e-gradiva vsebujejo premalo sprotnega preverjanja znanja, motivacij s pohvalami in sprotnega nagrajevanja ob pravilno rešenih "problemih", - opazna je pomanjkljiva uporaba novih učnih pristopov; učeči se bodo e-gradiva pogosto uporabljali tudi takrat, ko učitelj ne bo prisoten, zato je zelo pomembna večkratna razlaga istega pojma, motivacija s primerom pred razlago, postopno nadgrajevanje znanja, preverjanje znanja po razlagi, nagrajevanje ob pravilno rešenih problemih ipd., - manjkajo navodila za učitelja - kako poučevati s tem gradivom, kaj je cilj oziroma namen vsebine na posameznem koraku itn. 3.1 Kako do boljših e-gradiv? Ob pripravi e-gradiva je pomembno, da upoštevamo njegov celotni življenjski cikel. Ta zajema proces izdelave, uporabe in spreminjanja e-gradiva. Celoten proces upravljanja z e-gradi-vom je lepo opisan v (van Assche in Vuorikari, 2006), od koder je povzeta slika 3. Raziskava, ki so jo naredili v Južni Koreji (Hwang, 2008) glede zadovoljstva učiteljev z e-gradivi, je dala zanimive rezultate. Po njej je eden glavnih faktorjev, ki vpliva na zadovoljstvo učiteljev z e-gradivom in s tem tudi na dejansko uporabo e-gradiva v razredu, obstoj možnosti, da je gradivo mogoče prilagajati svojemu načinu poučevanja. Če poskusimo izdelavo e-gradiv primerjati s priljubljenimi lego5 kockami, je osnovna zahteva, da morajo avtorji e-gra-div na uporabo ponuditi: osnovne gradnike, izdelane modele, Poišči ¡škarje predlog skupnosti iskanje z agenti JAVNA UPORABA Prilagodi In ponovno uporabi razslavi sestavi spremeni vrsi ni red spn&meni vsebino | izbor \ ^ formata J T Pridobi naslov vira ali gradiva J Slika 3: Življenjski cikel učnega e-gradiva (van Assche in Vuorikari, 2006) ' http://www.lego.com A 4 Organizacija, letnik 43 Razprave številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Slika 4: Osnovni gradniki; vir: http://www. turbosquid.com Slika 5: Izdelani modeli (ki jih je Slika 6: Načrti izdelav novih modelov; moč "popraviti"); vir: http://www.track7.org vir: http://www.lego.com ki jih je mogoče popraviti in načrte (navodila) za izdelavo novih modelov, glej slike 4-6. Seveda pa v praksi potrebujemo še več. Tudi osnovne kocke je včasih potrebno prilagajati. Tako mora učitelj med drugim imeti možnost spremeniti besedilo posameznega vprašanja ali naloge, spremeniti razlago, v povratni informaciji pri evalvaciji odgovora dodati povezavo na drugo učno gradivo, dodati nove pogojne vejitve (na primer: če se odgovor na vprašanje od pravega (pričakovanega) razlikuje samo v predznaku, potem se učitelj lahko odloči, da doda pogojni skok, izpiše novo opozorilo in v gradivu poskrbi za preusmeritev na pravi korak) itd. Tako "fleksibilno" upravljanje z e-gradivi je v današnjem času tehnološko mogoče podpreti. Potreben pogoj pa je, da avtorji e-gradiva upoštevajo vlogo učitelja že v fazi načrtovanja e-gradiva. Prav tako je zelo smiselno, da ima učitelj možnost pripravljeni učni gradnik uporabiti v različnih oblikah (v verziji za samoučečega, za učitelja, primerno za ponavljanje, kot gradivo primerno za tisk - na primer izpitni list). Glede na to, da izvoz primerno pripravljenega e-gradiva v več oblik iz tehničnega stališča ne predstavlja večjega problema, je smiselno, da bi učitelju omogočili možnost, da isto nalogo (vprašanje) izvozi v tekstovno obliko (npr. za uporabo v testu, ki ga pripravlja v urejevalniku besedil), v obliki vprašanja v spletni učilni Moodle, v obliki (z JavaScriptom podprtega) interaktivnega vprašanja na spletni strani ...). 3.2 Prvi rezultati - projekta UP in AM Koncepti in ideje omenjene v tem prispevku so bili delno preizkušeni v sklopu dveh projektov: Kako poučevati začetni tečaj programskega jezika6 (UP) in Aktivno učenje matematike v obliki učnih listov in resnično interaktivnih kvizov7 (AM). Pri pripravi obeh projektov smo sodelovali tudi avtorji tega prispevka. Izhajali smo iz izkušenj, ki smo jih dobili pri sodelovanju pri različnih EU projektih8 o repozitorijih učnih gradiv (Batagelj et al., 2007 in 2009) in pri sodelovanju pri izgradnji SIO2 (Čač et al., 2007). Temeljni cilji projektov AM in UP so tako bili: ■ Gradiva predstaviti kot množico gradnikov, ki jih je moč enostavno spreminjati in s tem ponuditi čim bolj »surovo« obliko gradiva, ki se ga da zato prilagoditi učiteljevi potrebi, tj. spremeniti zgled, odstraniti kak primer, zamenjati vrstni red vprašanj, ... ■ Gradnike narediti majhne, prilagodljive in čim bolj neodvisne od orodij, tako da je npr. neko gradivo, ki sicer kot zgled uporablja programski jezik Java enostavno spremeniti v gradivo, ki kot zgled uporablja npr. jezik Python. Še vedno pa dosegamo isti cilj - dijaka naučiti nek programski / algoritmični / idejni konstrukt! ■ Odgovornost za kombiniranje gradnikov naložiti učitelju samemu. On je namreč tisti, ki se bo na podlagi svojega pedagoškega znanja odločil, katere gradnike bo uporabil v določenem pedagoškem kontekstu in v kakšnem vrstnem redu. ■ Gradnike narediti splošno uporabne, tj. uporabne kot samostojne spletne strani, znotraj spletnih učilnic, na nosilcih informacij (CD, DVD), na mobilnih napravah ... Skozi izvajanje projektov ter iz odzivov učiteljev so bile izpostavljene tudi določene pomanjkljivosti omenjenega uporabljenega pristopa. Čeprav s takim pristopom učitelj dobi možnost kombiniranja ter prilagajanja učnih vsebin, je to še vedno zanj precej zahtevno opravilo. Kombiniranje je od učitelja zahtevalo uporabo specifičnih (tehničnih) znanj o naprednejši uporabi spletnih učilnic, poznavanje jezika HTML, poznavanje specifikacije SCORM itd. Za zmotno se je izkazalo tudi pričakovanje, da bodo učitelji e-gradiva le uporabljali; zelo hitro so imeli tudi didaktične in tehnične pripombe. Kot takrat največje presenečenje pa se je pokazalo dejstvo, da večina učiteljev e-gradiv ne želi zlagati v celoto, ampak le dopolnjevati že narejene predloge. Najsi je bil vzrok v nemotiviranosti, zahtevnosti postopka, ali pa v pomanjkanju 6 Projekt Učenje programiranja (UP), http://up.fmf.uni-lj.si 7 Projekt Aktivna matematika (AM), http://am.fmf.uni-lj.si 8 ASPECT, projekt EU, http://aspect-project.org; CALIBRATE, projekt EU, http://calibrate.eun.org; EdReNe, projekt EU, http://edrene.org, MELT, projekt EU, http://info.melt-project.eu A 5 Organizacija, letnik 43 Razprave številka 1, januar-februar 2010 kvalitetnih vsebin, v vsakem primeru je bilo potrebno odkriti težave in jih popraviti. Tako neformalni razgovori s številnimi učitelji, kot tudi prve reakcije uporabnikov že pripravljenih e-gradiv pa so pokazali tudi, da učitelji menijo, da je omenjen pristop dober in jim bo ob upoštevanju njihovih pripomb omogočal kvalitetnejše poučevanje; ocenili smo, da se izplača v omenjene koncepte vložiti dodaten trud. 3.3 Nadgradnja ideje v praksi: NApredne Učne Kocke - NAUK.si Tako je nastala skupina NAUK.si9, v okviru katere sodelujemo tudi avtorji tega prispevka. Skupina nadaljuje in nadgrajuje paradigmo, ki je bila predstavljena v projektih UP in AM, vendar v širšem kontekstu. Namesto matematike za srednje šole in učenja programiranja v okviru skupine razvijamo e-gradiva iz matematike (SŠ), logike, fizike (OŠ in SŠ) ter računalništva in informatike (vse ravni). Izpostavljene pomanjkljivosti poskušamo odpraviti, do sedaj omenjene koncepte in e-gra-diva še nadgraditi ter jih izboljšati. Izpeljava petih projektov obljublja večji krog uporabnikov, hkrati pa skupini nalaga večjo odgovornost. Na portalu skupine NAUK.si je implementirana enotna vstopna točka, kjer so na voljo novice in prihajajoči dogodki, izobraževanja ter natečaji za izdelavo e-gradiv. Zanimanje učiteljev za izdelavo kvalitetnih e-gradiv name- ravamo povečati, jim ponuditi orodja za izdelavo e-gradiv ter jih aktivno vključiti v proces izdelave in uporabe e-gra-div. Predvsem zadnja faza je pri večini podobnih projektov v Sloveniji izpuščena, čeprav je jasno, da se tudi najboljša gradiva ne bodo uporabljala, če za učitelje ne bodo uporabna. V okviru portala bo namenjen poseben poudarek dobremu iskalniku gradiv. Poleg iskanja po naslovih in vsebini bo podprta tudi avtomatizirana izdelava kazal, ki bodo vsebino urejala po učnih načrtih glede na v e-gradi-vih podane meta podatke, tipu gradiv, njihovi namembnosti, obsegu, priljubljenosti itd. Dober sistem klasifikacije in zmogljiv iskalnik po e-gradivih sta ključna koraka pri izgradnji portala, ki ne smeta biti izpuščena, če želimo, da bo zbirka e-gradiv resnično uporabna. Učitelji, ki želijo kombinirati gradnike, potrebujejo pri posameznem gradniku tudi povezave na sorodne gradnike tako po vrsti kot po učni vsebini. Povezave jim bodo pomagale pri tem, ko bodo gradili (sestavljali) celotno učno vsebino ali preverjanje znanja. Nekaterim so dovolj le osnovna izbirna vprašanja, drugi pa npr. želijo vprašanja, ki bodo vsakokrat drugačna (parametrizirana). Sistem za avtomatsko generiranje dinamičnih nalog ter avtomatsko ocenjevanje (Preložnik, 2008) je bil kot prvi tak sistem v Sloveniji implementiran že v okviru projektu AM (Kavkler et al., 2008). V sklopu projekta NAUK.si bo sistem uporabljen in nadgrajen. S tem bo učiteljem močno olajšana sestava Slika 7: Vstopna točka skupine NAUK - NApredne Učne Kocke, vir: http://www.nauk.si 9 NApredne Učne Kocke (NAUK.si), http://www.nauk.si A 6 Organizacija, letnik 43 Razprave številka 1, januar-februar 2010 preverjanja znanja iz iste tematike, z različnimi podatki za vsakega učenca. Na koncu pa je potrebno učno enoto še zgraditi. Zato se je vzporedno z izvajanjem projektov UP in AM začel razvoj orodja za izdelavo učnih enot oziroma lekcij. Orodje omogoča uvoz različnih gradnikov, izbor, preurejanje ter izvoz v obliki celotne učne enote (v formatu SCORM oziroma klasični obliki HTML). Z razvojem orodja za izdelavo lekcij bomo v skupini NAUK.si nadaljevali, hkrati pa bo ponujena tudi možnost uvoza drugih vsebin, ki niso nastale v sklopu projektov skupine NAUK.si. S tem bo omogočena vsestranska uporabnost orodja, saj je v zadnjih letih nastalo veliko število e-gradiv, ki jih je mogoče ponovno uporabiti pod licenco Creative Commons. E-gradiva bo mogoče s portala prenesti v spletne učilnice, jih natisniti in uporabiti v papirnati obliki, jih objaviti na drugih nosilcih informacij itd. Oblika SCORM je, kljub temu, da je ena redkih standardov za delo z e-gradivi, premalo uporabna, da bi učiteljem omogočala vse predstavljene možnosti (Varlamis in Apostolakis, 2006). Zato nameravamo gradiva ponuditi v njihovih izvornih oblikah (XML, WIKI format), v s slogi opremljenih oblikah (HTML + CSS, PDF, DOC, itd.) ter seveda v standardiziranih formatih (kot sta na primer SCORM, IMS QTI ipd). Različni izvorni formati so uporabni v primeru, ko želi učitelj prenesti zbirko vprašanj iz portala NAUK.si v svojo spletno učilnico. Če uporablja na primer okolje Moodle in XML izvorni format, lahko vprašanja iz NAUK.si portala uporabi na enak način kot vprašanja, ki jih sestavi v svojem Moodle okolju. Čeprav bi učitelj lahko vprašanja v Moodle uvozil tudi prek formata SCORM, bi v nekaterih primerih zaradi izbire formata SCORM izgubil možnost statistične obdelave odgovorov in ocenjevanja, ki jo ponujajo učna okolja itd. Izkazalo se je, da je za kvalitetna in uporabna e-gradiva zelo pomembno sodelovanje učiteljev z ustvarjalci e-gradiv. V ta namen nameravamo znotraj portala zgraditi podporo spletnim skupnostim, kjer bo mogoče oddajati svoja mnenja, recenzirati in komentirati že obstoječa gradiva. Na izvedenih seminarjih se je namreč izkazalo, da imajo učitelji željo po objavi svojih gradiv, še več pa imajo idej po spremembah in posodobitvah obstoječih e-gradiv, ki pa jih zaradi pomanjkanja časa ali znanja ne uspejo realizirati. E-skupnosti bodo namenjene reševanju tega problema, saj bodo nudile skupno komunikacijsko točko za učitelje in razvijalce gradiv. 4 Kako naprej? Orodja in storitve za podporo kvalitetnemu e-izobraževanju v Sloveniji Pogosto je prva naloga, ki jo opravi učitelj, objava e-gradiva (navadno tujega avtorja) v sistemu za upravljanje z učnimi vse- binami (LMS). V slovenskem šolskem prostoru najpogosteje srečamo odprtokodno virtualno učno okolje Moodle.10 V okviru Dodatnih izobraževanj iz računalništva in informatike11 za učitelje srednjih in osnovnih šol (Lukšič et al., 2007) so udeleženci izobraževanj (učitelji na srednjih in osnovnih šolah) izrazili željo po tem, da potrebujejo pomoč pri izbiri, namestitvi, upravljanju ter administriranju LMS in dodatkov, ki razširjajo njegove funkcionalnosti. Najpogosteje omenjeni težavi sta bili: neustrezno opremljena šola (šola nima dovolj zmogljivega strežnika, šola nima računalnikarja - sistemskega administratorja, ki bi znal izbrati, namestiti in prilagoditi LMS) in da imajo sami neustrezen nivo znanja za upravljanje z LMS okoljem in življenjskim ciklom spletnih učilnic. Učitelji, ki so obiskovali dopolnilni izobraževanji DIRI13 in IPI12, so od organizacije Arnes pričakovali, da jim bo pomagal pri njihovih težavah; glej (Horvat et al., 2008). Dobro organizirana Moodle skupnost v Sloveniji je poskrbela za popularizacijo in prilagoditve okolja Moodle za slovenske potrebe. Učitelji v Sloveniji so Moodle dobro sprejeli in predvsem zaradi pogosto omenjenih pozitivnih izkušenj njihovih kolegov, ki so orali ledino, se je izoblikovalo skupno mnenje, da je Moodle v tem trenutku najboljša izbira za slovenske šole. Arnes je zato v letu 2008 v okviru projekta SIO začel s pripravo naprednega gostovanja spletnih učilnic Mood-le. Arnes je podprl tudi prilagoditev sistema Moodle in jo bo v okviru ene izmed svojih storitev ponudil svojim uporabnikom; glej (Božeglav et al., 2009). Arnesovo gostovanje gre v tem primeru korak dlje, saj uporabnike razbremeni tudi vzdrževanja aplikacije same, tako da se lahko le ti v celoti posvetijo vsebini oziroma izobraževalnemu procesu. Učitelji potrebujejo tudi orodje za izdelavo e-gradiv, saj ima vsak učitelj kakšno gradivo, ki bi ga želel objaviti. V slovenskem prostoru so avtorji najpogosteje uporabljali program eXe13. Ker uradna distribucija ni bila spremenjena že od začetka maja 2008, smo avtorji tega prispevka v okviru odpr-tokodnega projekta (Lukšič, 2009) eXe posodobili, do konca lokalizirali in mu dodali nove funkcionalnosti14. Orodje, ki bo nadgradilo program eXe in bo primerno za izdelavo naprednih učnih kock ter sestavljanje le-teh v učne enote, bo moralo znati iz več virov, zbrati gradiva na isto temo, zbrati gradnike, ki jih sestavljajo in omogočiti učitelju, da si sam sestavi tako e-gradivo, kot mu ustreza. Kvizi in domače naloge bodo morali biti pripravljene tako, da bo omogočena prijava na strežnik za avtomatsko generiranje nalog in evaluacijo rezultatov. Orodje za delo z učnimi kockami bo moralo znati shraniti učne kocke v vsaj enem izmed standardov za e-gradiva. Sestavljeno bo moralo biti modularno, omogočalo naj bi uporabo različnih tipov e-gradiv, od navadnih spletnih strani, video animacij, kvizov, dinamično generiranih nalog, nalog z namigi itd. Omogočalo naj bi vodenje enostavnih lokalnih repozitorijev pri uporabniku ter sestavljanje standardiziranih e-gradiv in paketov SCORM. Delovati bo moralo tudi brez povezave na internet. 10 http://www.moodle.org 11 Lokar, M. et al., Dopolnilna izobraževanja iz računalništva in informatike (DIRI), http://ucilnica.fmf.uni-lj.si 12 Lokar, M. et al., Izbrana poglavja iz informatike (IPI), http://vesna.fmf.uni-lj.si/ipimoodle 13 http://exelearning.org, (maj 2008), eXe Version 1.04 (r3532) 14 Slovenska nadgradnja orodja eXe, http://exe.imfm.si A 7 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Avtorji tega prispevka predlagamo, da bi v Sloveniji zagotovili ponudnika storitve, ki bi gostil strežnike sistema za podporo dinamičnim nalogam, učitelji pa bi imeli omogočen dostop do sistema, kjer bi lahko gradili svoje naloge ter jih vključevali v svoje spletne učilnice. Primer dobre prakse je recimo repozitorij vsebin AM, ki uporablja svoj interni sistem za generiranje in evaluacijo dinamičnih nalog. Podobna storitev bo podprta tudi v okviru projektov skupine NAUK.si. 5 Zaključek Najpomembnejša naloga slovenskega centra za e-šolstvo je torej, da vzpostavi okolje, ki bo omogočalo izvajanje vseh zgoraj omenjenih nalog, predvsem na naslednjih področjih: ■ e-gradiva: razvoj manjših povezljivih gradnikov, upravljanje, uredništvo, preiskovanje, urejanje, spreminjanje, povezovanje, kombiniranje, objava, primeri dobrih (zaključenih) lekcij in gradiv, navodila za uporabo gradnikov in njihovo sestavljanje, ■ orodja: izbira pravih orodij, razvoj novih orodij, tehnična prilagoditev, podpora standardom, podpora SIO2, prilagoditve, lokalizacija, podpora uporabnikom, ■ repozitorij vsebin SIO2: zagon, vzdrževanje, prilagoditve standardom, nadgradnje, različni formati vsebin, razvoj (spletnih) storitev, različni izvozni formati, ■ LMS sistemi: storitev, vzdrževanje in nadgradnje, lokali-zacija, pomoč uporabnikom, ■ razvoj novih konceptov in paradigem. V prihodnje bo potrebno več časa nameniti tudi razvoju e-gradiv, ki bodo prirejene prikazu na manjših zaslonih pametnih mobilnikov (majhni prenosni računalniki, mobilni telefoni in pametni dlančniki) - t.i. mobile learning. Cilj projektov skupine NAUK.si je ponovno postaviti učitelja v vodilno mesto pri pripravi in uporabi e-gradiv, saj je on tisti, ki mora odločati kako in kje bo gradiva uporabljal. Z dobro premišljenimi koncepti in orodji, ki nastajajo v okviru skupine NAUK.si e-gradivom zagotavljamo obstojnost, prilagodljivost ter vsestranskost in dajemo učitelju možnost izbire. 5 tem pa ga postavljamo »nazaj v igro«! 6 Literatura van Assche, F. & Vuorikari, R. (2006). A Framework for Quality of Learning Resources. Handbook on Quality and Standardisation in E-Learning, Springer. Uredila: Ehlers, U. & Pawlowski, J.M., Berlin: Springer, 443-456. Babic, T. (2006). 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EDUNET: The Core of Korea's Knowledge Bank, predavanje na 2nd Strategic meeting EdReNe, Lizbona, 9. -11. junij 2008, dosegljivo na http://edrene.org/seminars/semi-nar2Lisbon.html (1.11.2009).Kavkler I., Lokar M., Lukšič P. & Peperko A. (2008) Uporaba tehnologije pri preverjanju znanja v matematiki. Strokovno srečanje in 60. občni zbor Društva matematikov, fizikov in astronomov Slovenije. Uredila: Razpet, N., Podčetrtek, 7.-8. november 2008. Ljubljana: DMFA Slovenije. Lokar, M. (2009) Uporaba spletne učilnice in wikija pri pouku programiranja v OŠ in/ali SŠ, dosegljivo na http://rc.fmf.uni-lj.si/ matija/Eseji/Wiki_in_spletne_ucilnice.html (1.11.2009). Lokar., M. (2009). E-učna gradiva - kakšna in kako = E-learning materials - what and how. Mednarodna konferenca Splet izobraževanja in raziskovanja z IKT, SIRIKT 2009. Uredila: Orel, M. Kranjska Gora, 15.-18. april 2009. Ljubljana: Arnes, 641649. Lukšič, P. (2009). Nadgradnja programa eXe za izdelavo standardiziranih e-gradiv. Mednarodna konferenca Splet izobraževanja in raziskovanja z IKT, SIRIKT 2009. Uredila: Orel, M. Kranjska Gora, 15.-18. april 2009. Ljubljana: Arnes, 651-657. Lukšič, P., Horvat, B., Bauer, A. & Pisanski, T. (2007). Practical E-Learning for the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics at the University of Ljubljana, Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects, 3: 73-83, dosegljivo na http://ijklo.org/ Volume3/IJKL0v3p073-083Luksic321.pdf (1.11.2009). Možina, S. (2000). Učeča se organizacija. Industrijska demokracija, 5, dosegljivo na http://www.delavska-participacija.com/clanki/ ID000504.doc (1.11.2009). Orbanic, A. et al. (2008). Portal projekta "Aktivna matematika", dosegljivo na http://am.fmf.uni-lj.si (1.11.2009). A 8 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Preložnik, M. (2008). Avtomatsko preverjanje matematičnega znanja s sistemom STACK , diplomska naloga, Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za matematiko in fiziko. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. On the Horizon. MCB University Press, 9(5): 1-6. Sajovic, P. (2006). E-izobraževanje, diplomska naloga, Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za matematiko in fiziko, dosegljivo na http:// rc.fmf. uni-lj.si/ matij a/ Opravlj eneDiplome/PolonaS aj ovic-diploma.pdf (1.11.2009). Varlamis, I. & Apostolakis, I. (2006). The present and future of standards for e-learning technologies. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects, 2: 59-76, dosegljivo na http:// ijklo.org/Volume2/v2p059-076Varlamis.pdf (1.11.2009). Boris Horvat je bil med prvimi avtorji sistema spletnih učil -nic, ki se uporablja na Fakulteti za matematiko in fiziko že od leta 2004 naprej ter eden prvih uporabnikov tega sistema. Njegovo delo obsega preučevanje standardov ter kvalitete e -izobraževanj v Sloveniji in po svetu. Je soavtor več znans -tvenih in strokovnih prispevkov s tega področja in eden od vodilnih sodelavcev v projektu izdelave e -gradiv NAUK -napredne učne kocke. Matija Lokar je zaposlen na Fakulteti za matematiko in fiziko Univerze v Ljubljani kot vodja računalniškega centra in kot višji predavatelj. Je avtor več knjig in člankov s področja računalništva in uvajanja računalniške tehnologije v pouk. Sodeloval je pri številnih domačih in mednarodnih projek tih na temo uporabe IKT v izobraževanju in je tudi eden od vodilnih sodelavcev v projektu izdelave e -gradiv NAUK -napredne učne kocke. Primož Lukšič je bil med prvimi avtorji sistema spletnih učilnic in wikijev, ki se uporab Ijajo na Fakulteti za matematiko in fiziko Univerze v Ljubljani. Bil je sode I avec projektov »Učenje programiranja« in »Aktivna matematika«, ki sta potekala v okviru razpisa MŠŠ za izdelavo e - gradiv. Bil je vodja projekta nadgradnje in lokalizacije programa eXe. Je eden izmed vodilnih sodelavcev v proj ektu izdelave e -gradiv NAUK - napredne učne kocke. Je avtor več prispevkov s področja e -izobraževanja, ki pokrivajo tako teoretična izho -dišča kot tudi primere dobre prakse. A 9 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Evalvacija izobraževalnega procesa s poudarkom na vojaških vsebinah Liliana Brožič, Dušan Sušnik Ministrstvo za obrambo, Slovenska vojska, Vojkova cesta 55a, Ljubljana. liliana.brozic@mors.si, dusan.susnik@mors.si Evalvacija kot proces vrednotenja je eden izmed elementov izobraževanja, ki pomembno vplivaj o na njegovo kakovost ne glede na števi I o njegovih ponovitev. Celovitost vrednotenja prinaša dodano vrednost v obliki novih usmeritev za celoten izo -braževalni proces, ki jih lahko z vsako ponovitvijo implementiramo in sproti nadgrajujemo. V Slovenski vojski se zavedamo pomena kakovosti v izobraževalnih procesih. Zanimiv izziv predstavlja organizacija izobraževanja Višje štabnega šo I anja v sodelovanju z javnimi izobraževalnimi institucijami. O razlogih za organizacijo takega izobraževanja, njegovem pomenu za Slovensko vojsko in evalvaciji izobraževalnega procesa bo predstavljeno v prispevku. Ključne besede: evalvacija, vojaško izobraževanje in usposabljanje, evalvacija vojaških vsebin, Višje štabno šolanje. 1 Uvod O pomenu izobraževanja, usposabljanja in izpopolnjevanja v javni upravi je bilo napisanega že veliko. Zaposleni in njihovi nadrejeni naj bi stalno spremljali novosti na svojem področju dela hkrati naj bi bili odprti za nove aktualne trende v bližnji in daljni okolici. Vse to zato, da bi lahko bolje in več delali in tako prispevali k razvoju in dobrobiti družbe. S pojavom globalizacije je svet postal mala velika vas, na katero vpliva veliko najrazličnejših dogodkov. Tako se svet spreminja hitreje in mi z njim. Odzivnost na spremembe je posledično postala temeljni postulat sodobne družbe. Države članice Evropske unije (EU) so se na spremembe kot posledico globalizacije odzvale z Bolonjsko strategijo, kjer so si zadale cilj, da EU »ohrani globalno konkurenčnost in postane najbolj konkurenčno in dinamično, na znanju zasnovano gospodarstvo na svetu, sposobno trajnostne gospodarske rasti z več in boljšimi delovnimi mesti ter večjo socialno kohe-zijo«, kar je bilo sklenjeno na zasedanju Evropskega sveta v Lizboni leta 2000 (Černoša, 2004: 211). Evropska unija se je v prenovljeni Lizbonski strategiji iz leta 2005 usmerila na dva ključna cilja zagotavljanje višje gospodarske rasti in povečanje zaposlenosti. Kako navedeno doseči? Izobraževanje v najširšem pomenu besede je na vsak način ena izmed mnogih oblik za dosego navedenih ciljev. Temu ustrezno se je spremenil celoten šolski sistem z namenom postati bolj dostopen, bolj ciljno usmerjen in bolj odziven na spremembe v svetu, na trgu delovne sile itn. Spremembe v svetu so vplivale tudi na Slovenijo. Postala je samostojna država, ki je članica EU in zveze NATO ter nekaterih drugih mednarodnih organizacij. Z vstopom v veli- ki svet so se pojavile tudi nove prednosti in obveznosti. Ena izmed njih je sodelovanje z oboroženimi silami najrazličnejših držav. Da bi pripadniki oboroženih sil, v Sloveniji je to Slovenska vojska (SV) kot organ v sestavi Ministrstva za obrambo (MO), lahko kompetentno zastopali svojo državo, morajo biti ustrezno izobraženi in usposobljeni. Pripadniki SV splošno izobrazbo pridobijo v javnem šolskem sistemu, vojaška znanja pridobivajo v organizaciji vojaških šol znotraj SV. V SV je organizirano Poveljstvo za doktrino, razvoj, izobraževanje in usposabljanje (PDRIU) v katerem so vojaške šole kot npr. Šola za podčastnike, Šola za častnike, Poveljniško štabna šola, Šola za tuje jezike in drugo. Večina držav članic EU in zveze Nato, kot n.pr. Španija, Belgija, Nizozemska, Avstrija, Velika Britanija in Portugalska, ima vojaško izobraževanje organizirano kot del javnega izobraževalnega sistema zato zanj veljajo enaka merila in standardi kot za druge javne šole. V Sloveniji takega načina šolanja po vojaških vsebinah, z izjemo vojaškega modula po prvi Bolonjski stopnji na Fakulteti za družbene vede, nimamo. Neodvisno od načina izobraževanja je pomembno, da so pripadniki SV ustrezno izobraženi in usposobljeni tako po vojaških in nevojaških vsebinah. Pri opravljanju nalog v tujini in domovini je bistveno, da so slovenski pripadniki primerljivi po izobraženosti in usposobljenosti pripadnikov drugih oboroženih sil in lahko enakovredno sodelujejo v mednarodnem okolju. Zaradi neumeščenosti vojaškega izobraževanja v javni izobraževalni sistem je MO razvilo različne programe izobraževanja z izobraževalnimi institucijami v Sloveniji in tujini, kjer pripadniki SV in drugi zaposleni lahko pridobijo znanja iz vojaških in nevojaških vsebin. A 10 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Razlogi za evalvacijo izobraževanja po vojaških vsebinah so torej jasni. Izobraževanje po vojaških vsebinah je potrebno spremljati in vrednotiti zato, da bi dosegli ustrezno kakovost in zastavljene cilje. S tem namenom je evalvacija potekala od decembra 2008 do marca 2009. In kakšna je kakovost izobraževanja po vojaških vsebinah v SV? 2 Pomen evalvacij v izobraževalnem procesu Beseda »evalvacija« v slovenskem jeziku pomeni ocenitev, vrednotenje, medtem ko slovar angleškega jezika besedo pojasnjuje tudi kot preračunavanje, določitev vrednosti. V literaturi se pojavlja tudi oblika besede »evaluacija«, vendar je zelo redka. Evalvacijo bi lahko opisali kot analitično preiskavo, ki temelji na zbiranju in analizi dokazov, rezultat česar je izdelava zaključkov in priporočil iz konkretnih dokazov (Valovirta, 2002). Kot najpreprostejšo definicijo evalvacije omenja Rih-terjeva, ugotavljanje doseganja ciljev določenega programa, lahko pa vsebuje tudi oceno izvedbe, procesa, nepričakovanih učinkov in vplivov. Izraz evalvacija uporablja tudi širše, in sicer »kot vsak poskus povečanja človeške učinkovitosti preko sistematične raziskave, ki je osnovana na zbiranju podatkov«. Ravno tako razume evalvacijsko raziskavo kot raziskavo, ki »uporablja sistematične, standardizirane metode družboslovnih znanosti za ocenjevanje družbenih intervencij in socialnih programov«. Rihterjeva pravi, da je iz zgodovinski dejstev mogoče razbrati, da je prepoznavanje pomena evalvacij pogosto odvisno od političnih in ekonomskih razmer. Začetki evalvacij segajo v leto 1845. Dolgo obdobje je bila evalvacija socialnih programov in politik »obrobni del lokalnih zdravstvenih, socialnih in izobraževalnih birokracij« (Rihter, 2004: 83). V Združenih državah Amerike je bilo zlato obdobje evalvacijskih raziskav, ki jih je financirala država, v 60-ih letih. Po navedenem obdobju je država začela krčiti sredstva, namenjena socialnim politikam, evalvacije so tako prevzele vlogo ugotavljanja uspešnosti, učinkovitosti in racionalnosti posameznih programov. Tendenca po zmanjševanju finančnih sredstev na področju socialnih politik, v zdravstvu in izobraževanju je še vedno prisotna, oziroma je s spreminjanjem javnih politik v trendu zmanjševanja sredstev vedno bolj opazna. Dejstvo je, da morajo zaposleni v javnem sektorju pri sodelovanju v izvajanju različnih javnih politik izkazovati vedno več znanja, strokovnosti in inovativnosti, da pri kandidiranju na različne aktivnosti lahko zraven sodelujejo oziroma pridobijo dodatna sredstva. Tako so npr. v Švici evalvacijske raziskave predpisane v 170. členu Ustavnega zakona iz leta 1999, in sicer z namenom ugotavljanja učinkovitosti izvajanja javnih politik. Po vedenju avtorjev (Widmer in Neunschwander, 2004) je Švica edina država, ki ima evalvacije v ustavi. Razlog za navedeno spremembo v zakonodaji je bil porast strukturnih reform, na podlagi katerih so javne institucije zahtevale pregled ne samo nad vloženimi sredstvi, temveč tudi nad rezultati, doseženimi z javnimi finančnimi sredstvi, ki naj bi se odražali v konkretnem kakovostnejšem delu javnih institucij. Evalvacija zajame integralen družbeno politični proces, ki vključuje mnenja in interese udeležencev in evalvatorjev, predvsem pa širše kulturno, politično in socialno okolje. Zahteva proces sodelovanja vseh udeležencev, pri čemer mora biti dosežen splošni konsenz o končni odločitvi oziroma stališču. Na ta način naj bi našli najboljšo skupno opcijo, ki bi bila za vse prisotne optimalna. V procesu evalvacije se v sodelovanju z vsemi udeleženci vsi učijo od drugih, sami poučujejo druge in z aktivnim sodelovanjem pridobivajo na širjenju lastnega znanja, pri čemer se porajajo nove rešitve. Gre za kontinuiran, ponavljajoč se in močno divergenten proces. Program ali ukrep, ki ga evalviramo, je kljub temu, da teče v okviru začrtanega načrta, dovzeten za stalne spremembe in izboljšave, ki so potrebne za dosego aktualnih ciljev. Ima svoj začetek in konec, vendar ob ponovnem začetku stečejo ne iste, a podobne aktivnosti. Evalvacije kot postopka ni možno vnaprej načrtovati do te mere, da bodo vse aktivnosti natančno po časovnici. V program, ki ga evalviramo, je vključenih toliko različnih dejavnikov, npr. udeleženci, okolje, različne vsebine, posebnosti posameznega dogodka, ki se dejansko lahko ves čas spreminjajo. Hkrati ne moremo zagotoviti okoliščin, kjer bi se isti proces lahko ponovil z istimi pogoji. Vsak proces evalvacije je unikaten (Macur, 2000; Huebner in Betts, 1999). 2.1 Evalvacije na področju vojaškega izobraževanja Evalvacije so kot proces vrednotenja v teoretičnem in praktičnem smislu povsem ustrezne in primerne za izvajanje na področju vojaškega izobraževanja iz dveh temeljnih razlogov. Prvi je, da vojaško izobraževanje poteka na identičnih zakonitostih kot vsako drugo izobraževanje bodisi, da imamo v mislih javno veljavno izobraževanje ali druge organizacijske oblike izobraževanja, ki so bolj poznane kot usposabljanje in izpopolnjevanje. Drugi razlog je, da v Sloveniji vojaško izobraževanje predstavlja enega izmed procesov izobraževanj, ki so sestavni del javne uprave in ne sodi v sistem javnega šolstva. Slovensko vojaško izobraževanje tako ne deluje po principu in v soodvisnosti konkurenčnosti med posameznimi fakultetami ali univerzami, kjer bi lahko s številom vpisanih, diplomiranih ali s kako drugo metodo pridobivali povratne informacije v smislu doseganja kakovosti izobraževanja kot izobraževalnega procesa. Navedeno je samo razlog več, da se naložba v tako izobraževanje vrednoti. Kot primer uporabe evalvacije na področju vojaškega izobraževanja naj navedemo Evropsko univerzitetno združenje (European University Association), ki je v letu 2007 izvedlo evalvacijsko poročilo na Portugalski vojaški akademiji kot redno obliko zunanje evalvacije na vojaški izobraževalni instituciji. Ugotovitve evalvacijskega poročila pomenijo pomembno usmeritev organizatorjem in nosilcem izobraževalnega procesa za nadaljnji razvoj le tega. Herman Kuipers in Rudy Richardson, redna profesorja na Kraljevi vojaški akademiji (Royal Netherlands Military Academy) na Nizozemskem, sta uporabila evalvacijo kot metodo A 11 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 za reorganizacijo vojaške akademije kot izobraževalne institucije (Kuipers in Richardson, 1999). Evalvacija kot oblika vrednotenja izobraževalnega procesa v izobraževalnih sistemih predstavlja eno izmed najpomembnejših metodoloških pristopov pri zagotavljanju njihove kakovosti. Zaradi navedenega pomeni evalvacija pomemben metodološki pristop pri vrednotenju izobraževanja na področju vojaških vsebin. 2.2 Poveljniško štabna šola kot del vojaškega izobraževalnega procesa Poveljniško štabna šola (PŠŠ) je nosilec nadaljevalnega vojaškega izobraževanja in usposabljanja častnic in častnikov ter višjih vojaških uslužbencev SV, ob določenih pogojih tudi vodilnih in vodstvenih delavcev v državni upravi na dolžnostih v varnostno obrambnem področju ter častnikov članic zveze Nato in Partnerstva za mir (Partnership for Peace - PZM) (Zabukovec, 2008: 138 - 140). Z vsebinami programov je primerljiva s šolami držav članic zveze Nato, na zahtevnosti ravni pa programom podiplomskega študija v javnem izobraževalnem sistemu oziroma študiju po 2. Bolonjski stopnji (Zabukovec, 2008; 140 - 149; Žabkar in Svete, 2008: 198 - 199). Šolanje na PŠŠ zagotavlja akademske pogoje za poglobljen študij in osebnostni razvoj slušateljev obenem pa pripravlja udeležence za dinamičen odziv na zahteve in izzive prihodnosti pri razvoju, uporabi, poveljevanju in podpori enot SV, pri izvajanju operacij v rodovskem1, združenem2, skupnem3 in mednarodnem okolju (Zabukovec, 2008: 139 - 140). PŠŠ je mesto intelektualne izmenjave razvojnih konceptov, idejnih rešitev in njihove evalvacije. Za datum ustanovitve PŠŠ šteje 1. februar 1993, ko je šola začela z delom na podlagi jeseni 1992 sprejete odločitve kolegija ministra za obrambo naj se, kot del nastajajočega Izobraževalnega centra MO, ustanovi šola, ki bo sistematično vojaško - strokovno usposabljala častnike stalne4 in vojne5 sestave. V začetku je PŠŠ izvajala kratke, pretežno aplikativne tečaje za častnike novo nastajajoče SV. Namenjeni so bili obnovi strokovnih in tudi veščinskih znanj iz taktike, poveljevanja, mobilizacijskih postopkov in logistične podpore. Poleg strogo vojaško strokovnih tem so bili v predmetnike vključeni tudi predmeti kot mednarodno vojno in vojaško pravo, vojaška psihologija, informatika in telekomunikacije, vojaška topogra- fija, vojaška didaktika in metodika, metodologija znanstvenega dela, kultura ustnega izražanja. Danes PŠŠ opravlja najzahtevnejši del nadaljevalnega vojaško-strokovnega izobraževanja in usposabljanja častnikov stalne in vojne sestave SV za opravljanje upravno strokovnih, štabnih6 in poveljniških7 dolžnosti. Pri tem šola načrtuje, organizira in izvaja večmesečna izobraževanja in usposabljanja poveljnikov, poveljstev in štabnih častnikov za poveljevanje enotam in opravljanje štabnih funkcij v Generalštabu in poveljstvih SV, pa tudi v poveljstvih združenih operativnih sestavov mirovnih sil. Temeljni poudarek je na nacionalni in mednarodni varnosti, taktiki, operatiki, strategiji in štabnem delu. Pri zahtevnejšem vojaško-strokov-nem izobraževanju poveljnikov in častnikov v poveljstvih in štabih prihaja do hitrih sprememb. Spremembe nastajajo kot posledica spreminjajočih se obrambno-doktrinarnih in strateških opredelitev, v učnih programih, pa tudi v metodah in pristopih izobraževanja. Zlasti informacijska tehnologija je ob manjših stroških in v krajšem času bistveno povečala učinkovitost in kvaliteto izobraževanja. Oboje je vgrajeno tudi v šolanje na PŠŠ. Programi izobraževanja in usposabljanja obsegajo znanja in standarde, ki omogočajo interoperabilnost8 SV z vojskami držav članic zveze Nato. Pri sodelovanju PŠŠ s tujino je potrebno posebej omeniti, da je v začetku svojega delovanja šola najbolj sodelovala z najvišjimi vojaškimi šolami Nemčije in Avstrije. Razvoj mednarodnega sodelovanja jo je povezal s Führungsakademie iz Hamburga na področju operatike in doktrine zveze Nato, strateškega načrtovanja ter evalvacije, danes pa šola ima vzpostavljene dobre stike z Royal Defence College v Bruslju, v razvoju je sodelovanje z Ratno školo »Ban Jelačic« in Zapo-vedno stožerno školo »Blago Zadro« iz Republike Hrvaške. Šola aktivno sodeluje na konferenci poveljnikov vojaških šol zveze Nato in PZM ter mediteranske iniciative in znotraj pričakovanih aktivnosti v organizaciji Nato Defence College iz Rima. Vključuje se v sodelovanje PZM Konzorcija na področju programov, učenja na daljavo, evalvacij in simulacij. Današnje mednarodne aktivnosti šole najbolj izpostavlja aktivno sodelovanje z Združeno štabno šolo (ISSMI) Republike Italije v Rimu, kjer posebno velja omeniti v letu 2007 izvedeno prvo skupno vajo operativnega načrtovanja, hkrati v Rimu in Ljubljani. V vaji so na obeh straneh sodelovala mešana poveljstva, skupno sliko pa smo ustvarili s pomočjo videokonferenčne povezave. Danes delavnice na vaji potekajo v angleškem jeziku in sicer v obliki predavaj in skupinskega dela. Slušatelji, razdeljeni v skupine, razpravljajo o izbrani 1 Podsistem (del) zvrsti: artilerija, inženirstvo, pehota itn... 2 Joint: označuje dejavnost, delovanja, organizacije itd., v katerih sodelujejo elementi več kot ene zvrsti iste države (glej Brinc idr., 2006). 3 Combined: opis aktivnosti, operacij ali organizacij, v katerih sodelujejo elementi več držav (glej v Brinc idr., 2006). 4 Stalna sestava vojske je formacija, ki jo sestavljajo poklicni pripadniki vojske, to so vojaki, podčastniki, častniki in vojaški uslužbenci (v nadaljnjem besedilu: vojaške osebe) ter civilne osebe, ki delajo v vojski, vendar civilne osebe ne opravljajo vojaške službe (več v Zakonu o obrambi). 5 Vojna sestava vojske je formacija, ki jo sestavljajo pripadniki stalne sestave, vojaški obvezniki na služenju vojaškega roka in pripadniki rezervne sestave, ki so razporejeni v vojno sestavo vojske (več v Zakonu o obrambi). 6 Dolžnosti v vojaški organizaciji, kjer skupina vojaških in civilnih oseb podpira poveljnika pri izvajanju vseh funkcij (glej v Brinc idr., 2006). 7 Dolžnosti oz. pristojnosti, ki jih ima posameznik v oboroženih silah za usmerjanje in koordinacijo vojaških sil, ali kontrolo nad njimi (glej v Brinc idr., 2006). 8 Povezljivost, sposobnost sistemov, enot ali sil, da zagotavljajo storitve drugim sistemom, enotam ali silam in sprejmejo storitve od njih, ter izmenljivost storitev, ki omogoča učinkovito skupno delovanje (glej v Brinc idr., 2006). A 12 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 temi in predstavijo svoje stališče do problema. Pomemben del srečanja je tudi spoznavanje obeh držav in prijateljsko druženje s pripadniki oboroženih sil sosednje države, vaja operativnega načrtovanja pa ostaja del načrtovanih stalnih dejavnosti, s katerimi PŠŠ želi slušatelje ustrezno pripraviti za delo v mednarodnih strukturah (kot zanimivost: edini tuji častnik, ki se je do sedaj šolal na PŠŠ (na Višjem štabnem tečaju) je bil prav iz Republike Italije). Skladno s pričakovanimi trendi razvoja vojaškega šolstva v svetu se PŠŠ aktivno vključuje tudi v iniciativo vojaških šol srednjeevropskih držav na področju razvoja in poenotenja programov, učenja na daljavo, evalvacije, skupnih vaj in simulacij. Temeljne oblike vojaškega izobraževanja in usposabljanja (VIU), ki jih načrtuje, pripravlja, organizira in izvaja Poveljniško štabna šola so: 1. Štabno šolanje (ŠŠ) 2. Višje štabno šolanje (VŠŠ) 3. Generalštabno vojaško izobraževanje in usposabljanje (GŠ VIU - redni in ob delu) (Zabukovec, 2008). 2.3 Višje štabno šolanje Poveljniško štabne šole Program je namenjen častnikom SV, ki že najmanj tri leta uspešno opravljajo poveljniške ali štabne dolžnosti v poveljstvih bataljonov, brigad ali v vojaških teritorialnih poveljstvih ter imajo osebni čin najmanj stotnika in končan Štabni tečaj/ šolanje. Na tečaju pridobijo slušatelji vojaško strokovno znanje, potrebno za poveljevanje enoti na ravni bataljona, za delo v vojaškem teritorialnem poveljstvu in poveljstvu brigade ter pridobijo temeljna znanja za vključevanje v delo taktičnih poveljstev mednarodnih mirovnih sil. VŠŠ od šolskega leta 2006/07 poteka po novem programu, vezano na vzporedno izobraževanje častnikov na izbranih fakultetah. Slušatelji ob uspešnem zaključku šolanja pridobijo diplomo VŠŠ in strokovni naziv magister stroke (odvisno od izbrane fakultete), s čimer opravijo obveznosti iz izbirnega dela programa VŠŠ. Z uvedbo programa VŠŠ so v sistem VIU častnikov SV uvedeni standardi, ki veljajo v javnem izobraževalnem sistemu in so primerljivi s podobnimi šolanji v zavezniških državah. Izobraževanje na VŠŠ traja 12 mesecev oziroma eno šolsko leto (Zabukovec, 2008). 3 Evalvacija Višje štabnega šolanja VŠŠ od šolskega leta 2006/2007 poteka v sodelovanju z dvema fakultetama in od šolskega leta 2007/2008 s tremi fakultetami in sicer s Fakulteto za družbene vede iz Ljubljane (FDV), Fakulteto za logistiko iz Celja (FL) in Fakulteto za management iz Kopra (FM) tako, da so le-te na pobudo PŠŠ in v sodelovanju s PŠŠ razvile nove programe iz obstoječih izbranih vsebin, ki se dopolnjujejo z vsebinami VŠŠ (Zabukovec, 2008). Posameznik, ki se navedenega šolanja udeleži pridobi vojaška in civilna znanja, ki sestavljajo smiselno celoto. Na ta način izpolni pogoje za napredovanje v činu in pridobi dodatno znanje po javno veljavnem izobraževalnem programu. Predmet evalvacije so bili cilji programa VŠŠ, vsebina (predmeti VŠŠ in predmeti fakultet), predavatelji, študijsko gradivo, znanja in veščine po končanem šolanju, ki so jih ocenjevali udeleženci šolanja, organizacija šolanja ter znanja in veščine po končanem šolanju, ki so jih ocenjevale nadrejene osebe tistih, ki so šolanje končali. Z namenom zajeti čim boljši vzorec vprašanih je bilo izdelanih pet različnih vprašalnikov: ■ Anketni vprašalnik za pripadnike SV - vpisane na VŠŠ v sodelovanju s FDV, (vprašalnik FDV); ■ Anketni vprašalnik za pripadnike SV - vpisane na VŠŠ v sodelovanju s FL, (vprašalnik FL) ; ■ Anketni vprašalnik za pripadnike SV - vpisane na VŠŠ v sodelovanju s FM, (vprašalnik FM); ■ Anketni vprašalnik za nadrejene9 in potencialne kandidate10 za šolanje na VŠŠ, (vprašalnik VNPK)11; ■ Anketni vprašalnik za predavatelje12 in zaposlene v PŠŠ, (vprašalnik PZ); Evalvacija VŠŠ je bila izvedena na vzorcu 78 vprašanih, pri čemer so se predavatelji in zaposleni v PŠŠ odzvali predvsem v pisni obliki in večinoma niso odgovarjali na vsebine iz vprašalnika ampak so podali svoja videnja šolanja. Anketni vprašalniki so bili vprašanim prilagojeni tako, da npr. ciljna skupina nadrejeni in potencialni kandidati niso ocenjevali študijskega gradiva, ciljna skupina že vpisanih na FDV, FL in FM pa ni odgovarjala na vprašanja o organizacijski umestitvi šolanja in podobno. Vsi vprašani so ocenjevali cilje izobraževanja, vojaške vsebine in vsebine posamezne fakultete glede na njihovo aktualnost in uporabnost povezano z zahtevami, ki izhajajo iz delovnega mesta. Kot pomemben element v izobraževalnem procesu je bilo del vprašanj namenjenih tudi učnemu gradivu VŠŠ in fakultet, organizacijskim vidikom izobraževanja in končnemu cilju procesa t.j. znanjem, ki naj bi jih pridobili. Vprašani, ki so v izobraževalnem procesu, so ocenjevali predavatelje po različnih kriterijih kot npr. verodostojnost predavatelja, možnost tvornega sodelovanja, uporaba ustreznih učnih pripomočkov, organizacija izvedbe predmeta, časovni okvir za izvajanje itn. Potencialni kandidati za šolanje in nadrejeni ter predavatelji in zaposleni na PŠŠ so imeli na voljo dodatne vsebine za ocenjevanje. Med te vsebine nedvomno sodijo predlogi in mnenja glede prihodnosti na področju izobraževanja po vojaških vsebinah. Vsi vprašalniki so bili pripravljeni po metodi v naprej pripravljenih kvantitativnih kazalnikih, kjer se je vprašani zgolj odločal med ponujenimi možnostmi razvrščenimi praviloma 9 Z izrazom nadrejeni so mišljeni vsi vodje, ki po vsebinskem smislu lahko tvorno prispevajo k oblikovanju oziroma posodobitvi izobraževalnega procesa. 10 Potencilani kandidati so vsi tisti zaposleni, ki se bodo šolanja v bodoče morali udeležiti zaradi zahtev, ki izhajajo iz delovnega mesta. 11 Razdeljeno je bilo 120 anketnih vprašalnikov. 12 Anketni vprašalnik so prejeli vsi predavatelji vojaških vsebin in predavatelji fakultet, ki sodelujejo v izobraževalnem procesu. A 13 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 od vrednosti 1 do 5 oziroma od 1 do 3 pri čemer je 1 zavzemala najnižjo in 5 oziroma 3 najvišjo vrednost na lestvici razen v primerih rangiranja posameznih vrednosti po njihovi pomembnosti. Vsak vsebinski sklop je imel možnost kvalitativnega sodelovanja vprašanega, ki je bil opredeljen zgolj kot »vaše mnenje« ali »vaš predlog« in je omogočal posamezniku, da je lahko po lastni presoji vpisal svoja opažanja, predloge in kritiko. Ob dejstvu, da so bili vprašalniki po vsebini in obsegu različni (od 15 do 25 strani) je bil delež kvalitativnega sodelovanja s strani vprašanih velik in je predstavljal pomemben element pri oblikovanju zaključnega evalvacijskega poročila. Posebno dodano vrednost so predstavljali vprašalniki namenjeni zaposlenim na PŠŠ ter predavateljem vojaških vsebin in fakultet. Zaposleni na PŠŠ in predavatelji vojaških vsebin so dejansko izvedli samoevalvacijo medtem, ko so predavatelji fakultet prispevali svoje poglede v obliki zunanje evlavacije. Slednji v večini primerov niso izpolnjevali predvidenega vprašalnika ampak so se odločili za posredovanje lastnega videnja predmetnega izobraževanja, kjer so posebej pohvalili organizacijske vidike izobraževanja in izrazili presenečenje nad kakovostjo in raznolikostjo znanja po vojaških vsebinah. 4 Ugotovitve ob zaključku evalvacije Vprašani, udeleženci v izobraževalnem procesu, so ocenjevali vojaške vsebine in vsebine fakultet. Vojaške vsebine so bile ocenjene kot zelo aktualne in po pomembnosti razvrščene po naslednjem vrstnem redu; vojaško voditeljstvo kot najpomembnejša vsebina, sledijo ji mednarodne vojaške operacije, delovanje enot SV, nacionalna in mednarodna varnost, tehnični sistemi in koncepti kot podpora delovanj ter zaključna naloga. 62 odstotkov vprašanih je menilo, da vojaških vsebin ni potrebno spreminjati. Ostali so predlagali bolj aktivne metode dela po obstoječih vsebinah. 30 odstotkov vprašanih je menilo, da je obstoječi izbor fakultet, ki so vključene v sodelovanje s PŠŠ, pravi izbor in sodelovanje z drugimi fakultetami ni potrebno. Dejstvo, da je trenuten izbor fakultet ustrezen, so potrdili odgovori na vprašanje na katero od fakultet bi se vpisali v primeru, če bi se ponovno odločali. Vprašani so na prvo mesto za vpis izbrali FM, na drugo mesto FL in na tretje FDV pri čemer so bile razlike minimalne. 70 odstotkov vprašanih v vzorcu nadrejeni in potencialni kandidati za šolanje meni, da je sodelovanje s fakultetami potrebno razširiti in sicer s fakultetami na področju naravoslovnih vsebin. Navedeni predlog podpirajo tudi rezultati kadrovskih analiz. V procesu smo ocenili, da gradiva predstavljajo pomemben element izobraževalnega procesa zato so vprašani na šolanju ocenjevali tudi gradivo PŠŠ in fakultet po naslednjih trditvah: gradivo je estetskega videza, pripravljeno po enotni metodologiji, je funkcionalno, ima optimalno število strani, bo uporabno na delovnem mestu, je aktualno v teoretičnem smislu, avtorji gradiva izhajajo iz najnovejših spoznanj - odgovori so prikazani na sliki 1 in iz virov in literature izhaja, da so nikakor se se ne delno se strinjam v celoti se ne strinjam strinjam se strinjam strinjam Slika 1: Gradivo VŠŠ in fakultet. Trditev: avtorji gradiva izhajajo iz najnovejših spoznanj. m Gradivo VSS □ gradivo fakultet nikakor se se ne delno se strinjam v celoti se ne strinjam strinjam se strinjam strinjam m Gradivo PSS □ Gradivo fakultet Slika 2: Gradivo PŠŠ in fakultet. Trditev: iz virov in literature izhaja, da so nosilci predmetov aktivni na področju pisanja in objavljanja v svoji stroki. A 14 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 nosilci predmetov aktivni na področju pisanja in objavljanja v svoji stroki - odgovori so prikazani na sliki 2. Gradivo PŠŠ je bilo s strani udeležencev v izobraževalnem procesu ocenjeno kot dobro vendar je bilo gradivo fakultet ocenjeno veliko boljše iz česar izhaja, da bi morala PŠŠ več pozornosti nameniti kakovosti učnega gradiva. Navedeno je potrebno razumeti tudi z vidika umeščenosti PŠŠ v okvir SV oziroma MO. Kakovosti učnega gradiva fakultet je bistveno bolj podprta glede na njihovo institucionalno umestitev in sistem napredovanja predavateljev, ki ni primerljiv z zaposlenimi v javni upravi, kamor sodijo predavatelji PŠŠ. Organizacija šolanja predstavlja pomemben dejavnik njegove uspešnosti zato so bili v evalvacijo vključeni naslednji elementi kot merilo vrednotenja: dolžina programa šolanja, knjižnica PŠŠ, študijsko potovanje, prevozi, tajništvo šole, informacijska podpora, družabno življenje, opremljenost predavalnic, lokacija šolanja, sodelovanje tujih predavateljev, objavljanje kakovostnih pisnih materialov kot rezultat šolanja, spletna stran šole, motivacija predavateljev, namen in poslanstvo šole ter kadrovska zasedba šole. Odgovori na nekatere od izbranih elementov ter ocene vprašanih so prikazani na sliki 3). Izbor nekaterih možnosti v vprašalniku ob navedbi »Znanja in veščine pripadnic in pripadnikov SV po končanem šolanju naj...«. Pri vsebinah povezanih z znanji in veščinami, ki naj bi jih pridobili na šolanju, so se vprašani v vseh skupinah osredoto-čali predvsem na povezljivost šolanja z opravljanjem svojega dela neodvisno od tega ali delo opravljajo v domovini ali v tujini. Gre za opravljanje poklicev, ki so zelo razgibani, še posebej če upoštevamo napotitve na različne dolžnosti v tujino v okviru slovenskih predstavništev v EU, zvezi Nato, OZN ter na operacijah in mirovnih misijah. Kljub temu, smo uspeli po pridobljenih znanjih vprašati nekatere nadrejene. Vzorec nadrejenih, ki so bili nadrejeni udeležencem na izobraževanju pred in po šolanju, je zelo majhen, vendar v celoti proporcionalno potrjuje, da udeleženci pridobijo znanja in veščine v razmerjih, ki so prikazani na sliki 4 kot tista znanja in veščine, ki naj bi jih pridobili. Ne glede na dejstvo, da gre za šolo, ki ne predstavlja klasične izobraževalne institucije v smislu umestitve v javni izobraževalni sistem in hkrati ne sodi v oblike izobraževanj, ki nastopajo na trgu, je kakovost izvajanja izobraževanja PŠŠ nikakor se ne delno se strinjam v celoti se ne striijam strinjam se se strinjam strinjam Slika 3. Organizacija PŠŠ. Nekateri vidiki m Predavatelji Poveljniško štabne šole po strokovnosti in izkušnjah povsem ustrezajo namenu in poslanstvu šole H Poveljniško štabna šola bi morala imeti širšo kadrovsko zasedbo E3 V programu Višjega štabnega šolanja bi morali sodelovati tudi tuji predavatelji nikakor se se ne debio se strinjam v celoti se ne strinjam striijam se strinjam strinjam Slika 4. Znanja in veščine. Else kažejo predvsem v boljšem teoretičnem poznavanju vsebin Eljim koristijo pri opravljanju del in nalog 0 zagotavljajo večjo samostojnost pri delu Else kažejo pri večji kvaliteti pisnih izdelkov D se izkazujejo z boljšo argumentacijo svojih stališč A 15 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 izrednega pomena. Znanja, ki jih pridobijo pripadniki SV, zaposleni v MO in ostali udeleženci, pomenijo pomemben dejavnik na področju izobraževanja tako v civilnih kot tudi vojaških strukturah. Šolanje mora zagotavljati znanja, ki so primerljiva z drugimi tovrstnimi šolami v državah članicah EU in zveze Nato. Tako je kakovost izobraževalnega procesa enakega pomena kot v javnih izobraževalnih institucijah. Upoštevati je potrebno enaka merila in kriterije pri načrtovanju, organiziranju, izvedbi in vrednotenju izobraževalnega procesa s poudarkom na razvoju predavateljskega kadra in učnega gradiva. Predavateljski kader mora sodelovati z zunanjimi izobraževalnimi institucijami, zato je sodelovanje in organizacija šolanja v povezavi s fakultetami izrednega pomena za razvoj zaposlenih v obrambnem resorju in za razvoj vojaških vsebin. Po pregledu vseh materialov in vsebin, ki so bili pridobljeni v procesu evalvacije VŠŠ je pomembno upoštevati nekatere okoliščine, ki so pomembne za interpretacijo zbranih rezultatov in gradiv. Udeleženci izobraževanja na VŠŠ imajo ob vstopu v izobraževanje zelo različno pred izobrazbo in različne delovne izkušnje, predvsem pa zelo različna pričakovanja, kar velja za potencialne kandidate za šolanje in vodstvene kadre, ki so v evalvaciji sodelovali. Iz navedenega lahko lažje razumemo nekatera nasprotna si stališča, ki so se v procesu evalvacije pojavljala. S tega vidika so toliko bolj pomembna nekatera strokovna stališča zaposlenih na področju izobraževanja po vojaških vsebinah, nekaterih strokovnjakov interne javnosti v SV in nekaterih zunanjih strokovnjakov sodelavcev v izobraževalnem procesu v okviru VŠŠ. Le-ti lahko sodelujejo in bi morali sodelovati pri oblikovanju in usmerjanju nekaterih pomembnih vsebin, ki vplivajo na širše področje obrambnega resorja in njegovih aktivnosti v mednarodnem okolju. V okviru vojaškega izobraževanja in usposabljanja pa se določene vsebine v izobraževanje vnašajo z namenom aktualizirati izobraževanje tako, da bodo pridobljena znanja lahko podprla aktivnosti in naloge resorja v prihodnosti. 5 Zaključek Dejstvo, da je slovensko vojaško šolanje organizacijsko umeščeno v strukture MO oziroma SV, ne pomeni, da gre za izobraževalne oblike nepovezane z izobraževalnimi in drugimi institucijami. Vloga zaposlenih v MO in pripadnikov SV se je s pridružitvijo Slovenije EU in zvezi Nato bistveno spremenila. Navedeno pomeni, da morajo oboji predstavljati svojo državo najmanj tako kot drugi predstavniki držav članic ali celo bolje. Biti primerljiv z pripadniki oboroženih sil držav članic z dolgoletno tradicijo na področju izobraževanja po vojaških vsebinah včasih ni enostavno. Ni pa nemogoče. Izobraževanje na Višje štabnem šolanju v povezavi z različnimi fakultetami nedvomno pomeni velik napredek za SV in za razvoj vojaških ter drugih vsebin, ki so pomembne pri zagotavljanju nacionalne varnosti. Na ta način se krepi sodelovanje med fakultetami kot nosilkami bogatega teoretičnega znanja in SV kot organizacijsko strukturo z obilo praktičnega znanja in izkušnjami doma in na mednarodnih dogodkih v mnogih pojavnih oblikah (opravljanje del in nalog v predstavništvih SV v tujini, misije in mednarodne operacije, itn). Spremljanje kakovosti izobraževalnih procesov pomeni za SV povsem enako obveznost kot za katerokoli drugo institucijo, ki izobražuje in jo financira država. Po vojaških vsebinah izobražuje SV. Ker gre za izobraževanje po specifičnih vsebinah je skrb za njihov razvoj toliko večjega pomena. Evalvacija je najpogosteje uporabljena metoda za zagotavljanje kakovosti izobraževalnih procesov. Njeni rezultati so idealno vodilo za nadaljnje delo na različnih področji. Z evalvacijo Višjega štabnega šolanja v povezavi s fakultetami je SV dobila vzpodbudo za nadaljevanje sodelovanja z zunanjimi izobraževalnimi institucijami in njegovo nadgradnjo. Rezultati evalvacije so vodilo za nadaljnje delo po VŠŠ a so hkrati tudi vodilo za evalvacije po drugih oblikah izobraževanja. Pri zasnovi evalvacijskega procesa bi lahko kot osnovno vodilo v naslednja generacijah šolanja bili predmet evalvacije samo posamezni vsebinski sklopi. Predstavljena evalvacija je bila zelo obsežna, trajala je štiri mesece. Pozitivna izkušnja je nedvomno pridobitev obsežnega nabora kvalitativnih in kvantitativnih podatkov, ki bodo v prihodnje pripomogli h kasnejšim primerjalnim analizam. Hkrati obsežen nabor podatkov lahko povzroči zasičenost z množico usmeritev med katerimi je težko prepoznati bistvene. Določitev prioritet za posamezno šolsko leto se tako zdi smiselna, še posebej, če je v kontekstu vključevanja aktualnih trendov tako na področju evalvacij kot po vsebinskem področju. Metodološki pristop, ki bi po mnenju avtorjev bistveno pripomogel h kakovosti predstavljene evalvacije, je nedvomno organizacija skupinskega vodenega srečanja z udeleženci na šolanju pred šolanjem, med šolanjem in po šolanju. Poudarek razprave na srečanju bi nedvomno bil na znanjih, za katere ocenjujejo, da jih potrebujejo, na znanjih za katere ocenjujejo, da so jih pridobili v času šolanja in tistih za katere ocenjujejo, da so jih po npr. šestih mesecih pridobili, jih dejansko uporabljajo in katera so tista znanja, ki jih potrebujejo, a jih na šolanju niso pridobili. Evalvacijski proces v skladu s teorijo evalvacij neprestano nastaja in se sproti spreminja iz česar sledi, da bi ugotovitve takih srečanj vplivale na ugotavljanje potreb po izobraževanju, cilje izobraževanja, kasneje na njegovo načrtovanje, izvajanje in se strnile v evalvacijo naslednje generacije. Povezovanje z izobraževalnimi institucijami po vojaških vsebinah v državah EU in zveze Nato po evalvacijah bi bilo zelo dobrodošlo. S krepitvijo sodelovanja s slovenskimi fakultetami morda postanejo izobraževanja po vojaških vsebinah predmet evalvacije katere izmed tujih institucij, ki evalva-cije izvajajo širom Evrope na fakultetah, ki izobražujejo na področju civilnih in vojaških vsebin. Literatura Brinc, D., Derman-Zadravec, T., Furlan, B. & Hafner, T. (2006) Angleško-slovenski vojaški terminološki slovar. Poveljstvo za doktrino, razvoj, izobraževanje in usposabljanje. Ljubljana. Černoša, S. (2004) Bodoči cilji v izobraževanju - novi pristopi oblikovanja strategije v EU. Management, znanje in EU. Zbornik 23. mednarodne konference o razvoju organizacijskih ved, Portorož, 24.-26. marec 2004. Fakulteta za organizacijske vede. A 16 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Huebner, A. J. & Betts, S. C. (1999) Examining Fourth Generation Evaluation. Application to Positive Youth Development. Evaluations, 5(3), 340-358. Kuipers, H. & Richardson, R. (1999). Active Qualitative Evaluation. Core Elements and Procedures. Evaluations, 5(1), 61-79. Lisbon Military Academy. EUA Evaluation Report. March 2007. European University Assoctiation, Institutional Evaluation Programme, dosegljivo na: http://www.dges.mctes.pt/NR/rdonl-yres/68435AED-89FC-4F6C-B273-6D32F8E05A2B/2827/ MilitaryAcademyFinalReport. (21.05.2009). Macur, M. (2000) Vpliv privatizacije na kakovost zdravstvenih storitev - evalvacija z vidika uporabnika. Doktorska disertacija, Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za družbene vede. Rihter, L. (2004) Evalvacije na področju socialnega varstva in njihov pomen za prilagajanje sodobnih držav blaginje na izzive globa-lizacije. Doktorska disertacija, Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za družbene vede. Valovirta, V. (2002) Evaluation Utilization as Argumentaition. Evaluations, 8(1), 60-80. Widmer, T. & Nuenschwander, P. (2004) Embedding Evaluation in the Swiss Federal Administration, Purpose, Institutional Design and Utilization. Evaluations, 10(4), 388-409. Zabukovec, S. (2008). Razvoj nadaljevalnega vojaškega izobraževanja in usposabljanja častnikov Slovenske vojske in primerjava z nekaterimi tujimi izkušnjami. Bilten Slovenske vojske 10/1, maj 2008, 135-161. Žabkar, A. & Svete, U. (2008) Šolanje vojaških profesionalcev med tradicionalnimi izhodišči in (post) modernimi izzivi. Bilten Slovenske vojske 10/1, maj 2008, 183-208. Viri Direktiva za preoblikovanje in razvoj sistema vojaškega izobraževanja in usposabljanja v Slovenski vojski v obdobju 2004-5, šif. 811-01-1/2004-19 z dne 18.06.2004. Evalvacija Višje štabnega šolanja - zaključno poročilo, št. 603251/2008-2, z dne 04.05.2009. Izhodišča za oblikovanje v sistem javnega izobraževanja integrirane vojaške izobraževalne institucije, št. 603-105/2008-3 z dne 07.08.2008. Koncept sistema vojaškega izobraževanja in usposabljanja v Slovenski vojski, šif. 811-01-6/03-4 z dne 09.07.2003. Obvezne usmeritve za preoblikovanje in razvoj sistema vojaškega izobraževanja in usposabljanja v Slovenski vojski, šif. 811-011/2003-31 z dne 14.07.2003. Pravilnik o izobraževanju, usposabljanju in izpopolnjevanju v MO, 0070-2/2006-12 z dne 16.05.2006, s spremembami in dopolnitvami. Zakon o obrambi, Ur. l. RS št. 82/2980/94 s spremembami in dopolnitvami. Zakon o službi v Slovenski vojski, Ur. l. RS št. 68/07. Liliana Brožič je diplomirala na Fakulteti za organizacijske vede Univerze v Mariboru, smer organizacija, in magistrirala na Fakulteti za družbene vede Univerze v Ljubljani po med -narodnem programu MESPA (Master Degree in European Social Policy Analysis). Zanimajo jo novosti na področj u varnosti, izobraževanja v varnostnih in drugih strukturah, meto -dologija sprem Ijanja izobraževalnih procesov in evalvacija. Dušan Sušnik je diplomiral na voj aški akademiji v Sarajevu, smer telekomunikacije. Zaključil specialistični študij Managementa v izobraževanju na Fakulteti za Manage ment, Univerza na Primorskem. Posveča se aktualnim te -mam na področju izobraževanja, managementa in vodenja (leadership). A 17 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Medosebna vloga ravnatelja -managerja v procesu dela in funkciji humanistično-antropocentričnega managementa človeških virov Bojan Burgar1, Jože Florjančič2, Mojca Bernik2 1Osnovna šola Ormož, Slovenija, os.ormoz@guest.arnes.si 2Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za organizacijske vede, Slovenija, joze.florjancic@fov.uni -mb.si, mojca.bernik@fov.uni-mb.si Prispevek se osredotoča na medosebno vlogo ravnate Ija in definiranje ključnih dejavnikov v procesu dela in funkciji humani -stično - antropocentričnega managementa. Pri tem je ključnega pomena humanizacija managementa, kjer ravnatelj - manager prevzema več vlog: sodelovalna, razvojno - raziskovalna, koordinacijska - povezovalna, svetovalna, organizacijska ter vloga aktivnega stratega. Predstavljen je model medsebojne vloge ravnatelja v funkciji humanistično - antropocentričnega managementa človeških virov na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja. Ključne besede: človeški viri, medsebojni odnosi, medosebna vloga, kompetenca, humanistično -antropocentrični manage -ment, kreativna obzirnost, vodenje 1 Uvod Spremembe, ki smo jim danes priča na vseh področjih življenja in dela, se kažejo ne samo v drugačnem stilu življenja in novih vrednotah, temveč tudi v spremenjenem odnosu do dela, zlasti pa v medsebojnih odnosih in vlogah na delovnem mestu. Na osnovi spoznanj raziskav vezanih na medosebno vlogo ravnatelja - managerja v funkciji humanističnega managementa dela s človeškimi viri na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja in proučevanja teoretičnih izkustev na področju mehkega antropocentričnega managementa je temeljni cilj le - tega sprememba, vzdrževanje ali izboljšanje kakovosti medsebojnih odnosov in vlog za učinkovito in uspešno delovanje posameznika in skupine. Je proces, v katerem ustvarjamo pogoje za uresničitev želenih ciljev, vlog in odnosov z vlogo, s poslanstvom, soglasjem o prioritetah, z delom s sodelavci in s pravilno izbiro vsebin in sredstev skozi proces ugotavljanja stanja. 2 Medsebojne vloge ravnatelja v procesu dela in funkcijah humanistično antropocentričnega managementa človeških virov na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja Iz raziskave (Burgar, 2006) izhaja, da humanizacija odnosov, ki jo vzpostavlja ravnatelj preko različnih vlog v medsebojnih odnosih z zaposlenimi, pozitivno vpliva na posodabljanje dela. Zaposleni vidijo humani odnos in posodabljanje dela z jasno odprtostjo dela, izbirnostjo dela, individualnostjo dela, fleksibilnostjo dela, s poudarjanjem osebnostnih in strokovnih kompetenc, z avtonomnostjo kot preneseno odgovornostjo, s participacijo pri odločanju, s prenosom pooblastil, s profesionalizacijo kot izkušenjskim delom in z vseživljenjskim učenjem z integriranim pristopom k odnosom in delu kot s poudarjeno vlogo samousmerjanja in samopotrjevanja s tehniko samoevalvacije z merili uspešnosti in učinkovitosti. Zaposleni so skozi raziskavo jasno podčrtali potrebno izvirno avtoriteto ravnatelja, kajti le ravnatelj s priznano izvirno avtoriteto bo uspel vzpostaviti posodobljene načine izvajanja dela po predhodni vzpostavitvi organizacijske kulture kot ključnega dejavnika fleksibilne, ohlapne in situacijsko naravnane strukture, s prilagojenimi in osmišljenimi izvajanji funkcij managementa kot interdisciplinarni pristop strokovnih in osebnostno-izraz-nih kompetenc. Jasno se je izkristaliziralo spoznanje, da lahko ravnatelj svoje vloge in notranjo izvirno avtoriteto ohrani le s svojo osebnostjo, ki sprošča ustvarjalnost in spodbuja radovednost skozi medosebni odnos topline, odprtosti, doslednosti, A 18 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 razumnosti, splošne širine, skratka skozi human odnos osebnih in družbenih spretnosti emocionalne in socialne inteligentnosti popolnega melanholika in s pozitivnimi lastnostmi ostalih treh tipov osebnosti, ki jih je raziskava jasno izpostavila. Navedeno zahteva, da spodbujamo vpogled v lasten miselni proces vseh udeležencev in posameznika, s čimer podžigamo intuitivni svet posameznika in vseh oz. sposobnost nadgrajevati ustvarjalno notranjo in zunanjo podobo skozi proces potrebnih sprememb in njihovo zavestno poustvarjanje preko empatičnega vstopa v notranje in zunanje okolje. Skozi pokazan proces lahko vnašamo v uporabni svet posameznika ali tima tudi druge možne osebnostne vrednote, kot so prilagodljivost, vztrajnost, priljudnost, uvidevnost, iznajdljivost, duhovitost, doslednost, samozavestnost, odločnost, odličnost, strpnost, premišljenost, perfekcionizem, odprtost, komunikativnost, kulturnost, etičnost in urejenost, ki lahko pozitivno vplivajo na celostno delovanje posameznika ali tima preko vlog, v katere vstopajo kot sodelavci v ustvarjalnem procesu uresničevanja zastavljenih ciljev (Podjed, 2006). Enostavno lahko rečemo, da je izrednega pomena za oblikovanje osebnosti na delovnem mestu pridobitev potenciala posameznikov skozi poosebljanje vrednot v procesu medsebojnih odnosov, v katere vstopamo kot partnerji v isti organizacijski ravnini zastavljenih ciljev, z močjo volje in z različnimi stopnjami odgovornosti do rezultatov skozi proces uresničevanja in evalvacije. S tem podčrtujemo nujnost videnja vodenja skozi vloge medsebojnih odnosov poosebljanja ciljev z voljo, motivacijo in znanjem. Tako bomo videli v stvaritvi vrednost, ki ji bomo dodelili ceno v osebnem in skupnem vrednostnem prispevku osebnosti in organizacije. Spoznanje, ki ga pod-črtujejo zaposleni in priznavajo oz. nakazujejo potrebo številne organizacijske teorije in management skozi razvojni čas (Drucker, 2004, Florjančič et al., 2004; Elmore, 2006). Tako ravnatelj - manager kot ključni dejavnik enakih med enakimi vstopa v razvojno-raziskovalno vlogo z spodbujanjem ustvarjalnosti s predhodno oblikovanostjo etičnosti zaposlenih, da bodo videli pomembnost skupnih ciljev in povezovanje materialnih in nematerialnih potencialov, uspešnost sodelovanja in konstruktivnega reševanja konfliktov, ki pomenijo spremembo in razvoj. S tem razvija etiko dolžnosti, ki vodi k zavestnemu delovanju posameznika in vseh proti cilju. Doseči to, pomeni graditi skupino - kolektiv s strokovno in osebnostno potrje-nostjo, ki jo odlikujejo strokovnost, sposobnost organizatorja, načrtovalca, usmerjevalca in ocenjevalca - evalvatorja ter strpnost, doslednost, empatičnost, socialnost, emocionalnost do skupnih in individualnih potreb, saj razvoj lahko gradimo le na zadovoljnem, identificiranem, integriranem zaposlenem z znanjem, izkustvi in avtonomno odgovornostjo, adaptacijo in participacijo do nalog in odločitev. Brez priznavanja prispevkov in rasti osebne kariere pa tudi ne gre. Ciljnost je eno izmed vodil ravnateljevanja s spoštovanjem analize stanja, definiranja problemov, predvidevanja alternativnih rešitev, določanja verjetnosti njihove rešitve in rešitve problemov, ki dajejo želene rezultate (Florjančič et al., 2002). To zahteva integrativni pristop pri vodenju, strokovnost in izrazno osebnost z emocionalno, socialno in organizacijsko inteligenco, ki mu omogoča preudarno presojanje, razmišljanje, usmerjanje in zaključevanje z uvidom v zadovoljstvo kot Slika 1: Kakovostni dejavniki medsebojne vloge ravnatelja v procesu dela in funkcij humanistično-antropocentričnega managementa človeških virov A 19 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 interes, potrebo in zmožnost za učinkovito delovanje. Le-to ravnatelju, na osnovi spoznanj raziskave, garantira možnost uvajanja organizacijskih in strokovnih sprememb, in s tem izvajanje nalog s strokovnostjo in osebnostjo, kar omogoča tudi kvaliteto storitve in kakovostno osebno rast zaposlenega in organizacije. To zahteva od ravnatelja vodenje z enakim videnjem dela kot odnosov na eni strani in drugi strani avtonomno odgovornost s pooblastili, participacijo zaposlenega pri odločanju o načrtih, programih, projektih na osnovi profesionalizacije in prilagojenosti le-teh zmožnostim, interesu in potrebam organizacije in zaposlenega še posebno tistega, ki nalogo in odgovornost s pooblastilom prevzema. Ob humani-zaciji odnosov vstopa integracija odnosov in dela, participacija in adaptacija s profesionalizacijo kot izkušenjskim delom, ki prinašajo dodano vrednost intelektualnega kapitala posameznika in organizacije k novi vrednosti, to je rezultat kot učinkovitost z močjo volje. Ob tem je ključnega pomena pri načinu izvajanja funkcij managementa integrativno sprejemanje zaposlenih in preko povezovalne vloge dosegati stabilnost medsebojnih in drugih delovnih odnosov med zaposlenimi (Mulej et al., 2004). To je vstop v zaposlenega s humanimi neodvisnimi spremenljivkami okolja, odnosa in organizacije, preko katerih vzpostavljamo ustrezno organizacijsko kulturo in klimo, ki posebej podčr-tuje pomembnost, koristnost in potrebnost vsakega in vseh zaposlenih. Za to je potrebno biti tudi posebno pozoren pri oblikovanju skupin za določeno nalogo in pri dodeljevanju nalog glede na potrebna znanja, da resnično zadostimo zahtevi tudi na osnovi priznavanja kompetenc vseh zaposlenih. S tem se izognemo slepi pegi organizacije, ki lahko negativno vpliva na želeno organizacijsko in vsebinsko kakovost realizacije naloge. Znotraj povezovalne vloge ravnatelja skozi procese vodenja ne smemo pozabiti pomembnosti povezave med strokovnimi organi in podporno službo znotraj vzgojno-izobraževalne organizacije za zagotavljanje integritete in s tem kakovosti institucije kot celote ter pomembnosti sodelovalnega dela kot sodelavcev (Cimerman, 2004). Kajti dober sodelavec pomeni biti vztrajen ter ohranjati voljo in moč do realizacije skupno določenega cilja. Z realizacijo pa dokazovati opravičenost vztrajnosti vsem nasprotnikom brez očitkov ampak samo z dokazi uspešnosti in učinkovitosti. Tako bomo pridobili sodelavce tudi s strani nasprotnikov. To zmore le ravnatelj -manager s strokovno in osebnostno izraznostjo, prepleteno z izkustvi dobre prakse. Skratka s kompetencami vzglednika in sodelavca, ki zna združevati svoje vloge v medsebojnih odnosih glede na situacijo. Tako ga mora voditi prepričanje, da si vsi želimo gotovosti na poti do želenega cilja, z zadostnimi strokovnimi informacijami, alternativnimi rešitvami kot tudi s predvidenimi možnimi posledicami. To nam daje ob strokovni še moralno podporo kot voljo, da dobro opravimo zastavljeno nalogo. Svetovanje ravnatelja mora biti vedno naravnano motivacijsko s spoštovanjem interesa in pričakovanj izvajalcev ob ustrezni kulturi in etiki. Omogočati mora nevsiljeno, vzajemno osebnostno in strokovno rast, ki kaže karierno pot posameznika na priznani kakovosti s strani ravnatelja. Priznavanje uspešnosti s karierno začrtano potjo je ključ za vzpostavljanje ustvarjalnega in humanega vzdušja v odnosih in s tem se odpirajo vrata spremembam in razvoju organizacije (Mayer, 2004). Ravnatelj v svoji svetovalni vlogi mora biti strokovno potrjen, tako na teoretičnem kot izkustvenem področju in seveda osebnostno izrazen ter sprejet kot strpen igralec vlog in kompetenc. To usmerja vloge medosebnih odnosov ravnatelja v pomembnost participacije zaposlenih pri odločanju o viziji, poslanstvu, programih, projektih, nalogah in z aktivnim sodelovanjem pri izvajanju funkcij procesa managementa s potrebnimi znanji. V fazi odločanja je nujno potrebno spoštovati stališča in mnenja ter pričakovanja sodelujočih, saj je to ključno izhodišče za motivacijsko dejavnost vodje. V strateški vlogi mora priti pri ravnatelju do izraza moralna moč, moč prepričevalne komunikacije in jasnost posredovanja glavne ciljnosti. To mora biti izvirna moč, ki temelji na strokovnosti sprememb in razvoju organizacije ter osmišljeni taktiki sodelovalnega dela, s spoštovanjem interesov, potreb in zmožnosti zaposlenih za neučinkovito realizacijo dogovorjenega. Za uspešno vzpostavljanje vlog medsebojnih odnosov ravnatelj kot upravljalec in pedagoški vodja ne sme spregle- OKOLJE ORGANIZACIJA MANAGEMENT HUMANI MEDSEBOJNI ODNOSI Z VLOGAMI RAVNATELJ + ČLOVEŠKI VIRI - LJUDJE SODELOVALNA RAZVOJNO -RAZISKOVALNA KOORDINACIJSKA -POVEZOVALNA SVETOVALNA ORGANIZACIJSKA VLOGA AKTIVNEGA STRATEGA STROKOVNI SODELAVEC OSEBNOSTNI VZGLEDNIK RAZVOJ SPREMEMBE INOVACIJE MEDIACUA INTEGRACIJA STABILIZACIJA ODNOSNOST KOMPETENCNO ST IZKUSTVO OSEBNOST -AVTORITETA CILJNOST KULTURA AKTIVNOSTI ODLOČANJE UPRAVLJANJE TAKTICNOST ORGANIZIRANOST PROAKTIVNOST VIZIONARSTVO Slika 2: Ključne neodvisne spremenljivke medosebnih vlog ravnatelja za humanizacijo managementa A 20 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 dati organiziranja kot skupno aktivnost vlog, nalog, pooblastil, razvojnega načrtovanja kot organizacijsko kulturo interesov, potreb in zmožnosti; vodenja kot adaptivno, implicitno-parti-cipativno ter profesionalno izvajanje nalog skozi voden proces z delom in odnosom ter nazadnje nadzorovanja kot evalvacijo z usmerjanjem za spremembe in razvoj. To pomeni, da ne sme spregledati humanistično-antropocentrične funkcije manage-menta z neformalno, ohlapno in fleksibilno strukturo skozi proces aktivnosti z vživeto ciljnostjo in voljo. Skratka ne more in ne sme prezreti kreativnosti posameznika kot strokovnjaka in osebnosti. Za to potrebuje kreativno obzirnost in odprt stil vodenja tako pri izvajanju poslovodne vloge, kot vloge pedagoškega vodje skozi ravnateljevanje, vzgojno-svetoval-ne-usmerjevalne vloge do animacijsko opazovalne vloge, ki vstopa v medsebojni odnos ravnatelja skozi hodniško načelo sprehajalnega vodenja ravnatelja. 3 Zaključek Tisti, ki se ukvarjamo s človeškimi viri in potenciali, bi morali razvijati in vzgajati najprej človeške vrednote in zmožnosti glede na organizacijo, saj bomo tako sprostili poti po potrjevanju in dokazovanju v sproščeno a hkrati ustvarjalno delovno organizacijsko ozračje za vzpostavitev kakovostnih medsebojnih odnosov in vlog v procesu dela in funkcijah managemen-ta. Tako vstopa v ospredje čutenje strokovne in osebnostne vrednosti zaposlenega kot razpoložljivega človeškega vira - potenciala s potrebo po samouresničitvi in samopotrditvi skozi proces del, odnosov in vlog s katerimi preko poudarjenega partnerskega odnosa na višji stopnji samozavesti in samospoštovanja uresničuje pričakovane cilje v funkcijah humanistično antropocentričnega managementa. Za to pa so ključnega pomena osebnostne in strokovne medosebne vloge s katerimi vstopa v procesu dela in funkcijah managementa ravnatelj kot poslovodni in pedagoški vodja - ravnateljevanje. Literatura Burgar, B. (2006). Osebnostna izraznost ravnatelja v funkciji managementa človeških virov na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja, Organizacija 39 (9): 606-612. Cimerman, M. (2004). So vaši zaposleni zadovoljni? Revija Manager (2004):19. Drucker, P.F. (2004). O managementu, GV Založba, Ljubljana. Elmore, R.E. (2006). Leadership as the practice of improvement. Osnutek prispevka na mednarodni konferenci International Perspectives on School Leadership for Systemic Improvement, http://www. oecd.org./doba.oecd/2/8/37133264.pdf. Florjančič, J., Bernik, M. & Bernik, I., (2002).Planiranje kadrov. Organizacija in management - izbrana poglavja. Uredila: Florjančič J. & Paape, B. Kranj: Založba Moderna organizacija. Florjančič, J., Bernik, M. & Novak, V. (2004). Kadrovski management, Moderna organizacija, Kranj. Mayer, J. (2004). Zaupanje kot pogoj za ustvarjalno sodelovanje, Organizacija 37(6):339-344. Slika 3: Medsebojna vloga ravnatelja v funkciji humanistično - antropocentričnega managementa človeških virov na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja A 21 Organizacija, letnik 43 Mulej, M., Potočan, V. & Kajzer, Š. (2004). Etika soodvisnosti kot podlaga za zaupanje med sodelavci in med organizacijami, Organizacija 37(9):558-563. Podjed, D. (2006). Antropološki vidiki postmoderne organizacije, Organizacija 39 (9):585-590. Bojan Burgar je ravnatelj OŠ Ormož od 1980 leta. Diplomiral je iz specialne pedagogike, geografije in organizacije dela, magistriral iz kadrovsko izobraževalnega managemen -ta in doktoriral iz kadrovskega managementa. Objavlja v strokovnih revijah, praktikumih in zbornikih. Osnovno vodilo raziskovalnega področja je vpliv zadovoljstva kot posledične kakovostne razsežnosti neodvisnih spremenljivk in njihovih izvedenk za strokovno in osebnostno učinkovitost posameznika in skupine na področj u javnih zavodov. številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Jože Florjančič je redni profesor za področje kadrovskega managementa. Raziskovalno se ukvarja s problematiko glo -balnega in operativnega managementa v povezavi s strateškim načrtovanjem kadrovskih virov znotraj posameznih organizacij. Njegovi raziskovalni dosežki so razvidni tako iz domačih kot tudi tujih pub I ikacij, znotraj katerih je objavil več kot 180 avtorskih del. Mojca Bernik je docentka na Univerzi Maribor, Fakulteti za organizacijske vede. Je predstojnica katedre za kadrovske sisteme in de I uje na področju organiziranja kadrovskih pro -cesov. Raziskovalno se ukvarja s problematiko kadrovskih procesov v povezavi z informacijskimi sistemi. Obj avila je številne strokovne in znanstvene članke v domačih in tujih revijah in bila večkrat soavtorica publikacij, izdanih pri med -narodni založbi Peter Lang. Razprave A 22 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Izbira šolskih in obšolskih dejavnosti otrok s pomočjo odločitvenega modela Matea Curkova1, Vladislav Rajkovič2 1Osnovna šola Ferda Vesela Šentvid pri Stični, 1296 Šentvid pri Stični 46, Slovenija, matea.curkova@guest.arnes.si 2Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za organizacijske vede, Kidričeva 55a, 4000 Kranj, Slovenija, vladislav.rajkovic@fov.uni-mb.si Aktivnosti, s katerimi se ukvarjamo iz lastnega veselja, nam nudijo sprostitev, pomagajo razvijati raz I ične spretnosti, širijo znanje in pomagajo pri pridobivanju novih izkušenj. Hkrati spoznavamo ljudi s podobnimi interesi in razvij amo svojo oseb -nost. Šole in druge organizacije ponujajo čedalje več raznovrstnih interesnih dejavnosti, starši in otroci pa se morajo odločiti in izbranim dejavnostim nameniti svojo energijo, čas in denar. Od I očitev o izbiri interesne dej avnosti ni enostavna, saj temelji na presoji številnih kriterijev. Poleg tega je od I očevalcev več in ti imaj o lahko povsem raz I ične interese. Pri tako kompleksnih odločitvah nam lahko pomaga strokovno pripravljen večparametrski odločitveni model. Uporaba le -tega omogoča kvalitetnejše svetovanje otrokom in staršem pri izbiri najprimernejših interesnih področij za otroka v okviru šolskih in obšolskih dejavnosti in nadaljnjo kvalitetno izbiro konkretne dejavnosti, ki se je bo otrok rad udeleževal ter bo vsaj delno v interesu staršev in v okviru njihovih finančnih in časovnih zmožnosti. Ključne besede: osnovne šole, interesne dejavnosti, sistem za podporo odločanju, DEXi. 1 Uvod Starši se zavedamo, kako pomembno je spodbujati otrokov razvoj, in to počnemo, kolikor pač znamo in zmoremo. Z odraščanjem otroka se začnejo spreminjati tudi spodbude, ki jih otrok potrebuje, in pride čas, ko ga začnemo postopoma vključevati v dejavnosti, ki naše spodbude nadgrajujejo (Skalar, 1992; Stoppard, 1998). Otrok začne odkrivati lastne sposobnosti in želje ter s tem pripomore k zavednemu načinu razvijanja svojih sposobnosti in spretnosti. Osnovna šola v okviru izbirnih vsebin v tretjem triletju omogoča učencem izbor predmetov glede na njihov interes, z interesnimi dejavnostmi pa jim zagotavlja kvalitetno preživljanje prostega časa tako, da skrbi za bogatenje programov teh dejavnosti ter zagotavlja materialne, finančne in kadrovske pogoje zanje. Učenci v njih najdejo prostor za prostovoljno zbiranje ter druženje (ZRSŠ, 2007). Odločitev o izbiri interesne dejavnosti za otroka se ponavadi sprejme na začetku šolskega leta, vendar vsakoletna odločitev ni rutinska. Odločitev je dvostopenjska, kajti sprva se je potrebno odločiti za vrste interesnih dejavnosti, nato pa za konkretno šolsko oziroma obšolsko dejavnost. Otrok in njegovi starši se največkrat odločajo na podlagi pogovora. Hitreje se odločijo, če so njihovi interesi glede vrste dejavnosti skladni. Skupaj pregledajo ponudbo šolskih interesnih dejavnosti ter morebiti še obšolskih in ko starši pretehtajo še možnosti realizacije, se skupaj z otrokom odločijo, koliko interesnih dejavnosti bo otrok obiskoval in katere (Schwartz, 1996). Ko se otrok odloča, v katere interesne dejavnosti naj se vključi, mu lahko starši pomagajo tako, da ga usmerjajo k raz- misleku o tem, kaj si želi, kaj ga resnično zanima (Greenleaf, 1993). Pomembni nalogi staršev sta, da razlikujejo dejavnosti, ki otroka sproščajo, in tiste, ki ga dodatno obremenjujejo, ter da poskrbijo, da interesnih dejavnosti ne bo preveč. Otrok naj največ prostega časa preživi sproščeno v krogu družine ter s prijatelji (Horvat in Filipič, 2000; Južnič Sotlar, 2007). 2 Opredelitev odločitvenega problema Prvo stopnjo v procesu odločanja predstavlja identifikacija problema. Opredelitev problema je rezultat spoznanja, da je nastopil odločitveni problem, ki je dovolj težak, da ga je smiselno reševati na sistematičen in organiziran način (Bohanec in Rajkovič, 1995). Predmet odločanja je izbor najprimernejših vrst interesnih dejavnosti za učenca v šolski in obšolski obliki. Učencu morajo biti všeč, da jih bo z veseljem obiskoval, in zanje mora imeti ustrezne sposobnosti, da bo lahko pri njih uspešen. Prav tako morajo biti do neke mere všečne staršem, da bodo lahko v okviru svojih časovnih in finančnih zmožnosti omogočili otroku obisk le-teh. Nekateri učenci in starši znajo opraviti kvaliteten izbor interesnih dejavnosti, pri nekaterih pa je le-ta zaradi različnih vzrokov otežen. V vsakem razredu je nekaj otrok, ki niso vključeni v nobeno interesno dejavnost. Horvat vidi razloge v tem, da ti otroci niso nikjer uspešni, da ne znajo najti nečesa, kar bi jih veselilo, ter da jih doma k temu ne spodbujajo (Horvat in Filipič, 2000). Vključitev v ustrezne interesne dejavnosti bi imela zanje veliko vzgojno vrednost, počutili bi se sprejete, A 23 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 razvijali bi svojo ustvarjalnost in postajali notranje motivirani (Gomboc, 2007), toda predhodno je potrebno odkriti njihova močna interesna področja ter v ta proces aktivneje vključiti tudi starše. V zadnjem triletju osnovnošolskega izobraževanja je opaziti manjši obisk interesnih dejavnosti. Razlogi se kažejo v tem, da učenci že z izbirnimi predmeti zadovoljijo svoj interes, da so v tem obdobju učno bolj obremenjeni (Drol Novak, 2007) ter da imajo nekatere interesne dejavnosti neustrezen termin. Obstajajo tudi otroci, ki so zasičeni z interesnimi dejavnostmi. Starši jih preveč spodbujajo, pa tudi sami otroci si jih prizadevajo obiskovati čim več, ker imajo vzgled pri starših (Horvat in Filipič, 2000). Ti otroci imajo ponavadi veliko želja glede izbire interesnih dejavnosti in se skupaj s starši znajdejo pred dilemo, katere izbrati in katerih ne. Potrebno se je namreč odločiti, koliko interesnih dejavnosti naj bi obiskovali, da bi ob vsem še vedno imeli dovolj časa za sprostitvene dejavnosti. Begavčkom, otrokom, ki nimajo obstanka in se preizkušajo na veliko področjih, je prav tako potrebno pomagati odkriti njihova močna področja, njihovim staršem pa svetovati, da se z otrokom dogovorijo za redno obiskovanje izbrane dejavnosti ter da določijo čas, ko jo bodo smeli prenehati obiskovati, če si bodo to želeli. Na ta način bodo otroci prevzeli odgovornost za svoj interes ter se učili avtonomnosti. Je pa potrebno vedeti, da imajo otroci do desetega ali dvanajstega leta zelo raznolike interese, hkrati pa je vpliv njihovih vrstnikov na izbiro interesne dejavnosti zelo močan (Horvat in Filipič, 2000). Izbor najprimernejše interesne dejavnosti ni preprost odločitveni problem, ker je pri tem potrebno upoštevati otrokove želje in sposobnosti, želje ter časovne in finančne zmožnosti staršev ter ponudbo šol in drugih organizacij. Uporaba odločitvenega modela za izbiro šolskih in obšolskih dejavnosti omogoča staršem in otroku sprejeti kvalitetnejše odločitve. 3 Interesne dejavnosti V šoli so se postopoma oblikovale in razvijale različne oblike šolskih in obšolskih dejavnosti. Že v obdobju pred prvo svetovno vojno so v šolah obstajale dodatne dejavnosti, še bolj so se razmahnile med obema vojnama, posebno velik razcvet teh dejavnosti pa predstavlja obdobje po drugi svetovni vojni (Komljanc, 2004). V začetku petdesetih let 20. stoletja so v šole začeli uvajati tako imenovane svobodne in prostočasne dejavnosti. Izraze za te dejavnosti so postopoma spreminjali. Temeljno vodilo pedagogike prostega časa je prostost, samoodločanje in samouresničitev človeka v aktivnosti, ki jo opravlja. Skozi čas je tudi šola sprejela dejavnosti prostega časa za svojo nalogo. V prostovoljnih ali interesnih dejavnostih so učenci širili in poglabljali znanja in različne interese, predvsem v kulturnih in športnih dejavnostih (Balkovec Debevec, 2007). Šolska zakonodaja, ki je nastala v samostojni Sloveniji po letu 1991, določa obvezni in razširjeni program. Slednji za učence in učenke ni obvezen, šola pa ga je dolžna ponuditi. Obvezni program za učence in učenke vključuje pouk obveznih in izbirnih predmetov, dneve dejavnosti ter ure oddelčne skupnosti. Razširjeni program pa obsega jutranje varstvo, podaljšano bivanje, dodatni in dopolnilni pouk, interesne dejavnosti in šole v naravi (Zakon o osnovni šoli, 1996). Sodobna pedagoška večsmerna komunikacija v obveznem izobraževanju omogoča usklajevanje potreb družbe s potrebami in željami posameznika. V osemletni osnovni šoli so imele interesne dejavnosti jasno vlogo in pomen, z uvedbo devetletke se je njihov pomen zmanjšal. Prednost so dobile novosti: nivojski pouk in izbirni predmeti. V zadnjem triletju so tudi organizacijske možnosti za izvajanje interesnih dejavnosti bistveno slabše. Sestava urnika je že brez njih povezana s precejšnimi težavami (Gomboc, 2007). 3.1 Vrste interesnih dejavnosti glede na vsebino Šole danes ponujajo različne vrste interesnih dejavnosti. Ponudba je odvisna od materialnih, kadrovskih in prostorskih pogojev šole. Po pregledu ponudbe interesnih dejavnosti številnih osnovnih šol po Sloveniji sem oblikovala pet interesnih področij. To so: glasbene dejavnosti, družboslovno-jezikovne dejavnosti, miselne dejavnosti, naravoslovno-tehnične dejavnosti in športne dejavnosti. Glasbene interesne dejavnosti vzbujajo veselje in pozitivna čustva do glasbe, omogočajo petje, igranje, poustvarjanje in ustvarjanje glasbenih vsebin, zbujajo zanimanje za različne oblike glasbenega udejstvovanja ter oblikujejo pozitiven odnos do slovenske in svetovne glasbene kulture (Oblak idr., 2002). Najbolj razširjeni glasbeni dejavnosti sta zborovsko petje in učenje igranja na inštrument. Otroci pojejo v okviru šolskega zbora, cerkvenega zbora ali zborov ostalih ustanov. Vključujejo se tudi v vokalne skupine. V šoli se največkrat učijo igrati na Orffove inštrumente, na ostale pa v glasbeni šoli, kjer obiskujejo tudi nauk o glasbi. Tam lahko tudi skupno muzicirajo v komornih zasedbah ter orkestrih. Ljubezen do jezika ter njegove sporočilnosti učenci spretno gojijo v jezikovnih interesnih dejavnostih. Na razredni stopnji so najpogosteje izvajane dejavnosti bralna značka, angleška bralna značka (The Reading badge) ter pravljični krožek, na predmetni stopnji pa so zelo pogoste recitacijski, literarni, novinarski in dramski krožek ter šolski radio in šolska revija. Najpogosteje izvajane družboslovne interesne dejavnosti so zgodovinski, geografski in turistični krožek. Slavistično društvo Slovenije in Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo vsako leto razpisujeta tekmovanje v znanju slovenščine, Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo pa tudi tekmovanja v znanju angleškega in nemškega jezika ter geografije in zgodovine, zato se učenci na nekaterih šolah pripravljajo nanje v okviru družboslovno-jezikovnih interesnih dejavnosti. Ena izmed najstarejših miselnih interesnih dejavnosti na šolah je šah, ki je vsebinsko neizčrpna, zgodovinsko dovršena strateška miselna igra. Tudi logika ima v prostoru miselnih interesnih dejavnosti dolgo tradicijo. S svojimi metodami in postopki uči ločevati pravilno sklepanje od napačnega. V obliki interesnih dejavnosti se učenci na nekaterih šolah pripravljajo tudi na tekmovanja v znanju: pod okriljem otroške revije Ciciban na tekmovanje Cici Vesela šola, z najstniško revijo PIL na tekmovanje Vesela šola, ki se je žal s šolskim A 24 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 letom 2008/09 končalo, ter na medijsko znano tekmovanje v znanju - Sive celice. Pri naravoslovnih interesnih dejavnostih učenci poglobljeno spoznavajo naravoslovne vsebine in se seznanjajo z raziskovalnimi metodami. Razvijajo svoje eksperimentalne sposobnosti in eksperimentalne pristope, kar vključuje postavljanje hipotez, opazovanje pojavov, preizkušanje, zbiranje, beleženje opažanj in rezultatov, sposobnost osmišljanja, predstavitve opažanj in rezultatov ter prepoznavanje soodvisnosti in povezovanje s teorijo in življenjskim okoljem (Ferbar idr., 2003). Pri tehničnih interesnih dejavnostih pa učenci iz različnih gradiv konstruirajo, načrtujejo, izdelujejo in vrednotijo uporabne predmete, modele tehničnih predmetov in makete (Florjančič, 2007). Na razredni stopnji sta najpogosteje organizirani naravoslovno-tehnični dejavnosti likovni krožek ter ročna dela, na predmetni stopnji pa likovni, računalniški, modelarski, fotokrožek ter interesne dejavnosti z vsebinami biologije, fizike, matematike in kemije, pri katerih se učenci pripravljajo na tekmovanja v znanju. Športne interesne dejavnosti omogočajo razvoj motoričnih sposobnosti in spretnosti ter so pomembno gibalo oblikovanja osebnosti in odnosov med posamezniki. Prispevajo k skladnemu psihosocialnemu razvoju mladega človeka, sprostitvi in kompenzaciji negativnih učinkov večurnega sedenja s telesno aktivnostjo. Na razredni stopnji so športne interesne dejavnosti organizirane v obliki gibalnih uric oziroma športnega krožka. Poudarek je na usvajanju naravnih oblik gibanj in zadovoljevanju otrokove potrebe po gibanju in igri. Pogosto so organizirane tudi plesne dejavnosti. Na predmetni stopnji pa prevladujejo interesne dejavnosti moštvenih iger, kot so odbojka, nogomet, rokomet in košarka, pa tudi ples, gimnastika in športno plezanje. Učenci lahko svoje znanje in sposobnosti pokažejo tudi na šolskih športnih tekmovanjih in prireditvah. 3.2 Vrste interesnih dejavnosti glede na kraj izvajanja Interesne dejavnosti glede na kraj izvajanja delimo na šolske in obšolske dejavnosti. Šolske interesne dejavnosti organizira šola izven šolskega pouka, z namenom, da omogoči odkrivanje in razvijanje učenčevih interesov, da učence praktično uvaja v življenje in jih s tem usposablja za koristno in zdravo preživljanje prostega časa. Šola jim s pomočjo mentorjev pomaga pri izboru dejavnosti. Učenci se vanje vključujejo prostovoljno in pri njih niso ocenjevani. Za posamezni razred sta za izvajanje interesnih dejavnosti v predmetniku določeni dve uri tedensko. Financiranje je zagotovljeno iz sredstev državnega proračuna. V primeru, da šola v dogovoru z občino ponudi učencem večje število ur interesnih dejavnosti, se to obravnava kot nadstandard in te dodatne ure financira občina. Del stroškov za nadstandardni program lahko krijejo tudi starši, če to želijo (ZRSŠ, 2006). Število ponujenih šolskih interesnih dejavnosti se od šole do šole razlikuje. Nekatere šole ponujajo širok izbor, druge ožjega. Interesne dejavnosti se izvajajo pred poukom ali po njem, so brezplačne, prevoz učencev vozačev pa je največkrat urejen s šolskim prevozom. Na vrsto in število interesnih dejavnosti v veliki meri vpliva interes učiteljev in učencev ter tradicija šole in šolskega okolja. Na razredni stopnji prevladuje ponudba jezikovnih dejavnosti, športnih in tehničnih dejavnosti, na predmetni stopnji pa so močno zastopane športne, jezikovne ter naravoslovno-tehnične dejavnosti. Miselne dejavnosti so enakomerno zastopane na obeh stopnjah ter največkrat potekajo v obliki priprav na tekmovanja. Obšolske interesne dejavnosti se izvajajo v popoldanskem času v prostorih šole ali izven nje. Ponavadi so plačljive, starši morajo sami poskrbeti za prevoz otrok na dejavnost ter kupiti potrebne pripomočke. V mestih je ponudba raznovrstnih Tabela 1: Pregled kriterijev ocene otrokovih sposobnosti za posamezne dejavnosti OTROKOVE SPOSOBNOSTI ZA GLASBENE DEJAVNOSTI DRUŽBOSLOVNO- JEZIKOVNE DEJAVNOSTI MISELNE DEJAVNOSTI NARAVOSLOVNO- TEHNIČNE DEJAVNOSTI ŠPORTNE DEJAVNOSTI ritmične sposobnosti sposobnosti sprejemanja besedil sposobnosti miselnih predstav miselne sposobnosti informacijska komponenta motoričnih spretnosti melodične sposobnosti sposobnosti tvorjenja besedil sposobnosti pomnjenja in priklica znanj raziskovalne spretnosti energijska komponenta motoričnih spretnosti ustvarjalnost sposobnosti ustvarjalnega mišljenja motorične spretnosti sposobnosti izražanja spretnosti sporočanja A 25 Razprave številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Organizacija, letnik 43 obšolskih dejavnosti zelo pestra, v večjih krajih se ponudba iz leta v leto povečuje, na podeželju pa še vedno prevladujejo kulturno- umetniška in pevska društva ter gasilstvo. 4 Izgradnja odločitvenega modela Odločitveni model za izbiro šolskih in obšolskih interesnih dejavnosti je zgrajen s pomočjo slovenskega računalniškega programa DEXi, ki omogoča kvalitativno večparametrsko modeliranje. 4.1 Opredelitev, strukturiranje in opis kriterijev Da bi izbrali najprimernejše vrste interesnih dejavnosti, moramo opredeliti vse dejavnike, ki vplivajo na to odločitev (Boha-nec, 2006). Sprva je bil sestavljen spisek kriterijev, ki jih je potrebno upoštevati pri odločanju. S pomočjo programa DEXi je nato sledila hierarhična ureditev kriterijev, ki je upoštevala medsebojne odvisnosti in vsebinske povezave. Nepomembni kriteriji so bili zavrženi, prav tako tisti, ki so bili izraženi z ostalimi kriteriji. Rezultat ureditve je nastanek drevesa kriterijev, ki ga sestavljajo trije najpomembnejši kriteriji: otrokove sposobnosti, otrokov interes in interes staršev. Prvi glavni kriterij otrokove sposobnosti se deli na podkri-terije, ki so vezani na posamezno vrsto interesnih dejavnosti. Prikazani so v spodnji tabeli. Otrokove sposobnosti oceni učitelj s pomočjo različnih nalog, ugotovitve pa poda z izpolnitvijo izdelanega vprašalnika za učitelje. Drugi glavni kriterij odločitvenega modela je otrokov interes. Oceno otrokovega interesa za posamezno dejavnost izpeljemo s pomočjo štirih podkriterijev. To so: dejavnost, čas, druženje in kraj. Ocena posameznega podkriterija je pridobljena s primerjavo otrokovih želja ter dejanskih zahtev posamezne dejavnosti glede časa, kraja in načina izvedbe ter socialnega udejstvovanja. Podatke o otrokovem interesu pridobimo s pomočjo izdelanega vprašalnika za učence ter priloge za lažje prepoznavanje sklopov interesnih dejavnosti. Ker učenci prve triade niso sposobni samostojno izpolniti vprašalnika, ga izpolnijo z učiteljevo pomočjo. Tretji glavni kriterij pa je interes staršev. Starši s pomočjo vprašalnika in priloge opredelijo svoj interes za otrokovo obiskovanje posamezne interesne dejavnosti. Ta kriterij zaradi večje časovne in finančne obremenitve staršev močno vpliva na oceno izbire otrokovih obšolskih dejavnosti. Ocena izbire posamezne vrste interesnih dejavnosti je osnovana na podlagi 12 osnovnih kriterijev ter 6 izpeljanih. Primer drevesa kriterijev za oceno izbire ene izmed petih skupin interesnih dejavnosti prikazuje slika 1. Drevo kriterijev Kriterij_ Opis Ocena glasbenih dejavnosti -Glasbene sposobnosti I—Ritmične '—Melodične —Otrokov interes -Dejjavnost ' -Zelja -Zahtevnost -Način dela -Čas bDejavnost '-Domača obveznost -Druženje l-Prijatelj/ica HSrečanja '—Tekmovanja Kraj —Inte res staršev Učenje igranja na inštrumente, petje, spoznavanje nauka o glasbi, poustvarjanje glasbe v skupinah in orkestrih. Ocena otrokovih glasbenih sposobnosti. Zaznavanje dolžin tonov, zmožnost pravilnega ponavljanja in zaključevanja ritmičnih fraz, zaznavanje razlik med ritmičnimi vzorci. Zaznavanje višin tonov, zmožnost pravilnega ponavljanja in zaključevanja melodičnih fraz, zaznavanje razlik med melodičnimi vzorci. Ocena otrokovega interesa za obiskovanje glasbenih dejavnosti. Otrokova ocena dejavnosti. Otrokova želja za ukvarjanje z glasbenimi dejavnostmi. Otrokova želja glede zahtevnosti programa glasbenih dejavnosti. Otrokova želje glede načina dela pri glasbenih dejavnostih. Otrokova ocena časa. Prosti čas, ki gaje otrok pripravljen nameniti za obiskovanje glasbenih dejavnosti. Prosti čas, ki gaje otrok pripravljen nameniti za domače delo. Otrokova ocena druženja. Otrokova želja glede načina vključevanja v glasbene dejavnosti. Otrokova želja glede udeleževanja srečanj z otroki s podobnimi interesi. Otrokova želja glede sodelovanja na različnih tekmovanjih. Otrokova ocena kraja izvedbe. Interes staršev za otrokovo obiskovanje glasbenih dejavnosti. Slika 1: Pregled in opis kriterijev za oceno izbire glasbenih interesnih dejavnosti - □ Ocena šol. glasb. dej. <] Primernost izbire E □ Možnost realizacije <] Stroški - □ Cas <] Dejavnost <] Domače delo <] Prevoz in čakanje - □ Ocena obšol. glasb. dej. <] Primernost izbire - □ Možnost realizacije - □ - □ Stroški <] Dejavnost <] Pripomočki <] Prevoz Čas <] Dejavnost <] Domače delo <] Prevoz in čakanje Slika 2: Pregled kriterijev za oceno izbire šolskih in obšolskih glasbenih dejavnosti A 26 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Z ril oye vrednosti Kriterij_ Zaloga vrednosti Ocena glasbenih dejavnosti Glasbene sposobnosti ■ Ritmične Meiocične Otrokov interes nejavnost Iji ■ Zahtevnost 1 Način dela Čas ■ Deja1vnosi ■ Pernata otveznost □ rijitnje ■ Prijatelj fita 1 Srečanja ■ Tekmovanja Kraj intares staršev neprimerne; delno primerne: primerne; zelo primeme SlOKe; n_ajhne; ustrezne; Odlične šibke. smerne; zelo dobrem odlične Šibke; zmerne; zelo dobre; odlične ga ni: majhen: večji; zelo velik neprimerna: primerna; jeto primeru? Je nI: majhna; velika-, 2elo velik a majhna: zmerna; velika v večji skupini: v manjši skupini: individualen premalo; dwolj; odličen nit; eno iolsko uío na teden: dve šolski urina fetíen: več kot dve šolski uri na teden nič; do ene ure ne leden: od ene do dveh ur na tederr, več kot dve urina leden neprimerno; man: primerno; primemo; 2L'I0 piintciriu je potreJMiVna; dovolj je ananec/Ks: rti mtjen/a ne H udeleže val.ra; redko obiskoval/a; pogosto obiskoval/a ne bi ucteleževalía; redko obiskoval/a: pogosto obiskoval/a v naravi: delno v naravi; v zaprtem prostoru ga ni; majhen: večji; zelo velik Slika 3: Pregled zalog vrednosti kriterijev za oceno izbire glasbenih dejavnosti Tabele odločitvenih pravil Glashene_sposobnosti otrokov i nt ej^s interes starsev ocena g lasti enih dejavnosti 37% 441« 1$% 1 šibke <=večji • neprimerne 2 ilOKe T *=majhen neprimerne 3 * ga m T neprimerne 4 šibke zelo velik >=več:ji delno primerne S majhne majhen:večji <=majh en delno primerne 8 majhneuslrezne majhen * delno primerne 7 >>majhrte majhen gani derno primerne 8 majhne >=ve£ji >=večji primerne 9 majhne ustrezna večji >=veeji primerne 10 rtlEijhnp:Lislreznp večji primerna 11 majhne zelo velik >=majhen primerne 12 majhne ustrezne zelo velik majhen rvečji primerne 13 >=majhne zelo velik majhen primerne 14 ustrezne večji >=majhen primerne 15 ustrezne ;>=večji majhen :ve£ji primerne 16 >=u strežne >=večji majhen primerne 17 odlične majhen >=iflajhiert primerne 18 odlične :>=majhen majhen primerne 19 >=UStr£Ené zelo velik zelo velik zelo primerne 20 odlične >=ve£ji zelo primerne Slika 4: Pregled agregiranih pravil za oceno izbire glasbenih dejavnosti V nadaljevanju sta bili oblikovani drevesi kriterijev za oceno izbire šolskih in obšolskih interesnih dejavnosti. Ocena izbire šolskih interesnih dejavnosti je osnovana na podlagi 5 osnovnih kriterijev ter 3 izpeljanih, ocena izbire obšolskih pa na podlagi 7 osnovnih kriterijev ter 4 izpeljanih. 4.2 Zaloge vrednosti in odločitvena pravila Pri metodi DEX so zaloge vrednosti sestavljene iz besed ali numeričnih intervalov. Merska lestvica je urejena od manj zaželene do bolj zaželene vrednosti. Pri metodi DEX to sicer ni nujno, je pa dobrodošlo za lažjo kontrolo konsistenčnosti odločitvenih pravil in lahko bistveno pohitri postopek zajemanja funkcij koristnosti (Bohanec in Rajkovič, 1995). Štiristopenjska merska lestvica je bila uporabljena pri oceni izbire posamezne vrste interesne dejavnosti, pri zalogah vrednosti glavnih kriterijev ter pri nekaterih podkriterijih, npr. želja, trajanje dejavnosti, domača obveznost. Pri ostalih kriterijih je bila uporabljena tristopenjska merska lestvica. Naslednja faza odločitvenega procesa je definiranje funkcij, ki opredeljujejo vpliv nižje ležečih kriterijev na tiste, ki so višje v drevesu, prav vse do korena drevesa, ki predstavlja končno oceno variant. Funkcije koristnosti so predstavljene s preprostimi odločitvenimi pravili tipa »če - potem« v obliki tabele. Tabela je bila izpolnjena s pomočjo utežne vsote. Za vsako kombinacijo zalog vrednosti podkriterijev je bila določena ocena. Slika 4 prikazuje tabelo agregiranih odločitvenih pravil za glavne kriterije, ki je enaka za vse vrste interesnih dejavnosti. A 27 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Iz nje je razvidno, da je ne glede na interes staršev posamezna vrsta interesnih dejavnosti za učenca neprimerna, če zanjo nima interesa. Prav tako je neprimerna, če ima učenec šibke sposobnosti in manjši interes. V primeru učenčevega zelo velikega interesa ter večjega interesa staršev pa postane delno primerna. V kolikor starši ne pokažejo interesa za posamezno vrsto dejavnosti, je za učenca le delno primerna. Zelo primerna pa postane že ob ustreznih sposobnostih učenca ter zelo velikem interesu učenca in staršev. Potem ko so bila določena odločitvena pravila za oceno posamezne vrste interesne dejavnosti, so bila oblikovana še za oceno šolskih ter obšolskih dejavnosti. Pri obeh modelih so uporabljena enaka odločitvena pravila za glavna kriterija ter podkriterija finančni stroški ter čas. Modela se razlikujeta le v tem, da se pri oceni obšol-skih interesnih dejavnosti podkriterij finančni stroški nadalje deli na tri kriterije, pri oceni šolskih interesnih dejavnosti pa nadaljnja delitev ni potrebna. Iz pregleda agregiranih odločitvenih pravil je razvidno, da so finančni stroški za obiskovanje obšolske interesne dejavnosti preveliki, če so stroški za plačilo dejavnosti, stroški za nakup pripomočkov ali stroški prevoza preveliki. V primeru, da so stroški posameznih kriterijev le delno sprejemljivi, se otrok in starši odločijo za cenejšo obliko. 5 Rezultati vrednotenja Model je bil preizkušen dvakrat in sicer na vzorcu 26 otrok, starih od 9 do 11 let. Pri tem smo ocenili: 1. Glasbene dejavnosti so za 7 učencev zelo primerne, za 5 pa primerne. 2. Družboslovno-jezikovne dejavnosti so za 4 učence zelo primerne, za 5 pa primerne. 3. Miselne dejavnosti so za 2 učenca zelo primerne, za 8 pa primerne. 4. Naravoslovno-tehnične dejavnosti so za 5 učencev zelo primerne, za 8 pa primerne. 5. Športne dejavnosti pa so za kar 19 učencev zelo primerne, za 4 pa primerne. 6. Glasbene dejavnosti so neprimerne za 12 učencev, druž-boslovno-jezikovne dejavnosti ter miselne dejavnosti za 9 učencev in naravoslovno-tehnične dejavnosti za 4 učence. Športne dejavnosti niso neprimerne za nikogar. Natančneje si oglejmo rezultate vrednotenja in analizo rezultatov za štiri učence. Za Učenca 7 so primerne športne dejavnosti, zato je priporočljiva vključitev v šolsko športno dejavnost (Slika 7). Model je ocenil, da so glasbene, miselne in naravoslovno-teh-nične dejavnosti zanj neprimerne, družboslovno-jezikovne pa le delno primerne. Po oceni modela so za Učenca 8 vse vrste interesnih dejavnosti zelo primerne, zato so zanj vse šolske interesne dejavnosti zelo primerne, delno primerne pa so obšolske dejavnosti iz glasbenega, družboslovno-jezikovnega in športnega področja. Za Učenca 12 so zelo primerne športne interesne dejavnosti. Primerne dejavnosti pa so miselne dejavnosti. Ti dve vrsti interesnih dejavnosti sta zelo primerni v šolski obliki, v obšolski pa le delno primerni. Tabele odločitvenih pravil Primernost izbire_Možnost realizacije Ocena šol, glasb, dej. 44% 56% 1 neprimerna * neprimerne 2 * ni možna neprimerne 3 >=delno primerna delno možna delno primerne 4 delno primerna >=možna primerne 5 delno prlmerna:prlmerna možna primerne 6 >=primerna odllična zelo primerne 7 zelo primerna >=možna zelo primerne Slika 5: Pregled agregiranih pravil za oceno izbire šolskih glasbenih dejavnosti Dejavnost_Pripomočki Prevoz_Stroški 35% 29% 35% 1 preveliki 2 * 3 * * preveliki * * * preveliki preveliki preveliki preveliki 4 delno mogoči 5 >=delno mogoči >=delno mogoči >=delno mogoči >=delno mogoči delno mogoči delno mogoči delno mogoči 6 r >=delno mogoči niso ovira niso ovira Slika 6: Pregled agregiranih pravil za oceno finančnih stroškov pri obiskovanju obšolskih interesnih dejavnosti A 28 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Učenec 16 Ocena obsol. glasb. dej. Primernost izbire Prevoz in čakanje deln cncriog o či deln a p ¡imeren dslNijn^oci Pripomočki Dejavnost Prevoz Slika 7: Rezultati vrednotenja ocene šolskih športnih dejavnosti za Učenca 7 Učenec 7 Ocena narav.-tehn. dej. Narav.-tehn. sposob. in spret. < ustrezne > Interes staršev Otrokov interes Slika 8: Rezultati vrednotenja ocene obšolskih glasbenih dejavnosti za Učenca 16 Zelo primerne dejavnosti za Učenca 16 so iz vrst glasbenih in družboslovno-jezikovnih dejavnosti. V šolski obliki sta obe vrsti zelo primerni, glasbena dejavnost je delno primerna tudi v obšolski obliki (slika 8). Primerna dejavnost pa je šolska miselna dejavnost. 6 Analiza rezultatov Rezultati vrednotenja nam služijo kot pomoč pri sprejemanju odločitev. Če se želimo odločiti čim bolje, pa je potrebno dobljene rezultate vrednotenja analizirati in razložiti. Program DEXi nam to omogoča s pomočjo »kaj če« analize. Učenec 7 ima slabše motorične sposobnosti, vendar zelo velik interes za obiskovanje športnih dejavnosti. Model je ocenil, da je šolska športna interesna dejavnost zanj zelo primerna, ker bo pripomogla k izboljšanju teh njegovih sposobnosti. Glede na to, da je model ocenil, da ima ustrezne sposobnosti za miselne in naravoslovno-tehnične dejavnosti (slika 9), ga je smiselno navdušiti za katero izmed njih. Žal ima večjo podporo staršev le pri športnih dejavnostih. V kolikor bi pokazal vsaj manjši interes za obiskovanje šolske naravoslovno-tehnične dejavnosti, bi zanj postala delno primerna (slika 10). Zanj se predlaga vključitev v šolsko športno dejavnost. Ker ima dobro razvito finomotoriko in si želi delati v manjši skupini, bi ga lahko spodbudili tudi k obiskovanju tehnične interesne dejavnosti. Učenec 8 je primer učenca, ki je na vseh področjih odličen, zanimajo ga različna interesna področja in ima veliko podporo staršev. V takem primeru je potrebno učencu in staršem pomagati zožiti interesna področja in učenca usmeriti v obšolsko interesno dejavnost. Model je ocenil, da so zanj zelo primerne šolske interesne dejavnosti z vseh petih področij, A 29 Organizacija, letnik 43 Donatorji številka 1, januar-februar 2010 Učenec 7 Ocena narav.-tehn. dej. Narav.-tehn. sposob. in spret. < ustrezne }■ Interes staršev Otrokov interes Slika 9: Rezultati vrednotenja ocene narav.-tehn. dejavnosti za Učenca 7 Učenec 7 Ocena narav.-tehn. dej. delno p imerne N. Narav.-tehn. sposob. in spret.