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EXPLORING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PRE-PERFORMANCE ROUTINES IN ELITE ARTISTIC GYMNASTS: A MIXED METHOD INVESTIGATION.
Hannah Clowes, Zoe Knowles
Liverpool John Moores University, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, UK
Original research article
Abstract
Competitive sport at the highest level demands consistency and precision in the transfer of skill across various environments, on multiple occasions, in order to produce optimal performance (Singer, 2002). Pre-performance routines (PPR) are sequences of motor, emotional, and cognitive behaviours performed immediately in advance of the execution of self-paced tasks (Cohn, 1990). The purpose of this study was to explore both content and variation of pre-performance routines (PPR) between the four apparatus within Women's Artistic Gymnastics. Participants were purposely selected from former Great Britain international, female elite artistic gymnasts (n=9). This study employed a mixed-method, phased design. All participants completed the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas et al., 1999) in phase one. A purposeful sampling mechanism using descriptive statistics from questionnaire results generated five profiles for further qualitative exploration as to the application and effectiveness of PPR's via semi structured interviews. Pen-profiling was used to compare and contrast common themes amongst the preparations for the apparatus. Results indicated differences between vault and beam exercise with regard to pre-performance state and preparation strategies linked to arousal/activation control and cognitive rehearsal. Gymnasts reported prior use of individualised and highly refined routines dominated by imagery and arousal/activation control. Specific PPR strategies were reported for each apparatus with some robust, consistent psychological skills training (PST) components within them. The results from this study demonstrate that each apparatus requires unique preparation strategies with regards to the achievement of an optimal psychological state for performance.
Keywords: elite gymnasts, imagery, females
INTRODUCTION
Women's Artistic Gymnastics is a closed-skill, multi-discipline sport, composed of four individual apparatus
(Vault, Asymmetric-bars, Beam exercise, and Floor exercise). Psychologically, gymnasts are required to cope with the
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expectation of a technically perfect performance of their routines, alongside a consistently high risk of serious injury (Post, 2010). With respect for such sport-specific pressures, a consideration for the range of potentially beneficial psychological skills that can be incorporated into the procedures of preparation for training drills and competition performance is valuable, as a means to inform selected rehearsal mechanisms to achieve optimal preparatory states for actual performance. Pre-performance routines (PPR's) are a combination of cognitive, motor and emotional behaviours performed immediately in advance of self-paced task execution (Cohn, 1990; Lidor & Singer, 2000). PPR's allow for an athlete to intentionally self-regulate arousal (Crews & Boutcher, 1986; Gould & Udry, 1994); divert attention away from task-irrelevant cues (Czech et al., 2004); facilitate the maintenance of the 'prepared' state by preserving psychological and physiological readiness (Schmidt, 1988) and achieve a sustained optimal emotional, confident and focused state immediately prior to and during performance (Singer, 2002). PPR's can also be utilised as training aids to assist with achieving consistent optimal practice performances and to encourage rehearsal of such techniques prior to the pressurised environment of the performance arena. In order for a PPR to be most effective, it should be sport specific, self-styled, individualised to match the athlete's skill level and individual pre-performance preferences, and influenced by the nature of the required task (Singer, 2002; Wrisberg & Pein, 1992).
Previous research has focused on how PPR's have both influenced and improved performance in sport. A popular method of assessing the effect PPR's have on performance has been the comparison between performances of an experimental group (following a PPR intervention strategy) and a control group (e.g., Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983; Lobmeyer & Wasserman, 1986; Marlow et al., 1998) Although across these studies a clear connection between
PPR use and improved performance is evident, there is a sense that exploring the different aspects of PPR's deemed more functional in supporting different aspects of performance would be useful. Previous literature has also focused on the duration of PPR's (e.g., Crews & Boutcher, 1986; Jackson, 2003; Southard & Miracle, 1993). Although the literature suggests there may seem to be some association, the increased duration of psychological preparation has shown no direct link with performance improvement. However, this absence of a direct relationship between duration and performance improvement may be attributed to the content and consistency of the PPR rather than the length of time to complete it.
Generally, the focus of PPR research has been amongst closed skill sports such as golf (e.g., Cotterill et al., 2010) basketball (e.g., Lonsdale & Tam, 2007), volleyball and tennis service (e.g., Lidor & Mayan, 2005), and bowling (e.g., Kirschenbaum et al., 1982). Closed skill events are self-paced in nature, allowing for adequate pre-skill preparation time where environmental conditions are stable and predictable (Singer, 2002). The self-paced nature of gymnastics requires movements that are initiated and controlled by the performer with time for psychological preparation immediately prior to each event. This preparation varies between individuals and events as different internal states and cognitive preparation strategies are required for optimal readiness and performance (Cohn, 1990).
This study will fundamentally explore how former female, elite, artistic gymnasts retrospectively implemented different psychological preparation techniques into their PPR's in training and competition, across the four different apparatus (Vault, Asymmetric-bars, Beam exercise and Floor exercise) with the intention of adding to the information already existent in the relevant literature.
The majority of research within the PPR area of study has taken a quantitative approach, with questionnaires being the primary measurement tool (e.g., Lidor &
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Mayan, 2005; Mesagno & Mullane-Grant, 2010). Questionnaires alone can be limiting in scope to explore participant's experiences, true feelings, thoughts, opinions and additional information on the topic in question (Patton, 1990). Qualitative measures allow for detailed accounts of the athlete's personal views and experiences, as research can be based on description, be context specific and allow for in-depth analysis. The present study will follow a mixed methodology of questionnaires in phase one and interviews in phase two. On conclusion the study will offer recommendations for the coach and/or sport psychology consultant as to the understanding of PPR complexity and relevant strategies and techniques to use with elite female artistic gymnasts.
METHOD
Participants
Data were gathered from nine former elite level female gymnasts (M = 20.55 years, SD = 1.81) who were all previous members of the Great Britain Women's Artistic Gymnastics team. Gymnasts had an average training age of 13.2 (SD = 1.96) years, first competed nationally at the average age of 9.2 (SD = 1.32) years old, and retired at 18.22 (SD = 1.56) years. Gymnasts were purposely selected (Berg, 2009) as they were information-rich and corresponded with specific selection criteria namely being previous members of the GB National squad for a minimum of 18 months during their career, one or more international representation honours ('friendly' or competitive tournament) and retirement from gymnastics within the most recent Olympic cycle. Five gymnasts had competed at World Championships with the remainder at more than one of European Championships, Commonwealth and Commonwealth Youth Games, and at Australian or European Youth Olympic Festivals.
Procedure
Phase 1 - Questionnaire
Prior to participant recruitment, full ethical approval was gained from a University Research Ethics Committee. Participants were recruited via email containing an information letter to explain the purpose of the study and request participation. On receipt of consent participants each completed the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) and returned these to the researcher via email within two weeks along with a small number of demographic questions relating to age, participation in gymnastics, retirement age and top three significant competitions. Participants were instructed to reflect on their psychological skill usage from a defined period between when they reached national level and gained International representative honours, until retirement.
Phase 2: Interview The qualitative approach in essence respects the expert knowledge of the participant and allows for the provision of insights into each participant's personal and unique experiences (Kesby, 2007). As qualitative inquiry typically focuses in-depth on a relatively small sample selected purposefully (Patton, 2002), this was an appropriate approach for this study. Following data consideration and analysis from the questionnaires, 5 participants were selected to take part in one-to-one interviews. These participants demonstrated particularly interesting results (i.e. results worthy of further exploration within the qualitative phase) which indicated very high and low pre-performance strategy usage, including an average scorer to obtain a diverse range of profiles which were than explored in-depth in the interview.
The semi structured interviews were carried out on separate dates within one month of the completion of the questionnaires and following analysis of the results. The interview focused on the TOPS results, with interest towards the prominent subscales from each participant's earlier questionnaire results. Throughout the
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interview, participants were asked to discuss psychological techniques used in both training and competition contexts and, where possible, give specific examples of their use. A full interview schedule is available upon request from the author. Each interview was carried out over an average duration of approximately 25 minutes dependent on the detail of the participants' responses. Interviews were audio recorded using a Dictaphone (OLYMPUS, WS-450S, China), and were later transcribed verbatim by the primary researcher into 41/4 pages of size 12 double spaced text.
Within this study credibility and transferability (the qualitative equivalent of internal and external validity, respectively) were demonstrated through verbatim transcription of data and triangulation with an experienced qualitative researcher. Dependability (the qualitative equivalent of reliability) was demonstrated through the comparison of pen profiles with verbatim citations and triangular consensus methods.
Instruments
The TOPS questionnaire was completed to retrospectively assess the participant's use of a range of psychological skills, strategies and techniques in practice and competition contexts. The self-report instrument consisted of a 64-item questionnaire, measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never to 5 = always) to rate the frequency of usage of each psychological skill dimension. Items were split into 16 subscales to target the eight most significant dimensions of psychological skill that produce successful athletic performance; activation, relaxation, imagery, goal-setting, self-talk, automaticity, emotional control and attentional control in competition and practice settings. The subscale "attentional control" was found to be an inappropriate solution within the competition context (Thomas et al., 1999) and was thus replaced by "negative thinking". The maximum score for each subscale of TOPS was 20. High scores indicated greater usage of that mental
skill. The internal consistency of the TOPS subscales were reported to range between 0.66 and 0.81, and reliability coefficients for this test have been reported to range from 0.86 to 0.93 (Thomas et al., 1999).
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics were calculated for participant's individual overall usage of psychological performance strategies (TOPS results). These acted as a purposeful sampling mechanism for participant selection in phase two. Overall total and mean scores were the focus for selection of each participant to initially identify them for phase two interviews. In order to obtain a variable spread of data, two high scoring, two low scoring and one moderate scoring participant were selected for interview. Raw scores from subscales of the questionnaire were then considered to assist with the selection of specific areas for deeper exploration in the phase two interviews.. For the TOPS questionnaire, this refers to the combined practice and competition score for each subscale. Other subscale scores were selected based on the indication of the greatest difference between practice and competition scores.
Interview data was represented via a pen profile technique. The pen profile method has been used to represent analysis of data sets in the exercise domain originating from young participants, including those from write and draw (Knowles et al., 2013), focus group (Ridgers et al., 2012) and interviews (Mackintosh et al., 2011). The pen profiles were constructed from the transcripts using verbatim quotations taken directly from the interviews (figures 1-5). This process allowed for the efficient emergence of key themes and dimensions within the data.
Data in the pen profiles refers to verbatim quotes that are both specific to the individual apparatus and also to some of the general information relating to PPR strategies that appeared relevant and significant for the discussion of use within the sport of artistic gymnastics.
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RESULTS
Phase 1: Questionnaire Descriptive statistics acquired from the TOPS questionnaire indicated profiles for participants 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 and 8 demonstrated results worthy of further exploration. However, at the time of the second phase, P7 was not contactable due to
unforeseen circumstances. As a result, despite the high scoring nature of their results and incidentally their initial consideration for interview, they were withdrawn from the study, hence the selection and inclusion of other participants (Table 1).
Table 1. Individual subscale, mean, standard deviation, range and total score ofparticipants for
the TOPS questionnaire ±i_
	Activation		Relaxation		Imagery		G-Setting		Self-Talk		Auto.		E. Control		Att.	1 Neg.				
Parusjant	P	C	P	C	P	C	p	C	p	C	P	C	P	C	P	c	Mean	sp	Range	Total
1	10	S	5	12	12	17	11	15	14	10	9	14	13	16	14	6	11.63	3.46	12	136
2	10	17	S	13	17	20	10	17	14	16	14	14	11	14	11	9	13.44	3.41	12	215
3	14	18	8	8	11	18	15	20	16	14	16	12	10	10	14	12	13.5	3.60	12	216
4	14	18	6	12	20	20	14	19	19	18	12	10	4	12	13	a	13.69	5.04	16	219
5	11	14	12	11	12	17	15	15	15	15	12	10	12	13	12	10	12.88	2.06	7	206
6	13	20	13	15	16	20	16	20	17	20	13	10	10	13	14	5	14.69	4.25	15	235
7	10	17	10	17	13	18	14	13	16	19	9	4	12	20	14	10	13.81	4.42	16	221
S	9	15	5	11	10	12	10	12	11	11	11	13	10	12	11	11	10.88	2.09	10	174
9	9	15	9	12	14	17	15	13	13	15	15	13	12	14	13	7	12.88	2.63	10	206
Total	100	142	76	111	130	159	120	144	135	138	111	100	94	124	116	78				
Note Total values 5 h own In boldface rep resent the participants 5 el acted for phase two Interviews Individual subscale values selected for ex pi oration are also shown In boldface. P = Practice; C = Competition.
The results reveal high scores for P4 and P6, low scores for P1 and P8, and average scores for P2 as shown in table 1. The remaining participants (P3, P5 and P9) were not considered for further investigation in the interview phase due to their moderate
results. All those classified as moderate scoring were contacted for interview as a means to obtain a variable account of PPR strategy usage, however, only one (P2) was available within the timescale of the study.
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Pre performance imagery in artistic gymnastics
Relaxation:
"Beam was a hard one to stay relaxed for... it was a bit nerve wracking when you're getting on the 10cm beam and you've got to Keep yourself cairn"
"In training, they always used to So pre comps make you get a bit nervous and that it sort of prepared you for competition1'
"You just thought of it (competition) as training"
"My coach would always help me out and just talk about something different and just get you prepared"
"You just think about, you do it (routines) every day, it's what you're there for"
Attentional Control:
"My attention would only wander once I had finished on the actuaf apparatus"
"Maybe on beam, there was always one skill that really threw me off so I always started to think about other things rather than thinking about that because that would just make me more nervous"
Emotional Control:
"I always kept it (frustration) to myself, so then I'd just work through it on my own and just keep getting up and trying again"
"I never really thought about anything when I did vault, floor or bars because they were my confident pieces where I didn't really get frustrated but when it came to beam it was dead nerve wracking so it sort of felt like it could have affected it"
Negative Thinking:
"Less negatively was bars, just because I was always really confident with that"
"It's always the more nervous one (beam) andltweren'tmystrongestapparatusout of all four so it always felt a bit more negative"
"Normally I'd just be positive in a competition until I actually made a mistake... then your negative thoughts would come In*
I vi.;...u; 1. Pen Profile for participant 1.
Figure 1. Pen profile for participant 1 showing verbatim quotations for relaxation, emotional control, attentional control and negative thinking PPR strategies.
Pre performance imagery in artistic gymnastics
Emotional Control:
"There ass a couple of competitldnswhere they started off really well and I almost got a bit too excited and then it went downhill... especially If beamwas towards the end"
"If you were a bit more excited and had a bit more adrenaline floor and van Itwere sometimes easier, buttumbleswhereydu needed more contral, ifyouwere slightly over excited, they could go worse"
Tf you get too nervous (beam) It definitely affe cts yc u r pe rfdrman ce... if yc u trie d td, i n cdmpetitidn. think what it wduld feel like when yduwere ddingthem in training...try and think that I'm just hack where I knew and I kndw I can do it"
Activation:
"On a really sluggish day...the first piece... if it was bars or beam which wasn't really a leg piece, if they went well that could sort of pull me out of It a little bit and then I'd be better dn floorand vault"
"Ydu'd gd and dd the cdmpetitidn warm up and get psyched up forthe events and hope thatydu stayed a gddd level df mdtlvated"
"If yduwere feeling sluggish, floor was the hardestto activate yourseff...yourlasttumble; always so difficult In the gym, but If ycu had a little bit of extra energy In ccmpetltion.you enjdyed it and knew yduwere gdingtd land It"
Goal-Setting:
"Learning new skills... I'd try and gd in and get dne step furtherthan I'd been., orgetthe new skill by the endofthe week... or connect It to something else successfully"
"My main goal for a comp, always used td be td gd clean"
"Vault is oniy one skill. ..you dbn't learn as many new skills sb that's hard e r t o h are d ay- by-day targ ets i n trai n i n g... whe reas other piecesyou'd be aiming as a routine as a whole"
BsutfiJÏ, Pen profile for participant 2.
Imagery:
" B a rs an d b e a m; I always vl sual I sed the f irst th ree mdvesorthewhdle routine every single time befdrel went up"
"On floor If I was adding an extra twist dr sdmethlng"
"I'd switch and change thrcugh a beam rcutine...some mdves I'd be doing and sdme mdves I'd be watch ¡ng...espedallytwlstlng"
"Vault Is just sc quick It's hard td visualise the skill"
Figure 2. Pen profile for participant 2 showing verbatim quotations for emotional control, activation, imagery and goal-setting PPR strategies.
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Pre performance imagery in artistic gymnastics
Figure 3. Pen profile for participant 4 showing verbatim quotations for goal-setting, self-talk,
imagery, relaxation and emotional control PPR strategies.
Imagery:
"¡would image as a full thing, I'd do the whole routine in my head rather than just one skill"
"You try and remember the feeling of what it felt like before...put that Into practice for the next one... say a skill that you did on the Bars... try and release it at the same time every single time and its quite easy to picture it in your head"
"Alot onfloorwlth landings and preparation of coming out ofthe skill, knowing where your feet would land"
"It was like watching niysgll on a video. I could never picture myself doing It any other way"
Activation:
::l thinkyou need to activate yourself forall of them...if you don't It can end very badly., .you can end up Injuring yourself'
"I used to pull myself aside from everyone else, sit with some music playing In my earsto keep myself undercontral of losing focus"
Self-talk:
"If you were having a Pad day...ratherthan having a negative thought about It I used to just tell myself that I can do it"
"Telling yourself that it's going to be perfect, it will most likely come out with a positive thought to it all... and result"
Pre performance imagery in artistic gymnastics
Goal-Setting:
"It was easier to set a goal fori would say for floor, whereas bars and beam was actually quite hard because there were so many skills linked within the routines"
"Forfloor, ifatumble was going wrong I'd start back at the round-off and work on that'
"Completing ail of your routines with perfection"
"After the competition you used to go over it In your mind seeing if you had actually completed the skills In all your routines with perfection"
Auto maticity:
"With the automatic performance or pilot with vaultyou didn't think about it you just run down and perform it straightaway"
■ Beam! you have to think about most things" "With bars you have like a rhythm of flow"
EjgjjtsA Pen Profite for participant 6.
Figure 4. Pen profile for participant 6 showing verbatim quotations for imagery, self-talk, goalsetting, automaticity and activation PPR strategies.
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Pre performance imagery in artistic gymnastics
Negative Thinking:
"I always thought negative on bars., always thought I could never do it but you've kind of justgotto overcome that and put a positive view over it and think actually I can do It because I've done it Pefore"
"It's definitely more a personal thing to me because having injured on that apparatus (bars) and having to overcome that fear, you always have that negative thought'
Attention al Control
"Other pieces you can let your mind wander a bit because you know that it's just automatically In you and your body just does it but bars wasa bltdlfferent"
"Try and not let my mind wander onto other things because obviously It can be gurte dangerous"
Activation:
"During competition I'd really have to activate myself to actually run down the vault run ..If you've been waiting around for a while, you need to get yourselfgolng"
'Beam for some reason, It kind of happened, I didn't really have to activate myself for that itjust worked automatically"
"Just have a chat with yourself and say come on you need to get your body working"
Automaticity:
"Mainly on beam that would kind of just happen automatically you'd get on and before I knew It, it was time to get off and I hadn't really thought about what I'd actually done It kind of happened automatically"
"In training you do think about things a bit more, techniques and things"
"Learning new skills or combinations, wouldn't be so automatic, mistakes would be made"
"Leading up to a competition, thingswould become more automatic, you wouldn't have to think"
Relaxation:
"Bars was probably the worst forme so I'd try and not think about it until I actually got to that apparatus ..I'd take myself away and think about otherthlngs"
"I'd tend to just kind of stand away and not think, or watch what ether people we re doing"
"In training you practice what you're going to do which would make you a lot more relaxed ready for competition"
BMSlS, Pen profile for participant 8.
Figure 5. Pen profile for participant 8 showing verbatim quotations for negative thinking, attentional control, activation, relaxation, automaticity.
DISCUSSION
This study aimed to explore the unique variation in pre-performance preparation strategies employed across the four individual apparatus within Women's Artistic gymnastics. Analysis revealed a number of frequently occurring strategies implemented by participants with respect to psychological preparation for the vault and beam exercise. Arousal/activation was noted by the participants as a method for achieving the appropriate performance state for vault while, contrastingly, relaxation appeared principal in obtaining prime pre-performance status for beam exercise. Participants consistently reported the importance of executing a powerful and energetic pre-vaulting approach. Description of a process known as "psyching-up" was mentioned, which has previously been suggested to operate as that of a cognitive stimuli for enhancement of the aroused state, and to be of use for activities requiring power (Weinberg et al., 1985). Within the psyching-up process, participants reported
use of positive self-talk and related imagery mechanisms which have previously been reported as effective stimulatory techniques for dynamic tasks (e.g., Tod et al., 2003). White and Hardy (1998) reported the presence of an aggressive imagery approach in slalom canoeists linked to mood enhancement but, in contrast, gymnasts did not use imagery in this same way. The present study, however, contradicts those suggestions, as the participants described similar tendencies to the canoeists to achieve an 'angry' mind-set prior to vaulting (figure 3).
The data also highlighted the somewhat contrasting pre-performance state required for the beam exercise. Participants consistently associated the width of the apparatus with their own perceptions of anxiety and nerves (figures 1 & 3). Participants perceived that the beam exercise required a particular 'focus' and that inappropriate focus was the most common cause of falls and mistakes and in effect more dangerous than other apparatus. This data highlights the importance of
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achieving a state of relaxation both prior to and during beam performance. Imagery has previously been employed as a strategy to calm nerves (Hall et al., 1998) and was among the techniques reported by participants in this study to achieve and maintain relaxation required for the beam exercise. During competition, one participant described imagining themselves in their training environment (figure 2). This simulation of a 'safe' atmosphere seems to have been used effectively to reduce the pressure associated with competition. Mental rehearsal of an environment has previously been reported by other multi event sports such as heptathletes (e.g., Gregg et al., 2007) and more recently gymnasts (Post, 2010). The participants in the present study simulated performance environments in training, in order to familiarise themselves with the competition scenario (figures 1 & 8).
The use or absence of cognitive rehearsal was another contrasting technique applied for the vault and beam. Due to being fast paced and of a short duration, a common response among the participants related to the difficulty experienced with imaging for vault, due to it being a short, dynamic movement (figures 2 & 4). This concurs with research by Post (2010) who also reported difficulties by gymnasts in imaging their vault sequences due to the high velocity of the skill. Participants in Post's work employed a method of imaging the element at a slower pace in order to capture the details of the movement. The participants in the present study appeared to deliberately avoid the use of cognitive imagery, and referred to just allowing the skill to happen with a sense of automaticity, despite the complex nature of vaulting elements, and the potential performance benefit that could be gained from mental rehearsal.
In contrast to this, participants conveyed the need for explicit cognitive control and rehearsal for the beam exercise. Several participants described the visualisation of blocks of skills, or full routines, immediately prior to their
completion in competition (figures 2; 3; 4). This level of cognitive specific imagery has been found previously to be the most frequent type of imagery used by gymnasts as a resource for them to rehearse difficult moves and skill combinations (White & Hardy, 1998).
The asymmetric-bars presented psychological demands that are somewhat distinct to that of of the other apparatus. Participants described the need to employ cognitive rehearsal in a similar process as that of the beam exercise. Participants expressed the need to visualise opening sections or whole routines in advance of mounting the asymmetric-bars in competition, even if their images were faster than the real time skills (figures 2 & 3). This illustrates that the participants were able to control the speed of their images akin to the findings of Post (2010). Results from the present study contradict in part to that of Post, where it was reported participants' images were slowed down to gain a beneficial effect of individual skill component practice. Participants in the present study, however, reported an increased image speed. Being able to control the speed of an image may be favourable to the gymnast as it would allow for mental practice even when time is limited. This was highlighted by White and Hardy (1998) who noted that rehearsal based strategies proved problematic for gymnasts during the warm up phase of the competition, as they felt pressured to use this short amount of valuable time for physical practice. Therefore, the ability to alter the speed of imagery in view of available time for this technique to be employed effectively may prove advantageous for the gymnast. Frequent use of kinaesthetic imagery has been reported by athletes in sports where proprioceptive cues and timing are crucial (Hall et al., 1990). Participants in this study referred to the use of mental rehearsal to assess and compare the feel and timing of some of the movements in practice on bars (figure 4). This technique was used as an attempt to automate the sensitive timings of release
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skills and allow for the mechanics of skills to develop consistency. This finding illustrates that imagery is multi-sensory and, perhaps, by incorporating more than just an image within their PPR, gymnasts could increase the power of their cognitive rehearsal, especially for the technical nature of bar skills.
Participants reported the lowest use and range of PPR strategies in respect to the floor exercise despite the demands for a wide range of skill types, arousal states and mind-frames. Participants PPR strategies for the floor exercise were akin to those techniques of cognitive rehearsal utilised on bars. One participant discussed a thorough usage of imagery prior to their floor routine (figure 3). As they awaited the music cue they described a powerful 'out of body' experience. Through first visualising and feeling the tumble run successfully, subsequently they would 'follow' their body to successfully execute the skill that they had already seen themselves complete. Again, this reiterates the potential benefit of kinaesthetic imagery for the complex skills involved in the majority of a gymnast's performance. It is important to note that the participants only discussed using this cognitive rehearsal technique for the tumble run and skilled movements within their floor routine (figures 2 & 4), they did not seem to apply the same method of practice to their choreography. Gymnasts have also previously reported primarily imaging the skilled parts of their floor routine, with little attention to their dance (Post, 2010). This suggests that imagery of technical elements is prioritised over the more simplistic yet required elements.
Results clearly demonstrated that each participant utilised an individual combination of techniques in a way that was unique and deemed most effective for them. As such this reinforces the findings of Cotterill et al. (2010) and Gregg et al. (2007) with respect to the notion of individual differences in the selection and use of psychological skills and imagery use.
An interesting strategy that emerged as a mechanism for relaxation during the
pre-performance period in competition was that of self imposed isolation and distraction. Frequent references were made relating to how the participants intentionally removed themselves from competitive surroundings and isolated themselves from other competitors as part of their preparation (figures 4 & 5). In contrast to this, other distractive relaxation techniques employed by the participants involved the engagement in seemingly irrelevant (to the task) conversation with their coach or others, in order to distract from the stressful environment (figures 1 & 3). Cotterill et al. (2010) witnessed similar use of deliberate distraction techniques in their study with international golfers. It seems that athletes utilise strategies such as these to avoid the occurrence of any non-constructive or perhaps detrimental thought processes in the period directly prior to performance.
In the present study, imagery was identified as a particularly effective and important skill reported by the participants, which supports the notion from Hall et al. (1990) that imagery usage prior to performance is a crucial skill to develop. With respect to imagery, it is perhaps of use to consider the preferred perspective adopted by the participants. Some gymnasts reported using only internal or external imagery (figures 3 & 4), whereas, others described how they would utilise both approaches interchangeably (figure 2) and is such consistent with findings by Post (2010). As each apparatus requires different pre-performance states it appears gymnasts need to be able to adapt their imagery in relation to the apparatus, as both internal and external perspectives have value for tasks that require the execution of correct form (White & Hardy, 1995). Further reference was made, by the participants, as to the need to experience the kinaesthetic feel for their images which again stresses the importance and skill development required for this technique.
A key limitation within the study relates to the retrospective nature of the research. The sample of participants consisted of retired elite gymnasts, who
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were required to reflect upon their experiences prior to retirement, make generalisations and contextualise their answers. Therefore, the research was based on responses reliant on memory recall; something which inevitably decays over time and may have therefore provided imprecise answers. Every effort was made to counteract this with an appropriate 'timeframe setting' and ensuring that examples given were checked as being from the defined time period. Another potential limitation of the study was related to the size and limited sample of participants. The selection criteria was employed to ensure the standard of the sample, however, the number of gymnasts that had attained the appropriate competitive level and also retired within a reasonable time-frame was limited, especially in the UK. It is also important to note that four of the five participants selected for interview in phase two, did in fact train at the same club. Whilst it should be noted that being exposed to the same club environments may be influential to training and thus the strategies employed by the gymnasts, given the individual nature of coaching it is said with some certainty that participants in this club were divided between several principle coaches. It is, also interesting to consider that both P4 (who demonstrated generally high scores) and P8 (low scores) were members of the same club under supervision of the same coach, yet clearly utilised very different PPR strategies in competition and training
Participants involved in this study reported use of PPR strategies which were beneficial to them within both their training and performance. The general age of participants within this research is positively higher than the average gymnast currently competing at national level. Previous research has been conflicting when exploring e effectiveness of of cognitive strategies with young athletes. Lidor and Mayan (2005) reported no benefit from the use of cognitive PPR's with young athletes in volleyball. This result may be due to the fact that the sample of participants had no
previous experience in the sport. It has, however, also been found that young athletes are able to learn and use cognitive techniques to enhance their performance (Lidor & Singer, 2000) and they are particularly motivated by opportunities that promote skill development (Wrisberg & Anshel, 1989).
PPR use and development is often related to experience, which usually equates to the chronological age of the athlete. With consideration for the nature of gymnastics and its associated high training age at a low chronological age, it seems appropriate perhaps to suggest that young gymnasts do need to be develop psychological skills to cope with the demands of the sport, particularly for those times in event and pre performance. Findings from this study have shown PPR's to be useful in this quest; however it is recommended that they be developed in conjunction with the gymnast's preferences of PPR strategies and sympathetic to their present level of skills which may change over time as skills or competition demands increase. Further research, perhaps with current elite level senior gymnasts would allow the use of strategies employed 'within career' to be examined, thus eliminating the potential of recall bias when using a retired population. It may also be beneficial to explore these findings with gymnasts from other countries in view of influences from different training environments/techniques and regimes.
CONCLUSION
The results from this study demonstrate that each of the apparatus within Women's Artistic Gymnastics requires unique preparation strategies with regards to the achievement of an optimal psychological state for performance. Generally, preparation for the vault was characterised by increased arousal and activation, and although results displayed a lack of cognitive rehearsal, it may be suggested that gymnasts would benefit from the use of imagery for vaulting due to its complex nature and short duration of
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performance. Beam preparation was defined by arousal control and relaxation mechanisms, with clear usage of cognitive imagery as a method to manage anxiety and nerves. Similarly, preparation for the asymmetric-bars and floor exercise was characterised by cognitive rehearsal with specific reference to kinaesthetic imagery; a technique which emerged as being particularly important across all aspects of gymnastics. Findings from the present study reiterate the importance of individual differences when developing PPR strategies and imagery use in gymnasts. Results of the study could therefore be used to inform psychological training programmes for gymnasts as they progress through development structures towards that of the senior elite/International competitive environments.
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Coresponding author :
Clowes, Hannah
Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences
Tom Reilly Building,
Liverpool John Moores University,
Byrom St,
Liverpool,
L3 3AF,
UK.
email: H.J.Clowes@2009.ljmu.ac.uk
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